initial commit of ebook 38202HEADmain

27 files changed, 59007 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/38202-8.txt b/38202-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3345bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18971 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5
+       "Greek Law" to "Ground-Squirrel"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38202]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GREEK LAW: "In all else Diodorus represents the new age in
+      which the Greek historian had no longer the practical knowledge and
+      insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, but only the
+      diligence, and usually the dullness, of a laborious compiler."
+      'dullness' amended from 'dulness'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREEN, THOMAS HILL: "... find this perfection attainable
+      only when the separate individualities are integrated as part of a
+      social whole." 'perfection' amended from 'prefection'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREENLAND: "Climate.--The climate is very uncertain, the
+      weather changing suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitoes
+      often swarm) to dense fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds."
+      'mosquitoes' amended from 'mosquitos'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA: "The exact date of his death is
+      unknown; some authorities refer it to 396, others to 400." '396'
+      amended from '376'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREGORY: "Most important was the two-fold mission to
+      Britain--of St Augustine in 596, of Mellitus, Paulinus and others
+      in 601 ..." 'Most' amended from 'Mose'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREGORY: "J. P. Kirsch, Die Rückkehr der Päpste Urban V. u.
+      Gregor XI. von Avignon nach Rom (Paderborn, 1898) ..." 'von'
+      amended from 'con'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH: "There a monument was
+      erected to his memory by his widow, to whom he had been but a few
+      months married." 'monument' amended from 'momument'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRINDAL, EDMUND: "... which was always a difficult see,
+      involved Bishop Sandys in similar troubles when Grindal had gone to
+      York." 'troubles' amended from 'tronbles'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRISONS: "The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520.
+      Of this number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the
+      Prättigau and in the Schanfigg valley) were Protestants, while
+      49,142 (mainly in the Bündner Oberland, the Val Mesocco and the
+      Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were also 114 Jews (81
+      of whom lived in Davos)." 'Val' amended from 'Vall'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE V
+
+       Greek Law to Ground-Squirrel
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GREEK LAW                         GREY, SIR GEORGE
+  GREEK LITERATURE                  GREY, HENRY GREY
+  GREEK RELIGION                    GREY, LADY JANE
+  GREELEY, HORACE                   GREY DE WILTON
+  GREELEY                           GREYMOUTH
+  GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY            GREYTOWN
+  GREEN, DUFF                       GREYWACKE
+  GREEN, JOHN RICHARD               GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE
+  GREEN, MATTHEW                    GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH
+  GREEN, THOMAS HILL                GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP
+  GREEN, VALENTINE                  GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB
+  GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY              GRIESBACH
+  GREENAWAY, KATE                   GRIFFE
+  GREENBACKS                        GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER
+  GREEN BAY                         GRIFFIN, GERALD
+  GREENCASTLE                       GRIFFIN (Georgia, U.S.A.)
+  GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON         GRIFFIN (creature)
+  GREENE, MAURICE                   GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN
+  GREENE, NATHANAEL                 GRILLE
+  GREENE, ROBERT                    GRILLPARZER, FRANZ
+  GREENFIELD                        GRIMALD, NICHOLAS
+  GREENFINCH                        GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO
+  GREENHEART                        GRIMALDI, JOSEPH
+  GREENLAND                         GRIMKÉ, SARAH MOORE & ANGELINA EMILY
+  GREENLAW                          GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR
+  GREENLEAF, SIMON                  GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL
+  GREEN MONKEY                      GRIMM, WILHELM CARL
+  GREENOCK                          GRIMMA
+  GREENOCKITE                       GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS CHRISTOFFEL VON
+  GREENORE                          GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI
+  GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS          GRIMSBY
+  GREENOUGH, HORATIO                GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE
+  GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET       GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT
+  GREEN RIBBON CLUB                 GRINDAL, EDMUND
+  GREENSAND                         GRINDELWALD
+  GREENSBORO                        GRINGOIRE, PIERRE
+  GREENSBURG                        GRINNELL
+  GREENSHANK                        GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST
+  GREENVILLE (Mississippi, U.S.A.)  GRISAILLE
+  GREENVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.)         GRISELDA
+  GREENVILLE (S. Carolina, U.S.A.)  GRISI, GIULIA
+  GREENVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.)        GRISON
+  GREENWICH (Connecticut, U.S.A.)   GRISONS
+  GREENWICH (England)               GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT
+  GREENWOOD, FREDERICK              GRIVET
+  GREENWOOD, JOHN                   GROAT
+  GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE            GROCER
+  GREGARINES                        GROCYN, WILLIAM
+  GRÉGOIRE, HENRI                   GRODNO (government of Russia)
+  GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS              GRODNO (town of Russia)
+  GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND            GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME
+  GREGORY, ST                       GROIN
+  GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS         GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON
+  GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA             GROMATICI
+  GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS             GRONINGEN
+  GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR           GRONINGEN
+  GREGORY (popes)                   GRONLUND, LAURENCE
+  GREGORY (Scottish family)         GRONOVIUS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
+  GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN              GROOM
+  GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT         GROOT, GERHARD
+  GREIFENBERG                       GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL
+  GREIFENHAGEN                      GROS, ANTOINE JEAN
+  GREIFSWALD                        GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH
+  GREISEN                           GROSBEAK
+  GREIZ                             GROSE, FRANCIS
+  GRENADA                           GROSS
+  GRENADE                           GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR
+  GRENADIER                         GROSSENHAIN
+  GRENADINES                        GROSSETESTE, ROBERT
+  GRENOBLE                          GROSSETO
+  GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL              GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO
+  GRENVILLE, GEORGE                 GROSSI, TOMMASO
+  GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (naval c.) GROSSMITH, GEORGE
+  GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (royalist) GROS VENTRES
+  GRENVILLE, WILLIAM GRENVILLE      GROTE, GEORGE
+  GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS               GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH
+  GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON           GROTESQUE
+  GRESHAM'S LAW                     GROTH, KLAUS
+  GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS      GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON
+  GRETNA GREEN                      GROTIUS, HUGO
+  GRÉTRY, ANDRÉ ERNEST MODESTE      GROTTAFERRATA
+  GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE             GROUCHY, EMMANUEL
+  GREVILLE, CHARLES FULKE           GROUND-ICE
+  GRÉVIN, JACQUES                   GROUND NUT
+  GRÈVY, FRANÇOIS PAUL JULES        GROUND-PEARL
+  GREW, NEHEMIAH                    GROUND RENT
+  GREY, CHARLES GREY                GROUNDSEL
+  GREY, SIR EDWARD                  GROUND-SQUIRREL
+
+
+
+
+GREEK LAW.
+
+  Greek law and comparative jurisprudence.
+
+Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative jurisprudence
+the importance of which has been long ignored. Jurists have commonly
+left its study to scholars, who have generally refrained from comparing
+the institutions of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek law
+has, however, been partially compared with Roman law, and has been
+incidentally illustrated with the aid of the primitive institutions of
+the Germanic nations. It may now be studied in its earlier stages in the
+laws of Gortyn; its influence may be traced in legal documents preserved
+in Egyptian papyri; and it may be recognized as a consistent whole in
+its ultimate relations to Roman law in the eastern provinces of the
+Roman empire.
+
+The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law is implied by the
+custom of settling a difference between two Greek states, or between
+members of a single state, by resorting to external arbitration. The
+general unity of Greek law is mainly to be seen in the laws of
+inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce and contract, and in the
+publicity uniformly given to legal agreements.
+
+
+  Original authorities.
+
+No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to us. Our
+knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject is derived from
+the Homeric poems. For the details of Attic law we have to depend on _ex
+parte_ statements in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are
+sometimes enabled to check those statements by the trustworthy, but
+often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental illustrations of the
+laws of Athens may be found in the Laws of Plato, who deals with the
+theory of the subject without exercising any influence on actual
+practice. The Laws of Plato are criticized in the _Politics_ of
+Aristotle, who, besides discussing laws in their relation to
+constitutions, reviews the work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The
+treatise on the _Constitution of Athens_ includes an account of the
+jurisdiction of the various public officials and of the machinery of the
+law courts, and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand
+testimony of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information
+from that treatise (see CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS). The works of
+Theophrastus _On the Laws_, which included a recapitulation of the laws
+of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now represented by
+only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106, ed. Wimmer).
+
+
+  Law in Homer.
+
+Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems. In the
+primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato) written laws
+were necessarily unknown; for, "in that early period, they had no
+letters; they lived by habit and by the customs of their ancestors"
+(_Laws_, 680 A). We find a survival from a still more primitive time in
+the savage Cyclops, who is "unfamiliar with dooms of law, or rules of
+right" ([Greek: oute dikas eu eidota oute themistas], _Od._ ix. 215 and
+112 f.).
+
+
+    Dike.
+
+  _Dike_ ([Greek: dikê]), assigned by Curtius (_Etym._ 134) to the same
+  root as [Greek: deiknymi], primarily means a "way pointed out," a
+  "course prescribed by usage," hence "way" or "fashion," "manner" or
+  "precedent." In the Homeric poems it sometimes signifies a "doom" of
+  law, a legal "right," a "lawsuit"; while it is rarely synonymous with
+  "justice," as in _Od._ xiv. 84, where "the gods honour justice,"
+  [Greek: tiousi dikên].
+
+
+    Themis.
+
+  Various senses of "right" are expressed in the same poems by _themis_
+  ([Greek: themis]), a term assigned (_ib._ 254) to the same root as
+  [Greek: tithêmi]. In its primary sense _themis_ is that which "has
+  been laid down"; hence a particular decision or "doom." The plural
+  _themistes_ implies a body of such precedents, "rules of right," which
+  the king receives from Zeus with his sceptre (_Il._ ix. 99). _Themis_
+  and _dike_ have sometimes been compared with the Roman _fas_ and _jus_
+  respectively, the former being regarded as of divine, the latter of
+  human origin; and this is more satisfactory than the latest view (that
+  of Hirzel), which makes "counsel" the primary meaning of _themis_.
+
+
+    Thesmos. Nomos.
+
+  _Thesmos_ ([Greek: thesmos]), an ordinance (from the same root as
+  themis), is not found in "Homer," except in the last line of the
+  original form of the _Odyssey_ (xxiii. 296), where it probably refers
+  to the "ordinance" of wedlock. The common term for law, [Greek:
+  nomos], is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially legal sense
+  (e.g. _Op._ 276).
+
+
+  The trial scene.
+
+A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the shield of
+Achilles (_Il._ xviii. 497-508). The folk are here to be seen thronging
+the market-place, where a strife has arisen between two men as to the
+price of a man that has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all
+([Greek: eucheto pant' apodounai]), the kinsman of the slain protests
+that he has received nothing ([Greek: anaineto mêden helesthai]); both
+are eager to join issue before an umpire, and both are favoured by their
+friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds. The cause is
+tried by the elders, who are seated on polished stones in a sacred
+circle, and in the midst there lie two talents of gold, "to give to him
+who, among them all, sets forth the cause most rightly" ([Greek: tô
+domen hos meta toisi dikên ithyntata eipoi]).
+
+  The discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned on two
+  points: (1) the legal questions at issue; and (2) the destination of
+  the "two talents." (1) In the ordinary view (a), it is solely a
+  question whether the fine or blood-money, corresponding to the
+  _Wergeld_ (see WERGELD, TEUTONIC PEOPLES, BRITAIN: _Anglo-Saxon_) of
+  the old Germanic law (Grimm, _Rechtsalterthümer_, 661 f.), has been
+  paid or not. (This is accepted by Thonissen, Lipsius, Sidgwick and
+  Ridgeway.) In the other view (b), it is held that the slayer "claimed
+  to pay" the fine, and the kinsman of the slain "refused to accept any
+  compensation" (so Passow and Leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The "two
+  talents" (shown by Ridgeway to be a small sum, equal in value to two
+  oxen) are awarded either (a) to the litigant who "pleads his cause
+  most justly before them" (so Thonissen, Shilleto and Lipsius, in
+  accordance with the Attic use of phrases like [Greek: dikên eipein]),
+  or (b) to the judge "who, among all the elders, gives the most
+  righteous judgment" (so Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock, Leaf and
+  Ridgeway).
+
+  On this controversy, cf. Maine's _Ancient Law_, chap. x. pp. 385 f.,
+  405 f., ed. Pollock; Thonissen, _Droit pénal_ (1875), 27; P. M.
+  Laurence (on Shilleto's view) in _Journal of Philology_, viii. (1879),
+  125 f.; Ridgeway, _ib._ x. (1882), 30 f., and _Journal of Hellenic
+  Studies_, viii. (1887), 133 f.; and Leaf, _ib._ viii. 122 f., and in
+  his Commentary on _Iliad_, ii. (1902), 610-614; also J. H. Lipsius in
+  _Leipziger Studien_, xii. (1890), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick
+  in _Classical Review_, viii. (1894), 1-4.
+
+We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted blood-money
+from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that the slayer remained
+in the land after paying this penalty (_Il._ ix. 633). As a rule the
+slayer found it safest to flee (_Od._ xxiii. 118 f.), but even so, he
+might be pursued by the friends of the slain (_Od._ xv. 272-278). If he
+remained, the land was not (as in later ages) deemed to be polluted by
+his presence. In Homer, Orestes does not slay Clytaemestra, and he needs
+no "purification" for slaying Aegisthus.
+
+
+  Greek lawgivers: Lycurgus at Sparta.
+
+The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus, whose
+traditional date is 884 B.C. Written laws are said to have been
+expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, 13); hence the
+"laws of Sparta" are simply a body of traditional observances. We learn
+that all trials for homicide came before the Council of Elders and
+lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried by the
+ephors (q.v.). We are also told that originally the land was equally
+divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this equality was
+enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the 4th century the ephor
+Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with his son, enacted that every
+Spartan should be allowed to transfer his estate and his allotment to
+any other person (Plutarch, _Agis_, 5), while Aristotle, in a
+much-debated passage of the _Politics_ (ii. 9. 14-15), criticizes the
+Spartan constitution for allowing the accumulation of property in a few
+hands, an evil aggravated by the large number of "heiresses"; "a man (he
+adds) may bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies
+intestate, this privilege descends to his heir."
+
+
+  Era of written laws.
+
+Law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century B.C. A written code
+is a necessary condition of just judgment, and such a code was the first
+concession which the people in the Greek cities extorted from the ruling
+aristocracies. The change was generally effected with the aid of a
+single legislator entrusted with complete authority to draw up a code.
+
+
+  Zaleucus at Locri Epizephyrii.
+
+  Charondas at Catana, etc.
+
+  Androdamas of Rhegium.
+
+  Philolaus of Corinth.
+
+The first communities to reach this stage of progress were the Greek
+colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian Locrians, near the extreme south
+of Italy, received the earliest written code from Zaleucus (663 B.C.),
+whose strict and severe legislation put an end to a period of strife and
+confusion, though we know little of his laws, except that they attached
+definite penalties to each offence, and that they strictly protected the
+rights of property. Two centuries later, his code was adopted even by
+the Athenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 B.C.). Charondas, the
+"disciple" of Zaleucus, became the lawgiver, not only of his native town
+of Catana on the east coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian
+colonies in Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a
+singular precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle) that he could
+claim as his own except the special procedure against false witnesses
+(_Politics_, ii. 12. 11). In the case of judges who neglected to serve
+in the law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small
+fine on the poor (_ib._ vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdamas of Rhegium gave
+laws on homicide and on heiresses to the Chalcidians of Thrace, while
+Philolaus of Corinth provided the Thebans with "laws of adoption" with a
+view to preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land
+(_ib._ ii. 12. 8-14).
+
+
+  The laws of Gortyn.
+
+Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the important
+city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a plain watered by the
+Lethaeus. Part of that stream forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or
+near this mill some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French
+archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to which most of
+our knowledge of the laws is due, was not discovered until 1884. It had
+been preserved on a wall 27 ft. long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of
+which was buried in the ground, while its farthest extremity passed
+obliquely athwart the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert
+the water before the last four columns could be transcribed by the
+Italian scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the same
+year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight columns by
+the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the following year Halbherr
+discovered more than eighty small fragments on the neighbouring site of
+a former temple of the Pythian Apollo.
+
+  These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription
+  above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 B.C. They precede the
+  introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties being reckoned,
+  not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the powers of the
+  magistrates and the observances of religion, but are mainly concerned
+  with private matters of barter and sale, dowry and adoption,
+  inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and questions of
+  blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a fixed scale of
+  penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and ranging from one
+  to a hundred caldrons.
+
+  The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (c. 450 B.C.). It
+  consists of a number of amendments or additions to an earlier code,
+  and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and
+  family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely
+  oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted; there are no
+  documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the memory
+  of the judge or of his "remembrancer." All the causes are tried before
+  a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the suit. Where
+  the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judgment ([Greek:
+  dikadden]) in accordance with the law and the "witnesses or oaths,"
+  but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide ([Greek:
+  krinein]) in view of "the contentions of the parties," as
+  distinguished from "the declarations of the witnesses." Offences
+  against the person are treated as matters of private compensation
+  according to a carefully graduated tariff. In certain cases the
+  defendant may clear himself by an "oath of purgation" with the support
+  of "cojurors" ([Greek: homômotai]), the _Eideshelfer_ of old Germanic
+  law (Grimm 859 f.), who have no necessary knowledge of the facts.
+  There is no interference with the exposure of infants, except in the
+  interest of the father (if the child is free-born) or of the lord (in
+  the case of serfs). The law of debt is primitive, though less severe
+  than that of the early Romans. In contrast with these primitive
+  elements we have others which are distinctly progressive. The estates
+  of husband, wife and sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wills
+  are unknown, even in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions
+  are made to secure with all speed the marriage of an "heiress"; she is
+  bound to marry the eldest of her paternal uncles or to surrender part
+  of her estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles that she
+  is permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their sons.
+  Adoption is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of stone
+  in the market-place and making a public announcement at a time when
+  the citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any
+  larger share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate
+  his adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person
+  repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the gift of a
+  small number of staters. In these later "laws of Gortyn" we have
+  reached the time when payments are made, not in "caldrons," but in
+  coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as
+  "these writings."
+
+  The text of the great inscription was first published by E. Fabricius
+  in _Ath. Mitth._ ix. (1885), 362-384; there is a cast of the whole in
+  the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Comparetti's _Leggi
+  di Gortyna_ (1893); Bücheler and Zittelmann in _Rhein. Mus._ xl.
+  (1885); Dareste, Haussoullier and Th. Reinach, _Inscr. juridiques
+  grecques_, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with the literature there quoted).
+  Eng. trans. by Roby in _Law Quarterly Review_ (1886), 135-152; see
+  also E. S. Roberts, _Gk. Epigraphy_, i. 39 f., 52 f., 325-332; J. W.
+  Headlam in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xiii. (1892-1893), 48-69; P.
+  Gardner and F. B. Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_ (1895), 560-574; W. Wyse
+  in Whibley's _Companion to Greek Studies_ (1905), 378-383; and Hermann
+  Lipsius, _Zum Recht von Gortyns_ (Leipzig, 1909).
+
+
+  Athens.
+
+  The three senior archons.
+
+  The thesmothetae.
+
+A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention of lawsuits
+(Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iii. 38), and the Athenians themselves regarded
+their tribunals of homicide as institutions of immemorial antiquity
+(Isocr. _Paneg._ 40). On the abolition of the single decennial
+archon[1] in 683 B.C., his duties were distributed over several
+officials holding office for one year only. The judicial duties
+thenceforth discharged by the chief archon (_the_ archon), in the case
+of citizens, were discharged by the polemarch in the case of foreign
+settlers or metics ([Greek: metoikoi]); while the king-archon, who
+succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient kings, decided cases
+connected with religious observances (see ARCHON). He also presided over
+the primitive council of the state, which was identical with the council
+of the Areopagus. It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the
+rights of the lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century
+B.C., the three archons were raised to the number of nine by the
+institution of the joint board of the six _thesmothetae_, who
+superintended the judicial system in general, kept a record of all legal
+decisions, and drew attention to any defects in the laws. It is probable
+that in their title we have the earliest example in Attic Greek of the
+use of _thesmos_ in the sense of "law."
+
+
+  Draco.
+
+The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical. With a view,
+however, to providing a remedy for the conflict between the several
+orders of the state, the first code of Athenian law was drawn up and
+published by Draco (strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a
+_thesmothetes_ (621). His laws were known as _thesmoi_. The distinctive
+part of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in such
+high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of Solon and
+in the democratic restoration of 411 B.C. It is partly preserved in an
+inscription of 409, which has been restored with the aid of quotations
+from the orators (_C.I.A._ i. 61; _Inscr. jurid. grecques_, ii. 1. 1-24;
+and Hicks, _Gk. Hist. Inscr._ No. 59). It drew a careful distinction
+between different kinds of homicide. Of the rest of Draco's legislation
+we only know that Aristotle (_Politics_, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the
+severity of the penalties, and that the creditor was permitted to seize
+the person of the debtor as security for his debt.
+
+
+  Solon.
+
+The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties agreed in
+choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 B.C.). Solon cancelled all
+mortgages and debts secured on the person of the debtor, set free all
+who had become slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future
+(see SOLON). Thenceforth every citizen had also "the right of appeal to
+the law-courts," and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction on
+behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional law (_inter
+alia_) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds of jurors, and
+the power of voting in these law-courts made the people masters of the
+constitution (Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, c. 9). Solon's
+legislation also had an important effect on the law of property. In
+primitive times, on a man's death, his money or lands remained in the
+family, and, even in the absence of direct descendants, the owner could
+not dispose of his property by will. Permission to execute a will was
+first given to Athenian citizens by the laws of Solon. But "the Athenian
+Will was only an inchoate Testament" (Maine's _Ancient Law_, c. vi.);
+for this permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no
+direct male descendants (Dem. _Lept._ 102; Plutarch, _Solon_, 21; cf.
+Wyse on Isaeus, p. 325).
+
+The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in [Dem.] 43, §
+51 (cf. Wyse, _ib._ p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct male
+descendants, a daughter who survived her father was known as an [Greek:
+epiklêros], not an "heiress," but a "person who went with the estate";
+and, in the absence of a will, the right or duty of marrying the
+daughter followed (with certain obvious exceptions) the same rules as
+the right of succession to the estate (cf. Wyse, _ib._ p. 348 f.).
+
+
+  Cleisthenes, Ephialtes.
+
+  Pericles, Cleon.
+
+Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (508) was the law of ostracism (q.v.).
+The privileges of the Areopagus were curtailed (while its right to try
+certain cases of homicide was left untouched) by the reforms of
+Ephialtes (462), and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty "local
+justices" (453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood by both
+parents (451), and was the first to assign to jurors a fee for their
+services in the law-courts, which was raised to three obols by Cleon
+(425).
+
+
+  Ordinary course of legislation.
+
+In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers entrusted
+with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and Cleisthenes, there was
+the regular and normal course of public legislation. The legislative
+power was not exercised directly by the popular assembly (see ECCLESIA),
+but the preliminary consent of that body was necessary for the
+appointment of a legislative commission.
+
+
+  Syngrapheis. Nomothetae.
+
+In the 5th century (e.g. in 450 and 446 B.C.) certain commissioners
+called [Greek: syngrapheis] were appointed to draw up laws which, after
+approval by the council, were submitted to the assembly. The same term
+was still in use in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 61). But in October, on the
+overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners are for the first time
+called _nomothetae_ (_ib._ 97).
+
+  The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first
+  meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it
+  would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the
+  existing laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were granted,
+  any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effect was
+  required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand
+  them to the secretary of the council (Boule) to be read aloud at more
+  than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the
+  people appointed the legislative commissioners, who were drawn by lot
+  from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors. The
+  number, and the duration of the commission, were determined in each
+  case by the people. The proceedings before the commission were
+  conducted exactly in the manner of a lawsuit. Those who desired to see
+  old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws came forward as
+  _accusers_ of those laws; those of the contrary opinion, as
+  _defenders_; and the defence was formally entrusted to public
+  advocates specially appointed for the purpose ([Greek: sunêgoroi]).
+  The number of the commissioners varied with the number or importance
+  of the laws in question; there is evidence for the number 1001 (Dem.
+  xxiv. 27). If a law approved by the commission was deemed to be
+  unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a
+  [Greek: graphê paranomôn]), just as in the case of the proposer of an
+  unconstitutional decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings
+  might also be instituted against laws on the sole ground of their
+  inexpediency (see note on Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, p.
+  219, ed. Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment
+  of Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000
+  _drachmae_ (£40), and lost the right to adopt this procedure in
+  future. When a year had elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was
+  free from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines,
+  but the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five
+  advocates were appointed to defend it ([Greek: sundikoi]), cf. Dem.
+  _Lept._ 144, 146.
+
+
+  The laws of Athens.
+
+Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present article any
+survey of the purport of the extant remains of the laws of Athens. Such
+a survey would begin with the laws of the family, including laws of
+marriage, adoption and inheritance, followed by the law of property and
+contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the protection of
+the person, and the protection of the constitution. The texts have been
+collected and classified in Télfy's _Corpus juris Attici_ (1867), a work
+which can be supplemented or corrected with the aid of Aristotle's
+_Constitution of Athens_; while some of the recent expositions of the
+subject are mentioned in the bibliography at the end of this article. We
+now proceed to notice the law of homicide, but solely in connexion with
+jurisdiction.
+
+
+  Jurisdiction; the five primitive tribunals for the trial of homicide.
+
+The general term for a tribunal is [Greek: dikastêrion] (from [Greek:
+dikazô]), Anglicized "dicastery." Of all the tribunals of Athens those
+for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive and the least
+liable to suffer change through lapse of time. In the old Germanic law
+all trials whatsoever were held in the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At
+Athens this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive courts
+of homicide, the object being to prevent the prosecutor and the judges
+from coming under the same roof as one who was charged with the shedding
+of blood (Antiphon, _De caede Herodis_, 11). The place where the trial
+was held depended on the nature of the charge.
+
+
+    On the Areopagus.
+
+  1. The rock of the Acropolis, outside the earliest of the city-walls,
+  was the proper place for the trial of persons charged with
+  premeditated homicide, or with wounding with intent to kill. The
+  penalty for the former crime was death; for the latter exile; and, in
+  either case, the property was confiscated. If the votes were equal,
+  the person accused was acquitted. The proceedings lasted for three
+  days, and each side might make two speeches. After the first speech
+  the person accused of premeditated homicide was mercifully permitted
+  to go into exile, in which case his property was confiscated, and in
+  the ordinary course he remained in exile for the rest of his life.
+
+
+    At the Palladion.
+
+  2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another to
+  inflict bodily harm on a third person, or of killing a slave or a
+  resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion, the
+  ancient shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The punishment for
+  unpremeditated homicide was exile (without confiscation) until such
+  time as the criminal had propitiated the relatives of the person
+  slain, or (failing that) for some definite time. The punishment for
+  instigating a crime was the same as for actually committing it.
+
+
+    At the Delphinion.
+
+  3. Trials at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo Delphinios, in the
+  same quarter, were reserved for special cases of either accidental or
+  justifiable homicide.
+
+
+    At Phreatto.
+
+  4. If a man already in exile for unpremeditated homicide were accused
+  of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to kill,
+  provision was made for this rare contingency by permitting him to
+  approach the shore of Attica and conduct his defence on board a boat,
+  while his judges heard the cause on shore, at a "place of pits" called
+  Phreatto, near the harbour of Zea. If the accused were found guilty,
+  he incurred the proper penalty; if acquitted, he remained in exile.
+
+
+    At the Prytaneum.
+
+  5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaneum, to the north of the
+  Acropolis, was only of ceremonial importance. It "solemnly heard and
+  condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or inanimate objects
+  that had caused the loss of life."[2] The writ ran "against the doer
+  of the deed," and any instrument of death that was found guilty was
+  thrown across the frontier. The trial was held by the four
+  "tribe-kings" ([Greek: phylobasileis]), an archaic survival from
+  before the time of Cleisthenes. (On these five courts see Aristotle's
+  _Constitution of Athens_, c. 57, and Dem. _Aristocr._ 65-79.)
+
+
+    Ephetae.
+
+  In all the courts of homicide the president was the archon-basileus,
+  or king-archon, who on these occasions laid aside his crown.
+  Originally all these courts were under the jurisdiction of an ancient
+  body of judges called the ephetae ([Greek: ephetai]), whose
+  institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer of the first of the
+  above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed to Solon.
+  In practice the jurisdiction of the ephetae (see also AREOPAGUS) was
+  probably confined to the courts at the Palladion and Delphinion; but
+  even there the rights of this primitive body became obsolete, for
+  trials "at the Palladion" sometimes came before an ordinary tribunal
+  of 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. _c. Callim._ 52, 54; [Dem.] _c. Neaeram_,
+  10).
+
+
+  The presidents of the tribunals.
+
+  The chief archon.
+
+  The king-archon.
+
+  The polemarch.
+
+  The strategi.
+
+  The thesmothetae.
+
+Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the right of
+jurisdiction was entrusted to the several archons until the date of
+Solon (594). When the direct jurisdiction of the archons was impaired by
+Solon's institution of the "right of appeal to the law-courts," the
+dignity of those officials was recognized by their having the privilege
+of presiding over the new tribunals ([Greek: hêgemonia dikastêriou]). A
+similar position was assigned to the other executive officers, such as
+the strategi (generals), the board of police called the "Eleven," and
+the financial officers, all of whom presided over cases connected with
+their respective departments. In their new position as presidents of the
+several courts, the archons received plaints, obtained from both parties
+the evidence which they proposed to present, formally presided at the
+trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the sentence. The
+choice of the presiding magistrate in each case was determined by the
+normal duties of his office. Thus the chief archon, the official
+guardian of orphans and widows, presided in all cases, public or
+private, connected with the family property of citizens (Aristotle,
+_u.s._ c. 56). The king-archon had charge of all offences against
+religion, e.g. indictments for impiety, disputes within the family as to
+the right to hold a particular priesthood, and all actions for homicide
+(c. 57). The third archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to
+resident aliens all such legal duties as were discharged by the chief
+archon in relation to citizens (c. 58). The trial of military offences
+was under the presidency of the strategi, who were assisted by the other
+military officers in preparing the case for the court. The six junior
+archons, the _thesmothetae_, acted as a board which was responsible for
+all cases not specially assigned to any other officials (details in c.
+59).
+
+
+  The Forty.
+
+The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the ten tribes,
+acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages claimed did not
+exceed ten _drachmae_. Claims beyond that amount they handed over to the
+arbitrators. The four representatives of any given tribe received notice
+of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It seems probable
+that they dealt with all private suits not otherwise assigned, but,
+unlike the archons, they did not prepare any case for the court but
+referred it, in the first instance, to a public arbitrator appointed by
+lot (c. 53).[3]
+
+
+  The public arbitrators.
+
+The public arbitrators ([Greek: diaitêtai]) were a body including all
+Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator, on
+receiving the case from the four representatives of the Forty, first
+endeavoured to bring the parties to an agreement. If this failed, he
+heard the evidence and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted,
+the case was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted on
+appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets (one for
+each party) copies of all the depositions, oaths and challenges, and of
+all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up, and, after attaching a
+copy of his own decision, handed them over to the four representatives
+of the Forty, who brought the case into court and presided over the
+trial. Documents which had not been brought before the arbitrator could
+not be produced in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors where the
+sum in question was not more than 1000 _drachmae_ (£40); in other cases
+the number of jurors was 401 (c. 53).
+
+
+  Eisagogeis.
+
+A small board of five appointed by lot, one for each pair of tribes, and
+known as the "introducers" ([Greek: eisagôgeis]), brought up certain of
+the cases that had to be decided within a month ([Greek: emmênoi
+dikai]), such as actions for restitution of dowry, repayment of capital
+for setting up a business, and cases connected with banking.
+
+
+  Heliaea.
+
+The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the "dicastery"
+(_par excellence_), was known as the _heliaea_. The name, which is of
+uncertain origin,[4] denotes not only the place where the court was held
+but also the members of the court,--the _heliastae_ of Aristophanes, the
+_dicastae_, or [Greek: andres dikastai], of the Attic orators. During
+the palmy days of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the
+Persian and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve as
+jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, _u.s._ c. 24. 3), and this
+number was never exceeded (Aristoph. _Vesp._ 661 f.). Any Athenian
+citizen in full possession of his rights, and over thirty years of age,
+was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle, _u.s._ c. 63. 3). At
+the beginning of the year the whole body of jurors assembled on the hill
+of Ardettos looking down on the Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a
+solemn oath to the effect that they would judge according to the laws
+and decrees of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five
+Hundred (Boule), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would
+decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both sides
+impartially, and vote on the case actually before the court.
+
+It has been suggested that, as the normal number of a court was 500, the
+maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably divided into ten sections of
+500 each, with 1000 reserves. There is evidence in the 4th century for
+courts of 200, 400, 500, 700 and (in important political trials)
+various multiples of 500, namely, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 2500. To some of
+these numbers one juror is added; it was probably added to all, to
+obviate the risk of the votes being exactly equal.
+
+The evidence as to the organization of the jurors in the early part of
+the 4th century is imperfect. Passages in Aristophanes (_Ecclesiazusae_,
+682-688; _Plutus_, 1166 f.) imply that in 392-388 B.C. the total number
+was divided into ten sections distinguished by the first ten letters of
+the Greek alphabet, A to K. Every juror, on his first appointment,
+received a ticket of boxwood (or of bronze) bearing his name with that
+of his father and his deme, and with one of the above letters in the
+upper left-hand corner. Of the bronze tickets many have been found (see
+notes on Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, c. 63, and fig. 1 in
+frontispiece, ed. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the machinery
+for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To guard against the
+possibility of bribery or other undue influence, the allotment did not
+take place until immediately before the hearing of the case. Each court
+contained an equal number of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and
+thus represented the whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the
+court assigned him, received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece,
+_u.s._), on presenting which at the end of the day he received his fee.
+The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is minutely
+described at the end of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (for
+details, cf. Gilbert, 397-399, Eng. trans., or Wyse in Whibley's
+_Companion to Greek Studies_, 387 f.).
+
+
+  Jurisdiction of the council and assembly.
+
+  Eisangelia.
+
+The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient judicial
+functions of the council and the assembly, but the council continued to
+hold a strict scrutiny ([Greek: dokimasia]) of candidates for office or
+for other privileges, while the council itself, as well as all other
+officials, had to give account ([Greek: euthyna]) on ceasing to hold
+office. The council also retained the right to deal with extraordinary
+crimes against the state. It was open to any citizen to bring such
+crimes to the knowledge of the council in writing. The technical term
+for this information, denunciation or impeachment was _eisangelia_
+([Greek: eisangelia]). The council could inflict a fine of 500
+_drachmae_ (£20), or, in important cases, refer the matter either to a
+law-court, as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuc. viii. 68), or to the
+ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 B.C.), and the strategi in
+command at Arginusae (406; Xen. _Hell._ i. 7. 19). The term [Greek:
+eisangelia] was also applied to denunciations brought against persons
+who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public arbitrator who
+had neglected his duty (Dem. _Meidias_, 86 f.).
+
+
+  Probole.
+
+A "presentation" of criminal information ([Greek: probolê]) might be
+laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its preliminary
+sanction for bringing the case before a judicial tribunal. Such was the
+mode of procedure adopted against persons who had brought malicious,
+groundless or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of
+certain public festivals. The leading example of the former is the trial
+of the accusers who prompted the people to put to death the generals who
+had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen. _Hell._ i. 7. 34); and, of the
+latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes against Meidias.
+
+
+  Classes of legal actions.
+
+Legal actions ([Greek: dikai]) were classified as private ([Greek:
+idiai]) or public ([Greek: dêmosiai]). The latter were also described as
+[Greek: graphai] or "prosecutions," but some [Greek: graphai] were
+called "private," when the state was regarded as only indirectly injured
+by a wrong done to an individual citizen (Dem. xxi. 47). A private suit
+could only be brought by the man directly interested, or, in the case of
+a slave, a ward or an alien, by the master, guardian or patron
+respectively; and, if the suit were successful, the sum claimed
+generally went to the plaintiff. Public actions may be divided into
+ordinary criminal cases, and offences against the state. As a rule they
+could be instituted by any person who possessed the franchise, and the
+penalty was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain
+one-fifth of the votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 _drachmae_ (£40),
+and lost the right of ever bringing a similar action.
+
+Lawsuits, whether public or private, were also distinguished as [Greek:
+dikai kata tinos] or [Greek: pros tina], according as the defeated party
+could or could not be personally punished. Actions ([Greek: agônes])
+were also distinguished as [Greek: agônes timêtoi] ("to be assessed"),
+in which the amount of damages had to be determined by the court,
+because it had not been fixed by law, and [Greek: atimêtoi] ("not to be
+assessed"), in which the damages had _not_ to be determined by the
+court, because they had already been fixed by law or by special
+agreement.
+
+Among special kinds of action were [Greek: apagôgê], [Greek: ephêgêsis]
+and [Greek: endeixis]. These could only be employed when the offence was
+patent and could not be denied. In the first, the person accused was
+summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled into the presence of the
+proper official. In the second, the accuser took the officer with him to
+arrest the culprit (Dem. xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an
+information with the official, and left the latter to effect the
+capture. [Greek: Phasis], a general term for many kinds of legal
+"information," was a form of procedure specially directed against those
+who injured the fiscal interests of the state, and against guardians who
+neglected the pecuniary interests of their wards. [Greek: Apographê] was
+an action for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed
+as belonging to the state, the term being derived from the claimants'
+written inventory of the property in question.
+
+
+  Ordinary legal procedure.
+
+The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private, began with a
+personal summons ([Greek: prosklêsis]) of the defendant by the plaintiff
+accompanied by two witnesses ([Greek: klêtêres]). If the defendant
+failed to appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the summons,
+and judgment went by default.
+
+The action was begun by presenting a written statement of the case to
+the magistrate who presided over trials of the class in question. If the
+statement were accepted, court-fees were paid by both parties in a
+private action, and by the prosecutor alone in a public action. The
+magistrate fixed a day for the preliminary investigation ([Greek:
+anakrisis]), and, whenever several causes were instituted at the same
+time, he drew lots to determine the order in which they should be taken.
+Hence the plaintiff was said "to have a suit assigned him by lot"
+([Greek: lanchanein dikên]), a phrase practically equivalent to
+"obtaining leave to bring an action." At the [Greek: anakrisis] the
+plaintiff and defendant both swore to the truth of their statements. If
+the defendant raised no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular
+course ([Greek: euthydikia]), but he might contend that the suit was
+inadmissible, and, to prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront
+those on the side of the plaintiff ([Greek: diamartyria]), or he might
+rely on argument without witnesses by means of a written statement
+traversing that of the plaintiff ([Greek: paragraphê]). The person who
+submitted the special plea in bar of action naturally spoke first, and,
+if he gained the verdict, the main suit could not come on, or, at any
+rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A cross-action
+([Greek: antigraphê]) might be brought by the defendant, but the verdict
+did not necessarily affect that of the original suit.
+
+
+  Documents.
+
+  Challenges.
+
+In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other documents
+bearing on the case were produced. If any such document were in the
+hands of a third person, he could be compelled to produce it by an
+action for that purpose ([Greek: eis emphanôn katastasin]). The
+depositions were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were
+taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to be absent, a
+certified copy of his deposition might be sent ([Greek: ekmartyria]).
+The depositions of slaves were not accepted, unless made under torture,
+and for receiving such evidence the consent of both parties was
+required. Either party could challenge the other to submit his slaves to
+the test ([Greek: proklêsis eis basanon]), and, in the event of the
+challenge being refused, could comment on the fact when the case came
+before the court. Either party could also challenge the other to take an
+oath ([Greek: proklêsis eis horkon]), and, if the oath were declined,
+could similarly comment on the fact.
+
+
+  The trial.
+
+Mercantile cases had to be decided within the interval of a month;
+others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the day of trial, one of
+the parties was absent, his representative had to show cause under oath
+([Greek: hupômosia]); if the other party objected, he did so under oath
+([Greek: anthupômosia]). If the plea for delay were refused by the
+court, and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went by
+default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given in favour
+of the defendant.
+
+The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry also presided at
+the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn sacrifice. The plea of
+the plaintiff and the formal reply of the defendant were then read by
+the clerk. The court was next addressed first by the plaintiff, next by
+the defendant; in some cases there were two speeches on each side. Every
+litigant was legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were
+often composed by professional experts for delivery by the parties to
+the suit, who were required to speak in person, though one or more
+unprofessional supporters ([Greek: synhêgoroi]) might subsequently speak
+in support of the case. The length of the speeches was in many cases
+limited by law to a fixed time recorded by means of a water-clock
+(clepsydra). Documents were not regarded as part of the speech, and,
+while these were being read, the clock was stopped (Goethe found a
+similar custom in force in Venice in October 1786). The witnesses were
+never cross-examined, but one of the litigants might formally
+interrogate the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally
+supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and friends.
+
+When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the 5th century
+mussel-shells ([Greek: choirinai]) were used for the purpose. Each of
+the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the two urns, in
+that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that to the back if he
+voted for condemnation. If a second vote had to be taken to determine
+the amount of the penalty, wax tablets were used, on which the juror
+drew a long line, if he gave the heavy penalty demanded by the
+plaintiff; a short one, if he decided in favour of the lighter penalty
+proposed by the defendant.
+
+In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks of bronze.
+Each disk (inscribed with the words [Greek: PSÊPHOS DÊMOSIA]) was about
+1 in. in diameter, with a short tube running through the centre. This
+tube was either perforated or closed (see figs. 6 and 7 in frontispiece
+to Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, ed. Sandys). One of each kind
+was given to every juror, who was required to use the perforated or the
+closed disk, according as he voted for the plaintiff or for the
+defendant. On the platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of
+wood. The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he
+proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the tube, so
+that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk or not, and then
+deposited it in the bronze urn, and (with the same precaution to ensure
+secrecy) dropped the unused disk into the wooden urn. The votes were
+sorted by persons appointed by lot, and counted by the president of the
+court, and the result announced by the herald. For any second vote the
+same procedure was adopted (Aristotle, _u.s._, c. 68 of Kenyon's Berlin
+text).
+
+
+  Penalties.
+
+Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in private suits;
+personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal penalties included
+sentences of death or exile, or different degrees of disfranchisement
+([Greek: atimia]) with or without confiscation. Imprisonment _before_
+trial was common, and persons mulcted in penalties might be imprisoned
+until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never inflicted as
+the _sole_ penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone could be sold into
+slavery. Sentences of death were carried out under the supervision of
+the board of police called the "Eleven." In ancient times a person
+condemned was hurled into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western
+suburb of Athens. In later times he was compelled to drink the fatal
+draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to death with clubs.
+Fines were collected and confiscated property sold by special
+officials, called [Greek: praktores] and [Greek: pôlêtai] respectively.
+In private suits the sentence was executed by the state if the latter
+had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprisonment were part of the
+penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the sentence was left to the
+plaintiff, who had the right of distraint, or, if this failed, could
+bring an action of ejectment ([Greek: dikê hexougês]).
+
+From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But, if judgment
+had been given by default, the person condemned might bring an action to
+prove that he was not responsible for such default, [Greek: tên erêmon]
+(_sc._ [Greek: dikên]) [Greek: antilanchanein]. The corresponding term
+for challenging the award of an arbitrator was [Greek: tên mê ousan
+antilanchanein]. He might also bring an action for false evidence
+([Greek: dikê pseudomartyrion]) against his opponent's witnesses, and,
+on their conviction, have the sentence annulled. This "denunciation" of
+false evidence was technically called [Greek: episkêpsis] and [Greek:
+episkêptesthai].
+
+
+  Character of the Athenian tribunals.
+
+The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but, as was first
+proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also diminished the
+feeling of personal responsibility, while it increased the influence of
+political motives. In addressing such a court, the litigants were not
+above appealing to the personal interests of the general public. We have
+a striking example of this in the terms in which Lysias makes one of his
+clients close a speech in prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who
+have incurred the penalty of death by buying more than 75 bushels of
+wheat at one time: "If you _condemn_ these persons, you will be doing
+what is right, and will pay _less_ for the purchase of your corn; if you
+_acquit_ them, you will pay _more_" (xxii. § 22).
+
+Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular ignorance by
+misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the jurors could look for
+no aid from the officials who formally presided over the courts. The
+latter were not necessarily experts, for they owed their own original
+appointment to the caprice of the lot. Almost the only officials
+specially elected as experts were the strategi, and these presided only
+in their own courts. Again, there was every temptation for the informer
+to propose the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who
+would naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having
+his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every temptation
+to decide in the interests of the treasury. In conclusion we may quote
+the opinions on the judicial system of Athens which have been expressed
+by two eminent classical scholars and English lawyers.
+
+  A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion
+  "that it would be difficult to devise a judicial system less adapted
+  for the due administration of justice" (Preface to _Wasps_, xxxv. f.),
+  while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. R. Kennedy, observes that the
+  Athenian jurors "were persons of no legal education or learning; taken
+  at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly belonging to
+  the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the Athenians were
+  naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the world. Their wits
+  were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an active part in important
+  debates, and hearing the most splendid orators. There was so much
+  litigation at Athens that they were constantly either engaged as
+  jurors, or present as spectators in courts of law" (_Private
+  Orations_, p. 361).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--1. Greek Law. B. W. Leist, _Gräco-italische
+  Rechtsgeschichte_ (Jena, 1884); L. Mitteis, _Reichsrecht und
+  Volksrecht in den östlichen Provinzen des römischen Kaiserreichs, mit
+  Beiträgen zur Kenntnis des griechischen Rechts_ (Leipzig, 1891); J. H.
+  Lipsius, _Von der Bedeutung des griechischen Rechts_ (Leipzig, 1893);
+  G. Gilbert, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des ... griechischen Rechtes"
+  in _Jahrb. für kl. Philologie_ (Leipzig, 1896); H. J. Hitzig, _Die
+  Bedeutung des altgriechischen Rechtes für die vergleichende
+  Rechtswissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1906); R. Hirzel, _Themis, Dike und
+  Verwandtes_ (Leipzig, 1907); J. J. Thonissen, _Le Droit criminel de la
+  Grèce légendaire_, followed by _Le Droit pénal de la république
+  athénienne_ (Brussels, 1875).
+
+  2. Attic Law. (a) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. Télfy, _Corpus juris
+  Attici_ (Pest and Leipzig, 1868); Aristotle's _Constitution of
+  Athens_, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, &c., and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903);
+  ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig, 1903); text with critical and explanatory
+  notes, ed. Sandys (London, 1893); Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig,
+  1866-1871); Isaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, _Private
+  Orations_, ed. Paley and Sandys, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898);
+  _Against Midias_, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906); Dareste,
+  Haussoullier, Th. Reinach, _Inscr. juridiques grecques_ (Paris,
+  1891-1904). (b) Modern treatises: K. F. Hermann, _De vestigiis
+  institutorum ... Atticorum per Platonis de legibus libros indagandis_
+  (Marburg, 1836); _Staatsaltertümer_, ed. 6, Thumser (Freiburg, 1892);
+  _Rechtsaltertümer_, ed. 3, Thalheim (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt,
+  _Staatsund Rechtsaltertümer_, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); U. von
+  Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _Aristoteles und Athen_ (Berlin, 1893); G.
+  Gilbert, _Gk. Constitutional Antiquities_ (vol. i., Eng. trans., pp.
+  376-416, London, 1895); J. H. Lipsius, (1) new ed. of Meier and
+  Schömann, _Der attische Process_ (Berlin, 1883-1887); (2) ed. 4 of
+  Schömann, _Gr. Altertümer_ (Berlin, 1897-1902); (3) _Das attische
+  Recht und Rechtsverfahren_ (Leipzig, 1905); Daremberg and Saglio,
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquités_ (Paris, 1877); G. Glotz, _La Solidarité
+  de la famille dans le droit criminel en Grèce_ (Paris, 1904); L.
+  Beauchet, _Droit privé de la rép. athén._ (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C.
+  R. Kennedy, _Appendices to transl. of Dem._ vols. iii. and iv.
+  (1856-1861); Smith's _Dictionary of ... Antiquities_, ed. 3 (1891); F.
+  B. Jevons, in Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_ (1895, pp.
+  526-597); W. Wyse, in Whibley's _Companion to Greek Studies_
+  (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402.     (J. E. S.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian
+    constitution see ARCHON, AREOPAGUS, BOULE, ECCLESIA, STRATEGUS, and
+    articles on all the chief legislators.
+
+  [2] In the case of "animals," we may compare the Mosaic law of Exod.
+    xxxi. 28 and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664); and in that of
+    "inanimate objects," the English law of deodands (Blackstone i. 300),
+    repealed in 1846. See also Frazer on Pausanias, i. 28. 10.
+
+  [3] Cf. R. J. Bonner, in _Classical Philology_ (Chicago, 1907),
+    407-418, who urges that only cases belonging to the Forty were
+    subject to public arbitration.
+
+  [4] Connected either with [Greek: halizesthai], "to assemble," or
+    [Greek: hêlios], or [Greek: Hêlis] (cf. Curt Wachsmuth, _Stadt
+    Athen_, ii. (1) 359-364). The first is possibly right (cf. Rogers on
+    Aristoph. _Wasps_, xvii. f.); the second implies that this large
+    court was held in the open air (Lipsius, _Att. Recht_, 172).
+
+
+
+
+GREEK LITERATURE.--The literature of the Greek language is broadly
+divisible into three main sections: (1) Ancient, (2) Byzantine, (3)
+Modern. These are dealt with below in that order.
+
+
+1. THE ANCIENT GREEK LITERATURE
+
+The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) _The Early
+Literature_, to about 475 B.C.; epic, elegiac, iambic and lyric poetry;
+the beginnings of literary prose. (B) _The Attic Literature_ 475-300
+B.C.; tragic and comic drama; historical, oratorical and philosophical
+prose. (C) _The Literature of the Decadence_, 300 B.C. to A.D. 529;
+which may again be divided into the Alexandrian period, 300-146 B.C.,
+and the Graeco-Roman period, 146 B.C. to A.D. 529.
+
+For details regarding particular works or the lives of their authors
+reference should be made to the separate articles devoted to the
+principal Greek writers. The object of the following pages is to sketch
+the literary development as a whole, to show how its successive periods
+were related to each other, and to mark the dominant characteristics of
+each.
+
+(A) _The Early Literature._--A process of natural growth may be traced
+through all the best work of the Greek genius. The Greeks were not
+literary imitators of foreign models; the forms of poetry and prose in
+which they attained to such unequalled excellence were first developed
+by themselves. Their literature had its roots in their political and
+social life; it is the spontaneous expression of that life in youth,
+maturity and decay; and the order in which its several fruits are
+produced is not the result of accident or caprice. Further, the old
+Greek literature has a striking completeness, due to the fact that each
+great branch of the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its
+development. Ionians, Aeolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their
+share. Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life
+and character. Each found its appropriate work.
+
+
+  The dialects.
+
+The Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor--a lively and genial people,
+delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to everything bright and
+joyous--created artistic epic poetry out of the lays in which Aeolic
+minstrels sang of the old Achaean wars. And among the Ionians arose
+elegiac poetry, the first variation on the epic type. These found a
+fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible
+utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of Lesbos
+next created the lyric of personal passion, in which the traits of their
+race--its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous fancy--found a fitting
+voice in the fiery strength and tenderness of Aeolic speech. The Dorians
+of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and Magna Graecia then perfected the choral
+lyric for festivals and religious worship; and here again an earnest
+faith, a strong pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter
+in the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of the
+Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all the other
+kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in history, oratory and
+philosophy. It is in the Attic literature that the Greek mind receives
+its most complete interpretation.
+
+A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and that
+species of composition for which it had been specially used. Hence the
+dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted with more or less
+thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who were not Ionians. Thus
+the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the Dorian Theognis in elegy, though
+not without alloy. Similarly, the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in
+Aeolic. All the faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually
+brought out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature
+has an essential unity--the unity of a living organism; and this unity
+comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which is complete in its
+own kind.
+
+
+  Pre-Homeric poetry.
+
+  Songs of the seasons.
+
+  Hymns.
+
+Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems. These are works
+of art which imply a long period of antecedent poetical cultivation. Of
+the pre-Homeric poetry we have no remains, and very little knowledge.
+Such glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different stages in
+the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes. The first of these stages is
+that in which the agencies or forms of external nature were personified
+indeed, yet with the consciousness that the personal names were only
+symbols. Some very ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may have
+belonged to this stage--as the songs of Linus, Ialemus and Hylas. Linus,
+the fair youth killed by dogs, seems to be the spring passing away
+before Sirius. Such songs have been aptly called "songs of the seasons."
+The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now definitively
+personified the powers which they worship. Apollo, Demeter, Dionysus,
+Cybele, have now become to them beings with clearly conceived
+attributes. To this second stage belong the hymns connected with the
+names of the legendary bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who
+are themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses and the
+Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred poetry are not
+only "Thracian"--i.e. on the borders of northern Greece--but also
+"Phrygian" and "Cretan." It belongs, that is, presumably to an age when
+the ancestors of the Hellenes had left the Indo-European home in central
+Asia, but had not yet taken full possession of the lands which were
+afterwards Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others
+were settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through
+the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when the
+Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a religious ritual,
+it may be conjectured that it was not of long duration. Already in the
+_Iliad_ a secular character belongs to the marriage hymn and to the
+dirge for the dead, which in ancient India were chanted by the priest.
+The bent of the Greeks was to claim poetry and music as public joys;
+they would not long have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries.
+And among the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was
+employed were probably war-ballads, sung by minstrels in the houses of
+the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated.
+
+
+  Epos.
+
+Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest epic poetry
+of Greece was constructed. By an "epic" poem the Greeks meant a
+narrative of heroic action in hexameter verse. The term [Greek: epê]
+meant at first simply "verses"; it acquired its special meaning only
+when [Greek: melê], lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished
+from [Greek: epê] verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic
+poetry is the only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about
+700 B.C. The early epos of Greece is represented by the _Iliad_ and the
+_Odyssey_, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by some fragments of the
+"Cyclic" poets.
+
+
+  The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey."
+
+After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian emigrants who
+settled in the north-west of Asia Minor brought with them the warlike
+legends of their chiefs, the Achaean princes of old. These legends lived
+in the ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed southward
+into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually shaped them into higher
+artistic forms. Among the seven places which claimed to be the
+birthplace of Homer, that which has the best title is Smyrna. Homer
+himself is called "son of Meles"--the stream which flowed through old
+Smyrna, on the border between Aeolia and Ionia. The tradition is
+significant in regard to the origin and character of the _Iliad_, for in
+the _Iliad_ we have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. A
+preponderance of evidence is in favour of the view that the _Odyssey_
+also, at least in its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast of
+Asia Minor. According to the Spartan account, Lycurgus was the first to
+bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric poems, which he had
+obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or gild of poets in Samos. A
+better authenticated tradition connects Athens with early attempts to
+preserve the chief poetical treasure of the nation. Peisistratus is said
+to have charged some learned men with the task of collecting all "the
+poems of Homer"; but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended
+under this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission went
+beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be determined what
+exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respectively did for the
+Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought, enacted that the poems should
+be recited from an authorized text ([Greek: ex hypobolês]); Hipparchus,
+that they should be recited in a regular order ([Greek: ex
+hypolêpseôs]). At any rate, we know that in the 6th century B.C. a
+recitation of the poems of Homer was one of the established competitions
+at the Panathenaea, held once in four years. The reciter was called a
+_rhapsodist_--properly one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing chant,
+then an epic poet who chants his own or another's poem. The rhapsodist
+did not, like the early minstrel, use the accompaniment of the harp; he
+gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing in his hand a branch of
+laurel, the symbol of Apollo's inspiration. In the 5th century B.C. we
+find that various Greek cities had their own editions ([Greek: hai
+politikai, kata poleis] or [Greek: ek poleôn ekdoseis]) of the poems,
+for recitation at their festivals. Among these were the editions of
+Massilia, of Chios and of Argolis. There were also editions bearing the
+name of the individual editor ([Greek: hai kat' andra])--the best known
+being that which Aristotle prepared for Alexander. The recension of the
+poems by Aristarchus (156 B.C.) became the standard one, and is probably
+that on which the existing text is based. The oldest Homeric MS. extant,
+Venetus A of the _Iliad_, is of the 10th century; the first printed
+edition of Homer was that edited by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondyles
+(Florence, 1488).
+
+
+  The Homeric question.
+
+The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the _Iliad_ and
+the _Odyssey_ to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom they also
+ascribed some extant hymns, and probably much more besides. Aristotle
+and Aristarchus seem to have put Homer's date about 1044 B.C., Herodotus
+about 850 B.C. It is not till about 170 B.C. that the grammarians
+Hellanicus and Xenon put forward the view that Homer was the author of
+the _Iliad_, but not of the _Odyssey_. Those who followed them in
+assigning different authors to the two poems were called the Separators
+(_Chorizontes_). Aristarchus combated "the paradox of Xenon," and it
+does not seem to have had much acceptance in antiquity. Giovanni
+Battista Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first
+modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition of the
+Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support of his theory
+that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are often mere symbols. F.
+A. Wolf, in the _Prolegomena_ to his edition (1795), was the founder of
+a scientific scepticism. The _Iliad_, he said (for he recognized the
+comparative unity and consistency of the _Odyssey_), was pieced together
+from many small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first
+committed to writing in the time of Peisistratus. This view was in
+harmony with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed
+as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing from
+fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at once found
+enthusiastic adherents. For the course of Homeric controversy since Wolf
+the reader is referred to the article HOMER.
+
+
+  Cyclic poems.
+
+The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems founded on the
+legends of the Trojan war, and intended as introductions or
+continuations to the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. The grammarian Proclus
+(A.D. 140) has preserved the names and subjects of some of these; but
+the fragments are very scanty. The _Nostoi_ or _Homeward Voyages_, by
+Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of ten years between
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_; the _Lay of Telegonus_, by Eugammon of
+Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey to the death of Odysseus by
+the hand of Telegonus, the son whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the
+_Cyprian Lays_ by Stasinus of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or
+Hegesinus) of Salamis or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the _Iliad_;
+the _Aethiopis_ and the _Sack of Troy_, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the
+_Little Iliad_, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it. These
+and many other names of lost epics--some taken also from the Theban
+myths (_Thebaïs_, _Epigoni_, _Oedipodea_)--serve to show how prolific
+was that epic school of which only two great examples remain. The name
+of _epic cycle_ was properly applied to a prose compilation of abstracts
+from these epics, pieced together in the order of the events. The
+compilers were called "cyclic" writers; and the term has now been
+transferred to the epic poets whom they used.[1]
+
+
+  Hesiodic epos.
+
+The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes in the old
+wars. But in Greece proper there arose another school of epos, which
+busied itself with religious lore and ethical precepts, especially in
+relation to the rural life of Boeotia. This school is represented by the
+name of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer in a
+poetical contest of Chalcis in Euboea; and it expresses the fact that,
+to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two contrasted epic
+types. Nothing is certainly known of his date, except that it must have
+been subsequent to the maturity of Ionian epos. He is conjecturally
+placed about 850-800 B.C.; but some would refer him to the early part of
+the 7th century B.C. His home was at Ascra, a village in a valley under
+Helicon, whither his father had migrated from Cyme in Aeolis on the
+coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod's _Works and Days_ we have the earliest
+example of a didactic poem. The seasons and the labours of the Boeotian
+farmer's year are followed by a list of the days which are lucky or
+unlucky for work. The _Theogony_, or "Origin of the Gods," describes
+first how the visible order of nature arose out of chaos; next, how the
+gods were born. Though it never possessed the character of a sacred
+book, it remained a standard authority on the genealogies of the gods.
+So far as a corrupt and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was
+piecing together--not always intelligently--the fragments of a very old
+cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns preserved in
+the temples and the myths which lived in folklore. The epic lay in 480
+lines called the _Shield of Heracles_--partly imitated from the 18th
+book of the _Iliad_--is the work of an author or authors later than
+Hesiod. In the Hesiodic poetry, as represented by the _Works and Days_
+and the _Theogony_, we see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod
+recognizes the existence of [Greek: daimones]--spirits of the departed
+who haunt the earth as the invisible guardians of justice; and he
+connects the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is
+one whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical
+duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic of the
+Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as relics of a sacred
+history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner, as subjects of idealizing
+art. Such titles as the _Maxims of Cheiron_ and the _Lay of Melampus_,
+the seer--lost poems of the Hesiodic school--illustrate its ethical and
+its mystic tendencies.
+
+
+  The Homeric hymns.
+
+The _Homeric Hymns_ are a collection of pieces, some of them very short,
+in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is--_Hymns_ or _Preludes of
+Homer and the Homeridae_. The second of the alternative designations is
+the true one. The pieces are not "hymns" used in formal worship, but
+"preludes" or prefatory addresses ([Greek: prooimia]) with which the
+rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic poetry. The "prelude"
+might be addressed to the presiding god of the festival, or to any local
+deity whom the reciter wished to honour. The pieces (of which there are
+33) range in date perhaps from 750 to 500 B.C. (though some authorities
+assign dates as late as the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.; see ed. by Sikes
+and Allen, e.g. p. 228), and it is probable that the collection was
+formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that of the
+Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces of the
+Hesiodic or Boeotian school. The principal "hymns" are (1) to Apollo
+(generally treated as two or more hymns combined in one); (2) to Hermes;
+(3) to Aphrodite; and (4) to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by
+Thucydides (iii. 104) as Homer's, is of peculiar interest on account of
+the lines describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces
+of a sportive kind passed under Homer's name. The _Margites_--a comic
+poem on one "who knew many things but knew them all badly"--is regarded
+by Aristotle as the earliest germ of comedy, and was possibly as old as
+700 B.C. Only a few lines remain. The _Batracho(myo)machia_, or _Battle
+of the Frogs and Mice_ probably belongs to the decline of Greek
+literature, perhaps to the 2nd century B.C.[2] About 300 verses of it
+are extant.
+
+
+  Transition from epos to elegy.
+
+In the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ the personal opinions or sympathies of
+the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are not declared or even
+hinted. Hesiod, indeed, sometimes gives us a glimpse of his own troubles
+or views. Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet. The
+message which he delivers is not from himself; the truths which he
+imparts have not been discovered by his own search. He is the mouthpiece
+of the Delphian Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his
+utterance, but they do not determine its general complexion. The egotism
+is a single thread; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry was
+in Greece the foundation of all other poetry; for many centuries no
+other kind was generally cultivated, no other could speak to the whole
+people. Politically, the age was monarchical or aristocratic;
+intellectually, it was too simple for the analysis of thought or
+emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the great deeds of their
+ancestors; common men loved to hear of them too, for they had no other
+interest. The mind of Greece found no subject of contemplation so
+attractive as the warlike past of the race, or so useful as that lore
+which experience and tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the
+8th century B.C. the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear.
+Monarchy gave place to oligarchy, and this--often after the intermediate
+phase of a tyrannis--to democracy. Such a change was necessarily
+favourable to the growth of reflection. The private citizen is no longer
+a mere cipher, the Homeric [Greek: tis], a unit in the dim multitude of
+the king-ruled folk; he gains more power of independent action, his
+mental horizon is widened, his life becomes fuller and more interesting.
+He begins to feel the need of expressing the thoughts and feelings that
+are stirred in him. But as yet a prose literature does not exist; the
+new thoughts, like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse.
+The forms of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic.
+
+
+  Elegy.
+
+The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic metre,
+obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as to make it a
+verse of five feet or measures. But the poetical capabilities of the
+elegiac couplet are of a wholly different kind from those of heroic
+verse. [Greek: elegos] seems to be the Greek form of a name given by the
+Carians and Lydians to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by
+the soft music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated
+with Greek elegy. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by this
+very fact. The flute was to the Greeks an Asiatic instrument--string
+instruments were those which they made their own--and it would hardly
+have been wedded by them to a species of poetry which had arisen among
+themselves. The early elegiac poetry of Greece was by no means confined
+to mourning for the dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy,
+were in turn its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of
+the poet and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the
+direct expression of the poet's own thoughts, addressed to a
+sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The second is
+that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it still preserves, on
+the whole, the tone of conversation or of narrative. Greek elegy stops
+short of lyric passion. English elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and
+Pope, or reflective as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type.
+Roman elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on
+the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or sentimental;
+and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early Greek elegists, not
+Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian elegists, such as
+Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced the metre to Latin
+literature, and used it with more fidelity than his followers to its
+genuine Greek inspiration.
+
+
+  Iambic verse.
+
+Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from epos. But
+almost at the same time another species arose which had nothing in
+common with epos, either in form or in spirit. This was the iambic. The
+word [Greek: iambos], _iambus_ ([Greek: iaptein], to dart or shoot) was
+used in reference to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter;
+it was the maiden Iambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from
+the mourning goddess. The iambic metre was at first used for satire; and
+it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed by its earliest
+master of note, Archilochus of Paros (670 B.C.). But it was adapted to
+the expression generally of any pointed thought. Thus it was suitable to
+fables. Elegiac and iambic poetry both belong to the borderland between
+epic and lyric. While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic
+stands nearer to the lyric. Iambic poetry can express the personal
+feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on the other
+hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment or glow. As we
+see in the case of Solon, iambic verse could serve for the expression of
+that deeper thought, that more inward self-communing, for which the
+elegiac form would have been inappropriate.
+
+But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and the iambic,
+belong essentially to the same stage of the literature. They stand
+between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the Aeolians and
+Dorians. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus and Tyrtaeus, use
+elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking hearts. Archilochus too wrote
+warlike elegy, but used it also in other strains, as in lament for the
+dead. The elegy of Mimnermus of Smyrna or Colophon is the plaintive
+farewell of an ease-loving Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In
+Solon elegy takes a higher range; it becomes political and ethical.[3]
+Theognis represents the maturer union of politics with a proverbial
+philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylides of Miletus; an admonitory
+poem extant under his name is probably the work of an Alexandrine Jewish
+Christian. Xenophanes gives a philosophic strain to elegy. With
+Simonides of Ceos it reverts, in an exquisite form, to its earliest
+destination, and becomes the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the
+Persian Wars. Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of
+Amorgus, as by Archilochus, for satire--but satire directed against
+classes rather than persons. Solon's iambics so far preserve the old
+associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or
+controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus was
+another iambic satirist--using the [Greek: skazôn] ("limping") or
+choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an iambus in
+the last place. But it was not until the rise of the Attic drama that
+the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen.
+
+
+  Lyric poetry.
+
+The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final form of
+that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and iambic is still
+incomplete. The lyric expression is deeper and more impassioned. Its
+intimate union with music and with the rhythmical movement of the dance
+gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same time the continuity
+of the music permits pauses to the voice--pauses necessary as reliefs
+after a climax. Before lyric poetry could be effective, it was necessary
+that some progress should have been made in the art of music. The
+instrument used by the Greeks to accompany the voice was the
+four-stringed lyre, and the first great epoch in Greek music was when
+Terpander of Lesbos (660 B.C.), by adding three strings, gave the lyre
+the compass of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to Olympus
+and Thaletas. By 500 B.C. Greek music had probably acquired all the
+powers of expression which the lyric poet could demand. The period of
+Greek lyric poetry may be roughly defined as from 670 to 440 B.C. Two
+different parts in its development were taken by the Aeolians and the
+Dorians.
+
+
+  Aeolian school.
+
+The lyric poetry of the Aeolians--especially of Lesbos--was essentially
+the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually intended for a single
+voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos, in the 7th century B.C., had attained
+some naval and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy and
+democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often driven by revolution
+to exchange their luxurious home-life for the hardships of exile. It is
+such a life of contrasts and excitements, working on a sensuous and
+fiery temperament, that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In
+these glimpses of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state
+and of careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if
+Archilochus is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be
+compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the Aeolian
+lyric is Sappho, the only woman of Greek race who is known to have
+possessed poetical genius of the first order. Intensity and melody are
+the characteristics of the fragments that remain to us.[4] Probably no
+poet ever surpassed Sappho as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely
+subtle harmonies of form and sound. Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, may be
+classed with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his
+work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which he wrote was mainly
+the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns to the gods, from
+love-poems and festive songs. The collection of sixty short pieces which
+passes current under his name date only from the 10th century. The short
+poems which it comprises are of various age and authorship, probably
+ranging in date from c. 200 B.C. to A.D. 400 or 500. They have not the
+pure style, the flexible grace, or the sweetness of the classical
+fragments; but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty.
+
+
+  Dorian school.
+
+The Dorian lyric poetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had more of a
+public than of a personal character, and was for the most part choral.
+Hymns or choruses for the public worship of the gods, and odes to be
+sung at festivals on occasions of public interest, were its
+characteristic forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the
+Dorians in the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government
+and social usage. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not
+present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like those of
+Alcaeus and Sappho, but rather with a series of artists whose names are
+associated with improvements of form. Thus Alcman (the Doric form of
+Alcmaeon; 660 B.C.) is said to have introduced the balanced movement of
+strophe and antistrophe. Stesichorus, of Himera in Sicily, added the
+epode, sung by the chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion
+of Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn
+("dithyramb") in honour of Dionysus, and organized the "cyclic" or
+circular chorus which sang it at the altar. Ibycus of Rhegium (c. 540)
+wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and glowing love-songs in the
+Aeolic style.
+
+
+  Simonides and Pindar.
+
+The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great names,
+Simonides and Pindar. Simonides (556-468) was an Ionian of the island of
+Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by form to the choral Dorian school. Many
+of his subjects were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his
+epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis were celebrated.
+In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted by Ionian genius, and
+Athens--where part of his life was passed--is the point at which they
+meet. Simonides is the first Greek lyrist whose significance is not
+merely Aeolian or Dorian but Panhellenic. The same character belongs
+even more completely to his younger contemporary. Pindar (518-c. 443)
+was born in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian
+elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements meet in
+Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and most exquisite of the
+lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the most fervid and the most
+sublime. His extant fragments[5] represent almost every branch of the
+lyric art. But he is known to us mainly by forty-four _Epinicia_, or
+odes of victory, for the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian
+festivals. The general characteristic of the treatment is that the
+particular victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends
+connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating the
+moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry can be completely
+appreciated apart from the music, now lost, to which it was set.
+Pindar's odes were, further, essentially occasional poems; they abound
+in allusions of which the effect is partly or wholly lost on us; and the
+glories which they celebrate belong to a life which we can but
+imperfectly realize. Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the
+one to whom it is hardest for us to do justice; yet we can at least
+recognize his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his
+soaring flight.
+
+Bacchylides of Ceos (c. 504-430), the youngest of the three great lyric
+poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by scanty fragments until
+the discovery of nineteen poems on an Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They
+consist of thirteen (or fourteen) epinicia, two of which celebrate the
+same victories as two odes of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes
+for the festivals of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable
+information on the court life of the time and legendary history.
+Bacchylides, the little "Cean nightingale," is inferior to his great
+rival Pindar, "the Swan of Dirce," in originality and splendour of
+language, but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent
+[Greek: gnômai] attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind,
+amongst them the emperor Julian.
+
+Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus (d. 357),
+musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven-stringed lyre,
+were increased by the discovery in 1902 of some 250 lines of his "nome"
+the _Persae_, written after the manner of Terpander. The beginning is
+lost; the middle describes the battle of Salamis; the end is of a
+personal nature. The papyrus is the oldest Greek MS. and belongs to the
+age of Alexander the Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and
+the whole is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline.
+
+(B) _The Attic Literature._--The Ionians of Asia Minor, the Aeolians and
+the Dorians had now performed their special parts in the development of
+Greek literature. Epic poetry had interpreted the heroic legends of
+warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished kings and chiefs. Then, as the
+individual life became more and more elegiac and iambic poetry had
+become the social expression of that life in all its varied interests
+and feelings. Lastly, lyric poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold
+need--to be the more intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give
+choral voice, at stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or
+the sorrow, of a city or a race. A new form of poetry was now to be
+created, with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be
+achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and language the
+distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were tempered with some of the
+best qualities of the Dorian stock.
+
+
+  Origin of drama.
+
+  Tragedy.
+
+The drama (q.v.) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the god of wine,
+which were held at intervals from the beginning of winter to the
+beginning of spring. A troop of rustic worshippers would gather around
+the altar of the god, and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his
+victories or sufferings in his progress over the earth. "Tragedy" meant
+"the goat-song," a goat ([Greek: tragos]) being sacrificed to Dionysus
+before the hymn was sung. "Comedy," "the village-song," is the same hymn
+regarded as an occasion for rustic jest. Then the leader of the chorus
+would assume the part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the
+god himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made choral
+response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between the leader
+([Greek: koryphaios], _coryphaeus_) and one chosen member of the chorus,
+hence called "the answerer" ([Greek: hypokritês], _hypocrites_,
+afterwards the ordinary word for "actor"). This last improvement is
+ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 B.C.). The elements of drama
+were now ready. The choral hymn to Dionysus (the "dithyramb") had
+received an artistic form from the Dorians; dialogue, though only
+between the leader of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced
+in Attica. Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some
+events of the Persian Wars; but in his "drama" there was still only one
+actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Phlius, who belonged to the
+same period, developed the satyric drama; Pratinas also wrote tragedies,
+dithyrambs, and _hyporchemata_ (lively choral odes chiefly in honour of
+Apollo).
+
+
+  Aeschylus.
+
+  Sophocles.
+
+  Euripides.
+
+Aeschylus (born 525 B.C.) became the real founder of tragedy by
+introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue independent
+of the chorus. At the same time the choral song--hitherto the principal
+part of the performance--became subordinate to the dialogue; and drama
+was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various improvements of
+detail in costume and the like; and it was early in his career that the
+theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis was commenced--the first
+permanent home of Greek drama, in place of the temporary wooden
+platforms which had hitherto been used. The system of the "trilogy" and
+the "tetralogy" is further ascribed to Aeschylus,--the "trilogy" being
+properly a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the
+_Agamemnon_, _Choëphori_, _Eumenides_, which together form the
+_Oresteia_, or Story of Orestes. The "tetralogy" is such a triad with a
+"satyric drama" added--that is, a drama in which "satyrs," the grotesque
+woodland beings who attended on Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the
+earlier dithyramb from which drama sprang. The _Cyclops_ of Euripides is
+the only extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies
+which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to have
+composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur which is truly
+Homeric; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriotism such as the Persian
+Wars in which he fought might well quicken in a soldier-poet; and,
+pervading all, there is a strain of speculative thought which seeks to
+reconcile the apparent conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the
+underworld by the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity,
+are working out the law of righteousness. Sophocles, who was born thirty
+years after Aeschylus (495 B.C.), is the most perfect artist of the
+ancient drama. No one before or after him gave to Greek tragedy so high
+a degree of ideal beauty, or appreciated so finely the possibilities and
+the limitations of its sphere. He excels especially in drawing
+character; his _Antigone_, his _Ajax_, his _Oedipus_--indeed, all the
+chief persons of his dramas--are typical studies in the great primary
+emotions of human nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by
+adding a third actor; and in one of his later plays, the _Oedipus at
+Colonus_, a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the
+tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 B.C. he was
+the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not only a great
+dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative of the age of
+Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of another kind. He
+was only fifteen years younger than Sophocles; but when he entered on
+his poetical career, the old inspirations of tragedy were already
+failing. Euripides marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and
+is, in fact, the mediator between the classical and the romantic drama.
+The myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt no
+longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself was imbued
+with the new intellectual scepticism of the day; and the speculative
+views which were conflicting in his own mind are reflected in his plays.
+He had much picturesque and pathetic power; he was a master of
+expression; and he shows ingenuity in devising fresh resources for
+tragedy--especially in his management of the choral songs. Aeschylus is
+Panhellenic, Sophocles is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands
+nearer to the modern world than either of his predecessors; and though
+with him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new
+elements of familiar human interest.
+
+In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years
+sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The two
+distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its originality and
+its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the only inventors of
+drama, but they were the first people who made drama a complete work of
+art. And the great tragic poets of Attica were remarkably prolific.
+Aeschylus was the reputed author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 113,
+Euripides of 92; and there were others whose productiveness was equally
+great.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+  Aristophanes.
+
+Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver side, of the
+Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following the gloom of
+winter. The process of growth was nearly the same as in tragedy; but the
+Dorians, not the Ionians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to
+the comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about 580
+B.C., pieces of the kind known as "Megarian farces." Epicharmus of Cos
+(who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form to the Doric farce, and
+treated in burlesque style the stories of gods and heroes, and subjects
+taken from everyday life. His Syracusan contemporary Sophron (c. 450)
+was a famous writer of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The
+most artistic form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in
+Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of Cratinus and
+Eupolis; but from about 470 B.C. there seems to have been a continuous
+succession of comic dramatists, amongst them Plato Comicus, the author
+of 28 comedies, political satires and parodies after the style of the
+Middle Comedy. Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 B.C.,
+and retained his popularity for about forty years. He presents a perhaps
+unique union of bold fancy, exquisite humour, critical acumen and
+lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may be divided into three
+groups, according as the licence of political satire becomes more and
+more restricted. In the _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_ and
+_Peace_ (425-421) the poet uses unrestrained freedom. In the _Birds_,
+_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusae_ and _Frogs_ (414-405) a greater
+reserve may be perceived. Lastly, in the _Ecclesiazusae_ and the
+_Plutus_ (392-388) personal satire is almost wholly avoided. The same
+general tendency continued. The so-called "Middle Comedy" (390-320)
+represents the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to
+satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Antiphanes
+of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The "New Comedy" (320-250) resembled the
+modern "comedy of manners."
+
+Its chief representative was Menander (342-291), the author of 105
+comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of these, of
+sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action. His plays
+were produced on the stage as late as the time of Plutarch, and his
+[Greek: gnômai], distinguished by worldly wisdom, were issued in the
+form of anthologies, which enjoyed great popularity. Other prominent
+writers of this class were Diphilus, Philemon, Posidippus and
+Apollodorus of Carystus. About 330 B.C. Rhinthon of Tarentum revived the
+old Doric farce in his _Hilarotragoediae_ or travesties of tragic
+stories. These successive periods cannot be sharply or precisely marked
+off. The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was simply
+the reflection of the change which passed over the political and social
+life of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the earlier plays of
+Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful engine of public criticism
+that has ever existed in any community. Unsparing personality was its
+essence. The comic poet used this recognized right on an occasion at
+once festive and sacred, in a society where every man of any note was
+known by name and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a
+policy or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be
+required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or in the courts
+of law.
+
+
+  Literary prose.
+
+The development of Greek poetry had been completed before a prose
+literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in extant Greek prose
+literature is that of Herodotus; and, when he wrote, the Attic drama had
+already passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of prose
+before Herodotus; but there had not been, in the proper sense of the
+term, a prose literature. The causes of this comparatively late origin
+of Greek literary prose are independent of the question as to the time
+at which the art of writing began to be generally used for literary
+purposes. Epic poetry exercised for a very long period a sovereign spell
+over the Greek mind. In it was deposited all that the race possessed of
+history, theology, philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection
+had begun, elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic
+verse, the vehicle of much which among other races would have been
+committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially poetical.
+A political cause worked in the same direction. In the Eastern
+monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the royal records
+afforded the elements of history from a remote date. The Greek nation
+was broken up into small states, each busied with its own affairs and
+its own men. It was the collision between the Greek and the barbarian
+world which first provided a national subject for a Greek historian. The
+work of Herodotus, in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous
+to the _Iliad_ in its relation to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest
+work of art, and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp.
+
+
+  Early prose writers.
+
+The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original may be inferred
+from what is known of earlier prose-writers. For about a century before
+Herodotus there had been a series of writers in philosophy, mythology,
+geography and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of the
+philosophical writers were Pherecydes of Syros (550 B.C.) and the Ionian
+Anaximenes and Anaximander. It is doubtful whether Cadmus of Miletus,
+supposed to have been the first prose writer, was an historical
+personage. The Ionian writers, especially called [Greek: logographoi],
+"narrators in prose" (as distinguished from [Greek: epopoioi], makers of
+verse), were those who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or
+who described foreign countries, their physical features, usages and
+traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 B.C.) is the best-known
+representative of the _logographi_ in both these branches. Hellanicus of
+Mytilene (450 B.C.), among whose works was a history of Attica, appears
+to have made a nearer approach to the character of a systematic
+historian. Other logographi were Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of
+Leros, who wrote on the myths of early Attica; Hippys of Rhegium, the
+oldest writer on Italy and Sicily; and Acusilaus of Argos in Boeotia,
+author of genealogies (see LOGOGRAPHI, and GREECE: _Ancient History_,
+"Authorities").
+
+
+  Herodotus.
+
+Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.; and his history was probably not
+completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.). His
+subject is the struggle between Greece and Asia, which he deduces from
+the legendary rape of the Argive Io by Phoenicians, and traces down to
+the final victory of the Greeks over the invading host of Xerxes. His
+literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers who had
+preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First, though he draws a line
+between the mythological and the historical age, he still holds that
+myths, as such, are worthy to be reported, and that in certain cases it
+is part of his duty to report them. Secondly, he follows the example of
+such writers as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features
+of countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or
+intelligent traveller with his proper part as historian. But when we
+turn from these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work,
+Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose method
+were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various as are the
+subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and complete; and
+the unity is due to this, that Herodotus refers all events of human
+history to the principle of divine Nemesis. If Sophocles had told the
+story of Oedipus in the _Oedipus Tyrannus_ alone, and had not added to
+it the _Oedipus at Colonus_, it would have been comparable to the story
+of Xerxes as told by Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the
+largeness of his historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lack
+of insight into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in
+regard to the history of political institutions. Both his strength and
+his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with that other
+historian who was strictly his contemporary and who yet seems divided
+from him by centuries.
+
+
+  Thucydides.
+
+Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus; but the
+intellectual space between the men is so great that they seem to belong
+to different ages. Herodotus is the first artist in historical writing;
+Thucydides is the first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of
+causation--human agency, represented by the good or bad qualities of
+men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance of the gods on
+behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his attention on the human
+agency (without, however, denying the other), and strives to trace its
+exact course. The subject of Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In
+resolving to write its history, he was moved, he says, by these
+considerations. It was probably the greatest movement which had ever
+affected Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary
+to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was likely to
+have a general value, over and above its particular interest as a
+record, seeing that the political future was likely to resemble the
+political past. This is what Thucydides means when he calls his work "a
+possession for ever." The speeches which he ascribes to the persons of
+the history are, as regards form, his own essays in rhetoric of the
+school to which Antiphon belongs. As regards matter, they are always so
+far dramatic that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived
+possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a rule, from
+moral comment; but he tells his story as no one could have told it who
+did not profoundly feel its tragic force; and his general claim to the
+merit of impartiality is not invalidated by the possible
+exceptions--difficult to estimate--in the cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus.
+
+
+  Xenophon.
+
+Strong as is the contrast between Herodotus and Thucydides, their works
+have yet a character which distinguish both alike from the historical
+work of Xenophon in the _Anabasis_ and the _Hellenica_. Herodotus gives
+us a vivid drama with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great
+chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which are at work
+throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific unity. Xenophon has
+not the grasp either of the dramatist or of the philosopher. His work
+does not possess the higher unity either of art or of science. The true
+distinction of Xenophon consists in his thorough combination of the
+practical with the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier,
+who had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could make a
+story both clear and lively. But the several parts of the story are not
+grouped around any central idea, such as a divine Nemesis is for
+Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds in the nature of political man.
+The seven books of the _Hellenica_ form a supplement to the history of
+Thucydides, beginning in 411 and going down to 362 B.C. The chief blot
+on the _Hellenica_ is the author's partiality to Sparta, and in
+particular to Agesilaus. Some of the greatest achievements of
+Epaminondas and Pelopidas are passed over in silence. On the whole,
+Xenophon is perhaps seen at his best in his narrative of the _Retreat of
+the Ten Thousand_--a subject which exactly suits him. The _Cyropaedeia_
+is a romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages.
+_The Recollections of Socrates_, on the other hand, derive their
+principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his minor pieces
+on various subjects Xenophon appears as the earliest essayist. It may be
+noted that one of the essays erroneously ascribed to him--that _On the
+Athenian Polity_--is probably the oldest specimen in existence of
+literary Attic prose.
+
+His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse wrote
+histories of Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the 4th century a
+number of histories were compiled by literary men of little practical
+knowledge, who had been trained in the rhetorical schools. Such were
+Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and
+the writers of _Atthides_ (chronicles of Attic history), the chief of
+whom were Androtion and Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the
+author of a great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning
+by Olympiads.
+
+
+  Oratory.
+
+The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the principal
+forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly in the Attic orators.
+Every Athenian citizen who aspired to take part in the affairs of the
+city, or even to be qualified for self-defence before a law-court,
+required to have some degree of skill in public speaking; and an
+Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political or
+forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art. Hence the
+speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a student of finished
+expression; and oratory had a more direct influence on the general
+structure of literary prose than has ever perhaps been the case
+elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took its rise in Sicily, where Corax of
+Syracuse (466 B.C.) devised his _Art of Words_ to assist those who were
+pleading before the law-courts; and it was brought to Athens by his
+disciple Tisias. The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed
+attention, though in a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of
+grammar and logic; and Gorgias of Leontini--whose declamation, however
+turgid, must have been striking--gave an impulse at Athens to the taste
+for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy.
+
+
+  The Attic orators.
+
+  Demosthenes.
+
+Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called the grand,
+style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are a grave, dignified
+movement, a frequent emphasis on verbal contrasts, and a certain austere
+elevation. The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but he has
+graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the "plain style," breaks
+through the rigid mannerism of the elder school, and uses the language
+of daily life with an ease and grace which, though the result of study,
+do not betray their art. He is, in his own way, the canon of an Attic
+style; and his speeches, written for others, exhibit also a high degree
+of dramatic skill. Isocrates, whose manner may be regarded as
+intermediate between that of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for
+readers rather than for hearers. The type of literary prose which he
+founded is distinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by
+the temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle of the 4th
+century B.C. the Isocratic style of prose became general in Greek
+literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which it became more florid,
+it passed to Cicero, and through him it has helped to shape the literary
+prose of the modern world. The speeches of Isaeus in will-cases are
+interesting,--apart from their bearing on Attic life,--because in them
+we see, as Dionysius says, "the seeds and the beginnings" of that
+technical mastery in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to
+perfection. Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of
+Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of Greek prose not only in
+power but in variety; his political speeches, his orations in public or
+private causes, show his consummate and versatile command over all the
+resources of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is
+completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are
+united. The modern world can more easily appreciate Demosthenes as a
+great natural orator than as an elaborate artist. But, in order to
+apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose, we must remember that
+the ancients felt him to be both; and that he was even reproached by
+detractors with excessive study of effect. Aeschines is the most
+theatrical of the Greek orators; he is vehement, and often brilliant,
+but seldom persuasive. Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the
+most effective; he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a
+fire and a pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches,
+found in Egypt between 1847 and 1890, are extant. The one oration of
+Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and stately, reminding us both
+of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus was merely a bad imitator of
+Demosthenes. There seems more reason to regret that Demades is not
+represented by larger fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be
+dated from Demetrius of Phalerum (318 B.C.), the pupil of Aristotle, and
+the first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginary
+subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero names him as the
+first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence, "preferring his
+own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his predecessors." He forms a
+connecting link between Athens and Alexandria, where he found refuge
+after his downfall and promoted the foundation of the famous library.
+
+In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and island
+settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a new, florid style
+of oration arose, called the "Asiatic," which owed its origin to
+Hegesias of Magnesia (c. 250 B.C.).
+
+
+  Philosophical prose--Plato and Aristotle.
+
+The place of Plato in the history of Greek literature is as unique as
+his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary genius shown in
+the dialogues is many-sided: it includes dramatic power, remarkable
+skill in parody, a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command
+over the finer tones of language. In passages of continuous exposition,
+where the argument rises into the higher regions of discussion, Plato's
+prose takes a more decidedly poetical colouring--never florid or
+sentimental, however, but lofty and austere. In Plato's later
+works--such, for instance, as the _Laws_, _Timaeus_, _Critias_--we can
+perceive that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary
+prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle's influence on
+the form of Attic prose literature would probably have been considerable
+if his _Rhetoric_ had been published while Attic oratory had still a
+vigorous life before it. But in this, as in other departments of mental
+effort, it was Aristotle's lot to set in order what the Greek intellect
+had done in that creative period which had now come to an end. His own
+chief contribution to the original achievements of the race was the most
+fitting one that could have been made by him in whose lifetime they were
+closed. He bequeathed an instrument by which analysis could be carried
+further, he founded a science of reasoning, and left those who followed
+him to apply it in all those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped
+out.[6] Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens
+the new age of research and scientific classification with his extant
+works on botany, but is better known to modern readers by his lively
+_Characters_, the prototypes of such sketches in English literature as
+those of Hall, Overbury and Earle.
+
+
+  Character of the creative age.
+
+(C) _The Literature of the Decadence._--The period of decadence in Greek
+literature begins with the extinction of free political life in the
+Greek cities. So long as the Greek commonwealths were independent and
+vigorous, Greek life rested on the identity of the man with the citizen.
+The city state was the highest unit of social organization; the whole
+training and character of the man were viewed relatively to his
+membership of the city. The market-place, the assembly, the theatre were
+places of frequent meeting, where the sense of citizenship was
+quickened, where common standards of opinion or feeling were formed.
+Poetry, music, sculpture, literature, art, in all their forms, were
+matters of public interest. Every citizen had some degree of
+acquaintance with them, and was in some measure capable of judging them.
+The poet and the musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live
+a life of studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were,
+as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their time.
+Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concentrated and ennobled
+expression of their political existence. Aeschylus breathed into tragedy
+the inspiration of one who had himself fought the great fight of
+national liberation. Sophocles was the colleague of Pericles in a high
+military command. Thucydides describes the operations of the
+Peloponnesian War with the practical knowledge of one who had been in
+charge of a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere
+visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more real and
+vivid, perceptions which had been quickened in them by a living
+communion with the Athenian spirit, by a daily contemplation of Athenian
+greatness, in the theatre where tragic poets idealized the legends of
+the past, in the ecclesia where every citizen had his vote on the policy
+of the state, or in that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet
+exempt from vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles.
+The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was such as
+was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions under which they
+arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a literary clique or of a
+social caste. The influence of jealousy or malevolence, and the more
+fatal influence of affectation, had little power to affect the verdict.
+The verdict was pronounced by the whole body of the citizens. The
+success or failure of a tragedy was decided, not by the minor
+circumstance that it gained the first or second prize, but by the
+collective opinion of the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus.
+A work of architecture or sculpture was approved or condemned, not by
+the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but by the
+general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each of whom was in
+some degree qualified by education and by habit to form an independent
+estimate. The artist worked for all his fellow-citizens, and knew that
+he would be judged by all. The soul of his work was the fresh and living
+inspiration of nature; it was the ennobled expression of his own life;
+and the public opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and
+sincere.
+
+
+  The transition to Hellenism.
+
+Philip of Macedon did not take away the municipal independence of the
+Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the old political life. The
+Athenian poet, historian, artist might still do good work, but he could
+never again have that which used to be the very mainspring of all such
+activity--the daily experience and consciousness of participation in the
+affairs of an independent state. He could no longer breathe the
+invigorating air of constitutional freedom, or of the social intercourse
+to which that freedom lent dignity as well as grace. Then came
+Alexander's conquests; Greek civilization was diffused over Asia and the
+East by means of Greek colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements were
+mingled. The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which
+Alexander's empire broke up, could not be animated by the spirit of the
+Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom. But the
+externals of Greek life were there--the temples, the statues, the
+theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals were conducted in the
+Greek manner. In private life Greek usages prevailed. Greek was the
+language most used; Greek books were in demand. The mixture of races
+would always in some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a
+community from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility with which
+Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different places. Syria,
+for example, was rapidly and completely Hellenized. Judaea resisted the
+process to the last. In Egypt a Greek aristocracy of office, birth and
+intellect existed side by side with a distinct native life. But, viewed
+in its broadest aspect, this new civilization may be called Hellenism.
+Hellenism (q.v.) means the adoption of Hellenic ways; and it is properly
+applied to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external things,
+pervading people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. What
+the Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature
+was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic form
+without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was creative; the
+literature of Hellenism is derivative.
+
+
+  The Alexandrian period.
+
+  Poetry.
+
+  Erudition and science.
+
+  Summary.
+
+Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from Alexander
+to Augustus. Its "Museum," or college, and its library, both founded by
+the first Ptolemy (Soter), gave it such attractions for learned men as
+no other city could rival. The labours of research or arrangement are
+those which characterize the Alexandrian period. Even in its poetry
+spontaneous motive was replaced by erudite skill, as in the hymns,
+epigrams and elegies of Callimachus, in the enigmatic verses of
+Lycophron, in the highly finished epic of Apollonius Rhodius, and in the
+versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and Nicander. The
+mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Cos (c. 200 B.C.), written in the
+Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent scenes from everyday life.
+The papyrus (published in 1891) contains seven complete poems and
+fragments of an eighth. They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd
+observations, but at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the
+age--Dorian by origin--was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to
+please at all, must have its spring in the contemplation of nature.
+Theocritus is not exempt from the artificialism of the Hellenizing
+literature; but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place
+in the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of
+Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of their
+bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of Asclepius at
+Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter poems and a paean (in
+Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by a local poet named Isyllus, who
+flourished about 280. Tragedy was represented by the poets known as the
+Alexandrian _Pleiad_. But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this
+period of Greek literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition
+and science. Aristarchus (156 B.C.), the greatest in a long line of
+Alexandrian critics, set the example of a more thorough method in
+revising and interpreting the ancient texts, and may in this sense be
+said to have become the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical
+studies of Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus,
+gradually formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek
+grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166), a pupil of
+Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which employed the
+learned of Alexandria--where the Septuagint version of the Old Testament
+was begun, probably about 300-250 B.C. Chronology was treated
+scientifically by Eratosthenes, and was combined with history by Manetho
+in his chronicles of Egypt, and by Berossus in his chronicles of
+Chaldaea. Euclid was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter.
+Herophilus and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and
+anatomists, and the authors of several medical works. The general
+results of the Alexandrian period might perhaps be stated thus.
+Alexandria produced a few eminent men of science, some learned poets (in
+a few cases, of great literary merit) and many able scholars. The
+preservation of the best Greek literature was due chiefly to the
+unremitting care of the Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it
+partly compensated for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in
+literature and art, and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form
+as free as possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the
+patronage of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of
+success as was possible under the existing conditions; and it was
+afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true literary
+tradition might die out of the world.
+
+
+  The Graeco-Roman period.
+
+The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may be dated from
+the Roman subjugation of Greece. "Greece made a captive of the rough
+conqueror," but it did not follow from this intellectual conquest that
+Athens became once more the intellectual centre of the world. Under the
+empire, indeed, the university of Athens long enjoyed a pre-eminent
+reputation. But Rome gradually became the point to which the greatest
+workers in every kind were drawn. Greek literature had already made a
+home there before the close of the 2nd century B.C. Sulla brought a
+Greek library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus were
+indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The power of
+speaking and writing the Greek language became an indispensable
+accomplishment for highly educated Romans. The library planned by Julius
+Caesar and founded by Augustus had two principal departments, one for
+Latin, the other for Greek works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and
+Trajan contributed to enlarge the collection. Rome became more and more
+the rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but
+also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found
+appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especially in its higher
+forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and philosophy, were all
+cultivated by Greek writers at Rome.
+
+
+  First part: 146-30 B.C.
+
+The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined as extending
+from 146 B.C. to the close of the Roman republic. At its commencement
+stands the name of one who had more real affinity than any of his
+contemporaries with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the
+same time, saw most clearly how the empire of the world was passing to
+Rome. The subject of Polybius (c. 205-120) was the history of Roman
+conquest from 264 to 146 B.C. His style, plain and straightforward, is
+free from the florid rhetoric of the time. But the distinction of
+Polybius is that he is the last Greek writer who in some measure retains
+the spirit of the old citizen-life. He chose his subject, not because it
+gave scope to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that
+which prompted the history of Thucydides--namely, because, as a Greek
+citizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those wars which
+had given Rome the mastery of the world. The chief historical work which
+the following century produced--the _Universal History_ of Diodorus
+Siculus (fl. c. 50 B.C.)--resembled that of Polybius in recognizing Rome
+as the political centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier
+series of events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new age
+in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical knowledge and
+insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, but only the
+diligence, and usually the dullness, of a laborious compiler.
+
+
+  Second part: 30 B.C.-A.D. 529.
+
+The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus to Justinian,
+was enormously prolific. The area over which the Greek language was
+diffused--either as a medium of intercourse or as an established branch
+of the higher education--was co-extensive with the empire itself. An
+immense store of materials had now been accumulated, on which critics,
+commentators, compilers, imitators, were employed with incessant
+industry. In very many of its forms, the work of composition or
+adaptation had been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one
+characteristic which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these
+five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in
+matter. Lucian is, in his way, a rare exception; and his great
+popularity--he is the only Greek writer of this period, except Plutarch,
+who has been widely popular--illustrates the flatness of the arid level
+above which he stands out. The sustained abundance of literary
+production under the empire was partly due to the fact that there was no
+open political career. Never, probably, was literature so important as a
+resource for educated men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or
+obsequious audiences swelled the number of writers whose taste had been
+cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought not to
+write.
+
+
+  Departments of prose literature.
+
+In the manifold prose work of this period, four principal departments
+may be distinguished. (1) _History_, with _Biography_, and _Geography_.
+History is represented by Dionysius of Halicarnassus--also memorable for
+his criticisms on the orators and his effort to revive a true standard
+of Attic prose--by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian, Appian, Herodian,
+Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the foremost names are Plutarch,
+Diogenes Laërtius and Philostratus; in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaea,
+Strabo, Ptolemy and Pausanias. (2) _Erudition_ and _Science_. The
+learned labours of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their
+various fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works as the
+lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocration and Hesychius, Hephaestion's
+treatise on metre, and Herodian's system of accentuation; the
+commentaries of Galen on Plato and on Hippocrates; the learned
+miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian and Stobaeus; and the _Stratagems_ of
+Polyaenus. (3) _Rhetoric_ and _Belles-Lettres_. The most popular writers
+on the theory of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hermogenes, Aphthonius and
+Cassius Longinus--the last the reputed author of the essay _On
+Sublimity_. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric--now
+distinctively called "Sophists," or rhetoricians--were Dio Chrysostom,
+Aelius Aristides, Themistius, Himerius, Libanius and Herodes Atticus.
+Akin to the rhetorical exercises were various forms of ornamental or
+imaginative prose--dialogues, letters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his
+dialogues, exhibits more of the classical style and of the classical
+spirit than any writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable
+affinity with the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His
+Attic prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that
+had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was the author
+both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief of the Greek
+novelists (the forerunner of whom was Aristides of Miletus, c. 100 B.C.,
+in his _Milesian Tales_) are Xenophon of Ephesus and Longus,
+representing a purely Greek type of romance, and Heliodorus--with his
+imitators Achilles Tatius and Chariton--representing a school influenced
+by Oriental fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek,
+usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron's fictitious
+_Letters_--founded largely on the New Comedy of Athens--represent the
+same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phalaris,
+Aristaenetus and similar collections. (4) _Philosophy_ is represented
+chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of whom the Stoic
+element is the prevailing one; by the Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus,
+Porphyry, Iamblichus; and by Proclus, of that eclectic school which
+arose at Athens in the 5th century A.D.
+
+
+  Verse.
+
+  The Anthology.
+
+The Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high merit. Babrius
+versified the Aesopic _Fables_; Oppian (or two poets of this name) wrote
+didactic poems on fishing and hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smyrnaeus made
+elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired some poems
+and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called _Sibylline Oracles_, in
+hexameter verse, range in date from about 170 B.C. to A.D. 700, and are
+partly the expression of the Jewish longings for the restoration of
+Israel, partly predictions of the triumph of Christianity. By far the
+most pleasing compositions in verse which have come to us from this age
+are some of the short poems in the Greek Anthology, which includes some
+pieces as early as the beginning of the 5th century B.C. and some as
+late as the 6th century of the Christian era.
+
+The 4th century may be said to mark the beginning of the last stage in
+the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point the decline was rapid
+and nearly continuous. The attitude of the church towards it was no
+longer that which had been held by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin
+Martyr or by Origen. There was now a Christian Greek literature, and a
+Christian Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. The laity became more
+and more estranged from the Greek literature--however intrinsically pure
+and noble--of the pagan past. At the same time the Greek language--which
+had maintained its purity in Italian seats--was becoming corrupted in
+the new Greek Rome of the East. In A.D. 529 Justinian put forth an edict
+by which the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The act
+had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard against the
+supposition that such assumed landmarks in political or literary history
+always mark a definite transition from one order of things to another.
+But it is practically convenient, or necessary, to use such landmarks.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first attempt at a connected history of Greek
+  literature was the monumental and still indispensable work of J. A.
+  Fabricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols. by G. C. Harless,
+  1790-1809); this was followed by F. Schöll's _Hist. de la littérature
+  grecque_ (1813). Both these works begin with the earliest times and go
+  down to the latest period of the Byzantine empire. Of more modern and
+  recent works the following may be mentioned: G. Bernhardy, _Grundriss
+  der griechischen Literatur_ (1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880; 5th ed. of
+  vol. i., by R. Volkmann, 1892), chiefly confined to the poets; C. O.
+  Müller, _History of Greek Literature_ (unfinished), written for the
+  London Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and published in
+  English in 1840, the translation being by G. Cornewall Lewis and J. W.
+  Donaldson (the latter completed the work to the end of the Byzantine
+  period for the edition of 1858; the German text was published by E.
+  Müller in 1841; 4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882-1884); W. Mure, _Critical
+  History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece_ (1850-1857);
+  T. Bergk, _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (1872-1894, vols. 2, 3,
+  ed. G. Hinrichs, vol. 4 by R. Peppmüller) containing epos, lyric,
+  drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose; R. Nicolai,
+  _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (2nd ed., 1873-1878), useful for
+  bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J. P. Mahaffy,
+  _Hist. of Classical Greek Literature_ (4th ed., 1903); A. and M.
+  Croiset, _Hist. de la littérature grecque_ (1887-1899, 2nd ed. 1896);
+  W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur bis auf die Zeit
+  Justinians_ (4th ed., 1905; 5th ed., pt. i., by O. Stählin and W.
+  Schmid, 1908), by far the most serviceable handbook for the student.
+  F. Susemihl's _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der
+  Alexandrinerzeit_ (1891-1892) is especially valuable for its notes. Of
+  smaller manuals the following will be found most useful: G. G. Murray,
+  _History of Ancient Greek Literature_ (1897); F. B. Jevons, _History
+  of Greek Literature_ (3rd ed., 1900) down to the time of Demosthenes;
+  A. and M. Croiset, _Manuel d'hist. de la littérature grecque_ (1900;
+  Eng. trans., by G. F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904); also the general
+  sketches by U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff in _Die Kultur der
+  Gegenwart_, i. 8 (1905), by A. Gercke in the _Sammlung Göschen_
+  (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1905), and by R. C. Jebb in _Companion to Greek
+  Studies_ (Cambridge, 1905). Other works generally connected with the
+  subject are: E. Hübner, _Bibliographie der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_ (2nd ed., 1889), pp. 161-17l; W. Engelmann,
+  _Bibliotheca scriptorum classicorum_ (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880); J.
+  B. Mayor, _Guide to the Choice of Classical Books_ (1896), p. 86; W.
+  Kroll, _Die Altertumswissenschaft im letzten Vierteljahrhundert_
+  1875-1900 (1905), p. 465 foll.; J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical
+  Scholarship_ (1906-1908); "Bibliotheca philologica classica," in C.
+  Bursian's _Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie
+  der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (1894--).     (R. C. J.; X.)
+
+
+II. BYZANTINE LITERATURE
+
+  Definition.
+
+By "Byzantine literature" is generally meant the literature, written in
+Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no justification
+whatever for the inclusion of Latin works of the time of the East Roman
+empire. The close of the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year
+1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the peculiar
+culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an end. It is only
+as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period that any doubts exist.
+There are no sufficient grounds for dating it from Justinian, as was
+formerly often done. In surveying the whole development of the
+political, ecclesiastical and literary life and of the general culture
+of the Roman empire, and particularly of its eastern portion, we arrive,
+on the contrary, at the conclusion that the actual date of the beginning
+of this new era--i.e. the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to
+the Pagan-Greek and Pagan-Roman--falls within the reign of Constantine
+the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Constantinople
+(which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the establishment of the
+Christian faith as the state religion, Constantine finally broke with
+the Roman-Pagan tradition, and laid the foundation of the
+Christian-Byzantine period of development. Moreover, in the department
+of language, so closely allied with that of literature, the 4th century
+marks a new epoch. About this time occurred the final disappearance of a
+characteristic of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry
+and in rhythmic prose, the difference of "quantity." Its place was
+henceforth taken by the accent, which became a determining principle in
+poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the prose sentence.
+Thus the transition from the old musical language to a modern
+conversational idiom was complete.
+
+
+  Transitional period.
+
+The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the beginning of a
+new period in the most important spheres of national life, but it is
+equally certain that in most of them ancient tradition long continued to
+exercise an influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less common in
+the general culture and literary life of the world than in its political
+or ecclesiastical development. This is true of the transition from pagan
+antiquity to the Christian middle ages. Many centuries passed before the
+final victory of the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public
+and private intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of
+paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The last
+great educational establishment which rested upon pagan foundations--the
+university of Athens--was not abolished till A.D. 529. The Hellenizing
+of the seat of empire and of the state, which was essential to the
+independent development of Byzantine literature, proceeds yet more
+slowly. The first purely _Greek_ emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but
+the complete Hellenizing of the character of the state had not been
+accomplished until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the
+period from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between
+ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with the rise
+of a new power in the world's history--Islam. But though, in this
+transitional period, the old and the new elements are both to a large
+extent present and are often inextricably interwoven, yet it is certain
+that the new elements are, both as regards their essential force and
+their influence upon the succeeding period, of infinitely greater moment
+than the decrepit and mostly artificial survivals of the antique.
+
+
+  Mixed character of Byzantine culture.
+
+In order to estimate rightly the character of Byzantine literature and
+its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction to ancient Greek, it
+is imperative to examine the great difference between the civilizations
+that produced them. The Byzantine did not possess the homogeneous,
+organically constructed system of the ancient civilization, but was the
+outcome of an amalgamation of which Hellenism formed the basis. For,
+although the Latin character of the empire was at first completely
+retained, even after its final division in 395, yet the dominant
+position of Greek in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing
+of the state. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the
+codification, in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565).
+But it is significant that the _Novels_ of Justinian were composed
+partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period. Of the
+emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of course were
+foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others; but in language and
+education they were all Greeks. In the last five centuries of the
+empire, under the Comneni and the Palaeologi, court and state are purely
+Greek.
+
+In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern empire, a
+linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the foundation of the
+old Latin _Imperium Romanum_ never existed there. In the West, with the
+expansion of Rome's political supremacy, the Latin language and Latin
+culture were everywhere introduced--first into the non-Latin provinces
+of Italy, later into Spain, Gaul and North Africa, and at last even into
+certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so thorough
+that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries affected by it, was
+the parent of new and vigorous nationalities, the French, the Spaniards,
+the Portuguese and the Rumanians. Only in Africa did "Latinism" fail to
+take root permanently. From the 6th century that province relapsed into
+the hands of the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both
+the Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength during
+the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with Christianity,
+swept away without leaving a trace behind. It might have been expected
+that the Hellenizing of the political system of the Eastern empire would
+have likewise entailed the Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the
+empire. Such, however, was not the case; for all the conditions
+precedent to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions of
+the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually incorporated
+into the state from a Greek centre, as were the provinces in the West
+from a Latin centre. They had been acquired in the old period of the
+homogeneous Latin _Imperium_. In the centuries immediately following the
+division of the empire, the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces
+could not take root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least
+in principle, as the state language. During the later centuries, in the
+non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive inroads of
+barbarians began on all sides; and the government was too much occupied
+with the all but impossible task of preserving the political unity of
+the empire to entertain seriously the wider aim of an assimilation of
+language and culture. Moreover, the Greeks did not possess that enormous
+political energy and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate
+foreign races; and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental,
+mostly Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as
+were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their
+impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly
+judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even the Romans
+were within a short period driven back and overwhelmed by the North
+African Semites who for centuries had been subjected to an apparently
+thorough process of Latinization.
+
+The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how little indeed
+it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the fact that, after
+the violent Arab invasion in the south-east corner of the Mediterranean,
+the Copts and Syrians were able to retain their language and their
+national characteristics, while Greek culture almost completely
+disappeared. The one great instance of assimilation of foreign
+nationalities by the Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from
+the 6th century had migrated into central Greece and the Peloponnese.
+All other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether for
+longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern empire
+and its civilization--such as the Copts, Syrians, Armenians, Georgians,
+Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians--one and all retained their
+nationality and language. The complete Latinizing of the West has,
+accordingly, no counterpart in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This
+is clearly shown during the Byzantine period in the progress of
+Christianity. Everywhere in the West, even among the non-Romanized
+Anglo-Saxons, Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the
+church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical system;
+down to the Reformation the church remained a complete organic unity. In
+the East, at the earliest period of its conversion to Christianity,
+several foreign tongues competed with Greek, i.e. Syrian, Coptic,
+Armenian, Georgian, Gothic, Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books
+were translated into these languages and the church services were held
+in them and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic
+division in the church was the formation of various sects and national
+churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites, the
+Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national churches). The
+Church of the West was characterized by uniformity in language and in
+constitution. In the Eastern Church parallel to the multiplicity of
+languages developed also a corresponding variety of doctrine and
+constitution.
+
+
+  Roman influence.
+
+Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek, and Byzantine
+literature is attached by countless threads to ancient Greek literature,
+yet the Roman element forms a very essential part of it. The whole
+political character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its Greek form
+and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and administration, the
+military and naval traditions, are old Roman work, and as such, apart
+from immaterial alterations, they continued to exist and operate, even
+when the state in head and limbs had become Greek. It is strange,
+indeed, how strong was the political conception of the Roman state
+(_Staatsgedanke_), and with what tenacity it held its own, even under
+the most adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The
+Greeks even adopted the name "Romans," which gradually became so closely
+identified with them as to supersede the name "Hellenes"; and thus a
+political was gradually converted into an ethnographical and linguistic
+designation. _Rhomaioi_ was the most common popular term for Greeks
+during the Turkish period, and remains so still. The old glorious name
+"Hellene" was used under the empire and even during the middle ages in a
+contemptuous sense--"Heathen"--and has only in quite modern times, on
+the formation of the kingdom of "Hellas," been artificially revived. The
+vast organization of the Roman political system could not but exercise
+in various ways a profound influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it
+often seemed as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved
+the unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The Roman
+influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language, Greek of the
+Byzantine and modern period is rich in Latin terms for conceptions
+connected with the departments of justice, administration and the
+imperial court. In literature such "barbarisms" were avoided as far as
+possible, and were replaced by Greek periphrases.
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+  The Orient.
+
+But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought on the old
+Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet the transition was, in
+fact, by no means so abrupt as one might be led to believe by comparing
+the Pagan-Hellenic culture of Plato's day with the Christian-Byzantine
+of the time of Justinian. For the path had been most effectually
+prepared for the new religion by the crumbling away of the ancient
+belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine of the Stoics, and, finally,
+by the mystic intellectual tendencies of Neoplatonism. Moreover, in many
+respects Christianity met paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular
+usages and ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan
+literature. The whole educational system especially, even in Christian
+times, was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the
+methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the influences of
+Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of importance in
+developing the Byzantine civilization, and in lending Byzantine
+literature its distinctive character. Much that was oriental in the
+Eastern empire dates back to ancient times, notably to the period of
+Alexander the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had at that
+period Hellenized the East to the widest extent, and had already founded
+everywhere flourishing cities, they themselves fell under the manifold
+influences of the soil they occupied. In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in
+Asia Minor as far inland as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental
+characteristics were often blended. In respect of the wealth and the
+long duration of its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It
+covers a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of
+Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (A.D. 643). The
+real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during this long period can be
+properly estimated only if a practical attempt be made to eliminate from
+the history of Greek literature and science in pagan and in Christian
+times all that owed its origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of
+Egypt proved itself especially productive of Greek literature under the
+Cross (Origen, Athanasius, Arius, Synesius), in the same way as the soil
+of North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian, Cyprian,
+Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one of the chief
+characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine civilization, had its
+birth in Egypt.
+
+Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civilization at a
+later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and culture attained
+their highest development between the 3rd and the 8th centuries of the
+Christian era. Antioch rose to great influence, owing at first to its
+pagan school of rhetoric and later to its Christian school of exegesis.
+Gaza was renowned for its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of
+law. It is no mere accident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most
+valuable class of Byzantine literature, was born in Syria and Palestine.
+
+In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna, Ephesus,
+Nicopolis, &c., were all influential centres of Greek culture and
+literature. For instance, the three great fathers of Cappadocia, Basil,
+Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus all belonged to Asia Minor.
+
+If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries of the
+Christian era, i.e. the period of the complete development of Byzantine
+culture, be classified according to the countries of their birth, the
+significant fact becomes evident that nine-tenths come from the African
+and Asiatic districts, which were for the most part opened up only after
+Alexander the Great, and only one-tenth from European Greece. In other
+words, the old original European Greece was, under the emperors,
+completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the newly
+founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide of conquest which
+surged from Greece over African and Syrian territories occupied largely
+by foreign races and ancient civilizations, could not fail to be fraught
+with serious consequences for the Greeks themselves. The experience of
+the Romans in their conquest of Greece (_Graecia capta ferum victorem
+cepit_) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece, though to
+a minor extent and in a different way. The whole literature of Egypt,
+Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite its international and cosmopolitan
+character, disavow the influence of the Oriental soil on which it was
+nourished. Yet the growth of too strong a local colouring in its
+literature was repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek
+tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled all
+national distinctions. Even more clearly and unmistakably is Oriental
+influence shown in the province of Byzantine art, as Joseph Strzygowski
+has conclusively proved.
+
+
+  Language.
+
+The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of ancient times
+down to the threshold of modern history was written in a language
+identical in its principal features with the common literary language,
+the so-called Koine, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This
+is the literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form
+that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction down to
+one that approaches the language of everyday life such as we have, for
+instance, in the New Testament. From what has been already said, it
+follows that this stable literary language cannot always have remained a
+language of ordinary life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular
+Greek continually changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in
+vocabulary and grammar, and thus the living language surely and
+gradually separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf
+was, moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there took
+place in the written language a retrograde movement, the so-called
+"Atticism." Introduced by Dionysius of Halicarnassus in the 1st century
+before Christ, this linguistic-literary fashion attained its greatest
+height in the 2nd century A.D., but still continued to flourish in
+succeeding centuries, and, indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine
+period. It is true that it often seemed as though the living language
+would be gradually introduced into literature; for several writers, such
+as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis (the
+author of _Lives of Saints_) in the 7th century, the chronicler
+Theophanes at the beginning of the 9th century, and the emperor
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in their writings
+numerous concessions to the living language. This progressive tendency
+might well have led, in the 11th and 12th centuries, to the founding in
+the Greek vernacular of a new literary language similar to the promising
+national languages and literature which, at that period, in the Romance
+countries, developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of
+the Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change never took place.
+All attempts in the direction of a popular reform of the literary
+language, which were occasionally made in the period from the 6th to the
+10th centuries, were in turn extinguished by the resuscitation of
+classical studies, a movement which, begun in the 9th century by Photius
+and continued in the 11th by Psellus, attained its full development
+under the Comneni and the Palaeologi. This classical renaissance turned
+back the literary language into the old ossified forms, as had
+previously happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries
+of the empire. In the West, humanism (so closely connected with the
+Byzantine renaissance under the Comneni and the Palaeologi) also
+artificially reintroduced the "Ciceronian" Latin, but was unable
+seriously to endanger the development of the national languages, which
+had already attained to full vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic
+movement came prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had
+fairly established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers of
+the 11th-15th centuries is almost Old Greek in colour; artificially
+learnt by grammar, lexicon and assiduous reading, it followed Attic
+models more and more slavishly; to such an extent that, in determining
+the date of works, the paradoxical principle holds good that the more
+ancient the language, the more recent the author.
+
+Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast that had
+long existed with the vernacular was now for the first time fully
+revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language could no longer be
+bridged; and this fact found its expression in literature also. While
+the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-10th centuries, like the
+Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of Tours), still attempted a
+compromise between the language of the schools and that of conversation,
+we meet after the 12th century with authors who freely and naturally
+employed the vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form
+the Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and other
+Romance languages. That they could not succeed like their Roman
+colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of Greek literature, is due
+to the all-powerful philological-antiquarian tendency which existed
+under the Comneni and the Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular
+attempt to assert its literary rights, i.e. in Crete and some other
+islands in the 16th and 17th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled
+by the classical reaction of the 19th century. Hence it comes about that
+Greek literature even in the 20th century employs grammatical forms
+which were obsolete long before the 10th century. Thus the Greeks, as
+regards their literary language, came into a _cul de sac_ similar to
+that in which certain rigidly conservative Oriental nations find
+themselves, e.g. the Arabs and Chinese, who, not possessing a literary
+language suited to modern requirements, have to content themselves with
+the dead Old-Arabic or the ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of
+the written and spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most
+fatal heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their Byzantine
+forefathers.
+
+
+  General character of Byzantine literature.
+
+The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western medieval
+period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology accordingly, in
+literature too, occupies the chief place, in regard to both quantity and
+quality. Next to it comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines
+cultivated with great conscientiousness until after the fall of the
+empire. All other kinds of prose writing, e.g. in geography, philosophy,
+rhetoric and the technical sciences, were comparatively neglected, and
+such works are of value for the most part only in so far as they
+preserve and interpret old material. In poetry, again, theology takes
+the lead. The poetry of the Church produced works of high aesthetic
+merit and enduring value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams
+especially was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In
+popular literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of
+notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with.
+
+
+  Theology.
+
+The great classical period of Greek theological literature is that of
+the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this result--some of
+them positive, particularly the establishment of Christianity as the
+official religion and the protection accorded to it by the state, others
+negative, i.e. the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at
+this period arose in the east of the empire and threatened the unity of
+the doctrine and organization of the church. It was chiefly against
+these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed his attacks. The
+learned Eusebius founded a new department of literature, church history.
+In Egypt, Antonius (St Anthony) founded the Greek monastic system;
+Synesius of Cyrene, like his greater contemporary Augustine in the West,
+represents both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition
+from Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great
+intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great
+Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother Gregory
+of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the Christian faith,
+and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished orator and poet. Closely
+allied to them was St Chrysostom, the courageous champion of
+ecclesiastical liberty and of moral purity. To modern readers the
+greater part of this literature appears strange and foreign; but, in
+order to be appreciated rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of
+the period in which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by
+religious emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their
+readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable; though, of
+course, they produced nothing of such general human interest, nothing
+so deep and true, as the _Confessions_ of St Augustine, with which the
+poetical autobiography of Gregory of Nazianzus cannot for a moment be
+compared.
+
+The glorious bloom of the 4th century was followed by a perceptible
+decay in theological intellectual activity. Independent production was
+in succeeding centuries almost solely prompted by divergent dogmatical
+views and heresies, for the refutation of which orthodox authors were
+impelled to take up the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious
+literature was called into existence by the Monophysites, who maintained
+that there was but _one_ nature in Christ; in the 7th century by the
+Monothelites, who acknowledged but _one_ will in Christ; in the 8th
+century by the Iconoclasts and by the new teaching of Mahomet. One very
+eminent theologian, whose importance it has been reserved for modern
+times to estimate aright--Leontius of Byzantium (6th century)--was the
+first to introduce Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus
+be called the first scholastic. In his works he attacked the heretics of
+his age, particularly the Monophysites, who were also assailed by his
+contemporary Anastasius of Antioch. The chief adversaries of the
+Monothelites were Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem (whose main
+importance, however, is due to his work in other fields, in hagiography
+and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor, and Anastasius Sinaïtes, who
+also composed an interpretation of the _Hexaëmeron_ in twelve books.
+Among writers in the departments of critical interpretation and
+asceticism in this period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who
+devoted himself principally to the exegesis of the Old Testament;
+Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read ascetic work
+_Klimax_ (Jacob's ladder); and Johannes Moschus (d. 619), whose chief
+work _Leimon_ ("spiritual pasture") describes monastic life in the form
+of statements and narratives of their experiences by monks themselves.
+The last great heresy, which shook the Greek Church to its very
+foundations, the Iconoclast movement, summoned to the fray the last
+great Greek theologian, John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). Yet his
+chief merit lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the
+Iconoclasts, and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his
+great dogmatic work, _The Fountain of Knowledge_, which contains the
+first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma. It has remained the
+standard work on Greek theology down to the present day. Just as the
+internal development of the Greek Church in all essentials reached its
+limit with the Iconoclasts, so also its productive intellectual activity
+ceased with John of Damascus. Such theological works as were
+subsequently produced, consisted mostly in the interpretation and
+revision of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful,
+literature was produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek
+and Roman Churches. Of a more independent character is the literature
+which in the 14th century centred round the dissensions of the
+Hesychasts.
+
+Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned: the emperor
+Leo VI., the Wise (886-911), who wrote numerous homilies and church
+hymns, and Theodorus of Studium (759-826), who in his numerous writings
+affords us instructive glimpses of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the
+figure of the patriarch Photius. Yet his importance consists less in his
+writings, which often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of
+thought and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church.
+For he it was who carried the differences which had already repeatedly
+arisen between Rome and Constantinople to a point at which
+reconciliation was impossible, and was mainly instrumental in preparing
+the way for the separation of the Greek and Latin Churches accomplished
+in 1054 under the patriarch Michael Cerularius. In the 11th century the
+polyhistor Michael Psellus also wrote polemics against the Euchites,
+among whom the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, including
+theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni. In the
+reign of Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118), Euthymius Zigabenus wrote his
+great dogmatic work, the _Dogmatic Panoply_, which, like _The Fountain
+of Knowledge_ of John of Damascus in earlier times, was partly positive,
+furnishing an armoury of theology, partly negative and directed against
+the sects. In addition to attacking the dead and buried doctrines of the
+Monothelites, Iconoclasts, &c., to fight which was at this time a mere
+tilting at windmills, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic against the
+heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils and Saracens.
+Zigabenus's _Panoply_ was continued and enlarged a century later by the
+historian Nicetas Acominatus, who published it under the title _Treasure
+of Orthodoxy_. To the writings against ancient heresies were next added
+a flood of tracts, of all shapes and sizes, "against the Latins," i.e.
+against the Roman Church, and among their authors must also be
+enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore II. Lascaris (1254-1258). The
+chief champion of the union with the Roman Church was the learned
+Johannes Beccus (patriarch of Constantinople 1275-1282). Of his
+opponents by far the most eminent was Gregory of Cyprus, who succeeded
+him on the patriarchal throne. The fluctuations in the fortunes of the
+two ecclesiastical parties are reflected in the occupation of the
+patriarchal throne. The battles round the question of the union, which
+were waged with southern passion, were for a while checked by the
+dissensions aroused by the mystic tendency of the Hesychasts. The
+impetus to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam, a
+native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an opponent of
+the Latins and was in 1339 entrusted by Andronicus III. with a mission
+to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon. He condemned the doctrine of the
+Hesychasts, and attacked them both orally and in writing. Among those
+who shared his views are conspicuous the historian Nicephorus Gregoras
+and Gregorius Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas
+Aquinas in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesychasts was
+essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and dreamy
+Graeco-Oriental mysticism. On the side of the Hesychasts fought
+Gregorius Palamas, who tried to give a dogmatic foundation to the
+mysticism of the Hesychasts, Cabasilas, and the emperor John VI.
+Cantacuzenus who, after his deposition, sought, in the peaceful retreat
+of a monastery, consolation in theological studies, and in his literary
+works refuted the Jews and the Mahommedans. For the greatest Byzantine
+"apologia" against Islamism we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II.
+Palaeologus (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to make up for
+the deficiency in martial prowess shown by the Byzantines in their
+struggle with the Turks. On the whole, theological literature was in the
+last century of the empire almost completely occupied with the struggles
+for and against the union with Rome. The reason lay in the political
+conditions. The emperors saw more and more clearly that without the aid
+of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground against
+the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent; while the
+majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the assistance of the West
+would force the Greeks to unite with Rome, and thereby to forfeit their
+ecclesiastical independence. Considering the supremacy of the
+theological party in Byzantium, it was but natural that religious
+considerations should gain the day over political; and this was the view
+almost universally held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of the
+empire; in the words of the chronicler Ducas: "it is better to fall into
+the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks." The chief
+opponent of the union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan of Ephesus,
+who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced the union with Rome
+accomplished by John VIII. Palaeologus. Conspicuous there among the
+partisans of the union, by reason of his erudition and general literary
+merit, was Bessarion, afterwards cardinal, whose chief activity already
+falls under the head of Graeco-Italian humanism.
+
+
+  Hagiography.
+
+Hagiography, i.e. the literature of the acts of the martyrs and the
+lives of the saints, forms an independent group and one comparatively
+unaffected by dogmatic struggles. The main interest centres here round
+the objects described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints
+themselves. The authors, on the other hand--the _Acts of the Martyrs_
+are mostly anonymous--keep more in the background than in other branches
+of literature. The man whose name is mainly identified with Greek
+hagiography, Symeon Metaphrastes, is important not as an original
+author, but only as an editor. Symeon revised in the 10th century,
+according to the rhetorical and linguistic principles of his day,
+numerous old _Acts of the Martyrs_, and incorporated them in a
+collection consisting of several volumes, which was circulated in
+innumerable copies, and thus to a great extent superseded the older
+original texts. These _Acts of the Martyrs_, in point of time, are
+anterior to our period; but of the _Lives of Saints_ the greater portion
+belong to Byzantine literature. They began with biographies of monks
+distinguished for their saintly living, such as were used by Palladius
+about 420 in his _Historia Lausiaca_. The most famous work of this
+description is that by Athanasius of Alexandria, viz. the biography of
+St Anthony, the founder of monachism. In the 6th century Cyril of
+Scythopolis wrote several lives of saints, distinguished by a simple and
+straightforward style. More expert than any one else in reproducing the
+naïve popular style was Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus who, in the 7th
+century, wrote, among other works, a life of St John the Merciful,
+archbishop of Alexandria, which is very remarkable as illustrating the
+social and intellectual conditions of the time. From the popular _Lives
+of Saints_, which for the reading public of the middle ages formed the
+chief substitute for modern "belles lettres," it is easy to trace the
+transition to the religious novel. The most famous work of this class is
+the history of BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT (q.v.).
+
+
+  Religious poetry.
+
+The religious poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from the influence
+of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to original development. The
+oldest work of this class is the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers
+and dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts with the
+_Paedagogus_ of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215), but was probably
+not his work. The next piece of this class is the famous "Maidens' Song"
+in the _Banquet_ of St Methodius (d. about 311), in which many striking
+violations of the old rules of quantity are already apparent. More
+faithful to the tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus. But,
+owing to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification
+and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people or to
+find a place in the services of the church. Just as little could the
+artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the younger Apollinaris,
+or the subtle poems of Synesius, become popular. It became more and more
+patent that, with the archaic metre which was out of keeping with the
+character of the living language, no genuine poetry suited to the age
+could possibly be produced. Fortunately, an entirely new form of
+poetical art was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the
+blessings of an intelligible religious poetry--the rhythmic poem. This
+no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables, which had
+disappeared from the living language, but on the accent. Yet the
+transition was not effected by the substitution of accent for the old
+long syllables; the ancient verse form was entirely abandoned, and in
+its stead new and variously constructed lines and strophes were formed.
+In the history of the rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly
+marked--the preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the
+_Canones_. About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively
+little. It appears that in it church music was in the main confined to
+the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other portions of
+Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation. The oldest rhythmic
+songs date from Gregory of Nazianzus--his "Maidens' Song" and his
+"Evening Hymn." Church poetry reached its highest expression in the
+second period, in the grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs
+comprising from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each
+connected with the next in acrostic fashion. Hymnology, again, attained
+its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th century with
+Romanos, who in the great number and excellence of his hymns dominated
+this species of poetry, as Homer did the Greek epic. From this period
+dates, moreover, the most famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called
+_Acathistus_, an anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary, which has
+sometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch Sergius.
+
+
+  Canones.
+
+Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an increase in
+artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, with the
+composition of the _Canones_, songs artfully built up out of eight or
+nine lyrics, all differently constructed. Andreas, archbishop of Crete
+(c. 650-720), is regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His
+chief work, "the great Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes. The
+most celebrated writers of _Canones_ are John of Damascus and Cosmas of
+Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first half of the 8th century.
+The "vulgar" simplicity of Romanos was regarded by them as an obsolete
+method; they again resorted to the classical style of Gregory of
+Nazianzus, and John of Damascus even took a special delight in the most
+elaborate tricks of expression. In spite of this, or perhaps on that
+very account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times, were
+much read, and--as was very necessary--much commentated. Later, sacred
+poetry was more particularly cultivated in the monastery of the Studium
+at Constantinople by the abbot Theodorus and others. Again, in the 9th
+century, Joseph, "the hymn-writer," excelled as a writer of songs, and,
+finally, John Mauropus (11th century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras
+(12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century), were also
+distinguished as authors of sacred poems, i.e. _Canones_. The Basilian
+Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in 1004, and still existing,
+was also a nursery of religious poetry. As regards the rhythmic church
+poetry, it may now be regarded as certain that its origin was in the
+East. Old Hebrew and Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos
+(q.v.) was especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great
+Syrian father Ephraem (d. about 373).
+
+
+  Profane literature; historical accounts.
+
+In profane literature the writing of history takes the first place, as
+regards both form and substance. The Greeks have always been deeply
+interested in history, and they have never omitted, amid all the
+vicissitudes of their existence, to hand down a record to posterity.
+Thus, they have produced a literature extending from the Ionian
+logographers and Herodotus down to the times of Sultan Mahommed II. In
+the Byzantine period all historical accounts fall under one of two
+groups, entirely different, both in form and in matter, (1) historical
+works, the authors of which described, as did most historians of ancient
+times, a period of history in which they themselves had lived and moved,
+or one which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2)
+chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world. This latter
+class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature. The most clearly
+marked stage in the development of a Christian-Byzantine universal
+history was the chronicle (unfortunately lost) written by the Hellenized
+Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the beginning of the 2nd century of the
+Christian era; this work began with the story of Moses.
+
+Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ substantially
+from ancient historical works, except in their Christian colouring. Yet
+even this is often very faint and blurred owing to close adherence to
+ancient methods. Apart from this, neither a new style nor a new critical
+method nor any radically new views appreciably altered the main
+character of Byzantine historiography. In their style most Byzantine
+compilers of contemporary history followed the beaten track of older
+historians, e.g. Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also
+Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to imitation,
+they displayed considerable power in the delineation of character and
+were not wanting in independent judgment. As regards the selection of
+their matter, they adhered to the old custom of beginning their
+narrative where their predecessors left off.
+
+The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which after the
+close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is reflected in
+historiography also. After Constantine the Great, the history of the
+empire, although its Latin character was maintained until the 6th
+century, was mostly written by Greeks; e.g. Eunapius (c. 400),
+Olympiodorus (c. 450), Priscus (c. 450), Malchus (c. 490), and Zosimus,
+the last pagan historian (c. 500), all of whom, with the exception of
+Zosimus, are unfortunately preserved to us only in fragments.
+Historiography received a great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful
+Procopius and Agathias (q.v.), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described
+the stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of
+Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and Theophylactus
+of Simocatta described the second half of the 6th century. Towards the
+close of the 6th century also flourished the last independent
+ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who wrote the history of the church
+from 431 to 593. There now followed, however, a lamentable falling off
+in production. From the 7th to the 10th century the historical side is
+represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the 10th century
+that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, the art of
+writing history showed some signs of life. Several historical works are
+associated with the name of the emperor Constantine VII.
+Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle belonged also Joseph Genesius,
+who at the emperor's instance compiled the history of the period from
+813 to 886. A little work, interesting from the point of view of
+historical and ethnographical science, is the account of the taking of
+Thessalonica by the Cretan Corsairs (A.D. 904), which a priest, Johannes
+Cameniata, an eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity.
+There is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the
+period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of the
+Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians. A
+continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael Psellus in a work
+covering the period from 976 to 1077. A valuable supplement to the
+latter (describing the period from 1034 to 1079) was supplied by the
+jurist Michael Attaliata. The history of the Eastern empire during the
+Crusades was written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus
+Bryennius, his learned consort Anna Comnena, the "honest Aetolian,"
+Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an exhaustive
+work which is authoritative for the history of the 4th Crusade. The
+melancholy conditions and the ever increasing decay of the empire under
+the Palaeologi (13th-15th centuries) are described in the same lofty
+style, though with a still closer following of classical models. The
+events which took place between the taking of Constantinople by the
+Latins and the restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted
+by Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them. The
+succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius Pachymeres, the
+erudite and high-principled Nicephorus Gregoras, and the emperor John
+VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly, the death-struggle between the East Roman
+empire and the mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three
+historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus
+Chalcocondyles, Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be classed a
+fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), Critobulus, a
+high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style of the age of
+Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan Mahommed II. (down to
+1467).
+
+
+  Chronicles.
+
+The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly chronicles
+of the history of the world from the Creation) consists in the fact that
+they in part replace older lost works, and thus fill up many gaps in our
+historical survey (e.g. for the period from about 600 to 800 of which
+very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit, but are
+often serviceable for the history of language. Many such chronicles were
+furnished with illustrations. The remains of one such illustrated
+chronicle on papyrus, dating from the beginning of the 5th century, has
+been preserved for us by the soil of Egypt.[7] The authors of the
+chronicles were mostly monks, who wished to compile handbooks of
+universal history for their brethren and for pious laymen; and this
+explains the strong clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it
+is due to these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a
+circulation abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples
+Christianized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slavs, and in all of them sowed
+the seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles,
+despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment of
+material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far greater
+importance than the erudite contemporary histories designed only for the
+highly educated circles in Byzantium. The oldest Byzantine chronicle of
+universal history preserved to us is that of Malalas (6th century),
+which is also the purest type of this class of literature. In the 7th
+century was completed the famous _Easter_ or _Paschal Chronicle_
+(_Chronicon Paschale_). About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the
+9th century Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began
+with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284. At the request
+of the author, when on his death-bed, the continuation of this work was
+undertaken by Theophanes Confessor, who brought down the account from
+A.D. 284 to his own times (A.D. 813). This exceedingly valuable work of
+Theophanes was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous
+chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch Nicephorus,
+wrote, in addition to a _Short History_ of the period from 602 to 769, a
+chronological sketch from Adam down to the year of his own death in 829.
+Of great influence on the age that followed was Georgius Monachus, only
+second in importance as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who
+compiled a chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year
+843, the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and
+monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among later
+chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously. His work
+(covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the range of its
+subject-matter, is something between a universal and a contemporary
+history. Georgius Cedrenus (c. 1100) embodied the whole of Scylitza's
+work, almost unaltered, in his _Universal Chronicle_. In the 12th
+century the general increase in literary production was evident also in
+the department of chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for
+instance, the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the
+great universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century Michael
+Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a work written in
+the old popular style and designed for the widest circles of readers.
+Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine Manasses wrote a universal
+chronicle in the so-called "political" verse. With this verse-chronicle
+must be classed the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine
+trimeters at the beginning of the 14th century.
+
+
+  Geography.
+
+Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected with history,
+were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by their political
+forerunners, the Romans. Of purely practical importance are a few
+handbooks of navigation, itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and
+catalogues of provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics.
+The geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates from
+Justinian's time, has been lost. To the same period belongs the only
+large geographical work which has been preserved to us, the _Christian
+Topography_ of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the topography of
+Constantinople a work entitled _Ancient History (Patria) of
+Constantinople_, which may be compared to the medieval _Mirabilia urbis
+Romae_, and in late manuscripts has been wrongly attributed to a certain
+Codinus, is of great importance.
+
+
+  Philosophy.
+
+Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two new
+shoots--Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was the latter with which
+moribund paganism essayed to stem the advancing tide of Christianity.
+The last great exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens (d.
+485). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school of
+philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous system,
+which had long since outlived the conditions that made it a living
+force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity was of two main
+kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, e.g. that of Aristotle, was
+employed to systematize Christian doctrine, while, on the other, the
+old works were furnished with copious commentaries and paraphrases.
+Leontius of Byzantium had already introduced Aristotelian definitions
+into Christology; but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical
+philosophy was John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early
+attained to canonical authority, the independent progress of
+ecclesiastical philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in
+this respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West.
+Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas. In the 11th
+century philosophical studies experienced a satisfactory revival, mainly
+owing to Michael Psellus, who brought Plato as well as Aristotle again
+into fashion.
+
+
+  Rhetoric.
+
+Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with greater
+ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an indispensable
+aid to instruction. It would be difficult to imagine anything more
+tedious than the numerous theoretical writings on the subject and the
+examples of their practical application: mechanical school essays, which
+here count as "literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of
+which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects of this were felt
+beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention paid to the
+laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its withered flowers were
+detrimental to a great part of the rest of Byzantine literature, and
+greatly hampered the development of any individuality and simplicity of
+style. None the less, among the rhetorical productions of the time are
+to be found a few interesting pieces, such as the _Philopatris_, in the
+style of Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of
+Nicephorus Phocas (10th century). In two other smaller works a journey
+to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the pattern of Lucian's
+_Nekyomanteia_, viz. in _Timarion_ (12th century) and in Mazaris'
+_Journey to the Underworld_ (c. 1414). A very charming representative of
+Byzantine rhetoric is Michael Acominatus, who, in addition to
+theological works, wrote numerous occasional speeches, letters and
+poems.
+
+
+  The sciences.
+
+In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted literature
+in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited sense, Byzantium
+was dominated to an extravagant and even grotesque extent by the rules
+of what in modern times is termed "classical scholarship." The numerous
+works which belong to this category, such as grammars, dictionaries,
+commentaries on ancient authors, extracts from ancient literature, and
+metrical and musical treatises, are of little general interest, although
+of great value for special branches of philological study, e.g. for
+tracing the influences through which the ancient works handed down to us
+have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emendation; for
+information about ancient authors now lost; for the history of
+education; and for the underlying principles of intellectual life in
+Byzantium. The most important monument of Byzantine philology is,
+perhaps, the _Library_ of the patriarch Photius. The period from about
+650 to 850 is marked by a general decay of culture. Photius, who in the
+year 850 was about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable
+energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most part
+dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries, thus
+contributing to its preservation. He gave an account of all that he
+read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which were collected in what
+is commonly known as the _Library_ or _Myriobiblon_. The character of
+the individual sketches is somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or
+less complete account of the contents is followed by critical
+discussion, which is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With
+this work may be compared in importance the great _Lexikon_ of Suidas,
+which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclopaedia, of which
+the main feature was its articles on the history of literature. A truly
+sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the famous archbishop of Thessalonica
+(12th century). His voluminous commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the
+attention less than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic
+action on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity,
+and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had nothing
+in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaintance with a
+caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is afforded by Johannes
+Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, a Greek in neither name nor
+spirit, narrow-minded, angular, superficial, and withal immeasurably
+conceited and ridiculously coarse in his polemics. The transition to
+Western humanism was effected by the philologists of the period of the
+Palaeologi, such as Maximus Planudes, whose translations of numerous
+works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the West;
+Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and commentaries were, down
+to the 16th century, used as school text-books; Demetrius Triclinius,
+distinguished as a textual critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites,
+and others.
+
+
+  Jurisprudence.
+
+Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language of Roman
+law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his _Corpus juris_,
+the Hellenizing of the legal language also began. The _Institutes_ and
+the _Digest_ were translated into Greek, and the _Novels_ also were
+issued in a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after
+a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian. The
+emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the existing law,
+and made preparations for the codifying of all laws. But the whole work
+was not completed till the time of Leo VI. the Wise (886-912), and
+Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus (912-959), when it took the form of a
+grand compilation from the _Digests_, the _Codex_, and the _Novels_, and
+is commonly known as the _Basilica_ ([Greek: Ta basilika]). In the East
+it completely superseded the old Latin _Corpus juris_ of Justinian. More
+that was new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law
+than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of law, the
+_Canones_, were blended with those of civil law, and thus arose the
+so-called _Nomocanon_, the most important edition of which is that of
+Theodorus Bestes in 1090. The alphabetical handbook of canon law written
+by Matthaeus Blastares about the year 1335 also exercised a great
+influence.
+
+
+  Mathematics and astronomy.
+
+In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable fact must be
+recorded that the revival among the Greeks of these long-forgotten
+studies was primarily due to Perso-Arabian influence. The _Great
+Syntaxis_ of Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the _Almagest_.
+The most important direct source of this intellectual loan was not
+Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close of the 13th century the
+Greeks became acquainted with Persian astronomy. At the beginning of the
+14th century Georgius Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical
+treatises based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves,
+notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at last had
+recourse to the original Greek sources.
+
+
+  Military science.
+
+The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of military
+science. The most valuable work of the period on this subject is one on
+tactics, which has come down to posterity associated with the name of
+Leo VI., the Wise.
+
+
+  Profane poetry.
+
+Of profane poetry--in complete contrast to sacred poetry--the general
+characteristic was its close imitation of the antique in point of form.
+All works belonging to this category reproduce the ancient style and are
+framed after ancient models. The metre is, for the most part, either the
+Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the "political" verse;
+more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic measures.
+
+
+  Epic.
+
+Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with the
+vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the literary works of
+the period there are several which can be compared with the epics of the
+Alexandrine age. Nonnus (c. 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic
+epic on the triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a
+Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John. In the 7th
+century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy iambic poems the
+martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while the deacon Theodosius
+(10th century) immortalized in extravagant language the victories of the
+brave Nicephorus Phocas.
+
+
+  Didactic poems.
+
+From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical, astrological,
+medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed partly in
+duodecasyllables and partly in "political" verse, made their appearance
+in large quantities. Didactic religious poems were composed, for
+example, by Philippus ([Greek: ho Monotropos], Solitarius, c. 1100),
+grammatico-philological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by
+Johannes Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel
+Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic epic by
+Georgius Lapithes (14th century).
+
+
+  Romances.
+
+To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in style and matter
+must be regarded as imitations of the ancient Greek romances. They all
+date from the 12th century, a fact evidently connected with the general
+revival of culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two of
+these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, viz. the story
+of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, and an imitation of
+this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles by Nicetas Eugenianus;
+one in "political" verse, the love story of Aristander and Callithea by
+Constantine Manasses, which has only been preserved in fragments, and
+lastly one in prose, the story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius
+(or Eumathius) Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all.
+
+
+  Lyrics.
+
+  The epigram.
+
+The objective point of view which dominated the whole Byzantine period
+was fatal to the development of a profane lyrical poetry. At most a few
+poems by Johannes Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others, in
+which personal experiences are recorded with some show of taste, may be
+placed in this category. The dominant form for all subjective poetry was
+the epigram, which was employed in all its variations from playful
+trifles to long elegiac and narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th
+century) treated the most diverse themes. In the 9th century Theodorus
+of Studium had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing monastic
+life in a series of epigrams. The same century produced the only poetess
+of the Byzantine period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic
+productions and church hymns, all characterized by originality.
+Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the 10th and 11th
+centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres, Christophorus of
+Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th
+century) and Manuel Philes (14th century). From the beginning of the
+10th century also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of
+Byzantine epigrammatic poems, the _Anthologia Palatina_ (see ANTHOLOGY).
+
+
+  Drama.
+
+Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as completely
+lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the condition precedent to its
+existence, namely, public performance. Apart from some moralizing
+allegorical dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and
+others), we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at
+least in external form, resembles a drama: the _Sufferings of Christ_
+([Greek: Christos Paschôn]). This work, written probably in the 12th
+century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, i.e. is in great
+measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g. Aeschylus,
+Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly not written with a view to
+the dramatic production.
+
+
+  Vernacular Greek literature.
+
+The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in contents. We
+have here remarkable originality of conception and probably also
+entirely new and genuinely medieval matter. While in the artificial
+literature prose is pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry,
+both in quantity and quality, takes the first place, as was also the
+case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar tongue first invaded the
+field of poetry and only later that of prose. Though a few preliminary
+attempts were made (proverbs, acclamations addressed by the people to
+the emperor, &c.), the Greek vernacular was employed for larger works
+only from the 12th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the
+major portion were cast in "political" verse, but some in the trochaic
+eight-syllabled line. Towards the close of the 15th century rhyme came
+into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular poetry are
+exceedingly diverse. In the capital city a mixture of the learned and
+the popular language was first used in poems of admonition, praise and
+supplication. In this oldest class of "vulgar" works must be reckoned
+the _Spaneas_, an admonitory poem in imitation of the letter of
+Pseudo-Isocrates addressed to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in
+prison by the chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of
+Theodorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period erotic
+poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs preserved in a MS. in
+the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner, Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like
+romances such as the _Story of Ptocholeon_, oracles, prayers, extracts
+from Holy Writ, lives of saints, &c. Great epic poems, in which antique
+subjects are treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form
+a separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after the
+manner of the works written in the artificial classical language, e.g.
+_Callimachus and Chrysorrhoë_, _Belthandrus and Chrysantza_, _Lybistrus
+and Rhodamne_, also romances in verse after the Western pattern, such as
+_Phlorius_ and _Platziaphlora_ (the old French story of _Flore et
+Blanchefleur_). Curious are also sundry legends connected with animals
+and plants, such as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables
+of the _Physiologus_, a history of quadrupeds, and a book of birds, both
+written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a rendering of the
+story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar originality also are several
+legendary and historical poems, in which famous heroes and historical
+events are celebrated. There are, for instance, poems on the fall of
+Constantinople, the taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating
+campaign of Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &c. In respect of
+importance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas stands
+pre-eminent.
+
+
+  "Vulgar" prose works.
+
+Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least in a
+compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering of two works
+from an Indian source, the _Book of the Seven Wise Masters_ (as
+_Syntipas the Philosopher_ by Michael Andreopulus), and the _Hitopadera_
+or _Mirror of Princes_ (through the Arabic _Kalilah and Dimnah_ by
+Simeon Sethus as [Greek: Stephanitês kai Iknêlatês]), a fish book, a
+fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles). To
+these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of Cyprus of the
+12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite of many individual
+successes, the literature written in the vulgar tongue succumbed, in the
+race for existence, to its elder sister, the literature written in
+classical and polished Greek. This was mainly due to the continuous
+employment of the ancient language in the state, the schools and the
+church.
+
+
+  General significance of Byzantine literature.
+
+The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the history of the
+world is beyond dispute. The Christians of the East Roman empire guarded
+for more than a thousand years the intellectual heritage of antiquity
+against the violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called into
+life a peculiar medieval culture and literature. They communicated the
+treasures of the old pagan as well as of their own Christian literature
+to neighbouring nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the
+Armenians, the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the
+Serbs and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new East
+European culture, embodied above all in the Russian empire, which, on
+its religious side, is included in the Orthodox Eastern Church, and from
+the point of view of nationality touches the two extremes of Greek and
+Slav. Finally the learned men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing
+from the barbarism of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old
+Hellenic wisdom to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples
+with rich germs of culture.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--1. General sources: K. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der
+  byzantinischen Literatur_ (2nd ed., 1897), supplemented in _Die
+  byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1892 seq.), and the _Byzantinisches
+  Archiv_ (1898 seq.), which is intended for the publication of more
+  exhaustive matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised
+  in the _Vizantiisky Vremennik_ (1894 seq.).
+
+  2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), _An Historical
+  Greek Grammar_ (1897); A. Dieterich, "Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
+  der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit bis zum 10ten
+  Jahrhundert," in _Byzant. Archiv_, i. (1898). Glossary: Ducange,
+  _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis_ (1688), in
+  which particular attention is paid to the "vulgar" language; E. A.
+  Sophocles, _Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods_ (3rd
+  ed., 1888).
+
+  3. Theology: Chief work, A. Ehrhard in Krumbacher's _Geschichte der
+  byz. Lit._ pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on Greek
+  patrology (under article FATHERS OF THE CHURCH). Collective edition of
+  the Fathers (down to the 15th century); _Patrologia, series Graeca_
+  (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry: A collection of
+  Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ and M. Paranikas,
+  entitled _Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum_ (1871). Many
+  unedited texts, particularly the songs of Romanos, were published by
+  Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the title _Analecta sacra spicilegio
+  Solesmensi parata_ (1876). A complete edition of the hymns is edited
+  by K. Krumbacher.
+
+  4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine
+  historians and chroniclers was begun under Louis XIV., and continued
+  later (1648-1819), called the _Paris Corpus_. This whole collection
+  was on B. G. Niebuhr's advice republished with some additions (Bonn,
+  1828-1878), under the title _Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae_.
+  The most important authors have also appeared in the _Bibliotheca
+  Teubneriana_. A few Byzantine and oriental historical works are also
+  contained in the collection edited by J. B. Bury (1898 seq.).
+
+  5. Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective editions
+  are: W. Wagner, _Medieval Greek Texts_ (1870), _Carmina Graeca Medii
+  Aevi_ (1874), _Trois Poèmes grecs du moyen âge_ (1881); E. Legrand,
+  _Collection de monuments pour servir à l'étude de la langue
+  néo-hellénique_ (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), _Bibliothèque grecque
+  vulgaire_ (in 8 vols., 1880-1896).     (K. Kr.)
+
+
+III. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE (1453-1908)
+
+After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek national
+life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization naturally
+involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek literary production
+in the regions subjected to the rule of a barbarous conqueror. Learned
+Greeks found a refuge away from their native land; they spoke the
+languages of foreign people, and when they wrote books they often used
+those languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The fall of
+Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating a break in the
+continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had that event so decisive an
+influence as has been supposed on the revival of learning in western
+Europe. The crusades had already brought the Greeks and Westerns
+together, and the rule of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant
+had rendered the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed
+the dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; some Greeks
+had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured to reconcile the two
+communions, some had attained preferment in the Roman Church. Many had
+become connected by marriage or other ties with the Italian nobles who
+ruled in the Aegean or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to
+settle in Italy. Of the writers who thus found their way to the West
+before the taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or
+Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and John
+Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and Cardinal Bessarion.
+
+
+  The Klephtic poetry.
+
+The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in the plains to a
+condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty continued to breathe in
+the mountains, where groups of desperate men, the Klephts and the
+Haiduks, maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The adventurous
+and romantic life of these champions of freedom, spent amid the noblest
+solitudes of nature and often tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally
+produced a poetry of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely
+indigenous. The Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the
+language of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine
+Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the forests and
+mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, which peopled nature
+with a thousand forms, they lend a voice to the trees, the rocks, the
+rivers and to the mountains themselves, which sing the prowess of the
+Klepht, bewail his death and comfort his disconsolate wife or mother.
+Olympia boasts to Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never
+desecrated its valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs;
+there is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on
+its summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying Klepht
+bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb that he may stand
+therein and load his musket: "Make a window in the side that the
+swallows may tell me that spring has come, that the nightingales may
+sing me the approach of flowery May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by
+his horse: "Rise, my master, let us go and find our comrades." "My bay
+horse, I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod
+hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms to my
+companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that she may see it and
+lament me." Another type of the popular poetry is presented by the
+folk-songs of the Aegean islanders and the maritime population of the
+Asiatic coast. In many of the former the influence of the Frankish
+conquest is apparent. Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be
+found in the popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who
+struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as a rule he
+triumphs in the conflict.
+
+
+  Cretan poets.
+
+In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of
+Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek poetry
+arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. The language employed
+is the dialect of the Candiotes, with its large admixture of Venetian
+words. The first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was
+_Erotocritos_, an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story
+of Arete, daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son
+of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of Greece
+under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing to describe an
+episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding some tedious passages,
+it possesses considerable merit and contains some charming scenes. The
+metre is the rhymed alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who
+lived in the middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he
+probably belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso was
+descended. The second poem is the _Erophile_ of George Chortakis, a
+Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is a tragic drama, the
+scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue is poor, but there are
+some fine choral interludes, which perhaps are by a different hand.
+Chortakis, who was brought up at Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th
+and beginning of the 17th centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of
+notice is the _Shepherdess_, a charming and graceful idyll written by
+Nicolas Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century.
+Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos (1500), who
+wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who endeavoured to write Pindaric
+odes.
+
+
+  Literary activity after the fall of Constantinople.
+
+Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a knowledge of Greek in
+Europe after the fall of Constantinople were John Argyropulos, Demetrius
+Chalcondyles, Constantine and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a
+Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary language; in general,
+however, they were rather employed about literature than engaged in
+producing it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek grammars;
+they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, and they collected
+manuscripts. Their stores enriched the newly founded libraries of St
+Mark at Venice, of the Escorial, of the Vatican and of the National
+Library in Paris. But none of them accomplished much in literature
+strictly so called. The question which most deeply interested them was
+that of the rival merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies,
+over which a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards
+the close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality theological
+rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed by the
+advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western Churches, that of
+Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, and all the fury of the old
+Byzantine dogmatic controversies was revived. The patriarch, George
+Kurtesios or Gennadius, whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the
+capture of Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and
+excommunicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among the
+Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who attacked Pletho
+with unmeasured virulence, was compelled to resign his post of secretary
+to Pope Nicholas V. and was imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was
+not wholly extinct in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time
+after the Turkish conquest. Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of
+Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and Euripides; his
+father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek proverbs. Aemilius Portos,
+a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650) of Chios edited a number of works
+of the classical and later periods with commentaries and translations;
+Allatios also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness.
+Constantine Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote
+verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the time of the
+fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers who wrote poems in
+the spoken dialect on historical subjects; among these were
+Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas Limenitis (1450-1500) and
+Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the 16th century); their poems have
+little merit, but are interesting as specimens of the popular language
+of the day and as illustrating the manners and ideas of contemporary
+Greeks.
+
+
+  Historical works.
+
+Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number of
+chroniclers. At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros, who had been
+private secretary of Mahommed II., wrote the history of his master,
+Emmanuel Melaxos a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history
+of the Palaeologi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a history of
+Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the 17th century Demetrius
+Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a history of the Ottoman empire,
+and G. Kontares tales of ancient Athens. Others composed chronicles of
+Cyprus and Crete, narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most
+of these works are written in the literary language, the study of which
+was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it maintained
+at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theological and philosophical
+works, grammars and dictionaries were written during this period, but
+elegant literature practically disappears.[8]
+
+
+  The literary revival.
+
+A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor of the
+national uprising which resulted in the independence of Greece. The
+efforts of the great Phanariote families at Constantinople, the
+educational zeal of the higher Greek clergy and the munificence of
+wealthy Greeks in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired
+fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of education among
+a people always eager for instruction. The Turks, indifferent to
+educational matters, failed to discern the significance of the movement.
+Schools were established in every important Greek town, and school-books
+and translations from Western languages issued from the presses of
+Venice, Triest, Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed
+colonies. Young men completed their studies in the Western universities
+and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization. For
+the greater part of the 18th century the literature was mainly
+theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch were Elias
+Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are written in the popular
+language, and Meletios of Iannina, metropolitan of Athens, whose
+principal works were an ecclesiastical history, written in ancient
+Greek, and a descriptive geography of Greece in the modern language,
+composed, like the work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works
+of two distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent
+partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731?-1800) and Eugenios
+Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the national and literary
+renaissance. They wrote much in defence of Greek orthodoxy against
+Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous as a preacher, wrote, besides
+theological and controversial works, treatises on mathematics, geography
+and physics. Bulgares was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous
+translations and works on theology, archaeology, philosophy,
+mathematics, physics and astronomy; he translated the _Aeneid_ and
+_Georgics_ of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II.
+His writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries.
+
+
+  Poets of the Greek revival.
+
+The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were Constantinos
+Rhigas (q.v.), the Alcman of the revolutionary movement, whose songs
+fired the spirit of his fellow-countrymen; Christopoulos (1772-1847), a
+Phanariote, who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos Rizos
+Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author of tragedies, comedies
+and lyrics, and of a work in French on modern Greek literature. They are
+followed in the epoch of Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes
+and Alexander Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos
+Rhangabes (Rhankaves, 1810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both Soutzos
+had a rich command of musical language, were highly ideal in their
+conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an ardent love of liberty.
+Both imitated to some extent Byron, Lamartine and Béranger; they tried
+various forms of poetry, but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially
+lyrical, that of Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek
+revival, Alexander Rizos Rhangabe, was a writer with a fine poetic
+feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of thought and
+sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns, ballads, narrative poems,
+tragedies and comedies, he wrote several prose works, including a
+history of ancient Greece, a history of modern Greek literature, several
+novels and works on ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous
+dramatic works of this time may be mentioned the [Greek: Maria
+Doxipatrê] of Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is
+laid in the Morea at the time of the crusades.
+
+
+  Prose writers of the revival.
+
+In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was marked by
+an abundant output. Among the historians the greatest is Spiridon
+Trikoupis, whose _History of the Revolution_ is a monumental work. It is
+distinguished by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an
+impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the author played a
+leading part in the events which he narrates. Almost all the chiefs of
+the revolutionary movement left their memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who
+was illiterate, dictated his recollections. John Philemon, of
+Constantinople, wrote a history of the revolution in six volumes. He was
+an ardent partisan of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who
+was attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos's _History of the
+Greek Nation_ is especially valuable in regard to the later periods; in
+regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and Grote. With him may
+be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu, who wrote on Greek history and
+literature; Sakellarios, who dealt with the topography and history of
+Cyprus; N. Dragoumes, whose historical memoirs treat of the period which
+followed the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature and
+history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied by Miniates in
+the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones is well known by his
+_History of Patristic Literature of the First Three Centuries_ and his
+_Ecclesiastical History_, and Philotheos Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by
+his elaborate edition of _Clemens Romanus_. Kastorches wrote well on
+Latin literature. Great literary activity in the domains of law,
+political economy, mathematics, the physical sciences and archaeology
+displayed itself in the generation after the establishment of the Greek
+kingdom.
+
+
+  Coraës.
+
+But the writer who at the time of the national revival not only
+exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries but even to a
+large extent shaped the future course of Greek literature was Adamantios
+Coraës (Korais) of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to
+philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, and in the
+prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical writers, written
+In Greek or French, he strove to awake the interest of his countrymen in
+the past glories of their race or administered to them sage counsels, at
+the same time addressing ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their
+behalf. The great importance of Coraës, however, lies in the fact that
+he was practically the founder of the modern literary language.
+
+
+  The modern literary language.
+
+In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the modern
+language present themselves--the vernacular ([Greek: hê kathomiloumenê])
+and the purified ([Greek: hê kathareuousa]). The former is the oral
+language, spoken by the whole Greek world, with local dialectic
+variations; the latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers,
+modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the popular
+speech. At the time of the War of Independence the enthusiasm of the
+Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the memory of an illustrious
+past, and at its close a classical reaction followed: the ancient
+nomenclature was introduced in every department of the new state, towns
+and districts received their former names, and children were christened
+after Greek heroes and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In
+the literary revival which attended the national movement, two schools
+of writers made their appearance--the purists, who, rejecting the spoken
+idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the restoration of the
+classical language, and the vulgarists, who regarded the vernacular or
+"Romaic" as the genuine and legitimate representative of the ancient
+tongue. A controversy which had existed in former times was thus
+revived, with the result that a state of confusion still prevails in the
+national literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted
+with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical or
+newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language, which he can
+read with ease side by side with poems or even prose in the vernacular
+which he will be altogether unable to interpret.
+
+
+  Reforms of Coraës.
+
+The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is universally
+spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by a natural and
+regular process, similar to that which has produced the Romance
+languages from the Latin, or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the
+old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with the modern
+European languages, and in obedience to the same laws; like them, it
+might have grown into a literary language had any great writers arisen
+in the middle ages to do for it what Dante and his successors of the
+_trecento_ did for Italian. But the effort to adapt it to the
+requirements of modern literature could hardly prove successful. In the
+first place, the national sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to
+imitate the classical writers, and so far as possible to appropriate
+their diction. The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses
+such an attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly
+to adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom. In
+the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has already been
+formed which cannot easily be broken down. For more than half a century
+the generally accepted written language, half modern half ancient, has
+been in use in the schools, the university, the parliament, the state
+departments and the pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the
+more educated classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present
+form--though a fixed standard is still lacking--to the influence and
+teaching of Coraës. As in the time of the decadence a [Greek: koinê
+dialektos] stood midway between the classical language and the popular
+speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there existed a common
+literary dialect, largely influenced by the vernacular, but retaining
+the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, from which it was derived by
+an unbroken literary tradition. This written language Coraës took as the
+basis of his reforms, purging it of foreign elements, preserving its
+classical remnants and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from
+the ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with a
+fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing alike
+the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident optimism of the
+vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular speech all the material
+for a _langue savante_. The language which he thus endeavoured to shape
+and reconstruct is, of course, conventional and artificial. In course of
+time it will probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter
+will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The spoken and
+written languages, however, will always be separated by a wide interval.
+
+
+  Poetical writers in the vernacular.
+
+Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the vernacular,
+which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous expression of the
+feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798-1857), the greatest of them all,
+employed the dialect of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are
+full of poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his "Ode to
+Liberty." Other poets, of what may be described as the Ionic school,
+such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-1869), Julius Typaldos (1814-1883), John
+Zampelios (1787-1856), and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his
+example in using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios
+Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and Gerasimos
+Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, adopted in their
+lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads--in other words, the
+vernacular of the Pindus range and the mountainous district of Epirus.
+This dialect had at least the advantage of being generally current
+throughout the mainland, while it derived distinction from the heroic
+exploits of the champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites,
+which are characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have
+made a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely employed
+the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from the Klephtic songs
+were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his
+lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules, a Cretan (d. 1893). With the
+poems of this group may be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835).
+The popular language has been generally adopted by the younger
+generation of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios
+(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes Palamas
+(b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and Jacob Polylas (d.
+1896).
+
+
+  Poetical writers in the conventional language.
+
+Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there existed at
+Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the accepted literary
+language, and whose writings serve as models for the later group which
+gathered at Athens after the emancipation of Greece. The literary
+traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes (1810-1892) and the
+brothers Alexander and Panagiotis Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who
+belonged to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion
+Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Karasoutzas
+(1824-1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873), and Achilles
+Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling, has also employed
+the popular language. In general the practice of versification in the
+conventional literary language has declined, though sedulously
+encouraged by the university of Athens, and fostered by annual poetic
+competitions with prizes provided by patriotic citizens. Greek lyric
+poetry during the first half of the century was mainly inspired by the
+patriotic sentiment aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the
+present generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic and
+contemplative mood under the influence of Western models.
+
+
+  Dramatists, translators and satirists.
+
+There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature in recent
+years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John Zampelios and the two
+Soutzos, who belong to the past generation, Kleon Rhangabes, Angelos
+Vlachos, Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes are the most
+prominent among modern dramatic writers. Numerous translations of
+foreign masterpieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _Othello_, _King Lear_, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_ and _The
+Merchant of Venice_, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as examples
+of artistic excellence. Goethe's _Faust_ has been rendered into verse by
+Probelegios, and _Hamlet_, _Antony and Cleopatra_, _Coriolanus and
+Julius Caesar_, into prose by Damiroles. Among recent satirists, George
+Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique position. He reviews social and
+political events in the [Greek: Rhômêos], a witty little newspaper
+written entirely in verse, which is read with delight by all classes of
+the population.
+
+
+  Recent prose writers.
+
+Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary language. In
+historical research the Greeks continue to display much activity and
+erudition, but no great work comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's
+_History of the Revolution_ has appeared in the present generation. A
+history of the Greek nation from the earliest times to the present day,
+by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history of the 19th century by
+Karolides, have recently been published. The valuable [Greek: Mnêmeia]
+of Sathas, the [Greek: meletai Byzantinês historias] of Spiridion
+Zampelios and Mavrogiannes's _History of the Ionian Islands_ deserve
+special mention, as well as the essays of Bikelas, which treat of the
+Byzantine and modern epochs of Greek history. Some of the last-named
+were translated into English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the
+writers on jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios
+Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and John
+Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have written
+philosophical works. The _Ecclesiastical History_ of Diomedes Kyriakos
+and the _Theological Treatises_ of Archbishop Latas should be noted. The
+best-known writers of philological works are Constantine Kontos, a
+strong advocate of literary purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore
+Papademetrakopoulos and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen
+Koumanoudes, Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a
+recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high authority on
+numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes on mathematics, Anast.
+Christomanos on chemistry, and Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well
+known.
+
+
+  Fiction.
+
+The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding the
+emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign influence. Modern
+Greece has not produced any great novelist. The [Greek: Krêtikoi gamoi]
+of Spiridion Zampelios, the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the
+_Thanos Blechas_ of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of
+historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the
+mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much
+cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In later times
+the short story has come into vogue through the example of D. Bikelas,
+whose tales have acquired great popularity; one of them, _Loukis Laras_,
+has been translated into many languages. The example of Bikelas has been
+followed by Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many
+others.
+
+
+  Prose writers in the vernacular.
+
+The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the vernacular in
+prose is John Psichari, professor of the École des Hautes Études in
+Paris. He is the recognized leader of the vulgarists. Among the best
+known of his works are [Greek: To taxeidi mou], a narrative of a journey
+in Greek lands, [Greek: Toneiro tou Giannirê], [Greek: Hê Zoulea], and
+[Greek: ho Magos]. The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in
+the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari's followers is M.
+Palli, who has recently published a translation of the _Iliad_. Owing to
+the limited resources of the popular language, the writers of this
+school are sometimes compelled to employ strange and little-known words
+borrowed from the various dialects. The vernacular has never been
+adopted by writers on scientific subjects, owing to its inherent
+unsuitability and the incongruity arising from the introduction of
+technical terms derived from the ancient language. Notwithstanding the
+zeal of its adherents, it seems unlikely to maintain its place in
+literature outside the domain of poetry; nor can any other result be
+expected, unless its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public
+instruction in Greece.
+
+
+  Periodicals and Journals.
+
+Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which may be mentioned
+the _Athena_, edited by Constantine Kontos, the _Ethniké Agoge_, a
+continuation of the old _Hestia_, the _Harmonia_ and the [Greek:
+Diaplasis tôn paidôn], an educational review. The Parnassos, the
+Archaeological Society and other learned bodies issue annual or
+quarterly reports. The Greek journals are both numerous and widely read.
+They contain much clever writing, which is often marred by inaccuracy
+and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their tendency to exaggerated
+patriotic sentiment sometimes borders on the ludicrous. For many years
+the Nea _Heméra_ of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the
+Greek world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor,
+Anastasios Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and
+judgment.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Constantine Sathas, [Greek: Neoellênikê philologia]
+  (Athens, 1868); D. Bikelas, [Greek: Peri neoellênikês philologias
+  dokimion] (London, 1871), reprinted in [Greek: Dialexeis kai
+  anamnêseis] (Athens, 1893); J. S. Blackie, _Horae Hellenicae_ (London,
+  1874); R. Nicolai, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_
+  (Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangabé, _Histoire littéraire de la Grèce
+  moderne_ (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, _Études sur la littérature grecque
+  moderne_ (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, _Bibliothèque grecque vulgaire_
+  (vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, _Poètes grecs contemporains_
+  (Paris, 1881); Kontos, [Greek: Glôssikai paratêrêseis] (Athens, 1882);
+  Rhangabé and Sanders, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur von
+  ihren Anfängen bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1885); J. Psichari,
+  _Essais de grammaire historique néo-grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886 and
+  1889); _Études de philologie néo-grecque_ (Paris, 1892); F. Blass,
+  _Die Aussprache des Griechischen_ (3rd ed., Berlin, 1888);
+  Papademetrakopoulos, [Greek: Basanos hellênikês prophoras] (Athens,
+  1889); M. Konstantinides, _Neo-hellenica_ (_Dialogues in Modern Greek,
+  with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect_) (London, 1892); Rhoïdes,
+  [Greek: Ta Eidôla. Glôssikê meletê] (Athens, 1893); Polites, [Greek:
+  Meletai peri tou biou kai tês glôssês Hellênikou laou] (2 vols.,
+  Athens, 1899).
+
+  For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, _Chants
+  populaires de la Grèce moderne_ (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow,
+  _Popularia carmina Graeciae recentioris_ (Leipzig, 1860); von Hahn,
+  _Griechische und albanesische Märchen_ (Leipzig, 1864); [Greek:
+  Tepharikês, Lianotragouda] (2nd ed., Athens, 1868); E. Legrand,
+  _Recueil de chansons populaires grecques_ (Paris, 1874); _Recueil de
+  contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881); Paul de Lagarde,
+  _Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien_ (Göttingen, 1886); A. Jannaris,
+  [Greek: Asmata Krêtika] (_Kreta's Volkslieder_) (Leipzig, 1876); A.
+  Sakellariou, [Greek: Ta Kypriaka] (Athens, 1891); [Greek: Zôgrapheios
+  Hagôn], published by the [Greek: Hellênikos philologikos syllogos]
+  (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, _Greek Folksongs
+  from the Turkish Provinces of Greece_ (London, 1885); E. M. Geldart,
+  _Folklore of Modern Greece_ (London, 1884). Lexicons: A. N. Jannaris,
+  _A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern Greek Languages_
+  (English-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios (Skarlatos D.), [Greek:
+  Lexikon tês Hellênikês glôssês] (Athens, 1895); A. Sakellario, [Greek:
+  Lexikon tês Hellênikês glôssês] (5th ed., Athens, 1898); S.
+  Koumanoudes, [Greek: Synagôgê neôn lexeôn] (Athens, 1900). Grammars:
+  Mitsotakes, _Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und
+  Umgangssprache_ (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, _A Practical Modern
+  Greek Grammar_ (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, _Einleitung in die
+  neugriechische Grammatik_ (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G.
+  Dickson, _Handbook to Modern Greek_ (London, 1893); A. Thumb,
+  _Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_ (Strassburg, 1895); C.
+  Wied, _Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch
+  Selbstunterricht schnell und leicht zu lernen_ (2nd ed., undated,
+  Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, _Historical Greek Grammar_ (London, 1897).
+       (J. D. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Allen in _Classical
+    Quarterly_ (Jan. and April 1908).
+
+  [2] Others attribute it, as well as the _Margites_, to Pigres of
+    Halicarnassus, the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia,
+    who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.
+
+  [3] The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy
+    quotations in the _Constitution of Athens_.
+
+  [4] Since the above was written, four considerable fragments
+    generally assigned to Sappho have been discovered: a prayer to the
+    Nereids for the safe return of her brother Charaxus; the leave-taking
+    of a favourite pupil; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends, in
+    Lydia; the fourth, much mutilated, addressed to another pupil,
+    Gongyla. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light on the
+    personality of Sappho and the language and metre of her poems.
+
+  [5] Recently increased by specimens of the _Partheneia_ (choral songs
+    for maidens) and paeans.
+
+  [6] His Constitution of Athens (q.v.), of which a papyrus MS. was
+    found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms part of a larger work on
+    the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities.
+
+  [7] See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, "Eine alexandrinische
+    Weltchronik" (1905) (_Denkschrift der kaiserlich. Akademie der
+    Wissenschaften_, li.).
+
+  [8] The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for a
+    time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made him many
+    enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constantinople, from
+    which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning the faith of
+    Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the Jesuits, and his
+    printing-press was suppressed.
+
+
+
+
+GREEK RELIGION. The recent development of anthropological science and of
+the comparative study of religions has enabled us at last to assign to
+ancient Greek religion its proper place in the classification of creeds
+and to appreciate its importance for the history of civilization. In
+spite of all the diversities of local cults we may find a general
+definition of the theological system of the Hellenic communities, and
+with sufficient accuracy may describe it as an anthropomorphic
+polytheism, preserving many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period,
+unchecked by any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and
+therefore pliantly adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of
+the social and political history of the race, and easily able to
+assimilate alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole
+or in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more capable
+of progress than others, possibly higher, that have crystallized at an
+early period into a fixed dogmatic type; and as, owing to its essential
+character, it could not be convulsed by any inner revolution that might
+obliterate the deposits of its earlier life, it was likely to preserve
+the imprints of the successive ages of culture, and to reveal more
+clearly than any other testimony the evolution of the race from savagery
+to civilization. Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with
+incongruities, the highest forms of religious life being often
+confronted with the most primitive. And for this reason the student of
+savage anthropology and the student of the higher religions of the
+world are equally rewarded by its study.
+
+Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the Hellenic nation,
+like others that have played great parts in history, was the product of
+a blend of populations, the conquering tribes of Aryan descent coming
+from the north and settling among and upon certain pre-Hellenic
+Mediterranean stocks. The conclusion that is naturally drawn from this
+is that Hellenic religion is also the product of a blend of early Aryan
+or Indo-Germanic beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the
+Mediterranean area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which
+the later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two component
+parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first problem for the
+history of the development of this religion, is by no means an easy
+task; we may advance further towards its solution, when the mysterious
+pre-Hellenic Mediterranean language or group of languages, of which
+traces remain in Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying
+uninterpreted on the brick-tablets of the palace of Cnossus, has found
+its interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language.
+But the comparative study of the Indo-European speech-group, great as
+its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre in its
+contributions to our positive knowledge of the original belief of the
+primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct a common
+Indo-European religion. The greater part of the separate Aryan
+cult-systems may have developed after the diffusion and may have been
+the result of contact in prehistoric days with non-Aryan peoples. And
+many old religious etymological equations, such as [Greek: Ouranos] =
+Sanskrit Varuna, [Greek: Hermês] = Saramey[=a]s, Athena = Ahana, were
+uncritically made and have been abandoned. The chief fact that philology
+has revealed concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is
+that many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word
+derived from a root meaning "bright," and which appears in Zeus,
+Jupiter, Sanskrit _Dyaus_. This is important enough, but we should not
+exaggerate its importance, nor draw the unwarranted inference that
+therefore the primitive Indo-Europeans worshipped one supreme God, the
+Sky-Father. Besides the word "Zeus," the only other names of the
+Hellenic pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of
+Aryan formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus (whose name and
+cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the Thraco-Phrygians) and
+probably Pan. But other names, such as Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis,
+Hera, Hermes, have no discovered affinities with other Aryan
+speech-groups; and yet there is nothing suspiciously non-Aryan in the
+formation of these words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest
+Hellenic-Aryan vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea, Hephaestus
+and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that they belonged to an
+older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in Crete and other islands, and
+here and there on the mainland; while we know that Zeus derived certain
+unintelligible titles in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan
+speech.
+
+A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence justifies the
+conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes, pushing down from
+the north, already possessed certain deities in common such as Zeus,
+Poseidon and Apollo with whom they associated certain goddesses, and
+that they maintained the cult of Hestia or "Holy Hearth." Further, a
+comparison of the developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples
+suggests that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity,
+although we have equally good reason to assert that the cult of
+goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is a genuinely "Aryan"
+product. But when the tribes of this family poured into the Greek
+peninsula, it is probable that they would find in certain centres of a
+very ancient civilization, such as Argolis and Crete, the dominant cult
+of a female divinity.[1] The recent excavations on the site of the Hera
+temple at Argos prove that a powerful goddess was worshipped here many
+centuries before it is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He
+may have even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with him
+and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are certain that
+the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by Dr Arthur Evans, is the
+ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek "Mother of the gods": and it is a
+reasonable conjecture that she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis
+and perhaps for Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in
+assuming as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult, as
+that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non-Hellenic
+religious phenomenon. The very name "Demeter" and the study of other
+Aryan religions prove the prominence of the worship of the earth-goddess
+in our own family of the nations. Finally, we must reckon with the
+possibility that the other great nations which fringed the
+Mediterranean, Hittite, Semitic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress
+on early Greek religion, although former scholars may have made rash use
+of this hypothesis.[2]
+
+
+  Animism.
+
+Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems concerning the
+ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at least reduce the tangle
+of facts to some order by distinguishing its lower from its higher
+forms, and thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We
+may collect and sift the phenomena that remain over from a
+pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past, the beliefs
+and practices that belong to the animistic or even the pre-animistic
+period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human sacrifice. We shall at
+once be struck with the contrast between such civilized cults as those
+of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal divinities to whom the attributes
+of a progressive morality could be attached, and practices that long
+survived in backward communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the
+thunder and the winds, the cult of Zeus [Greek: Keraunos] "the thunder"
+at Mantinea and Zeus [Greek: Kappôtas] in Laconia, who is none other
+than the mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These are
+examples of a religious view in which certain natural phenomena or
+objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred in their own right
+and a personal divinity has not yet emerged or been separated from them.
+A noteworthy product of primitive animistic feeling is the universally
+prevalent cult of Hestia, who is originally "Holy Hearth" pure and
+simple, and who even under the developed polytheism, in which she played
+no small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic
+personage.
+
+
+  Fetishism
+
+The animistic belief that certain material objects can be charged with a
+divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism, a term which properly
+denotes the worshipful or superstitious use of objects made by art and
+invested with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for the
+purposes of protective magic or for higher purposes of communion with
+the divinity. From the earliest discoverable period down to the present
+day fetishism has been a powerful factor in the religion of the
+Graeco-Roman world. The importance of the sacred stone and pillar in the
+"Mycenaean" or "Minoan" period which preceded Homer has been
+impressively shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship
+continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the rude
+aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often by the side of
+the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable conjecture that the earliest
+anthropomorphic images of divinities, which were beginning to make their
+appearance by the time of Homer, were themselves evolved by slow
+transformation from the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may
+have arisen as another form of this; the simple heap of stones, such as
+those erected to Hermes by the way-side and called [Greek: Hermaioi
+lophoi], may have served both as a place of worship and as an _agalma_
+that could attract and absorb a divine potency into itself. Hence the
+fetishistic power of the altar was fully recognized in Greek ritual, and
+hence also in the cult of Apollo Agyieus the god and the altar are
+called by the same name.
+
+It has been supposed that the ancestors of the historic Greeks, before
+they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as in human form,
+may have been accustomed to invest them with animal attributes and
+traits. We must not indeed suppose it to be a general law of religious
+evolution that "theriomorphism" must always precede anthropomorphism and
+that the latter transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems
+can exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can
+conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at another
+bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was devotedly
+anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its weakness;
+nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine his Dionysus entering
+temporarily into the body of the sacrificial bull or goat, and the men
+of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to their horse-headed Demeter, and
+the primitive Laconians possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Theriolatry in
+itself, i.e. the worship of certain animals as of divine power in their
+own right, apart from any association with higher divinities, can
+scarcely be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They are
+not found to have paid reverence to any species, though individual
+animals could acquire temporarily a divine character through communion
+with the altar or with the god. The wolf might at one time have been
+regarded as the incarnation of Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there
+we find faint traces of a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for
+wolves. But the occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of
+actual worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptuous
+funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolf's relatives, yet
+the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf's head. Nor did any Greek
+individual or state worship flies as a class, although a small oblation
+might be thrown to the flies before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the
+Leucadian rock, to please them and to persuade them not to worry the
+worshippers at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would
+be likely to attract them.
+
+
+  Totemism.
+
+Theriolatry suggests totemism; and though we now know that the former
+can arise and exist quite independently of the latter, recent
+anthropologists have interpreted the apparent sanctity or prestige of
+certain animals in parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit
+of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation, originated and
+maintained with great acumen by Andrew Lang and W. Robertson Smith,
+appears now somewhat hazardous; and as a scientific hypothesis there are
+many flaws in it. The more observant study of existing totem-tribes has
+weakened our impression of the importance of totemism as a primitive
+religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a social than
+as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard totemism as a mere
+system of nomenclature, by which a tribe names itself after some animal
+or plant, then we might quote a few examples of Hellenic tribes
+totemistic in this sense. But totemism is a fact of importance only when
+it affects the tribal marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the
+tribal marriage laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray
+no clear mark of totemistic arrangements; nor does the totemism of
+contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such way as
+to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar phenomena of
+early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we have traces of a
+snake-tribe in Greece, the [Greek: Ophieis] in Aetolia, the [Greek:
+Ophiogeneis] in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that these
+worshipped the snake, though the latter clan were on terms of intimacy
+with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped in Hellenic cult--the
+cases are few and doubtful--it may have been regarded as the incarnation
+of the ancestor or as the _avatar_ of the under-world divinity.
+
+
+  Human sacrifice.
+
+Finally, among the primitive or savage phenomena the practice of human
+sacrifice looms large. Encouraged at one time by the Delphic oracle, it
+was becoming rare and repellent to the conscience by the 6th century
+B.C.; but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even by the time
+of Porphyry. The facts are very complex and need critical handling, and
+a satisfying scientific explanation of them all is still to be sought.
+
+We can now observe the higher aspects of the advanced polytheism. And at
+the outset we must distinguish between mythology and religion strictly
+understood, between the stories about the divinities and the private or
+public religious service. No doubt the former are often a reflection of
+the latter, in many cases being suggested by the ritual which they may
+have been invented to interpret, and often envisaging important
+cult-ideas. Such for example are the myths about the purification and
+trial of Orestes, Theseus, Ixion, the story of Demeter's sorrow, of the
+sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition of
+human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irresponsible,
+without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal prohibition; and
+frequently it sank below the level of the current religion, which was
+almost free from the impurities which shock the modern reader of
+Hellenic myths. Nor again did any one feel himself called upon to
+believe any particular myth; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in
+which the term is used in Christian theology, as the will to believe
+certain dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity, is
+a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic ethics or
+religious doctrine; only, if a man proclaimed his disbelief in the
+existence of the gods and refused to join in the ritual of the
+community, he would become "suspect," and might at times be persecuted
+by his fellows. Greek religion was not so much an affair of doctrine as
+of ritual, religious formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities
+were an important component, and prayer; and the most illuminative
+sources of our knowledge of it are the ritual-inscriptions and other
+state-documents, the private dedications, the monuments of religious art
+and certain passages in the literature, philology and archaeology being
+equally necessary to the equipment of the student.
+
+
+  Religion in Homer.
+
+We are tempted to turn to Homer as the earliest authority. And though
+Homer is not primitive and does not present even an approximately
+complete account of Greek religion, we can gather from his poems a
+picture of an advanced polytheism which in form and structure at least
+is that which was presented to the world of Aeschylus. We discern a
+pantheon already to some extent systematized, a certain hierarchy and
+family of divinities in which the supremacy of Zeus is established as
+incontestable. And the anthropomorphic impulse, the strongest trend in
+the Greek religious imagination, which filled the later world with
+fictitious personages, generating transparent shams such as an
+Ampidromus for the ritual of the Ampidromia, Amphiction for the
+Amphictiones, a hero [Greek: Keramos] for the gild of potters, is
+already at its height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already
+clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically
+shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could work upon,
+not vaguely conceived _numina_ like the forms of the old Roman religion.
+Nor can we call them for the most part nature-deities like the
+personages of the Vedic system, thinly disguised "personifications" of
+natural phenomena. Athena is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun; they
+are simply Athena and Apollo, divine personages with certain powers and
+character, as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for
+Christendom. By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate
+position, we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may
+properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river-deities,
+forms descending probably from a remote animistic period, but
+maintaining themselves within the popular religion till the end of
+Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and think at times with levity
+and _banalité_ about his deities, his deeper utterances impute an
+advanced morality to the supreme God. His Zeus is on the whole a power
+of righteousness, dealing with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never
+being himself the author of evil--an idea revealed in the opening
+passage of the _Odyssey_--but protecting the good and punishing the
+wicked. Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both
+for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as it is in Judaic
+and Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides protested strongly
+against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus is equally a god of pity and
+mercy, and the man who neglects the prayers of the sorrowful and
+afflicted, who violates the sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or
+oppresses the poor or the wanderer, may look for divine punishment.
+Though not regarded as the physical author of the universe or the
+Creator, he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though
+the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed in the
+Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men that they reveal are
+on the whole genial and social; the deity sits unseen at the good man's
+festal sacrifice, and there is a simple apprehension of the idea of
+divine communion. There is also indeed a glimmering of the dark
+background of the nether world, and the chthonian powers that might send
+up the Erinys to fulfil the curse of the wronged. Yet on the whole the
+religious atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that
+of the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition; nor is Homer
+troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely recognizes the
+cult of the dead,[3] and is not oppressed by fear of the ghost-world.
+
+
+  The post-Homeric period.
+
+If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek public and
+private worship of the historic period we find much in it that agrees
+with Homeric theology. His "Olympian" system retains a certain life
+almost to the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to suppose
+that it had lost its hold upon the people of the 5th and 4th century
+B.C. We find it, indeed, enriched in the post-Homeric period with new
+figures of prestige and power; Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly
+heard, becomes a high god with a worship full of promise for the future.
+Demeter and Kore, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well enough
+but could not use for his epic purposes, attract the ardent affections
+and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the old poet did not
+recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place in the later shrines. But
+much that has been said of the Homeric may be said of the later
+classical theology. The deities remain anthropomorphic, and appear as
+clearly defined individuals. A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is
+supreme, even in the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities
+played many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the departmental
+system of divine functions; certain members of the pantheon had a
+preference for the life of the fields, but as the _polis_ emerged from
+the village communities, Demeter, Hermes, Artemis and others, the gods
+and goddesses of the husbandmen and shepherds, become powers of the
+council-chamber and the market-place. The moral ideas that we find in
+the Homeric religion are amply attested by cult-records of the later
+period. The deities are regarded on the whole as beneficent, though
+revengeful if wronged or neglected; the cult-titles used in prayer,
+which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and wish of the
+worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the doubtful title of Demeter
+Erinys being possibly an exception. The important cults of Zeus [Greek:
+Hikesios] and [Greek: Prostropaios], the suppliant's protecting deity,
+embody the ideas of pity and mercy that mark advanced religion; and many
+momentous steps in the development of morality and law were either
+suggested or assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity
+of the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness, was
+originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may have been
+prone to perjury, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic religious ethics
+regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of family duties, the
+sacredness of the life of the kinsman, were ideas fostered by early
+Hellenic religion before they generated principles of secular ethics. In
+the post-Homeric period, the development of the doctrine of purity,
+which was associated with the Apolline religion, combining with a
+growing dread of the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many
+important ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide.[4]
+And the beginnings of international law and morality were rooted in
+religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state-life was indebted in
+manifold ways to Greek religion, and the study of the Greek oracles
+would alone supply sufficient testimony of this. In many cases the very
+origin of the state was religious, the earliest _polis_ sometimes having
+arisen under the shadow of the temple.
+
+Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state, and the
+priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic. Secular
+advance, moral progress and the march of science, could never long be
+thwarted by religious tradition; on the contrary, speculative thought
+and artistic creation were considered as attributes of divinity. We may
+say that the religion of Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people,
+but rather as a servant than as a master.
+
+Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of the clan and
+family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania and Samothrace, and the
+private services of the mystic brotherhoods. The latter were scattered
+broadcast over Hellas, and the influence of the former was strengthened
+and their significance intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread
+at first from the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards,
+and derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic
+brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the religious
+consciousness, and we find a strong Salvationist tendency, the promise
+of salvation relying on mystic communion with the deity. Also a new and
+vital principle is at work; Orphism is the only force in Greek religion
+of a clear apostolic purpose, for it broke the barriers of the old
+tribal and civic cults, and preached its message to bond and free,
+Hellene and barbarian.
+
+The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned with its gradual
+penetration by Oriental ideas and worships, and the results of this
+[Greek: theokrasia] are discerned in an ever increasing mysticism and a
+tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated as the old Hellenic religion
+appeared to be by Christianity, it nevertheless retained a certain life,
+though transformed, under the new creed to which it lent much of its
+hieratic organization and religious terminology. The indebtedness of
+Christianity to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of
+comparative religion; and for an adequate estimate a minute knowledge of
+the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of the essential
+conditions.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Older Authorities: A. Maury, _Histoire des religions de
+  la Grèce antique_ (3 vols., 1857-1859); Welcker, _Griechische
+  Götterlehre_ (3 vols., 1857-1863); Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,
+  2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887), all antiquated in regard to
+  theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent
+  Literature--(a) General Treatises: O. Gruppe, "Griechische Mythologie
+  und Religionsgeschichte" in Iwan von Müller's _Handbuch der
+  klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 2. 2 (1902-1906); L. R.
+  Farnell's _Cults of the Greek States_, 4 vols. (1896-1906, vol. 5,
+  1908); Miss Jane Harrison's _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
+  Religion_ (ed. 1908); Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
+  Religionsgeschichte_ (Greek section, 1904); (b) Special Works or
+  Dissertations: articles in Roscher's _Ausführliches Lexikon der
+  griechischen und römischen Mythologie_, and Pauly-Wissowa
+  _Encyklopädie_ (1894-   ); Immerwahr, _Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_
+  (1891); Wide, _Lakonische Kulte_ (1893); de Visser, _De Graecorum diis
+  non referentibus speciem humanam_ (Leiden, 1900). Greek Ritual and
+  Festivals--A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); P. Stengel,
+  "Die griechischen Sacralaltertümer" in Iwan von Müller's _Handbuch_,
+  v. 3 (1898); W. H. D. Rouse, _Greek Votive Offerings_ (1902). Greek
+  Religious Thought and Speculation--L. Campbell's _Religion in Greek
+  Literature_ (1898); Ducharme, _La Critique des traditions religieuses
+  chez les Grecs des origines au temps de Plutarque_ (Paris, 1904). See
+  also articles on individual deities, and cf. ROMAN RELIGION;
+  MYSTERIES; MITHRAS.     (L. R. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This has often been explained as a result of _Mutterrecht_, or
+    reckoning descent through the female: for reasons against this
+    hypothesis see L. R. Farnell in _Archiv für vergleichende
+    Religionswissenschaft_ (1904); cf. A. J. Evans, "Mycenaean Tree and
+    Pillar Cult," in _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_ (1901).
+
+  [2] V. Bérard has recently revived the discredited theory of a
+    prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical work,
+    _L'Origine des cultes arcadiens_. M. P. Foucart believes in very
+    early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion of
+    Demeter and Dionysus; see _Les Grands Mystères d'Éleusis_ and _Le
+    Culte de Dionysos en Attique_.
+
+  [3] This became very powerful from the 7th century onward, and there
+    are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric, or
+    Mycenaean, period; _vide_ Rohde's _Psyche_ (new edition), Tsountas
+    and Manatt, _The Mycenaean Age_.
+
+  [4] See L. R. Farnell, _Evolution of Religion_ (Hibbert Lectures,
+    1905), pp. 139-152.
+
+
+
+
+GREELEY, HORACE (1811-1872), American statesman and man of letters, was
+born at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of February 1811. His parents
+were of Scottish-Irish descent, but the ancestors of both had been in
+New England for several generations. He was the third of seven children.
+His father, Zaccheus Greeley, owned a farm of 50 acres of stony, sterile
+land, from which a bare support was wrung. Horace was a feeble and
+precocious lad, taking little interest in the ordinary sports of
+childhood, learning to read before he was able to talk plainly, and the
+prodigy of the neighbourhood for accurate spelling. Before Horace was
+ten years old (1820), his father became bankrupt, his home was sold by
+the sheriff, and Zaccheus Greeley himself fled the state to escape
+arrest for debt. The family soon removed to West Haven, Vermont, where,
+all working together, they made a scanty living as day labourers. Horace
+from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely eleven years
+old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office at Whitehall, New
+York, but was rejected on account of his youth. After three years more
+with the family as a day labourer at West Haven, he succeeded, with his
+father's consent, in being apprenticed in the office of _The Northern
+Spectator_, at East Poultney, Vermont. Here he soon became a good
+workman, developed a passion for politics and especially for political
+statistics, came to be depended upon for more or less of the editing of
+the paper, and was a figure in the village debating society. He received
+only $40 a year, but he sent most of his money to his father. In June
+1830 _The Northern Spectator_ was suspended. Meantime his father had
+removed to a small tract of wild land in the dense forests of Western
+Pennsylvania, 30 m. from Erie. The released apprentice now visited his
+parents, and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile
+seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he got it,
+giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last, with no further
+prospect of work nearer home, he started for New York. He travelled on
+foot and by canal-boat, entering New York in August 1831, with all his
+clothes in a bundle carried over his back with a stick, and with but $10
+in his pocket. More than half of this sum was exhausted while he made
+vain efforts to find employment. Many refused to employ him, in the
+belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor, ill-fitting
+apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against him. At last he
+found work on a 32mo New Testament, set in agate, double columns, with a
+middle column of notes in pearl. It was so difficult and so poorly paid
+that other printers had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded in making
+enough to pay his board bill, but he finished the task, and thus found
+subsequent employment easier to get.
+
+In January 1833 Greeley formed a partnership with Francis V. Story, a
+fellow-workman. Their combined capital amounted to about $150. Procuring
+their type on credit, they opened a small office, and undertook the
+printing of the _Morning Post_, the first cheap paper published in New
+York. Its projector, Dr Horatio D. Shepard, meant to sell it for one
+cent, but under the arguments of Greeley he was persuaded to fix the
+price at two cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the
+printers losing only $50 or $60 by the experiment. They still had a
+_Bank Note Reporter_ to print, and soon got the printing of a tri-weekly
+paper, the _Constitutionalist_, the organ of some lottery dealers.
+Within six months Story was drowned, but his brother-in-law, Jonas
+Winchester, took his place in the firm. Greeley was now asked by James
+Gordon Bennett to go into partnership with him in starting _The Herald_.
+He declined the venture, but recommended the partner whom Bennett
+subsequently took. On the 2nd of March 1834, Greeley and Winchester
+issued the first number of _The New Yorker_, a weekly literary and news
+paper, the firm then supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of the
+first number they sold about 100 copies; of the second, nearly 200.
+There was an average increase for the next month of about 100 copies per
+week. The second volume began with a circulation of about 4550 copies,
+and with a loss on the first year's publication of $3000. The second
+year ended with 7000 subscribers and a further loss of $2000. By the end
+of the third year _The New Yorker_ had reached a circulation of 9500
+copies, and had sustained a total loss of $7000. It was published seven
+years (until the 20th of September 1841), and was never profitable, but
+it was widely popular, and it gave Greeley, who was its sole editor,
+much prominence. On the 5th of July 1836 Greeley married Miss Mary Y.
+Cheney, a Connecticut school teacher, whom he had met in a Grahamite
+(vegetarian) boarding-house in New York.
+
+During the publication of _The New Yorker_ he added to the scanty income
+which the job printing brought him by supplying editorials to the
+short-lived _Daily Whig_ and various other publications. In 1838 he had
+gained such standing as a writer that he was selected by Thurlow Weed,
+William H. Seward, and other leaders of the Whig Party, for the
+editorship of a campaign paper entitled _The Jeffersonian_, published at
+Albany. He continued _The New Yorker_, and travelled between Albany and
+New York each week to edit the two papers. The _Jeffersonian_ was a
+quiet and instructive rather than a vehement campaign sheet, and the
+Whigs believed that it had a great effect upon the elections of the next
+year. When, on the 2nd of May 1840, some time after the nomination by
+the Whig party of William Henry Harrison for the Presidency, Greeley
+began the publication of a new weekly campaign paper, _The Log Cabin_,
+it sprang at once into a great circulation; 40,000 copies of the first
+number were sold, and it finally rose to 80,000. It was considered a
+brilliant political success, but it was not profitable, and in September
+1841 was merged in the _Weekly Tribune_. On the 3rd of April 1841,
+Greeley announced that on the following Saturday (April 10th) he would
+begin the publication of a daily newspaper of the same general
+principles, to be called _The Tribune_. He was now entirely without
+money. From a personal friend, James Coggeshall, he borrowed $1000, on
+which capital and the editor's reputation _The Tribune_ was founded. It
+began with 500 subscribers. The first week's expenses were $525 and the
+receipts $92. By the end of the fourth week it had run up a circulation
+of 6000, and by the seventh reached 11,000, which was then the full
+capacity of its press. It was alert, cheerful and aggressive, was
+greatly helped by the attacks of rival papers, and promised success
+almost from the start.
+
+From this time Greeley was popularly identified with _The Tribune_, and
+its share in the public discussion of the time is his history. It soon
+became moderately prosperous, and his assured income should have placed
+him beyond pecuniary worry. His income was long above $15,000 per year,
+frequently as much as $35,000 or more. But he lacked business thrift,
+inherited a disposition to endorse for his friends, and was often unable
+to distinguish between deserving applicants for aid and adventurers. He
+was thus frequently straitened, and, as his necessities pressed, he sold
+successive interests in his newspaper. At the outset he owned the whole
+of it. When it was already firmly established (in July 1841), he took in
+Thomas McElrath as an equal partner, upon the contribution of $2000 to
+the common fund. By the 1st of January 1849 he had reduced his interest
+to 31½ shares out of 100; by July 2nd, 1860, to 15 shares; in 1868 he
+owned only 9; and in 1872, only 6. In 1867 the stock sold for $6500 per
+share, and his last sale was for $9600. He bought wild lands, took stock
+in mining companies, desiccated egg companies, patent looms,
+photo-lithographic companies, gave away profusely, lent to plausible
+rascals, and was the ready prey of every new inventor who chanced to
+find him with money or with property that he could readily convert into
+money.
+
+In September 1841 Greeley merged his weekly papers, _The Log Cabin_ and
+_The New Yorker_, into _The Weekly Tribune_, which soon attained as wide
+circulation as its predecessors, and was much more profitable. It rose
+in a time of great political excitement to a total circulation of a
+quarter of a million, and it sometimes had for successive years 140,000
+to 150,000. For several years it was rarely much below 100,000. Its
+subscribers were found throughout all quarters of the northern half of
+the Union from Maine to Oregon, large packages going to remote districts
+beyond the Mississippi or Missouri, whose only connexion with the
+outside world was through a weekly or semi-weekly mail. The readers of
+this weekly paper acquired a personal affection for its editor, and he
+was thus for many years the American writer most widely known and most
+popular among the rural classes. The circulation of _The Daily Tribune_
+was never proportionately great--its advocacy of a protective tariff,
+prohibitory liquor legislation and other peculiarities, repelling a
+large support which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It
+rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of
+20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and thereafter
+ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a semi-weekly edition
+was also printed, which ultimately reached a steady circulation of from
+15,000 to 25,000.
+
+From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to hear all
+sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas. In March 1842
+_The Tribune_ began to give one column daily to a discussion of the
+doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed by Albert Brisbane. Gradually
+Greeley came to advocate some of these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he
+had a sharp discussion upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J.
+Raymond, then employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve
+articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book form.
+Greeley became personally interested in one of the Fourierite
+associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red Bank, N. J.
+(1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions doubtless led to or
+gave encouragement to other socialistic experiments, such as that at
+Brook Farm. When this was abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one
+or two other members, sought employment from Greeley upon _The Tribune_.
+Greeley dissented from many of Fourier's propositions, and in later
+years was careful to explain that the principle of association for the
+common good of working men and the elevation of labour was the chief
+feature which attracted him. Co-operation among working men he continued
+to urge throughout his life. In 1850 the Fox Sisters, on his wife's
+invitation, spent several weeks in his house. His attitude towards their
+"rappings" and "spiritual manifestations" was one of observation and
+inquiry; and in his _Recollections_ he wrote concerning these
+manifestations: "That some of them are the result of juggle, collusion
+or trick I am confident; that others are _not_, I decidedly believe."
+
+From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and throughout his
+active life he was its most trenchant advocate and propagandist. Besides
+constantly urging it in the columns of _The Tribune_, he appeared as
+early as 1843 in a public debate on "The Grounds of Protection," with
+Samuel J. Tilden and Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular
+essays on the subject were published over his own signature in _The
+Tribune_ in 1869, and subsequently republished in book form, with a
+title-page describing protection to home industry as a system of
+national co-operation for the elevation of labour. He opposed woman
+suffrage on the ground that the majority of women did not want it and
+never would, and declared that until woman should "emancipate herself
+from the thraldom to etiquette," he "could not see how the 'woman's
+rights theory' is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible
+abstraction." He aided practical efforts, however, for extending the
+sphere of woman's employments. He opposed the theatres, and for a time
+refused to publish their advertisements. He held the most rigid views on
+the sanctity of marriage and against easy divorce, and vehemently
+defended them in controversies with Robert Dale Owen and others. He
+practised and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous
+liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise. He
+denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to pay interest
+on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once held a place in the
+"Directory of the Friends of Ireland," and contributed liberally to its
+support. He used the occasion of Charles Dickens's first visit to
+America to urge international copyright, and was one of the few editors
+to avoid alike the flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and
+the ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his
+_American Notes_. On the occasion of Dickens's second visit to America,
+Greeley presided at the great banquet given him by the press of the
+country. He made the first elaborate reports of popular scientific
+lectures by Louis Agassiz and other authorities. He gave ample hearing
+to the advocates of phonography and of phonographic spelling. He was one
+of the most conspicuous advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many
+other internal improvements.
+
+But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief agency in
+educating the mass of the Northern people to that opposition through
+legal forms to the extension of slavery which culminated in the election
+of Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War, that Greeley's main work was done.
+Incidents in it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a
+scheme for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in
+Washington by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indictment
+in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary documents,
+perpetual denunciation of him in Southern newspapers and speeches, and
+the hostility of the Abolitionists, who regarded his course as too
+conservative. His anti-slavery work culminated in his appeal to
+President Lincoln, entitled "The Prayer of Twenty Millions," in which he
+urged "that all attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time
+uphold its inciting cause" were preposterous and futile, and that "every
+hour of deference to slavery" was "an hour of added and deepened peril
+to the Union." President Lincoln in his reply said: "My paramount object
+is to save the Union, and not either to save or destroy slavery.... What
+I do about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it
+helps to save this Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not
+believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here stated my
+purpose according to my views of official duty; and I intend no
+modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere
+could be free." Precisely one month after the date of this reply the
+Emancipation Proclamation was issued.
+
+Greeley's political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one of the
+founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he held few
+offices. In 1848-1849 he served a three months' term in Congress,
+filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for giving small tracts
+of government land free to actual settlers, and published an exposure of
+abuses in the allowance of mileage to members, which corrected the evil,
+but brought him much personal obloquy. In the National Republican
+Convention in 1860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state
+on account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate, he was
+made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to Seward did much to
+prevent the success of that statesman, and to bring about instead the
+nomination of Abraham Lincoln. This was attributed by his opponents to
+personal motives, and a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication
+of which he challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling
+days he had been wounded at Seward's failure to offer him office. In
+1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal
+opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that Evarts could
+not be elected, his supporters threw their votes for a third candidate,
+Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over Greeley by a small majority. At the
+outbreak of the war he favoured allowing the Southern states to secede,
+provided a majority of their people at a fair election should so decide,
+declaring "that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof one section
+was pinned to the other by bayonets." When the war began he urged the
+most vigorous prosecution of it. The "On to Richmond" appeal, which
+appeared day after day in _The Tribune_, was incorrectly attributed to
+him, and it did not wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in
+the first battle of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he
+urged negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern
+Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to confer with
+them. They were found to have no sufficient authority. In 1864 he was
+one of the Lincoln Presidential electors for New York. At the close of
+the war, contrary to the general feeling of his party, he urged
+universal amnesty and impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction.
+In 1867 his friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the
+United States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he
+refused to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and
+with what his friends thought unnecessary candour re-stated his
+obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before the time for
+the election, with the certainty that this would prevent his success.
+Some months later he signed the bail bond of Jefferson Davis, and this
+provoked a torrent of public indignation. He had written a popular
+history of the late war, the first volume having an immense sale and
+bringing him unusually large profits. The second was just issued, and
+the subscribers, in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An
+unsuccessful attempt was also made to expel him from the Union League
+Club of New York.
+
+In 1867 he was a delegate-at-large to the convention for the revision of
+the state constitution, and in 1869 and 1870 he was the Republican
+candidate for controller of the state and member of Congress
+respectively, but in each case was defeated.
+
+He was dissatisfied with General Grant's administration, and became its
+sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to develop ended in the
+organization of the Liberal Republican party, which held its National
+Convention at Cincinnati in 1872, and nominated Greeley for the
+presidency. For a time the tide of feeling ran strongly in his favour.
+It was first checked by the action of his life-long opponents, the
+Democrats, who also nominated him at their National Convention. He
+expected their support, on account of his attitude toward the South and
+hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him their formal
+nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many Republicans who had
+sympathized with his criticisms of the administration, and with the
+declaration of principles adopted at the first convention, were repelled
+by the coalition. This feeling grew stronger until the election. His old
+party associates regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a
+half-hearted support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual
+bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August, on
+representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took the field
+in person, and made a series of campaign speeches, beginning in New
+England and extending throughout Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana, which
+aroused great enthusiasm, and were regarded at the time by both friends
+and opponents as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied
+intellectual power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass.
+General Grant received in the election 3,597,070 votes, Greeley
+2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia, Kentucky,
+Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas.
+
+He had resigned his editorship of _The Tribune_ immediately after the
+nomination; he now resumed it cheerfully; but it was soon apparent that
+his powers had been overstrained. For years he had suffered greatly from
+sleeplessness. During the intense excitement of the campaign the
+difficulty was increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went
+immediately to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had
+practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation of the
+upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He expired on the 29th
+of November 1872. His funeral was a simple but impressive public
+pageant. The body lay in state in the City Hall, where it was surrounded
+by crowds of many thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the
+President and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief-Justice of
+the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men of both
+parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession, preceded by the
+mayor and other civic authorities, down Broadway. He had been the target
+of constant attack during his life, and his personal foibles, careless
+dress and mental eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But
+his death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held as a
+leader of opinion and faithful public servant. "Our later Franklin"
+Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his countrymen
+remember him.
+
+In 1851 Greeley visited Europe for the first time, serving as a juryman
+at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before a committee of the
+House of Commons on newspaper taxes, and urging the repeal of the stamp
+duty on advertisements. In 1855 he made a second trip to Europe. In
+Paris he was arrested on the suit of a sculptor, whose statue had been
+injured in the New York World's Fair (of which he had been a director),
+and spent two days in Clichy, of which he gave an amusing account. In
+1859 he visited California by the overland route, and had numerous
+public receptions. In 1871 he visited Texas, and his trip through the
+southern country, where he had once been so hated, was an ovation. About
+1852 he purchased a farm at Chappaqua, New York, where he afterwards
+habitually spent his Saturdays, and experimented in agriculture. He was
+in constant demand as a lecturer from 1843, when he made his first
+appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences, and, in spite
+of his bad management in money matters, received considerable sums,
+sometimes $6000 or $7000 for a single winter's lecturing. He was also
+much sought for as a contributor, over his own signature, to the weekly
+newspapers, and was sometimes largely paid for these articles. In
+religious faith he was from boyhood a Universalist, and for many years
+was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalist church in New York.
+
+His published works are: _Hints Toward Reforms_ (1850); _Glances at
+Europe_ (1851); _History of the Struggle for Slavery Extension_ (1856);
+_Overland Journey to San Francisco_ (1860); _The American Conflict_ (2
+vols., 1864-1866); _Recollections of a Busy Life_ (1868; new edition,
+with appendix containing an account of his later years, his argument
+with Robert Dale Owen on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873);
+_Essays on Political Economy_ (1870); and _What I know of Farming_
+(1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland, in
+editing _A Political Text-book_ (1860), and supervised for many years
+the annual issues of _The Whig Almanac_ and _The Tribune Almanac_,
+comprising extensive political statistics.
+
+  The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Parton (New York, 1855;
+  new ed., Boston, 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y. 1903). Lives have also
+  been written by L. U. Reavis (New York, 1872), and L. D. Ingersoll
+  (Chicago, 1873); and there is a _Memorial of Horace Greeley_ (New
+  York, 1873).     (W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GREELEY, a city and the county-seat of Weld county, Colorado, U.S.A.,
+about 50 m. N. by E. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 2395; (1900) 3023 (286
+foreign-born); (1910) 8179. It is served by the Union Pacific and the
+Colorado & Southern railways. In 1908 a franchise was granted to the
+Denver & Greeley Electric railway. The city is the seat of the State
+Normal School of Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the
+city. The county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its
+agricultural importance is due to an elaborate system of irrigation. In
+1899 Weld county had under irrigation 226,613 acres, representing an
+increase of 102.2% since 1889, and a much larger irrigated area than in
+any other county of the state. Irrigation ditches are supplied with
+water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre, Big Thompson and South Platte
+rivers, near the foothills. The principal crops are potatoes, sugar
+beets, onions, cabbages and peas; in 1899 Weld county raised 2,821,285
+bushels of potatoes on 23,195 acres (53% of the potato acreage for the
+entire state). The manufacture of beet sugar is a growing industry, a
+large factory having been established at Greeley in 1902. Beets are also
+grown as food for live stock, especially sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages
+and onions are canned here. Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Cook
+Meeker (1817-1879), agricultural editor of the New York _Tribune_. With
+the support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named), he
+began in 1869 to advocate in _The Tribune_ the founding of an
+agricultural colony in Colorado. Subsequently President Hayes appointed
+him Indian agent at White River, Colorado, and he was killed at what is
+now Meeker, Colorado, in an uprising of the Ute Indians. Under Meeker's
+scheme, which attracted mainly people from New England and New York
+state, most of whom were able to contribute at least a little capital,
+the Union Colony of Colorado was organized and chartered, and bought
+originally 11,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from
+it one residence lot, one business lot, and a tract of farm land. The
+funds thus acquired were, to a large extent, expended in making public
+improvements. A clause inserted in all deeds forbade the sale of
+intoxicating liquors on the land concerned, under pain of the reversion
+of such property to the colony. The initiation fees ($5) were used for
+the expenses of locating the colony, and the membership certificate fees
+($150) were expended in the construction of irrigating ditches, as was
+the money received from the sale of town lots, except about $13,000
+invested in a school building (now the Meeker Building). Greeley was
+organized as a town in 1871, and was chartered as a city of the second
+class in 1886. The "Union Colony of Colorado" still exists as an
+incorporated body and holds reversionary rights in streets, alleys and
+public grounds, and in all places "where intoxicating liquors are
+manufactured, sold or given away, as a beverage."
+
+  See Richard T. Ely, "A Study of a 'Decreed' Town," _Harper's
+  Magazine_, vol. 106 (1902-1903), p. 390 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832-1896), English geologist, son of the Rev.
+Thomas Sheldon Green, master of the Ashby Grammar School, was born at
+Maidstone on the 10th of October 1832. He was educated partly at his
+father's school, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and afterwards at Gonville and Caius
+College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixth wrangler in 1855 and was
+elected a fellow of his college. In 1861 he joined the Geological Survey
+of Great Britain, and surveyed large areas of the midland counties,
+Derbyshire and Yorkshire. He wrote (wholly or in part) memoirs on the
+Geology of Banbury (1864), of Stockport (1866), of North Derbyshire
+(1869, 2nd ed. 1887), and of the Yorkshire Coal-field (1878). In 1874 he
+retired from the Geological Survey, having been appointed professor of
+geology in the Yorkshire College at Leeds; in 1885 he became also
+professor of mathematics, while for many years he held the lectureship
+on geology at the school of military engineering at Chatham. He was
+elected F.R.S. in 1886, and two years later was chosen professor of
+geology in the university of Oxford. His manual of _Physical Geology_
+(1876, 3rd ed. 1882) is an excellent book. He died at Boar's Hill,
+Oxford, on the 19th of August 1896.
+
+  A portrait of him, with brief memoir, was published in _Proc. Yorksh.
+  Geol. and Polytechnic Soc._ xiii. 232.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, DUFF (1791-1875), American politician and journalist, was born in
+Woodford county, Kentucky, on the 15th of August 1791. He was a school
+teacher in his native state, served during the War of 1812 in the
+Kentucky militia, and then settled in Missouri, where he worked as a
+schoolmaster and practised law. He was a member of the Missouri
+Constitutional Convention of 1820, and was elected to the state House of
+Representatives in 1820 and to the state Senate in 1822, serving one
+term in each house. Becoming interested in journalism, he purchased and
+for two years edited the St Louis _Enquirer_. In 1825 he bought and
+afterwards edited in Washington, D.C., _The United States Telegraph_,
+which soon became the principal organ of the Jackson men in opposition
+to the Adams administration. Upon Andrew Jackson's election to the
+presidency, the _Telegraph_ became the principal mouthpiece of the
+administration, and received printing patronage estimated in value at
+$50,000 a year, while Green became one of the coterie of unofficial
+advisers of Jackson known as the "Kitchen Cabinet." In the quarrel
+between Jackson and John C. Calhoun, Green supported the latter, and
+through the columns of the _Telegraph_ violently attacked the
+administration. In consequence, his paper was deprived of the government
+printing in the spring of 1831. Green, however, continued to edit it in
+the Calhoun interest until 1835, and gave vigorous support to that
+leader's nullification views. From 1835 to 1838 he edited _The
+Reformation_, a radically partisan publication, devoted to free trade
+and the extreme states' rights theory. In 1841-1843 he was in Europe on
+behalf of the Tyler administration, and he is said to have been
+instrumental in causing the appointment of Lord Ashburton to negotiate
+in Washington concerning the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada.
+In January 1843 Green established in New York City a short-lived
+journal, _The Republic_, to combat the spoils system and to advocate
+free trade. In September 1844 Calhoun, then secretary of state, sent
+Green to Texas ostensibly as consul at Galveston, but actually, it
+appears, to report to the administration, then considering the question
+of the annexation of Texas, concerning the political situation in Texas
+and Mexico. After the close of the war with Mexico Green was sent to
+that country in 1849 by President Taylor to negotiate concerning the
+moneys which, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had
+agreed to pay; and he saved his country a considerable sum by arranging
+for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subsequently Green was
+engaged in railway building in Georgia and Alabama. On the 10th of June
+1875 he died in Dalton, Georgia, a city which in 1848 he had helped to
+found.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837-1883), English historian, was born at Oxford
+on 12th December 1837, and educated at Magdalen College School and at
+Jesus College, where he obtained an open scholarship. On leaving Oxford
+he took orders and became the incumbent of St Philip's, Stepney. His
+preaching was eloquent and able; he worked diligently among his poor
+parishioners and won their affection by his ready sympathy. Meanwhile he
+studied history in a scholarly fashion, and wrote much for the _Saturday
+Review_. Partly because his health was weak and partly because he ceased
+to agree with the teaching of the Church of England, he abandoned
+clerical life and devoted himself to history; in 1868 he took the post
+of librarian at Lambeth, but his health was already breaking down and he
+was attacked by consumption. His _Short History of the English People_
+(1874) at once attained extraordinary popularity, and was afterwards
+expanded in a work of four volumes (1877-1880). Green is pre-eminently a
+picturesque historian; he had a vivid imagination and a keen eye for
+colour. His chief aim was to depict the progressive life of the English
+people rather than to write a political history of the English state. In
+accomplishing this aim he worked up the results of wide reading into a
+series of brilliant pictures. While generally accurate in his statement
+of facts, and showing a firm grasp of the main tendency of a period, he
+often builds more on his authorities than is warranted by their words,
+and is apt to overlook points which would have forced him to modify his
+representations and lower the tone of his colours. From his animated
+pages thousands have learned to take pleasure in the history of their
+own people, but could scarcely learn to appreciate the complexity
+inherent in all historical movement. His style is extremely bright, but
+it lacks sobriety and presents some affectations. His later histories,
+_The Making of England_ (1882) and _The Conquest of England_ (1883), are
+more soberly written than his earlier books, and are valuable
+contributions to historical knowledge. Green died at Mentone on the 7th
+of March 1883. He was a singularly attractive man, of wide intellectual
+sympathies and an enthusiastic temperament; his good-humour was
+unfailing and he was a brilliant talker; and his work was done with
+admirable courage in spite of ill-health. It is said that Mrs Humphry
+Ward's _Robert Elsmere_ is largely a portrait of him. In 1877 Green
+married Miss Alice Stopford; and Mrs Green, besides writing a memoir of
+her husband, prefixed to the 1888 edition of his _Short History_, has
+herself done valuable work as an historian, particularly in her _Henry
+II._ in the "English Statesmen" series (1888), her _Town Life in the
+15th Century_ (1894), and _The Making of Ireland and its Undoing_
+(1908).
+
+  See the _Letters of J. R. Green_ (1901), edited by Leslie Stephen.
+       (W. Hu.)
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737), English poet, was born of Nonconformist
+parents. He had a post in the custom house, and the few anecdotes that
+have been preserved of him show him to have been as witty as his poems
+would lead one to expect. He died unmarried at his lodging in Nag's Head
+Court, Gracechurch Street, in 1737. His _Grotto_, a poem on Queen
+Caroline's grotto at Richmond, was printed in 1732; and his chief poem,
+_The Spleen_, in 1737 with a preface by his friend Richard Glover. These
+and some other short poems were printed in Dodsley's collection (1748),
+and subsequently in various editions of the British poets. They were
+edited In 1796 with a preface by Dr Aikin and in 1883 by R. E. A.
+Willmott with the poems of Gray and others. _The Spleen_ is an epistle
+to Mr Cuthbert Jackson, advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet
+content as remedies. It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of
+it: "There is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have formed
+his judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-notes often
+break out into strains of real poetry and music."
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882), English philosopher, the most typical
+English representative of the school of thought called _Neo-Kantian_, or
+_Neo-Hegelian_, was born on the 7th of April 1836 at Birkin, a village
+in the West Riding of Yorkshire, of which his father was rector. On the
+paternal side he was descended from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest,
+sturdy independence of character he seemed to have inherited. His
+education was conducted entirely at home until, at the age of fourteen,
+he entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In 1855 he became an
+undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford, of which society he
+was, in 1860, elected fellow. His life henceforth, was devoted to
+teaching (mainly philosophical) in the university--first as college
+tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his death (at Oxford on the 26th of
+March 1882) as Whyte's Professor of Moral Philosophy. The lectures he
+delivered as professor form the substance of his two most important
+works, viz. the _Prolegomena to Ethics_ and the _Lectures on the
+Principles of Political Obligation_, which contain the whole of his
+positive constructive teaching. These works were not published until
+after his death, but Green's views were previously known indirectly
+through the _Introduction_ to the standard edition of Hume's works by
+Green and T. H. Grose (d. 1906), fellow of Queen's College, in which the
+doctrine of the "English" or "empirical" philosophy was exhaustively
+examined.
+
+Hume's empiricism, combined with a belief in biological evolution
+(derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature in English thought
+during the third quarter of the 19th century. Green represents primarily
+the reaction against doctrines which, when carried out to their logical
+conclusion, not only "rendered all philosophy futile," but were fatal to
+practical life. By reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated
+atomic sensations, this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge,
+and further, by representing man as a "being who is simply the result of
+natural forces," it made conduct, or any theory of conduct, unmeaning;
+for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a personal self which
+(1) _knows_ what to do, (2) has _power_ to do it. Green was thus driven,
+not theoretically, but as a practical necessity, to raise again the
+whole question of man in relation to nature. When (he held) we have
+discovered what man in himself is, and what his relation to his
+environment, we shall then know his function--what he is fitted to do.
+In the light of this knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral
+code, which, in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and
+social institutions. These form, naturally and necessarily, the
+objective expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social
+whole that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape.
+
+To ask "What is man?" is to ask "What is experience?" for experience
+means that of which I am conscious. The facts of consciousness are the
+only facts which, to begin with, we are justified in asserting to exist.
+On the other hand, they are valid evidence for whatever is necessary to
+their own explanation, i.e. for whatever is logically involved in them.
+Now the most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks him
+specially, as contrasted with other animals, is _self_-consciousness. The
+simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations of the human
+mind--the act of sense-perception--is never merely a _change_, physical
+or psychical, but is the _consciousness_ of a change. Human experience
+consists, not of processes in an animal organism, but of these processes
+recognized as such. That which we perceive is from the outset an
+apprehended fact--that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated
+elements (so-called sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of
+consciousness at all, but exists from the first as a synthesis of
+relations in a consciousness which keeps distinct the "self" and the
+various elements of the "object," though holding all together in the
+unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental
+structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with its
+most complex constituents, of the "work of the mind." Locke and Hume held
+that the work of the mind was _eo ipso_ unreal because it was "made by"
+man and not "given to" man. It thus represented a subjective creation,
+not an objective fact. But this consequence follows only upon the
+assumption that the work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to
+be unjustified by the results of exact science, with the distinction,
+universally recognized, which such science draws between truth and
+falsehood, between the real and "mere ideas." This (obviously valid)
+distinction logically involves the consequence that the object, or
+content, of knowledge, viz. reality, is an intelligible ideal reality, a
+system of thought relations, a spiritual cosmos. How is the existence of
+this ideal whole to be accounted for? Only by the existence of some
+"principle which renders all relations possible and is itself determined
+by none of them"; an eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what
+we know in part. To God the world _is_, to man the world _becomes_. Human
+experience is God gradually made manifest.
+
+Carrying on the same analytical method into the special department of
+moral philosophy, Green held that ethics applies to the peculiar
+conditions of social life that investigation into man's nature which
+metaphysics began. The faculty employed in this further investigation is
+no "separate moral faculty," but that same reason which is the source of
+all our knowledge--ethical and other. Self-reflection gradually reveals
+to us human capacity, human function, with, consequently, human
+responsibility. It brings out into clear consciousness certain
+potentialities in the realization of which man's true good must consist.
+As the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into the
+surroundings man lives in, a "content"--a moral code--becomes gradually
+evolved. Personal good is perceived to be realizable only by making
+actual the conceptions thus arrived at. So long as these remain
+potential or ideal, they form the motive of action; motive consisting
+always in the idea of some "end" or "good" which man presents to himself
+as an end in the attainment of which he would be satisfied, that is, in
+the realization of which he would find his true self. The determination
+to realize the self in some definite way constitutes an "act of will,"
+which, as thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally
+determined. For the motive which may be said to be its cause lies _in_
+the man himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive
+is a _self_-determination, which is at once both rational and free. The
+"freedom of man" is constituted, not by a supposed ability to do
+anything he may choose, but in the power to identify himself with that
+true good which reason reveals to him as _his_ true good. This good
+consists in the realization of personal character; hence the final good,
+i.e. the moral ideal, as a whole, can be realized only in some society
+of persons who, while remaining ends to themselves in the sense that
+their individuality is not lost but rendered more perfect, find this
+perfection attainable only when the separate individualities are
+integrated as part of a social whole. Society is as necessary to form
+persons as persons are to constitute society. Social union is the
+indispensable condition of the development of the special capacities of
+the individual members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in
+isolation; it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens
+in the social community.
+
+The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or
+political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less
+constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but consists
+in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which
+self-analysis has revealed to us as _our_ ideal. From this fact arises
+the ground of political obligation, for the institutions of political or
+civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral ideas in terms of our
+day and generation. But, as society exists only for the proper
+development of persons, we have a criterion by which to test these
+institutions, viz. do they, or do they not, contribute to the
+development of moral character in the individual citizens? It is obvious
+that the final moral ideal is not realized in any body of civic
+institutions actually existing, but the same analysis which demonstrates
+this deficiency points out the direction which a true development will
+take. Hence arises the conception of rights and duties which _should_
+be maintained by law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the
+further consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to
+rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is, in
+order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes the
+_raison d'être_ of the state. The state does not consist in any definite
+concrete organization formed once for all. It represents a "general
+will" which is a desire for a common good. Its basis is not a coercive
+authority imposed upon the citizens from without, but consists in the
+spiritual recognition, on the part of the citizens, of that which
+constitutes their true nature. "Will, not force, is the basis of the
+state."
+
+  Green's teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent
+  philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the 19th
+  century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and his
+  personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of the
+  effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the
+  universities more into touch with the people, and to break down the
+  rigour of class distinctions.
+
+  Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking characteristic
+  is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in thought and in
+  reality. "That which is" is a _whole_, not an _aggregate_; an organic
+  complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a "whole" too not material
+  but spiritual, a "world of thought-relations." On the critical side
+  this teaching is now admittedly valid against the older empiricism,
+  and the cogency of the reasoning by which his constructive theory is
+  supported is generally recognized. Nevertheless, Green's statement of
+  his conclusions presents important difficulties. Even apart from the
+  impossibility of conceiving a whole of relations which are relations
+  and nothing else (this objection is perhaps largely verbal), no
+  explanation is given of the fact (obvious in experience) that the
+  spiritual entities of which the Universe is composed _appear_
+  material. Certain elements present themselves in feeling which seem
+  stubbornly to resist any attempt to explain them in terms of thought.
+  While, again, legitimately insisting upon personality as a fundamental
+  constituent in any true theory of reality, the relation between human
+  individualities and the divine Person is left vague and obscure; nor
+  is it easy to see how the existence of several individualities--human
+  or divine--in one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the
+  solution of these two questions that philosophy in the immediate
+  future may be expected to work.
+
+  Green's most important treatise--the _Prolegomena to
+  Ethics_--practically complete in manuscript at his death--was
+  published in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley
+  (4th ed., 1899). Shortly afterwards R. L. Nettleship's standard
+  edition of his _Works_ (exclusive of the _Prolegomena_) appeared in
+  three volumes: vol. i. containing reprints of Green's criticism of
+  Hume, Spencer, Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the
+  Principles of Political Obligation; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded
+  by a full _Memoir_ by the Editor. The _Principles of Political
+  Obligation_ was afterwards published in separate form. A criticism of
+  _Neo-Hegelianism_ will be found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison),
+  _Hegelianism and Personality_. See also articles in _Mind_ (January
+  and April 1884) by A. J. Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the _Academy_
+  (xxviii. 242 and xxv. 297) by S. Alexander, and in the _Philosophical
+  Review_ (vi., 1897) by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, _Philosophy of
+  T. H. Green_ (London and New York, 1896); D. G. Ritchie, _The
+  Principles of State Interference_ (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick,
+  _Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant_ (London, 1905); J. H. Muirhead,
+  _The Service of the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of
+  T. H. Green_ (1908); A. W. Benn, _English Rationalism in the XIXth
+  Century_ (1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foll.     (W. H. F.,* X.)
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, VALENTINE (1739-1813), British engraver, was born at Halesowen.
+He was placed by his father in a solicitor's office at Evesham, where he
+remained for two years; but ultimately he decided, on his own
+responsibility, to abandon the legal profession and became a pupil of a
+line engraver at Worcester. In 1765 he migrated to London and began work
+as a mezzotint engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of
+this art, and quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of
+British engravers. He became a member of the Incorporated Society of
+Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy in 1775, and
+for some forty years he followed his profession with the greatest
+success. The exclusive right of engraving and publishing plates from the
+pictures in the Düsseldorf gallery was granted him by the duke of
+Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had issued more than twenty of these
+plates, the siege of that city by the French put an end to this
+undertaking and caused him serious financial loss. From this cause, and
+through the failure of certain other speculations, he was reduced to
+poverty; and in consequence he took the post of keeper of the British
+Institution in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of
+his life. During his career as an engraver he produced some four hundred
+plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney, and other British artists,
+after the compositions of Benjamin West, and after pictures by Van Dyck,
+Rubens, Murillo, and other old masters. It is claimed for him that he
+was one of the first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be
+applied to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as
+portraits, but at the present time it is to his portraits that most
+attention is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by
+exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious
+management of relations of light and shade; and they have, almost
+without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling.
+
+  See _Valentine Green_, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (1825-1900), American Hebrew scholar, was born in
+Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 27th of January 1825. He
+was descended in the sixth generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first
+president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and
+his ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian church.
+He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he was tutor in
+mathematics (1840-1842) and adjunct professor (1843-1844). In 1846 he
+graduated from Princeton Theological Seminary, and was instructor in
+Hebrew there in 1846-1849. He was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the
+Central Presbyterian church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August
+1851 until his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February
+1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in Princeton
+Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair was Oriental and
+Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused the presidency of Princeton
+College; as senior professor he was long acting head of the Theological
+Seminary. He was a great Hebrew teacher: his _Grammar of the Hebrew
+Language_ (1861, revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on
+Gesenius, Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic
+languages he used in a "conservative Higher Criticism," which is
+maintained in the following works: _The Pentateuch Vindicated from the
+Aspersions of Bishop Colenso_ (1863), _Moses and the Prophets_ (1883),
+_The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses
+Concerning the Pentateuch_ (1885), _The Unity of the Book of Genesis_
+(1895), _The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch_ (1895), and _A General
+Introduction to the Old Testament_, vol. i. Canon (1898), vol. ii.
+_Text_ (1899). He was the scholarly leader of the orthodox wing of the
+Presbyterian church in America, and was moderator of the General
+Assembly of 1891. Green was chairman of the Old Testament committee of
+the Anglo-American Bible revision committee.
+
+  See the articles by John D. Davis in _The Biblical World_, new series,
+  vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and _The Presbyterian and
+  Reformed Review_, vol. xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GREENAWAY, KATE (1846-1901), English artist and book illustrator, was
+the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known draughtsman and engraver on
+wood, and was born in London on the 17th of March 1846. After a course
+of study at South Kensington, at "Heatherley's" life classes, and at the
+Slade School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour
+drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable early work,
+however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by reason of their quaint
+beauty of design and charm of draughtsmanship, enjoyed an extraordinary
+vogue. Her subjects were, in the main, young girls, children, flowers,
+and landscape; and the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and
+purity of these little works so appealed to public and artists alike
+that the enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be
+attributed to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had
+struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks, R.A., and
+she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to return to a more
+conventional manner. Thenceforward her illustrations for children (such
+as for _Little Folks_, 1873, _et seq._) attracted much attention. In
+1877 her drawings at the Dudley Gallery were sold for £54, and her Royal
+Academy picture for eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to
+draw for the _Illustrated London News_. In the year 1879 she produced
+_Under the Window_, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold,
+and of which French and German editions were also issued. Then followed
+_The Birthday Book_, _Mother Goose_, _Little Ann_, and other books for
+children which were appreciated not less by adults, and were to be found
+on sale in the bookshops of every capital in Europe and in the cities of
+America. The extraordinary success achieved by the young girl may be
+estimated by the amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for
+_Under the Window_ she received £1130; for _The Birthday Book_, £1250;
+for _Mother Goose_, £905; and for _Little Ann_, £567. These four books
+alone produced a clear return of £8000. "Toy-books" though they were,
+these little works created a revolution in illustration, and so were of
+real importance; they were loudly applauded by John Ruskin (_Art of
+England_ and _Fors Clavigera_), by Ernest Chesneau and Arsène Alexandre
+in France, by Dr Muther in Germany, and by leading art-critics
+throughout the world. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the
+Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, and in 1891, 1894 and 1898
+she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations for her
+books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a representative
+selection was exhibited in 1902), where they surprised the world by the
+infinite delicacy, tenderness, and grace which they displayed. A leading
+feature in Miss Greenaway's work was her revival of the delightfully
+quaint costume of the beginning of the 19th century; this lent humour to
+her fancy, and so captivated the public taste that it has been said,
+with poetic exaggeration, that "Kate Greenaway dressed the children of
+two continents." Her drawings of children have been compared with
+Stothard's for grace and with Reynolds's for naturalness, and those of
+flowers with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to 1897,
+with a break only in 1896, she issued a series of _Kate Greenaway's
+Almanacs_. Although she illustrated _The Pied Piper of Hamelin_ and
+other works, the artist preferred to provide her own text; the numerous
+verses which were found among her papers after her death prove that she
+might have added to her reputation with her pen. She had great charm of
+character, but was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest
+in private life. She died at Hampstead on the 6th of November 1901.
+
+  See the _Life_, by M. H. Spielmann and G. S. Layard (1905).
+       (M. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENBACKS, a form of paper currency in the United States, so named from
+the green colour used on the backs of the notes. They are treasury
+notes, and were first issued by the government in 1862, "as a question
+of hard necessity," to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The
+government, following the example of the banks, had suspended specie
+payment. The new notes were therefore for the time being an
+inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal tender,
+were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing for the issue
+of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that of the 25th February
+1862; the acts of 11th July 1862 and 3rd March 1863 each authorized
+further issues of $150,000,000. The notes soon depreciated in value, and
+at the lowest were worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of 12th
+April 1866 authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six
+months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter; this was discontinued by
+act of 4th February 1868. On 1st January 1879 specie payment was
+resumed, and the nominal amount of notes then stood at $346,681,000,
+which is still outstanding.
+
+  The so-called _Greenback party_ (also called the _Independent_, and
+  the _National_ party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in
+  1876, when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,740 votes. It
+  advocated increasing the volume of greenbacks, forbidding bank issues,
+  and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government bonds
+  not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various fusions,
+  cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen; and in 1880
+  there was fusion with labour reformers and it cast 308,578 votes for
+  its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver, and elected 8 Congressmen.
+  In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the candidate of the
+  Anti-Monopoly party) received 175,370 votes. Subsequently the party
+  went out of existence.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN BAY, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at the mouth of the Fox
+river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 9069; (1900) 18,684, of whom
+4022 were foreign-born and 33 were negroes; (1910 census) 25,236. The
+city is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee &
+St Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay & Western, and the Green Bay & Western
+railways, by an inter-urban electric railway connecting with other Fox
+River Valley cities, and by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay
+lies on high level ground on both sides of the river, which is here
+crossed by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library, the
+Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business college, several
+academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum and the State Odd Fellows'
+Home. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being
+the earliest established in the North-west. The so-called "Tank
+Cottage," now in Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in
+Wisconsin; it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by
+Joseph Roy, a French-Canadian _voyageur_, in 1766, was subsequently
+somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to its present
+site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway between Green Bay and
+De Pere (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay) is the state reformatory, opened in
+1899-1901. Green Bay's fine harbour accommodates a considerable lake
+commerce, and the city is the most important railway and wholesale
+distributing centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber
+and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm implements and
+machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick and tile and dairy products;
+and it has lumber yards, grain elevators, fish warehouses and railway
+repair shops. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$4,873,027, an increase of 79.9% since 1900. The first recorded visit of
+a European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of Jean
+Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and found, probably at
+the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present city, a village of Winnebago
+Indians, who he thought at first were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658
+Radisson and Groseilliers and other _coureurs des bois_ were at Green
+Bay. Claude Jean Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission
+on the W. shore of the bay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later he
+removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter of 1671-1672
+established it permanently 5 m. above the present city, at Rapides des
+Pères, on the E. shore of the Fox river. In 1673 Joliet and Marquette
+visited the spot. In 1683-1685 Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with
+the Indians here. In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth
+of the river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted was
+permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin de Langlade
+established a trading post at La Baye and later brought his family there
+from Mackinac. This was the first permanent settlement at Green Bay and
+in Wisconsin. The British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to
+1763, during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward
+Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac's rising, and the fort was
+never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short time during the
+War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye were, however, acknowledged
+subjects of Great Britain, the jurisdiction of the United States being
+practically a dead letter until the American fort (Fort Howard) was
+garrisoned in 1816. As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob
+Astor, were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse and
+other buildings; and for many years Green Bay consisted of two distinct
+settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were finally united in 1839 as
+Green Bay. The city was chartered in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was
+consolidated with it. The Green Bay _Intelligencer_, the first newspaper
+in Wisconsin, began publication here in 1833.
+
+  See Neville and Martin, _Historic Green Bay_ (Green Bay, 1893); and
+  Martin and Beaumont, _Old Green Bay_ (Green Bay, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GREENCASTLE, a city and the county-seat of Putnam county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis and on the Big Walnut
+river. Pop. (1900) 3661; (1910) 3790. It is served by the Cleveland,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, the Chicago, Indianapolis &
+Louisville, the Vandalia, and the Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern
+(electric) railways. It has manufactures of some importance, including
+lumber, pumps, kitchen-cabinets, drag-saws, lightning-rods and
+tin-plate, is in the midst of a blue grass region, and is a shipping
+point for beef cattle. The city has a Carnegie library and is the seat
+of the de Pauw University (co-educational), a Methodist Episcopal
+institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837, and renamed
+in 1884 in honour of Washington Charles de Pauw (1822-1887), a
+successful capitalist, banker and glass manufacturer. The total gifts of
+Mr de Pauw and his family to the institution amount to about $600,000.
+Among the presidents of the university have been Bishop Matthew Simpson,
+Bishop Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes (b. 1866),
+all of the Methodist Episcopal church. The university comprises the
+Asbury College of Liberal Arts, a School of Music, a School of Art and
+an Academy, and had in 1909-1910 43 instructors, a library of 37,000
+volumes, and 1017 students. Greencastle was first settled about 1820,
+and was chartered as a city in 1861.
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1811-1883), American historian, was born at
+East Greenwich, Rhode Island, on the 8th of April 1811, the grandson of
+Major-General Nathanael Greene. He entered Brown University in 1824,
+left in his junior year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during
+the next twenty years, except in 1833-1834, when he was principal of
+Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States consul at Rome
+from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in modern languages in Brown
+University from 1848 to 1852; and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer
+in American history in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich,
+Rhode Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. His published works include
+French and Italian text-books; _Historical Studies_ (1850);
+_Biographical Studies_ (1860); _Historical View of the American
+Revolution_ (1865); _Life of Nathanael Greene_ (3 vols., 1867-1871);
+_The German Element in the War of American Independence_ (1876); and a
+_Short History of Rhode Island_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, MAURICE (1695-1755) English musical composer, was born in
+London. He was the son of a clergyman in the city, and soon became a
+chorister of St Paul's cathedral, where he studied under Charles King,
+and subsequently under Richard Brind, organist of the cathedral from
+1707 to 1718, whom, on his death in the last-named year, he succeeded.
+Nine years later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal, on
+the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair of music in
+the university of Cambridge, and had the degree of doctor of music
+conferred on him. Dr Greene was a voluminous composer of church music,
+and his collection of _Forty Select Anthems_ became a standard work of
+its kind. He wrote a "Te Deum," several oratorios, a masque, _The
+Judgment of Hercules_, and a pastoral opera, _Phoebe_ (1748); also glees
+and catches: and a collection of _Catches and Canons for Three and Four
+Voices_ is amongst his compositions. In addition he composed many
+occasional pieces for the king's birthday, having been appointed master
+of the king's band in 1735. But it is as a composer of church music that
+Greene is chiefly remembered. It is here that his contrapuntal skill and
+his sound musical scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was
+originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for Buononcini,
+Handel's rival, estranged the German master's feelings from him, and all
+personal intercourse between them ceased. Greene, in conjunction with
+the violinist Michael Christian Festing (1727-1752) and others,
+originated the Society of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and
+their families. He died on the 1st of December 1755.
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, NATHANAEL (1742-1786), American general, son of a Quaker farmer
+and smith, was born at Potowomut, in the township of Warwick, Rhode
+Island, on the 7th of August (not, as has been stated, 6th of June)
+1742. Though his father's sect discouraged "literary accomplishments,"
+he acquired a large amount of general information, and made a special
+study of mathematics, history and law. At Coventry, R.I., whither he
+removed in 1770 to take charge of a forge built by his father and his
+uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a public school;
+and in the same year he was chosen a member of the legislature of Rhode
+Island, to which he was re-elected in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He
+sympathized strongly with the Whig, or Patriot, element among the
+colonists, and in 1774 joined the local militia. At this time he began
+to study the art of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee
+appointed by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in
+attending to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of
+Friends.
+
+In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island, he joined
+the American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd of June was appointed
+a brigadier by Congress. To him Washington assigned the command of the
+city of Boston after it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene's
+letters of October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate
+from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a declaration of
+independence. On the 9th of August 1776 he was promoted to be one of the
+four new major-generals and was put in command of the Continental troops
+on Long Island; he chose the place for fortifications (practically the
+same as that picked by General Charles Lee) and built the redoubts and
+entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe illness
+prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island. He was prominent
+among those who advised a retreat from New York and the burning of the
+city, so that the British might not use it. Greene was placed in command
+of Fort Lee, and on the 25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam
+in command of Fort Washington. He received orders from Washington to
+defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the 11th of October
+Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect; but later
+Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. Greene ordered
+Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend the place until
+he should hear from him again, and reinforced it to meet General Howe's
+attack. Nevertheless, the blame for the losses of Forts Washington and
+Lee was put upon Greene, but apparently without his losing the
+confidence of Washington, who indeed himself assumed the responsibility.
+At Trenton Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own,
+accompanied by Washington, arriving first; and after the victory here he
+urged Washington to push on immediately to Princeton, but was over-ruled
+by a council of war. At the Brandywine Greene commanded the reserve. At
+Germantown Greene's command, having a greater distance to march than the
+right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time--a failure
+which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him Washington's
+regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington, Bancroft based his
+unfavourable estimate of Greene's ability. But on their arrival, Greene
+and his troops distinguished themselves greatly.
+
+At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March 1778, at Valley
+Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster-general (succeeding
+Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this difficult work, which
+Washington heartily approved, a modern critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington,
+has said that it was "as good as was possible under the circumstances of
+that fluctuating uncertain force." He had become quartermaster-general
+on the understanding, however, that he should retain the right to
+command troops in the field; thus we find him at the head of the right
+wing at Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August Greene and Lafayette
+commanded the land forces sent to Rhode Island to co-operate with the
+French admiral d'Estaing, in an expedition which proved abortive. In
+June 1780 Greene commanded in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In
+August he resigned the office of quartermaster-general, after a long and
+bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army
+administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions appointed by
+Congress. Before his resignation became effective it fell to his lot to
+preside over the court which, on the 29th of September, condemned Major
+John André to death.
+
+On the 14th of October he succeeded Gates as commander-in-chief of the
+Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C., on the 2nd of
+December. The army was weak and badly equipped and was opposed by a
+superior force under Cornwallis. Greene decided to divide his own
+troops, thus forcing the division of the British as well, and creating
+the possibility of a strategic interplay of forces. This strategy led to
+General Daniel Morgan's victory of Cowpens (just over the South Carolina
+line) on the 17th of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court
+House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the British
+troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforcements for his own
+army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only at such cost to the victor
+that Tarleton called it "the pledge of ultimate defeat." Three days
+after this battle Cornwallis withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene's
+generalship and judgment were again conspicuously illustrated in the
+next few weeks, in which he allowed Cornwallis to march north to
+Virginia and himself turned swiftly to the reconquest of the inner
+country of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord
+Rawdon's hands at Hobkirk's Hill (2 m. N. of Camden) on the 25th of
+April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring to the
+coast. Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills
+of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with 2600 men, engaged the
+British under Lieut.-Colonel James Stuart (who had succeeded Lord
+Rawdon) at Eutaw Springs; the battle, although tactically drawn, so
+weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene
+penned them during the remaining months of the war. Greene's Southern
+campaign showed remarkable strategic features that remind one of those
+of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as his model in his studies
+before the war. He excelled in dividing, eluding and tiring his opponent
+by long marches, and in actual conflict forcing him to pay for a
+temporary advantage a price that he could not afford. He was greatly
+assisted by able subordinates, including the Polish engineer, Tadeusz
+Kosciusko, the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry ("Light-Horse Harry")
+Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thomas Sumter and
+Francis Marion.
+
+South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberal grants of lands and
+money. The South Carolina estate, Boone's Barony, S. of Edisto in
+Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills for the rations of his Southern
+army. On the Georgia estate, Mulberry Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on
+the river, he settled in 1785, after twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the
+post of secretary of war, and there he died of sunstroke on the 19th of
+June 1786. Greene was a singularly able, and--like other prominent
+generals on the American side--a self-trained soldier, and was second
+only to Washington among the officers of the American army in military
+ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of using small means to
+the utmost advantage. His attitude towards the Tories was humane and
+even kindly, and he generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly
+intrigued against him, when Gates's conduct of the campaign in the South
+was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah (1829). His
+statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the state of Rhode
+Island in the National Hall of Statuary in the Capitol at Washington; in
+the same city there is a bronze equestrian statue of him by H. K. Brown.
+
+  See the _Life of Nathanael Greene_ (3 vols., 1867-1871), by his
+  grandson, George W. Greene, and the biography (New York, 1893), by
+  Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in the "Great Commanders Series."
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, ROBERT (c. 1560-1592), English dramatist and miscellaneous
+writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The identity of his father has
+been disputed, but there is every reason to believe that he belonged to
+the tradesmen's class and had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert
+Greene attended Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man
+(to one of whose plays, _Friar Bacon_, the Norfolk and Suffolk
+borderland owes a lasting poetic commemoration) he naturally found his
+way to Cambridge, where he entered St John's College as a sizar in 1575
+and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding M.A. in 1583 from Clare
+Hall. His life at the university was, according to his own account,
+spent "among wags as lewd as himself, with whom he consumed the flower
+of his youth." In 1588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so that on some
+of his title-pages he styles himself "utriusque Academiae in Artibus
+Magister"; and Nashe humorously refers to him as "utriusque Academiae
+Robertus Greene." Between the years 1578 and 1583 he had travelled
+abroad, according to his own account very extensively, visiting France,
+Germany, Poland and Denmark, besides learning at first-hand to "hate the
+pride of Italie" and to know the taste of that poet's fruit, "Spanish
+mirabolones." The grounds upon which it has been suggested that he took
+holy orders are quite insufficient; according to the title-page of a
+pamphlet published by him in 1585 he was then a "student in phisicke."
+Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he had according to his
+own account begun his London life, and his earliest extant literary
+production was in hand as early as 1580. He now became "an author of
+playes and a penner of love-pamphlets, so that I soone grew famous in
+that qualitie, that who for that trade growne so ordinary about London
+as Robin Greene?" "Glad was that printer," says Nashe, "that might bee
+so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit." By his own
+account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries of the town, though
+Nashe declares that he never knew him guilty of notorious crime. He was
+not without passing impulses towards a more righteous and sober life,
+and was derided in consequence by his associates as a "Puritane and
+Presizian." It is possible that he, as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel
+Harvey, exaggerated the looseness of his conduct. His marriage, which
+took place in 1585 or 1586, failed to steady him; if Francesco, in
+Greene's pamphlet _Never too late to mend_ (1590), is intended for the
+author himself, it had been a runaway match; but the fiction and the
+autobiographical sketch in the _Repentance_ agree in their account of
+the unfaithfulness which followed on the part of the husband. He lived
+with his wife, whose name seems to have been Dorothy ("Doll"; and cf.
+Dorothea in _James IV._), for a while; "but forasmuch as she would
+perswade me from my wilful wickednes, after I had a child by her, I cast
+her off, having spent up the marriage-money which I obtained by her.
+Then left I her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to
+London," where his reputation as a playwright and writer of pamphlets of
+"love and vaine fantasyes" continued to increase, and where his life was
+a feverish alternation of labour and debauchery. In his last years he
+took it upon himself to make war on the cutpurses and "conny-catchers"
+with whom he came into contact in the slums, and whose doings he
+fearlessly exposed in his writings. He tells us how at last he was
+friendless "except it were in a fewe alehouses," where he was respected
+on account of the score he had run up. When the end came he was a
+dependant on the charity of the poor and the pitying love of the
+unfortunate. Henri Murger has drawn no picture more sickening and more
+pitiful than the story of Greene's death, as told by his Puritan
+adversary, Gabriel Harvey--a veracious though a far from unprejudiced
+narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels provided by the Harvey
+brothers on their intervention in the Marprelate controversy, and made
+an attack (immediately suppressed) upon Gabriel's father and family in
+the prose-tract _A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute
+between Velvet Breeches and Cloth Breeches_ (1592). After a banquet
+where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe--an old associate and
+perhaps a college friend of Greene's, any great intimacy with whom,
+however, he seems to have been anxious to disclaim--Greene had fallen
+sick "of a surfeit of pickle herringe and Rennish wine." At the house of
+a poor shoemaker near Dowgate, deserted by all except his compassionate
+hostess (Mrs Isam) and two women--one of them the sister of a notorious
+thief named "Cutting Ball," and the mother of his illegitimate son,
+Fortunatus Greene--he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before
+his death he wrote under a bond for £10 which he had given to the good
+shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long-forsaken wife:
+"Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth and by my soules rest,
+that thou wilte see this man paide; for if hee and his wife had not
+succoured me, I had died in the streetes.--Robert Greene."
+
+_Four Letters and Certain Sonnets_, Harvey's attack on Greene, appeared
+almost immediately after his death, as to the circumstances of which his
+relentless adversary had taken care to inform himself personally. Nashe
+took up the defence of his dead friend and ridiculed Harvey in _Strange
+News_ (1593); and the dispute continued for some years. But, before this,
+the dramatist Henry Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the
+unhappy man, entitled _Greene's Groat's-worth of Wit bought with a
+Million of Repentance_ (1592), containing the story of Roberto, who may
+be regarded, for practical purposes, as representing Greene himself. This
+ill-starred production may almost be said to have done more to excite the
+resentment of posterity against Greene's name than all the errors for
+which he professed his repentance. For in it he exhorted to repentance
+three of his _quondam_ acquaintance. Of these three Marlowe was one--to
+whom and to whose creation of "that Atheist Tamberlaine" he had
+repeatedly alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe. But
+the passage addressed to Peele contained a transparent allusion to a
+fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as "an vpstart crow
+beautified with our feathers, that with his _Tygres heart wrapt in a
+player's hyde_ supposes hee is as well able to bombast out a blanke-verse
+as the best of you; and being an absolute Iohannes-fac-totum, is in his
+owne conceyt the onely shake-scene in a countrey." The phrase italicized
+parodies a passage occurring in _The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of
+York_, &c., and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene (as many
+eminent critics have thought) had a hand in _The True Tragedie_, he must
+here have intended a charge of plagiarism against Shakespeare. But while
+it seems more probable that (as the late R. Simpson suggested) the
+upstart crow beautified with the feathers of the three dramatists is a
+sneering description of the actor who declaimed their verse, the _animus_
+of the whole attack (as explained by Dr Ingleby) is revealed in its
+concluding phrases. This "shake-scene," i.e. this _actor_ had ventured to
+intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights--their
+monopoly was in danger!
+
+Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were issued
+posthumously. Of these, _The Repentance of Robert Greene, Master of
+Arts_ (1592), must originally have been written by him on his death-bed,
+under the influence, as he says, of Father Parsons's _Booke of
+Resolution_ (_The Christian Directorie, appertayning to Resolution_,
+1582, republished in an enlarged form, which became very popular, in
+1585); but it bears traces of having been improved from the original;
+while _Greene's Vision_ was certainly not, as the title-page avers,
+written during his last illness.
+
+Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed to
+Greene's prolific pen. Nearly all of them are interspersed with verses;
+in their themes they range from the "misticall" wonders of the heavens
+to the familiar but "pernitious sleights" of the sharpers of London. But
+the most widely attractive of his prose publications were his
+"love-pamphlets," which brought upon him the outcry of Puritan censors.
+The earliest of his novels, as they may be called, _Mamillia_, was
+licensed in 1583. This interesting story may be said to have accompanied
+Greene through life; for even part ii., of which, though probably
+completed several years earlier, the earliest extant edition bears the
+date 1593, had a sequel, _The Anatomie of Love's Flatteries_, which
+contains a review of suitors recalling Portia's in _The Merchant of
+Venice_. _The Myrrour of Modestie_ (the story of Susanna) (1584); _The
+Historie of Arhasto, King of Denmarke_ (1584); _Morando, the Tritameron
+of Love_ (a rather tedious imitation of the _Decameron_ (1584);
+_Planetomachia_ (1585) (a contention in story-telling between Venus and
+Saturn); _Penelope's Web_ (1587) (another string of stories); _Alcida_,
+_Greene's Metamorphosis_ (1588), and others, followed. In these popular
+productions he appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lyly;
+indeed, the first part of _Mamillia_ was entered in the Stationers'
+Registers in the year of the appearance of _Euphues_, and two of
+Greene's novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the
+parent romance: _Euphues his Censure to Philautus_ (1587), _Menaphon.
+Camilla's Alarum to Slumbering Euphues_ (1589), named in some later
+editions _Greene's Arcadia_. This pastoral romance, written in direct
+emulation of Sidney's, with a heroine called Samila, contains St
+Sephestia's charming lullaby, with its refrain "Father's sorowe,
+father's joy." But, though Greene's style copies the balanced
+oscillation, and his diction the ornateness (including the proverbial
+philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives to interest by the matter as well as
+to attract attention by the manner of his narratives. Of his highly
+moral intentions he leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are
+exposed on the title-pages. The full title of the _Myrrour of Modestie_
+for instance continues: "wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how
+the Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and plagueth
+the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punishments," &c. On his
+_Pandosto, The Triumph of Time_ (1588) Shakespeare founded _A Winter's
+Tale_; in fact, the novel contains the entire plot of the comedy, except
+the device of the living statue; though some of the subordinate
+characters in the play, including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare,
+together with the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes.
+
+In Greene's _Never too Late_ (1590), announced as a "Powder of
+Experience: sent to all youthfull gentlemen" for their benefit, the
+hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for Greene himself, the
+sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction. This episodical
+narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of manner which savour of an
+18th century novel rather than of an Elizabethan tale concerning the
+days of "Palmerin, King of Great Britain." Philador, the prodigal of
+_The Mourning Garment_ (1590), is obviously also in some respects a
+portrait of the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of _Greene's
+Groat's-worth of Wit_ (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of
+the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn--for a born
+rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins. Besides these and
+the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance, Greene left realistic
+pictures of the very disreputable society to which he finally descended,
+in his pamphlets on "conny-catching": _A Notable Discovery of Coosnage_
+(1591), _The Blacke Bookes Messenger, Laying open the Life and Death of
+Ned Browne, one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbiters, and
+Conny-catchers that ever lived in England_ (1592). Much in Greene's
+manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of low life,
+anticipated what proved the slow course of the actual development of the
+English novel; and it is probable that his true _métier_, and that which
+best suited the bright fancy, ingenuity and wit of which his genius was
+compounded, was pamphlet-spinning and story-telling rather than dramatic
+composition. It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his
+contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like his
+resemble Shakespeare's in their native freshness.
+
+Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out, Greene, except
+in the two pamphlets written just before his death, never refers to his
+having written plays; and before 1592 his contemporaries are equally
+silent as to his labours as a playwright. Only four plays remain to us
+of which he was indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these
+seems to have been the _Comicall History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon_,
+of which Henslowe's _Diary_ contains no trace. But it can hardly have
+been first acted long after the production of Marlowe's _Tamburlaine_,
+which had, in all probability, been brought on the stage in 1587. For
+this play, "comical" only in the negative sense of having a happy
+ending, was manifestly written in emulation as well as in direct
+imitation of Marlowe's tragedy. While Greene cannot have thought himself
+capable of surpassing Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably wished
+to outdo him in "business," and to equal him in the rant which was sure
+to bring down at least part of the house. _Alphonsus_ is a _history_
+proper--a dramatized chronicle or narrative of warlike events. Its fame
+could never equal that of Marlowe's tragedy; but its composition showed
+that Greene could seek to rival the most popular drama of the day,
+without falling very far short of his model.
+
+In the _Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (not known
+to have been acted before February, 1592, but probably written in 1589)
+Greene once more attempted to emulate Marlowe; and he succeeded in
+producing a masterpiece of his own. Marlowe's _Doctor Faustus_, which
+doubtless suggested the composition of Greene's comedy, reveals the
+mighty tragic genius of its author; but Greene resolved on an altogether
+distinct treatment of a cognate theme. Interweaving with the popular
+tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming idyl (so far as
+we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince Edward's love for
+the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a comedy brimful of amusing
+action and genial fun. _Friar Bacon_ remains a dramatic picture of
+English Elizabethan life with which _The Merry Wives_ alone can vie; and
+not even the ultra-classicism in the similes of its diction can destroy
+the naturalness which constitutes its perennial charm. _The History of
+Orlando Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France_ has on
+unsatisfactory evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have
+been acted on the 21st of February 1592. It is a free dramatic
+adaptation of Ariosto, Harington's translation of whom appeared in 1591,
+and who in one passage is textually quoted; and it contains a large
+variety of characters and a superabundance oí action. Fairly lucid in
+arrangement and fluent in style, the treatment of the madness oí Orlando
+lacks tragic power. Very few dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare
+have succeeded in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the
+tragic; and Greene is not to be included in the list.
+
+In _The Scottish Historie of James IV._ (acted 1592, licensed for
+publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax of his
+dramatic powers. The "historical" character of this play is pure
+pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi Cinthio's tales. Its
+theme is the illicit passion of King James for the chaste lady Ida, to
+obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the suggestion of a villain called
+Ateukin, to make away with his own wife. She escapes in doublet and
+hose, attended by her faithful dwarf; but, on her father's making war
+upon her husband to avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation
+between them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked
+out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Ateukin there is a
+touch of Iago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the piece, is
+unexceptionable; and, lest even so the play should hang heavy on the
+audience, its action is carried off by a "pleasant comédie"--i.e. a
+prelude and some dances between the acts--"presented by Oboram, King of
+Fayeries," who is, however, a very different person from the Oberon of
+_A Midsummer Night's Dream_.
+
+_George-a-Greene the Pinner of Wakefield_ (acted 1593, printed 1599), a
+delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the author of _Friar
+Bungay_, has been attributed to him; but the external evidence is very
+slight, and the internal unconvincing. Of the comedy of _Fair Em_, which
+resembles _Friar Bacon_ in more than one point, Greene cannot have been
+the author; the question as to the priority between the two plays is not
+so easily solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays
+on which the second and third parts of _Henry VI._ are founded has been
+already referred to. He was certainly joint author with Thomas Lodge of
+the curious drama called _A Looking Glasse for London and England_
+(acted in 1592 and printed in 1594)--a dramatic apologue conveying to
+the living generation of Englishmen the warning of Nineveh's corruption
+and prophesied doom. The lesson was frequently repeated in the streets
+of London by the "Ninevitical motions" of the puppets; but there are
+both fire and wealth of language in Greene and Lodge's oratory. The
+comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by Adam, the
+clown of the piece, who belongs to the family of Slipper, and of Friar
+Bacon's servant, Miles.
+
+Greene's dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of Marlowe's
+tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at his best. On the
+other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally animated with the breezy
+freshness which no artifice can simulate. He had considerable
+constructive skill, but he has created no character of commanding
+power--unless Ateukin be excepted; but his personages are living men and
+women, and marked out from one another with a vigorous but far from rude
+hand. His comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and
+graceful dialogue. His diction is overloaded with classical ornament,
+but his versification is easy and fluent, and its cadence is at times
+singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the simplest means; and
+he is indisputably one of the most attractive of early English dramatic
+authors.
+
+  Greene's dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander Dyce in
+  1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued in one
+  volume in 1858. His complete works were edited for the Huth Library by
+  A. B. Grosart. This issue (1881-1886) contains a translation of
+  Nicholas Storojhenko's monograph on Greene (Moscow, 1878). Greene's
+  plays and poems were edited with introductions and notes by J. Churton
+  Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905); the general introduction to this
+  edition has superseded previous accounts of Greene and his dramatic
+  and lyrical writings. An account of his pamphlets is to be found in J.
+  J. Jusserand's _English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_ (Eng.
+  trans., 1890). See also W. Bernhardi, _Robert Greenes Leben und
+  Schriften_ (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in _Shakespeare's Zeitgenossen
+  und ihre Werke_ (1858); and an introduction by A. W. Ward to _Friar
+  Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (Oxford, 1886, 4th ed., 1901).     (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Franklin county, in N.E.
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of 20 sq. m. of meadow and hill
+country, watered by the Green and Deerfield rivers and various small
+tributaries. Pop. (1890) 5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same
+name as the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river,
+and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley street
+railway (electric). Among Greenfield's manufactures are cutlery,
+machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally part of Deerfield,
+was settled about 1682, was established as a "district" in 1753, and on
+the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a general Act, separated from Deerfield
+and incorporated as a separate township, although it had assumed full
+township rights in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress.
+In 1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838 part
+of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed a part of
+Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of Shays's Rebellion.
+
+  See F. M. Thompson, _History of Greenfield_ (2 vols., Greenfield,
+  1904).
+
+
+
+
+GREENFINCH (Ger. _Grünfink_), or GREEN LINNET, as it is very often
+called, a common European bird, the _Fringilla chloris_ of Linnaeus,
+ranked by many systematists with one section of hawfinches,
+_Coccothraustes_, but apparently more nearly allied to the other section
+_Hesperiphona_, and perhaps justifiably deemed the type of a distinct
+genus, to which the name _Chloris_ or _Ligurinus_ has been applied. The
+cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green and yellow is one of the most
+finely coloured of common English birds, but he is rather heavily built,
+and his song is hardly commended. The hen is much less brightly tinted.
+Throughout Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful
+birds, and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the
+whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits Palestine,
+but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant in Mauritania, whence
+specimens are so brightly coloured that they have been deemed to form a
+distinct species, the _Ligurinus aurantiiventris_ of Dr Cabanis, but
+that view is now generally abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its
+adjacent islands occur two allied species--the _Fringilla sinica_ of
+Linnaeus and the _F. kawarahiba_ of Temminck. (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENHEART, one of the most valuable of timbers, the produce of
+_Nectandra Rodiaei_, natural order Lauraceae, a large tree, native of
+tropical South America and the West Indies. The Indian name of the tree
+is _sipiri_ or _bibiru_, and from its bark and fruits is obtained the
+febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart wood is of a dark-green colour,
+sap wood and heart wood being so much alike that they can with difficulty
+be distinguished from each other. The heart wood is one of the most
+durable of all timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact
+that it is proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly
+destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other kinds of wood
+available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow, there
+are two pieces of planking from a wreck submerged during eighteen years
+on the west coast of Scotland. The one specimen--greenheart--is merely
+slightly pitted on the surface, the body of the wood being perfectly
+sound and untouched, while the other--teak--is almost entirely eaten
+away. Greenheart, tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is
+one of the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its
+specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second line of
+Lloyd's Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is extensively used
+for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &c., as well as in the
+general engineering arts, but its excessive weight unfits it for many
+purposes for which its other properties would render it eminently
+suitable.
+
+
+
+
+GREENLAND (Danish, &c., _Grönland_), a large continental island, the
+greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle, while the whole
+is arctic in character. It is not connected with any portion of Europe
+or America except by suboceanic ridges; but in the extreme north it is
+separated only by a narrow strait from Ellesmere Land in the archipelago
+of the American continent. It is bounded on the east by the North
+Atlantic, the Norwegian and Greenland Seas--Jan Mayen, Iceland, the
+Faeroe Islands and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and
+Norway. Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the
+northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from Spitsbergen.
+On the west Davis Strait and Baffin Bay separate it from Baffin Land.
+The so-called bay narrows northward into the strait successively known
+as Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A
+submarine ridge, about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland
+with Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A
+similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula of
+Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with others
+smaller) lie probably off the north coast, being apparently divided from
+it by very narrow channels which are not yet explored. If they be
+reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then the north coast, fronting
+the polar sea, culminates about 83° 40' N. Cape Farewell, the most
+southerly point (also on a small island), is in 59° 45' N. The extreme
+length of Greenland may therefore be set down at about 1650 m., while
+its extreme breadth, which occurs about 77° 30' N., is approximately 800
+m. The area is estimated at 827,275 sq. m. Greenland is a Danish colony,
+inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern east coast belong to
+the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of Europeans on the southern
+parts of the coasts are Danish, and the trade is a monopoly of the
+Danish government.
+
+The southern and south-western coasts have been known, as will be
+mentioned later, since the 10th century, when Norse settlers appeared
+there, and the names of many famous arctic explorers have been
+associated with the exploration of Greenland. The communication between
+the Norse settlements in Greenland and the motherland Norway was broken
+off at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century, and
+the Norsemen's knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more
+or less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then
+re-discovered by John Davis in July 1585, though previous explorers, as
+Cortereal, Frobisher and others, had seen it, and at the end of the 16th
+and the beginning of the 17th century the work of Davis (1586-1588).
+Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the western seas afforded some
+knowledge of the west coast. This was added to by later explorers and by
+whalers and sealers. Among explorers who in the 19th century were
+specially connected with the north-west coast may be mentioned E. A.
+Inglefield (1852) who sailed into Smith's Sound,[1] Elisha Kent Kane
+(1853-1855)[2] who worked northward through Smith Sound into Kane Basin,
+and Charles Francis Hall (1871) who explored the strait (Kennedy Channel
+and Robeson Channel) to the north of this.[3]
+
+The northern east coast was sighted by Hudson (1607) in about 73° 30' N.
+(C. Hold with Hope), and during the 17th century and later this
+northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch whalers. The first who
+gave more accurate information was the Scottish whaler, Captain William
+Scoresby, jun. (1822), who, with his father, explored the coast between
+69° and 75° N., and gave the first fairly trustworthy map of it.[4]
+Captains Edward Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast between
+72° 5' and 75° 12' N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen in this part of
+Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870, under Carl
+Christian Koldewey[5] (1837-1908), reached 77° N. (Cape Bismarck); and
+the duke of Orleans, in 1905, ascertained that this point was on an
+island (the Dove Bay of the German expedition being in reality a strait)
+and penetrated farther north, to about 78° 16'. From this point the
+north-east coast remained unexplored, though a sight was reported in
+1670 by a whaler named Lambert, and again in 1775 as far north as 79° by
+Daines Barrington, until a Danish expedition under Mylius Erichsen in
+1906-1908 explored it, discovering North-East Foreland, the easternmost
+point (see Polar Regions and map). The southern part of the east coast
+was first explored by the Dane Wilhelm August Graah (1829-1830) between
+Cape Farewell and 65° 16' N.[6] In 1883-1885 the Danes G. Holm and T. V.
+Garde carefully explored and mapped the coast from Cape Farewell to
+Angmagssalik, in 66° N.[7] F. Nansen and his companions also travelled
+along a part of this coast in 1888.[8] A. E. Nordenskiöld, in the
+"Sophia," landed near Angmagssalik, in 65° 36' N., in 1883.[9] Captain
+C. Ryder, in 1891-1892, explored and mapped the large Scoresby Sound,
+or, more correctly, Scoresby Fjord.[10] Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899,
+explored the coast from Angmagssalik north to 67° 22' N.[11] A part of
+this coast, about 67° N., had also been seen by Nansen in 1882.[12] In
+1899 Professor A. G. Nathorst explored the land between Franz Josef
+Fjord and Scoresby Fjord, where the large King Oscar Fjord, connecting
+Davy's Sound with Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered.[13] In 1900
+Lieutenant Amdrup explored the still unknown east coast from 690 10' N.
+south to 67° N.[14]
+
+From the work of explorers in the north-west it had been possible to
+infer the approximate latitude of the northward termination of Greenland
+long before it was definitely known. Towards the close of the 19th
+century several explorers gave attention to this question. Lieutenant
+(afterwards Admiral) L. A. Beaumont (1876), of the Nares Expedition,
+explored the coast north-east of Robeson Channel to 82° 20' N.[15] In
+1882 Lieut. J. B. Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain) D. L.
+Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to Lady Franklin Bay,[16] explored the
+north-west coast beyond Beaumont's farthest to a promontory in 83° 24'
+N. and 40° 46' E. and they saw to the north-east Cape Washington, in
+about 83° 38' N. and 39° 30' E., the most northerly point of land till
+then observed. In July 1892 R. E. Peary and E. Astrup, crossing by land
+from Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound, discovered Independence Bay on the
+north-east coast in 81° 37' N. and 34° 5' W.[17] In May 1895 it was
+revisited by Peary, who supposed this bay to be a sound communicating
+with Victoria Inlet on the north-west coast. To the north Heilprin Land
+and Melville Land were seen stretching northwards, but the probability
+seemed to be that the coast soon trended north-west. In 1901 Peary
+rounded the north point, and penetrated as far north as 83° 50' N. The
+scanty exploration of the great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be
+asserted to cover the whole of the interior of Greenland, has been
+prosecuted chiefly from the west coast. In 1751 Lars Dalager, a Danish
+trader, took some steps in this direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870
+Nordenskiöld and Berggren walked 35 m. inland from the head of
+Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an elevation of 2200 ft. The Danish
+captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen reached, in 1878, the Jensen
+Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45 m. from the western margin,
+in 62° 50' N.[18] Nordenskiöld penetrated in 1883 about 70 m. inland in
+68° 20' N., and two Lapps of his expedition went still farther on skis,
+to a point nearly under 45° W. at an elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and
+Maigaard reached in 1886 about 100 m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in
+69° 30' N. Nansen with five companions in 1888 made the first complete
+crossing of the inland ice, working from the east coast to the west,
+about 64° 25' N., and reached a height of 8922 ft. Peary and Astrup, as
+already indicated, crossed in 1892 the northern part of the inland ice
+between 78° and 82° N., reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and
+determined the northern termination of the ice-covering. Peary made very
+nearly the same journey again in 1895. Captain T. V. Garde explored in
+1893 the interior of the inland ice between 61° and 62° N. near its
+southern termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft. about 60 m.
+from the margin.[19]
+
+[Illustration: Map of Greenland.]
+
+  _Coasts._--The coasts of Greenland are for the most part deeply
+  indented with fjords, being intensely glaciated. The coast-line of
+  Melville Bay (the northern part of the west coast) is to some degree
+  an exception, though the fjords may here be somewhat filled with
+  glaciers, and, for another example, it may be noted that Peary
+  observed a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward as far as Cape
+  Morris Jesup there are precipitous headlands and islands, as
+  elsewhere, with deep water close inshore. East of the same cape there
+  is an abrupt change; the coast is unbroken, the mountains recede
+  inland, and there is shoal-water for a considerable distance from the
+  coast. Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they are indented;
+  but these are in no case large, excepting those off the north coast,
+  and that of Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel of
+  70° N. This island, which is separated by Waigat Strait from the
+  Nugsuak peninsula, is lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Steenstrup
+  in 1898 discovered in it the warmest spring known in Greenland, having
+  a temperature of 66° F.
+
+  The unusual glaciation of the east coast is evidently owing to the
+  north polar current carrying the ice masses from the north polar basin
+  south-westward along the land, and giving it an entirely arctic
+  climate down to Cape Farewell. In some parts the interior ice-covering
+  extends down to the outer coast, while in other parts its margin is
+  situated more inland, and the ice-bare coast-land is deeply
+  intersected by fjords extending far into the interior, where they are
+  blocked by enormous glaciers or "ice-currents" from the interior
+  ice-covering which discharge masses of icebergs into them. The east
+  coast of Greenland is in this respect highly interesting. All coasts
+  in the world which are much intersected by deep fjords have, with very
+  few exceptions, a western exposure, e.g. Norway, Scotland, British
+  Columbia and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even Spitsbergen and
+  Novaya Zemlya, whose west coasts are far more indented than their east
+  ones. Greenland forms the most prominent exception, its eastern coast
+  being quite as much indented as its western. The reason is to be found
+  in its geographical position, a cold ice-covered polar current running
+  south along the land, while not far outside there is an open warmer
+  sea, a circumstance which, while producing a cold climate, must also
+  give rise to much precipitation, the land being thus exposed to the
+  alternate erosion of a rough atmosphere and large glaciers. On the
+  east coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are similar conditions.
+  The result is that the east coast of Greenland has the largest system
+  of typical fjords known on the earth's surface. Scoresby Fjord has a
+  length of about 180 m. from the outer coast to the point where it is
+  blocked by the glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an
+  enormous area. Franz Josef Fjord, with its branch King Oscar Fjord,
+  communicating with Davy's Sound, forms a system of fjords on a similar
+  scale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest depth found by Ryder
+  in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are certainly still
+  greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have, however, probably
+  all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow water, near their
+  mouths. A few soundings made outside this coast seem to indicate that
+  the fjords continue as deep submarine valleys far out into the sea. On
+  the west coast there are also many great fjords. One of the best known
+  from earlier days is the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north
+  of 64° N. Along the east coast there are many high mountains,
+  exceeding 6000 and 7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks
+  hitherto measured is at Tiningnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 60°
+  35' N., which is 7340 ft. high. At the bottom of Mogens Heinesen
+  Fjord, 62° 30' N., the peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of
+  Umanak, 63° N., they even exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen
+  began his journey across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting
+  through the ice-covering was Gamel's Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64° 34' N.
+  In the region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the
+  mountains rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf's
+  Fjeld, in 66° 20' N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out at
+  sea, and forms an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk
+  (i.e. Blue Sark or blue shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first
+  landmark on their way from Iceland to the Öster Bygd, the present
+  Julianehaab district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little
+  farther north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000
+  ft., and just north of 67° 10' N. only to 500 ft. or less.[20] The
+  highest mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about
+  7000 ft. The Petermann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef Fjord,
+  measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto been
+  considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but according to
+  Nathorst it "is probably only two-thirds as high as Payer supposed,"
+  perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft.
+
+  Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally not
+  quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not
+  uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and
+  Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there is
+  no other known land of such a size so filled along its coasts on all
+  sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys.
+
+  _The Inland Ice._--The whole interior of Greenland is completely
+  covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a
+  regular shield-shaped expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying all
+  valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about 715,400
+  sq. m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern
+  hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but
+  not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks are known as
+  _nunataks_ (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to a
+  level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends
+  gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coasts or the bottom
+  of the fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its yearly
+  drainage or surplus of precipitation in the form of icebergs in the
+  fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on the west
+  and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are gradually
+  melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered by cold
+  stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of these
+  icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of Newfoundland. The
+  surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the west
+  to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approaching an
+  arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen's route has its highest ridge
+  somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also seems to
+  be the case farther south. The curve shows, however, slight
+  irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the slope
+  decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where it may be
+  1° or more, towards the interior, where it is 0°. In the interior the
+  surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which never melts,
+  and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the winds. It extends as
+  a completely even plain of snow, with long, almost imperceptible,
+  undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to 10,000 ft., obliterating
+  the features of the underlying land, the mountains and valleys of
+  which are completely interred. Over the deepest valleys of the land in
+  the interior this ice-cap must be at least 6000 or 7000 ft. thick or
+  more. Approaching the coasts from the interior, the snow of the
+  surface gradually changes its structure. At first it becomes more
+  coarse-grained, like the _Firn Schnee_ of the Alps, and is moist by
+  melting during the summer. Nearer the coast, where the melting on the
+  surface is more considerable, the wet snow freezes hard during the
+  winter and is more or less transformed into ice, on the surface of
+  which rivers and lakes are formed, the water of which, however, soon
+  finds its way through crevasses and holes in the ice down to its under
+  surface, and reaches the sea as a sub-glacial river. Near its margin
+  the surface of the inland ice is broken up by numerous large
+  crevasses, formed by the outward motion of the glacier covering the
+  underlying land. The steep ice-walls at the margin of the inland ice
+  show, especially where the motion of the ice is slow, a distinct
+  striation, which indicates the strata of annual precipitation with the
+  intervening thin seams of dust (Nordenskiöld's kryokonite). This is
+  partly dust blown on to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare
+  coast-land and partly the dust of the atmosphere brought down by the
+  falling snow and accumulated on the surface of the glacier's covering
+  by the melting during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of
+  the ice-fjords this striation is not distinctly visible, being
+  evidently obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses.
+
+  The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a
+  viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is
+  pressed outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass
+  of pitch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of
+  time flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the
+  outwards-creeping inland ice will naturally be more independent of the
+  configurations of the underlying land in the interior, where its
+  thickness is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner.
+  Here the ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing
+  velocity in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off
+  as icebergs. The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly
+  given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the
+  snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its
+  western margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced
+  on its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor
+  Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great
+  velocity, up to 64¾ ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the glaciers
+  of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice and its
+  glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. Steenstrup
+  during several years, Captain Hammer in 1879-1880, Captain Ryder in
+  1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in 1891-1893,[21] and several American
+  expeditions in later years, all examined the question closely. The
+  highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by Ryder in the
+  Upernivik glacier (in 73° N.), where, between the 13th and 14th of
+  August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in twenty-four hours,
+  and an average velocity during several days of 101 ft. (Danish).[22]
+  It was, however, ascertained that there is a great difference between
+  the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in summer. For instance,
+  Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an average velocity of only
+  33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be periodical oscillations in the
+  extension of the glaciers and the inland ice similar to those that
+  have been observed on the glaciers of the Alps and elsewhere. But
+  these interesting phenomena have not hitherto been subject to
+  systematic observation, and our knowledge of them is therefore
+  uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as polished striated
+  rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the whole of
+  Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the coast, has
+  once been covered by the inland ice.
+
+  Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine
+  mollusca, &c., occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate
+  that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has
+  sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now
+  ice-bare outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these
+  traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are
+  very marked; but they are also very distinct in the south, although
+  not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the
+  upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord (72° 20'
+  N.) the highest terrace is 480 ft. above the sea.[23] On Manitsok (65°
+  30' N.) the highest raised beach was 360 ft. above the sea.[24] In the
+  Isortok Fjord (67° 11' N.) the highest raised beach is 380 ft. above
+  sea-level.[25] In the Ameralik Fjord (64° 14' N.) the highest marine
+  terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, and at Ilivertalik (63° 14'
+  N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest terrace is about 325 ft. above
+  the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the Björnesund (62° 50' N.), a terrace is
+  found at 615 ft. above the sea, but it is doubtful whether this is of
+  marine origin.[26] In the Julianehaab district, between 60° and 61°
+  N., the highest marine terraces are found at about 160 ft. above the
+  sea.[27] The highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby Fjord, on the
+  east coast, was 240 ft. above sea-level.[28] There is a common belief
+  that during quite recent times the west and south-west coast, within
+  the Danish possessions, has been sinking. Although there are many
+  indications which may make this probable, none of them can be said to
+  be quite decisive.[29]
+
+  [_Geology._--So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland
+  is as follows:
+
+  1. _Laurentian gneiss_ forms the greatest mass of the exposed rocks of
+  the country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of Smith Sound,
+  rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene and Cretaceous
+  rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the Oolites of Pendulum
+  Island in East Greenland. Ancient schists occur on the east coast
+  south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and schists are found in Scoresby
+  Fjord. It is possible that some of these rocks are also of Huronian
+  age, but it is doubtful whether the rocks so designated by the
+  geologists of the "Alert" and "Discovery" expedition are really the
+  rocks so known in Canada, or are a continuous portion of the
+  fundamental or oldest gneiss of the north-west of Scotland and the
+  western isles.
+
+  2. _Silurian._--Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the
+  Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower
+  Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North America,
+  are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has discovered
+  them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south as the Danish
+  possessions.
+
+  3. _Devonian_ rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnudiorbik
+  Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous sandstone,
+  rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is, however, likely
+  that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in Dana Bay, Captain
+  Feilden found a species of _Spirifera_ and _Productus mesolobus_ or
+  _costatus_, though it is possible that these fossils represent the
+  "Ursa stage" (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous. A few Devonian forms
+  have also been recorded from the Parry Archipelago, and Nathorst has
+  shown the existence of Old Red Sandstone facies of Devonian in Traill
+  Island, Geographical Society Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula.
+
+  4. _Carboniferous._--In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the
+  Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a _Sigillaria_ and a
+  species of either _Pecopteris_ or _Gleichenia_, perhaps of this age;
+  and probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land, and
+  therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore, contains a
+  clearly developed Carboniferous Limestone fauna, identical with that
+  so widely distributed over the North American continent, and referable
+  also to British and Spitsbergen species. Of the Coal Measures above
+  these, if they occur, we know nothing at present. Capt. Feilden notes
+  as suggestive that, though the explorers have not met with this
+  formation on the northern shores of Greenland, yet it was observed
+  that a continuation of the direction of the known strike of the
+  limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried over the polar area, passes
+  through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen, where the formation occurs,
+  and contains certain species identical with those of the Grinnell Land
+  rocks of this horizon. The facies of the fossils is, according to Mr
+  Etheridge, North American and Canadian, though many of the species are
+  British. The corals are few in number, but the _Molluscoida_
+  (_Polyzoa_) are more numerous in species and individuals. No Secondary
+  rocks have been discovered in the extreme northern parts of West
+  Greenland, but they are present on the east and west coasts in more
+  southerly latitudes than Smith Sound.
+
+  5. _Jurassic._--These do not occur on the west coast, but on the east
+  coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones on Kuhn
+  Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, characterized by the
+  presence of the genus _Aucella_, _Olcostephanus Payeri_, _O.
+  striolaris_, _Belemnites Panderianus_, _B. volgensis_, _B. absolutus_,
+  and a _Cyprina_ near to _C. syssolae_. On the south coast of the same
+  island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured
+  calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render it
+  probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic
+  rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire. There is
+  also coal on Kuhn Island.
+
+  The Danish expeditions of 1899-1900 have added considerably to our
+  knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. Rhaetic-Lias plants
+  have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Stewart and Vardeklöft. Dr
+  Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond with those from the
+  Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of England. Upper Kimmeridge
+  and Portlandian beds also occur.
+
+  6. _Cretaceous._--Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and coal,
+  are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the southern side
+  of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former locality, "the Kome
+  strata" of Nordenskiöld, being the oldest. They reach 1000 ft. in
+  thickness, occupying undulating hollows in the underlying gneiss, and
+  dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at 20°, when the overlying
+  Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these series contain numerous plant
+  remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias, aralias, &c., and seams of lignite
+  (coal), which is burnt; but in neither occur the marine beds of the
+  United States. Still, the presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as
+  _Magnolia alternans_, in the Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close
+  alliance with the Dakota series of the United States. The underlying
+  Kome beds are not present in the American series. They are
+  characterized by fine cycads (_Zamites arcticus_ and _Glossozamites
+  Hoheneggeri_), which also occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff.
+
+  7. _Miocene._--This formation, one of the most widely spread in polar
+  lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best known
+  feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and perhaps to
+  a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neighbouring country,
+  and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone, shale and coal--the
+  sideritic shale containing immense quantities of leaves, stems, fruit,
+  &c., as well as some insects, and the coal pieces of retinite. The
+  study of these plant and insect remains shows that forests containing
+  a vegetation very similar to that of California and the southern
+  United States, in some instances even the species of trees being all
+  but identical, flourished in 70° N. during geological periods
+  comparatively recent. These beds, as well as the Cretaceous series,
+  from which they are as yet only imperfectly distinguished, are
+  associated with sheets of basalt, which penetrate them in great dikes,
+  and in some places, owing to the wearing away of the softer
+  sedimentary rocks, stand out in long walls running across the beds.
+  These Miocene strata have not been found farther north on the
+  Greenland shore than the region mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay,
+  on the Grinnell Land side of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that
+  the chances are they will be found on the opposite coast, though
+  doubtless the great disintegration Greenland has undergone and is
+  undergoing has destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous
+  rocks. On the east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland,
+  the Miocene beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of
+  them even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at
+  the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since early Tertiary
+  times there has been a great change in the climate of Greenland.
+
+  Nathorst has suggested that the whole of Greenland is a "horst," in
+  the subordinate folds of which, as well as in the deeper "graben," the
+  younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary or
+  later lava flows.[30]--J. A. H.]
+
+  _Minerals._--Native iron was found by Nordenskiöld at Ovifak, on Disco
+  Island, in 1870, and brought to Sweden (1871) as meteorites. The
+  heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has later
+  been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the west coast
+  enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This iron has
+  very often beautiful Widmannstätten figures like those of iron
+  meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin.[31] In 1895 Peary
+  found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross's voyage in 1818 it
+  has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got iron for
+  their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule to New York;
+  it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This iron is considered by
+  several of the first authorities on the subject to be of meteoric
+  origin,[32] but no evidence hitherto given seems to prove decisively
+  that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found were lying on
+  gneissic rock, with no basaltic rocks in the neighbourhood, does not
+  prove that the iron may not originate from basalt, for the nodules may
+  have been transported by the glaciers, like other erratic blocks, and
+  will stand erosion much longer than the basalt, which may long ago
+  have disappeared. This iron seems, however, in several respects to be
+  unlike the celebrated large nodules of iron found by Nordenskiöld at
+  Ovifak, but appears to resemble much more closely the softer kind of
+  iron nodules found by Steenstrup in the basalt;[33] it stands exposure
+  to the air equally well, and has similar Widmannstätten figures very
+  sharp, as is to be expected in such a large mass. It contains,
+  however, more nickel and also phosphorus. A few other minerals may be
+  noticed, and some have been worked to a small extent--graphite is
+  abundant, particularly near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost
+  exclusively at Ivigtut; copper has been observed at several places,
+  but only in nodules and laminae of limited extent; and coal of poor
+  quality is found in the districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord.
+  Steatite or soapstone has long been used by the natives for the
+  manufacture of lamps and vessels.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing
+  suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitoes often swarm) to dense
+  fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab in the
+  extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that of Norway
+  and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean temperature for the
+  whole year probably approximates to that on the Norwegian coast 600 m.
+  farther north. The climate of the interior has been found to be of a
+  continental character, with large ranges of temperature, and with an
+  almost permanent anti-cyclonic region over the interior of the inland
+  ice, from which the prevailing winds radiate towards the coasts. On
+  the 64th parallel the mean annual temperature at an elevation of 6560
+  ft. is supposed to be -13° F., or reduced to sea-level 5° F. The mean
+  annual temperature in the interior farther north is supposed to be
+  -10° F. reduced to sea-level. The mean temperature of the warmest
+  month, July, in the interior should be, reduced to sea-level, on the
+  64th parallel 32° F., and that of the coldest month, January, about
+  -22° F., while in North Greenland it is probably -40° reduced to
+  sea-level. Here we may probably find the lowest temperatures of the
+  northern hemisphere. The interior of Greenland contains both summer
+  and winter a pole of cold, situated in the opposite longitude to that
+  of Siberia, with which it is well able to compete in extreme severity.
+  On Nansen's expedition temperatures of about -49° F. were experienced
+  during the nights in the beginning of September, and the minimum
+  during the winter may probably sink to -90° F. in the interior of the
+  inland ice. These low temperatures are evidently caused by the
+  radiation of heat from the snow-surface in the rarefied air in the
+  interior. The daily range of temperature is therefore very
+  considerable, sometimes amounting to 40°. Such a range is elsewhere
+  found only in deserts, but the surface of the inland ice may be
+  considered to be an elevated desert of snow.[34] The climate of the
+  east coast is on the whole considerably more arctic than that of the
+  west coast on corresponding latitudes; the land is much more
+  completely snow-covered, and the snow-line goes considerably lower.
+  The probability also is that there is more precipitation, and that the
+  mean temperatures are lower.[35] The well-known strangely warm and dry
+  _föhn_-winds of Greenland occur both on the west and the east coast;
+  they are more local than was formerly believed, and are formed by
+  cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the outer slope
+  of the inland ice.[36] Mirage and similar phenomena and the aurora are
+  common.
+
+  _Fauna and Flora._--It was long a common belief that the fauna and
+  flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance which
+  would make it probable that Greenland has been separated by sea from
+  America during a longer period of time than from Europe. The
+  correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be doubted. The land
+  mammals of Greenland are decidedly more American than European; the
+  musk-ox, the banded lemming (_Cuniculus torquatus_), the white polar
+  wolf, of which there seems to have been a new invasion recently round
+  the northern part of the country to the east coast, the Eskimo and the
+  dog--probably also the reindeer--have all come from America, while the
+  other land mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare,
+  the stoat (_Mustela erminea_), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The
+  species of seals and whales are, if anything, more American than
+  European, and so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal
+  (_Cystophora cristata_), for instance, may be said to be a
+  Greenland-American species, while a Scandinavian species, such as the
+  grey seal (_Halichoerus grypus_), appears to be very rare both in
+  Greenland and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in
+  Greenland, eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest
+  circumpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their
+  distribution.[37] About 310 species of vascular plants are found, of
+  which about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic,
+  fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe or
+  Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic elements
+  of the flora are nearly equivalent; and if the flora of Arctic North
+  America were better known, the number of plants common to America
+  might be still more enlarged.[38]
+
+  In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have been introduced.
+  The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west coast but
+  decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The white whale
+  fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing is important;
+  walruses are also caught and sometimes narwhal. There are also
+  important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish (_Sebastes_)
+  and _nepisak_ (_Cyclopterus lumpus_); a shark (_Somniosus
+  microcephalus_) is taken for the oil from its liver; and sea-trout are
+  found in the streams and small lakes of the south. On land reindeer
+  were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south, but
+  in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg there are
+  still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other sea-birds are
+  in some parts valuable for food in winter, and so is the ptarmigan.
+  Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down. Valuable fur is
+  obtained from the white and blue fox, the skin of the eider-duck and
+  the polar bear.
+
+  At Tasiusak (73° 22' N.), the most northern civilized settlement in
+  the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but several
+  plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70° 40' N.) is the most
+  northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes grow well, turnips
+  (but not every year), lettuce and chervil succeed sometimes, but
+  parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn (69° 12' N.), only some 15 m.
+  from the inland ice, gardening succeeds very well; broccoli and
+  lettuce grow willingly; the spinach produces large leaves; chervil,
+  pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips grow very well; the radishes
+  are sown and gathered twice during the summer (June to August). In the
+  south, in the Julianehaab district, even flowering plants, such as
+  aster, nemophilia and mignonette, are cultivated, and broccoli,
+  spinach, sorrel, chervil, parsley, rhubarb, turnips, lettuce, radishes
+  grow well. Potatoes give fair results when they are taken good care
+  of, carrots grow to a thickness of 1½ in., while cabbage does poorly.
+  Strawberries and cucumbers have been ripened in a forcing frame. In
+  the "Kongespeil" (King's mirror) of the 13th century it is stated that
+  the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley.
+
+  The wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable
+  situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species.
+  The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied
+  to those found in Lapland or on the summits of the highest British
+  hills. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where
+  the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground is
+  covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willows, crow-berries
+  and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the andromeda,
+  the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &c. besides the flowering
+  mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in the shape of
+  bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very sheltered
+  places, the willows may grow higher than a man, and the vegetation is
+  less arctic and more abundant.
+
+_Government and Trade._--The trade of Greenland is a monopoly of the
+Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in Copenhagen by a
+government board (_Kongelige Grönlandske Handel_) and in the country by
+various government officials. In order to meet the double purposes of
+government and trade the west coast, up to nearly 74° N., is divided
+into two inspectorates, the southern extending to 67° 40' N., the
+northern comprising the rest of the country; the respective seats of
+government being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates are ruled
+by two superior officials or governors responsible to the director of
+the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspectorates is divided into
+districts, each district having, in addition to the chief settlement or
+_coloni_, several outlying posts and Eskimo hunting stations, each
+presided over by an _udligger_, who is responsible to the
+_coloni-bestyrer_, or superintendent of the district. These trading
+settlements, which dot the coast for a distance of 1000 m., are about
+sixty in number. From the Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is
+the chief article received, and is forwarded in casks to the _coloni_,
+where it is boiled into oil, and prepared for being despatched to
+Copenhagen by means of the government ships which arrive and leave
+between May and November. For the rest of the year navigation is
+stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing season. The
+principle upon which the government acts is to give the natives low
+prices for their produce, but to sell them European articles of
+necessity at prime cost, and other stores, such as bread, at prices
+which will scarcely pay for the purchase and freight, while no
+merchandise is charged, on an average, more than 20% over the cost price
+in Denmark. In addition the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from
+private dealers on paying freight for them at the rate of 2½d. per 10
+lb., or 1s. 6d. per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and
+native articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and
+Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government. Out of the
+payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-sixth devoted to
+the Greenlanders' public fund, spent in "public works," in charity, and
+on other unforeseen contingencies. The object of the monopoly is solely
+for the good of the Greenlanders--to prevent spirits being sold to them,
+and the vice, disease and misery which usually attend the collision
+between natives and civilization of the trader's type being introduced
+into the primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition to
+being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious crime is very
+rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local councils or
+_parsissaet_ were organized in 1857 in every district. To these parish
+parliaments delegates are sent from every station. These _parsissoks_,
+elected at the rate of about one representative to 120 voters, wear a
+cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid the European members of the
+council in distributing the surplus profit apportioned to each district,
+and generally in advising as to the welfare of that part of Greenland
+under their partial control. The municipal council has the disposal of
+20% of the annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines
+of each district. It holds two sessions every year, and the discussions
+are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition to their functions as
+guardians of the poor, the parish members have to investigate crimes and
+punish misdemeanours, settle litigations and divide inheritances. They
+can impose fines for small offences not worth sending before the
+inspector, and, in cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of
+inflicting corporal punishment.
+
+A Danish _coloni_ in Greenland might seem to many not to be a cheerful
+place at best; though in the long summer days they would certainly find
+some of those on the southern fjords comparatively pleasant. The fact
+is, however, that most people who ever lived some time in Greenland
+always long to go back. There are generally in a _coloni_ three or four
+Danish houses, built of wood and pitched over, in addition to
+storehouses and a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents
+may include, besides a _coloni-bestyrer_ and his assistant, a
+_missionair_ or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a
+carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally from
+twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built of stone and
+turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their houses in the
+_colonis_ have also to some extent been built of imported wood.
+Following the west coast northward, the trading centres are these: in
+the south inspectorate, Julianehaab, near which are remains of the early
+Norse settlements of Eric the Red and his companions (the _Öster-Bygd_);
+Frederikshaab, in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut;
+Godthaab, the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of which
+are also early Norse remains (the _Vester-Bygd_); Sukkertoppen, a most
+picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the north inspectorate the
+centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet at the mouth of Disco Bay;
+Christianshaab, one of the pleasantest settlements in the north, and
+Jacobshavn, on the inner shores of the same bay; Godhavn (or Lievely) on
+the south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of the
+whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly of all,
+Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni, Angmagssalik, in
+65º 30' N., only established in 1894. For ecclesiastical purposes Danish
+Greenland is reckoned in the province of the bishop of Zeeland. The
+Danish mission in Greenland has a yearly grant of £2000 from the trading
+revenue of the colony, besides a contribution of £880 from the state.
+The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a century and a
+half, retired from the country in 1900. The trade of Greenland has on
+the whole much decreased in modern times, and trading and missions cost
+the Danish state a comparatively large sum (about £11,000 every year),
+although this is partly covered by the income from the royalty of the
+cryolite mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of
+more than £6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was
+formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought about by
+the fall in the price of seal-oil. It might be expected that there
+should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries, caused by the
+European and American sealers catching larger quantities every year,
+especially along the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and so
+actually diminishing the number of the animals in the Greenland seas.
+The statistics of South Greenland, however, do not seem to demonstrate
+any such decrease. The average number of seals killed annually is about
+33,000.[39] The annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured
+goods, foodstuffs, &c., may be taken somewhat to exceed £40,000. The
+chief articles of export (together with those that have lapsed) have
+been already indicated; but they may be summarized as including
+seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins, fish products and eiderdown,
+with some quantity of worked skins. Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which
+in the days of the old Norse settlements were the chief articles of
+export, are now of little importance.
+
+_Population._--The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated at
+45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The Europeans
+number about 300. The Eskimo population of Danish Greenland (west coast)
+seems to have decreased since the middle of the 18th century. Hans Egede
+estimated the population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large
+over-estimate. The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious
+diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During the last
+half of the 19th century there was on the whole a slight increase of the
+native population. The population fluctuates a good deal, owing, to some
+extent, to an immigration of natives from the east to the west coast.
+The population of the east coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in
+number, several hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north
+part of the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef
+Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in 1823
+Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either completely died out
+or have wandered south. A little tribe of Eskimo living in the region of
+Cape York near Smith Sound--the so-called "Arctic Highlanders" or Smith
+Sound Eskimo--number about 240.
+
+_History._--In the beginning of the 10th century the Norwegian
+Gunnbjörn, son of Ulf Kráka, is reported to have found some islands to
+the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without landing upon it, the
+southern part of the east coast of Greenland. In 982 the Norwegian Eric
+the Red sailed from Iceland to find the land which Gunnbjörn had seen,
+and he spent three years on its south-western coasts exploring the
+country. On his return to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in
+order to make people more willing to go there, and reported so
+favourably on its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining
+followers. In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only
+14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on the
+south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric built his
+house at Brattalid, near the inner end oí the fjord Tunugdliarfik, just
+north of the present Julianehaab. Other settlers followed and in a few
+years two colonies had been formed, one called Österbygd in the present
+district of Julianehaab comprising later about 190 farms, and another
+called Vesterbygd farther north on the west coast in the present
+district of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins in
+the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where these
+colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped in coarse hairy
+cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones with runic inscriptions
+have been found. On a voyage from Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son
+of Eric the Red) discovered America in the year 1000, and a few years
+later Torfinn Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from
+Greenland to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years
+later (see VINLAND).
+
+When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various remains
+indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been people of a
+similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in America, whom they
+called _Skraeling_ (the meaning of the word is uncertain, it means
+possibly weak people); but the sagas do not report that they actually
+met the natives then. But somewhat later they have probably met with the
+Eskimo farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco
+Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &c. The Norse
+colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at least to 73º N.,
+where a small runic stone from the 14th century has been found. On a
+voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still farther north into the
+Melville Bay.
+
+Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance of Olaf
+Trygvasson, king of Norway, in 1000 and following years. In the
+beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own bishop, who resided
+at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station Igoliko, on an isthmus
+between two fjords, Igaliksfjord (the old Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik
+(the old Eriksfjord), inside the present colony Julianehaab. The Norse
+colonies had twelve churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the
+Österbygd, and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland,
+had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261, when the
+Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the king of Norway.
+Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown till 1814, when, at the
+dissolution of the union between Denmark and Norway, neither it nor
+Iceland and the Faeroes were mentioned, and they, therefore, were kept
+by the Danish king and thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called
+respectively _Öster Bygd_ (or eastern settlement) and _Vester_ (western)
+_Bygd_, both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the
+districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though for long the
+view was persistently held that the first was on the east coast, and
+numerous expeditions have been sent in search of these "lost colonies"
+and their imaginary survivors. These settlements at the height of their
+prosperity are estimated to have had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however,
+is an over-estimate, the number having probably been nearer one-half or
+one-third of that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in
+1540, but long before that date those appointed had never reached their
+sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland died there in 1377. After
+the middle of the 14th century very little is heard of the settlements,
+and their communication with the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually
+ceased. This may have been due in great part to the fact that the
+shipping and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of Norway,
+who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of years) to
+Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade of Norway came more
+and more in the hands of the Hanseatic League, which took no interest in
+Greenland. The last ship that is known to have visited the Norse colony
+in Greenland returned to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the
+settlements seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they
+were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period seem to
+have become more numerous and to have extended southwards along the
+coast from the north. This seems a less feasible explanation; it is more
+probable that the Norse settlers intermarried with the Eskimo and were
+gradually absorbed. About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the
+16th century it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically
+disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no sign of any
+people save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a few directly
+relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of Norse influence.[40]
+For more than two hundred years Greenland seems to have been neglected,
+almost forgotten. It was visited by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing
+in the form of permanent European settlements was established until the
+year 1721, when the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans
+Egede, landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid many
+hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at the present day the
+native race is civilized and Christianized. Many of the colonists of the
+18th century were convicts and other offenders; and in 1750 the trade
+became a monopoly in the hands of a private company. In 1733-1734 there
+was a dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number of
+the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a private
+monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the government took it over.
+Julianehaab was founded in the following year. In 1807-1814, owing to
+the war, communication was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but
+subsequently the colony prospered in a languid fashion.
+
+  _Authorities._--As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen and
+  its early history see Konrad Maurer's excellent paper, "Geschichte der
+  Entdeckung Ostgrönlands" in the report of _Die zweite deutsche
+  Nordpolarfahrt 1869-1870_ (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i.; G. Storm, _Studies
+  on the "Vineland" Voyages_ (Copenhagen, 1889); _Extraits des Mémoires
+  de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_ (1888); K. J. V.
+  Steenstrup, "Om Österbygden," _Meddelelser om Grönland_, part ix.
+  (1882), pp. 1-51; Finnur Jônsson, "Grönlands gamle Topografi efter
+  Kilderne" in _Meddelelser om Grönland_, part xx. (1899), pp. 265-329;
+  Joseph Fischer, _The Discoveries of the Norsemen in America_,
+  translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London, 1903). As to the
+  general literature on Greenland, a number of the more important modern
+  works have been noticed in footnotes. The often-quoted _Meddelelser om
+  Grönland_ is of especial value; it is published in parts (Copenhagen)
+  since 1879, and is chiefly written in Danish, but each part has a
+  summary in French. In part xiii. there is a most valuable list of
+  literature about Greenland up to 1880. See also _Geographical
+  Journal_, passim.
+
+  Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned: Hans
+  Egede, _Description of Greenland_ (London, 1745); Crantz, _History of
+  Greenland_ (2 vols., London, 1820); _Grönlands historiske
+  Mindesmerker_ (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1838-1845); H. Rink, _Danish
+  Greenland_ (London, 1877); H. Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_ (London,
+  1875); (see also same, "Eskimo Tribes" in _Meddelelser om Grönland_,
+  part xi.); Johnstrup, _Giesecke's Mineralogiske Reise i Grönland_
+  (Copenhagen, 1878).     (F. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Inglefield, _Summer Search for Franklin_ (London, 1853).
+
+  [2] _Second Grinnell Expedition_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856).
+
+  [3] Davis, Polaris (_Hall's_) _North Polar Expedition_ (Washington,
+    1876). See also Bessels, _Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition_
+    (Leipzig, 1879).
+
+  [4] _Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery_ (1823).
+
+  [5] _Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt_ (1873-1875).
+
+  [6] _Reise til Östkysten af Grönland_ (1832; trans. by G. Gordon
+    Macdougall, 1837).
+
+  [7] _Meddelelser om Grönland_, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888).
+
+  [8] _The First Crossing of Greenland_, vol. i. (London, 1890), H.
+    Mohn and F. Nansen; "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen
+    Durchquerung von Grönland" (1888). Ergänzungsheft No. 105 zu
+    _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892).
+
+  [9] A. F. Nordenskiöld, _Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til
+    Grönland_ (Stockholm, 1885).
+
+  [10] _Meddelelser om Grönland_, pts. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen,
+    1895-1896).
+
+  [11] _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899).
+
+  [12] _Ibid._ vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884).
+
+  [13] _The Geographical Journal_, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901);
+    _Två Somrar i Norra Ishafvet_ (Stockholm, 1901).
+
+  [14] _Meddelelser om Grönland_, parts xxvi.-xxvii.
+
+  [15] Nares, _Voyage to the Polar Sea_ (2 vols. London, 1877). See
+    also Blue Book, journals, &c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London,
+    1877).
+
+  [16] A. W. Greely, _Report on the Proceedings of the United States
+    Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land_, vols. i. and ii.
+    (Washington, 1885); _Three Years of Arctic Service_ (2 vols. London,
+    1886).
+
+  [17] R. E. Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice"_ (2 vols. New York,
+    1898); E. Astrup, _Blandt Nordpolen's Naboer_ (Christiania, 1895).
+
+  [18] _Meddelelser om Grönland_, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).
+
+  [19] _Ibid._ part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896).
+
+  [20] See C. Kruuse in _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 64 (Copenhagen,
+    1899). See also F. Nansen, "Die Ostküste Grönlands," Ergänzungsheft
+    No. 105 zu _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and pl.
+    iv., sketch No. 11.
+
+  [21] E. v. Drygalski, _Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für
+    Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891-1893_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).
+
+  [22] _Meddelelser om Grönland_, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen,
+    1889).
+
+  [23] _Ibid._ part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv.
+    pp. 317 et seq., 323.
+
+  [24] _Ibid._ part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898).
+
+  [25] _Ibid._ part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881).
+
+  [26] _Ibid._ part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).
+
+  [27] _Ibid._ part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. 150-154
+    (1896).
+
+  [28] _Ibid._, part xix. p. 175 (1896).
+
+  [29] _Ibid._ part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347;
+    part iv. p. 237; part viii. p. 26.
+
+  [30] See A. G. Nathorst, "Bidrag till nordöstra Grönlands geologi,"
+    with map _Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar_, No. 257,
+    Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, _Flora fossilis Arctica_ (7 vols.,
+    1868-1883), and especially _Meddelelser om Grönland_ for numerous
+    papers on the geology and palaeontology.
+
+  [31] _Medd. om Grönl._, part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).
+
+  [32] See Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice,"_ ii. 604 et seq.
+    (New York, 1898).
+
+  [33] See _loc. cit._ pp. 127-128.
+
+  [34] H. Mohn, "The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," _The Scott.
+    Geogr. Magazine_, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; H.
+    Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c.
+    Ergänzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p. 51.
+
+  [35] On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V.
+    Willaume-Jantzen, _Meddelelser om Grönland_, part ix. (1889), pp.
+    285-310, part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180.
+
+  [36] See A. Paulsen, _Meteorolog. Zeitschrift_ (1889), p. 241; F.
+    Nansen, _The First Crossing of Greenland_ (London, 1890), vol. ii.
+    pp. 496-497; H. Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,"
+    &c. Ergänzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p.
+    51.
+
+  [37] H. Winge, "Grönlands Fugle," _Meddelelser om Grönland_, part
+    xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).
+
+  [38] See J. Lange, "Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," _Meddelelser om
+    Grönland_, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming, "Om
+    Grönlands Vegetation," _Meddelelser om Grönland_, part xii.
+    (Copenhagen, 1888); and in _Botanische Jahrbücher_, vol. x.
+    (1888-1889). See also A. Blytt, _Englers Jahrbücher_, ii. (1882), pp.
+    1-50; A. G. Nathorst, _Ötversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl._
+    (Stockholm, 1884); "Kritische Bemerkungen über die Geschichte der
+    Vegetation Grönlands," _Botanische Jahrbücher_, vol. xiv. (1891).
+
+  [39] Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874 as to
+    the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Greenland,
+    and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation, the
+    Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for the
+    establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in
+    question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to put
+    its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships or
+    subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned in
+    the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar
+    provisions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in
+    council under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of
+    April in each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February
+    15, 1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still
+    operative.
+
+  [40] Cf. F. Nansen, _Eskimo Life_ (London, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+GREENLAW (a "grassy hill"), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62¼ m. S.E. of Edinburgh
+by the North British railway company's branch line from Reston Junction
+to St Boswells. The town was built towards the end of the 17th century,
+to take the place of an older one, which stood about a mile to the S.E.
+It was the county town from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it
+shared this dignity with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital.
+The chief manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About 3
+m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the 13th century,
+occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English in 1547, in spite of
+Lady Home's gallant defence, it was retaken two years afterwards, only
+to fall again in 1569. After its surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it
+gradually decayed. Towards the close of the 18th century the 3rd earl of
+Marchmont had the walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle,
+though a mere shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque
+ruin.
+
+
+
+
+GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was born at Newburyport,
+Massachusetts, on the 5th of December 1783. When a child he was taken by
+his father to Maine, where he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise
+at Standish. He soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve
+years, and in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme
+court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of _Reports
+of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine_ (1822-1835). In 1833 he became
+Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded Judge Joseph Story as Dane
+professor of law in Harvard University; in 1848 he retired from his
+active duties, and became professor emeritus. After being for many years
+president of the Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge,
+Mass., on the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf's principal work is a
+_Treatise on the Law of Evidence_ (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also
+published _A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or
+Limited in their Application, taken from American and English Reports_
+(1821), and _Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists by the
+Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice, with an account
+of the Trial of Jesus_ (1846; London, 1847). He revised for the American
+courts William Cruise's _Digest of Laws respecting Real Property_ (3
+vols., 1849-1850).
+
+
+
+
+GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical group of the
+guenon monkeys technically known as _Cercopithecus callitrichus_, taking
+its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur of the back, which forms
+a marked contrast to the white whiskers and belly.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOCK, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Renfrewshire,
+Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of
+Glasgow by the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways, 21
+m. by the river and firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water
+frontage of nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town
+in which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch Gryfe,
+from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic use, and for
+driving several mills and factories. The streets are laid out on the
+comparatively level tract behind the firth, the older thoroughfares and
+buildings lying in the centre. The west end contains numerous handsome
+villas and a fine esplanade, 1½ m. long, running from Prince's Pier to
+Fort Matilda, which is supplied with submarine mines for the defence of
+the river. The capacious bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence
+from a religious house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank
+that ends here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway
+between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and the
+southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper firth.
+There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting with Port
+Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total distance of 7½ m.
+The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and Greenock thus has the
+reputation of being the wettest town in Scotland.
+
+Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The municipal
+buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with a tower 244
+ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on the old steamboat
+quay, in classic style with a Doric portico, dates from 1818. The county
+buildings (1867) have a tower and spire 112 ft. high. The Watt
+Institution, founded in 1837 by a son of the famous engineer, James
+Watt, contains the public library (established in 1783), the Watt
+scientific library (presented in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble
+statue of James Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the
+museum and lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other
+buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library, founded
+by the widow of William Spence the mathematician. In addition to
+numerous board schools there are the Greenock academy for secondary
+education, the technical college (1900), the school of art, and a school
+of navigation and engineering. The charitable institutions include the
+infirmary; the cholera hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception
+house; Sir Gabriel Wood's mariners' asylum, an Elizabethan building
+erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant seamen; and the
+Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built beyond the southern
+boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour stands the old west now the north
+parish church (a Gothic edifice dating from 1591) containing some
+stained-glass windows by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's
+"Highland Mary" was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson
+Street (1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile.
+The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the Classic
+style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the infirmary and
+attached to a few of the older churches, a beautiful cemetery, 90 acres
+in extent, has been laid out in the south-western district. The parks
+and open spaces include Wellington Park, Well Park in the heart of the
+town (these were the gift of Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle
+Road--a broad drive winding over the heights towards Gourock,
+constructed as a "relief work" in the severe winter of 1879-1880.
+
+Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with provost and
+bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by one member. The
+corporation owns the supplies of water (the equipment of works and
+reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas, electric light and power, and
+the tramways (leased to a company). The staple industries are
+shipbuilding (established in 1760) and sugar refining (1765).
+Greenock-built vessels have always been esteemed, and many Cunard, P. &
+O. and Allan liners have been constructed in the yards. The town has
+been one of the chief centres of the sugar industry. Other important
+industries include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives,
+anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and worsted
+goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium factory, a
+flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The seal and whale
+fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct, but the
+fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland grounds are
+considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first harbour (finished in
+1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but acquired it in that and the
+following year, and a graving dock was opened in 1786. Since then
+additions and improvements have been periodically in progress, and there
+are now several tidal harbours--among them Victoria harbour, Albert
+harbour, the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour,
+the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt dock
+(completed in 1886 at a cost of £650,000 with an area of 2000 ft. by 400
+ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel graving dock and other
+dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100 acres in area and the quay walls are
+over 3 m. in length. Both the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western
+railways (in Prince's Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage
+nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last the
+outlay on the harbour has exceeded £1,500,000.
+
+In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing village,
+consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century later there were
+only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it was erected by Charles
+I. into a burgh of barony under a charter granted to John Shaw, the
+government being administered by a baron-bailie, or magistrate,
+appointed by the superior. Its commercial prosperity received an
+enormous impetus from the Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with
+America and the West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of
+Independence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in
+in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in
+amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw--to whom and to whose descendants, the
+Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been indebted--by charter (dated 1741
+and 1751) had empowered the householders to elect a council of nine
+members, which proved to be the most liberal constitution of any Scots
+burgh prior to the Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the
+status of a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to
+parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt, William Spence
+(1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898), principal of Glasgow
+University, who died in the town and was buried in Greenock cemetery.
+John Galt, the novelist, was educated in Greenock, where he also served
+some time in the custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided
+the town in 1715.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurring
+as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals or as a canary-yellow powder.
+Crystals are hexagonal with hemimorphic development, being differently
+terminated at the two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the
+numerous hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The
+crystals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine to
+resinous lustre; hardness 3-3½; specific gravity 4.9. Crystals have been
+found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the neighbourhood of
+Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite in the amygdaloidal
+cavities of basaltic igneous rocks--a rather unusual mode of occurrence
+for a metallic sulphide. The first, and largest crystal (about ½ in.
+across) was found, about the year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at
+Bowling in Dumbartonshire, but this was thought to be blende. A larger
+number of crystals, but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the
+cutting of the Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they
+were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of Cathcart,
+after whom the mineral was named. A third locality is the Boyleston
+quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities--Przibram in Bohemia,
+Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.--the mineral is represented
+only as a powder dusted over the surface of zinc minerals, especially
+blende and calamine, which contain a small amount of cadmium replacing
+zinc.
+
+Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide (ZnS) known
+as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared artificially, and are not
+uncommon as furnace products. Previous to the recent discovery in
+Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small octahedral crystals, greenockite was
+the only known mineral containing cadmium as an essential constituent.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENORE, a seaport and watering-place of county Louth, Ireland,
+beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on its western
+shore. It was brought to importance by the action of the London &
+North-Western railway company of England, which owns the pier and
+railways joining the Great Northern system at Dundalk (12½ m.) and Newry
+(14 m.). A regular service of passenger steamers controlled by the
+company runs to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses the
+Lough to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places of
+county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out the golf
+links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach, some 10 ft. above
+present sea-level, is to be seen.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geologist, was born in
+London on the 18th of January 1778. He was educated at Eton, and
+afterwards (1795) entered Pembroke College, Oxford, but never graduated.
+In 1798 he proceeded to Göttingen to prosecute legal studies, but having
+attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the study of
+natural history, and, coming into the possession of a fortune, he
+abandoned law and devoted his attention to science. He studied
+mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in various parts of
+Europe and the British Isles, and worked at chemistry at the Royal
+Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused deep interest in political
+questions, and he was in 1807 elected member of parliament for the
+borough of Gatton, continuing to hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his
+interest in geology increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was
+the chief founder with others of the Geological Society of London in
+1807. He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it
+was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and in this
+capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and did much to promote
+the advancement of geology. In 1819 he published _A Critical Examination
+of the First Principles of Geology_, a work which was useful mainly in
+refuting erroneous theories. In the same year was published his famous
+_Geological Map of England and Wales_, in six sheets; of which a second
+edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based on the
+original map of William Smith; but much new information was embodied. In
+1843 he commenced to prepare a geological map of India, which was
+published in 1854. He died at Naples on the 2nd of April 1855.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852), American sculptor, son of a merchant,
+was born at Boston, on the 6th of September 1805. At the age of sixteen
+he entered Harvard, but he devoted his principal attention to art, and
+in the autumn of 1825 he went to Rome, where he studied under
+Thorwaldsen. After a short visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed
+busts of John Quincy Adams and other people of distinction, he returned
+to Italy and took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first
+commissions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chanting
+Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government to execute the
+colossal statue of Washington for the national capital. It was unveiled
+in 1843, and was really a fine piece of work for its day; but in modern
+times it has been sharply criticized as unworthy and incongruous.
+Shortly afterwards he received a second government commission for a
+colossal group, the "Rescue," intended to represent the conflict between
+the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to Washington to
+superintend its erection, and in the autumn of 1852 he was attacked by
+brain fever, of which he died in Somerville near Boston on the 18th of
+December. Among other works of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of
+Lafayette, the Medora and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston
+Athenaeum. Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in
+prose and verse.
+
+  See H. T. Tuckerman, _Memoir of Horatio Greenough_ (New York, 1853).
+
+
+
+
+GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1901), American classical scholar, was
+born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May 1833. He graduated at Harvard
+in 1856, studied one year at the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the
+Michigan bar, and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he
+was appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became assistant
+professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which he resigned
+hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the
+11th of October 1901. Following the lead of Goodwin's _Moods and Tenses_
+(1860), he set himself to study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870
+published _Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive_, a brief treatise,
+privately printed, of much originality and value, and in many ways
+coinciding with Berthold Delbrück's _Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und
+Optativs in Sanskrit und Griechischen_ (1871), which, however, quite
+overshadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared _A Latin Grammar for Schools
+and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar_, by Joseph A. Allen and
+James B. Greenough, a work of great critical carefulness. His theory of
+_cum_-constructions is that adopted and developed by William Gardner
+Hale. In 1872-1880 Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and
+comparative philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced
+scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen and
+Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occasionally
+contributed to _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_ (founded in 1889
+and endowed at his instance by his own class) papers on Latin syntax,
+prosody and etymology--a subject on which he planned a long work--on
+Roman archaeology and on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy.
+He assisted largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able
+English scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with
+Professor George L. Kittredge on _Words and their Ways in English
+Speech_ (1901), one of the best books on the subject in the language. He
+wrote clever light verse, including _The Blackbirds_, a comedietta,
+first published in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (vol. xxxix. 1877); _The Rose
+and the Ring_ (1880), a pantomime adapted from Thackeray; _The Queen of
+Hearts_ (1885), a dramatic fantasia; and _Old King Cole_ (1889), an
+operetta.
+
+  See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in _Harvard Studies in Classical
+  Philology_, vol. xiv. (1903). pp. 1-17 (also printed in _Harvard
+  Graduates' Magazine_, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201).
+
+
+
+
+GREEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely combined
+associations which met from time to time in London taverns or
+coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century. It had its
+meeting-place at the King's Head tavern at Chancery Lane End, and was
+therefore known as the "King's Head Club." It seems to have been founded
+about the year 1675 as a resort for members of the political party
+hostile to the court, and as these associates were in the habit of
+wearing in their hats a bow, or "bob," of green ribbon, as a
+distinguishing badge useful for the purpose of mutual recognition in
+street brawls, the name of the club became changed, about 1679, to the
+Green Ribbon Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction
+of the country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who were
+concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion. Roger North
+tells us that "they admitted all strangers that were confidingly
+introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions to make
+proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly come to town."
+According to Dryden (_Absalom and Achitophel_) drinking was the chief
+attraction, and the members talked and organized sedition over their
+cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied the court with a list of forty-eight
+members of the Green Ribbon Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield's
+numerous perjuries make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives
+confirmation as regards several names from a list given to James II. by
+Nathan Wade in 1885 (_Harleian MSS._ 6845), while a number of more
+eminent personages are mentioned in _The Cabal_, a satire published in
+1680, as also frequenting the club. From these sources it would appear
+that the duke of Monmouth himself, and statesmen like Halifax,
+Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Macclesfield, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of
+Warke, Herbert of Cherbury, were among those who fraternized at the
+King's Head Tavern with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and
+Shadwell, with remnants of the Cromwellian régime like Falconbridge,
+Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard of
+Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the type of
+Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield, notorious among his
+other crimes and treacheries for a seditious paper found in a meal-tub,
+is found in connexion with the club in _The Loyal Subjects' Litany_, one
+of the innumerable satires of the period, in which occur the lines:
+
+  "From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club
+   From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub,
+            _Libera nos, Domine_."
+
+The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the court, and
+its members were active promoters of conspiracy and sedition. The
+president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir Robert Peyton, M.P. for
+Middlesex, who afterwards turned informer. The Green Ribbon Club served
+both as a debating society and an intelligence department for the Whig
+faction. Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed out
+by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news from
+Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, "for some or others
+were continually coming and going," says Roger North, "to import or
+export news and stories." Slander of the court or the Tories was
+invented in the club and sedulously spread over the town, and measures
+were there concerted for pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting
+the pretensions of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to
+Catholic outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the
+scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk armour,
+supposed to be bullet proof, "in which any man dressed up was as safe as
+a house," says North, "for it was impossible to strike him for
+laughing"; while in their pockets, "for street and crowd-work," they
+carried the weapon of offence invented by Stephen College and known as
+the "Protestant Flail."
+
+The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club the means of
+constructing the first systematized political organization in England.
+North relates that "every post conveyed the news and tales legitimated
+there, as also the malign constructions of all the good actions of the
+government, especially to places where elections were depending, to
+shape men's characters into fit qualifications to be chosen or
+rejected." In the general election of January and February 1679 the Whig
+interest throughout the country was managed and controlled by a
+committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club's organizing
+activity was also notably effective in the agitation of the Petitioners
+in 1679. This celebrated movement was engineered from the Green Ribbon
+Club with all the skill and energy of a modern caucus. The petitions
+were prepared in London and sent down to every part of the country,
+where paid canvassers took them from house to house collecting
+signatures with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The
+great "pope-burning" processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary of
+Queen Elizabeth's accession, were also organized by the club. They ended
+by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club windows; and as
+they proved an effective means of inflaming the religious passions of
+the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon Club that the _mobile vulgus_
+first received the nickname of "the mob." The activity of the club was,
+however, short-lived. The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of
+the favourite projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence,
+which declined rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation
+of the city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House
+Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685 John
+Ayloffe, who was found to have been "a clubber at the King's Head Tavern
+and a green-ribon man," was executed in front of the premises on the
+spot where the "pope-burning" bon-fires had been kindled; and although
+the tavern was still in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green
+Ribbon Club which made it famous did not survive the accession of James
+II. The precise situation of the King's Head Tavern, described by North
+as "over against the Inner Temple Gate," was at the corner of Fleet
+Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the latter thoroughfare.
+
+  See Sir George Sitwell, _The First Whig_ (Scarborough, 1894),
+  containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-burning
+  procession; Roger North, _Examen_ (London, 1740); Anchitell Grey,
+  _Debates of the House of Commons_, 1667-1684, vol. viii. (10 vols.,
+  London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc.,
+  London, 1845).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to no fewer than
+three distinct members of the Cretaceous System, viz. the Upper
+Greensand (see GAULT), the Lower Greensand and the so-called Cambridge
+Greensand, a local phase of the base of the Chalk (q.v.). The term was
+introduced by the early English geologists for certain sandy rocks which
+frequently exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of
+minute grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of
+these rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion
+between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian) and the
+Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention to the latter.
+
+The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H. Fitton
+(_Q.J.G.S._ iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name "Vectine"
+for the formation. The name was revived under the form "Vectian" in 1885
+by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because, although sands and sandstones prevail,
+the green colour has often changed by oxidation of the iron to various
+shades of red and brown, and other lithological types, clays and
+limestones represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand
+is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of Wight, in
+Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again beneath the northern
+outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxfordshire and Bedfordshire, and
+thence it is traceable through Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east
+Yorkshire. It rests conformably upon the Wealden formation in the south
+of England, but it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the
+occurrence of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked
+overlap of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived
+pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft. thick
+at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly westward. It is
+usually clearly marked off from the overlying Gault.
+
+In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been subdivided as follows,
+although the several members are not everywhere recognizable:--
+
+                                           Isle of Wight.
+  Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.)    Carstone and Sand rock series.
+  Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.)      Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands).
+  Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.)         Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).
+  Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.)     Atherfield Clay.
+
+The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The basal
+portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the "Perna bed" from the abundance of
+_Perna Mulleti_; other fossils are _Hoplites Deshayesii_, _Exogyra
+sinuata_, _Ancyloceras Mathesonianum_. The Hythe beds are
+interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former are
+bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain amount of quartz
+and glauconite. The limestone is known locally as "rag"; the Kentish Rag
+has been largely employed as a building stone and roadstone; it
+frequently contains layers of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that
+town). The sandy portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey
+and calcareous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone;
+locally it is called "hassock" (or Calkstone). The two stones are well
+exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so called from the
+discovery of the bones of that reptile). Southwest of Dorking sandstone
+and grit become more prevalent, and it is known there as "Bargate
+stone," much used around Godalming. Pulborough stone is another local
+sandstone of the Hythe beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this
+formation in Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand
+and clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst,
+Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller's earth
+deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near Maidstone, at
+Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds are light-coloured,
+rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous limestone (Folkestone
+stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found near the top. These beds are
+well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone and near Reigate. At Ightham there
+is a fine, hard, white sandstone along with a green, quartzitic variety
+(Ightham stone). In Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking,
+but a ferruginous grit, "carstone," occurs in lenticular masses and
+layers, which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c.
+
+The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy country, as about
+Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at Woburn, or at Shanklin and
+Sandown in the Isle of Wight. Outside the southern area the Lower
+Greensand is represented by the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in
+Berkshire, the Sandy and Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron
+sands of Oxfordshire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the
+Leighton Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the
+Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county and
+Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the
+Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along with the
+upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands of the Lower
+Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture of glass, for which
+purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone, near Reigate, Hartshill,
+near Aylesbury and other places; the ferruginous sand is worked as an
+iron ore at Seend.
+
+This formation is continuous across the channel into France, where it is
+well developed in Boulonnais. According to the continental
+classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the Urgonian or
+Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to the Aptian (q.v.);
+while the upper part of the Folkestone beds would fall within the lower
+Albian (q.v.).
+
+  See the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey_, "Geology of the Weald"
+  (1875), "Geology of the Isle of Wight" (2nd ed., 1889), "Geology of
+  the Isle of Purbeck" (1898); and the _Record of Excursions_,
+  Geologists' Association (London, 1891).     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county, North
+Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 3317, (1900)
+10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is
+served by several lines of the Southern railway. It is situated in the
+Piedmont region of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is
+the seat of the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of
+the Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; chartered in
+1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles F. Deems was
+president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the burning of its
+buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of two institutions for
+negroes--a State Agricultural and Mechanical College, and Bennett
+College (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1873). Another school for
+negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College (Evangelical Lutheran,
+co-educational), was opened at Concord, N.C., in 1903, was removed to
+Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907 was established at Lutherville, E. of
+Greensboro. About 6 m. W. of Greensboro is Guilford College
+(co-educational; Friends), founded as "New Garden Boarding School" in
+1837 and rechartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a
+Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is the
+shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking region, among
+whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton are especially important;
+is an important insurance centre; has a large wholesale trade; and has
+various manufactures, including cotton goods[1] (especially blue denim),
+tobacco and cigars, lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds,
+machinery, foundry products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory
+products increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or
+97.6%. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro
+was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the 15th of
+March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford Court House,
+about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a Battle-Ground Park of
+100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this park contains a Revolutionary
+museum, and twenty-nine monuments, including a Colonial Column, an arch
+(1906) in memory of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North
+Carolina, who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and
+Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-1781), a
+brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed at Catawba
+and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson, N.C., was named.
+Greensboro was founded and became the county-seat in 1808, was organized
+as a town in 1829, and was first chartered as a city in 1870.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the first
+    in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed about
+    20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three very
+    large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill
+    villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these three
+    mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population was
+    estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools for the
+    children of operatives and carry on "welfare work" in these villages.
+
+
+
+
+GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmoreland county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 4202;
+(1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420. It is served by two lines
+of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an important coal centre, and
+manufactures engines, iron and brass goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In
+addition to its public school system, it has several private schools,
+including St Mary's Academy and St Joseph's Academy, both Roman
+Catholic. About 3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of
+Hanna's Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed by the
+Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to have been the
+first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on the 6th of April
+1773, and the county courts continued to be held here until 1787.
+Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, immediately after the opening of
+the state road, not far from the trail followed by General John Forbes
+on his march to Fort Duquesne in 1758; it was made the county-seat in
+1787, and was incorporated in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick
+(pop. in 1900, 901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg
+(620) were merged with Greensburg.
+
+  See John N. Boucher's _History of Westmoreland County, Pa._ (3 vols.,
+  New York, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+GREENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly known as
+sandpipers, the _Totanus glottis_ of most ornithological writers. Some
+exercise of the imagination is however needed to see in the dingy
+olive-coloured legs of this species a justification of the English name
+by which it goes, and the application of that name, which seems to be
+due to Pennant, was probably by way of distinguishing it from two allied
+but perfectly distinct species of _Totanus_ (_T. calidris_ and _T.
+fuscus_) having red legs and usually called redshanks. The greenshank is
+a native of the northern parts of the Old World, but in winter it
+wanders far to the south, and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope,
+in India and thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia.
+It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance there
+must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a woodcock, it is of a
+much more slender build, and its long legs and neck give it a graceful
+appearance, which is enhanced by the activity of its actions. Disturbed
+from the moor or marsh, where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the
+air, conspicuous by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries
+flies round the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree,
+if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits all
+the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many other
+_Limicolae_ indulge during the breeding-season--with certain variations,
+however, that are peculiarly its own. It breeds in no small numbers in
+the Hebrides, and parts of the Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to
+Sutherland, as well as in the more elevated or more northern districts
+of Norway, Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kamchatka. In
+North America it is represented by two species, _Totanus semipalmatus_
+and _T. melanoleucus_, there called willets, telltales or tattlers,
+which in general habits resemble the greenshank of the Old World.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington county,
+Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 75
+m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900) 7642 (4987 negroes); (1910)
+9610. Greenville is served by the Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi
+Valley railways, and by various passenger and freight steamboat lines on
+the Mississippi river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta,
+a rich cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost
+exclusively connected with that staple. There are large warehouses,
+compresses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills. Old
+Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county seat of
+Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it), and later
+became the county-seat of Washington county. Much of the old town caved
+into the river, and during the Civil War it was burned by the Federal
+forces soon after the capture of Memphis. The present site was then
+adopted. The town of Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was
+chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Darke county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton. Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237.
+It is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the
+Cincinnati Northern railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is
+situated about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a
+large and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco.
+It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and creamery
+products and has grain elevators and tobacco warehouses. In the city is
+a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there is a county Children's Home
+and Infirmary. The municipality owns and operates its water-works.
+Greenville occupies the site of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville
+(built by General Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on
+the 3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory over
+the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the treaty of
+Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of hostilities and
+ceding to the United States a considerable portion of Ohio and a number
+of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and Michigan (including the sites
+of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance, Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and
+Chicago), and the United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000
+worth of goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500, for
+ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Delawares, the
+Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawatomies, the Miamis, the
+Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas, the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river
+tribe. Tecumseh lived at Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second
+Indian treaty was negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H.
+Harrison and Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the
+Shawnees, the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United
+States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white
+settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town was laid
+out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of the newly erected
+county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in 1838 and chartered as a
+city in 1887.
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Greenville county, South
+Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m. N.W. of Columbia, in
+the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom
+5414 were negroes; (1910, census) 15,741. It is served by the Southern,
+the Greenville & Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina
+railways. It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue
+Ridge Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors. It
+is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing district.
+Greenville's chief interest is in cotton, but it has various other
+manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron and fertilizers. The
+total value of the factory products of the city in 1905 was $1,676,774,
+an increase of 73.5% since 1900. The city is the seat of Furman
+University, Chicora College for girls (1893; Presbyterian), and
+Greenville Female College (1854; Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379
+students, and which, besides the usual departments, has a conservatory
+of music, a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture
+and a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University (Baptist;
+opened in 1852) grew out of the "Furman Academy and Theological
+Institution," opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827, and named in honour of
+Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-known Baptist clergyman of South
+Carolina, whose son, James C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of
+the University. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250
+students, of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville was
+laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and was first
+chartered as a city in 1868.
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m. N.E. of Dallas. Pop.
+(1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-born and 1751 were negroes; (1910)
+8850. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis
+South-Western and the Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton
+market, has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery, and
+other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agricultural
+district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. It is
+the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in 1893, and 1 m. from
+the city limits, in the village of Peniel (pop. 1908, about 500), a
+community of "Holiness" people, are the Texas Holiness University
+(1898), a Holiness orphan asylum and a Holiness press. Greenville was
+settled in 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas
+legislature granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission
+government similar to that of Galveston.
+
+
+
+
+GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long
+Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the state, about 28 m. N.E. of
+New York City. It contains a borough of the same name and the villages
+of Cos Cob, Riverside and Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New
+Haven & Hartford Railway; the township has steamboat and electric
+railway connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900)
+12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of the borough
+(1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort, principally for New Yorkers.
+Among the residents have been Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman,
+the landscape painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder
+of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches in the
+township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H. Murray
+(1840-1904), called "Adirondack Murray," from his _Camp Life in the
+Adirondack Mountains_ (1868), was once pastor. In the borough are a
+public library, Greenwich Academy (1827; co-educational), the Brunswick
+School for boys (1901), with which Betts Academy of Stamford was united
+in 1908, and a hospital. The principal manufactures are belting,
+woollens, tinners' hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are
+shipped from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven
+Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the exploration of Long
+Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid claim to Greenwich, and as New
+Haven did nothing to assist the settlers, they consented to union with
+New Netherland in 1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty
+of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and the New
+Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to Greenwich, but the
+inhabitants of the town refused to submit to the New Haven Colony until
+October 1656. Six years later Greenwich was one of the first towns of
+the New Haven Colony to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered
+severely during the War of Independence on account of the frequent
+quartering of American troops within its borders, the depredations of
+bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York by the British in
+1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779 (February 25) and 1781
+(December 5). There was also a strong loyalist sentiment. On the old
+post-road in Greenwich is the inn, built about 1729, at which Israel
+Putnam was surprised in February 1779 by a force under General Tryon;
+according to tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone
+steps. The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American
+Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial. The township
+government of Greenwich was instituted in the colonial period. The
+borough of Greenwich was incorporated in 1858.
+
+  See D. M. Mead, _History of the Town of Greenwich_ (New York, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,
+bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by
+Deptford. Pop. (1901) 95,770. Area, 3851.7 acres. It has a
+river-frontage of 4½ m., the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing the
+Isle of Dogs on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich side.
+Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the Greenwich
+tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs (Cubitt Town),
+and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street traffic, crossing to a
+point between the East and West India Docks (see POPLAR). The main
+thoroughfares from W. to E. are Woolwich and Shooter's Hill Roads, the
+second representing the old high road through Kent, the Roman Watling
+Street. Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, when it was
+a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).
+
+The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the observatory.
+Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became in 1873 a Royal Naval
+College. Upon it or its site centre nearly all the historical
+associations of the place. The noble buildings, contrasting strangely
+with the wharves adjacent and opposite to it, make a striking picture,
+standing on the low river-bank with a background formed by the wooded
+elevation of Greenwich Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal
+palace called Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as
+early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort, duke of
+Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, who largely
+improved the property and named it _Placentia_. It did not revert to the
+crown till his death in 1447. It was the birthplace of Henry VIII.,
+Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building
+was enlarged by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief
+residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the "Queen's
+House" for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land from the crown "as of the
+manor of East Greenwich" became at this time a recognized formula, and
+occurs in a succession of American colonial charters from those of
+Virginia in 1606, 1609 and 1612 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along
+with other royal palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by
+the Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of
+Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of the
+present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design which was
+not further carried out. In its unfinished state it was assigned by the
+patent of William and Mary to certain of the great officers of state, as
+commissioners for its conversion into a hospital for seamen; and it was
+opened as such in 1705. The building consists of four blocks. Behind a
+terrace 860 ft. in length, stretching along the river side, are the
+buildings erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones's designs,
+and in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren; and
+behind these buildings are on the west those of King William and on the
+east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs. In the King William
+range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the remains of Nelson lay in
+state before their burial in St Paul's Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling
+were painted by Sir James Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and
+it is hung with portraits of the most distinguished admirals and
+paintings of the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range
+is the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson and of
+Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal quadrangle
+of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by Rysbrack, sculptured
+out of a single block of marble taken from the French by Admiral Sir
+George Rooke. In the upper quadrangle is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey,
+and there are various other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the
+building was in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was
+erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endowments of the
+hospital were increased at various periods from bequests and forfeited
+estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen were boarded within it, and 5000
+or 6000 others, called out-pensioners, received stipends at various
+rates out of its funds; but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the
+Admiralty to grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such
+of the inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another
+act was passed making their leaving on these conditions compulsory. It
+was then devoted to the accommodation of the students of the Royal Naval
+College, the Infirmary being granted to the Seamen's Hospital Society.
+Behind the College is the Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons
+of petty officers and seamen, are boarded.
+
+To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres), lying high,
+and commanding extensive views over London, the Thames and the plain of
+Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and laid out by
+Charles II., and contains a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in
+his time. In it is situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the
+advancement of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact time
+is conveyed each day at one o'clock by electric signal to the chief
+towns throughout the country; British and the majority of foreign
+geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A standard clock and
+measures are seen at the entrance. A new building was completed in 1899,
+the magnetic pavilion lying some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to
+avoid the disturbance of instruments which would be occasioned by the
+iron used in the principal building. South of the park lies the open
+common of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in the
+east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich Common.
+
+At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known as the
+whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony arose out of a
+dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex shore of the Thames, by
+the commissioners for engineering works carried out there in
+1705-1720--a remarkable achievement for this period--to save the
+lowlands from flooding. To one of these dinners Pitt was invited, and
+was subsequently accompanied by some of his colleagues. Early in the
+19th century the venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial
+function, was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always
+held here, was later celebrated regularly at the "Ship," an hotel of
+ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet continued till 1868, was
+revived in 1874-1880, and was held for the last time in 1894.
+
+The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated to St
+Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the Danes in 1012. In the
+church Wolfe, who died at Quebec (1759), and Tallis, the musician, are
+buried. A modern stained-glass window commemorates Wolfe.
+
+The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member. Two burgesses
+were returned in 1577, but it was not again represented till the same
+privilege was conferred on it in 1832. The borough council consists of a
+mayor, five aldermen and thirty councillors.
+
+
+
+
+GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist and man of letters,
+was born in April 1830. He was one of three brothers--the others being
+James and Charles--who all gained reputation as journalists. Frederick
+started life in a printing house, but at an early age began to write in
+periodicals. In 1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a
+volume called _The Napoleon Dynasty_ (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote
+several novels: _The Loves of an Apothecary_ (1854), _The Path of Roses_
+(1859) and (with his brother James) _Under a Cloud_ (1860). To the
+second number of the _Cornhill Magazine_ he contributed "An Essay
+without End," and this led to an introduction to Thackeray. In 1862,
+when Thackeray resigned the editorship of the _Cornhill_, Greenwood
+became joint editor with G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole
+editor, a post which he held until 1868. While at the _Cornhill_ he
+wrote an article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray
+might have intended to conclude his unfinished work _Denis Duval_, and
+in its pages appeared _Margaret Denzil's History_, Greenwood's most
+ambitious work of fiction, published in volume form in 1864. At that
+time Greenwood had conceived the idea of an evening newspaper, which,
+while containing "all the news proper to an evening journal," should,
+for the most part, be made up "of original articles upon the many things
+which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse the leisure
+of mankind." Public affairs, literature and art, "and all the influences
+which strengthen or dissipate society" were to be discussed by men whose
+independence and authority were equally unquestionable. Canning's
+_Anti-Jacobin_ and the _Saturday Review_ of 1864 were the joint models
+Greenwood had before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and
+the _Pall Mall Gazette_ (so named after Thackeray's imaginary paper in
+_Pendennis_) was launched in February 1865, with Greenwood as editor.
+Within a few years he had come to exercise a great influence on public
+affairs. His views somewhat rapidly ripened from what was described as
+philosophic Liberalism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain,
+Mr Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a more
+effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield had in
+Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood that Beaconsfield
+purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the Khedive Ismail; the
+British government being ignorant, until informed by Greenwood, that the
+shares were for sale and likely to be bought by France. It was
+characteristic of Greenwood that he declined to publish the news of the
+purchase of the shares in the _Pall Mall_ before the official
+announcement was made.
+
+Early in 1880 the _Pall Mall_ changed owners, and the new proprietor
+required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood at once resigned his
+editorship, but in May a new paper, the _St James's Gazette_, was
+started for him by Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and
+Greenwood proceeded to carry on in it the tradition which he had
+established in the _Pall Mall_. At the _St James's_ Greenwood remained
+for over eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon
+political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone
+administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of Lord
+Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August 1888, owing to
+disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E. Steinkopff, who had bought
+the _St James's_ at Greenwood's own suggestion. In January 1891
+Greenwood brought out a weekly review which he named the _Anti-Jacobin_.
+It failed, however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in
+January 1892. In 1893 he published _The Lover's Lexicon_ and in 1894
+_Imagination in Dreams_. He continued to express his views on political
+and social questions in contributions to newspapers and magazines,
+writing frequently in the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall_,
+_Blackwood_, the _Cornhill_, &c. Towards the end of his life his
+political views reverted in some respects to the Liberalism of his early
+days.
+
+In the words of George Meredith "Greenwood was not only a great
+journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national interests were
+always urgent at his heart." He was remarkable for securing for his
+papers the services of the ablest writers of the day, and for the gift
+of recognizing merit in new writers, such, for instance, as Richard
+Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His instinct for capacity in others was as
+sure as was his journalistic judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his
+75th birthday, a dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen,
+journalists, and men of letters (with John Morley--who had succeeded him
+as editor of the _Pall Mall_--in the chair). In May 1907 he contributed
+to _Blackwood_ an article on "The New Journalism," in which he drew a
+sharp contrast between the old and the new conditions under which the
+work of a newspaper writer is conducted. He died at Sydenham on the 14th
+of December 1909.
+
+  See _Honouring Frederick Greenwood_, being a report of the speeches at
+  the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed, 1905);
+  "Birth and Infancy of the _Pall Mall Gazette_," an article contributed
+  by Greenwood to the _Pall Mall_ of the 14th of April 1897; "The
+  Blowing of the Trumpet" in the introduction to the _St James's_ (May
+  31, 1880); obituary notices in the _Athenaeum_ (Dec. 25, 1909) and
+  _The Times_ (Dec. 17, 1909).
+
+
+
+
+GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and Separatist (the date and
+place of his birth are unknown), entered as a sizar at Corpus Christi
+College, Cambridge, on the 18th of March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A.
+1581. Whether he was directly influenced by the teaching of Robert
+Browne (q.v.), a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case
+he held strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism
+of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich, at
+Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been made deacon by
+John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest by Thomas Cooper, bishop of
+Lincoln; but ere long he renounced this ordination as "wholly unlawful."
+Details of the next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the
+recognized leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable
+number had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood was
+arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was committed to
+the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default of bail for
+conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some controversial tracts
+in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner Henry Barrowe (q.v.). He is
+understood to have been at liberty in the autumn of 1588; but this may
+have been merely "the liberty of the prison." However, he was certainly
+at large in September 1592, when he was elected "teacher" of the
+Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) "An Answer to George
+Gifford's pretended Defence of Read Prayers." On the 5th of December he
+was again arrested; and the following March was tried, together with
+Barrowe, and condemned to death on a charge of "devising and circulating
+seditious books." After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he
+was hanged on the 6th of April 1593.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H. M. Dexter, _Congregationalism during the last three
+  hundred years_; _The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_; F. J.
+  Powicke, _Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam_; B. Brook,
+  _Lives of the Puritans_; C. H. Cooper, _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, vol.
+  ii.
+
+
+
+
+GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English essayist, the son of a
+merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was educated at the
+university of Edinburgh and for a time managed a mill of his father's at
+Bury, and in 1832 began business on his own account. He entered with
+ardour into the struggle for free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize
+offered by the Anti-Corn Law League for the best essay on "Agriculture
+and the Corn Laws." He was too much occupied with political, economical
+and theological speculations to give undivided attention to his
+business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. His
+_Creed of Christendom_ was published in 1851, and in 1852 he contributed
+no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies. Disraeli
+praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed a Commissionership of
+Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864 he was made Comptroller of the
+Stationery Office. Besides contributions to periodicals he produced
+several volumes of essays on political and social philosophy. The
+general spirit of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best
+known, _The Enigmas of Life_ (1872) and _Rocks Ahead_ (1874). They
+represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth, when
+wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every public ill. Greg
+was a man of deep moral earnestness of character and was interested in
+many philanthropic works. He died at Wimbledon on the 15th of November
+1881. His brother, ROBERT HYDE GREG (1795-1875), was an economist and
+antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, SAMUEL GREG (1804-1876),
+became well known in Lancashire by his philanthropic efforts on behalf
+of the working-people. PERCY GREG (1836-1889), son of William Rathbone
+Greg, also wrote, like his father, on politics, but his views were
+violently reactionary. His _History of the United States to the
+Reconstruction of the Union_ (1887) is a polemic rather than a history.
+
+
+
+
+GREGARINES (mod. Lat. _Gregarina_, from _gregarius_, collecting in a
+flock or herd, _grex_) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa Ectospora,
+in which a very high degree of morphological specialization and
+cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently found. On the
+other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly simple. Other
+principal characters which distinguish Gregarines from allied Sporozoan
+parasites are as follows:--The fully-grown adult (trophozoite) is always
+"free" in some internal cavity, i.e. it is extracellular; in nearly all
+cases prior to sporulation two Gregarines (associates) become attached
+to one another, forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a
+common cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes
+segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes, primary
+sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the resulting copula
+(zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually a spore by the secretion
+of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up
+to form the germs (sporozoites).
+
+
+  Historical.
+
+F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a Gregarine
+parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no means certain. Much
+later (1787) Cavolini described and figured an indubitable Gregarine
+(probably the form now known as _Aggregata conformis_) from a Crustacean
+(_Pachygrapsus_), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm. Leon
+Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came across several
+species of these parasites, also considered them as allied to the worms
+and proposed the generic name of _Gregarina_. The unicellular nature of
+Gregarines was first realized by A. von Kölliker, who from 1845-1848
+added considerably to our knowledge of the frequent occurrence and wide
+distribution of these organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein
+who demonstrated about this time the relation of the "pseudo-navicellae"
+(spores) to the reproduction of the parasites.
+
+[Illustration: From Wasielewswi's _Sporozoenkunde_, after Pfeiffer.
+
+FIG. 1.--a, Transverse Section of Intestine of Mealworm, infected with
+_Gregarina_ (_Clepsydrina_) _polymorpha_;[1] b, Part of a highly
+magnified.]
+
+Apart from the continually increasing number of known species, matters
+remained at about this stage for many years. It is, in fact, only since
+the closing years of the 19th century that the complete life-history has
+been fully worked out; this has now been done in many cases, thanks to
+the researches of M. Siedlecki, L. Cuénot, L. Léger, O. Duboscq, A.
+Laveran, M. Caullery, F. Mesnil and others, to whom also we owe most of
+our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the cells of
+their host during their early development.
+
+
+  Occurrence; mode of infection.
+
+Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are not
+known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in Ascidians. By
+far the greatest number of hosts is furnished by the Arthropods. Many
+members of the various groups of worms (especially the Annelids) also
+harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting forms are found in
+Echinoderms; in the other classes, they either occur only sporadically
+or else are absent. Infection is invariably of the accidental (casual)
+type, by way of the alimentary canal, the spores being usually swallowed
+by the host when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been
+described by Woodcock (31) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic in
+Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca into the
+respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.
+
+[Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Léger.
+
+FIG. 2.--Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a larva of
+_Tipula_.]
+
+
+  Habitat and effects on host.
+
+The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its
+diverticula (e.g. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity. In the
+latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated germs at once
+traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may come to rest in the
+connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remaining, however,
+extracellular), grow considerably in that situation, and ultimately fall
+into the body-cavity (e.g. _Diplocystis_); or they may pass straightway
+into the body-cavity and there come into relation with some organ or
+tissue (e.g. _Monocystis_) of the earthworm, which is for a time
+intracellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case of
+intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite with
+respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly. The parasite
+may remain only attached to the host-cell, never becoming actually
+intracellular (e.g. _Pterocephalus_); more usually it penetrates
+partially into it, the extracellular portion of the Gregarine, however,
+giving rise subsequently to most of the adult (e.g. _Gregarina_); or
+lastly, in a few forms, the early development is entirely intracellular
+(e.g. _Lankesteria_, _Stenophora_).
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester.
+
+FIG. 3.--_Porospora gigantea f_, (E. van Ben.), from the intestine of
+the lobster. a, Nucleus.]
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester, after various authors.
+
+FIG. 4.
+
+  a-c, Trophozoites of _Monocystis agilis_.
+  a and b, Young individuals showing changes of body-form.
+  c, Older individual, still enveloped in a coat of spermatozoa.
+  d, e, Trophozoites of _M. magna_ attached to seminal funnel of
+    _Lumbricus_.
+  Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in which the extremity of the parasite
+    is inserted.]
+
+The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells. These
+generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and alteration in
+character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy, when the
+substance of the cell becomes in one way or another practically absorbed
+by the growing parasite (cf. also COCCIDIA). Since, however, the
+Gregarines never overrun their hosts in the way that many other Sporozoa
+do (because of their lack, in general, of the power of endogenous
+multiplication), the number of cells of any tissue attacked, even in the
+case of a strong infection, is only a very small percentage of the
+whole. In short the hosts do not, as a rule, suffer any appreciable
+inconvenience from the presence of the parasites.
+
+
+    Morphology.
+
+  The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval
+  or elongated; in one or two instances (e.g. _Diplodina_) it is
+  spherical, and, on the other hand, in _Porospora_ (fig. 3) it is
+  greatly drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines, the body is
+  divided into two distinct but unequal regions or halves, the anterior
+  part being known as the _protomerite_, the hinder, generally the
+  larger, as the _deutomerite_. This feature is closely associated with
+  another important morphological character, one which is observable,
+  however, only during the earlier stages of growth and development,
+  namely, the presence of a definite organ, the _epimerite_, which
+  serves for the attachment of the parasite to the host-cell (fig. 6).
+
+  [Illustration: After Siedlecki, from Lankester's _Treatise on
+  Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 5.--Part of a section through the apparatus of fixation of a
+  _Pterocephalus_, showing root-like processes extending from the
+  Gregarine between the epithelial cells. g, Head of Gregarine; r,
+  Root-like processes; ep, Epithelial cells.]
+
+  In those Gregarines (most intestinal forms) which become attached to
+  an epithelial cell, the attachment occurs by means of a minute
+  projection or beak (rostrum) at the anterior end of the sporozoite,
+  which pushes its way into the cell, followed by the first part of the
+  growing germ. This portion of the body increases in size much quicker
+  at first than the rest (the extracellular part), more or less fills up
+  the host-cell, and forms the well-developed epimerite or secondary
+  attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next
+  grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short distance
+  away from (outside) the point where the body penetrates into the cell
+  (fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite posteriorly (distally).
+  Léger thinks that this partition most likely owes its origin to
+  trophic considerations, i.e. to the slightly different manner in which
+  the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal, largely
+  intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be supposed
+  to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the host-cell
+  supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal liquid;
+  and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting limit
+  between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer does not
+  think that mechanical considerations should be altogether left out of
+  account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an adaption for
+  strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against lateral thrusts
+  or strains, due to the impact of foreign bodies (food, &c.) in the
+  intestine.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Léger.
+
+  FIG. 6.--_Corycella armata_, Léger. a, Cephalont; b, Epimerite in
+  host-cell; c, Sporont.]
+
+  At the point where the body becomes actually intracellular, it is
+  constricted, and this constriction marks off the epimerite
+  (internally) from the middle portion (between this point and the
+  septum), which is the protomerite. Further growth is restricted,
+  practically, to the extracellular regions, and the epimerite often
+  comes to appear ultimately as a small appendage at the anterior end of
+  the protomerite. A Gregarine at this stage is known as a cephalont.
+  Later on, the parasite breaks loose from the host-cell and becomes
+  free in the lumen, the separation taking place at the constriction
+  between the protomerite and the epimerite; the latter is left behind
+  in the remains of the host-cell, the former becomes the anterior part
+  of the free trophozoite.
+
+  In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards,
+  ultimately becoming "coelomic," as well as those which become entirely
+  intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further, the body
+  remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include, for instance,
+  _Monocystis_ (fig. 4), _Lankesteria_, _Diplocystis_, are
+  distinguished, as _Acephalina_ or _Aseptata_ (_Haplocyta_,
+  _Monocystida_), according to which character is referred to, from the
+  others, termed _Cephalina_ or _Septata_ (_Polycystida_).
+
+  The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or
+  interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite,
+  but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and are
+  hence known as _Pseudomonocystida_; this condition may be primitive
+  (_Doliocystis_) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having in
+  course of time disappeared. Again, _Stenophora_ is a septate form
+  which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the
+  young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of an
+  epimerite.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Léger.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Forms of Epimerites.
+
+    1, _Gregarina longa_.
+    2, _Sycia inopinata_.
+    3, _Pileocephalus heerii_.
+    4, _Stylorhynchus longicollis_.
+    5, _Beloides firmus_.
+    6, _Cometoides crinitus_.
+    7, _Geneiorhynchus monnieri_.
+    8, _Echinomera hispida_.
+    9, _Pterocephalus nobilis_.]
+
+  With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety of
+  form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In one or
+  two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is met
+  with. Thus in _Pterocephalus_, only the rostrum of the sporozoite
+  penetrates into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a
+  number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the
+  anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus
+  anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious
+  _Schizogregarinae_, the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a
+  number of stiff, irregular processes, which perform the same function
+  (fig. 8). It is to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and
+  not in any way comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly
+  likened.
+
+  A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has been
+  recently described by Léger (18) in the case of a new Gregarine,
+  _Taeniocystis_. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically
+  segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozoites
+  possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding to the
+  septum between the proto- and deuto-merite in an ordinary Polycystid),
+  which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal compartments. Léger
+  thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus segmented, the protomerite
+  remaining small and undivided. The nucleus remains single, so that
+  there is no question as to the unicellular or individual nature of the
+  entire animal.
+
+  [Illustration: After Léger and Hagenmüller, from Lankester's _Treatise
+  on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 8.--Three Individuals (G) of _Ophryocystis schneideri_, attached
+  to wall of Malpighian tubule of _Blaps_ sp. p, Syncytial protoplasm of
+  the tubule; c, Cilia lining the lumen.]
+
+
+    Minute structure.
+
+  The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and
+  endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte), secreted
+  by the former. The cuticle varies considerably in thickness, being
+  well developed in active, intestinal forms, but very thin and delicate
+  in non-motile coelomic forms (e.g. _Diplodina_). In the former case it
+  may show longitudinal striations. The cuticle also forms the hooks or
+  spines of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. 9A) a
+  differentiation into two layers, an outer, firmer layer, clear and
+  hyaline, the sarcocyte, and an inner layer, the myocyte, which is
+  formed of a network of muscle-fibrillae (mainly longitudinal and
+  transverse, fig. 9B). The sarcocyte alone constitutes the septum,
+  traversing the endoplasm, in septate Gregarines. The myonemes are
+  undoubtedly the agents responsible for the active "gregarinoid"
+  movements (of flexion and contraction) to be observed in many forms.
+  The peculiar gliding movements were formerly thought to be produced by
+  the extrusion of a gelatinous thread posteriorly, but Crawley (8) has
+  recently ascribed them to a complicated succession of wave-like
+  contractions of the myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact
+  that certain coelomic forms, like _Diplodina_ and others, which either
+  lack muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at
+  all, are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a
+  semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains and
+  spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an
+  accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to
+  reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are of a substance
+  termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened
+  lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and
+  highly-refringent granules often occur.
+
+  [Illustration: After Schewiakoff, from Lankester's _Treatise on
+  Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 9A.--Longitudinal section of a Gregarine in the region of the
+  septum between protomerite and deutomerite.
+
+    Pr, Protomerite.
+    De, Deutomerite.
+    s,  Septum.
+    en, Endoplasm.
+    sc, Sarcocyte.
+    c,  Cuticle.
+    m, f, Myocyte fibrils (cut across).
+    g, Gelatinous layer.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9B.--_Gregarina munieri_, showing the network of
+  myocyte fibrillae.]
+
+  The nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate
+  forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical
+  and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often
+  contains chromatin. The most characteristic feature of the nucleus is
+  the deeply-staining, more or less vacuolated spherical karyosome
+  (consisting of chromatin intimately bound up with a plastinoid basis)
+  which is invariably present. In one or two instances (e.g.
+  _Diplocystis schneideri_) the nucleus has more than one karyosome. All
+  the chromatin of the nucleus is not, however, confined to the
+  karyosome, some being in the form of grains in the nuclear sap; and in
+  some cases at any rate (e.g. _Diplodina, Lankesteria_) there is a
+  well-marked nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and
+  dots of chromatin.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after A. Schneider.
+
+  FIG. 10.--Schizogony in _Ophryocystis francisci_. a, Rosette of small
+  individuals, produced from a schizont which has just divided; b, A
+  later stage, the daughter-individuals about to separate and assuming
+  the characters of the adult.]
+
+
+    Life-history.
+
+  A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to occur
+  in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of
+  _Gonospora_, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery and
+  Mesnil [4]), the rest among the _Schizogregarinae_, so named for this
+  reason, in which schizogonous fission takes place regularly during the
+  free, trophic condition. Usually, the body divides up, by a process of
+  multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to eight)
+  daughter-individuals; but in a new genus (_Eleutheroschizon_), Brasil
+  (3) finds that a great number of little merozoites are formed, and a
+  large amount of vacuolated cytoplasm is left over unused.
+
+  In the vast majority of Gregarines, however, the life-cycle is limited
+  to gametogony and sporogony. A very general, if not indeed universal,
+  prelude to gametogony is the characteristic and important feature of
+  the order, known as association, the biological significance of which
+  has only lately been fully brought out (see H. M. Woodcock [31]). In
+  normal association, two individuals which are to be regarded as of
+  opposite sex, come into close contact with each other and remain thus
+  attached. The manner in which the parasites join varies in different
+  forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by like or
+  by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral) (fig. 12). The
+  couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith to encystment and
+  sporoblast-formation (_Lankesteria, Monocystis_), or may continue in
+  the trophic phase for some time longer (_Gregarina_). In one or two
+  instances (_Zygocystis_), association occurs as soon as the
+  trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting
+  phenomenon of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile,
+  coelomic Gregarines (e.g. _Cystobia_, _Diplodina_ and _Diplocystis_),
+  in which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (_loc. cit._) has
+  described and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a
+  permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these forms.
+  Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition (seen, for
+  instance, in _Diplodina minchinii_) the union takes place very early
+  in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than
+  sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm
+  of the two associates joining. In such cases, there is absolutely
+  nothing to indicate the "double" nature of the growing trophozoite,
+  but the presence of the two nuclei which remain quite distinct.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Léger.
+
+  FIG. 11.--_Eirmocystis spp._ a, b, Associations of two and three
+  Gregarines; c, Chain of five parasites; p, Primite; s, Satellites.]
+
+  There can be little doubt that, in the great majority, if not in all
+  Gregarines, association is necessary for subsequent sporulation to
+  take place; i.e. that the cytotactic attraction imparts a
+  developmental stimulus to both partners, which is requisite for the
+  formation of primary sporoblasts (gametes). This association is
+  usually permanent; but in one or two cases (perhaps _Gonospora sp._)
+  temporary association may suffice. While association has fundamentally
+  a reproductive (sexual) significance, in some cases, this function may
+  be delayed or, as it were, temporarily suspended, the cytotactic
+  attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life.
+  Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations
+  and long chains of Gregarines (fig. 11) sometimes met with (e.g.
+  _Eirmocystis_, _Clepsydrina_).
+
+  Encystment is nearly always double, i.e. of an associated couple.
+  Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful
+  independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the
+  encystment in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior
+  (temporary) association. In the case of free parasites, a
+  well-developed cyst is secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and
+  gradually becomes spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer
+  cyst-membrane (_ectocyst_) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm
+  internal one (endocyst). The cyst once formed, further development is
+  quite independent of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside
+  it. In certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in
+  very close relation with the host's tissues, little or nothing of an
+  encystment-process on the part of the parasites is recognizable, the
+  cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing layer of the host
+  (_Diplodina_).
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Léger.
+
+  FIG. 12.--Associations of _Gonospora sparsa_.]
+
+  The nuclear changes and multiplication which precede
+  sporoblast-formation vary greatly in different Gregarines and can only
+  be outlined here. In the formation of both sets of sexual elements
+  (gametes) there is always a comprehensive nuclear purification or
+  maturation. This elimination of a part of the nuclear material (to be
+  distinguished as trophic or somatic, from the functional or germinal
+  portion, which forms the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely-different
+  periods. In some cases (_Lankesteria_, _Monocystis_), a large part of
+  the original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate is at once got rid
+  of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus, which is
+  highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other cases, again,
+  the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and the distinction
+  between somatic and germinal portions does not become manifest until
+  after nuclear multiplication has continued for some little time, when
+  certain of the daughter-nuclei become altered in character, and
+  ultimately degenerate, the remainder giving rise to the
+  sporoblast-nuclei (_Diplodina_, _Stylorhynchus_). Even after the
+  actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are constituted, their
+  nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (e.g. _Clepsydrina ovata_);
+  and in _Monocystis_, indeed, Brasil (2) finds that what is apparently
+  a similar process is delayed until after conjugation and formation of
+  the zygote (definitive sporoblast).
+
+  Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a
+  rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The
+  attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes
+  consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without
+  centrosomic granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a
+  few astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and
+  the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest
+  nuclear divisions are direct; the daughter-nuclei being formed either
+  by a process of simple constriction (e.g. _Diplodina_), or by a kind
+  of multiple fission or fragmentation (_Gregarina_ and _Selenidium
+  spp._). Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in _Diplodina_,
+  are indirect.
+
+  By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed, the
+  bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually become
+  very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes and
+  processes. While in some forms (e.g. _Monocystis_, _Urospora_,
+  _Stylorhynchus_) the two individuals remain fairly separate and
+  independent of each other, in others (_Lankesteria_) they become
+  intertwined and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent
+  (_Diplodina_). The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the
+  processes and segments, where they take up a position of uniform
+  distribution. Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes
+  segregated, the whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from
+  the general surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut
+  off as the sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the
+  general protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused,
+  constituting two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in
+  _Diplodina_, however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in
+  the formation of the gametes.
+
+  [Illustration: After Léger, from Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 13.--Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in _Stylorhynchus
+  longicollis_.
+
+    a, Undifferentiated gamete, attached to body of parent-individual.
+    b-d, Stages in development of motile male gamete.
+    e, Mature female gamete.
+    f, g, Stages in conjugation and nuclear union of the two elements.
+    h, Zygote (copula).
+    i, Spore, still with single nucleus and undivided sporoplasm.]
+
+  The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition of
+  marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one of
+  complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed in
+  _Pterocephalus_. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are minute,
+  elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum anteriorly
+  and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the female elements
+  (megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid, and quite passive. In
+  _Stylorhynchus_ the difference between the conjugating gametes is not
+  quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male elements being of about the
+  same bulk as the females, but pyriform instead of round, and
+  possessing a distinct flagellum; a most interesting point about this
+  parasite is that certain highly motile and spermatozoon-like male
+  gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are, however, quite sterile and
+  have acquired a subsidiary function. In other cases, again, the two
+  kinds of element exhibit either very slight differences (_Monocystis_)
+  or none (_Urospora_, _Gonospora_), in size and appearance, the chief
+  distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male elements being
+  smaller and chromatically denser than those of the females.
+
+  Lastly, in _Lankesteria_, _Gregarina_, _Clepsydrina_, _Diplocystis_
+  and _Diplodina_ complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent
+  difference whatever between the conjugating elements. Nevertheless,
+  these forms are also to be regarded as instances of binary sexuality
+  and not merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain that this
+  condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical anisogamy, through
+  a stage such as is seen in _Gonospora_, &c. And, similarly, just as in
+  all instances where the formation of differentiated gametes has been
+  observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from different
+  associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising from the
+  same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case here.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Cyst of _Monocystis agilis_, the common
+  Gregarine of the Earthworm, showing ripe spores and absence of any
+  residual protoplasm in the cyst. (From Lankester.)]
+
+  The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known
+  phenomenon termed the _danse des sporoblastes_, which is due to
+  various causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes
+  (_Pterocephalus_), the actively motile microgametes rush about here
+  and there, and seek out the female elements. In _Stylorhynchus_, Léger
+  has shown that the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring
+  about, by their vigorous movements, the _mêlée sexuelle_. In the forms
+  where the gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and
+  (probably) not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing
+  the necessary commingling. Thus in _Gregarina sp._ from the mealworm,
+  the unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out
+  processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the
+  cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied
+  (_Urospora_) the movements of the host are considered to be
+  sufficient; and lastly, in _Diplodina_, owing to the extent to which
+  the intertwining process is carried, if each gamete is not actually
+  contiguous to a suitable fellow-conjugant, a very slight movement or
+  mutual attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact.
+
+  An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation and
+  conjugation, which occurs in _Ophryocystis_, must be mentioned. Here
+  encystment of two associates takes place as usual; the sporont-nucleus
+  of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-nuclei
+  resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one
+  sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original
+  nuclear-material, persists in each half. Around this some of the
+  cytoplasm condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or
+  gamete thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates
+  with the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote
+  results which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the
+  ordinary manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves
+  of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis occurs,
+  each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore.
+
+  The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with
+  cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast
+  or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that
+  of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the
+  ectospore. This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced
+  into rims, spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic
+  appearance of the Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another,
+  thinner membrane, the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes
+  form the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore
+  have been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually
+  mitotic, the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each
+  of which becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm
+  becomes split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight
+  sickle-shaped (falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a
+  certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the
+  spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that
+  in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporozoites
+  in the spore is eight; the exception is _Selenidium_, in many ways far
+  from typical, where the number is half, viz. four.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Ripe Cyst of _Gregarina blattarum_, partially
+  emptied. (From Lankester.) a, Channels leading to the sporoducts; b,
+  Mass of spores still left in the cyst; c, Endocyst; d, The everted
+  sporoducts; e, Gelatinous ectocyst.]
+
+  Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation has been
+  considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the
+  _Aggregatidae_ and the _Porosporidae_. The spores of these forms have
+  been regarded as gymnospores (naked), lacking the enveloping membranes
+  (sporocyst) of the ordinary spores, and the sporozoites, consequently,
+  as developed freely in the cyst. In the case of the first-named
+  parasites, however, what was taken for sporogony has been proved to be
+  really schizogony, and on other grounds these forms are, in the
+  present writer's opinion, preferably associated with the Coccidia
+  (q.v.). With regard to the _Porosporidae_, also, it is quite likely
+  that the gymnosporous cysts considered to belong to the Gregarine
+  _Porospora_ (as known in the trophic condition) have really no
+  connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of some
+  other form, similar to _Aggregata_; in which case the true spores of
+  _Porospora_ have yet to be identified.
+
+  In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are
+  liberated. This is usually largely brought about by the swelling of
+  the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (e.g. _Gregarina_) long tubular
+  outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the
+  residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior.
+
+
+    Classification.
+
+  The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several families,
+  characterized, for the most part, by the form of the spores (fig. 16).
+  The specialized _Schizogregarinae_ are usually separated off from the
+  rest as a distinct sub-order.
+
+  SUB-ORDER I.--_Schizogregarinae._
+
+  Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence
+  during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera,
+  _Ophryocystis_, _Schizocystis_ and _Eleutheroschizon_, different
+  peculiarities of which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic
+  in the intestine or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of
+  parasite, as exemplified by _Ophryocystis_, the body was formerly
+  wrongly considered as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a
+  special order, the _Amoebosporidia_.)
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Léger.
+
+  FIG. 16.--Spores of various Gregarines.
+
+    a, _Eirmocystis, Sphaerocystis_, &c.
+    b, _Echinomera, Pterocephalus_, &c.
+    c, _Gregarina_, &c.
+    d, _Beloides_.
+    e, _Ancyrophora_.
+    f, _Stylorhynchidae_ (type of).
+    g, _Menosporidae_.
+    h, _Gonospora terebellae_.
+    i, _Ceratospora_.
+    k, _Urospora synaptae_.]
+
+  SUB-ORDER II.--_Eugregarinae._
+
+  Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular
+  phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described
+  as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic),
+  respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these two
+  sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is adopted,
+  the other must be taken into account in estimating the proper position
+  of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephalont condition is
+  regarded as the more primary and fundamental.
+
+  Tribe A.--_Cephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Septata_).
+
+  Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate
+  during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly
+  intestinal parasites of Arthropods.
+
+  The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows:
+  _Porosporidae_, with _Porospora gigantea_, at present thought to be
+  gymnosporous; _Gregarinidae_ (_Clepsydrinidae_), with _Gregarina_,
+  _Clepsydrina_, _Eirmocystis_, _Hyalospora_, _Cmenidospora_,
+  _Stenophora_; _Didymophyidae_, with _Didymophyes_; _Dactylophoridae_,
+  with _Dactylophorus_, _Pterocephalus_, _Echinomera_, _Rhopalonia_;
+  _Actinocephalidae_ with _Actinocephalus_, _Pyxinia_, _Coleorhynchus_,
+  _Stephanophora_, _Legeria_, _Stictospora_, _Pileocephalus_,
+  _Sciadophora_; _Acanthosporidae_ with _Acanthospora_, _Corycella_,
+  _Cometoides_; _Menosporidae_ with _Menospora_, _Hoplorhynchus_;
+  _Stylorhynchidae_, with _Stylorhynchus_, _Lophocephalus_;
+  _Doliocystidae_ with _Doliocystis_; and _Taeniocystidae_, with
+  _Taeniocystis_. The curious genus _Selenidium_ is somewhat apart.
+
+  Tribe B.--_Acephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Aseptata_,
+  _Haplocyta_).
+
+  The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly
+  coelomic parasites of "worms," Holothurians and insects.
+
+  The _Aseptata_ have not been so completely arranged in families as the
+  _Septata_. Léger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but the
+  remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam.
+  _Gonosporidae_, with _Gonospora_, _Diplodina_; and _Urosporidae_, with
+  _Urosopora_, _Cystobia_, _Lithocystis_, _Ceratospora_; the genera
+  _Monocystis_, _Diplocystis Lankesteria_ and _Zygocystis_ probably
+  constitute another; _Pterospora_ and, again, _Syncystis_ are distinct;
+  lastly, certain forms, e.g. _Zygosoma_, _Anchora_ (_Anchorina_), are
+  incompletely known.
+
+  There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently described
+  by J. Nusbaum (24) under the appropriate name of _Schaudinnella
+  henleae_, which inhabits the intestine of _Henlea leptodera_. Briefly
+  enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as follows.
+  The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the intestinal
+  cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is very
+  primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place
+  indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of
+  the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary; at other times
+  it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a
+  gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encystment
+  occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The female
+  gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and sickle-like, but
+  with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While many of the zygotes
+  ("amphionts") resulting from copulation pass out to the exterior, to
+  infect a new host, others, possessing a more delicate
+  investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal cells,
+  producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous sporozoites
+  are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that _Schaudinnella_ is a
+  practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it recalls the
+  Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs widely from them
+  in several characteristic features, being primitive in some respects,
+  but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot be properly
+  included in the order. _Schaudinnella_ rather represents a primitive
+  Ectosporan parasite, which has proceeded upon a line of its own,
+  intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the important papers relating to Gregarines are
+  the following: 1. A. Berndt, "Beitrag zur Kenntnis der ...
+  Gregarinen," _Arch. Protistenk._ I, p. 375, 3 pls. (1902); 2. L.
+  Brasil, "Recherches sur la reproduction des Grégarines monocystidées,"
+  _Arch. zool. exp._ (4) 3, p. 17, pl. 2 (1905), and _op. cit._ 4, p.
+  69, 2 pls. (1905); 3. L. Brazil, "_Eleutheroschizon duboscqi_,
+  parasite nouveau, &c.," _op. cit._ (N. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs.
+  (1906); 4. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une Grégarine ...
+  présentant ... une phase de multiplication asporulée," _C.R. Ac. Sci._
+  126, p. 262 (1898); 5. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Le Parasitisme
+  intracellulaire des Grégarines," _op. cit._ 132, p. 220 (1901); 6. M.
+  Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une mode particulière de division
+  nucléaire chez les Grégarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 3, p. 146, 1
+  pl. (1900); 7. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques parasites
+  internes des Annélides," _Misc. biol._ (_Trav. Stat. Wimereux_), 9, p.
+  80, 1 pl. (1899); 7a. J. Cecconi, "Sur l'_Anchorina sagittata_, &c.,"
+  _Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 230, 2 pls. (1905); 8. H. Crawley,
+  "Progressive Movement of Gregarines," _P. Ac. Philad._ 54, p. 4, 2
+  pls. (1902), also _op. cit._ 57, p. 89 (1905); 9. H. Crawley, "List of
+  the Polycystid Gregarines of the U.S.," _op. cit._ 55, pp. 41, 632, 4
+  pls. (1903); 10. L. Cuénot, "Recherches sur l'évolution et la
+  conjugaison des Grégarines," _Arch. biol._ 17, p. 581, 4 pls. (1901);
+  11. A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques particularités de
+  l'évolution d'une Grégarine et la réaction de la cellule-hôte," _C.R.
+  Soc. Biol._ 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); 12. L. Léger, "Recherches sur
+  les Grégarines," _Tabl. zool._ 3, p. i., 22 pls. (1892); 13. L. Léger,
+  "Contribution à la connaissance des Sporozoaires, &c.," _Bull. Sci.
+  France_, 30, p. 240, 3 pls. (1897); 14. L. Léger, "Sur un nouveau
+  Sporozoaire (_Schizocystis_), &c.," _C.R. Ac. Sci._ 131, p. 722
+  (1900); 15. L. Léger, "La Reproduction sexuée chez les Ophryocystis,"
+  _t. c._ p. 761 (1900); 16. L. Léger, "Sur une nouvelle Grégarine
+  (_Aggregata coelomica_,), &c." _op. cit._ 132, p. 1343 (1901); 17. L.
+  Léger, "La Reproduction sexuée chez les Stylorhynchus," _Arch.
+  Protistenk._ 3, p. 304, 2 pls. (1904); 18. L. Léger, "Etude sur
+  _Taeniocystis mira_ (Léger), &c.," _op. cit._ 7, p. 307, 2 pls.
+  (1906); 19. L. Léger and O. Duboscq, "La Reproduction sexuée chez
+  _Pterocephalus_," _Arch. zool. exp._ (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, 11
+  figs. (1903); 20. L. Léger and O. Duboscq, "_Aggregata vagans_, n.
+  sp., &c." _t. c._ p. 147, 6 figs. (1903); 21. L. Léger and O. Duboscq,
+  "Les Grégarines et l'épithélium intestinal, &c.," _Arch. parasitol._
+  6, p. 377, 4 pls. (1902); 22. L. Léger and O. Duboscq, "Nouvelles
+  Recherches sur les Grégarines, &c.," _Arch. Protistenk._ 4, p. 335, 2
+  pls. (1904); 23. M. Lühe, "Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _t.
+  c._ p. 88, several figs. (1904); 24. J. Nusbaum, "Über die ...
+  Fortpflanzung einer ... Gregarine, _Schaudinnella henleae_," _Zeit.
+  wiss. Zool._ 75, p. 281, pl. 22 (1903); 25. F. Paehler, "Über die
+  Morphologie, Fortpflanzung ... von _Gregarina ovata_," _Arch.
+  Protistenk._ 4, p. 64, 2 pls. (1904); 26. S. Prowazek, "Zur
+  Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _op. cit._, 1, p. 297, pl. 9 (1902); 27.
+  A. Schneider (Various memoirs on Gregarines), _Tabl. zool._ 1 and 2
+  (1886-1892); 28. H. Schnitzler, "Über die Fortpflanzung von
+  _Clepsydrina ovata_," _Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 309, 2 pls. (1905);
+  29. M. Siedlecki, "Über die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der _Monocystis
+  ascidiae_," _Bull. Ac. Cracovie_, p. 515, 2 pls. (1900); 30. M.
+  Siedlecki, "Contribution à l'étude des changements cellulaires
+  provoquées par les Grégarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 4, p. 87, 9
+  figs. (1901); 31. H. M. Woodcock, "The Life-Cycle of _Cystobia
+  irregularis_, &c.," _Q.J.M. Sci._ 50, p. 1. 6 pls. (1906).
+       (H. M. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Figures 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 16 are redrawn from
+    Wasielewski's _Sporozoenkunde_, by permission of the author and of
+    the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena.
+
+
+
+
+GRÉGOIRE, HENRI (1750-1831), French revolutionist and constitutional
+bishop of Blois, was born at Vého near Lunéville, on the 4th of December
+1750, the son of a peasant. Educated at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he
+became curé of Emberménil and a teacher at the Jesuit school at
+Pont-à-Mousson. In 1783 he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his
+_Éloge de la poésie_, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an _Essai sur la
+régénération physique et morale des Juifs_. He was elected in 1789 by
+the clergy of the _bailliage_ of Nancy to the states-general, where he
+soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies of
+Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolution. He was
+among the first of the clergy to join the third estate, and contributed
+largely to the union of the three orders; he presided at the permanent
+sitting of sixty-two hours while the Bastille was being attacked by the
+people, and made a vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He
+subsequently took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges of
+the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution of the
+clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath (December 27,
+1790), he was elected bishop by two departments. He selected that of
+Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop of Blois, and for ten
+years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with exemplary zeal. An ardent
+republican, it was he who in the first session of the National
+Convention (September 21, 1792) proposed the motion for the abolition of
+the kingship, in a speech in which occurred the memorable phrase that
+"kings are in the moral order what monsters are in the natural." On the
+15th of November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the
+king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards was elected
+president of the Convention, over which he presided in his episcopal
+dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being absent with other three
+colleagues on a mission for the union of Savoy to France, he along with
+them wrote a letter urging the condemnation of the king, but omitting
+the words _à mort_; and he endeavoured to save the life of the king by
+proposing in the Convention that the penalty of death should be
+suspended.
+
+When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris, was intimidated
+into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of the Convention,
+Grégoire, who was temporarily absent from the sitting, hearing what had
+happened, hurried to the hall, and in the face of a howling mob of
+deputies refused to abjure either his religion or his office. He was
+prepared to face the death which he expected; but his courage, a rare
+quality at that time, won the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of
+"Let Grégoire have his way!" Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks
+in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the street
+corners, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress and daily
+read mass in his house. After Robespierre's fall he was the first to
+advocate the reopening of the churches (speech of December 21, 1794). He
+also exerted himself to get measures put in execution for restraining
+the vandalistic fury against the monuments of art, extended his
+protection to artists and men of letters, and devoted much of his
+attention to the reorganization of the public libraries, the
+establishment of botanic gardens, and the improvement of technical
+education. He had taken during the Constituent Assembly a great interest
+in Negro emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour in
+the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites. On the
+establishment of the new constitution, Grégoire was elected to the
+Council of 500, and after the 18th Brumaire he became a member of the
+Corps Législatif, then of the Senate (1801). He took the lead in the
+national church councils of 1797 and 1801; but he was strenuously
+opposed to Napoleon's policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and
+after the signature of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October
+8, 1801). He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted
+against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the creation of
+the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from Josephine; but
+notwithstanding this he was subsequently created a count of the empire
+and officer of the Legion of Honour. During the later years of
+Napoleon's reign he travelled in England and Germany, but in 1814 he had
+returned to France and was one of the chief instigators of the action
+that was taken against the empire.
+
+To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme in the
+Lower Chamber and in the circles of the court after the second
+Restoration, Grégoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic bishop, was
+an object of double loathing. He was expelled from the Institute and
+forced into retirement. But even in this period of headlong reaction his
+influence was felt and feared. In 1814 he had published a work, _De la
+constitution française de l'an 1814_, in which he commented on the
+Charter from a Liberal point of view, and this reached its fourth
+edition in 1819. In this latter year he was elected to the Lower Chamber
+by the department of Isère. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this
+event was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was
+even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the terms of
+the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. To prevent such a catastrophe
+Louis XVIII. decided on a modification of the franchise; the Dessolle
+ministry resigned; and the first act of Decazes, the new premier, was to
+carry a vote in the chamber annulling the election of Grégoire. From
+this time onward the ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in
+literary pursuits and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants
+of Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator he
+was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support. He died on
+the 20th of May 1831.
+
+To the last Grégoire remained a devout Catholic, exactly fulfilling all
+his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but he refused to budge an
+inch from his revolutionary principles. During his last illness he
+confessed to his parish _curé_, a priest of Jansenist sympathies, and
+expressed his desire for the last sacraments of the Church. These the
+archbishop of Paris would only concede on condition that he would
+retract his oath to the civil constitution of the clergy, which he
+peremptorily refused to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop,
+the abbé Baradère gave him the _viaticum_, while the rite of extreme
+unction was administered by the abbé Guillon, an opponent of the civil
+constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish curé. The
+attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement in Paris, and the
+government had to take precautions to avoid a repetition of the riots
+which in the preceding February had led to the sacking of the church of
+St Germain l'Auxerrois and the archiepiscopal palace. On the day after
+his death Grégoire's funeral was celebrated at the church of the
+Abbaye-aux-Bois; the clergy of the church had absented themselves in
+obedience to the archbishop's orders, but mass was sung by the abbé
+Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated with the
+episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the church the horses
+were unyoked, and it was dragged by students to the cemetery of
+Montparnasse, the cortège being followed by a sympathetic crowd of some
+20,000 people.
+
+Whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist, Grégoire's name
+lives in history mainly by reason of his wholehearted effort to prove
+that Catholic Christianity is not irreconcilable with modern conceptions
+of political liberty. In this effort he was defeated, mainly because the
+Revolution, for lack of experience in the right use of liberty, changed
+into a military despotism which allied itself with the spiritual
+despotism of Rome; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown,
+the parties of reaction sought salvation in the "union of altar and
+throne." Possibly Grégoire's Gallicanism was fundamentally
+irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it made
+their traditional religion possible for those many French Catholics who
+clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution had brought them; and
+had it prevailed, it might have spared France and the world that fatal
+gulf between Liberalism and Catholicism which Pius IX.'s Syllabus of
+1864 sought to make impassable.
+
+  Besides several political pamphlets, Grégoire was the author of
+  _Histoire des sectes religieuses, depuis le commencement du siècle
+  dernier jusqu'à l'époque actuelle_ (2 vols., 1810); _Essai historique
+  sur les libertés de l'église gallicane_ (1818); _De l'influence du
+  Christianisme sur la condition des femmes_ (1821); _Histoire des
+  confesseurs des empereurs, des rois, et d'autres princes_ (1824);
+  _Histoire du mariage des prêtres en France_ (1826). _Grégoireana, ou
+  résumé général de la conduite, des actions, et des écrits de M. le
+  comte Henri Grégoire_, preceded by a biographical notice by Cousin
+  d'Avalon, was published in 1821; and the _Mémoires ... de Grégoire_,
+  with a biographical notice by H. Carnot, appeared in 1837 (2 vols.).
+  See also A. Debidour, _L'Abbé Grégoire_ (1881); A. Gazier, Études sur
+  l'histoire religieuse de la Révolution Française (1883); L. Maggiolo,
+  La Vie et les oeuvres de l'abbé Grégoire (Nancy, 1884), and numerous
+  articles in _La Révolution Française_; E. Meaume, _Étude hist. et
+  biog. sur les Lorrains révolutionnaires_ (Nancy, 1882); and A. Gazier,
+  _Études sur l'histoire religieuse de la Révolution Française_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS (c. 1295-1360), Byzantine historian, man of
+learning and religious controversialist, was born at Heraclea in Pontus.
+At an early age he settled at Constantinople, where his reputation for
+learning brought him under the notice of Andronicus II., by whom he was
+appointed Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 1326 Gregoras
+proposed (in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar,
+which the emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances; nearly
+two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory XIII. on almost
+the same lines. When Andronicus was dethroned (1328) by his grandson
+Andronicus III., Gregoras shared his downfall and retired into private
+life. Attacked by Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with
+difficulty persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in
+which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputation and
+brought him a large number of pupils. Gregoras remained loyal to the
+elder Andronicus to the last, but after his death he succeeded in
+gaining the favour of his grandson, by whom he was appointed to conduct
+the unsuccessful negotiations (for a union of the Greek and Latin
+churches) with the ambassadors of Pope John XXII. (1333). Gregoras
+subsequently took an important part in the Hesychast controversy, in
+which he violently opposed Gregorius Palamas, the chief supporter of the
+sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized at the synod of
+1351, Gregoras, who refused to acquiesce, was practically imprisoned in
+a monastery for two years. Nothing is known of the end of his life. His
+chief work is his _Roman History_, in 37 books, of the years 1204 to
+1359. It thus partly supplements and partly continues the work of George
+Pachymeres. Gregoras shows considerable industry, but his style is
+pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to religious matters
+and dogmatic quarrels. This work and that of John Cantacuzene supplement
+and correct each other, and should be read together. The other writings
+of Gregoras, which (with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished,
+attest his great versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of
+the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early instructor
+John, metropolitan of Heraclea, and of the martyr Codratus of Antioch;
+funeral orations for Theodore Metochita, and the two emperors
+Andronicus; commentaries on the wanderings of Odysseus and on Synesius's
+treatise on dreams; tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful
+meaning; a philosophical dialogue called _Florentius or Concerning
+Wisdom_; astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the
+preparation of the astrolabe; and an extensive correspondence.
+
+  _Editions_: in Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz._, by L. Schopen and
+  I. Bekker, with life and list of works by J. Boivin (1829-1855); J. P.
+  Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, cxlviii., cxlix.; see also C. Krumbacher,
+  _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+
+GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND (1821-1891), German historian, was born at
+Neidenburg on the 19th of January 1821, and studied at the university of
+Königsberg. After spending some years in teaching he took up his
+residence in Italy in 1852, remaining in that country for over twenty
+years. He was made a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the 1st
+of May 1891. Gregorovius's interest in and acquaintance with Italy and
+Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, _Geschichte
+der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_ (Stuttgart, 1859-1872, and other
+editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been
+translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1894-1900), and also
+into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice, 1874-1876). It deals
+with the history of Rome from about A.D. 400 to the death of Pope
+Clement VII. in 1534, and in the words of its author it describes "how,
+from the time of Charles the Great to that of Charles V., the historic
+system of the papacy remained inseparable from that of the Empire." The
+other works of Gregorovius include: _Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian und
+seiner Zeit_ (Königsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E. Robinson
+(1898); _Corsica_ (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation by R. Martineau
+(1855); _Lucrezia Borgia_ (Stuttgart, 1874), English translation by J.
+L. Garner (1904); _Die Grabdenkmäler der Päpste_ (Leipzig, 1881),
+English translation by R. W. Seton-Watson (1903); _Wanderjahre in
+Italien_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1892); _Geschichte der Stadt Athen im
+Mittelalter_ (1889); _Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte der Kultur_
+(Leipzig, 1887-1892); and _Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien und dem
+Kaiser_ (Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian by
+the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also something of a
+poet; he wrote a drama, _Der Tod des Tiberius_ (1851), and some
+_Gedichte_ (Leipzig, 1891).
+
+  His _Römische Tagebücher_ were edited by F. Althaus (Stuttgart, 1892),
+  and were translated into English as the _Roman Journals of F.
+  Gregorovius_, by A. Hamilton (1907).
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST (c. 213-c. 270), surnamed in later ecclesiastical tradition
+Thaumaturgus (the miracle-worker), was born of noble and wealthy pagan
+parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus, about A.D. 213. His original name was
+Theodorus. He took up the study of civil law, and, with his brother
+Athenodorus, was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at
+Caesarea he met Origen, and became his pupil and then his convert (A.D.
+233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years after his conversion,
+it had been his original intention to live a retired ascetic life (Eus.
+_H.E._ vi. 30), but, urged by Origen, and at last almost compelled by
+Phaedimus of Amasia, his metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to
+see so much learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the
+church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity, was consecrated
+bishop of his native town (about 240). His episcopate, which lasted some
+thirty years, was characterized by great missionary zeal, and by so much
+success that, according to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement
+of Gregory of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were
+only seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only
+seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity. This result
+he achieved in spite of the Decian persecution (250-251), during which
+he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself from his diocese, and
+notwithstanding the demoralizing effects of an irruption of barbarians
+(Goths and Boranians) who laid waste the diocese in A.D. 253-254.
+Gregory, although he has not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism,
+now holds an undisputed place among the fathers of the church; and
+although the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he
+is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal
+controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of Antioch
+(A.D. 264-265), which investigated and condemned the heresies of Paul of
+Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of a Trinitarianism approaching
+the Nicene type is attributed in large measure to the weight of his
+influence. Gregory is believed to have died in the reign of Aurelian,
+about the year 270, though perhaps an earlier date is more probable. His
+festival (semiduplex) is observed by the Roman Catholic Church on the
+17th of November.
+
+  For the facts of his biography we have an outline of his early years
+  in his eulogy on Origen, and incidental notices in the writings of
+  Eusebius, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa's
+  untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles of a
+  very startling description; but nothing related by him comes near the
+  astounding narratives given in the _Martyrologies_, or even in the
+  _Breviarium Romanum_, in connexion with his name.
+
+  The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the _Panegyricus in
+  Origenem_ ([Greek: Eis Ôrigenên panêgyrikos logos]), which he wrote
+  when on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it
+  contains a valuable minute description of Origen's mode of
+  instruction), a _Metaphrasis in Ecclesiasten_, characterized by Jerome
+  as "short but useful"; and an _Epistola canonica_, which treats of the
+  discipline to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of
+  persecution had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to
+  the privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the
+  conditions of the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf.
+  art PENANCE). The [Greek: Ekthesis pisteôs] (_Expositio fidei_), a
+  short creed usually attributed to Gregory, and traditionally alleged
+  to have been received by him immediately in vision from the apostle
+  John himself, is probably authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of
+  doubtful authenticity "on the impassivity and the passivity of God" in
+  Syriac is in the British Museum.
+
+  _Editions_: Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1604), Fronto Ducäus (Paris, 1622),
+  Migne, Patr. Graec. x. 963.
+
+  _Translations_: S. D. F. Salmond in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_, vi.;
+  _Lives_, by Pallavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. R.
+  Reynolds (_Dict. Chr. Biog._ ii.); G. Krüger, _Early Chr. Lit._ 226;
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._ vii. (where full bibliographies are given).
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329-389), surnamed Theologus, one of the four
+great fathers of the Eastern Church, was born about the year A.D. 329,
+at or near Nazianzus, Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had
+lately become bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a
+powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father and
+son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas, Alexandria and
+Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics, rhetoric and philosophy;
+at Athens he had for fellow-students Basil (q.v.), who afterwards became
+bishop of Caesarea, and Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his
+return to his father's house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory
+received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of
+religion; but for some time, and indeed more or less throughout his
+whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which that
+service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and education to a
+contemplative life spent among books and in the society of congenial
+friends, he was continually urged by outward circumstances, as well as
+by an inward call, to active pastoral labour. The spirit of refined
+intellectual monasticism, which clung to him through life and never
+ceased to struggle for the ascendancy, was about this time strongly
+encouraged by his intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the
+exalted pleasures of his retirement in Pontus. To this period belongs
+the preparation of the [Greek: Philokalia], a sort of chrestomathy
+compiled by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the events
+which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of Cappadocia,
+and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career of learned leisure
+difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory's position and
+temperament. The emperor Constantius, having by intrigue and
+intimidation succeeded in thrusting a semi-Arian formula upon the
+Western bishops assembled at Ariminum in Italy, had next attempted to
+follow the same course with the Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of
+Nazianzus having yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose
+among the monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence
+of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was ordained
+to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his new duties and
+responsibilities by flight, he appears to have continued to act as a
+presbyter in his father's diocese without interruption for some
+considerable time; and it is probable that his two _Invectives_ against
+Julian are to be assigned to this period. Subsequently (about 372),
+under a pressure which he somewhat resented, he allowed himself to be
+nominated by Basil as bishop of Sasima, a miserable little village some
+32 m. from Tyana; but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the
+duties of this diocese, for after another interval of "flight" we find
+him once more (about 372-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father,
+on whose death (374) he retired to Seleucia in Isauria for a period of
+some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities was
+opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed remnant of the
+orthodox party in Constantinople sent him an urgent summons to undertake
+the task of resuscitating their cause, so long persecuted and borne down
+by the Arians of the capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the
+imperial throne, the prospect of success to the Nicene doctrine had
+dawned, if only it could find some courageous and devoted champion. The
+fame of Gregory as a learned and eloquent disciple of Origen, and still
+more of Athanasius, pointed him out as such a defender; nor could he
+resist the appeal made to him, although he took the step reluctantly.
+Once arrived in Constantinople, he laboured so zealously and well that
+the orthodox party speedily gathered strength; and the small apartment
+in which they had been accustomed to meet was soon exchanged for a vast
+and celebrated church which received the significant name of Anastasia,
+the Church of the Resurrection. Among the hearers of Gregory were to be
+found, not only churchmen like Jerome and Evagrius, but also heretics
+and pagans; and it says much for the sound wisdom and practical tact of
+the preacher that he set himself less to build up and defend a doctrinal
+position than to urge his flock to the cultivation of the loving
+Christian spirit which cherishes higher aims than mere heresy hunting or
+endless disputation. Doctrinal, nevertheless, he was, as is abundantly
+shown by the famous five discourses on the Trinity, which earned for him
+the distinctive appellation of [Greek: theologos]. These orations are
+the finest exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity as
+conceived by the orthodox teachers of the East, and they were directed
+especially against the Eunomians and Macedonians. "There is perhaps no
+single book in Greek patristic literature to which the student who
+desires to gain an exact and comprehensive view of Greek theology can be
+more confidently referred." With the arrival of Theodosius in 380 came
+the visible triumph of the orthodox cause; the metropolitan see was then
+conferred upon Gregory, and after the assembling of the second
+ecumenical council in 381 he received consecration from Meletius. In
+consequence, however, of a spirit of discord and envy which had
+manifested itself in connexion with this promotion, he soon afterwards
+resigned his dignity and withdrew into comparative retirement. The rest
+of his days were spent partly at Nazianzus in ecclesiastical affairs,
+and partly on his neighbouring patrimonial estate at Arianzus, where he
+followed his favourite literary pursuits, especially poetical
+composition, until his death, which occurred in 389 or 390. His festival
+is celebrated in the Eastern Church on the 25th and 30th of January, in
+the Western on the 9th of May (duplex).
+
+  His extant works consist of poems, epistles and orations. The poems,
+  which include epigrams, elegies and an autobiographical sketch, have
+  been frequently printed, the _editio princeps_ being the Aldine
+  (1504). Other editions are those of Tollius (1696) and Muratori
+  (1709); a volume of _Carmina selecta_ also has been edited by Dronke
+  (1840). The tragedy entitled [Greek: Christos paschôn] usually
+  included is certainly not genuine. Gregory's poetry did not absorb his
+  best energies; it was adopted in his later years as a recreation
+  rather than as a serious pursuit; thus it is occasionally delicate,
+  graphic, beautiful, but it is not sustained. Of the hymns none have
+  passed into ecclesiastical use. The letters are entitled to a higher
+  place in literature. They are always easy and natural; and there is
+  nothing forced in the manner in which their acute, witty and profound
+  sayings are introduced. Those to Basil introduce us to the story of a
+  most romantic friendship, those to Cledonius have theological value
+  for their bearing on the Apollinarian controversy. As an orator he was
+  so facile, vigorous and persuasive, that men forgot his small stature
+  and emaciated countenance. Forty-five orations are extant. Gregory was
+  less an independent theologian than an interpreter. He was influenced
+  by Athanasius in his Christology, by Origen in his anthropology, for,
+  though teaching original sin and deriving human mortality from the
+  Fall, he insists on the ability of the human will to choose the good
+  and to co-operate in the work of salvation with the will of God.
+  Though possessed neither of Basil's gift of government nor of Gregory
+  of Nyssa's power of speculative thought, he worthily takes a place in
+  that triumvirate of Cappadocians whom the Catholic Church gratefully
+  recognizes as having been, during the critical struggles in the latter
+  half of the 4th century, the best defenders of its faith. The _Opera
+  omnia_ were first published by Hervagius (Basel, 1550); the
+  subsequent editions have been those of Billius (Paris, 1609, 1611;
+  aucta ex interpretatione Morelli, 1630), of the Benedictines (begun in
+  1778, but interrupted by the French Revolution and not completed until
+  1840, Caillau being the final editor) and of Migne. The _Theological
+  Orations_ (edited by A. J. Mason) were published separately at
+  Cambridge in 1899.
+
+  Scattered notices of the life of Gregory Nazianzen are to be found in
+  the writings of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Rufinus, as well as
+  in his own letters and poems. The data derived from these sources do
+  not always harmonize with the account of Suidas. The earlier modern
+  authorities, such as Tillemont (_Mem. Eccl._ t. ix.) and Leclerc
+  (_Bib. Univ._ t. xviii.), were used by Gibbon. See also C. Ullmann,
+  _Gregorius von Nazianz, der Theologe_ (1825; Eng. trans. by G. F.
+  Coxe, M.A., 1857); A. Bénoit, _St Grégoire de Nazianze; sa vie, ses
+  oeuvres, et son époque_ (1877); Montaut, _Revue critique de quelques
+  questions historiques se rapportant à St Grégoire de Nazianze_ (1879);
+  F. W. Farrar, _Lives of the Fathers_, i. 491-582, and F. Loofs in
+  Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk. für prot. Theologie_, vii. 138.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c. 331-c. 396), one of the four great fathers of
+the Eastern Church, designated by one of the later ecumenical councils
+as "a father of fathers," was a younger brother of Basil (the Great),
+bishop of Caesarea, and was born (probably) at Neocaesarea about A.D.
+331. For his education he was chiefly indebted to his elder brother. At
+a comparatively early age he entered the church, and held for some time
+the office of anagnost or reader; subsequently he manifested a desire to
+devote himself to the secular life as a rhetorician, an impulse which
+was checked by the earnest remonstrances of Gregory of Nazianzus.
+Finally, in 371 or 372 he was ordained by his brother Basil to the
+bishopric of Nyssa, a small town in Cappadocia. Here he is usually said
+(but on inadequate data) to have adopted the opinion then gaining ground
+in favour of the celibacy of the clergy, and to have separated from his
+wife Theosebia, who became a deaconess in the church. His strict
+orthodoxy on the subject of the Trinity and the Incarnation, together
+with his vigorous eloquence, combined to make him peculiarly obnoxious
+to the Arian faction, which was at that time in the ascendant through
+the protection of the emperor Valens; and in 375, the synod of Ancyra,
+convened by Demetrius the Arian governor of Pontus, condemned him for
+alleged irregularities in his election and in the administration of the
+finances of his diocese. In 376 he was deprived of his see, and Valens
+sent him into exile, whence he did not return till the publication of
+the edict of Gratian in 378. Shortly afterwards he took part in the
+proceedings of the synod which met at Antioch in Caria, principally in
+connexion with the Meletian schism. At the great ecumenical council held
+at Constantinople in 381, he was a conspicuous champion of the orthodox
+faith; according to Nicephorus, indeed, the additions made to the Nicene
+creed were entirely due to his suggestion, but this statement is of
+doubtful authority. That his eloquence was highly appreciated is shown
+by the facts that he pronounced the discourse at the consecration of
+Gregory of Nazianzus, and that he was chosen to deliver the funeral
+oration on the death of Meletius the first president of the council. In
+the following year, moreover (382), he was commissioned by the council
+to inspect and set in order the churches of Arabia, in connexion with
+which mission he also visited Jerusalem. The impressions he gathered
+from this journey may, in part at least, be gathered from his famous
+letter _De euntibus Hierosolyma_, in which an opinion strongly
+unfavourable to pilgrimages is expressed. In 383 he was probably again
+in Constantinople; where in 385 he pronounced the funeral orations of
+the princess Pulcheria and afterwards of the empress Placilla. Once more
+we read of him in 394 as having been present in that metropolis at the
+synod held under the presidency of Nectarius to settle a controversy
+which had arisen among the bishops of Arabia; in the same year he
+assisted at the consecration of the new church of the apostles at
+Chalcedon, on which occasion there is reason to believe that his
+discourse commonly but wrongly known as that [Greek: Eis tên heautou
+cheirotonian] was delivered. The exact date of his death is unknown;
+some authorities refer it to 396, others to 400. His festival is
+observed by the Greek Church on the 10th of January; in the Western
+martyrologies he is commemorated on the 9th of March.
+
+Gregory of Nyssa was not so firm and able an administrator as his
+brother Basil, nor so magnificent an orator as Gregory of Nazianzus, but
+he excelled them both, alike as a speculative and constructive
+theologian, and in the wide extent of his acquirements. His teaching,
+though strictly trinitarian, shows considerable freedom and originality
+of thought; in many points his mental and spiritual affinities with
+Origen show themselves with advantage, as in his doctrine of [Greek:
+apokatastasis] or final restoration. There are marked pantheistic
+tendencies, e.g. the inclusion of sin as a necessary part of the
+cosmical process, which make him akin to the pantheistic monophysites
+and to some modern thinkers.
+
+  His style has been frequently praised by competent authorities for
+  sweetness, richness and elegance. His numerous works may be classified
+  under five heads: (1) Treatises in doctrinal and polemical theology.
+  Of these the most important is that _Against Eunomius_ in twelve
+  books. Its doctrinal thesis (which is supported with great philosophic
+  acumen and rhetorical power) is the divinity and consubstantiality of
+  the Word; incidentally the character of Basil, which Eunomius had
+  aspersed, is vindicated, and the heretic himself is held up to scorn
+  and contempt. This is the work which, most probably in a shorter
+  draft, was read by its author when at Constantinople before Gregory
+  Nazianzen and Jerome in 381 (Jerome, _De vir. ill._ 128). To the same
+  class belong the treatise _To Ablavius_, against the tritheists; _On
+  Faith_, against the Arians; _On Common Notions_, in explanation of the
+  terms in current employment with regard to the Trinity; _Ten
+  Syllogisms_, against the Manichaeans; _To Theophilus_, against the
+  Apollinarians; an _Antirrhetic_ against the same; _Against Fate_, a
+  disputation with a heathen philosopher; _De anima et resurrectione_, a
+  dialogue with his dying sister Macrina; and the _Oratio catechetica
+  magna_, an argument for the incarnation as the best possible form of
+  redemption, intended to convince educated pagans and Jews. (2)
+  Practical treatises. To this category belong the tracts _On Virginity_
+  and _On Pilgrimages_; as also the _Canonical Epistle_ upon the rules
+  of penance. (3) Expository and homiletical works, including the
+  _Hexaëmeron_, and several series of discourses _On the Workmanship of
+  Man_, _On the Inscriptions of the Psalms_, _On the Sixth Psalm_, _On
+  the first three Chapters of Ecclesiastes_, _On Canticles_, _On the
+  Lord's Prayer_ and _On the Eight Beatitudes_. (4) Biographical,
+  consisting chiefly of funeral orations. (5) Letters.
+
+  The only complete editions of the whole works are those by Fronton le
+  Duc (Fronto Ducäus, Paris, 1615; with additions, 1618 and 1638) and by
+  Migne. G. H. Forbes began an excellent critical edition, but only two
+  parts of the first volume appeared (Burntisland, 1855 and 1861)
+  containing the _Explicatio apologetica in hexaëmeron_ and the _De
+  opificio hominis_. Of the new edition projected by F. Oehler only the
+  first volume, containing the _Opera dogmatica_, has appeared (1865).
+  There have been numerous editions of several single treatises, as for
+  example of the _Oratio catechetica_ (J. G. Krabinger, Munich, 1838; J.
+  H. Crawley, Cambridge, 1903), _De precatione_ and _De anima et
+  resurrectione_.
+
+  See F. W. Farrar, _Lives of the Fathers_, ii. 56-83, the monograph by
+  J. Rupp (_Gregors, des Bischofs von Nyssa, Leben und Meinungen_,
+  Leipzig, 1834), and compare P. Heyns (_Disputatio historico-theologica
+  de Greg. Nyss._, 1835), C. W. Möller (_Gregorii Nyss. doctrinam de
+  hominis natura et illustravit et cum Origeniana comparavit_, 1854) and
+  J. N. Stigler, _Die Psychologie des h. Gregors von Nyssa_ (Regensburg,
+  1857), and many smaller monographs cited in Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk.
+  für prot. Theol._ vii. 149.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594), historian of the Franks, was born in
+the chief city of the Arverni (the modern Clermont-Ferrand) on the 30th
+of November 538. His real name was Georgius Florentius, Georgius being
+his grandfather's name and Florentius his father's. He was called
+Gregory after his maternal great-grandfather, the bishop of Langres.
+Gregory belonged to an illustrious senatorial family, many of whose
+members held high office in the church and bear honoured names in the
+history of Christianity. He was descended, it is said, from Vettius
+Epagathus, who was martyred at Lyons in 177 with St Pothinus; his
+paternal uncle, Gallus, was bishop of Clermont; his maternal
+grand-uncle, Nicetius (St Nizier), occupied the see of Lyons; and he was
+a kinsman of Euphronius, bishop of Tours.
+
+Gregory lost his father early, and his mother Armentaria settled in the
+kingdom of Burgundy on an estate belonging to her near Cavaillon, where
+her son often visited her. Gregory was brought up at Clermont-Ferrand by
+his uncle Gallus and by his successor, Avitus, and there he received his
+education. Among profane authors he read the first six books of the
+_Aeneid_ and Sallust's history of the Catiline conspiracy, but his
+education was mainly religious. The principles of religion he learnt
+from the Bible, Sulpicius Severus and some lives of saints, but to
+patristic literature and the subtleties of theology he remained a
+stranger. In 563, at the age of twenty-five, he was ordained deacon.
+Falling seriously ill, he went to Tours to seek a cure at the tomb of St
+Martin. At Tours he lived with Euphronius, and so great was the young
+man's popularity that, on the death of Euphronius in 573, the people
+unanimously designated him bishop.
+
+At that time Tours belonged to Austrasia, and King Sigebert hastened to
+confirm Gregory's election. After the assassination of Sigebert (575),
+the province was ruled by Chilperic for nine years, during which period
+Gregory displayed the greatest energy in protecting his town and church
+from the Frankish king. He had to contend with Count Leudast, the
+governor of Tours; despite all the king's threats, he refused to give up
+Chilperic's son Meroving, who had sought refuge from his father's wrath
+at the sanctuary of St Martin; and he defended Bishop Pretextatus
+against Chilperic, by whom he had been condemned for celebrating the
+marriage of Merovech and Queen Brunhilda. In 580 Gregory was himself
+accused before a council at Berny of using abusive language against
+Queen Fredegond, but he cleared himself of the charge by an oath and was
+acquitted. On the death of Chilperic, Tours remained for two years
+(584-585) in the hands of Guntram, but when Guntram adopted his nephew
+Childebert, Sigebert's son, it again became Austrasian. This change was
+welcome to Gregory, who often visited the court. In 586 he was at
+Coblenz, and on his return to Yvois (the modern Carignan) visited the
+stylite Wulfilaic; in 588 we hear of him at Metz and also at
+Chalon-sur-Saône, whither he was sent to obtain from King Guntram the
+ratification of the pact of Andelot; in 593 he was at Orleans, where
+Childebert had just succeeded his uncle Guntram. In the intervals of
+these journeys he governed Tours with great firmness, repressing
+disorders and reducing the monks and nuns to obedience. He died on the
+17th of November 594.
+
+Gregory left many writings, of which he himself gives an enumeration at
+the end of his _Historia Francorum_: "Decem libros Historiarum, septem
+Miraculorum, unum de Vita Patrum scripsi; in Psalterii tractatu librum
+unum commentatus sum; de Cursibus etiam ecclesiasticis unum librum
+condidi." The ten books of history are discussed below. The seven books
+of miracles are divided into the _De gloria martyrum_, the _De
+virtutibus sancti Juliani_, four books of _Miracula sancti Martini_, and
+the _De gloria confessorum_, the last dealing mainly with confessors who
+had dwelt in the cities of Tours and Clermont. The _Vitae patrum_
+consists of twenty biographies of bishops, abbots and hermits belonging
+to Gaul. The commentary on the Psalms is lost, the preface and the
+titles of the chapters alone being extant. The treatise _De cursibus
+ecclesiasticis_, discovered in 1853, is a liturgical manual for
+determining the hour of divers nocturnal offices by the position of the
+stars. Gregory also left a life of St Andrew, translated from the Greek,
+and a history of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, translated from Syriac.
+
+His most important work, however, is the _Historia Francorum_, which is
+divided into three parts. The first four books, which were composed at
+one time, cover the period from the creation of the world to the death
+of Sigebert in 575. The first book, which is a mere compilation from the
+chronicles of St Jerome and Orosius, is of no value. The second book,
+from 397 to 511, deals with the invasions of the Franks, and is based on
+the histories of Sulpicius Alexander and Renatus Profuturus Frigeridus,
+now lost; on the catalogues of the bishops of Clermont and Tours; on
+some lives of saints, e.g. Remigius and Maxentius, now lost; on the
+annals of Arles and Angers, now lost; and on legends, either collected
+by Gregory himself from oral tradition, or cantilenes or epics written
+in the Latin and Germanic languages. In the third and fourth books the
+earlier part is based on materials collected from men older than
+himself; of the later events he was himself an eye-witness. The fifth
+and sixth books, up to the death of Chilperic (584), deal with matters
+within his own experience. The first six books are often separate in the
+MSS., and it was these alone that were used by the chronicler
+Fredegarius in his abridgment of Gregory's history. To the first six
+books Gregory subsequently added chapters on the bishops Salonius and
+Sagittarius, and on his quarrels with Felix of Nantes. The authenticity
+of these chapters has been undeservedly attacked by Catholic writers.
+Books vii. to x., from 584 to 591, were written in the form of a diary;
+of each important event, as it occurred, he inserted an account in his
+book. The last six books are of great historical value.
+
+Gregory had an intimate knowledge of contemporary events. He was
+frequently at court, and he found Tours an excellent place for
+collecting information. The shrine of St Martin attracted the sick from
+all quarters, and the basilica of the saint was a favourite sanctuary
+for political refugees. Moreover, Tours was on the high road between the
+north and south of France, and was a convenient stage for travellers,
+the ambassadors going to and from Spain frequently halting there.
+Gregory plied every one with questions, and in this way gathered a great
+mass of detailed information. He was, besides, at great pains to be an
+impartial writer, but was not always successful. His devotion to
+Austrasia made him very bitter against, and perhaps unjust to, the
+sovereigns of Neustria, Chilperic and Fredegond. As an orthodox
+Christian, he had no good word for the Arians. He excuses the crimes of
+kings who protected the church, such as Clovis, Clotaire I. and Guntram,
+but had no mercy for those who violated ecclesiastical privileges. This
+attitude, no doubt, explains his hatred for Chilperic. But if Gregory's
+historical judgments are suspect, he at least concealed nothing and
+invented nothing; and we can correct his judgments by his own narrative.
+His history is a curious compound of artlessness and shrewdness. He was
+ignorant of the rules of grammar, confused genders and cases, and wrote
+in the vernacular Latin of his time, apart from certain passages which
+are especially elaborated and filled with poetical and elegant
+expressions. But in spite of his shortcomings he is an exceedingly
+attractive writer, and his mastery of the art of narrative has earned
+for him the name of the Herodotus of the barbarians.
+
+  T. Ruinart brought out a complete edition of Gregory's works at Paris
+  in 1699. The best modern complete edition is that of W. Arndt and B.
+  Krusch in _Mon. Germ. hist. script. rer. Merov._ (vol. i., 1885). Of
+  the many editions of the _Historia Francorum_ may be mentioned those
+  of Guadet and Taranne in the _Soc. de l'hist. de France_ (4 vols.,
+  with French translation, 1836-1838), of Omont (the first six books; a
+  reproduction of the Corvey MS.) and of G. Collon (the last four books;
+  a reproduction of the Brussels MS. No. 9, 403). Gregory's hagiographic
+  works were published by H. Bordier in the _Soc. de l'hist. de France_
+  (4 vols., with French translation, 1857-1864). Cf. J. W. Löbell,
+  _Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1868); G. Monod,
+  "Études critiques sur les sources de l'histoire mérovingienne" in the
+  _Bibl. de l'École des Hautes Études_ (1872); G. Kurth, "Grégoire de
+  Tours et les études classiques au VI^e siècle" in the _Revue des
+  questions historiques_ (xxiv. 586 seq., 1878); Max Bonnet, _Le Latin
+  de Grégoire de Tours_ (Paris, 1890). For details, see Ulysse
+  Chevalier, _Biobibliographie_ (2nd ed.).     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, the reputed founder of the Armenian Church. His
+legend is briefly as follows. His father Anak, head of the Parthian clan
+of Suren, was bribed about the time of his birth (c. 257) by the
+Sassanid king of Persia to assassinate the Armenian king, Chosroes, who
+was of the old Arsacid dynasty, and father of Tiridates or Trdat, first
+Christian king of Armenia. Anak was slain by his victim's soldiers;
+Gregory was rescued by his Christian nurse, carried to Caesarea in
+Cappadocia, and brought up a Christian. Grown to manhood he took service
+under Tiridates, now king of Armenia, in order by his own fidelity to
+atone for his father's treachery. Presently at a feast of Anahite
+Gregory refused to assist his sovereign in offering pagan sacrifice, and
+his parentage being now revealed, was thrown into a deep pit at
+Artashat, where he languished for fourteen years, during which
+persecution raged in Armenia.
+
+The scene of the legend now shifts to Rome, where Diocletian falls in
+love with a lovely nun named Ripsimé; she, rather than gratify his
+passion, flees with her abbess Gaiana and several priests to Armenia.
+Diocletian asks her back of Tiridates, who meanwhile has fallen in love
+with her himself. He too is flouted, and in his rage tortures and slays
+her and her companions. The traditional date of this massacre is the 5th
+of October, A.D. 301. Providence, incensed at such cruelty, turns
+Tiridates into a wild boar, and afflicts his subjects with madness; but
+his sister, Chosrowidukht, has a revelation to bring Gregory back out of
+his pit. The king consents, the saint is acclaimed, the bodies of the
+thirty-seven martyrs solemnly interred, and the king, after fasting
+five, and listening to Gregory's homilies for sixty days, is healed.
+This all took place at Valarshapat, where Gregory, anxious to fix a site
+on which to build shrines for the relics of Ripsimé and Gaiana, saw the
+Son of God come down in a sheen of light, the stars of heaven attending,
+and smite the earth with a golden hammer till the nether world resounded
+to his blows. Three chapels were built on the spot, and Gregory raised
+his cross there and elsewhere for the people to worship, just as St Nino
+was doing about the same time in Georgia. There followed a campaign
+against the idols whose temples and books were destroyed. The time had
+now come for Gregory, who was still a layman and father of two sons, to
+receive ordination; so he went to Caesarea, where Leontius ordained and
+consecrated him catholicos or vicar-general of Armenia. This was
+sometime about 290, when Leontius may have acceded, though we first hear
+of him as bishop in 314.
+
+Gregory's ordination at Caesarea is historical. The vision at
+Valarshapat was invented later by the Armenians when they broke with the
+Greeks, in order to give to their church the semblance, if not of
+apostolic, at least of divine origin.
+
+According to Agathangelus, Tiridates went to Rome with Gregory,
+Aristaces, son of Gregory, and Albianos, head of the other priestly
+family, to make a pact with Constantine, newly converted to the faith,
+and receive a pallium from Silvester. The better sources make Sardica
+the scene of meeting and name Eusebius (of Nicomedia) as the prelate who
+attended Constantine. There is no reason to doubt that some such visit
+was made about the year 315, when the death of Maximin Daza left
+Constantine supreme. Eusebius testifies (_H.E._ ix. 8) that the
+Armenians were ardent Christians, and ancient friends and allies of the
+Roman empire when Maximin attacked them about the year 308. The
+conversion of Tiridates was probably a matter of policy. His kingdom was
+honeycombed with Christianity, and he wished to draw closer to the West,
+where he foresaw the victory of the new faith, in order to fortify his
+realm against the Sassanids of Persia. Following the same policy he sent
+Aristaces in 325 to the council of Nice. Gregory is related to have
+added a clause to the creed which Aristaces brought back; he became a
+hermit on Mount Sebuh about the year 332, and died there.
+
+Is the Ripsimé episode mere legend? The story of the conversion of
+Georgia by St Nino in the same age is so full of local colour, and
+coheres so closely with the story of Ripsimé and Gaiana, that it seems
+over-sceptical to explain the latter away as a mere doublet of the
+legend of Prisca and Valeria. The historians Faustus of Byzant and Lazar
+of Pharp in the 5th century already attest the reverence with which
+their memory was invested. We know from many sources the prominence
+assigned to women prophets in the Phrygian church. Nino's story reads
+like that of such a female missionary, and something similar must
+underlie the story of her Armenian companions.
+
+The history of Gregory by Agathangelus is a compilation of about 450,
+which was rendered into Greek 550. Professor Marr has lately published
+an Arabic text from a MS. in Sinai which seems to contain an older
+tradition. A letter of Bishop George of Arabia to Jeshu, a priest of the
+town Anab, dated 714 (edited by Dashian, Vienna, 1891), contains an
+independent tradition of Gregory, and styles him a Roman by birth.
+
+In spite of legendary accretions we can still discern the true outlines
+and significance of his life. He did not really illumine or convert
+great Armenia, for the people were in the main already converted by
+Syrian missionaries to the Adoptionist or Ebionite type of faith which
+was dominant in the far East, and was afterwards known as Nestorianism.
+Marcionites and Montanists had also worked in the field. Gregory
+persuaded Tiridates to destroy the last relics of the old paganism, and
+carried out in the religious sphere his sovereign's policy of detaching
+Great Armenia from the Sassanid realm and allying it with the
+Graeco-Roman empire and civilization. He set himself to Hellenize or
+Catholicize Armenian Christianity, and in furtherance of this aim set up
+a hierarchy officially dependent on the Cappadocian. He in effect turned
+his country into a province of the Greek see of Cappadocia. This
+hierarchical tie was soon snapped, but the Hellenizing influence
+continued to work, and bore its most abundant fruit in the 5th century.
+His career was thus analogous to that of St Patrick in Ireland.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--S. Weber, _Die Catholische Kirche in Armenien_
+  (Freiburg, 1903, with bibliography); Bollandii, _Acta sanctorum sept._
+  tom. 8; A. Carrière, _Les Huit Sanctuaires de l'Arménie_ (Paris,
+  1899); "Chrysostom" in Migne, _P. Gr._ tom. 63, col. 943 foll.; C.
+  Fortescue, _The Armenian Church_ (London, 1872); H. Gelzer, _Die
+  Anfänge der armenischen Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1895) (_Sächs. Gesells. der
+  Wissensch._); and s.v. "Armenien" in Herzog-Hauck (Leipzig, 1897); v.
+  Gutschmid, _Kleine Schriften_ (Leipzig, 1892); Himpel, _Gregor der
+  Erleuchter_, Kl. v.; Issaverdenz, _Hist. of Arm. Church_ (Venice,
+  1875); de Lagarde, _Agathangelos_ (Göttingen, 1888); Arshak Ter
+  Mikelian, _Die arm. Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1892); Palmieri, "La Conversione
+  ufficiale degli Iberi," _Oriens Christ._ (Rome, 1902); Ryssel, _Ein
+  Brief Gregors, übersetzt, Studien und Kritiken_, 56, Bd. (1883);
+  Samuelian, _Bekehrung Armeniens_ (Vienna, 1844); Vetter, "Die arm.
+  Väter," in Nischl's _Lehrbuch der Patrol._ iii. 215-262, (Mainz,
+  1881-1885); Malan, _S. Gregory the Illuminator_ (Rivingtons, 1868).
+       (F. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY (_Gregorius_), the name of sixteen popes and one anti-pope.
+
+SAINT GREGORY, surnamed the Great (_c._ 540-604), the first pope of that
+name, and the last of the four doctors of the Latin Church, was born in
+Rome about the year 540. His father was Gordianus "the regionary," a
+wealthy man of senatorial rank, owner of large estates in Sicily and of
+a palace on the Caelian Hill in Rome; his mother was Silvia, who is
+commemorated as a saint on the 3rd of November. Of Gregory's early
+period we know few details, and almost all the dates are conjectural. He
+received the best education to be had at the time, and was noted for his
+proficiency in the arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic. Entering on
+a public career he held, about 573, the high office of prefect of the
+city of Rome; but about 574, feeling irresistibly attracted to the
+"religious" life, he resigned his post, founded six monasteries in
+Sicily and one in Rome, and in the last--the famous monastery of St
+Andrew--became himself a monk. This grateful seclusion, however, he was
+not permitted long to enjoy. About 578 he was ordained "seventh deacon"
+(or possibly archdeacon) of the Roman Church, and in the following
+spring Pope Pelagius II. appointed him "apocrisiarius," or resident
+ambassador, at the imperial court in Constantinople. Here he represented
+the interests of his church till about 586, when he returned to Rome and
+was made abbot of St Andrew's monastery. His rule, though popular, was
+characterized by great severity, as may be inferred from the story of
+the monk Justus, who was denied Christian burial because he had secreted
+a small sum of money. About this time Gregory completed and published
+his well-known exposition of the book of Job, commenced in
+Constantinople: he also delivered lectures on the Heptateuch, the books
+of Kings, the Prophets, the book of Proverbs and the Song of Songs. To
+this period, moreover, Bede's incident of the English slave-boys (if
+indeed it be accepted as historical) ought to be assigned. Passing one
+day through the Forum, Gregory saw some handsome slaves offered for
+sale, and inquired their nation. "Angles," was the reply. "Good," said
+the abbot, "they have the faces of angels, and should be coheirs with
+the angels in heaven. From what province do they come?" "From Deira."
+"Deira. Yea, verily, they shall be saved from God's ire (_de ira_) and
+called to the mercy of Christ. How is the king of that country named?"
+"Ælla." "Then must Allelulia be sung in Ælla's land." Gregory determined
+personally to undertake the conversion of Britain, and with the pope's
+consent actually set out upon the mission, but on the third day of his
+journey he was overtaken by messengers recalling him to Rome. In the
+year 590 Pelagius II. died of the plague that was raging in the city;
+whereupon the clergy and people unanimously chose Gregory as his
+successor. The abbot did his best to avoid the dignity, petitioned the
+emperor Maurice not to ratify his election, and even meditated going
+into hiding; but, "while he was preparing for flight and concealment, he
+was seized and carried off and dragged to the basilica of St Peter," and
+there consecrated bishop, on the 3rd of September 590.
+
+The fourteen years of Gregory's pontificate were marked by extraordinary
+vigour and activity. "He never rested," writes a biographer, "he was
+always engaged in providing for the interests of his people, or in
+writing some composition worthy of the church, or in searching out the
+secrets of heaven by the grace of contemplation." His mode of life was
+simple and ascetic in the extreme. Having banished all lay attendants
+from his palace, he surrounded himself with clerics and monks, with whom
+he lived as though he were still in a monastery. To the spiritual needs
+of his people he ministered with pastoral zeal, frequently appointing
+"stations" and delivering sermons; nor was he less solicitous in
+providing for their physical necessities. Deaconries (offices of alms)
+and guest-houses were liberally endowed, and free distributions of food
+were made to the poor in the convents and basilicas. The funds for these
+and similar purposes were supplied from the Patrimony of St Peter--the
+papal estates in Italy, the adjacent islands, Gaul, Dalmatia and Africa.
+These extensive domains were usually administered by specially appointed
+agents,--rectors and defensors,--who resided on the spot; but the
+general superintendence devolved upon the pope. In this sphere Gregory
+manifested rare capacity. He was one of the best of the papal landlords.
+During his pontificate the estates increased in value, while at the same
+time the real grievances of the tenants were redressed and their general
+position was materially improved. Gregory's principal fault as a man of
+business was that he was inclined to be too lavish of his revenues. It
+is said that he even impoverished the treasury of the Roman Church by
+his unlimited charities.
+
+Within the strict bounds of his patriarchate, i.e. the churches of the
+suburbicarian provinces and the islands, it was Gregory's policy to
+watch with particular care over the election and discipline of the
+bishops. With wise toleration he was willing to recognize local
+deviations from Roman usage (e.g. in the ritual of baptism and
+confirmation), yet he was resolute to withstand any unauthorized
+usurpation of rights and privileges. The following rules he took pains
+to enforce: that clerics in holy orders should not cohabit with their
+wives or permit any women, except those allowed by the canons, to live
+in their houses; that clerics accused on ecclesiastical or lesser
+criminal charges should be tried only in the ecclesiastical courts; that
+clerics in holy orders who had lapsed should "utterly forfeit their
+orders and never again approach the ministry of the altar"; that the
+revenues of each church should be divided by its bishop into four equal
+parts, to be assigned to the bishop, the clergy, the poor and the repair
+of the fabric of the church.
+
+In his relations with the churches which lay outside the strict limits
+of his patriarchate, in northern Italy, Spain, Gaul, Africa and
+Illyricum and also in the East, Gregory consistently used his influence
+to increase the prestige and authority of the Roman See. In his view
+Rome, as the see of the Prince of the Apostles, was by divine right "the
+head of all the churches." The decrees of councils would have no binding
+force "without the authority and consent of the apostolic see": appeals
+might be made to Rome against the decisions even of the patriarch of
+Constantinople: all bishops, including the patriarchs, if guilty of
+heresy or uncanonical proceedings, were subject to correction by the
+pope. "If any fault is discovered in a bishop," Gregory wrote, "I know
+of no one who is not subject to the apostolic see." It is true that
+Gregory respected the rights of metropolitans and disapproved of
+unnecessary interference within the sphere of their jurisdiction
+canonically exercised; also that in his relations with certain churches
+(e.g. those in Africa) he found it expedient to abstain from any
+obtrusive assertion of Roman claims. But of his general principle there
+can be no doubt. His sincere belief in the apostolic authority of the
+see of St Peter, his outspoken assertion of it, the consistency and
+firmness with which in practice he maintained it (e.g. in his
+controversies with the bishops of Ravenna concerning the use of the
+pallium, with Maximus the "usurping" bishop of Salona, and with the
+patriarchs of Constantinople in respect of the title "ecumenical
+bishops"), contributed greatly to build up the system of papal
+absolutism. Moreover this consolidation of spiritual authority coincided
+with a remarkable development of the temporal power of the papacy. In
+Italy Gregory occupied an almost regal position. Taking advantage of the
+opportunity which circumstances offered, he boldly stepped into the
+place which the emperors had left vacant and the Lombard kings had not
+the strength to seize. For the first time in history the pope appeared
+as a political power, a temporal prince. He appointed governors to
+cities, issued orders to generals, provided munitions of war, sent his
+ambassadors to negotiate with the Lombard king and actually dared to
+conclude a private peace. In this direction Gregory went farther than
+any of his predecessors: he laid the foundation of a political influence
+which endured for centuries. "Of the medieval papacy," says Milman, "the
+real father is Gregory the Great."
+
+The first monk to become pope, Gregory was naturally a strong supporter
+of monasticism. He laid himself out to diffuse the system, and also to
+carry out a reform of its abuses by enforcing a strict observance of the
+Rule of St Benedict (of whom, it may be noted, he was the earliest
+biographer). Two slight innovations were introduced: the minimum age of
+an abbess was fixed at sixty, and the period of novitiate was prolonged
+from one year to two. Gregory sought to protect the monks from episcopal
+oppression by issuing _privilegia_, or charters in restraint of abuses,
+in accordance with which the jurisdiction of the bishops over the
+monasteries was confined to spiritual matters, all illegal aggressions
+being strictly prohibited. The documents are interesting as marking the
+beginning of a revolution which eventually emancipated the monks
+altogether from the control of their diocesans and brought them under
+the direct authority of the Holy See. Moreover Gregory strictly forbade
+monks to minister in parish churches, ordaining that any monk who was
+promoted to such ecclesiastical cure should lose all rights in his
+monastery and should no longer reside there. "The duties of each office
+separately are so weighty that no one can rightly discharge them. It is
+therefore very improper that one man should be considered fit to
+discharge the duties of both, and that by this means the ecclesiastical
+order should interfere with the monastic life, and the rule of the
+monastic life in turn interfere with the interests of the churches."
+
+Once more, Gregory is remembered as a great organizer of missionary
+enterprise for the conversion of heathens and heretics. Most important
+was the two-fold mission to Britain--of St Augustine in 596, of
+Mellitus, Paulinus and others in 601; but Gregory also made strenuous
+efforts to uproot paganism in Gaul, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica,
+Arianism in Spain, Donatism in Africa, Manichaeism in Sicily, the heresy
+of the Three Chapters in Istria and northern Italy. In respect of the
+methods of conversion which he advocated he was not less intolerant than
+his contemporaries. Towards the Jews, however, he acted with exceptional
+lenity, protecting them from persecution and securing them the enjoyment
+of their legal privileges. The so-called "simoniacal heresy,"
+particularly prevalent in Gaul, Illyricum and the East, be repeatedly
+attacked; and against the Gallican abuse of promoting laymen to
+bishoprics he protested with vigour.
+
+The extent and character of Gregory's works in connexion with the
+liturgy and the music of the church is a subject of dispute. If we are
+to credit a 9th century biographer, Gregory abbreviated and otherwise
+simplified the Sacramentary of Gelasius, producing a revised edition
+with which his own name has become associated, and which represents the
+groundwork of the modern Roman Missal. But though it is certain that he
+introduced three changes in the liturgy itself (viz. the addition of
+some words in the prayer _Hanc igitur_, the recitation of the Pater
+Noster at the end of the Canon immediately before the fraction of the
+bread, and the chanting of the Allelulia after the Gradual at other
+times besides the season of Easter) and two others in the ceremonial
+connected therewith (forbidding deacons to perform any musical portion
+of the service except the chanting of the gospel, and subdeacons to wear
+chasubles), neither the external nor the internal evidence appears to
+warrant belief that the Gregorian Sacramentary is his work.
+Ecclesiastical tradition further ascribes to Gregory the compilation of
+an Antiphonary, the revision and rearrangement of the system of church
+music, and the foundation of the Roman _schola cantorum_. It is highly
+doubtful, however, whether he had anything to do either with the
+Antiphonary or with the invention or revival of the _cantus planus_; it
+is certain that he was not the founder of the Roman singing-school,
+though he may have interested himself in its endowment and extension.
+
+Finally, as Fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, Gregory claims the
+attention of theologians. He is the link between two epochs. The last of
+the great Latin Fathers and the first representative of medieval
+Catholicism he brings the dogmatic theology of Tertullian, Ambrose and
+Augustine into relation with the Scholastic speculation of later ages.
+"He connects the Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of
+Christianity." His teaching, indeed, is neither philosophical,
+systematic nor truly original. Its importance lies mainly in its simple,
+popular summarization of the doctrine of Augustine (whose works Gregory
+had studied with infinite care, but not always with insight), and in its
+detailed exposition of various religious conceptions which were current
+in the Western Church, but had not hitherto been defined with precision
+(e.g. the views on angelology and demonology, on purgatory, the
+Eucharistic Sacrifice, and the efficacy of relics). In his exposition of
+such ideas Gregory made a distinct advance upon the older theology and
+influenced profoundly the dogmatic development of the future. He
+imparted a life and impulse to prevailing tendencies, helping on the
+construction of the system hereafter to be completed in Scholasticism.
+He gave to theology a tone and emphasis which could not be disregarded.
+From his time to that of Anselm no teacher of equal eminence arose in
+the Church.
+
+Gregory died on the 12th of March 604, and was buried the same day in
+the portico of the basilica of St Peter, in front of the sacristy.
+Translations took place in the 9th, 15th and 17th centuries, and the
+remains now rest beneath the altar in the chapel of Clement VIII. In
+respect of his character, while most historians agree that he was a
+really great man, some deny that he was also a great saint. The worst
+blot on his fair fame is his adulatory congratulation of the murderous
+usurper Phocas; though his correspondence with the Frankish queen
+Brunhilda, and the series of letters to and concerning the renegade monk
+Venantius also present problems which his admirers find difficult of
+solution. But while it may be admitted that Gregory was inclined to be
+unduly subservient to the great, so that at times he was willing to shut
+his eyes to the vices and even the crimes of persons of rank; yet it
+cannot fairly be denied that his character as a whole was singularly
+noble and unselfish. His life was entirely dominated by the religious
+motive. His sole desire was to promote the glory of God and of his
+church. At all times he strove honestly to live up to the light that was
+in him. "His goal," says Lau, "was always that which he acknowledged as
+the best." Physically, Gregory was of medium height and good figure. His
+head was large and bald, surrounded with a fringe of dark hair. His face
+was well-proportioned, with brown eyes, aquiline nose, thick and red
+lips, high-coloured cheeks, and prominent chin sparsely covered with a
+tawny beard. His hands, with tapering fingers, were remarkable for their
+beauty.
+
+  _Gregory's Works._--The following are now universally admitted to be
+  genuine:--_Epistolarum libri xiv._, _Moralium libri xxxv._, _Regulae
+  pastoralis liber_, _Dialogorum libri iv._, _Homiliarum in Ezechielem
+  prophetam libri ii._, _Homiliarum in Evangelia libri ii._ These are
+  all printed in Migne's _Patrologia Latina_. The _Epistolae_, however,
+  have been published separately by P. Ewald and L. M. Hartmann in the
+  _Monumenta Germaniae historica_ (Berlin, 1887-1899), and this splendid
+  edition has superseded all others. The question of the chronological
+  reconstruction of the _Register_ is dealt with by Ewald in his
+  celebrated article in the _Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere
+  deutsche Geschichtskunde_, iii. pp. 433-625; and briefly by T.
+  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, v. 333-343. For information about
+  these writings of Gregory, consult especially G. J. T. Lau, _Gregor I.
+  der Grosse_, pt. ii. chap. i. _Die Schriften Gregors_ and F. Homes
+  Dudden, _Gregory the Great_ (see Index II. B.). In addition to the
+  above-mentioned works there are printed under Gregory's name in
+  Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, vol. lxxix., the following:--_Super
+  Cantico Canticorum expositio_, _In librum primum Regum variarum
+  expositionum libri vi._, _In septem psalmos poenitentiales expositio_
+  and _Concordia quorundam teslimoniorum s. scripturae_. But (with the
+  possible exception of the first) none of these treatises are of
+  Gregorian authorship. See the discussions in Migne, Lau and Dudden.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(a) The principal ancient authorities for the life and
+  works of Gregory are given in their chronological order. They are:
+  Gregory of Tours, _Historia Francorum_, x. 1; _Liber pontificalis_,
+  "Vita Gregorii Magni"; Isidore of Seville, _De vir. illustr._ 40, and
+  Ildefonsus of Toledo, _De vir. illustr._ i.; an anonymous _Vita
+  Gregorii_ (of English authorship) belonging to the monastery of St
+  Gall, discovered by Ewald and published by F. A. Gasquet, _A Life of
+  Pope St Gregory the Great_ (1904); Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_, ii.
+  c. 1; Paul the Deacon, _Vita Gregorii Magni_ (770-780); John the
+  Deacon, _Vita Gregorii_ (872-882). (b) Recent Literature: J. Barmby,
+  _Gregory the Great_ (1892); T. Bonsmann, _Gregor I. der Grosse, ein
+  Lebensbild_ (1890); F. Homes Dudden, _Gregory the Great: his place in
+  History and Thought_ (2 vols., 1905); G. J. T. Lau, _Gregor I. der
+  Grosse nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert_ (1845); C.
+  Wolfsgruber, _Gregor der Grosse_ (1897). See also F. Gregorovius,
+  _Rome in the Middle Ages_ (Eng. trans.) ii. 16-103; T. Hodgkin, _Italy
+  and her Invaders_, v. cc. 7-10; H. K. Mann, _The Lives of the Popes_,
+  i. 1-250; F. W. Kellett, _Pope Gregory the Great and his Relations
+  with Gaul_; L. Pingaud, _La Politique de Saint Grégoire le Grand_; W.
+  Wisbaum, _Die wichtigsten Richtungen und Ziele der Tätigkeit des
+  Papstes Gregors des Grossen_; W. Hohaus, _Die Bedeutung Gregors des
+  Grossen als liturgischer Schriftsteller_; E. G. P. Wyatt, _St Gregory
+  and the Gregorian Music_; and the bibliographies of Gregory in
+  Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen âge_, and A.
+  Potthast, _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_.     (F. H. D.)
+
+GREGORY II., pope from 715 to 731, succeeded Constantine I., whom he
+accompanied from Constantinople in 710. Gregory did all in his power to
+promote the spread of Christianity in Germany, and gave special
+encouragement to the mission of St Boniface, whom he consecrated bishop
+in 722. He was a staunch adherent of the East Roman empire, which still
+exercised sovereignty over Rome, Ravenna and some other parts of Italy,
+and he impeded as far as possible the progress of the Lombards. About
+726, however, he became involved in a conflict with the emperor Leo the
+Isaurian on account of the excessive taxation of the Italians, and,
+later, on the question of image worship, which had been proscribed by
+the government of Constantinople. Leo endeavoured to rid himself of the
+pope by violence, but Gregory, supported by the people of Rome and also
+by the Lombards, succeeded in eluding the emperor's attacks, and died
+peacefully on the 11th of February 731.
+
+GREGORY III., pope from 731 to 741. He condemned the iconoclasts at a
+council convened at Rome in November 731, and, like his predecessor
+Gregory II., stimulated the missionary labours of St Boniface, on whom
+he conferred the pallium. Towards the Lombards he took up an imprudent
+attitude, in support of which he in vain invoked the aid of the Frankish
+prince Charles Martel.
+
+GREGORY IV., pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed Valentinus in
+December 827, on which occasion he recognized the supremacy of the
+Frankish emperor in the most unequivocal manner. His name is chiefly
+associated with the quarrels between Lothair and Louis the Pious, in
+which he espoused the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus
+Mendacii (_Lügenfeld_, field of lies), as it is usually called (833), he
+secured by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the
+feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died on the
+25th of January 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II.
+
+GREGORY V. (Bruno), pope from 996 to 999, a great-grandson of the
+emperor Otto the Great, succeeded John XV. when only twenty-four years
+of age, and until the council of Pavia (997) had a rival in the person
+of the anti-pope John XVI., whom the people of Rome, in revolt against
+the will of the youthful emperor Otto III., had chosen after having
+expelled Gregory. The most memorable acts of his pontificate were those
+arising out of the contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was
+ultimately brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a
+sentence of excommunication. Gregory died suddenly, and not without
+suspicion of foul play, on the 18th of February 999. His successor was
+Silvester II.
+
+GREGORY VI., pope from 1045 to 1046. As Johannes Gratianus he had earned
+a high reputation for learning and probity, and in 1045 he bought the
+Roman pontificate from his godson Benedict IX. At a council held by the
+emperor Henry III. at Sutri in 1046, he was accused of simony and
+deposed. He was banished into Germany, where he died in 1047. He was
+accompanied into exile by his young protégé Hildebrand (afterwards pope
+as Gregory VII.), and was succeeded by Clement II. (L. D.*)
+
+GREGORY VII., pope from 1073 to 1085. Hildebrand (the future pope) would
+seem to have been born in Tuscany--perhaps Raovacum--early in the third
+decade of the 11th century. The son of a plain citizen, Bunicus or
+Bonizo, he came to Rome at an early age for his education; an uncle of
+his being abbot of the convent of St Mary on the Aventine. His
+instructors appear to have included the archpriest Johannes Gratianus,
+who, by disbursing a considerable sum to Benedict IX., smoothed his way
+to the papal throne and actually ascended it as Gregory VI. But when the
+emperor Henry III., on his expedition to Rome (1046), terminated the
+scandalous _impasse_ in which three popes laid claim to the chair of
+Peter by deposing all three, Gregory VI. was banished to Germany, and
+Hildebrand found himself obliged to accompany him. As he himself
+afterwards admitted, it was with extreme reluctance that he crossed the
+Alps. But his residence in Germany was of great educative value, and
+full of significance for his later official activity. In Cologne he was
+enabled to pursue his studies; he came into touch with the circles of
+Lorraine where interest in the elevation of the Church and her life was
+highest, and gained acquaintance with the political and ecclesiastical
+circumstances of that country which was destined to figure so largely in
+his career. Whether, on the death of Gregory VI. in the beginning of
+1048, Hildebrand proceeded to Cluny is doubtful. His brief residence
+there, if it actually occurred, is to be regarded as no more than a
+visit; for he was never a monk of Cluny. His contemporaries indeed
+describe him as a monk; but his entry into the convent must be assigned
+to the period preceding or following his German travels and presumably
+took place in Rome. He returned to that city with Bishop Bruno of Toul,
+who was nominated pope under the title of Leo IX. (1048-1054). Under him
+Hildebrand found his first employment in the ecclesiastical service,
+becoming a sub-deacon and steward in the Roman Church. He acted,
+moreover, as a legate in France, where he was occupied _inter alia_ with
+the question of Berengarius of Tours, whose views on the Lord's Supper
+had excited opposition. On the death of Leo IX. he was commissioned by
+the Romans as their envoy to the German court, to conduct the
+negotiations with regard to his successor. The emperor pronounced in
+favour of Bishop Gebhard of Eichstädt, who, in the course of his short
+reign as Victor II. (1055-1057), again employed Hildebrand as his legate
+to France. When Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine) was raised to the
+papacy, without previous consultation with the German court, Hildebrand
+and Bishop Anselm of Lucca were despatched to Germany to secure a
+belated recognition, and he succeeded in gaining the consent of the
+empress Agnes. Stephen, however, died before his return, and, by the
+hasty elevation of Bishop Johannes of Velletri, the Roman aristocracy
+made a last attempt to recover their lost influence on the appointment
+to the papal throne--a proceeding which was charged with peril to the
+Church as it implied a renewal of the disastrous patrician régime. That
+the crisis was surmounted was essentially the work of Hildebrand. To
+Benedict X., the aristocratic nominee, he opposed a rival pope in the
+person of Bishop Gerhard of Florence, with whom the victory rested. The
+reign of Nicholas II. (1059-1061) was distinguished by events which
+exercised a potent influence on the policy of the Curia during the next
+two decades--the _rapprochement_ with the Normans in the south of Italy,
+and the alliance with the democratic and, subsequently, anti-German
+movement of the Patarenes in the north. It was also under his
+pontificate (1059) that the law was enacted which transferred the papal
+election to the College of Cardinals, thus withdrawing it from the
+nobility and populace of Rome and thrusting the German influence on one
+side. It would be too much to maintain that these measures were due to
+Hildebrand alone, but it is obvious that he was already a dominant
+personality on the Curia, through he still held no more exalted office
+than that of archdeacon, which was indeed only conferred on him in 1059.
+Again, when Nicholas II. died and a new schism broke out, the
+discomfiture of Honorius II. (Bishop Cadalus of Parma) and the success
+of his rival (Anselm of Lucca) must be ascribed principally, if not
+entirely, to Hildebrand's opposition to the former. Under the sway of
+Alexander II. (1061-1073) this man loomed larger and larger in the eye
+of his contemporaries as the soul of the Curial policy. It must be
+confessed the general political conditions, especially in Germany, were
+at that period exceptionally favourable to the Curia, but to utilize
+them with the sagacity actually shown was nevertheless no slight
+achievement, and the position of Alexander at the end of his pontificate
+was a brilliant justification of the Hildebrandine statecraft.
+
+On the death of Alexander II. (April 21, 1073), Hildebrand became pope
+and took the style of Gregory VII. The mode of his election was bitterly
+assailed by his opponents. True, many of the charges preferred are
+obviously the emanations of scandal and personal dislike, liable to
+suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to impugn his
+promotion till several years had elapsed (_c._ 1076); still it is plain
+from his own account of the circumstances of his elevation that it was
+conducted in extremely irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed
+by the law of 1059 were not observed. But the sequel justified his
+election--of which the worst that can be said is that there was no
+general suffrage. And this sequel again owed none of its success to
+chance, but was the fruit of his own exertions. In his character were
+united wide experience and great energy tested in difficult situations.
+It is proof of the popular faith in his qualifications that, although
+the circumstances of his election invited assault in 1073, no sort of
+attempt was then made to set up a rival pontiff. When, however, the
+opposition which took head against him had gone so far as to produce a
+pretender to the chair, his long and undisputed possession tended to
+prove the original legality of his papacy; and the appeal to
+irregularities at its beginning not only lost all cogency but assumed
+the appearance of a mere biased attack. On the 22nd of May he received
+sacerdotal ordination, and on the 30th of June episcopal consecration;
+the empress Agnes and the duchess Beatrice of Tuscany being present at
+the ceremony, in addition to Bishop Gregory of Vercelli, the chancellor
+of the German king, to whom Gregory would thus seem to have communicated
+the result of the election.
+
+The focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII. is to
+be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death of Henry III.
+the strength of the monarchy in that country had been seriously
+impaired, and his son Henry IV. had to contend with great internal
+difficulties. This state of affairs was of material assistance to the
+pope. His advantage was still further accentuated by the fact that in
+1073 Henry was but twenty-three years of age and by temperament inclined
+to precipitate action. Many sharp lessons were needful before he learned
+to bridle his impetuosity, and he lacked the support and advice of a
+disinterested and experienced statesman. Such being the conditions, a
+conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. could have only one
+issue--the victory of the former.
+
+In the two following years Henry was compelled by the Saxon rebellion to
+come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost. Consequently in May
+1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in presence of the legates to expiate
+his continued intimacy with the members of his council banned by
+Gregory, took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in the work
+of reforming the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him
+the confidence of the pope, he abandoned so soon as he gained the upper
+hand of the Saxons: this he achieved by his victory at Hohenburg on the
+Unstrut (June 9, 1075). He now attempted to reassert his rights of
+suzerain in upper Italy without delay. He sent Count Eberhard to
+Lombardy to combat the Patarenes; nominated the cleric Tedaldo to the
+archbishopric of Milan, thus settling a prolonged and contentious
+question; and finally endeavoured to establish relations with the Norman
+duke, Robert Guiscard. Gregory VII. answered with a rough letter, dated
+December 8, in which--among other charges--he reproached the German king
+with breach of his word and with his further countenance of the
+excommunicated councillors; while at the same time he sent by word of
+mouth a brusque message intimating that the enormous crimes which would
+be laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the
+church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory ventured on these
+audacious measures at a time when he himself was confronted by a
+reckless opponent in the person of Cencius, who on Christmas-night did
+not scruple to surprise him in church and carry him off as a prisoner,
+though on the following day he was obliged to surrender his captive. The
+reprimands of the pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented
+form, infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily
+convened national council in Worms, which met on the 24th of January
+1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy Gregory had many enemies,
+and a Roman cardinal, Hugo Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but
+now at variance, had made a hurried expedition to Germany for the
+occasion and appeared at Worms with the rest. All the gross scandals
+with regard to the pontiff that this prelate could utter were greedily
+received by the assembly, which committed itself to the ill-considered
+and disastrous resolution that Gregory had forfeited his papal dignity.
+In a document full of accusations the bishops renounced their
+allegiance. In another King Henry pronounced him deposed, and the Romans
+were required to choose a new occupant for the vacant chair of St Peter.
+With the utmost haste two bishops were despatched to Italy in company
+with Count Eberhard under commission of the council, and they succeeded
+in procuring a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops in the
+synod of Piacenza. The communication of these decisions to the pope was
+undertaken by the priest Roland of Parma, and he was fortunate enough to
+gain an opportunity for speech in the synod, which had barely assembled
+in the Lateran church, and there to deliver his message announcing the
+dethronement of the pontiff. For the moment the members were petrified
+with horror, but soon such a storm of indignation was aroused that it
+was only due to the moderation of Gregory himself that the envoy was not
+cut down on the spot. On the following day the pope pronounced the
+sentence of excommunication against the German king with all formal
+solemnity, divested him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects
+from the oaths they had sworn to him. This sentence purported to eject
+the king from the church and to strip him of his crown. Whether it would
+produce this effect, or whether it would remain an idle threat, depended
+not on the author of the verdict, but on the subjects of Henry--before
+all, on the German princes. We know from contemporary evidence that the
+excommunication of the king made a profound impression both in Germany
+and Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III. had deposed three popes, and
+thereby rendered a great and acknowledged service to the church. When
+Henry IV. attempted to copy this summary procedure he came to grief, for
+he lacked the support of the people. In Germany there was a speedy and
+general revulsion of sentiment in favour of Gregory, and the
+particularism of the princes utilized the auspicious moment for
+prosecuting their anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the
+papal decision. When at Whitsuntide the king proposed to discuss the
+measures to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles at
+Mainz, only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the
+golden opportunity for renewing their insurrection and the anti-royalist
+party grew in strength from month to month. The situation now became
+extremely critical for Henry. As a result of the agitation, which was
+zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau, the
+princes met in October at Tribur to elect a new German king, and Henry,
+who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only
+saved from the loss of his sceptre by the failure of the assembled
+princes to agree on the question of his successor. Their dissension,
+however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry, they
+declared, must make reparation to the pope and pledge himself to
+obedience; and they settled that, if, on the anniversary of his
+excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the throne should be
+considered vacant. At the same time they determined to invite Gregory to
+Augsburg, there to decide the conflict. These arrangements showed Henry
+the course to be pursued. It was imperative, under any circumstances and
+at any price, to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period
+named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their intention
+to pursue their attack against himself and justify their measures by an
+appeal to his excommunication. At first he attempted to attain his ends
+by an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he took the
+celebrated step of going to Italy in person. The pope had already left
+Rome, and had intimated to the German princes that he would expect their
+escort for his journey on January 8 in Mantua. But this escort had not
+appeared when he received the news of the king's arrival. Henry, who
+travelled through Burgundy, had been greeted with wild enthusiasm by the
+Lombards, but resisted the temptation to employ force against Gregory.
+He chose instead the unexpected and unusual, but, as events proved, the
+safest course, and determined to compel the pope to grant him absolution
+by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken refuge. This
+occurrence was quickly embellished and inwoven by legend, and great
+uncertainty still prevails with regard to several important points. The
+reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and
+definite pledges on the part of the king, and it was with reluctance
+that Gregory at length gave way, for, if he conferred his absolution,
+the diet of princes in Augsburg, in which he might reasonably hope to
+act as arbitrator, would either be rendered purposeless, or, if it met
+at all, would wear an entirely different character. It was impossible,
+however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the church, and the
+politician had in this case to be subordinated to the priest. Still the
+removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation, and no basis
+was gained for a settlement of the great questions at issue--notably
+that of investiture. A new conflict was indeed inevitable from the very
+fact that Henry IV. naturally considered the sentence of deposition
+repealed with that of excommunication; while Gregory on the other hand,
+intent on reserving his freedom of action, gave no hint on the subject
+at Canossa.
+
+That the excommunication of Henry IV. was simply a pretext--not a
+motive--for the opposition of the rebellious German nobles is manifest.
+For not only did they persist in their policy after his absolution, but
+they took the more decided step of setting up a rival king in the person
+of Duke Rudolph of Swabia (Forchheim, March 1077). At the election the
+papal legates present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory
+himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following years. His
+task was the easier in that the two parties were of fairly equal
+strength, each endeavouring to gain the upper hand by the accession of
+the pope to their side. But his hopes and labours, with the object of
+receiving an appeal to act as arbitrator in the dynastic strife, were
+fruitless, and the result of his non-committal policy was that he
+forfeited in large measure the confidence of both parties. Finally he
+decided for Rudolph of Swabia in consequence of his victory at
+Flarchheim (January 27, 1080). Under pressure from the Saxons, and
+misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his
+waiting policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition
+of King Henry (March 7, 1080), unloosing at the same time all oaths
+sworn to him in the past or the future. But the papal censure now proved
+a very different thing from the papal censure four years previously. In
+wide circles it was felt to be an injustice, and men began to put the
+question--so dangerous to the prestige of the pope--whether an
+excommunication pronounced on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect.
+To make matters worse, Rudolph of Swabia died on the 16th of October of
+the same year. True, a new claimant--Hermann of Luxemburg--was put
+forward in August 1081, but his personality was ill adapted for a leader
+of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV. was in the
+ascendant. The king, who had now been schooled by experience, took up
+the struggle thus forced upon him with great vigour. He refused to
+acknowledge the ban on the ground of illegality. A council had been
+summoned at Brixen, and on the 25th of June 1080 it pronounced Gregory
+deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of Ravenna as his
+successor--a policy of anti-king, anti-pope. In 1081 Henry opened the
+conflict against Gregory in Italy. The latter had now fallen on evil
+days, and he lived to see thirteen cardinals desert him, Rome
+surrendered by the Romans to the German king, Guibert of Ravenna
+enthroned as Clement III. (March 24, 1084), and Henry crowned emperor by
+his rival, while he himself was constrained to flee from Rome.
+
+The relations of Gregory to the remaining European states were
+powerfully influenced by his German policy; for Germany, by engrossing
+the bulk of his powers, not infrequently compelled him to show to other
+rulers that moderation and forbearance which he withheld from the German
+king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The
+great concessions made to them under Nicholas II. were not only
+powerless to stem their advance into central Italy but failed to secure
+even the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was hard
+pressed by Henry IV., Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only
+interfered when he himself was menaced with the German arms. Then, on
+the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to the tender mercies of his
+warriors, and by the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about
+the banishment of Gregory.
+
+In the case of several countries, Gregory attempted to establish a claim
+of suzerainty on the part of the see of St Peter, and to secure the
+recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of
+"immemorial usage" Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the
+Roman Church. Spain and Hungary were also claimed as her property, and
+an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a
+fief from the pope. Philip I. of France, by his simony and the violence
+of his proceedings against the church, provoked a threat of summary
+measures; and excommunication, deposition and the interdict, appeared to
+be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his
+menaces into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no
+change, for he wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the
+conflict soon to break out in Germany. In England, again, William the
+Conqueror derived no less benefit from this state of affairs. He felt
+himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of
+the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, filled bishoprics and
+abbeys, and evinced little anxiety when the pope expatiated to him on
+the different principles which he entertained as to the relationship of
+church and state, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded
+him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory had
+no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his
+ecclesiastical policy, so chose to ignore what he could not approve, and
+even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular affection.
+
+Gregory, in fact, established relations--if no more--with every land in
+Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the
+ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence
+extended to Poland, Russia and Bohemia. He wrote in friendly terms to
+the Saracen king of Mauretania in north Africa, and attempted, though
+without success, to bring the Armenians into closer contact with Rome.
+The East, especially, claimed his interest. The ecclesiastical rupture
+between the bishops of Rome and Byzantium was a severe blow to him, and
+he laboured hard to restore the former amicable relationship. At that
+period it was impossible to suspect that the schism implied a definite
+separation, for prolonged schisms had existed in past centuries, but had
+always been surmounted in the end. Both sides, moreover, had an
+interest in repairing the breach between the churches. Thus,
+immediately on his accession to the pontificate, Gregory sought to come
+into touch with the emperor Michael VII. and succeeded. When the news of
+the Saracenic outrages on the Christians in the East filtered to Rome,
+and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he
+conceived the project of a great military expedition and exhorted the
+faithful to participation in the task of recovering the sepulchre of the
+Lord (1074). Thus the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land already floated
+before Gregory's vision, and his intention was to place himself at the
+head. But the hour for such a gigantic enterprise was not yet come, and
+the impending struggle with Henry IV. turned his energies into another
+channel.
+
+In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform,
+Gregory did not stand alone, but on the contrary found powerful support.
+Since the middle of the 11th century the tendency--mainly represented by
+Cluny--towards a stricter morality and a more earnest attitude to life,
+especially on the part of the clergy, had converted the papacy; and,
+from Leo IX. onward, the popes had taken the lead in the movement. Even
+before his election, Gregory had gained the confidence of these circles,
+and, when he assumed the guidance of the church, they laboured for him
+with extreme devotion. From his letters we see how he fostered his
+connexion with them and stimulated their zeal, how he strove to awake
+the consciousness that his cause was the cause of God and that to
+further it was to render service to God. By this means he created a
+personal party, unconditionally attached to himself, and he had his
+confidants in every country. In Italy Bishop Anselm of Lucca, to take an
+example, belonged to their number. Again, the duchess Beatrice of
+Tuscany and her daughter the Margravine Matilda, who put her great
+wealth at his disposal, were of inestimable service. The empress Agnes
+also adhered to his cause. In upper Italy the Patarenes had worked for
+him in many ways, and all who stood for their objects stood for the
+pope. In Germany at the beginning of his reign the higher ranks of the
+clergy stood aloof from him and were confirmed in their attitude by some
+of his regulations. But Bishop Altmann of Passau, who has already been
+mentioned, and Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg, were among his most
+zealous followers. That the convent of Hirschau in Swabia was held by
+Gregory was a fact of much significance, for its monks spread over the
+land as itinerant agitators and accomplished much for him in southern
+Germany. In England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury probably stood
+closest to him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugo of Dié, who
+afterwards ascended the archiepiscopal chair of Lyons.
+
+The whole life-work of Gregory VII. was based on his conviction that the
+church has been founded by God and entrusted with the task of embracing
+all mankind in a single society in which His will is the only law; that,
+in her capacity as a divine institution, she outtops all human
+structures; and that the pope, _qua_ head of the church, is the
+vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies
+disobedience to God--or, in other words, a defection from Christianity.
+Elaborating an idea discoverable in St Augustine, he looked on the
+worldly state--a purely human creation--as an unhallowed edifice whose
+character is sufficiently manifest from the fact that it abolishes the
+equality of man, and that it is built up by violence and injustice. He
+developed these views in a famous series of letters to Bishop Hermann of
+Metz. But it is clear from the outset that we are only dealing with
+reflections of strictly theoretical importance; for any attempt to
+interpret them in terms of action would have bound the church to
+annihilate not merely a single definite state, but all states. Thus
+Gregory, as a politician desirous of achieving some result, was driven
+in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the
+existence of the state as a dispensation of Providence, described the
+coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized
+the necessity of union between the _sacerdotium_ and the _imperium_. But
+at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an
+equality; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which
+admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted. Again, this
+very superiority of the church implied in his eyes a superiority of the
+papacy, and he did not shrink from drawing the extreme conclusions from
+these premises. In other words, he claimed the right of excommunicating
+and deposing incapable monarchs, and of confirming the choice of their
+successors. This habit of thought needs to be appreciated in order to
+understand his efforts to bring individual states into feudal subjection
+to the chair of St Peter. It was no mere question of formality, but the
+first step to the realization of his ideal theocracy comprising each and
+every state.
+
+Since this papal conception of the state involved the exclusion of
+independence and autonomy, the history of the relationship between
+church and state is the history of one continued struggle. In the time
+of Gregory it was the question of appointment to spiritual offices--the
+so-called _investiture_--which brought the theoretical controversy to a
+head. The preparatory steps had already been taken by Leo IX., and the
+subsequent popes had advanced still further on the path he indicated;
+but it was reserved for Gregory and his enactments to provoke the
+outbreak of the great conflict which dominated the following decades. By
+the first law (1075) the right of investiture for churches was in
+general terms denied to the laity. In 1078 neglect of this prohibition
+was made punishable by excommunication, and, by a further decree of the
+same year, every investiture conferred by a layman was declared invalid
+and its acceptance pronounced liable to penalty. It was, moreover,
+enacted that every layman should restore, under pain of excommunication,
+all lands of the church, held by him as fiefs from princes or clerics;
+and that, henceforward, the assent of the pope, the archbishop, &c., was
+requisite for any investiture of ecclesiastical property. Finally in
+1080 the forms regulating the canonical appointment to a bishopric were
+promulgated. In case of a vacancy the election was to be conducted by
+the people and clergy under the auspices of a bishop nominated by the
+pope or metropolitan; after which the consent of the pope or archbishop
+was to be procured; if any violation of these injunctions occurred, the
+election should be null and void and the right of choice pass to the
+pope or metropolitan. In so legislating, Gregory had two objects: in the
+first place, to withdraw the appointment to episcopal offices from the
+influence of the king; in the second, to replace that influence by his
+own. The intention was not to increase the power of the metropolitan: he
+simply desired that the nomination of bishops by the pope should be
+substituted for the prevalent nomination of bishops by the king. But in
+this course of action Gregory had a still more ambitious goal before his
+eyes. If he could once succeed in abolishing the lay investiture the
+king would, _ipso facto_, be deprived of his control over the great
+possessions assigned to the church by himself and his predecessors, and
+he could have no security that the duties and services attached to those
+possessions would continue to be discharged for the benefit of the
+Empire. The bishops in fact were to retain their position as princes of
+the Empire, with all the lands and rights of supremacy pertaining to
+them in that capacity, but the bond between them and the Empire was to
+be dissolved: they were to owe allegiance not to the king, but to the
+pope--a non-German sovereign who, in consequence of the Italian policy
+of the German monarchy, found himself in perpetual opposition to
+Germany. Thus, by his ecclesiastical legislation, Gregory attempted to
+shake the very foundations on which the constitution of the German
+empire rested, while completely ignoring the historical development of
+that constitution (see INVESTITURE).
+
+That energy which Gregory threw into the expansion of the papal
+authority, and which brought him into collision with the secular powers,
+was manifested no less in the internal government of the church. He
+wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals
+were to be addressed to himself, and he arrogated the right of
+legislation. The fact that his laws were usually promulgated by Roman
+synods which he convened during Lent does not imply that these possessed
+an independent position; on the contrary, they were entirely dominated
+by his influence, and were no more than the instruments of his will.
+The centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally
+involved a curtailment of the powers of the bishops and metropolitans.
+Since these in part refused to submit voluntarily and attempted to
+assert their traditional independence, the pontificate of Gregory is
+crowded with struggles against the higher ranks of the prelacy. Among
+the methods he employed to break their power of resistance, the despatch
+of legates proved peculiarly effective. The regulation, again, that the
+metropolitans should apply at Rome in person for the pallium--pronounced
+essential to their qualifications for office--served to school them in
+humility.
+
+This battle for the foundation of papal omnipotence within the church is
+connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy
+and his attack on simony. Gregory VII. did not introduce the celibacy of
+the priesthood into the church, for even in antiquity it was enjoined by
+numerous laws. He was not even the first pope to renew the injunction in
+the 11th century, for legislation on the question begins as early as in
+the reign of Leo IX. But he took up the struggle with greater energy and
+persistence than his predecessors. In 1074 he published an encyclical,
+requiring all to renounce their obedience to those bishops who showed
+indulgence to their clergy in the matter of celibacy. In the following
+year he commanded the laity to accept no official ministrations from
+married priests and to rise against all such. He further deprived these
+clerics of their revenues. Wherever these enactments were proclaimed
+they encountered tenacious opposition, and violent scenes were not
+infrequent, as the custom of marriage was widely diffused throughout the
+contemporary priesthood. Other decrees were issued by Gregory in
+subsequent years, but were now couched in milder terms, since it was no
+part of his interest to increase the numbers of the German faction. As
+to the objectionable nature of simony--the transference or acquisition
+of a spiritual office for monetary considerations--no doubt could exist
+in the mind of an earnest Christian, and no theoretical justification
+was ever attempted. The practice, however, had attained great dimensions
+both among the clergy and the laity, and the sharp campaign, which had
+been waged since the days of Leo IX., had done little to limit its
+scope. The reason was that in many cases it had assumed an extremely
+subtle form, and detection was difficult when the simony took the
+character of a tax or an honorarium. The fact, again, that lay
+investiture was described as simony, inevitably brought with it an
+element of confusion, and, in the case of a charge of simoniacal
+practices, enormously accentuates the difficulty of determining the
+actual state of affairs. The war against simony in its original form was
+undoubtedly necessary, but it led to highly complicated and problematic
+issues. Was the priest or bishop, whose ordination was due to simony,
+actually in the possession of the sacerdotal or episcopal power or not?
+If the answer was in the affirmative, it would seem possible to buy the
+Holy Ghost; if in the negative, then obviously all the official acts of
+the respective priest or bishop--which, according to the doctrine of the
+church, presupposed the possession of a spiritual quality--were invalid.
+And, since the number of simoniacal bishops was at that period extremely
+large, incalculable consequences resulted. The difficulty of the problem
+accounts for the diversity of solutions propounded. The perplexity of
+the situation was aggravated by the fact that, if the stricter view was
+adopted, it followed that the sacrament of ordination must be pronounced
+invalid, even in the cases where it had been unconsciously sought at the
+hands of a simoniac, for the dispenser was in point of fact no bishop,
+although he exercised the episcopal functions and his transgressions
+were unknown, and consequently it was impossible for him to ordain
+others. In the time of Gregory the conflict was still swaying to and
+fro, and he himself in 1078 declared consecration by a simoniac null and
+void.
+
+The pontificate of Gregory VII. came to a melancholy close, for he died
+an exile in Salerno; the Romans and a number of his most trusted
+coadjutors had renounced him, and the faithful band in Germany had
+shrunk to scant proportions. Too much the politician, too rough in his
+methods, too exclusively the representative of the Roman see and its
+interests, he had gained more enemies than friends. He was of course a
+master of statecraft; he had pursued political ends with consummate
+skill, causing them to masquerade as requirements of religion; but he
+forgot that incitement to civil war, the preaching of rebellion, and the
+release of subjects from their oaths, were methods which must infallibly
+lead to moral anarchy, and tend, with justice, to stifle the confidence
+once felt in him. The more he accustomed his contemporaries to the
+belief that any and every measure--so long as it opened up some prospect
+of success--was good in his sight, no matter how dangerous the fruits it
+might mature, the fainter grew their perception of the fact that he was
+not only a statesman but primarily the head of the Christian Church.
+That the frail bonds of piety and religious veneration for the chair of
+St Peter had given way in the struggle for power was obvious to all,
+when he himself lost that power and the star of his opponent was in the
+ascendant. He had given the rein to his splendid gifts as a ruler, and
+in his capacity of pope he omitted to provide an equivalent
+counterpoise. We are told that he was once an impressive preacher, and
+he could write to his faithful countesses in terms which prove that he
+was not wanting in religious feeling; but in the whirlpool of secular
+politics this phase of his character was never sufficiently developed to
+allow the vice-gerent of Christ to be heard instead of the hierarch in
+his official acts.
+
+But to estimate the pontificate of Gregory by the disasters of its
+closing years would be to misconceive its significance for the history
+of the papacy entirely. On the contrary, his reign forms an important
+chapter in the history of the popedom as an institution; it contains the
+germs of far-reaching modifications of the church, and it gave new
+impulses to both theory and practice, the value of which may indeed be
+differently estimated, but of which the effects are indubitable. It was
+he who conceived and formulated the ideal of the papacy as a structure
+embracing all peoples and lands. He took the first step towards the
+codification of ecclesiastical law and the definite ratification of the
+claims of the apostolic chair as corner-stones in the church's
+foundation. He educated the clergy and the lay world in obedience to
+Rome; and, finally, it was due to his efforts that the duty of the
+priest with regard to sexual abstinence was never afterwards a matter of
+doubt in the Catholic Christianity of the West.
+
+On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes of his last
+years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. _Dilexi justitiam et odivi
+iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio_--are said to have been his last
+words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him into the _Martyrologium
+Romanum_; in 1606 he was canonized by Paul V. The words dedicated to him
+in the _Breviarium Romanum_, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of
+his pontificate that in the 18th and 19th centuries they were prohibited
+by the governments of several countries with Roman Catholic populations.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A comprehensive survey of the sources and literature
+  for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.v. "Gregor
+  VII." in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, 3rd ed. vol. vii. pp. 96
+  sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of his letters
+  and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the
+  _Registrum_ (ed. P. Jaffé, _Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum_, ii.,
+  Berlin, 1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official
+  collection are also reprinted by Jaffé under the title of _Epistolae
+  collectae_. The _Dictatus Papae_--a list of twenty-seven short
+  sentences on the rights of the pope,--which is given in the
+  _Registrum_, is not the work of Gregory VII., but should probably be
+  ascribed to Cardinal Deusdedit. Further: A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca
+  historica medii aevi_, i. (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii.
+  1351; P. Jaffé, _Regesta pontificum_ (2nd ed., 1865), tome i. pp.
+  594-649, Nr. 4771-5313, tome ii. p. 751. The most important letters
+  and decrees of Gregory VII. are reprinted by C. Mirbt, _Quellen zur
+  Geschichte des Papsttums_ (2nd ed., Tübingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp.
+  100 sqq. The oldest life of Gregory is that by Paul von Bermried,
+  reprinted, e.g. by Watterich, _Vitae pontificum_, i. 474-546. Among
+  the historians the following are of especial importance: Berthold,
+  Bernold, Lambert von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia,
+  Peter of Marte Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny,
+  Arnulph and Landulf of Milan, Donizo--their works being reprinted in
+  the section "Scriptores" in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, vols.
+  v., vi., vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory
+  VII. and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise
+  to a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their
+  internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent, and
+  display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view.
+  Most of them are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, under the
+  title, _Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI. et XII.
+  conscripti_, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome iii.
+  (1897). The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received
+  enormous benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the
+  _Monumenta Germaniae_, so that the old literature is for the most part
+  antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope--A.
+  F. Gfrörer, _Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter_ (7 vols.,
+  Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution. The
+  present state of criticism is represented by the following works: G.
+  Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV.
+  und Heinrich V._, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1894), iii. (1900),
+  iv. (1903); W. Martens, _Gregor VII., sein Leben und Werken_ (2 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1904); C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII._
+  (Leipzig, 1894); A. Hauck, _Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands_ (3 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during the
+  Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here.
+  On Gregory's elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, _Die Wahl Gregors
+  VII._ (Marburg, 1892). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., _Life and Times of
+  Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII._ (1910).     (C. M.)
+
+GREGORY VIII. (_Mauritius Burdinus_), antipope from 1118 to 1121, was a
+native of southern France, who had crossed the Pyrenees while young and
+had later been made archbishop of Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in
+1114 on account of a dispute with the Spanish primate and papal legate,
+the archbishop of Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an
+extent that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He
+opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal of
+Gelasius II. to concede the emperor's claim to investiture, he was
+proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V. on the 8th of March 1118. He was not
+universally recognized, however, and never fully enjoyed the papal
+office. He was excommunicated by Gelasius II. in April 1118, and by
+Calixtus II. at the synod of Reims (October 1119). He was driven from
+Rome by the latter in June 1121, and, having been surrendered by the
+citizens of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the
+triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled to the
+convent of La Cava, where he died.
+
+  The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in _Baluzii miscellanea_, vol.
+  i, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of an
+  antipope. The chief sources are in _Monumenta Germaniae historica_,
+  _Scriptores_, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman.
+  vitae_, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors
+  VII._ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von
+  Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé, _Regesta pontif.
+  Roman._, 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele,
+  _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the
+  Middle Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
+  1900-1902); P. B. Gams, _Kirchengeschichte von Spanien_, vol. 3
+  (Regensburg, 1876).
+
+GREGORY VIII. (_Alberto de Mora_), pope from the 21st of October to the
+17th of December 1187, a native of Benevento and Praemonstratensian
+monk, successively abbot of St Martin at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San'
+Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and
+chancellor of the Roman Church, was elected to succeed Urban III. Of
+amiable disposition, he hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and
+promised not to oppose the latter's claim to Sicily. He addressed
+general letters both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to
+the Roman Church, especially of their required visits _ad limina_, and
+to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to recover
+Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making peace between the
+Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the help of both cities in the
+crusade. His successor was Clement III.
+
+  His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 202. Consult also
+  J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and
+  Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (1885-1888). See J. Langen,
+  _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._
+  (Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, _Gregors VIII. 57 tägiges Pontifikat_ (Basel,
+  1890); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, _Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit der
+  Kurie_ (Berlin, 1866); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol.
+  4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896).
+
+GREGORY IX. (_Ugolino Conti de Segni_), pope from the 19th of March
+1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of Anagni and probably
+a nephew of Innocent III. He studied at Paris and Bologna, and, having
+been successively archpriest of St Peter's, papal chaplain,
+cardinal-deacon of Sant' Eustachio, cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first
+protector of the Franciscan order, and papal legate in Germany under
+Innocent III., and Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy.
+He had long been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but
+now excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued neglect of
+his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When Frederick finally
+set out the following June without making submission to the pope,
+Gregory raised an insurrection against him in Germany, and forced him in
+1230 to beg for absolution. The Romans, however, soon began a very
+bitter war against the temporal power and exiled the pope (1st of June
+1231). Hardly had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the
+papacy (May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick
+II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his subjects from
+their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick, on his side, invaded
+the Papal States and prevented the assembling of a general council
+convoked for Easter 1241. The work of Gregory, however, was by no means
+limited to his relations with emperor and Romans. He systematized the
+Inquisition and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against
+heretics remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported
+Henry III. against the English barons, and protested against the
+Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent monks to
+Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church unity, but
+without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of Thuringia, Dominic,
+Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi. He permitted free study of the
+Aristotelian writings, and issued (1234), through his chaplain, Raymond
+of Pennaforte, an important new compilation of decretals which he
+prescribed in the bull _Rex pacificus_ should be the standard text-book
+in canon law at the universities of Bologna and Paris. Gregory was famed
+for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his great
+strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August 1241, while
+Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was succeeded by Celestine
+IV.
+
+  For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters in _Monumenta
+  Germaniae historica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Roman.
+  selectae_ (Berlin, 1883); "Les Registres de Grégoire IX," ed. L.
+  Auvray in _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome_
+  (Paris, 1890-1905); A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (Berlin,
+  1875) and "Registri dei Cardinali Ugolino d' Ostia et Ottaviano degli
+  Ubaldini," ed. G. Levi in _Fonti per la storia d' Italia_ (1890). See
+  J. Felten, _Papst Gregor IX._ (Freiburg i. B., 1886); J. Marx, _Die
+  Vita Gregorii IX. quellenkritisch untersucht_ (1889); P. Balan,
+  _Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi_ (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873);
+  F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W.
+  Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol.
+  5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, _Rapporti tra Federico II e Gregorio IX
+  rispetto alla spedizione in Palestina_ (1896); P. T. Masetti, _I
+  Pontefici Onorio III, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a fronte dell'
+  Imperatore Federico II nel secolo XIII_ (1884); T. Frantz, _Der grosse
+  Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit des Hohenstaufen
+  Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum u. Byzanz_
+  (Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography and an excellent article on
+  Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_,
+  3rd edition.
+
+GREGORY X. (_Tebaldo Visconti_), pope from the 1st of September 1271, to
+the 10th of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208, studied for the
+church, and became archdeacon of Liége. The eighteen cardinals who met
+to elect a successor to Clement IV. were divided into French and Italian
+factions, which wrangled over the election for nearly three years in the
+midst of great popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the
+eloquence of St Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the
+choice to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying
+Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and was ordained
+priest on the 19th of March 1272, and consecrated on the 27th. He at
+once summoned the fourteenth general council of the Catholic Church,
+which met at Lyons in 1274, with an attendance of some 1600 prelates,
+for the purpose of considering the eastern schism, the condition of the
+Holy Land, and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded,
+thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for the time
+being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the council all imperial
+rights in the States of the Church. The most celebrated among the many
+reform decrees issued by Gregory was the constitution determining for
+the first time the form of conclave at papal elections, which in large
+measure has remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on
+his way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great crusade in
+company with the kings of England, France, Aragon and Sicily, when he
+died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276. He was a nobleman, fond of
+peace and actuated by the consciousness of a great mission. He has been
+honoured as a saint by the inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His
+successor in the papacy was Innocent V.
+
+  The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud in the
+  _Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome_ (Paris,
+  1892-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 5, 2nd
+  edition (1873-1890); H. Finke, _Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des 13ten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (Münster, 1891); P. Piacenza, _Compendia della storia
+  del b. Gregorio X, papa_ (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in
+  the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
+  1900-1902); H. Otto, _Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von Habsburgs zu Papst
+  Gregor X._ (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Zisterer, _Gregor X. u. Rudolf von
+  Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen_ (Freiburg i. B., 1891);
+  F. Walter, _Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X._ (Berlin, 1894); A.
+  Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); W. Norden,
+  _Das Papsttum und Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); J. Loserth, "Akten über die
+  Wahl Gregors X." in _Neues Archiv_, xxi. (1895); A. von
+  Hirsch-Gereuth, "Die Kreuzzugspolitik Gregors X." in _Studien z.
+  Gesch. d. Kreuzzugsidee nach den Kreuzzügen_ (Munich, 1896). There is
+  an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, 3rd
+  edition.
+
+GREGORY XI. (_Pierre Roger de Beaufort_), pope from the 30th of December
+1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin in 1330, created
+cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his uncle, Clement VI., was the
+successor of Urban V. His efforts to establish peace between France and
+England and to aid the Eastern Christians against the Turks were
+fruitless, but he prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further
+encroachments on the States of the Church. He introduced many reforms in
+the various monastic orders and took vigorous measures against the
+heresies of the time. His energy was stimulated by the stirring words of
+Catherine of Siena, to whom in particular the transference of the papal
+see back to Italy (17th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst
+at Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury, the
+king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding an
+investigation of Wycliffe's doctrines. Gregory was meditating a return
+to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French popes who for
+some seventy years had made Avignon their see, a man learned and full of
+zeal for the church, but irresolute and guilty of nepotism. The great
+schism, which was to endure fifty years, broke out soon after the
+election of his successor, Urban VI.
+
+  See H. J. Tomaseth, "Die Register u. Secretäre Urbans V. u. Gregors
+  XI." in _Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische
+  Geschichtsforschung_ (1898); Baluzius, _Vitae pap. Avenion._ vol. I
+  (Paris, 1693); L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. I, trans. by F.
+  I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_,
+  vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J. P.
+  Kirsch, _Die Rückkehr der Päpste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. von Avignon
+  nach Rom_ (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, _Histoire de la papauté
+  pendant le XIV^e siècle_, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good
+  article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd edition.
+
+GREGORY XII. (_Angelo Coriaro_, or _Correr_), pope from the 30th of
+November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a noble family at
+Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of Castello, Latin patriarch of
+Constantinople, cardinal-priest of San Marco, and papal secretary, he
+was elected to succeed Innocent VII., after an interregnum of
+twenty-four days, under the express condition that, should the antipope
+Benedict XIII. at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also
+would renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated. As
+pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by which a
+general council was to be held at Savona in September, 1408, but King
+Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from policy, seized Rome and
+brought the negotiations to nought. Gregory had promised not to create
+any more cardinals, and when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals
+deserted him and, together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the
+council of Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in June
+1409 the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V.
+Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by Rupert,
+king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus, and in a synod at
+Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and Alexander as schismatical,
+perjured and scandalous. John XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of
+Alexander in 1410, concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by which Gregory
+was banished from Naples on the 31st of October 1411. The pope then took
+refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through whom he presented
+his resignation to the council of Constance on the 4th of July 1415. A
+weak and easily-influenced old man, his resignation was the noblest act
+of his pontificate. The rest of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity
+as cardinal-bishop of Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at
+Recanati on the 18th of October 1417. Some writers reckon Alexander V.
+and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accordingly count
+Gregory's pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman Catholic authorities,
+however, incline to the other reckoning.
+
+  See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by F. I.
+  Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. 1
+  (London, 1899); N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme d'occident_
+  (Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, _Le Grand Schisme d'occident_ (Paris,
+  1898); J. von Haller, _Papsttum u. Kirchenreform_ (Berlin, 1903); J.
+  Loserth, _Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters_ (1903); _Theoderici de
+  Nyem de schismate libri tres_, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890). There
+  is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_ 2nd
+  ed., vol. 5.     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+GREGORY XIII. (_Ugo Buoncompagno_), pope from 1572 to 1585, was born on
+the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he received his education,
+and subsequently taught, until called to Rome (1539) by Paul III., who
+employed him in various offices. He bore a prominent part in the council
+of Trent, 1562-1563. In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in
+the following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the 13th of May 1572 he
+was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life had been rather
+worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but as pope he gave no occasion
+of offence. He submitted to the influence of the rigorists, and carried
+forward the war upon heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his
+predecessor. However, he received the news of the massacre of St
+Bartholomew (23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the
+event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists, that
+France had been miraculously delivered, and that the Huguenots had
+suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse Spain and Venice
+against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form a general coalition against
+the Protestants. He subsidized Philip II. in his wars in the
+Netherlands; aided the Catholic League in France; incited attacks upon
+Elizabeth by way of Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose
+privileges he multiplied, he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He
+established or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the
+Collegium Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the
+Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy achievements are the
+reform of the calendar on the 24th of February 1582 (see CALENDAR); the
+improved edition of the _Corpus juris canonici_, 1582; the splendid
+Gregorian Chapel in St Peter's; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the
+Quirinal Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses
+entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted to
+confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing
+arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace: nobles armed
+in their defence; old feuds revived; the country became infested with
+bandits; not even in Rome could order be maintained. Amid these
+disturbances Gregory died, on the 10th of April 1585, leaving to his
+successor, Sixtus V., the task of pacifying the state.
+
+  See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De
+  vitis pontiff. Rom._; Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum
+  pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1601-1602); and Ciappi, _Comp. dell' attioni e
+  santa vita di Gregorio XIII_ (Rome, 1591). See also Bompiano, _Hist.
+  pontificatus Gregorii XIII._ (Rome, 1655); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng.
+  trans., Austin), i. 428 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii.
+  2, 566 seq.; and for numerous references upon Gregory's relation to
+  the massacre of St Bartholomew, _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ iii. 771 seq.
+
+GREGORY XIV. (_Nicoló Sfondrato_), pope 1590-1591, was born in Cremona,
+on the 11th of February 1535, studied in Perugia, and Padua, became
+bishop of his native place in 1560, and took part in the council of
+Trent, 1562-1563. Gregory XIII. made him a cardinal, 1583, but
+ill-health forbade his active participation in affairs. His election to
+the papacy, to succeed Urban VII., on the 5th of December 1590, was due
+to Spanish influence. Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly
+ignorant of politics. During his short pontificate the States of the
+Church suffered dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak
+of brigandage. Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he
+aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and threatened his
+adherents with the ban; but the effect of his intervention was only to
+rally the moderate Catholics to the support of Henry, and to hasten his
+conversion. Gregory died on the 15th of October 1591, and was succeeded
+by Innocent IX.
+
+  See Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._ (Rome,
+  1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De vitis pontiff.
+  Rom._ (both contemporary); Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_ (1880).
+  i. 300; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq.
+
+GREGORY XV. (_Alessandro Ludovisi_) was born on the 9th of January 1554,
+in Bologna, where he also studied and taught. He was made archbishop of
+his native place and cardinal by Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on
+the 9th of February 1621. Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory
+displayed remarkable energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years'
+War, and the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims of
+Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was rewarded with
+the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was carried off to Rome.
+Gregory founded the Congregation of the Propaganda, encouraged missions,
+fixed the order to be observed in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius
+Loyola, Francis Xavier, Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the
+8th of July 1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII.
+
+  See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius,
+  _Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._; Ranke's excellent
+  account, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq.; v. Reumont,
+  _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 609 seq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des
+  Kirchenstaates_ (1880), i. 370 seq.; and the extended bibliography in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, s.v. "Gregor XV."     (T. F. C.)
+
+GREGORY XVI. (_Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari_), pope from 1831 to 1846,
+was born at Belluno on the 18th of September 1765, and at an early age
+entered the order of the Camaldoli, among whom he rapidly gained
+distinction for his theological and linguistic acquirements. His first
+appearance before a wider public was in 1799, when he published against
+the Italian Jansenists a controversial work entitled _Il Trionfo della
+Santa Sede_, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy,
+has been translated into several European languages. In 1800 he became a
+member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion, founded by Pius VII., to
+which he contributed a number of memoirs on theological and
+philosophical questions and in 1805 was made abbot of San Gregorio on
+the Caelian Hill. When Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809,
+Cappellari withdrew to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other
+members of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the
+restoration of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received
+successive appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of
+the Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops. In
+March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII., and shortly afterwards
+was entrusted with an important mission to adjust a concordat regarding
+the interests of the Catholics of Belgium and the Protestants of
+Holland. On the 2nd of February 1831 he was, after sixty-four days'
+conclave, unexpectedly chosen to succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair.
+The revolution of 1830 had just inflicted a severe blow on the
+ecclesiastical party in France, and almost the first act of the new
+government there was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and
+particularly the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to
+demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the struggle which
+ensued it was more than once necessary to call in the Austrian bayonets.
+The reactionaries in power put off their promised reforms so
+persistently as to anger even Metternich; nor did the replacement of
+Bernetti by Lambruschini in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal
+secretary of state objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and
+was liberal chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The
+embarrassed financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the
+Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in architectural
+and engineering works, and his magnificent patronage of learning in the
+hands of Mai, Mezzofanti, Gaetano, Moroni and others, were for the real
+benefit of his subjects. The years of his pontificate were marked by the
+steady development and diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were
+ultimately formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX.,
+by the council of the Vatican. He died on the 1st of June 1846.
+
+  See A. M. Bernasconi, _Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet
+  constitutiones, bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae_, vols. i-4
+  (Rome, 1901 ff.); Cardinal Wiseman, _Recollections of the Last Four
+  Popes_ (London, 1858); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, vol. vii.
+  (Leipzig, 1899), 127 ff. (gives literature); Frederik Nielsen,
+  _History of the Papacy in the 19th Century_, ii. (London, 1906).
+       (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY,[1] the name of a Scottish family, many members of which
+attained high eminence in various departments of science, fourteen
+having held professorships in mathematics or medicine. Of the most
+distinguished of their number a notice is given below.
+
+I. DAVID GREGORY (1627-1720), eldest son of the Rev. John Gregory of
+Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, who married Janet Anderson in 1621. He was for
+some time connected with a mercantile house in Holland, but on
+succeeding to the family estate of Kinardie returned to Scotland, and
+occupied most of his time in scientific pursuits, freely giving his
+poorer neighbours the benefit of his medical skill. He is said to have
+been the first possessor of a barometer in the north of Scotland; and on
+account of his success by means of it in predicting changes in the
+weather, he was accused of witchcraft before the presbytery of Aberdeen,
+but he succeeded in convincing that body of his innocence.
+
+II. JAMES GREGORY (1638-1675), Scottish mathematician, younger brother
+of the preceding, was educated at the grammar school of Aberdeen and at
+Marischal College of that city. At an early period he manifested a
+strong inclination and capacity for mathematics and kindred sciences;
+and in 1663 he published his famous treatise _Optica promota_, in which
+he made known his great invention, the Gregorian reflecting telescope.
+About 1665 he went to the university of Padua, where he studied for some
+years, and in 1667 published _Vera circuli et hyperbolae quadratura_, in
+which he discussed infinite convergent series for the areas of the
+circle and hyperbola. In the following year he published also at Padua
+_Geometriae pars universalis_, in which he gave a series of rules for
+the rectification of curves and the mensuration of their solids of
+revolution. On his return to England in this year he was elected a
+fellow of the Royal Society; in 1669 he became professor of mathematics
+in the university of St Andrews; and in 1674 he was transferred to the
+chair of mathematics in Edinburgh. In October 1675, while showing the
+satellites of the planet Jupiter to some of his students through one of
+his telescopes, he was suddenly struck with blindness, and he died a few
+days afterwards.
+
+  He was also the author of _Exercitationes geometricae_ (1668), and, it
+  is alleged, of a satirical tract entitled _The Great and New Art of
+  Weighing Vanity_, intended to ridicule certain fallacies of a
+  contemporary writer on hydraulics, and published at Glasgow in 1672,
+  professedly by "Patrick Mathers, archbeadle of the university of St
+  Andrews."
+
+III. DAVID GREGORY (1661-1708), son of David Gregory (1627-1720), was
+born in Aberdeen and educated partly in his native city and partly in
+Edinburgh, where he became professor of mathematics in 1683. From 1691
+till his death he was Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. His
+principal works are _Exercitatio geometrica de dimensione figurarum_
+(1684), _Catoptricae et dioptricae sphaericae elementa_ (1695), and
+_Astronomiae physicae et geometricae elementa_ (1702)--the last a work
+highly esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton, of whose system it is an
+illustration and a defence. _A Treatise on Practical Geometry_ which he
+left in manuscript was translated from the Latin and published in 1745.
+He was succeeded in the chair of mathematics in Edinburgh by bis brother
+James; another brother, Charles, was in 1707 appointed professor of
+mathematics in the university of St Andrews; and his eldest son, David
+(1696-1767), became professor of modern history at Oxford, and canon and
+subsequently dean of Christ Church.
+
+IV. JOHN GREGORY (1724-1773), Scottish physician, grandson of James
+Gregory (1638-1675) and youngest son of Dr James Gregory (d. 1731),
+professor of medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, was born at Aberdeen
+on the 3rd of June 1724. He received his early education at the grammar
+school of Aberdeen and at King's College in that city, and in 1741 he
+attended the medical classes at Edinburgh university. In 1745 he went to
+Leiden to complete his medical studies, and during his stay there he
+received without solicitation the degree of doctor of medicine from
+King's College, Aberdeen. On his return from Holland he was elected
+professor of philosophy at King's College, but in 1749 he resigned his
+professorship on account of its duties interfering too much with his
+private practice. In 1754 he proceeded to London, where he made the
+acquaintance of many persons of distinction, and the same year was
+chosen fellow of the Royal Society. On the death in November 1755 of his
+brother Dr James Gregory, who had succeeded his father as professor of
+medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, he was appointed to that office.
+In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh in the hope of obtaining a more extended
+field of practice as a physician, and in 1766 he was appointed professor
+of the practice of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, to whose
+eminence as a medical school he largely contributed. He died of gout on
+the 10th of February 1773.
+
+  He is the author of _A Comparative View of the State and Faculties of
+  Man with those of the Animal World_ (1765); _Observations on the
+  Duties, Offices and Qualifications of a Physician_ (1772); _Elements
+  of the Practice of Physic_ (1772); and _A Father's Legacy to his
+  Daughters_ (1774). _His Whole Works_, with a life by Mr Tytler
+  (afterwards Lord Woodhouselee), were published at Edinburgh in 1788.
+
+V. JAMES GREGORY (1753-1821), Scottish physician, eldest son of the
+preceding, was born at Aberdeen in January 1753. He accompanied his
+father to Edinburgh in 1764, and after going through the usual course of
+literary studies at that university, he was for a short time a student
+at Christchurch, Oxford. It was there probably that he acquired that
+taste for classical learning which afterwards distinguished him. He
+studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, after graduating doctor of medicine
+in 1774, spent the greater part of the next two years in Holland, France
+and Italy. Shortly after his return to Scotland he was appointed in 1776
+to the chair his father had formerly held, and in the following year he
+also entered on the duties of teacher of clinical medicine in the Royal
+Infirmary. On the illness of Dr William Cullen in 1790 he was appointed
+joint-professor of the practice of medicine, and he became the head of
+the Edinburgh Medical School on the death of Dr Cullen in the same year.
+He died on the 2nd of April 1821. As a medical practitioner Gregory was
+for the last ten years of his life at the head of the profession in
+Scotland. He was at one time president of the Edinburgh College of
+Physicians, but his indiscretion in publishing certain private
+proceedings of the college led to his suspension on the 13th of May 1809
+from all rights and privileges which pertained to the fellowship.
+
+  Besides his _Conspectus medicinae theoreticae_, published in 1788 as a
+  text-book for his lectures on the institutes, Dr Gregory was the
+  author of "A Theory of the Moods of Verbs," published in the _Edin.
+  Phil. Trans._ (1787), and of _Literary and Philosophical Essays_,
+  published in two volumes in 1792.
+
+VI. WILLIAM GREGORY (1803-1858), son of James Gregory (1753-1821), was
+born on the 25th of December 1803. In 1837 he became professor of
+chemistry at the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow, in 1839 at King's
+College, Aberdeen, and in 1844 at Edinburgh University. He died on the
+24th of April 1858. Gregory was one of the first in England to advocate
+the theories of Justus von Liebig, and translated several of his works.
+He is also the author of _Outlines of Chemistry_ (1845), and an
+_Elementary Treatise on Chemistry_ (1853).
+
+VII. DUNCAN FARQUHARSON GREGORY (1813-1844), brother of the preceding,
+was born on the 13th of April 1813. After studying at the university of
+Edinburgh he in 1833 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was
+for a time assistant professor of chemistry, but he devoted his
+attention chiefly to mathematics. He died on the 23rd of February 1844.
+
+  The _Cambridge Mathematical Journal_ was originated, and for some time
+  edited, by him; and he also published a _Collection of Examples of
+  Processes in the Differential and Integral Calculus_ (1841). A
+  _Treatise on the Application of Analysis to Solid Geometry_, which he
+  left unfinished, was completed by W. Walton, and published
+  posthumously in 1846. His _Mathematical Writings_, edited by W.
+  Walton, with a biographical memoir by Robert Leslie Ellis, appeared in
+  1865.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See A. G. Stewart, _The Academic Gregories_.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-1909), British painter, born at Southampton,
+began work at the age of fifteen in the engineer's drawing office of the
+Peninsular and Oriental Company. Afterwards he studied at South
+Kensington, and about 1871 entered on a successful career as an
+illustrator and as an admirable painter in oil and water colour. He was
+elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1883, academician in 1898, and
+president of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1898.
+His work is distinguished by remarkable technical qualities, by
+exceptional firmness and decision of draughtsmanship and by unusual
+certainty of handling. His "Marooned," a water colour, is in the
+National Gallery of British Art. Many of his pictures were shown at
+Burlington House at the winter exhibition of 1909-1910 after his death
+in June 1909.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774-1841), English mathematician, was born
+on the 29th of January 1774 at Yaxley in Huntingdonshire. Having been
+educated by Richard Weston, a Leicester botanist, he published in 1793 a
+treatise, Lessons _Astronomical and Philosophical_. Having settled at
+Cambridge in 1796, Gregory first acted as sub-editor on the _Cambridge
+Intelligencer_, and then opened a bookseller's shop. In 1802 he obtained
+an appointment as mathematical master at Woolwich through the influence
+of Charles Hutton, to whose notice he had been brought by a manuscript
+on the "Use of the Sliding Rule"; and when Hutton resigned in 1807
+Gregory succeeded him in the professorship. Failing health obliged him
+to retire in 1838, and he died at Woolwich on the 2nd of February 1841.
+
+  Gregory wrote _Hints for the Use of Teachers of Elementary
+  Mathematics_ (1840, new edition 1853), and _Mathematics for Practical
+  Men_ (1825), which was revised and enlarged by Henry Law in 1848, and
+  again by J. R. Young in 1862. His _Letters on the Evidences of
+  Christianity_ (1815) have been several times reprinted, and an
+  abridgment was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1853. He
+  will probably be longest remembered for his _Biography of Robert
+  Hall_, which first appeared in the collected edition of Hall's works,
+  was published separately in 1833, and has since passed through several
+  editions. The minor importance of his _Memoir of John Mason Good_
+  (1828) is due to the narrower fame of the subject. Gregory was one of
+  the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1802 he was
+  appointed editor of the _Gentlemen's Diary_, and in 1818 editor of the
+  _Ladies' Diary_ and superintendent of the almanacs of the Stationers'
+  Company.
+
+
+
+
+GREIFENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania,
+on the Rega, 45 m. N.E. of Stettin on the railway to Kolberg. Pop.
+(1905) 7208. It has two Evangelical churches (among them that of St
+Mary, dating from 13th century), two ancient gateways, a powder tower
+and a gymnasium. The manufacture of machines, stoves and bricks are the
+principal industries. Greifenberg possessed municipal rights as early as
+1262, and in the 14th and 15th centuries had a considerable shipping
+trade, but it lost much of its prosperity during the Thirty Years' War.
+
+  See Riemann, _Geschichte der Stadt Greifenberg_ (1862).
+
+
+
+
+GREIFENHAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania,
+on the Reglitz, 12 m. S.S.W. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1905) 6473. Its
+prosperity depends chiefly on agriculture and it has a considerable
+trade in cattle. There are also felt manufactures and saw mills.
+Greifenhagen was built in 1230, and was raised to the rank of a town and
+fortified about 1250. In the Thirty Years' War it was taken both by the
+imperialists and the Swedes, and in 1675 it was captured by the
+Brandenburgers, into whose possession it came finally in 1679.
+
+
+
+
+GREIFSWALD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on
+the navigable Ryk, 3 m. from its mouth on the Baltic at the little port
+of Wyk, and 20 m. S.E. from Stralsund by rail. Pop. (1875) 18,022,
+(1905) 23,750. It has wide and regular streets, flanked by numerous
+gabled houses, and is surrounded by pleasant promenades on the site of
+its old ramparts. The three Gothic Protestant churches, the
+Marienkirche, the Nikolaikirche and the Jakobikirche, and the town-hall
+(Rathaus) are the principal edifices, and these with their lofty spires
+are very picturesque. There is a statue of the emperor Frederick III.
+and a war memorial in the town. The industries mainly consist in
+shipbuilding, fish-curing, and the manufacture of machinery
+(particularly for agriculture), and the commerce in the export of corn,
+wood and fish. There is a theatre, an orphanage and a municipal library.
+Greifswald is, however, best known to fame by reason of its university.
+This, founded in 1456, is well endowed and is largely frequented by
+students of medicine. Connected with it are a library of 150,000 volumes
+and 800 MSS., a chemical laboratory, a zoological museum, a
+gynaecological institute, an ophthalmological school, a botanical garden
+and at Eldena (a seaside resort on the Baltic) an agricultural school.
+In front of the university, which had 775 students and about 100
+teachers in 1904, stands a monument commemorating its four hundredth
+anniversary.
+
+Greifswald was founded about 1240 by traders from the Netherlands. In
+1250 it received a town constitution and Lübeck rights from Duke
+Wratislaw of Pomerania. In 1270 it joined the Hanse towns, Stralsund,
+Rostock, Wismar and Lübeck, and took part in the wars which they carried
+on against the kings of Denmark and Norway. During the Thirty Years' War
+it was formed into a fortress by the imperialists, but they vacated it
+in 1631 to the Swedes, in whose possession it remained after the peace
+of Westphalia. In 1678 it was captured by the elector of Brandenburg,
+but was restored to the Swedes in the following year; in 1713 it was
+desolated by the Russians; in 1715 it came into the possession of
+Denmark; and in 1721 it was again restored to Sweden, under whose
+protection it remained till 1815, when, along with the whole of Swedish
+Pomerania, it came into the possession of Prussia.
+
+  See J. G. L. Kosegarten, _Geschichte der Universität Greifswald_
+  (1856); C. Gesterding, _Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald_
+  (3 vols., 1827-1829); and I. Ziegler, _Geschichte der Stadt
+  Greifswald_ (Greifswald, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GREISEN (in French, _hyalomicte_), a modification of granite, consisting
+essentially of quartz and white mica, and distinguished from granite by
+the absence of felspar and biotite. In the hand specimen the rock has a
+silvery glittering appearance from the abundance of lamellar crystals of
+muscovite, but many greisens have much of the appearance of granite,
+except that they are paler in colour. The commonest accessory minerals
+are tourmaline, topaz, apatite, fluorspar and iron oxides; a little
+felspar more or less altered may also be present and a brown mica which
+is biotite or lithionite. The tourmaline in section is brown, green,
+blue or colourless, and often the same crystal shows many different
+tints. The white mica forms mostly large plates with imperfect
+crystalline outlines. The quartz is rich in fluid enclosures. Apatite
+and topaz are both colourless and of irregular form. Felspar if present
+may be orthoclase and oligoclase.
+
+Greisen occurs typically in belts or veins intersecting granite. At the
+centre of each vein there is usually a fissure which may be open or
+filled with quartz. The greisen bands are from 1 in. up to 2 ft. or more
+in thickness. At their outer edges they pass gradually into the granite,
+for they contain felspar crystals more or less completely altered into
+aggregates of white mica and quartz. The transition between the two
+rocks is perfectly gradual, a fact which shows that the greisen has been
+produced by alteration of the granite. Vapours or fluids rising through
+the fissure have been the agents which effected the transmutation. They
+must have contained fluorine, boron and probably also lithium, for
+topaz, mica and tourmaline, the new minerals of the granite, contain
+these elements. The change is a post-volcanic or pneumatolytic one
+induced by the vapours set free by the granite magma when it cools.
+Probably the rock was at a relatively high temperature at the time. A
+similar type of alteration, the development of white mica, quartz and
+tourmaline, is found sometimes in sedimentary rocks around granite
+masses. Greisen is closely connected with schorl rock both in its
+mineralogical composition and in its mode of origin. The latter is a
+pneumatolytic product consisting of quartz and tourmaline; it often
+contains white mica and thus passes by all stages into greisen. Both of
+these rocks carry frequently small percentages of tin oxide
+(cassiterite) and may be worked as ores of tin. They are common in
+Cornwall, Saxony, Tasmania and other districts which are centres of
+tin-mining. Many other greisens occur in which no tin is found. The
+analyses show the composition of Cornish granite and greisen. They make
+it clear that there has been an introduction of fluorine and boron and a
+diminution in the alkalies during the transformation of the granitic
+rock into the greisen.
+
+  +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+
+  |         | SiO2. | Al2O3.|Fe2O3.| FeO. | CaO. | MgO. | K2O. | Na2O.| Fl.  |B2O3.|
+  +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+
+  | Granite | 70.17 | 15.07 |  .88 | 1.79 | 1.13 | 1.11 | 5.73 | 2.69 |  .15 | tr. |
+  | Greisen | 69.42 | 15.65 | 1.25 | 3.30 |  .63 | 1.02 | 4.06 |  .27 | 3.36 | .59 |
+  +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+
+
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GREIZ, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-Greiz
+(Reuss the Elder), in a pleasant valley on the right bank of the White
+Elster, near the borders of Saxony, and 66 m. by rail S. from Leipzig.
+Pop. (1875) 12,657; (1905) 23,114. It consists of two parts, the old
+town on the right bank and the new town on the left bank of the river;
+it is rapidly growing and is regularly laid out. The principal buildings
+are the palace of the prince of Reuss-Greiz, surrounded by a fine park,
+the old château on a rocky hill overlooking the town, the summer palace
+with a fine garden, the old town church dating from 1225 and possessing
+a beautiful tower, the town hall, the governmental buildings and statues
+of the emperor William I. and of Bismarck. There are classical and
+modern schools and a school of textile industry. The industries are
+considerable, and include dyeing, tanning and the manufacture of
+woollen, cotton, shawls, coverlets and paper. Greiz (formerly _Grewcz_)
+is apparently a town of Slav origin. From the 12th century it was
+governed by _advocati_ (_Vögte_), but in 1236 it came into the
+possession of Gera, and in 1550 of the younger line of the house of
+Plauen. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1494, and almost totally in
+1802.
+
+  See Wilke, _Greiz und seine Umgebung_ (1875), and _Jahresberichte des
+  Vereins für Greizer Geschichte_ (1894, seq.)
+
+
+
+
+GRENADA, the southernmost of the Windward Islands, British West Indies.
+It lies between 11º 58' and 12º 15' N. and between 61º 35' and 61º 50'
+W., being 140 m. S.W. of Barbados and 85 m. N. by W. of Trinidad. In
+shape oval, it is 21 m. long, 12 m. broad at its maximum and has an area
+of 133 sq. m. It owes much of its beauty to a well-wooded range of
+mountains traversing the island from N. to S. and throwing off from the
+centre spurs which form picturesque and fertile valleys. These mountains
+attain their highest elevation in Mount Catharine (2750 ft.). In the
+S.E. and N.W. there are stretches of low or undulating ground, devoted
+to fruit growing and cattle raising. The island is of volcanic origin;
+the only signs of upheaval are raised limestone beaches in the extreme
+N. Red and grey sandstones, hornblende and argillaceous schist are found
+in the mountains, porphyry and basaltic rocks also occur; sulphur and
+fuller's earth are worked. In the centre, at the height of 1740 ft.
+above the sea, is the chief natural curiosity of Grenada, the Grand
+Etang, a circular lake, 13 acres in extent, occupying the site of an
+ancient crater. Near it is a large sanatorium, much frequented as a
+health resort. In the north-east is a larger lake, Lake Antoine, also
+occupying a crater, but it lies almost at the sea level. The island is
+watered by several short rivers, mainly on the east and south; there are
+numerous fresh water springs, as well as hot chalybeate and sulphurous
+springs. The south-eastern coast is much indented with bays. The climate
+is good, the temperature equable and epidemic diseases are rare. In the
+low country the average yearly temperature is 82° F., but it is cooler
+in the heights. The rainfall is very heavy, amounting in some parts to
+as much as 200 in., a year. The rainy season lasts from May to December,
+but refreshing showers frequently occur during other parts of the year.
+The average annual rainfall at St Georges is 79.07 in., and at Grand
+Etang 164 in. The excellent climate and good sea-bathing have made
+Grenada the health resort of the neighbouring islands, especially of
+Trinidad. Good roads and byeways intersect it in every direction. The
+soil is extraordinarily fertile, the chief products being cocoa and
+spices, especially nutmegs. The exports, sent chiefly to Great Britain,
+are cocoa, spices, wool, cotton, coffee, live stock, hides, turtles,
+turtle shell, kola nuts, vanilla and timber. Barbados is dependent on
+Grenada for the majority of its firewood. Sugar is still grown, and rum
+and molasses are made, but the consumption of these is confined to the
+island.
+
+Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of the various
+denominations, whose schools are assisted by government grants-in-aid.
+There are, however, a few secular schools conducted by the government,
+and government-aided secondary schools for girls and a grammar school
+for boys. The schools are controlled by a board of education, the
+members of which are nominated by the government, and small fees are
+charged in all schools. The governor of the Windward Islands resides in
+Grenada and is administrator of it. The Legislative Council consists of
+14 members; 7 including the governor are _ex-officio_ members and the
+rest are nominated by the Crown. English is universally spoken, but the
+negroes use a French _patois_, which, however, is gradually dying out.
+Only 2% of the inhabitants are white, the rest being negroes and
+mulattoes with a few East Indians. The capital, St George, in the
+south-west, is built upon a lava peninsula jutting into the sea and
+forming one side of its land-locked harbour. It is surrounded by an
+amphitheatre of hills, up the sides of which climb the red-brick houses
+of the town. At the extremity of the peninsula is Fort St George, with a
+saluting battery. The ridge connecting Fort St George with Hospital Hill
+is tunnelled to give access to the two parts of the town lying on either
+side. The population in 1901 was 5198. There are four other towns--on
+the west coast Gouyave, or Charlotte Town, and 4 m. N. of it Victoria;
+on the north coast Sauteurs; and Grenville at the head of a wide bay on
+the east. They are all in frequent communication with the capital by
+steamer. The population of the entire colony in 1901 was 63,438.
+
+_History._--Grenada was discovered in 1498 by Columbus, who named it
+Conception. Neither the Spanish nor the British, to whom it was granted
+in 1627, settled on the island. The governor of Martinique, du Parquet,
+purchased it in 1650, and the French were well received by the Caribs,
+whom they afterwards extirpated with the greatest cruelty. In 1665
+Grenada passed into the hands of the French West India Company, and was
+administered by it until its dissolution in 1674, when the island passed
+to the French Crown. Cocoa, coffee and cotton were introduced in 1714.
+During the wars between Great Britain and France, Grenada capitulated to
+the British forces in 1762, and was formally ceded next year by the
+Treaty of Paris. The French, under Count d'Estaing, re-captured the
+island in 1779, but it was restored to Great Britain by the Treaty of
+Versailles in 1783. A rebellion against the British rule, instigated and
+assisted by the French, occurred in 1795, but was quelled by Sir Ralph
+Abercromby in the following year. The emancipation of the slaves took
+place in 1837, and by 1877 it was found necessary to introduce East
+Indian labour. Grenada, with cocoa as its staple, has not experienced
+similar depression to that which overtook the sugar-growing islands of
+the West Indies.
+
+  See _Grenada Handbook_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+GRENADE (from the French word for a pomegranate, from a resemblance in
+shape to that fruit), a small spherical explosive vessel thrown by hand.
+Hand-grenades were used in war in the 16th century, but the word
+"grenade" was also from the first used to imply an explosive shell
+fired from a gun; this survives to the present day in the German
+_Granate_. These weapons were employed after about 1660, by special
+troops called "grenadiers" (q.v.), and in the wars of the 17th and 18th
+centuries they are continually met with. They became obsolete in the
+19th century, but were given a new lease of life in the 20th, owing to
+their employment in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, where
+hand-grenades of a modern type, and containing powerful modern
+explosives, proved very effective (see AMMUNITION, _shell_).
+Hand-grenades filled with chemicals and made of glass are used as a
+method of fire-extinction, and similar vessels containing a liquid with
+a very strong smell are used to discover defects in a drain or sewer.
+
+
+
+
+GRENADIER, originally a soldier whose special duty it was to throw
+hand-grenades. The latter were in use for a considerable time before any
+special organization was given to the troops who were to use them. In
+1667 four men per company in the French _Régiment du Roi_ were trained
+with grenades (siege of Lille), and in 1668-1670 grenadier companies
+were formed in this regiment and in about thirty others of the French
+line. Evelyn, in his _Diary_, tells us that on the 29th of June 1678 he
+saw at Hounslow "a new sort of soldiers called granadiers, who were
+dexterous in flinging hand-granades." As in the case of the fusiliers,
+the French practice was therefore quickly copied in England. Eventually
+each English battalion had a grenadier company (see for illustrations
+_Archaeological Journal_, xxiii. 222, and xlvii. 321-324). Besides their
+grenades and the firelock, grenadiers carried axes which, with the
+grenades, were employed in the assault of fortresses, as we are told in
+the celebrated song, "The British Grenadiers."
+
+The grenadier companies were formed always of the most powerful men in
+the regiment and, when the grenade ceased to be used, they maintained
+their existence as the "crack" companies of their battalions, taking the
+right of the line on parade and wearing the distinctive grenadier
+headdress. This system was almost universal, and the typical infantry
+regiment of the 18th and early 19th century had a grenadier and a light
+company besides its "line" companies. In the British and other armies
+these _élite_ companies were frequently taken from their regiments and
+combined in grenadier and light infantry battalions for special service,
+and Napoleon carried this practice still further in the French army by
+organizing brigades and divisions of grenadiers (and correspondingly of
+_voltigeurs_). Indeed the companies thus detached from the line
+practically never returned to it, and this was attended with serious
+evils, for the battalion at the outbreak of war lost perhaps a quarter
+of its best men, the average men only remaining with the line. This
+special organization of grenadiers and light companies lasted in the
+British army until about 1858. In the Prussian service the grenadiers
+became permanent and independent battalions about 1740, and the gradual
+adoption of the four-company battalion by Prussia and other nations
+tended still further to place the grenadiers by themselves and apart
+from the line. Thus at the present day in Germany, Russia and other
+countries, the title of "grenadiers" is borne by line regiments,
+indistinguishable, except for details of uniform and often the _esprit
+de corps_ inherited from the old _élite_ companies, from the rest. In
+the British service the only grenadiers remaining are the Grenadier
+Guards, originally the 1st regiment of Foot Guards, which was formed in
+1660 on the nucleus of a regiment of English royalists which followed
+the fortunes of Charles II. in exile. In Russia a whole army corps
+(headquarters Moscow), inclusive of its artillery units, bears the
+title.
+
+The special headdress of the grenadier was a pointed cap, with peak and
+flaps, of embroidered cloth, or a loose fur cap of similar shape; both
+these were light field service caps. The fur cap has in the course of
+time developed into the tall "bearskin" worn by British guards and
+various corps of other armies; the embroidered field cap survives,
+transformed, however, into a heavy brass headdress, in the uniform of
+the 1st Prussian Foot Guards, the 1st Prussian Guard Grenadiers and the
+Russian Paul (Pavlovsky) Grenadier Guards.
+
+
+
+
+GRENADINES, a chain of islets in the Windward Islands, West Indies. They
+stretch for 60 m. between St Vincent and Grenada, following a N.E. to
+S.W. direction, and consist of some 600 islets and rocks. Some are a few
+square miles in extent, others are merely rocky cones projecting from
+the deep. For purposes of administration they are divided between St
+Vincent and Grenada. Bequia, the chief island in the St Vincent group,
+is long and narrow, with an area 6 sq. m. Owing to a lack of water it is
+only slightly cultivated, but game is plentiful. Admiralty Bay, on the
+W. side, is a safe and commodious harbour. Carriacou, belonging to
+Grenada, is the largest of the group, being 7 m. long, 2 m. wide and 13
+sq. m. in extent. A ridge of hills, rising to an altitude of 700 ft.,
+traverses the centre from N.E. to S.W.; here admirable building stone is
+found. There are two good harbours on the west coast, Hillsborough Bay
+on which stands Hillsborough, the chief town, and Tyrell Bay, farther
+south. The island is thickly populated, the negro peasantry occupying
+small lots and working on the _metayer_ system. Excellent oysters are
+found along the coast, and cotton and cattle are the chief exports. Pop.
+of the group, mostly on Carriacou (1901) 6497.
+
+
+
+
+GRENOBLE, the ancient capital of the Dauphiné in S.E. France, and now
+the chief town of the Isère department, 75 m. by rail from Lyons, 38½ m.
+from Chambéry and 85½ m. from Gap. Pop. (1906), town, 58,641; commune,
+73,022. It is one of the most beautifully situated, and also one of the
+most strongly fortified, cities in Europe. Built at a height of 702 ft.
+on both banks of the river Isère just above its junction with the Drac,
+the town occupies a considerable plain at the south-western end of the
+fertile Graisivaudan valley. To the north rise the mountains of the
+Grande Chartreuse, to the east the range of Belledonne, and to the south
+those of Taillefer and the Moucherotte, the higher summits of these
+ranges being partly covered with snow. From the Jardin de Ville and the
+quays of the banks of the Isère the summit of Mont Blanc itself is
+visible. The greater part of the town rises on the left bank of the
+Isère, which is bordered by broad quays. The older portion has the
+tortuous and narrow streets usual in towns that have been confined
+within fortifications, but in modern times these hindrances have been
+demolished. The newer portion of the town has wide thoroughfares and
+buildings of the modern French type, solid but not picturesque. The
+original town (of but small extent) was built on the right bank of the
+Isère at the southern foot of the Mont Rachais, now covered by a
+succession of fortresses that rise picturesquely on the slope of that
+hill to a very considerable height (885 ft. above the town).
+
+Grenoble is the seat of a bishopric which was founded in the 4th
+century, and now comprises the department of the Isère--formerly a
+suffragan of Vienne it now forms part of the ecclesiastical province of
+Lyons. The most remarkable building in the town is the Palais de
+Justice, erected (late 15th century to 16th century) on the site of the
+old palace of the Parlement of the Dauphiné. Opposite is the most
+noteworthy church of the city, that of St André (13th century), formerly
+the chapel of the dauphins of the Viennois: in it is the 17th century
+monument of Bayard (1476-1524), the _chevalier sans peur et sans
+reproche_, which was removed hither in 1822; but it is uncertain whose
+bones are therein. The cathedral church of Notre Dame is a heavy
+building, dating in part from the 11th century. The church of St
+Laurent, on the right bank of the Isère, is the oldest in the city (11th
+century) and has a remarkable crypt, dating from Merovingian times. The
+town hall is a mainly modern building, constructed on the site of the
+palace of the dauphins, while the prefecture is entirely modern. The
+town library contains a considerable collection of paintings, mainly of
+the modern French school, but is more remarkable for its very rich
+collection of MSS. (7000) and printed books (250,000 vols.) which in
+great part belonged till 1793 to the monastery of the Grande Chartreuse.
+The natural history museum houses rich collections of various kinds,
+which contain (_inter alia_) numerous geological specimens from the
+neighbouring districts of the Dauphiné and Savoy. The university,
+revived in modern times after a long abeyance, occupies a modern
+building, as does also the hospital, though founded as far back as the
+15th century. There are numerous societies in the town, including the
+Académie Delphinale (founded in 1772), and many charitable institutions.
+
+The staple industry of Grenoble is the manufacture of kid gloves, most
+of the so-called _gants Jouvin_ being made here--they are named after
+the reviver of the art, X. Jouvin (1800-1844). There are about 80 glove
+factories, which employ 18,500 persons (of whom 15,000 are women), the
+annual output being about 800,000 dozen pairs of gloves. Among other
+articles produced at Grenoble are artificial cements, liqueurs, straw
+hats and carved furniture.
+
+Grenoble occupies the site of Cularo, a village of the Allobroges, which
+only became of importance when fortified by Diocletian and Maximian at
+the end of the 3rd century. Its present name is a corruption of
+Gratianopolis, a title assumed probably in honour of Gratian (4th
+century), who raised it to the rank of a _civitas_. After passing under
+the power of the Burgundians (c. 440) and the Franks (532) it became
+part of the kingdom of Provence (879-1032). On the break-up of that
+kingdom a long struggle for supremacy ensued between the bishops of the
+city and the counts of Albon, the latter finally winning the day in the
+12th century, and taking the title of Dauphins of the Viennois in the
+13th century. In 1349 Grenoble was ceded with the rest of the Dauphiné
+to France, but retained various municipal privileges which had been
+granted by the dauphins to the town, originally by a charter of 1242. In
+1562 it was sacked by the Protestants under the baron des Adrets, but in
+1572 the firmness of its governor, Bertrand de Gordes, saved it from a
+repetition of the Massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1590 Lesdiguières
+(1543-1626) took the town in the name of Henry IV., then still a
+Protestant, and during his long governorship (which lasted to his death)
+did much for it by the construction of fortifications, quays, &c. In
+1788 the attempt of the king to weaken the power of the parlement of
+Grenoble (which, though strictly a judicial authority, had preserved
+traditions of independence, since the suspension of the states-general
+of the Dauphiné in 1628) roused the people to arms, and the "day of the
+tiles" (7th of June 1788) is memorable for the defeat of the royal
+forces. In 1790, on the formation of the department of the Isère,
+Grenoble became its capital. Grenoble was the first important town to
+open its gates to Napoleon on his return from Elba (7th of March 1815),
+but a few months later (July) it was obliged to surrender to the
+Austrian army. Owing to its situation Grenoble was formerly much subject
+to floods, particularly in the case of the wild Drac. One of the worst
+took place in 1219, while that of 1778 was known as the _déluge de la
+Saint Crépin_. Among the celebrities who have been born at Grenoble are
+Vaucanson (1709-1782), Mably (1709-1785), Condillac (1715-1780), Beyle,
+best known as Stendhal, his _nom de guerre_ (1783-1842), Barnave
+(1761-1793) and Casimir Perier (1777-1832).
+
+  See A. Prudhomme, _Histoire de Grenoble_ (1888); X. Roux, _La
+  Corporation des gantiers de Grenoble_ (1887); H. Duhamel, _Grenoble
+  considéré comme centre d'excursions_ (1902); J. Marion, _Cartulaires
+  de l'église cathédrale de Grenoble_ (Paris, 1869).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL (1596-1643), Royalist soldier in the English Civil
+War (see GREAT REBELLION), was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. As
+member of Parliament, first for Cornwall, then for Launceston, Grenville
+supported Sir John Eliot and the opposition, and his intimacy with Eliot
+was life-long. In 1639, however, he appears as a royalist going to the
+Scottish War in the train of Charles I. The reasons of this change of
+front are unknown, but Grenville's honour was above suspicion, and he
+must have entirely convinced himself that he was doing right. At any
+rate he was a very valuable recruit to the royalist cause, being "the
+most generally loved man in Cornwall." At the outbreak of the Civil War
+he and others of the gentry not only proclaimed the king's Commission of
+Array at Launceston assizes, but also persuaded the grand jury of the
+county to declare their opponents guilty of riot and unlawful assembly,
+whereupon the _Posse comitatus_ was called out to expel them. Under the
+command of Sir Ralph Hopton, Sir Bevil took a distinguished part in the
+action of Bradock Down, and at Stratton (16 May 1643), where the
+parliamentary earl of Stamford was completely routed by the Cornishmen,
+led one of the storming parties which captured Chudleigh's lines
+(_Clarendon_, vii. 89). A month later, the endeavour of Hopton to unite
+with Maurice and Hertford from Oxford brought on the battle of Lansdown,
+near Bath. Here Grenville was killed at the head of the Cornish infantry
+as it reached the top of the hill. His death was a blow from which the
+king's cause in the West never recovered, for he alone knew how to
+handle the Cornishmen. Hopton they revered and respected, but Grenville
+they loved as peculiarly their own commander, and after his death there
+is little more heard of the reckless valour which had won Stratton and
+Lansdown. Grenville is the type of all that was best in English
+royalism. He was neither rapacious, drunken nor dissolute, but his
+loyalty was unselfish, his life pure and his skill no less than his
+bravery unquestionable. A monument to him has been erected on the field
+of Lansdown.
+
+  See Lloyd, _Memoirs of Excellent Personages_ (1668); S. R. Gardiner,
+  _History of the English Civil War_ (vol. i. _passim_).
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE, GEORGE (1712-1770), English statesman, second son of Richard
+Grenville and Hester Temple, afterwards Countess Temple, was born on the
+14th of October 1712. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
+Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1735. He entered parliament in 1741
+as member for Buckingham, and continued to represent that borough till
+his death. In parliament he was a member of the "Boy Patriot" party
+which opposed Sir Robert Walpole. In December 1744 he became a lord of
+the admiralty in the Pelham administration. He allied himself with his
+brother Richard and with William Pitt in forcing their feeble chief to
+give them promotion by rebelling against his authority and obstructing
+business. In June 1747 he became a lord of the treasury, and in 1754
+treasurer of the navy and privy councillor. As treasurer of the navy in
+1758 he introduced and carried a bill which established a less unfair
+system of paying the wages of the seamen than had existed before. He
+remained in office in 1761, when his brother Lord Temple and his
+brother-in-law Pitt resigned upon the question of the war with Spain,
+and in the administration of Lord Bute he was entrusted with the
+leadership of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he was appointed
+secretary of state, and in October first lord of the admiralty; and in
+April 1763 he became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the
+exchequer. The most prominent measures of his administration were the
+prosecution of Wilkes and the passing of the American Stamp Act, which
+led to the first symptoms of alienation between America and the mother
+country. During the latter period of his term of office he was on a very
+unsatisfactory footing with the young king George III., who gradually
+came to feel a kind of horror of the interminable persistency of his
+conversation, and whom he endeavoured to make use of as the mere puppet
+of the ministry. The king made various attempts to induce Pitt to come
+to his rescue by forming a ministry, but without success, and at last
+had recourse to the marquis of Rockingham, on whose agreeing to accept
+office Grenville was dismissed July 1765. He never again held office,
+and died on the 13th of November 1770.
+
+The nickname of "gentle shepherd" was given him because he bored the
+House by asking over and over again, during the debate on the Cider Bill
+of 1763, that somebody should tell him "where" to lay the new tax if it
+was not to be put on cider. Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune
+"Gentle Shepherd, tell me where," and the House laughed. Though few
+excelled him in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of
+administrative details, his tact in dealing with men and with affairs
+was so defective that there is perhaps no one who has been at the head
+of an English administration to whom a lower place can be assigned as a
+statesman.
+
+In 1749 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Wyndham, by whom
+he had a large family. His son, the second Earl Temple, was created
+marquess, and his grandson duke, of Buckingham. Another son was William,
+afterwards Lord Grenville. Another, Thomas Grenville (1755-1846), who
+was, with one interval, a member of parliament from 1780 to 1818, and
+for a few months during 1806 and 1807 president of the board of control
+and first lord of the admiralty, is perhaps more famous as a
+book-collector than as a statesman; he bequeathed his large and valuable
+library to the British Museum.
+
+  _The Grenville Papers, being the Correspondence of Richard Grenville,
+  Earl Temple, K.G., and the Right Hon. George Grenville, their Friends
+  and Contemporaries_, were published at London in 1852, and afford the
+  chief authority for his life. But see also H. Walpole's _Memoirs of
+  the Reign of George II._ (London, 1845); Lord Stanhope's _History of
+  England_ (London, 1858); Lecky's _History of England_ (1885); and E.
+  D. Adams, _The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy_
+  (Washington, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE (or GREYNVILE), SIR RICHARD (c. 1541-1591), British naval
+commander, was born of an old Cornish family about 1541. His
+grandfather, Sir Richard, had been marshal of Calais in the time of
+Henry VIII., and his father commanded and was lost in the "Mary Rose" in
+1545. At an early age Grenville is supposed to have served in Hungary
+under the emperor Maximilian against the Turks. In the years 1571 and
+1584 he sat in parliament for Cornwall, and in 1583 and 1584 he was
+commissioner of the works at Dover harbour. He appears to have been a
+man of much pride and ambition. Of his bravery there can be no doubt. In
+1585 he commanded the fleet of seven vessels by which the colonists sent
+out by his cousin, Sir Walter Raleigh, were carried to Roanoke Island in
+the present North Carolina. Grenville himself soon returned with the
+fleet to England, capturing a Spanish vessel on his way, but in 1586 he
+carried provisions to Roanoke, and finding the colony deserted, left a
+few men to maintain possession. He then held an important post in charge
+of the defences of the western counties of England. When a squadron was
+despatched in 1591, under Lord Thomas Howard, to intercept the
+homeward-bound treasure-fleet of Spain, Grenville was appointed as
+second in command on board the "Revenge," a ship of 500 tons which had
+been commanded by Drake against the Armada in 1588. At the end of August
+Howard with 16 ships lay at anchor to the north of Flores in the Azores.
+On the last day of the month he received news from a pinnace, sent by
+the earl of Cumberland, who was then off the Portugal coast, that a
+Spanish fleet of 53 vessels was then bearing up to the Azores to meet
+the treasure-ships. Not being in a position to fight a fleet more than
+three times the size of his own, Howard gave orders to weigh anchor and
+stand out to sea. But, either from some misunderstanding of the order,
+or from some idea of Grenville's that the Spanish vessels rapidly
+approaching were the ships for which they had been waiting, the
+"Revenge" was delayed and cut off from her consorts by the Spaniards.
+Grenville resolved to try to break through the middle of the Spanish
+line. His ship was becalmed under the lee of a huge galleon, and after a
+hand-to-hand fight lasting through fifteen hours against fifteen Spanish
+ships and a force of five thousand men, the "Revenge" with her hundred
+and fifty men was captured. Grenville himself was carried on board the
+Spanish flag-ship "San Pablo," and died a few days later. The incident
+is commemorated in Tennyson's ballad of "The Revenge."
+
+The spelling of Sir Richard's name has led to much controversy. Four
+different families, each of which claim to be descended from him, spell
+it Granville, Grenville, Grenfell and Greenfield. The spelling usually
+accepted is Grenville, but his own signature, in a bold clear
+handwriting, among the Tanner MSS. in the Bodleian library at Oxford, is
+Greynvile.
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE (or GRANVILLE), SIR RICHARD (1600-1658), English royalist, was
+the third son of Sir Bernard Grenville (1559-1636), and a grandson of
+the famous seaman, Sir Richard Grenville. Having served in France,
+Germany and the Netherlands, Grenville gained the favour of the duke of
+Buckingham, took part in the expeditions to Cadiz, to the island of Rhé
+and to La Rochelle, was knighted, and in 1628 was chosen member of
+parliament for Fowey. Having married Mary Fitz (1596-1671), widow of Sir
+Charles Howard (d. 1622) and a lady of fortune, Grenville was made a
+baronet in 1630; his violent temper, however, made the marriage an
+unhappy one, and he was ruined and imprisoned as the result of two
+lawsuits, one with his wife, and the other with her kinsman, the earl of
+Suffolk. In 1633 he escaped from prison and went to Germany, returning
+to England six years later to join the army which Charles I. was
+collecting to march against the Scots. Early in 1641, just after the
+outbreak of the Irish rebellion, Sir Richard led some troops to Ireland,
+where he won some fame and became governor of Trim; then returning to
+England in 1643 he was arrested at Liverpool by an officer of the
+parliament, but was soon released and sent to join the parliamentary
+army. Having, however, secured men and money, he hurried to Charles I.
+at Oxford and was despatched to take part in the siege of Plymouth,
+quickly becoming the leader of the forces engaged in this enterprise.
+Compelled to raise the siege he retired into Cornwall, where he helped
+to resist the advancing Parliamentarians; but he quickly showed signs of
+insubordination, and, whilst sharing in the siege of Taunton, he was
+wounded and obliged to resign his command. About this time loud
+complaints were brought against Grenville. He had behaved, it was said,
+in a very arbitrary fashion; he had hanged some men and imprisoned
+others; he had extorted money and had used the contributions towards the
+cost of the war for his own ends. Many of these charges were undoubtedly
+true, but upon his recovery the councillors of the prince of Wales gave
+him a position under Lord Goring, whom, however, he refused to obey.
+Equally recalcitrant was his attitude towards Goring's successor, Sir
+Ralph Hopton, and in January 1646 he was arrested. But he was soon
+released; he went to France and Italy, and after visiting England in
+disguise passed some time in Holland. He was excepted by parliament from
+pardon in 1648, and after the king's execution he was with Charles II.
+in France and elsewhere until some unfounded accusation which he brought
+against Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, led to his removal
+from court. He died in 1658, and was buried at Ghent. In 1644, when
+Grenville deserted the parliamentary party, a proclamation was put out
+against him; in this there were attached to his name several offensive
+epithets, among them being _skellum_, a word probably derived from the
+German _Schelm_, a scoundrel. Hence he is often called "skellum
+Grenville."
+
+  Grenville wrote an account of affairs in the west of England, which
+  was printed in T. Carte's _Original Letters_ (1739). To this partisan
+  account Clarendon drew up an answer, the bulk of which he afterwards
+  incorporated in his _History_. In 1654 Grenville wrote his _Single
+  defence against all aspersions of all malignant persons_. This is
+  printed in the _Works_ of George Granville, Lord Lansdowne (London,
+  1736), where Lansdowne's _Vindication_ of his kinsman, Sir Richard,
+  against Clarendon's charges is also found. See also Clarendon,
+  _History of the Rebellion_, edited by W. D. Macray (Oxford, 1888); and
+  R. Granville, _The King's General in the West_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE, BARON (1759-1834), English
+statesman, youngest son of George Grenville, was born on the 25th of
+October 1759. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining
+the chancellor's prize for Latin verse in 1779. In February 1782
+Grenville was returned to parliament as member for the borough of
+Buckingham, and in the following September he became secretary to the
+lord lieutenant of Ireland, who at this time was his brother, Earl
+Temple, afterwards marquess of Buckingham. He left office in June 1783,
+but in the following December he became paymaster-general of the forces
+under his cousin, William Pitt, and in 1786 vice-president of the
+committee of trade. In 1787 he was sent on an important mission to the
+Hague and Versailles with reference to the affairs of Holland. In
+January 1789 he was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, but he
+vacated the chair in the same year on being appointed secretary of state
+for the home department; about the same time he resigned his other
+offices, but he became president of the board of control, and in
+November 1790 was created a peer as Baron Grenville. In the House of
+Lords he was very active in directing the business of the government,
+and in 1791 he was transferred to the foreign office, retaining his post
+at the board of control until 1793. He was doubtless regarded by Pitt as
+the man best fitted to carry out his policy with reference to France,
+but in the succeeding years he and his chief were frequently at variance
+on important questions of foreign policy. In spite of his multifarious
+duties at the foreign office Grenville continued to take a lively
+interest in domestic matters, which he showed by introducing various
+bills into the House of Lords. In February 1801 he resigned office with
+Pitt because George III. would not consent to the introduction of any
+measure of Roman Catholic relief, and in opposition he gradually
+separated himself from his former leader. When Pitt returned to power in
+1804 Grenville refused to join the ministry unless his political ally,
+Fox, was also admitted thereto; this was impossible and he remained out
+of office until February 1806, when just after Pitt's death he became
+the nominal head of a coalition government. This ministry was very
+unfortunate in its conduct of foreign affairs, but it deserves to be
+remembered with honour on account of the act passed in 1807 for the
+abolition of the slave trade. Its influence, however, was weakened by
+the death of Fox, and in consequence of a minute drawn up by Grenville
+and some of his colleagues the king demanded from his ministers an
+assurance that in future they would not urge upon him any measures for
+the relief of Roman Catholics. They refused to give this assurance and
+in March 1807 they resigned. Grenville's attitude in this matter was
+somewhat aggressive; his colleagues were not unanimous in supporting
+him, and Sheridan, one of them, said "he had known many men knock their
+heads against a wall, but he had never before heard of any man who
+collected the bricks and built the very wall with an intention to knock
+out his own brains against it."
+
+Lord Grenville never held office again, although he was requested to do
+so on several occasions. He continued, however, to take part in public
+life, being one of the chief supporters of Roman Catholic emancipation,
+and during the remaining years of his active political career, which
+ended in 1823, he generally voted with the Whigs, although in 1815 he
+separated himself from his colleague, Charles Grey, and supported the
+warlike policy of Lord Liverpool. In 1819, when the marquess of
+Lansdowne brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of
+the distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville
+delivered an alarmist speech advocating repressive measures. His
+concluding years were spent at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire, where he died
+on the 12th of January 1834. His wife, whom he married in 1792, was Anne
+(1772-1864), daughter of Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford, but he had no
+issue and his title became extinct. In 1809 he was elected chancellor of
+Oxford university.
+
+Though Grenville's talents were not of the highest order his
+straightforwardness and industry, together with his knowledge of
+politics and the moderation of his opinions, secured for him
+considerable political influence. He may be enrolled among the band of
+English statesmen who have distinguished themselves in literature. He
+edited Lord Chatham's letters to his nephew, Thomas Pitt, afterwards
+Lord Camelford (London, 1804, and other editions); he wrote a small
+volume, _Nugae Metricae_ (1824), being translations into Latin from
+English, Greek and Italian, and an _Essay on the Supposed Advantages of
+a Sinking Fund_ (1828).
+
+  The Dropmore MSS. contain much of Grenville's correspondence, and on
+  this the Historical Manuscripts Commission has published a report.
+
+
+
+
+GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS (1519-1579), London merchant, the founder of the
+Royal Exchange and of Gresham College, London, was descended from an old
+Norfolk family; he was the only son of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading
+London merchant, who for some time held the office of lord mayor, and
+for his services as agent of Henry VIII. in negotiating loans with
+foreign merchants received the honour of knighthood. Though his father
+intended him to follow his own profession, he nevertheless sent him for
+some time to Caius College, Cambridge, but there is no information as to
+the duration of his residence. It is uncertain also whether it was
+before or after this that he was apprenticed to his uncle Sir John
+Gresham, who was also a merchant, but we have his own testimony that he
+served an apprenticeship of eight years. In 1543, at the age of
+twenty-four, he was admitted a member of the Mercers' Company, and in
+the same year he went to the Low Countries, where, either on his own
+account or on that of his father or uncle, he both carried on business
+as a merchant and acted in various matters as an agent for Henry VIII.
+In 1544 he married the widow of William Read, a London merchant, but he
+still continued to reside principally in the Low Countries, having his
+headquarters at Antwerp. When in 1551 the mismanagement of Sir William
+Dansell, "king's merchant" in the Low Countries, had brought the English
+government into great financial embarrassment, Gresham was called in to
+give his advice, and chosen to carry out his own proposals. Their
+leading feature was the adoption of various methods--highly ingenious,
+but quite arbitrary and unfair--for raising the value of the pound
+sterling on the "bourse" of Antwerp, and it was so successful that in a
+few years nearly all King Edward's debts were discharged. The advice of
+Gresham was likewise sought by the government in all their money
+difficulties, and he was also frequently employed in various diplomatic
+missions. He had no stated salary, but in reward of his services
+received from Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which
+at that time was ultimately about £400 a year. On the accession of Mary
+he was for a short time in disfavour, and was displaced in his post by
+Alderman William Dauntsey. But Dauntsey's financial operations were not
+very successful and Gresham was soon reinstated; and as he professed his
+zealous desire to serve the queen, and manifested great adroitness both
+in negotiating loans and in smuggling money, arms and foreign goods, not
+only were his services retained throughout her reign, but besides his
+salary of twenty shillings _per diem_ he received grants of church lands
+to the yearly value of £200. Under Queen Elizabeth, besides continuing
+in his post as financial agent of the crown, he acted temporarily as
+ambassador at the court of the duchess of Parma, being knighted in 1559
+previous to his departure. By the outbreak of the war in the Low
+Countries he was compelled to leave Antwerp on the 19th of March 1567;
+but, though he spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued
+his business as merchant and financial agent of the government in much
+the same way as formerly. Elizabeth also found him useful in a great
+variety of other ways, among which was that of acting as jailer, to Lady
+Mary Grey, who, as a punishment for marrying Thomas Keys the sergeant
+porter, remained a prisoner in his house from June 1569 to the end of
+1572. In 1565 Gresham made a proposal to the court of aldermen of London
+to build at his own expense a bourse or exchange, on condition that they
+purchased for this purpose a piece of suitable ground. In this proposal
+he seems to have had an eye to his own interest as well as to the
+general good of the merchants, for by a yearly rental of £700 obtained
+for the shops in the upper part of the building he received a sufficient
+return for his trouble and expense. Gresham died suddenly, apparently of
+apoplexy, on the 21st of November 1579. His only son predeceased him,
+and his illegitimate daughter Anne he married to Sir Nathaniel Bacon,
+brother of the great Lord Bacon. With the exception of a number of small
+sums bequeathed to the support of various charities, the bulk of his
+property, consisting of estates in various parts of England of the
+annual value of more than £2300, was bequeathed to his widow and her
+heirs with the stipulation that after her decease his residence in
+Bishopsgate Street, as well as the rents arising from the Royal
+Exchange, should be vested in the hands of the corporation of London and
+the Mercers' Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which
+seven professors should read lectures--one each day of the week--on
+astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music. The
+lectures were begun in 1597, and were delivered in the original building
+until 1768, when, on the ground that the trustees were losers by the
+gift, it was made over to the crown for a yearly rent of £500, and
+converted into an excise office. From that time a room in the Royal
+Exchange was used for the lectures until in 1843 the present building
+was erected at a cost of £7000.
+
+  A notice of Gresham is contained in Fuller's _Worthies_ and Ward's
+  _Gresham Professors_; but the fullest account of him, as well as of
+  the history of the Exchange and Gresham College is that by J. M.
+  Burgon in his _Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham_ (2 vols., 1839).
+  See also a _Brief Memoir of Sir Thomas Gresham_ (1833); and _The Life
+  of Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON (1832-1895), American statesman and jurist, was
+born near Lanesville, Harrison county, Indiana, on the 17th of March
+1832. He spent two years in an academy at Corydon, Indiana, and one year
+at the Indiana State University at Bloomington, then studied law, and in
+1854 was admitted to the bar. He was active as a campaign speaker for
+the Republican ticket in 1856, and in 1860 was elected to the State
+House of Representatives as a Republican in a strong Democratic
+district. In the House, as chairman of the committee on military
+affairs, he did much to prepare the Indiana troops for service in the
+Federal army; in 1861 he became colonel of the 53rd Indiana Volunteer
+Infantry, and subsequently took part in Grant's Tennessee campaign of
+1862, and in the operations against Corinth and Vicksburg, where he
+commanded a brigade. In August 1863 he was appointed brigadier-general
+of volunteers, and was placed in command of the Federal forces at
+Natchez. In 1864 he commanded a division of the 17th Army Corps in
+Sherman's Atlanta campaign, and before Atlanta, on the 20th of July, he
+received a wound which forced him to retire from active service, and
+left him lame for life. In 1865 he was brevetted major-general of
+volunteers. After the war he practised law at New Albany, Indiana, and
+in 1869 was appointed by President Grant United States District Judge
+for Indiana. In April 1883 he succeeded Timothy O. Howe (1816-1883) as
+postmaster-general in President Arthur's cabinet, taking an active part
+in the suppression of the Louisiana Lottery, and in September 1884
+succeeded Charles J. Folger as secretary of the treasury. In the
+following month he resigned to accept an appointment as United States
+Judge for the Seventh Judicial Circuit. Gresham was a candidate for the
+Republican presidential nomination in 1884 and 1888, in the latter year
+leading for some time in the balloting. Gradually, however, he grew out
+of sympathy with the Republican leaders and policy, and in 1892
+advocated the election of the Democratic candidate, Grover Cleveland,
+for the presidency. From the 7th of March 1893 until his death at
+Washington on the 28th of May 1895, he was secretary of state in
+President Cleveland's cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+GRESHAM'S LAW, in economics, the name suggested in 1857 by H. D. Macleod
+for the principle of currency which may be briefly summarized--"bad
+money drives out good." Macleod gave it this name, which has been
+universally adopted, under the impression that the principle was first
+explained by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1558. In reality it had been well set
+forth by earlier economic writers, notably Oresme and Copernicus.
+Macleod states the law in these terms: the worst form of currency in
+circulation regulates the value of the whole currency and drives all
+other forms of currency out of circulation. Gresham's law applies where
+there is under-weight or debased coin in circulation with full-weight
+coin of the same metal; where there are two metals in circulation, and
+one is undervalued as compared with the other, and where inconvertible
+paper money is put into circulation side by side with a metallic
+currency. See further BIMETALLISM; MONEY.
+
+
+
+
+GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1709-1777), French poet and dramatist, was
+born at Amiens on the 29th of August 1709. His poem _Vert Vert_ is his
+main title to fame. He spent, however, the last twenty-five years of his
+life in regretting the frivolity which enabled him to produce this most
+charming of poems. He was brought up by the Jesuits of Amiens. He was
+accepted as a novice at the age of sixteen, and sent to pursue his
+studies at the Collège Louis le Grand in Paris. After completing his
+course he was appointed, being then under twenty years of age, to a post
+as assistant master in a college at Rouen. He published _Vert Vert_ at
+Rouen in 1734. It is a story, in itself exceedingly humorous, showing
+how a parrot, the delight of a convent, whose talk was all of prayers
+and pious ejaculations, was conveyed to another convent as a visitor to
+please the nuns. On the way he falls among bad companions, forgets his
+convent language, and shocks the sisters on arrival by profane swearing.
+He is sent back in disgrace, punished by solitude and plain bread,
+presently repents, reforms and is killed by kindness. The story,
+however, is nothing. The treatment of the subject, the atmosphere which
+surrounds it, the delicacy in which the little prattling ways of the
+nuns, their jealousies, their tiny trifles, are presented, takes the
+reader entirely by surprise. The poem stands absolutely unrivalled, even
+among French _contes en vers_.
+
+Gresset found himself famous. He left Rouen, went up to Paris, where he
+found refuge in the same garret which had sheltered him when a boy at
+the Collège Louis le Grand, and there wrote his second poem, _La
+Chartreuse_. It was followed by the _Carême impromptu_, the _Lutrin
+vivant_ and _Les Ombres_. Then trouble came upon him; complaints were
+made to the fathers of the alleged licentiousness of his verses, the
+real cause of complaint being the ridicule which _Vert Vert_ seemed to
+throw upon the whole race of nuns and the anti-clerical tendency of the
+other poems. An example, it was urged, must be made; Gresset was
+expelled the order. Men of robust mind would have been glad to get rid
+of such a yoke. Gresset, who had never been taught to stand alone, went
+forth weeping. He went to Paris in 1740 and there produced _Édouard
+III_, a tragedy (1740) and _Sidnei_ (1745), a comedy. These were
+followed by _Le Méchant_ which still keeps the stage, and is qualified
+by Brunetière as the best verse comedy of the French 18th century
+theatre, not excepting even the _Métromanie_ of Alexis Piron. Gresset
+was admitted to the Academy in 1748. And then, still young, he retired
+to Amiens, where his relapse from the discipline of the church became
+the subject of the deepest remorse. He died at Amiens on the 16th of
+June 1777.
+
+  The best edition of his poems is A. A. Rénouard's (1811). See Jules
+  Wogue, _J. B. L. Gresset_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GRETNA GREEN, or GRAITNEY GREEN, a village in the south-east of
+Dumfriesshire, Scotland, about 8 m. E. of Annan, 9 m. N.N.W. of
+Carlisle, and ¾ m. from the river Sark, here the dividing-line between
+England and Scotland, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western
+railway. The Caledonian and North British railways have a station at
+Gretna on the English side of the Border. As the nearest village on the
+Scottish side, Gretna Green was notorious as the resort of eloping
+couples, who had failed to obtain the consent of parents or guardians to
+their union. Up till 1754, when Lord Hardwicke's act abolishing
+clandestine marriages came into force, the ceremony had commonly been
+performed in the Fleet prison in London. After that date runaway couples
+were compelled to seek the hospitality of a country where it sufficed
+for them to declare their wish to marry in the presence of witnesses. At
+Gretna Green the ceremony was usually performed by the blacksmith, but
+the toll-keeper, ferryman or in fact any person might officiate, and the
+toll-house, the inn, or, after 1826, Gretna Hall was the scene of many
+such weddings, the fees varying from half a guinea to a sum as large as
+impudence could extort or extravagance bestow. As many as two hundred
+couples were married at the toll-house in a year. The romantic traffic
+was practically, though not necessarily, put an end to in 1856, when the
+law required one of the contracting parties to reside in Scotland three
+weeks previous to the event.
+
+
+
+
+GRÉTRY, ANDRÉ ERNEST MODESTE (1741-1813), French composer, was born at
+Liége on the 8th of February 1741, his father being a poor musician. He
+was a choir boy at the church of St Denis. In 1753 he became a pupil of
+Leclerc and later of Renekin and Moreau. But of greater importance was
+the practical tuition he received by attending the performance of an
+Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Galuppi, Pergolesi
+and other masters; and the desire of completing his own studies in Italy
+was the immediate result. To find the necessary means he composed in
+1759 a mass which he dedicated to the canons of the Liége cathedral, and
+it was at the cost of Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in the March of
+1759. In Rome he went to the Collège de Liége. Here Grétry resided for
+five years, studiously employed in completing his musical education
+under Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counterpoint was, however,
+according to his own confession, at all times very moderate. His first
+great success was achieved by _La Vendemmiatrice_, an Italian intermezzo
+or operetta, composed for the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with
+universal applause. It is said that the study of the score of one of
+Monsigny's operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy in
+Rome, decided Grétry to devote himself to French comic opera. On New
+Year's day 1767 he accordingly left Rome, and after a short stay at
+Geneva (where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, and produced another
+operetta) went to Paris. There for two years he had to contend with the
+difficulties incident to poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not
+without friends, and by the intercession of Count Creutz, the Swedish
+ambassador, Grétry obtained a libretto from Marmontel, which he set to
+music in less than six weeks, and which, on its performance in August
+1768, met with unparalleled success. The name of the opera was _Le
+Huron_. Two others, _Lucile_ and _Le Tableau parlant_, soon followed,
+and thenceforth Grétry's position as the leading composer of comic opera
+was safely established. Altogether he composed some fifty operas. His
+masterpieces are _Zémire et Azor_ and _Richard Coeur de Lion_,--the
+first produced in 1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect
+way became connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the
+celebrated romance, _O Richard, ô mon roi, l'univers t'abandonne_, which
+was sung at the banquet--"fatal as that of Thyestes," remarks
+Carlyle--given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles
+garrison on October 3, 1789. The _Marseillaise_ not long afterwards
+became the reply of the people to the expression of loyalty borrowed
+from Grétry's opera. The composer himself was not uninfluenced by the
+great events he witnessed, and the titles of some of his operas, such as
+_La Rosière républicaine_ and _La Fête de la raison_, sufficiently
+indicate the epoch to which they belong; but they are mere _pièces de
+circonstance_, and the republican enthusiasm displayed is not genuine.
+Little more successful was Grétry in his dealings with classical
+subjects. His genuine power lay in the delineation of character and in
+the expression of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure
+of his concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his
+instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his works
+had to be rewritten by other composers, in order to make them acceptable
+to modern audiences. During the revolution Grétry lost much of his
+property, but the successive governments of France vied in favouring the
+composer, regardless of political differences. From the old court he
+received distinctions and rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an
+inspector of the conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the
+legion of honour and a pension. Grétry died on the 24th of September
+1813, at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house of Rousseau.
+Fifteen years after his death Grétry's heart was transferred to his
+birthplace, permission having been obtained after a tedious lawsuit. In
+1842 a colossal bronze statue of the composer was set up at Liége.
+
+  See Michael Brenet, _Vie de Grétry_ (Paris, 1884); Joach. le Breton,
+  _Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de Grétry_ (Paris,
+  1814); A. Grétry (his nephew), _Grétry en famille_ (Paris, 1814);
+  Felix van Hulst, _Grétry_ (Liége, 1842); L. D. S. _Notice biographique
+  sur Grétry_ (Bruxelles, 1859).
+
+
+
+
+GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1725-1805), French painter, was born at Tournus,
+in Burgundy, on the 21st of August 1725, and is generally said to have
+formed his own talent; this is, however, true only in the most limited
+sense, for at an early age his inclinations, though thwarted by his
+father, were encouraged by a Lyonnese artist named Grandon, or Grondom,
+who enjoyed during his lifetime considerable reputation as a
+portrait-painter. Grandon not only persuaded the father of Greuze to
+give way to his son's wishes, and permit the lad to accompany him as his
+pupil to Lyons, but, when at a later date he himself left Lyons for
+Paris--where his son-in-law Grétry the celebrated composer enjoyed the
+height of favour--Grandon carried young Greuze with him. Settled in
+Paris, Greuze worked from the living model in the school of the Royal
+Academy, but did not attract the attention of his teachers; and when he
+produced his first picture, "Le Père de famille expliquant la Bible à
+ses enfants," considerable doubt was felt and shown as to his share in
+its production. By other and more remarkable works of the same class
+Greuze soon established his claims beyond contest, and won for himself
+the notice and support of the well-known connoisseur La Live de Jully,
+the brother-in-law of Madame d'Épinay. In 1755 Greuze exhibited his
+"Aveugle trompé," upon which, presented by Pigalle the sculptor, he was
+immediately _agréé_ by the Academy. Towards the close of the same year
+he left France for Italy, in company with the Abbé Louis Gougenot, who
+had deserted from the magistrature--although he had obtained the post of
+"conseillier au Châtelet"--in order to take the "petit collet." Gougenot
+had some acquaintance with the arts, and was highly valued by the
+Academicians, who, during his journey with Greuze, elected him an
+honorary member of their body on account of his studies in mythology and
+allegory; his acquirements in these respects are said to have been
+largely utilized by them, but to Greuze they were of doubtful advantage,
+and he lost rather than gained by this visit to Italy in Gougenot's
+company. He had undertaken it probably in order to silence those who
+taxed him with ignorance of "great models of style," but the Italian
+subjects which formed the entirety of his contributions to the Salon of
+1757 showed that he had been put on a false track, and he speedily
+returned to the source of his first inspiration. In 1759, 1761
+("L'Accordée de village"--Louvre), and 1763 Greuze exhibited with
+ever-increasing success; in 1765 he reached the zenith of his powers and
+reputation. In that year he was represented with no less than thirteen
+works, amongst which may be cited "La Jeune Fille qui pleure son oiseau
+mort," "La Bonne Mère," "Le Mauvais fils puni" (Louvre) and "La
+Malédiction paternelle" (Louvre). The Academy took occasion to press
+Greuze for his diploma picture, the execution of which had been long
+delayed, and forbade him to exhibit on their walls until he had complied
+with their regulations. "J'ai vu la lettre," says Diderot, "qui est un
+modèle d'honnêteté et d'estime; j'ai vu la réponse de Greuze, qui est un
+modèle de vanité et d'impertinence: il fallait appuyer cela d'un
+chef-d'oeuvre, et c'est ce que Greuze n'a pas fait." Greuze wished to be
+received as a historical painter, and produced a work which he intended
+to vindicate his right to despise his qualifications as a _peintre de
+genre_. This unfortunate canvas--"Sevère et Caracalla" (Louvre)--was
+exhibited in 1769 side by side with Greuze's portrait of Jeaurat
+(Louvre) and his admirable "Petite Fille au chien noir." The
+Academicians received their new member with all due honours, but at the
+close of the ceremonies the Director addressed Greuze in these
+words--"Monsieur, l'Académie vous a reçu, mais c'est comme peintre de
+genre; elle a eu égard à vos anciennes productions, qui sont
+excellentes, et elle a fermé les yeux sur celle-ci, qui n'est digne ni
+d'elle ni de vous." Greuze, greatly incensed, quarrelled with his
+_confrères_, and ceased to exhibit until, in 1804, the Revolution had
+thrown open the doors of the Academy to all the world. In the following
+year, on the 4th of March 1805, he died in the Louvre in great poverty.
+He had been in receipt of considerable wealth, which he had dissipated
+by extravagance and bad management, so that during his closing years he
+was forced even to solicit commissions which his enfeebled powers no
+longer enabled him to carry out with success. The brilliant reputation
+which Greuze acquired seems to have been due, not to his acquirements as
+a painter--for his practice is evidently that current in his own
+day--but to the character of the subjects which he treated. That return
+to nature which inspired Rousseau's attacks upon an artificial
+civilization demanded expression in art. Diderot, in _Le Fils naturel et
+le père de famille_, tried to turn the vein of domestic drama to account
+on the stage; that which he tried and failed to do Greuze, in painting,
+achieved with extraordinary success, although his works, like the plays
+of Diderot, were affected by that very artificiality against which they
+protested. The touch of melodramatic exaggeration, however, which runs
+through them finds an apology in the firm and brilliant play of line, in
+the freshness and vigour of the flesh tints, in the enticing softness of
+expression (often obtained by almost an abuse of _méplats_), by the
+alluring air of health and youth, by the sensuous attractions, in short,
+with which Greuze invests his lessons of bourgeois morality. As Diderot
+said of "La Bonne Mère," "ça prêche la population;" and a certain
+piquancy of contrast is the result which never fails to obtain
+admirers. "La Jeune Fille à l'agneau" fetched, indeed, at the Pourtalès
+sale in 1865, no less than 1,000,200 francs. One of Greuze's pupils,
+Madame Le Doux, imitated with success the manner of her master; his
+daughter and granddaughter, Madame de Valory, also inherited some
+traditions of his talent. Madame de Valory published in 1813 a
+comédie-vaudeville, _Greuze, ou l'accordée de village_, to which she
+prefixed a notice of her grandfather's life and works, and the _Salons_
+of Diderot also contain, besides many other particulars, the story at
+full length of Greuze's quarrel with the Academy. Four of the most
+distinguished engravers of that date, Massard père, Flipart, Gaillard
+and Levasseur, were specially entrusted by Greuze with the reproduction
+of his subjects, but there are also excellent prints by other engravers,
+notably by Cars and Le Bas.
+
+  See also Normand, _J. B. Greuze_ (1892).     (E. F. S. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE (1794-1865), English diarist, a
+great-grandson by his father of the 5th earl of Warwick, and son of Lady
+Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the duke of Portland, formerly a leader
+of the Whig party, and first minister of the crown, was born on the 2nd
+of April 1794. Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather's
+house at Bulstrode. He was one of the pages of George III., and was
+educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the university
+early, having been appointed private secretary to Earl Bathurst before
+he was twenty. The interest of the duke of Portland had secured for him
+the secretaryship of the island of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office,
+the duties being performed by a deputy, and the reversion of the
+clerkship of the council. Greville entered upon the discharge of the
+duties of clerk of the council in ordinary in 1821, and continued to
+perform them for nearly forty years. He therefore served under three
+successive sovereigns,--George IV., William IV. and Victoria,--and
+although no political or confidential functions are attached to that
+office, it is one which brings a man into habitual intercourse with the
+chiefs of all the parties in the state. Well-born, well-bred, handsome
+and accomplished, Greville led the easy life of a man of fashion, taking
+an occasional part in the transactions of his day and much consulted in
+the affairs of private life. Until 1855 when he sold his stud he was an
+active member of the turf, and he trained successively with Lord George
+Bentinck, and with the duke of Portland. But the celebrity which now
+attaches to his name is entirely due to the posthumous publication of a
+portion of a Journal or Diary which it was his practice to keep during
+the greater part of his life. These papers were given by him to his
+friend Mr Henry Reeve a short time before his death (which took place on
+the 18th of January 1865), with an injunction that they should be
+published, as far as was feasible, at not too remote a period after the
+writer's death. The journals of the reigns of George IV. and William IV.
+(extending from 1820 to 1837) were accordingly so published in obedience
+to his directions about ten years after that event. Few publications
+have been received with greater interest by the public; five large
+editions were sold in little more than a year, and the demand in America
+was as great as in England. These journals were regarded as a faithful
+record of the impressions made on the mind of a competent observer, at
+the time, by the events he witnessed and the persons with whom he
+associated. Greville did not stoop to collect or record private scandal.
+His object appears to have been to leave behind him some of the
+materials of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would
+be judged. He records not so much public events as the private causes
+which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir-writer has left behind
+him a more valuable contribution to the history of the 19th century.
+Greville published anonymously, in 1845, a volume on the _Past and
+Present Policy of England to Ireland_, in which he advocated the payment
+of the Roman Catholic clergy; and he was also the author of several
+pamphlets on the events of his day.
+
+His brother, HENRY GREVILLE (1801-1872), attaché to the British embassy
+in Paris from 1834 to 1844, also kept a diary, of which part was
+published by Viscountess Enfield, _Leaves from the Diary of Henry
+Greville_ (London, 1883-1884).
+
+  See the preface and notes to the _Greville Memoirs_ by Henry Reeve.
+  The memoirs appeared in three sets--one from 1817 to 1837 (London,
+  1875, 3 vols.), and two for the period from 1837 to 1860, three
+  volumes in 1885 and two in 1887. When the first series appeared in
+  1875 some passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as
+  far as possible recalled and passages suppressed.
+
+
+
+
+GRÉVIN, JACQUES (c. 1539-1570), French dramatist, was born at Clermont
+about 1539. He studied medicine at the university of Paris. He became a
+disciple of Ronsard, and was one of the band of dramatists who sought to
+introduce the classical drama in France. As Sainte-Beuve points out, the
+comedies of Grévin show considerable affinity with the farces and
+_soties_ that preceded them. His first play, _La Maubertine_, was lost,
+and formed the basis of a new comedy, _La Trésorière_, first performed
+at the college of Beauvais in 1558, though it had been originally
+composed at the desire of Henry II. to celebrate the marriage of Claude,
+duchess of Lorraine. In 1560 followed the tragedy of _Jules César_,
+imitated from the Latin of Muret, and a comedy, _Les Ébahis_, the most
+important but also the most indecent of his works. Grévin was also the
+author of some medical works and of miscellaneous poems, which were
+praised by Ronsard until the friends were separated by religious
+differences. Grévin became in 1561 physician and counsellor to Margaret
+of Savoy, and died at her court in Turin in 1570.
+
+  The _Théâtre_ of Jacques Grévin was printed in 1562, and in the
+  _Ancien Théâtre français_, vol. iv. (1855-1856). See L. Pinvert,
+  _Jacques Grévin_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GRÈVY, FRANÇOIS PAUL JULES (1813-1891). President of the French
+Republic, was born at Mont-sous-Vaudrey in the Jura, on the 15th of
+August 1813. He became an advocate in 1837, and, having steadily
+maintained republican principles under the Orleans monarchy, was elected
+by his native department to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Foreseeing
+that Louis Bonaparte would be elected president by the people, he
+proposed to vest the chief authority in a president of the Council
+elected and removable by the Assembly, or in other words, to suppress
+the Presidency of the Republic. After the _coup d'état_ this proposition
+gained Grévy a reputation for sagacity, and upon his return to public
+life in 1868 he took a prominent place in the republican party. After
+the fall of the Empire he was chosen president of the Assembly on the
+16th of February 1871, and occupied this position till the 2nd of April
+1876, when he resigned on account of the opposition of the Right, which
+blamed him for having called one of its members to order in the session
+of the previous day. On the 8th of March 1876 he was elected president
+of the Chamber of Deputies, a post which he filled with such efficiency
+that upon the resignation of Marshal MacMahon he seemed to step
+naturally into the Presidency of the Republic (30th January 1879), and
+was elected without opposition by the republican parties (see FRANCE:
+_History_). Quiet, shrewd, attentive to the public interest and his own,
+but without any particular distinction, he would have left an
+unblemished reputation if he had not unfortunately accepted a second
+term (18th December 1885). Shortly afterwards the traffic of his
+son-in-law (Daniel Wilson) in the decorations of the Legion of Honour
+came to light. Grévy was not accused of personal participation in these
+scandals, but he was somewhat obstinate in refusing to realize that he
+was responsible indirectly for the use which his relative had made of
+the Élysée, and it had to be unpleasantly impressed upon him that his
+resignation was inevitable (2nd December 1887). He died at
+Mont-sous-Vaudrey on the 9th of September 1891. He owed both his success
+and his failure to the completeness with which he represented the
+particular type of the thrifty, generally sensible and patriotic, but
+narrow-minded and frequently egoistic _bourgeois_.
+
+  See his _Discours politiques et judiciaires, rapports et messages ...
+  accompagnés de notices historiques et précédés d'une introduction par
+  L. Delabrousse_ (2 vols., 1888).
+
+
+
+
+GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712), English vegetable anatomist and
+physiologist, was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607-1688),
+Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Michael's, Coventry, and was born
+in Warwickshire in 1641. He graduated at Cambridge in 1661, and ten
+years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden, his thesis being
+_Disputatio medico-physica ... de liquore nervoso_. He began
+observations on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in 1670 his essay,
+_The Anatomy of Vegetables begun_, was communicated to the Royal Society
+by Bishop Wilkins, on whose recommendation he was in the following year
+elected a fellow. In 1672, when the essay was published, he settled in
+London, and soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. In 1673
+he published his _Idea of a Phytological History_, which consisted of
+papers he had communicated to the Royal Society in the preceding year,
+and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as secretary of the society. He
+edited the _Philosophical Transactions_ in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he
+published "by request" a descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved
+at Gresham College, with which were printed some papers he had read to
+the Royal Society on the _Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and Guts_. In
+1682 appeared his great work on the _Anatomy of Plants_, which also was
+largely a collection of previous publications. It was divided into four
+books, _Anatomy of Vegetables begun_, _Anatomy of Roots_, _Anatomy of
+Trunks_ and _Anatomy of Leaves, Flowers, Fruits and Seeds_, and was
+illustrated with eighty-two plates, while appended to it were seven
+papers mostly of a chemical character. Among his other publications were
+_Sea-water made Fresh_ (1684), the _Nature and Use of the Salt contained
+in Epsom and such other Waters_ (1697), which was a rendering of his
+_Tractatus de salis ... usu_ (1695), and _Cosmologia sacra_ (1701). He
+died suddenly on the 25th of March 1712. Linnaeus named a genus of trees
+_Grewia_ (nat. ord. Tiliaceae) in his honour.
+
+
+
+
+GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845), English statesman, was the
+eldest surviving son of General Sir Charles Grey, afterwards 1st Earl
+Grey. He was born at his father's residence, Fallodon, near Alnwick, on
+the 13th of March 1764. General Grey (1729-1807), who was a younger son
+of the house of Grey of Howick, one of the most considerable territorial
+families in Northumberland, had already begun a career of active service
+which, like the political career of his son, covered nearly half a
+century. Before the latter was born, General Grey had served on the
+staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven Years' War and had
+been wounded at Minden. While the son was making verses at Eton, the
+father was serving against the revolted colonists in Pennsylvania and
+New Jersey, and while the young member for Northumberland was denouncing
+Pitt's war against the Convention, the veteran soldier was destroying
+the remnant of the French colonial empire by the capture of Martinique
+and Guadeloupe. When Napoleon threatened an invasion, General Grey took
+the command of the southern district, and at the peace of Amiens he was
+rewarded with a peerage, as Baron Grey of Alnwick, being created in 1806
+Earl Grey and Viscount Howick. His elder brother, Sir Henry Grey of
+Howick, the head of the family, had supported the government in
+parliament. But the political career of young Grey, who was
+heir-presumptive to the family estates, took a different complexion.
+
+Young Grey expected to reoccupy the seat which had been his uncle's; and
+his early years were spent in preparation for a parliamentary career. He
+was sent to Eton, and proceeded thence to Cambridge. William Pitt, a
+youth five years older, was then in residence as a master of arts,
+studiously paying court to the Whigs of the university; and at the
+general election of 1780 he came forward as a candidate for the
+academical seat. His name stood last on the poll, but he was brought in
+elsewhere, and his first speech proved him a man of the first mark. The
+unparalleled successes which followed portended grave changes. Pitt's
+elevation to the premiership, his brilliant and hard-fought battle in
+the house, and his complete rout of the Whig party at the general
+election of 1784, when he came in for Cambridge at the head of the poll,
+threatened the great territorial interest with nothing less than
+extinction. It was to this interest that Grey belonged; and hence, when
+at length returned for Northumberland in 1786, he at once came forward
+as a vigorous assailant of the government of Pitt. He was hailed by the
+opposition, and associated with Fox, Burke and Sheridan as a manager in
+the Hastings impeachment. During the nineteen years which remained of
+the career of Fox, he followed the great Whig statesman with absolute
+fidelity, and succeeded him as leader of the party. The shortcomings of
+Fox's statesmanship were inherited by Grey. Both were equally devoid of
+political originality, shunned the severer labours of the politician,
+and instinctively feared any deviation from the traditions of their
+party. Such men cannot save a party in its decadence, and the history of
+Fox and Grey has been aptly termed the history of the decline and fall
+of Whiggism.
+
+The stunning blow of 1784 was the first incident in this history. Its
+full significance was not at once perceived. An opposition, however weak
+in the beginning, generally has a tendency to revive, and Grey's early
+successes in the house helped to revive the Foxites. The European
+situation became favourable to this revival. The struggle in France for
+popular rights, culminating in the great Revolution, was watched by Fox
+with interested sympathy. He affected to regard the domination of Pitt
+as the domination of the crown, and as leading logically to absolutism,
+and saw in that popular sympathy for the French Revolution which
+naturally arose in England an instrument which might be employed to
+overthrow this domination.
+
+But Pitt gathered the fruits of the windfall. The spread of
+"Jacobinism," or "French principles," became the pretext on which the
+stronger half of the opposition went over to the government. Burke led
+the movement in the Commons, the duke of Portland and Lord Fitzwilliam
+in the Lords, and with this second incident in the Whig decline began
+the difficulties of Grey's career. The domination of the premier had
+already stirred the keenest resentment in the younger and more ambitious
+members of the Whig party. Freed from the restraint of the steadier
+politicians under Burke and Portland, the residuum under Fox fell into a
+series of grave mistakes. Of this residuum Grey became the moving
+spirit, for though Fox did not check their activity, he disclaimed the
+responsibility of their policy. Fox had refused to condemn "French
+principles," and denounced the war with France; but he would take no
+part in exciting agitation in England. It was otherwise with the
+restless spirits among whom Grey was found. Enraged by the attitude of
+Pitt, which was grounded on the support of the constituencies as they
+then stood, the residuum plotted an ill-timed agitation for
+parliamentary reform.
+
+The demand for parliamentary reform was as yet in a rudimentary stage.
+Forty years later it had become the demand of an unenfranchised nation,
+disabused by a sudden spread of political and economical knowledge. It
+was as yet but the occasional instrument of the scheming politician.
+Chatham had employed the cry in this sense. The Middlesex agitators had
+done the same; even the premier of the time, after his accession to
+power, had sought to strengthen his hands in the same way. But Pitt's
+hands were now strengthened abundantly; whereas the opposition had
+nothing to lose and much to gain by such a measure. The cry for reform
+thus became their natural expedient. Powerless to carry reform in the
+House, they sought to overawe parliament by external agitation, and
+formed the Society of the Friends of the People, destined to unite the
+forces of all the "patriotic" societies which already existed in the
+country, and to pour their violence irresistibly on a terrified
+parliament. Grey and his friends were enrolled in this portentous
+association, and presented in parliament its menacing petitions. Such
+petitions, which were in fact violent impeachments of parliament itself,
+proceeding from voluntary associations having no corporate existence,
+had been hitherto unknown in the English parliament. They had been well
+known in the French assembly. They had heralded and furthered the
+victory of the Jacobins, the dissolution of the constitution, the
+calling of the Convention and the fall of the monarchy.
+
+The Society of the Friends of the People was originally an after-dinner
+folly, extemporized at the house of a man who afterwards gained an
+earldom by denouncing it as seditious. Fox discountenanced it, though he
+did not directly condemn it; but Grey was overborne by the fierce
+Jacobinism of Lauderdale, and avowed himself the parliamentary
+mouthpiece of this dangerous agitation. But Pitt, strong in his
+position, cut the ground from under Grey's feet by suppressing the
+agitation with a strong hand. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act,
+the Gagging Acts and the state prosecutions form a painful historical
+episode. But the discredit belongs as much to Grey and Lauderdale as to
+Pitt. Grey always spoke regretfully of his share in the movement. "One
+word from Fox," he said, "would have kept me out of all the mess of the
+Friends of the People. But he never spoke it."
+
+It was Grey who moved the impeachment of Pitt, and he next promoted the
+equally foolish "Secession." Since the parliament did not properly
+represent the nation, and refused to reform itself or to impeach the
+minister, nothing remained but to disown it; and the opposition
+announced their intention of "seceding," or systematically absenting
+themselves from their places in parliament. This futile movement was
+originated by Grey, Lauderdale and the duke of Bedford. It obtained a
+somewhat wider support. It suited the languor of some dispirited
+politicians like Fox, and the avarice of some lawyers in large practice
+like Erskine; but sensible politicians at once condemned it. It directly
+ignored parliamentary government, and amounted to nothing but a pettish
+threat of revolution. "Secession," said Lord Lansdowne, with
+characteristic shrewdness, "either means rebellion, or it is nonsense."
+Pitt easily dashed this feeble weapon from the hands of his opponents.
+He roused jealousy in the absent by praising the parts and the
+patriotism of the rest, and thus gradually brought them back. Grey
+himself reappeared to protest against the union with Ireland.
+
+When Pitt died in 1806 nothing could prevent the reunited opposition
+from coming into power, and thus the Broad-bottom ministry was formed
+under Fox. On his death Grenville became premier, and Grey, now Lord
+Howick, foreign secretary, and leader of the House of Commons. Disunion,
+always the bane of English Liberalism, lurked in the coalition, and the
+Foxites and Grenvillites were only ostensibly at one. Grey opposed the
+war policy of Grenville; and this policy was not more successful than it
+had been in the hands of Pitt. And the change from the leadership of Fox
+to that of Grenville was only too perceptible. Both in court and country
+Grenville affected the role of Pitt, and assumed a stiff and peremptory
+attitude which ill became him. An ill-advised dissolution weakened their
+majority; they lost ground by the "delicate investigation" into the
+conduct of the princess of Wales; Lord Henry Petty's budget was too
+specious to command confidence; and the king, fully aware of their weak
+situation, resolved to get rid of them. When they proposed to concede a
+portion of the Catholic claims, George refused and demanded of them an
+undertaking never to propose such a measure again. This was refused, and
+the Grenville-Grey cabinet retired in March 1807. In the same year
+Grey's father died, and Grey went to the Upper House. Opposition united
+Grey and Grenville for a time, but the parties finally split on the old
+war question. When Napoleon returned from Elba in 1815, and once more
+seized the government of France, the same question arose which had
+arisen in 1792, Was England to go to war for the restoration of the
+Bourbons? Grenville followed the traditions of Pitt, and supported the
+ministry in at once renewing hostilities. Grey followed those of Fox,
+and maintained the right of France to choose her own governors, and the
+impossibility of checking the reaction in the emperor's favour. The
+victory of Waterloo put an end to the dispute, but the disruption became
+permanent. The termination of the war, and the cessation of all action
+in common, reduced the power of the opposition to nothing. Grenville
+retired from public life, and his adherents reinforced the ministry.
+Little remained for the Whigs to do. But the persecution of the queen
+afforded an opportunity of showing that the ministry were not
+omnipotent; and the part taken on that occasion by Grey won him at once
+the increased respect of the nation and the undying aversion of George
+IV. It sealed the exclusion of himself and his few friends from office
+during the king's life; and when in 1827 Grey came forth to denounce the
+ministry of Canning, he declared that he stood alone in the political
+world. His words were soon justified, for when Lord Goderich resigned,
+the remnant which had hitherto supported Grey, hastened to support the
+ministry of the duke of Wellington.
+
+We now reach the principal episode in Grey's career. In 1827 he seemed
+to stand forth the solitary and powerless relic of an extinct party. In
+1832 we find that party restored to its old numbers and activity,
+supreme in parliament, popular in the nation, and Lord Grey at its head.
+The duke of Wellington's foolish declaration against parliamentary
+reform, made in a season of great popular excitement, suddenly deprived
+him of the confidence of the country, and a coalition of the Whigs and
+Canningites became inevitable. The Whigs had in 1827 supported the
+Canningites; the latter now supported the Whigs, of whom Grey remained
+the traditional head. George IV. was dead, and no obstacle existed to
+Grey's elevation. Grey was sent for by William IV. in November 1830, and
+formed a coalition cabinet, pledged to carry on the work in which the
+duke of Wellington had faltered. But Grey himself was the mere
+instrument of the times. An old-fashioned Whig, he had little personal
+sympathy with the popular cause, though he had sometimes indicated a
+certain measure of reform as necessary. When he took office, he guessed
+neither the extent to which the Reform Act would go, nor the means by
+which it would be carried. That he procured for the country a measure of
+constitutional reform for which he had agitated in his youth was little
+more than a coincidence. In his youth he had put himself at the head of
+a frantic agitation against parliament, because he there found himself
+powerless. In his old age the case was reversed. Suddenly raised to a
+position of authority in the country, he boldly stood between
+parliament, as then constituted, and the formidable agitation which now
+threatened it and by a forced reform saved it from revolution. In his
+youth he had assailed Pitt's administration because Pitt's
+administration threatened with extinction the political monopoly of that
+landed interest to which he belonged. In his old age, on the contrary,
+unable to check the progress of the wave, he swam with it, and headed
+the movement which compelled that landed interest to surrender its
+monopoly.
+
+The second reading of the first Reform Bill was carried in the Commons
+by a majority of one. This was equivalent to a defeat, and further
+failures precipitated a dissolution. The confidence which the bold
+action of the ministry had won was soon plainly proved, for the second
+reading was carried in the new parliament by a majority of 136. When the
+bill had at length passed the Commons after months of debate, it was
+Grey's task to introduce it to the Lords. It was rejected by a majority
+of 41. The safety of the country now depended on the prudence and
+courage of the ministry. The resignation of Grey and his colleagues was
+dreaded even by the opposition, and they remained in office with the
+intention of introducing a third Reform Bill in the next session. The
+last months of 1831 were the beginning of a political crisis such as
+England had not seen since 1688. The two extreme parties, the
+Ultra-Radicals and the Ultra-Tories, were ready for civil war. Between
+them stood the ministry and the majority of intelligent peace-loving
+Englishmen; and their course of action was soon decided. The bill must
+be passed, and there were but two ways of passing it. One was to declare
+the consent of the House of Lords unnecessary to the measure, the other
+to create, if necessary, new peers in sufficient number to outvote the
+opposition. These two expedients did not in reality differ. To swamp the
+house in the way proposed would have been to destroy it. The question
+whether the ministry should demand the king's consent to such a
+creation, if necessary, was debated in the cabinet in September.
+Brougham proposed it, and gradually a majority of the cabinet were won
+over. Grey had at first refused to employ even the threat of so
+unconstitutional a device as a means to the proposed end. But his
+continued refusal would have broken up the ministry, and the breaking up
+of the ministry must now have been the signal for revolution. The second
+reading in the Commons was passed in December by a majority of 162, and
+on New-Year's day 1832 the majority of the cabinet resolved on demanding
+power to carry it in the Lords by a creation of peers. Grey carried the
+resolution to the king. Some time still remained before the bill could
+be committed and read a third time. It was not until the 9th of April
+that Grey moved the second reading in the Lords. A sufficient number of
+the opposition temporized; and the second reading was allowed to pass by
+a majority of nine. Their intention was to mutilate the bill in
+committee. The Ultra-Tories, headed by the duke of Wellington, had
+entered a protest against the second reading, but they were now
+politically powerless. The struggle had become a struggle on the one
+hand for the whole bill, to be carried by a creation of peers, and on
+the other for some mutilated measure. Grey's instinct divined that the
+crisis was approaching. Either the king must consent to swamp the House,
+or the ministry must cease to stand in the breach between the peers and
+the country. The king, a weak and inexperienced politician, had in the
+meantime been wrought upon by the temporizing leaders in the Lords. He
+was induced to believe that if the Commons should reject the mutilated
+bill when it was returned to them, and the ministry should consequently
+retire, the mutilated bill might be reintroduced and passed by a Tory
+ministry. He was deaf to all representations of the state of public
+opinion; and to the surprise of the ministry, and the terror and
+indignation of every man of sense in the country, he rejected their
+proposal and accepted their resignation, May 9, 1832. The duke of
+Wellington undertook the hopeless task of constructing a ministry which
+should pass a restricted or sham Reform Bill. The only man who could
+have made the success of such a ministry even probable was Peel, and
+Peel's conscience and good sense forbade the attempt. He refused, and
+after a week of the profoundest agitation throughout the country, the
+king, beaten and mortified, was forced to send for Grey and Brougham. On
+being told that his consent to the creation of peers was the only
+condition on which they could undertake the government, he angrily and
+reluctantly yielded. The chancellor, with cool forethought, demanded
+this consent in writing. Grey thought such a demand harsh and
+unnecessary. "I wonder," he said to Brougham, when the interview was
+over, "you could have had the heart to press it." But Brougham was
+inexorable, and the king signed the following paper: "The king grants
+permission to Earl Grey, and to his chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create
+such a number of peers as will be sufficient to ensure the passing of
+the Reform Bill, first calling up peers' eldest sons.--WILLIAM R.,
+Windsor, May 17, 1832."
+
+Grey had now won the game. There was no danger that he would have to
+resort to the expedient which he was authorized to employ. The
+introduction of sixty new peers would have destroyed the opposition, but
+it would have been equivalent to the abolition of the House. The king's
+consent made known, a sufficient number of peers were sure to withdraw
+to enable the bill to pass, and thus the dignity of both king and
+peerage would be saved. The duke of Wellington headed this movement on
+the part of the opposition; and the third reading of the bill was
+carried in the Lords by a majority of 84.
+
+It is well known that in after years both Grey and Brougham disclaimed
+any intention of executing their threat. If this were so, they must have
+merely pretended to brave a danger which they secretly feared to face,
+and intended to avoid; and the credit of rescuing the country would
+belong to the duke of Wellington and the peers who seceded with him. To
+argue such cowardice in them from statements made when the crisis was
+long past, and when they were naturally willing to palliate the rough
+policy which they were forced to adopt, would be to set up a needless
+and unjustifiable paradox. Nothing else in the career of either Grey or
+Brougham leads us to suppose them capable of the moral baseness of
+yielding up the helm of state, in an hour of darkness and peril, to
+reckless and unskilled hands. Such would have been the result if they
+had lacked the determination to carry out their programme to the end.
+The influence of every statesman in the country would then have been
+extinguished, and the United Kingdom would have been absolutely in the
+hands of O'Connell and Orator Hunt.
+
+Grey took but little part in directing the legislation of the reformed
+parliament. Never anxious for power, he had executed the arduous task
+of 1831-1832 rather as a matter of duty than of inclination, and wished
+for an opportunity of retiring. Such an opportunity very shortly
+presented itself. The Irish policy of the ministry had not conciliated
+the Irish people, and O'Connell denounced them with the greatest
+bitterness. On the renewal of the customary Coercion Bill, the ministry
+was divided on the question whether to continue to the lord-lieutenant
+the power of suppressing public meetings. Littleton, the Irish
+secretary, was for abolishing it; and with the view of conciliating
+O'Connell, he informed him that the ministry intended to abandon it. But
+the result proved him to have been mistaken, and O'Connell, with some
+reason supposing himself to have been duped, called on Littleton to
+resign his secretaryship. It had also transpired in the discussion that
+Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of Commons, was privately opposed
+to retaining those clauses which it was his duty to push through the
+house. Lord Althorp therefore resigned, and Grey, who had lately passed
+his seventieth year, took the opportunity of resigning also. It was his
+opinion, it appeared, which had overborne the cabinet in favour of the
+public meeting clauses; and his voluntary withdrawal enabled Lord
+Althorp to return to his post and to proceed with the bill in its milder
+form. Grey was succeeded by Lord Melbourne; but no other change was made
+in the cabinet. Grey took no further part in politics. During most of
+his remaining years he continued to live in retirement at Howick, where
+he died on the 17th of July 1845, in his eighty-second year. By his wife
+Mary Elizabeth, only daughter of the first Lord Ponsonby, whom he
+married on the 18th of November 1794, he became the father of ten sons
+and five daughters. Grey's eldest son Henry (q.v.) became the 3rd earl,
+and among his other sons were General Charles Grey (1804-1870) and
+Admiral Frederick Grey (1805-1878).
+
+In public life, Grey could always be upon occasion bold, strenuous and
+self-sacrificing; but he was little disposed for the active work of the
+politician. He was not one of those who took the statesman's duty "as a
+pleasure he was to enjoy." A certain stiffness and reserve ever seemed
+in the popular eye to hedge him in; nor was his oratory of the kind
+which stirs enthusiasm and delight. A tall, stately figure, fine voice
+and calm aristocratic bearing reminded the listener of Pitt rather than
+of Fox, and his speeches were constructed on the Attic rather than the
+Asiatic model. Though simple and straightforward, they never lacked
+either point or dignity; and they were admirably adapted to the audience
+to which they were addressed. The scrupulous uprightness of Grey's
+political and private character completed the ascendancy which he
+gained; and no politician could be named who, without being a statesman
+of the highest class, has left a name more enviably placed in English
+history.     (E. J. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GREY, SIR EDWARD, 3rd Bart. (1862-   ), English statesman, was educated
+at Winchester and at Balliol College, Oxford, and succeeded his
+grandfather, the 2nd baronet, at the age of twenty. He entered the House
+of Commons as Liberal member for Berwick-on-Tweed in 1885, but he was
+best known as a country gentleman with a taste for sport, and as amateur
+champion tennis-player. His interest in politics was rather languid, but
+he was a disciple of Lord Rosebery, and in the 1892-1895 Liberal
+ministry he was under-secretary for foreign affairs. In this position he
+earned a reputation as a politician of thorough straightforwardness and
+grit, and as one who would maintain British interests independently of
+party; and he shared with Mr Asquith the reputation of being the ablest
+of the Imperialists who followed Lord Rosebery. Though outside foreign
+affairs he played but a small part in the period of Liberal opposition
+between 1895 and 1905, he retained public confidence as one who was
+indispensable to a Liberal administration. When Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet was formed in December 1905 he became
+foreign minister, and he retained this office when in April 1908 Mr
+Asquith became prime minister.
+
+
+
+
+GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812-1898), British colonial governor and statesman,
+only son of Lieutenant-Colonel Grey of the 30th Foot, was born in Lisbon
+on the 14th of April 1812, eight days after the death of his father at
+the storming of Badajoz. He passed through Sandhurst with credit, and
+received his commission in 1829. His lieutenancy was dated 1833, and his
+captaincy 1839, in which year he sold out and left the army. In the
+early 'thirties he was quartered in Ireland, where the wretchedness of
+the poorer classes left a deep impression on his mind. In 1836 the Royal
+Geographical Society accepted his offer to explore the north-west region
+of West Australia, and accordingly he landed at Hanover Bay at the end
+of 1837. The surrounding country he found broken and difficult, and his
+hardships were aggravated by the tropical heat and his ignorance of the
+continent. In a skirmish with the natives, in which he was speared near
+the hip, he showed great courage, and put the assailants to flight,
+shooting the chief, who had wounded him. After a brave endeavour to
+continue his journey his wound forced him to retreat to the coast,
+whence he sailed to Mauritius to recruit. Next year he again essayed
+exploration, this time on the coast to the north and south of Shark's
+Bay. He had three whale-boats and an ample supply of provisions, but by
+a series of disasters his stores were spoilt by storms, his boats
+wrecked in the surf, and the party had to tramp on foot from Gantheaume
+Bay to Perth, where Grey, in the end, walked in alone, so changed by
+suffering that friends did not know him. In 1839 he was appointed
+governor-resident at Albany, and during his stay there married Harriett,
+daughter of Admiral Spencer, and also prepared for publication an
+account, in two volumes, of his expeditions. In 1840 he returned to
+England, to be immediately appointed by Lord John Russell to succeed
+Colonel Gawler as governor of South Australia. Reaching the colony in
+May 1841, he found it in the depths of a depression caused by
+mismanagement and insane land speculation. By rigorously reducing public
+expenditure, and forcing the settlers to quit the town and betake
+themselves to tilling their lands, and with the opportune help of
+valuable copper discoveries, Grey was able to aid the infant colony to
+emerge from the slough. So striking were his energy and determination
+that when, in 1845, the little settlements in New Zealand were found to
+be involved in a native war, and on the verge of ruin, he was sent to
+save them. The Maori chiefs in open rebellion were defeated, and made
+their submission. Another powerful leader suspected of fomenting
+discontent was arrested, and friendly chieftains were subsidized and
+honoured. Bands of the natives were employed in making government roads,
+and were paid good wages. The governor gained the veneration of the
+Maori tribes, in whose welfare he took a close personal interest, and of
+whose legends and myths he made a valuable and scholarly collection,
+published in New Zealand in 1855 and reprinted thirty years afterwards.
+With peace prosperity came to New Zealand, and the colonial office
+desired to give the growing settlements full self-government. Grey,
+arguing that this would renew war with the Maori, returned the
+constitution to Downing Street. But though the colonial office sustained
+him, he became involved in harassing disputes with the colonists, who
+organized an active agitation for autonomy. In the end a second
+constitution, partly framed by Grey himself, was granted them, and Grey,
+after eight years of despotic but successful rule, was transferred to
+Cape Colony. He had been knighted for his services, and had undoubtedly
+shown strength, dexterity and humanity in dealing with the whites and
+natives. In South Africa his success continued. He thwarted a formidable
+Kaffir rebellion in the Eastern Provinces, and pushed on the work of
+settlement by bringing out men from the German Legion and providing them
+with homes. He gained the respect of the British, the confidence of the
+Boers, the admiration and the trust of the natives. The Dutch of the
+Free State and the Basuto chose him as arbitrator of their quarrels.
+When the news of the Indian Mutiny reached Cape Town he strained every
+nerve to help Lord Canning, despatching men, horses, stores and £60,000
+in specie to Bombay. He persuaded a detachment, then on its way round
+the Cape as a reinforcement for Lord Elgin in China, to divert its
+voyage to Calcutta. Finally, in 1859, Grey almost reached what would
+have been the culminating point of his career by federating South
+Africa. Persuaded by him, the Orange Free State passed resolutions in
+favour of this great step, and their action was welcomed by Cape Town.
+But the colonial office disapproved of the change, and when Grey
+attempted to persevere with it Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton recalled him. A
+change of ministry during his voyage to England displaced Sir Edward
+Bulwer Lytton. But though the duke of Newcastle reinstated Grey, it was
+with instructions to let federation drop. In 1861 the colonial office
+sent him, for the fourth time in succession, to take up a post of
+exceptional difficulty by again entrusting him with the governorship of
+New Zealand, where an inglorious native war in Taranaki had just been
+succeeded by an armed truce. Grey did his best to make terms with the
+rebels and to re-establish friendship with the Maori king and the land
+league of tribes formed to stop further sales of land to the whites. But
+the Maori had got guns and powder, and were suspicious and truculent. In
+vain Grey, supported by Bishop Selwyn and by Fox and the peace party
+among the settlers, strove to avert war. It came in 1863, and spread
+from province to province. Ten thousand regulars and as many colonial
+riflemen were employed to put it down. The imperial troops were badly
+handled, and Grey, losing patience, became involved in bitter disputes
+with their commanders. As an example to the former he himself attacked
+and captured Weraroa, the strongest of the Maori stockades, with a
+handful of militia, a feat which delighted the colonists, but made him
+as much disliked at the war office as he now was at Downing Street.
+Moreover, Grey had no longer real control over the islands. New Zealand
+had become a self-governing colony, and though he vindicated the
+colonists generally when libellous imputations of cruelty and
+land-grabbing were freely made against them in London, he crossed swords
+with his ministers when the latter confiscated three million acres of
+tribal land belonging to the insurgent Maori. Yet through all these
+troubles progress was made; many successes were gained in 1866, chiefly
+by the colonial militia, and a condition of something like tranquillity
+had been reached in 1867, when he received a curt intimation from the
+duke of Buckingham that he was about to be superseded. The colonists,
+who believed he was sacrificed for upholding their interests and good
+name, bade farewell to him in 1868 in an outburst of gratitude and
+sympathy; but his career as a colonial governor was at an end. Returning
+to England, he tried to enter public life, delivered many able speeches
+advocating what later came to be termed Imperialism, and stood for
+Newark. Discouraged, however, by the official Liberals, he withdrew and
+turned again to New Zealand. In 1872 he was given a pension of £1000 a
+year, and settled down on the island of Kawau, not far from Auckland,
+which he bought, and where he passed his leisure in planting, gardening
+and collecting books. In 1875, on the invitation of the Auckland
+settlers, he became superintendent of their province, and entered the
+New Zealand House of Representatives to resist the abolition of the
+provincial councils of the colony, a change then being urged on by Sir
+Julius Vogel in alliance with the Centralist Party. In this he failed,
+but his eloquence and courage drew round him a strong Radical following,
+and gave him the premiership in 1877. Manhood suffrage, triennial
+parliaments, a land-tax, the purchase of large estates and the popular
+election of the governor, were leading points of his policy. All these
+reforms, except the last, he lived to see carried; none of them were
+passed by him. A commercial depression in 1879 shook his popularity, and
+on the fall of his ministry in 1879 he was deposed, and for the next
+fifteen years remained a solitary and pathetic figure in the New Zealand
+parliament, respectfully treated, courteously listened to, but never
+again invited to lead. In 1891 he came before Australia as one of the
+New Zealand delegates to the federal convention at Sydney, and
+characteristically made his mark by standing out almost alone for "one
+man one vote" as the federal franchise. This point he carried, and the
+Australians thronged to hear him, so that his visits to Victoria and
+South Australia were personal triumphs. When, too, in 1894, he quitted
+New Zealand for London, some reparation was at last made him by the
+imperial government; he was called to the privy council, and graciously
+received by Queen Victoria on his visit to Windsor. Thereafter he lived
+in London, and died on the 20th of September 1898. He was given a public
+funeral at St Paul's. Grey was all his life a collector of books and
+manuscripts. After leaving Cape Colony, he gave his library to Cape Town
+in 1862; his subsequent collection, which numbered 12,000 volumes, he
+presented to the citizens of Auckland in 1887. In gratitude the people
+of Cape Town erected a statue of him opposite their library building.
+
+  _Lives_ of Sir George Grey have been written by W. L. and L. Rees
+  (1892), Professor G. C. Henderson (1907) and J. Collier (1909).
+       (W. P. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894), English statesman, was born on
+the 28th of December 1802, the son of the 2nd Earl Grey, prime minister
+at the time of the Reform Bill of 1832. He entered parliament in 1826,
+under the title of Viscount Howick, as member for Winchelsea, which
+constituency he left in 1831 for Northumberland. On the accession of the
+Whigs to power in 1830 he was made under-secretary for the colonies, and
+laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance with colonial
+questions. He belonged at the time to the more advanced party of
+colonial reformers, sharing the views of Edward Gibbon Wakefield on
+questions of land and emigration, and resigned in 1834 from
+dissatisfaction that slave emancipation was made gradual instead of
+immediate. In 1835 he entered Lord Melbourne's cabinet as secretary at
+war, and effected some valuable administrative reforms, especially by
+suppressing malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the
+partial reconstruction of the ministry in 1839 he again resigned,
+disapproving of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues. These
+repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotchetiness, which he
+did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his old colleagues by
+his action on free trade questions in the session of 1841. During the
+exile of the Liberals from power he went still farther on the path of
+free trade, and anticipated Lord John Russell's declaration against the
+corn laws. When, on Sir Robert Peel's resignation in December 1845, Lord
+John Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had become
+Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding July, refused to
+enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were foreign secretary (see J.
+R. Thursfield in vol. i. and Hon. F. H. Baring in vol. xxiii. of the
+_English Historical Review_). He was greatly censured for perverseness,
+and particularly when in the following July he accepted Lord Palmerston
+as a colleague without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded
+Lord John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation. Becoming
+colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere confronted with
+arduous problems, which in the main he encountered with success. His
+administration formed an epoch. He was the first minister to proclaim
+that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and not for
+the mother-country's; the first systematically to accord them
+self-government so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce
+free trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The
+concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from the
+mother-country _ad libitum_ was not his; he protested against it, but
+was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he could not
+overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion; in New Zealand he
+suspended the constitution he had himself accorded, and yielded
+everything into the masterful hands of Sir George Grey. The least
+successful part of his administration was his treatment of the convict
+question at the Cape of Good Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule
+that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and in
+accordance with their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating
+defeat. After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his
+colonial policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell, a dry but
+instructive book (_Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's
+Administration_, 1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No room
+was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and although during
+the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed to him as the fittest man as
+minister for war, he never again held office. During the remainder of
+his long life he exercised a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In
+1858 he wrote a work (republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in
+1888 he wrote another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the
+United States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor
+of weighty letters to _The Times_ on land, tithes, currency and other
+public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances were when he
+moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866, and when in 1878 he
+passionately opposed the policy of the Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He
+nevertheless supported Lord Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding
+Mr Gladstone's accession to power with much greater alarm. He was a
+determined opponent of Mr Gladstone's Home Rule policy. He died on the
+9th of October 1894. None ever doubted his capacity or his
+conscientiousness, but he was generally deemed impracticable and
+disagreeable. Prince Albert, however, who expressed himself as ready to
+subscribe to all Grey's principles, and applauded him for having
+principles, told Stockmar that, although dogmatic, he was amenable to
+argument; and Sir Henry Taylor credits him with "more freedom from
+littlenesses of feeling than I have met before in any public man." His
+chief defect was perceived and expressed by his original tutor and
+subsequent adversary in colonial affairs, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who
+wrote, "With more than a common talent for understanding principles, he
+has no originality of thought, which compels him to take all his ideas
+from somebody; and no power of working out theory in practice, which
+compels him to be always in somebody's hands as respects decision and
+action."
+
+The earl had no sons, and he was followed as 4th earl by his nephew
+Albert Henry George (b. 1851), who in 1904 became governor-general of
+Canada.
+
+
+
+
+GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554), a lady remarkable no less for her
+accomplishments than for her misfortunes, was the great-granddaughter of
+Henry VII. of England. Her descent from that king was traced through a
+line of females. His second daughter Mary, after being left a widow by
+Louis XII. of France, married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, who was
+a favourite with her brother King Henry VIII. Of this marriage came two
+daughters, the elder of whom, Lady Frances Brandon, was married to Henry
+Grey, marquess of Dorset; and their issue, again, consisted of daughters
+only. Lady Jane, the subject of this article, was the eldest of three
+whom the marquess had by Lady Frances. Thus it will appear that even if
+the crown of England had ever fallen into the female line of descent
+from Henry VII., she could not have put in a rightful claim unless the
+issue of his elder daughter, Margaret, had become extinct. But Margaret
+had married James IV. of Scotland; and, though her descendant, James
+VI., was ultimately called to the English throne, Henry VIII. had placed
+her family after that of his second sister in the succession; so that,
+failing the lawful issue of Henry himself, Lady Jane would, according to
+this arrangement, have succeeded. It was to these circumstances that she
+owed her exceptional position in history, and became the victim of an
+ambition which was not her own.
+
+She was born at her father's seat named Bradgate in Leicestershire about
+the year 1537. Her parents, though severe disciplinarians, bestowed more
+than ordinary care upon her education, and she herself was so teachable
+and delighted so much in study that she became the marvel of the age for
+her acquirements. She not only excelled in needlework and in music, both
+vocal and instrumental, but while still very young she had thoroughly
+mastered Latin, Greek, French and Italian. She was able to speak and
+write both Greek and Latin with an accuracy that satisfied even such
+critics as Ascham and her tutor Dr Aylmer, afterwards bishop of London.
+She also acquired some knowledge of at least three Oriental tongues,
+Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic. In Ascham's _Schoolmaster_ is given a
+touching account of the devotion with which she pursued her studies and
+the harshness she experienced from her parents. The love of learning was
+her solace; in reading Demosthenes and Plato she found a refuge from
+domestic unhappiness. When about ten years old she was placed for a time
+in the household of Thomas, Lord Seymour, who, having obtained her
+wardship, induced her parents to let her stay with him, even after the
+death of his wife, Queen Catherine Parr, by promising to marry her to
+his nephew, King Edward VI. Lord Seymour, however, was attainted of high
+treason and beheaded in 1549, and his brother, the duke of Somerset,
+made some overtures to the marquess of Dorset to marry her to his son
+the earl of Hertford. These projects, however, came to nothing. The duke
+of Somerset in his turn fell a victim to the ambition of Dudley, duke of
+Northumberland, and was beheaded three years after his brother.
+Meanwhile, the dukedom of Suffolk having become extinct by the deaths of
+Charles Brandon and his two sons, the title was conferred upon the
+marquess of Dorset, Lady Jane's father. Northumberland, who was now
+all-powerful, fearing a great reverse of fortune in case of the king's
+death, as his health began visibly to decline, endeavoured to strengthen
+himself by marriages between his family and those of other powerful
+noblemen, especially of the new-made duke of Suffolk. His three eldest
+sons being already married, the fourth, who was named Lord Guilford
+Dudley, was accordingly wedded to Lady Jane Grey about the end of May
+1553. The match received the full approval of the king, who furnished
+the wedding apparel of the parties by royal warrant. But Edward's state
+of health warned Northumberland that he must lose no time in putting the
+rest of his project into execution. He persuaded the king that if the
+crown should descend to his sister Mary the work of the Reformation
+would be undone and the liberties of the kingdom would be in danger.
+Besides, both Mary and her sister Elizabeth had been declared
+illegitimate by separate acts of parliament, and the objections to Mary
+queen of Scots did not require to be pointed out. Edward was easily
+persuaded to break through his father's will and make a new settlement
+of the crown by deed. The document was witnessed by the signatures of
+all the council and of all but one of the judges; but those of the
+latter body were obtained only with difficulty by threats and
+intimidation.
+
+Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553, and it was announced to Lady Jane
+that she was queen. She was then but sixteen years of age. The news came
+upon her as a most unwelcome surprise, and for some time she resisted
+all persuasions to accept the fatal dignity; but at length she yielded
+to the entreaties of her father, her father-in-law and her husband. The
+better to mature their plans the cabal had kept the king's death secret
+for some days, but they proclaimed Queen Jane in the city on the 10th.
+The people received the announcement with manifest coldness, and a
+vintner's boy was even so bold as to raise a cry for Queen Mary, for
+which he next day had his ears nailed to the pillory and afterwards cut
+off. Mary, however, had received early intimation of her brother's
+death, and, retiring from Hunsdon into Norfolk, gathered round her the
+nobility and commons of those parts. Northumberland was despatched
+thither with an army to oppose her; but after reaching Newmarket he
+complained that the council had not sent him forces in sufficient
+numbers and his followers began to desert. News also came that the earl
+of Oxford had declared for Queen Mary; and as most of the council
+themselves were only seeking an opportunity to wash their hands of
+rebellion, they procured a meeting at Baynard's Castle, revoked their
+former acts as done under coercion, and caused the lord mayor to
+proclaim Queen Mary, which he did amid the shouts of the citizens. The
+duke of Suffolk was obliged to tell his daughter that she must lay aside
+her royal dignity and become a private person once more. She replied
+that she relinquished most willingly a crown that she had only accepted
+out of obedience to him and her mother, and her nine days' reign was
+over.
+
+The leading actors in the conspiracy were now called to answer for their
+deeds. Northumberland was brought up to London a prisoner, tried and
+sent to the block, along with some of his partisans. The duke of Suffolk
+and Lady Jane were also committed to the Tower; but the former, by the
+influence of his duchess, procured a pardon. Lady Jane and her husband
+Lord Guilford Dudley were also tried, and received sentence of death for
+treason. This, however, was not immediately carried out; on the
+contrary, the queen seems to have wished to spare their lives and
+mitigated the rigour of their confinement. Unfortunately, owing to the
+general dislike of the queen's marriage with Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas
+Wyat soon after raised a rebellion in which the duke of Suffolk and his
+brothers took part, and on its suppression the queen was persuaded that
+it was unsafe to spare the lives of Lady Jane and her husband any
+longer. On hearing that they were to die, Lady Jane declined a parting
+interview with her husband lest it should increase their pain, and
+prepared to meet her fate with Christian fortitude. She and her husband
+were executed on the same day, on the 12th of February 1554, her husband
+on Tower Hill, and herself within the Tower an hour afterwards, amidst
+universal sympathy and compassion.
+
+  See Ascham's _Schoolmaster_; Burnet's _History of the Reformation_;
+  Howard's _Lady Jane Grey_; Nicolas's Literary _Remains of Lady Jane
+  Grey_; Tytler's _England under Edward VI. and Mary_; _The Chronicles
+  of Queen Jane_, ed. J. G. Nichols; _The Accession of Queen Mary_
+  (Guaras's narrative), ed. R. Garnett (1892); Foxe's _Acts and
+  Monuments_.
+
+
+
+
+GREY DE WILTON and GREY DE RUTHYN. The first Baron Grey de Wilton was
+Reginald de Grey, who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1295 and
+who died in 1308. Reginald's son John, the 2nd baron (1268-1323), was
+one of the lords ordainers in 1310 and was a prominent figure in English
+politics during the reign of Edward II. The later barons Grey de Wilton
+were descended from John's eldest son Henry (d. 1342), while a younger
+son Roger (d. 1353) was the ancestor of the barons Grey de Ruthyn.
+
+WILLIAM, 13TH LORD GREY DE WILTON (d. 1562), who succeeded to the title
+on the death of his brother Richard, about 1520, won great fame as a
+soldier by his conduct in France during the concluding years of Henry
+VIII.'s reign, and was one of the leaders of the victorious English army
+at the battle of Pinkie in 1547. He was then employed on the Scottish
+marches and in Scotland, and in 1549 he rendered good service in
+suppressing the rebellion in Oxfordshire and in the west of England; in
+1551 he was imprisoned as a friend of the fallen protector, the duke of
+Somerset, and he was concerned in the attempt made by John Dudley, duke
+of Northumberland, to place Lady Jane Grey on the English throne In
+1553. However, he was pardoned by Queen Mary and was entrusted with the
+defence of Guînes. Although indifferently supported he defended the town
+with great gallantry, but in January 1558 he was forced to surrender and
+for some time he remained a prisoner in France. Under Elizabeth, Grey
+was again employed on the Scottish border, and he was responsible for
+the pertinacious but unavailing attempt to capture Leith in May 1560. He
+died at Cheshunt in Hertfordshire on the 14th/25th of December 1562.
+
+  He was described by William Cecil as "a noble, valiant, painful and
+  careful gentleman," and his son and successor, Arthur, wrote _A
+  Commentary of the Services and Charges of William, Lord Grey of
+  Wilton, K.G._ This has been edited by Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton for
+  the Camden Society (1847).
+
+Grey's elder son ARTHUR, 14TH LORD GREY DE WILTON (1536-1593), was
+during early life with his father in France and in Scotland; he fought
+at the battle of St Quentin and helped to defend Guînes and to assault
+Leith. In July 1580 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland, and after
+an initial defeat in Wicklow was successful in reducing many of the
+rebels to a temporary submission. Perhaps the most noteworthy event
+during his tenure of this office was the massacre of 600 Italians and
+Spaniards at Smerwick in November 1580, an action for which he was
+responsible. Having incurred a heavy burden of debt Grey frequently
+implored the queen to recall him, and in August 1582 he was allowed to
+return to England (see E. Spenser, _View of the State of Ireland_,
+edited by H. Morley, 1890, and R. Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_,
+vol. iii., 1890). While in Ireland Grey was served as secretary by
+Edmund Spenser, and in book v. of the _Faerie Queene_ the poet
+represents his patron as a knight of very noble qualities named
+Artegall. As one of the commissioners who tried Mary queen of Scots,
+Grey defended the action of Elizabeth's secretary, William Davison, with
+regard to this matter, and he took part in the preparations for the
+defence of England against the Spaniards in 1588. His account of the
+defence of Guînes was used by Holinshed in his _Chronicles_.
+
+When he died on the 14th of October 1593 he was succeeded as 15th baron
+by his son THOMAS (d. 1614), who while serving in Ireland incurred the
+enmity of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, and of Henry Wriothesley, earl
+of Southampton; and after fighting against Spain in the Netherlands he
+was a member of the court which sentenced these two noblemen to death in
+1601. On the accession of James I. he was arrested for his share in the
+"Bye" plot, an attempt made by William Watson and others to seize the
+king. He was tried and sentenced to death, but the sentence was not
+carried out and he remained in prison until his death on the 9th of July
+1614. He displayed both ability and courage at his trial, remarking
+after sentence had been passed, "the house of Wilton hath spent many
+lives in their prince's service and Grey cannot beg his." Like his
+father Grey was a strong Puritan. He left no children and his barony
+became extinct.
+
+  In 1784 Sir Thomas Egerton, Bart., a descendant in the female line of
+  the 14th baron, was created Baron Grey de Wilton. He died without sons
+  in September 1814, when his barony became extinct; but the titles of
+  Viscount Grey de Wilton and earl of Wilton, which had been conferred
+  upon him in 1801, passed to Thomas Grosvenor (1799-1882), the second
+  son of his daughter Eleanor (d. 1846); and her husband Robert
+  Grosvenor, 1st marquess of Westminster. Thomas took the name of
+  Egerton and his descendants still hold the titles.
+
+ROGER GREY, 1ST BARON GREY DE RUTHYN, who was summoned to parliament as
+a baron in 1324, saw much service as a soldier before his death on the
+6th of March 1353. The second baron was his son Reginald, whose son
+REGINALD (c. 1362-1440) succeeded to the title on his father's death in
+July 1388. In 1410 after a long dispute the younger Reginald won the
+right to bear the arms of the Hastings family. He enjoyed the favour
+both of Richard II. and Henry IV., and his chief military exploits were
+against the Welsh, who took him prisoner in 1402 and only released him
+upon payment of a heavy ransom. Grey was a member of the council which
+governed England during the absence of Henry V. in France in 1415; he
+fought in the French wars in 1420 and 1421 and died on the 30th of
+September 1440. His eldest son, Sir John Grey, K.G. (d. 1439), who
+predeceased his father, fought at Agincourt and was deputy of Ireland in
+1427. He was the father of EDMUND GREY (d. 1489), who succeeded his
+grandfather as Lord Grey de Ruthyn in 1440 and was created earl of Kent
+in 1465.
+
+  One of Reginald Grey's younger sons, Edward (1415-1457), succeeded his
+  maternal grandfather as Baron Ferrers of Groby in 1445. He was the
+  ancestor of the earls of Stamford and also of the Greys, marquesses of
+  Dorset and dukes of Suffolk.
+
+  The barony of Grey de Ruthyn was merged in the earldom of Kent until
+  the death of Henry, the 8th earl, in November 1639. It then devolved
+  upon Kent's nephew Charles Longueville (1612-1643), through whose
+  daughter Susan (d. 1676) it came to the family of Yelverton, who were
+  earls of Sussex from 1717 to 1799. The next holder was Henry Edward
+  Gould (1780-1810), a grandson of Henry Yelverton, earl of Sussex; and
+  through Gould's daughter Barbara, marchioness of Hastings (d. 1858),
+  it passed to the last marquess of Hastings, on whose death in 1868 the
+  barony fell into abeyance, this being terminated in 1885 in favour of
+  Hastings's sister Bertha (d. 1887), the wife of Augustus Wykeham
+  Clifton. Their son, Rawdon George Grey Clifton (b. 1858), succeeded
+  his mother as 24th holder of the barony.
+
+
+
+
+GREYMOUTH, a seaport of New Zealand, the principal port on the west
+coast of South Island, in Grey county. Pop. (1906) 4569. It stands on
+the small estuary of the Grey or Mawhera river, has a good harbour, and
+railway communication with Hokitika, Reefton, &c., while the
+construction of a line to connect with Christchurch and Nelson was begun
+in 1887. The district is both auriferous and coal-bearing. Gold-dredging
+is a rich industry, and the coal-mines have attendant industries in
+coke, bricks and fire-clay. The timber trade is also well developed. The
+neighbouring scenery is picturesque, especially among the hills
+surrounding Lake Brunner (15 m. S.E.).
+
+
+
+
+GREYTOWN (SAN JUAN DEL NORTE), the principal seaport on the Caribbean
+coast of Nicaragua, in the extreme south-eastern corner of the republic,
+and at the mouth of the northern channel of the San Juan river delta.
+Pop. (1905) about 2500. The town occupies the seaward side of a narrow
+peninsula, formed by the windings of the river. Most of its houses are
+raised on piles 2 or 3 ft. above the ground. The neighbourhood is
+unhealthy and unsuited for agriculture, so that almost all food-stuffs
+must be imported, and the cost of living is high. Greytown has suffered
+severely from the accumulation of sand in its once fine harbour. Between
+1832 and 1848 Point Arenas, the seaward end of the peninsula, was
+enlarged by a sandbank more than 1 m. long; between 1850 and 1875 the
+depth of water over the bar decreased from about 25 ft. to 5 ft., and
+the entrance channel, which had been nearly ½ m. wide, was almost
+closed. Subsequent attempts to improve the harbour by dredging and
+building jetties have only had partial success; but Greytown remains the
+headquarters of Nicaraguan commerce with Europe and eastern America. The
+village called America, 1 m. N., was built as the eastern terminus of a
+proposed interoceanic canal.
+
+The harbour of San Juan, discovered by Columbus, was brought into
+further notice by Captain Diego Machuca, who in 1529 sailed down the
+river from Lake Nicaragua. The date of the first Spanish settlement on
+the spot is not known, but in the 17th century there were fortifications
+at the mouth of the river. In 1796 San Juan was made a port of entry by
+royal charter, and new defences were erected in 1821. In virtue of the
+protectorate claimed by Great Britain over the Mosquito Coast (q.v.),
+the Mosquito Indians, aided by a British force, seized the town in 1848
+and occupied it until 1860, when Great Britain ceded its protectorate to
+Nicaragua by the treaty of Managua. This treaty secured religious
+liberty and trial by jury for all civil and criminal charges in
+Greytown; its seventh article declared the port free, but was never
+enforced.
+
+
+
+
+GREYWACKE, or GRAUWACKE (a German word signifying a grey earthy rock),
+the designation, formerly more generally used by English geologists than
+at the present day, for impure, highly composite, gritty rocks belonging
+to the Palaeozoic systems. They correspond to the sandstones, grits and
+fine conglomerates of the later periods. Greywackes are mostly grey,
+brown, yellow or black, dull-coloured, sandy rocks which may occur in
+thick or thin beds along with slates, limestones, &c., and are abundant
+in Wales, the south of Scotland and the Lake district of England. They
+contain a very great variety of minerals, of which the principal are
+quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase, calcite, iron oxides and graphitic
+carbonaceous matters, together with (in the coarser kinds) fragments of
+such rocks as felsite, chert, slate, gneiss, various schists, quartzite.
+Among other minerals found in them are biotite and chlorite, tourmaline,
+epidote, apatite, garnet, hornblende and augite, sphene, pyrites. The
+cementing material may be siliceous or argillaceous, and is sometimes
+calcareous. As a rule greywackes are not fossiliferous, but organic
+remains may be common in the finer beds associated with them. Their
+component particles are usually not much rounded by attrition, and the
+rocks have often been considerably indurated by pressure and mineral
+changes, such as the introduction of interstitial silica. In some
+districts the greywackes are cleaved, but they show phenomena of this
+kind much less perfectly than the slates. Although the group is so
+diverse that it is difficult to characterize mineralogically, it has a
+well-established place in petrographical classifications, because these
+peculiar composite arenaceous deposits are very frequent among Silurian
+and Cambrian rocks, and rarely occur in Secondary or Tertiary systems.
+Their essential features are their gritty character and their complex
+composition. By increasing metamorphism greywackes frequently pass into
+mica-schists, chloride schists and sedimentary gneisses.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1715-1789), French artillery general, was
+the son of a magistrate of Amiens and was born there on the 15th of
+September 1715. He entered the French royal artillery in 1732 as a
+volunteer, and became an officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years
+regimental duty and scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became
+captain of a company of miners. A few years later he was employed in a
+military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being then a lieutenant-colonel,
+he was lent to the Austrian army on the outbreak of the Seven Years'
+War, and served as a general officer of artillery. The siege of Glatz
+and the defence of Schweidnitz were his principal exploits. The empress
+Maria Theresa rewarded him for his work with the rank of lieutenant
+field-marshal and the cross of the Maria Theresa order. On his return to
+France he was made _maréchal de camp_, in 1764 inspector of artillery,
+and in 1765 lieutenant-general and commander of the order of St Louis.
+For some years after this he was in disfavour at court, and he became
+first inspector of artillery only in 1776, in which year also he
+received the grand cross of the St Louis order. He was now able to carry
+out the reforms in the artillery arm which are his chief title to fame.
+See ARTILLERY; and for full details Gribeauval's own _Table des
+constructions des principaux attirails de l'artillerie ... de M. de
+Gribeauval_, and the _règlement_ for the French artillery issued in
+1776. He died in 1789.
+
+  See Puységur in _Journal de Paris_, supplement of the 8th of July
+  1789; Chevalier de Passac, _Précis sur M. de Gribeauval_ (Paris,
+  1816); Veyrines, _Gribeauval_ (Paris, 1889), and Hennébert,
+  _Gribeauval, lieutenant-général des armées du roy_ (Paris, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH (1795-1829), Russian dramatic author,
+was born in 1795 at Moscow, where he studied at the university from 1810
+to 1812. He then obtained a commission in a hussar regiment, but
+resigned it in 1816. Next year he entered the civil service, and in 1818
+was appointed secretary of the Russian legation in Persia, whence he was
+transferred to Georgia. He had commenced writing early, and had produced
+on the stage at St Petersburg in 1816 a comedy in verse, translated from
+the French, called _The Young Spouses_, which was followed by other
+pieces of the same kind. But neither these nor the essays and verses
+which he wrote would have been long remembered but for the immense
+success gained by his comedy in verse, _Goré ot uma_, or "Misfortune
+from Intelligence" (Eng. trans. by N. Benardaky, 1857). A satire upon
+Russian society, or, as a high official styled it, "A pasquinade on
+Moscow," its plot is slight, its merits consisting in its accurate
+representation of certain social and official types--such as Famousoff,
+the lover of old abuses, the hater of reforms; his secretary, Molchanin,
+servile fawner upon all in office; the aristocratic young liberal and
+Anglomaniac, Repetiloff; contrasted with whom is the hero of the piece,
+Tchatsky, the ironical satirist, just returned from the west of Europe,
+who exposes and ridicules the weaknesses of the rest, his words echoing
+that outcry of the young generation of 1820 which reached its climax in
+the military insurrection of 1825, and was then sternly silenced by
+Nicholas. Griboyedov spent the summer of 1823 in Russia, completed his
+play and took it to St Petersburg. There it was rejected by the
+censorship. Many copies were made and privately circulated, but
+Griboyedov never saw it published. The first edition was printed in
+1833, four years after his death. Only once did he see it on the stage,
+when it was acted by the officers of the garrison at Erivan. Soured by
+disappointment he returned to Georgia, made himself useful by his
+linguistic knowledge to his relative Count Paskievitch-Erivansky during
+a campaign against Persia, and was sent to St Petersburg with the treaty
+of 1828. Brilliantly received there, he thought of devoting himself to
+literature, and commenced a romantic drama, _A Georgian Night_. But he
+was suddenly sent to Persia as minister-plenipotentiary. Soon after his
+arrival at Teheran a tumult arose, caused by the anger of the populace
+against some Georgian and Armenian captives--Russian subjects--who had
+taken refuge in the Russian embassy. It was stormed, Griboyedov was
+killed (February 11, 1829), and his body was for three days so
+ill-treated by the mob that it was at last recognized only by an old
+scar on the hand, due to a wound received in a duel. It was taken to
+Tiflis, and buried in the monastery of St David. There a monument was
+erected to his memory by his widow, to whom he had been but a few months
+married.
+
+
+
+
+GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP (1843-1907), Norwegian musical composer, was born
+on the 15th of June 1843 in Bergen, where his father, Alexander Grieg
+(_sic_), was English consul. The Grieg family were of Scottish origin,
+but the composer's grandfather, a supporter of the Pretender, left his
+home at Aberdeen after Charles Edward's defeat at Culloden, and went to
+Bergen, where he carried on business. The composer's mother, Gesine
+Hagerup, belonged to a pure Norwegian peasant family; and it is from the
+mother rather than from the father that Edvard Grieg derived his musical
+talent. She had been educated as a pianist and began to give her son
+lessons on the pianoforte when he was six years of age. His first
+composition, "Variations on a German melody," was written at the age of
+nine. A summer holiday in Norway with his father in 1858 seems to have
+exercised a powerful influence on the child's musical imagination, which
+was easily kindled at the sight of mountain and fjord. In the autumn of
+the same year, at the recommendation of Ole Bull, young Grieg entered
+the Leipzig Conservatorium, where he passed, like all his
+contemporaries, under the influence of the Mendelssohn and Schumann
+school of romantics. But the curriculum of academic study was too narrow
+for him. He dreamed half his time away and overworked during the other
+half. In 1862 he completed his Leipzig studies, and appeared as pianist
+and composer before his fellow-citizens of Bergen. In 1863 he studied in
+Copenhagen for a short time with Gade and Emil Hartmann, both composers
+representing a sentimental strain of Scandinavian temperament, from
+which Grieg emancipated himself in favour of the harder inspiration of
+Richard Nordraak. "The scales fell from my eyes," says Grieg of his
+acquaintance with Nordraak. "For the first time I learned through him to
+know the northern folk tunes and my own nature. We made a pact to combat
+the effeminate Gade-Mendelssohn mixture of Scandinavism, and boldly
+entered upon the new path along which the northern school at present
+pursues its course." Grieg now made a kind of crusade in favour of
+national music. In the winter of 1864-1865 he founded the Copenhagen
+concert-society Euterpe, which was intended to produce the works of
+young Norwegian composers. During the winters of 1865-1866 and 1869-1870
+Grieg was in Rome. In the autumn of 1866 he settled in Christiania,
+where from 1867 till 1880 he conducted a musical union. From 1880 to
+1882 he directed the concerts of the Harmonic Society in Bergen. In 1872
+the Royal Musical Academy of Sweden made Grieg a member; in 1874 the
+Norwegian Storthing granted him an annual stipend of 1600 kronen. He had
+already been decorated with the Olaf order in 1873. In 1888 he played
+his pianoforte concerto and conducted his "two melodies for strings" at
+a Philharmonic concert in London, and visited England again in 1891,
+1894 and 1896, receiving the degree of Mus.D. from the university of
+Cambridge in 1894. He died at Bergen on the 4th of September 1907.
+
+As a composer Grieg's distinguishing quality is lyrical. Whether his
+orchestral works or his songs or his best pianoforte works are submitted
+to examination, it is almost always the note of song that tells.
+Sometimes, as in the music to Ibsen's _Peer Gynt_, or in the suite for
+stringed orchestra, _Aus Holbergs Zeit_, this characteristic is combined
+with a strong power for raising pictures in the listener's mind, and the
+romantic "programme" tendency in Grieg's music becomes clearer the
+farther writers like Richard Strauss carry this movement. Grieg's songs
+may be said to be generally the more spontaneous the more closely they
+conform to the simple model of the _Volkslied_; yet the much sung "Ich
+liebe dich" is a song of a different kind, which has hardly ever been
+surpassed for the perfection with which it depicts a strong momentary
+emotion, and it is difficult to ascribe greater merits to songs of Grieg
+even so characteristic as "Solvejg's Lied" and "Ein Schwan." The
+pianoforte concerto is brilliant and spontaneous; it has been performed
+by most pianists of the first rank, but its essential qualities and the
+pure nationality of its themes have been brought out to their perfection
+by one player only--the Norwegian pianist Knudsen. The first and second
+of Grieg's violin sonatas are agreeable, so free and artless is the flow
+of their melody. In his numerous piano pieces and in those of his songs
+which are devoid of a definitely national inspiration the impression
+made is less permanent. Bülow called Grieg the "Chopin of the North."
+The phrase is an exaggeration rather than an expression of the truth,
+for the range of the appeal in Chopin is far wider, nor has the
+national movement inaugurated by Grieg shown promise of great
+development. He is rather to be regarded as the pioneer of a musical
+mission which has been perfectly carried out by himself alone.
+
+  See La Mara, _Edvard Grieg_ (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB (1745-1812), German biblical critic, was born at
+Butzbach, a small town of Hesse-Darmstadt, where his father, Konrad
+Kaspar (1705-1777), was pastor, on the 4th of January 1745. He was
+educated at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and at the universities of Tübingen,
+Leipzig and Halle, where he became one of J. S. Semler's most ardent
+disciples. It was Semler who induced him to turn his attention to the
+textual criticism of the New Testament. At the close of his
+undergraduate career he undertook a literary tour through Germany,
+Holland, France and England. On his return to Halle, he acted for some
+time as _Privatdozent_, but in 1773 was appointed to a professorial
+chair; in 1775 he was translated to Jena, where the rest of his life was
+spent (though he received calls to other universities). He died on the
+24th of March 1812. Griesbach's fame rests upon his work in New
+Testament criticism, in which he inaugurated a new epoch.
+
+  His critical edition of the New Testament first appeared at Halle, in
+  three volumes, in 1774-1775. The first volume contained the first
+  three Gospels, synoptically arranged; the second, the Epistles and the
+  book of Revelation. All the historical books were reprinted in one
+  volume in 1777, the synoptical arrangement of the Gospels having been
+  abandoned as inconvenient. Of the second edition, considerably
+  enlarged and improved, the first volume appeared in 1796 and the
+  second in 1806 (Halle and London). Of a third edition, edited by David
+  Schulz, only the first volume, containing the four Gospels, appeared
+  (1827).
+
+  For the construction of his critical text Griesbach took as his basis
+  the Elzevir edition. Where he differed from it he placed the Elzevir
+  reading on the inner margin along with other readings he thought
+  worthy of special consideration (these last, however, being printed in
+  smaller type). To all the readings on this margin he attached special
+  marks indicating the precise degree of probability in his opinion
+  attaching to each. In weighing these probabilities he proceeded upon a
+  particular theory which in its leading features he had derived from J.
+  A. Bengel and J. S. Semler, dividing all the MSS. into three main
+  groups--the Alexandrian, the Western and the Byzantine (see BIBLE:
+  _New Testament_, "Textual Criticism"). A reading supported by only one
+  recension he considered as having only one witness in its favour;
+  those readings which were supported by all the three recensions, or
+  even by two of them, especially if these two were the Alexandrian and
+  the Western, he unhesitatingly accepted as genuine. Only when each of
+  the three recensions gives a different reading does he proceed to
+  discuss the question on other grounds. See his _Symbolae criticae ad
+  supplendas et corrigendas variarum N.T. lectionum collectiones_
+  (Halle, 1785, 1793), and his _Commentarius criticus in textum Graecum
+  N.T._, which extends to the end of Mark, and discusses the more
+  important various readings with great care and thoroughness (Jena,
+  1794 ff.). Among the other works of Griesbach (which are comparatively
+  unimportant) may be mentioned his university thesis _De codicibus
+  quatuor evangelistarum Origenianis_ (Halle, 1771) and a work upon
+  systematic theology (_Anleitung zur Kenntniss der populären Dogmatik_,
+  Jena, 1779). His _Opuscula_, consisting chiefly of university
+  "Programs" and addresses, were edited by Gabler (2 vols., Jena, 1824).
+
+  See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+GRIESBACH, a watering-place in the grand duchy of Baden, in the valley
+of the Rench, 1550 ft. above the sea, 6 m. W. from Freudenstadt in
+Württemberg. It is celebrated for its saline chalybeate waters (twelve
+springs), which are specific in cases of anaemia, feminine disorders and
+diseases of the nervous system, and were used in the 16th century. The
+annual number of visitors is nearly 2000. Pop. (1900) 800. From 1665 to
+1805 Griesbach was part of the bishopric of Strassburg.
+
+  See Haberer, _Die Renchbäder Petersthal und Griesbach_ (Würzburg,
+  1866).
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFE (French for "claw"), an architectural term for the spur, an
+ornament carved at the angle of the square base of columns.
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER, COUNT (_Peder Schumacher_) (1635-1699), Danish
+statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th of August 1635, of a
+wealthy trading family connected with the leading civic, clerical and
+learned circles in the Danish capital. His tutor, Jens Vorde, who
+prepared him in his eleventh year for the university, praises his
+extraordinary gifts, his mastery of the classical languages and his
+almost disquieting diligence. The brilliant way in which he sustained
+his preliminary examination won him the friendship of the examiner,
+Bishop Jasper Brokman, at whose palace he first met Frederick III. The
+king was struck with the lad's bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous
+face; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a chapter from
+a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into Danish, for the
+entertainment of the scholarly monarch. In 1654 young Schumacher went
+abroad for eight years, to complete his education. From Germany he
+proceeded to the Netherlands, staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam,
+and passing in 1657 to Queen's College, Oxford, where he lived three
+years. The epoch-making events which occurred in England, while he was
+at Oxford, profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the Revolution
+in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle classes, convinced
+him that his proper sphere was politics. In the autumn of 1660
+Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after Mazarin's death, when the young
+Louis XIV. first seized the reins of power. Schumacher seems to have
+been profoundly impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong
+centralised monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew his
+own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever afterwards was
+his model. The last year of his travels was spent in Spain, where he
+obtained a thorough knowledge of the Castilian language and literature.
+His travels, however, if they enriched his mind, relaxed his character,
+and he brought home easy morals as well as exquisite manners.
+
+On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the monarchy
+established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager to buy the
+services of every man of the middle classes who had superior talents to
+offer. Determined to make his way in this "new Promised Land," the young
+adventurer contrived to secure the protection of Kristoffer Gabel, the
+king's confidant, and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A
+romantic friendship with the king's bastard, Count Ulric Frederick
+Gyldenlöve, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher obtained his
+first political post as the king's secretary, and the same year composed
+the memorable _Kongelov_ (see DENMARK: _History_). He was now a
+personage at court, where he won all hearts by his amiability and
+gaiety; and in political matters also his influence was beginning to be
+felt.
+
+On the death of Frederick III. (February 9th, 1670) Schumacher was the
+most trusted of all the royal counsellors. He alone was aware of the
+existence of the new throne of walrus ivory embellished with three
+silver life-size lions, and of the new regalia, both of which treasures
+he had, by the king's command, concealed in a vault beneath the royal
+castle. Frederick III. had also confided to him a sealed packet
+containing the _Kongelov_, which was to be delivered to his successor
+alone. Schumacher had been recommended to his son by Frederick III. on
+his death-bed. "Make him a great man, but do it slowly!" said Frederick,
+who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his minister.
+Christian V. was, moreover, deeply impressed by the confidence which his
+father had ever shown to Schumacher. When, on the 9th of February 1670,
+Schumacher delivered the _Kongelov_ to Christian V., the king bade all
+those about him withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with
+Schumacher, appointed him his "Obergeheimesekreter." His promotion was
+now almost disquietingly rapid. In May 1670 he received the titles of
+excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same year he was
+ennobled under the name of Griffenfeldt, deriving his title from the
+gold griffin with outspread wings which surmounted his escutcheon; in
+November 1673 he was created a count, a knight of the Elephant and,
+finally, imperial chancellor. In the course of the next few months he
+gathered into his hands every branch of the government: he had reached
+the apogee of his short-lived greatness.
+
+But if his offices were manifold, so also were his talents. Seldom has
+any man united so many and such various gifts in his own person and
+carried them so easily--a playful wit, a vivid imagination, oratorical
+and literary eloquence and, above all, a profound knowledge of human
+nature both male and female, of every class and rank, from the king to
+the meanest citizen. He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III.
+by his literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse and
+ignorant Christian V. by saving him trouble, by acting and thinking for
+him, and at the same time making him believe that he was thinking and
+acting for himself. Moreover, his commanding qualities were coupled with
+an organizing talent which made itself felt in every department of the
+state, and with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal
+diplomatist.
+
+On the 25th of May 1671 the dignities of count and baron were introduced
+into Denmark "to give lustre to the court"; a few months later the order
+of the Danebrog was instituted as a fresh means of winning adherents by
+marks of favour. Griffenfeldt was the originator of these new
+institutions. To him monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he
+had also a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its
+reverses, still remained the élite of society; and Griffenfeldt, the son
+of a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most
+determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing their existence
+entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent into aristocratic
+circles. Griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the first at court would be
+the first everywhere. Much was also done to promote trade and industry,
+notably by the revival of the _Kammer Kollegium_, or board of trade, and
+the abolition of some of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher
+and the provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the
+view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the positions
+and duties of the various magistrates, who now also received fixed
+salaries, were for the first time exactly defined. But what Griffenfeldt
+could create, Griffenfeldt could dispense with, and it was not long
+before he began to encroach upon the jurisdiction of the new departments
+of state by private conferences with their chiefs. Nevertheless it is
+indisputable that, under the single direction of this master-mind, the
+Danish state was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as
+it had never done before.
+
+In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeldt gave himself
+entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark. It is
+difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence was
+perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second place,
+because the force of circumstances compelled him, again and again, to
+shift his standpoint; and finally because personal considerations
+largely intermingled with his foreign policy, and made it more elusive
+and ambiguous than it need have been. Briefly, Griffenfeldt aimed at
+restoring Denmark to the rank of a great power. He proposed to
+accomplish this by carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime
+securing and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large
+subsidies while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a conditional
+and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power, in a period of
+universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult; but Griffenfeldt did
+not regard it as impossible. The first postulate of such a policy was
+peace, especially peace with Denmark's most dangerous neighbour, Sweden.
+The second postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the
+wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent on
+armaments. Above all things Denmark was to beware of making enemies of
+France and Sweden at the same time. An alliance, on fairly equal terms,
+between the three powers, would, in these circumstances, be the
+consummation of Griffenfeldt's "system"; an alliance with France to the
+exclusion of Sweden would be the next best policy; but an alliance
+between France and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be
+avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeldt's policy succeeded, Denmark
+might have recovered her ancient possessions to the south and east
+comparatively cheaply. But again and again he was overruled. Despite his
+open protests and subterraneous counter-mining, war was actually
+declared against Sweden in 1675, and his subsequent policy seemed so
+obscure and hazardous to those who did not possess the clue to the
+perhaps purposely tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his
+arrogance and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to
+destroy him.
+
+On the 11th of March 1676, while on his way to the royal apartments,
+Griffenfeldt was arrested in the king's name and conducted to the
+citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny of his papers, lasting
+nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treasonable; but it provided the
+enemies of the fallen statesman with a deadly weapon against him in the
+shape of an entry in his private diary, in which he had imprudently
+noted that on one occasion Christian V. in a conversation with a foreign
+ambassador had "spoken like a child." On the 3rd of May Griffenfeldt was
+tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the _Höjesteret_, or
+supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries, none
+of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused.
+Griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony, bribery, oath-breaking,
+malversation and _lèse-majesté_, conducted his own defence under every
+imaginable difficulty. For forty-six days before his trial he had been
+closely confined in a dungeon without lights, books or writing
+materials. Every legal assistance was illegally denied him. Nevertheless
+he proved more than a match for the forensic ability arrayed against
+him, and his first plea in defence is in a high degree dignified and
+manly. Finally, he was condemned to degradation and decapitation; though
+one of the ten judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but
+remonstrated in private with the king against its injustice. And indeed
+its injustice was flagrant. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor was
+the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could convert into a
+capital offence, while the charge of treason had not been substantiated.
+Griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold, at the very moment when the
+axe was about to descend. On hearing that the sentence was commuted to
+life-long imprisonment, he declared that the pardon was harder than the
+punishment, and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the
+rest of his life as a common soldier. For the next two and twenty years
+Denmark's greatest statesman lingered out his life in a lonely
+state-prison, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, and finally at
+Munkholm on Trondhjem fiord. He died at Trondhjem on the 12th of March
+1699. Griffenfeldt married Kitty Nansen, the granddaughter of the great
+Burgomaster Hans Nansen, who brought him half a million rix-dollars. She
+died in 1672, after bearing him a daughter.
+
+  See _Danmark's Riges Histoire_, vol. v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905);
+  Jörgenson, _Peter Schumacher-Griffenfeldt_ (Copenhagen, 1893-1894); O.
+  Vaupell, _Rigskansler Grev Griffenfeldt_ (Copenhagen, 1880-1882);
+  Bain, _Scandinavia_, cap. x. (Cambridge, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFIN [O'GRIOBTA, O'GREEVA], GERALD (1803-1840), Irish novelist and
+dramatic writer, was born at Limerick of good family, on the 12th of
+December 1803. His parents emigrated in 1820 to America, but he was left
+with an elder brother, who was a medical practitioner at Adare. As early
+as his eighteenth year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a
+newspaper in Limerick. Having written a tragedy, _Aguire_, which was
+highly praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for London with the
+purpose of "revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by writing
+for the stage." In spite of the recommendations of John Banim, he had a
+hard struggle with poverty. It was only by degrees that his literary
+work obtained any favour. _The Noyades_, an opera entirely in
+recitative, was produced at the English Opera House in 1826; and the
+success of _Holland Tide Tales_ (1827) led to _Tales of the Munster
+Festivals_ (3 vols., 1827), which were still more popular. In 1829
+appeared his fine novel, _The Collegians_, afterwards successfully
+adapted for the stage by Dion Boucicault under the title of _The Colleen
+Bawn_. He followed up this success with _The Invasion_ (1832), _Tales of
+my Neighbourhood_ (1835), _The Duke of Monmouth_ (1836), and _Talis
+Qualis, or Tales of the Jury-room_ (1842). He also wrote a number of
+lyrics touched with his native melancholy. But he became doubtful as to
+the moral influence of his writings, and ultimately he came to the
+conclusion that his true sphere of duty was to be found within the
+Church. He was admitted into a society of the Christian Brothers at
+Dublin, in September 1838, under the name of Brother Joseph, and in the
+following summer he removed to Cork, where he died of typhus fever on
+the 12th of June 1840. Before adopting the monastic habit he burned all
+his manuscripts; but _Gisippus_, a tragedy which he had composed before
+he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction, and in 1842 was put on
+the Drury Lane stage by Macready with great success.
+
+  The collected works of Gerald Griffin were published in 1842-1843 in
+  eight volumes, with a _Life_ by his brother William Griffin, M.D.; an
+  edition of his _Poetical and Dramatic Works_ (Dublin, 1895) by C. G.
+  Duffy; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by George
+  Sigerson, is included in the _Treasury of Irish Poetry_, edited by
+  Stopford A. Brooke and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFIN, a city and the county-seat of Spalding county, Georgia, U.S.A.,
+43 m. S. of Atlanta, and about 970 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1890) 4503;
+(1900) 6857 (3258 negroes); (1910) 7478. It is served by the Southern
+and the Central of Georgia railways, and is the southern terminus of the
+Griffin & Chattanooga Division of the latter. The city is situated in a
+rich agricultural region, and just outside the corporate limits is an
+agricultural experiment station, established by the state but maintained
+by the Federal government. Griffin has a large trade in cotton and
+fruit. The principal industry is the manufacture of cotton and
+cotton-seed oil. Buggies, wagons, chairs and harness are among the other
+manufactures. The municipality owns and operates the water and
+electric-lighting systems. Griffin was founded in 1840 and was chartered
+as a city in 1846.
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFIN, GRIFFON or GRYPHON (from Fr. _griffon_, Lat. _gryphus_, Gr.
+[Greek: gryps]), in the natural history of the ancients, the name of an
+imaginary rapacious creature of the eagle species, represented with four
+legs, wings and a beak,--the fore part resembling an eagle and the
+hinder a lion. In addition, some writers describe the tail as a serpent.
+This animal, which was supposed to watch over gold mines and hidden
+treasures, and to be the enemy of the horse, was consecrated to the Sun;
+and the ancient painters represented the chariot of the Sun as drawn by
+griffins. According to Spanheim, those of Jupiter and Nemesis were
+similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is probably the osprey, and
+the name is now given to a species of vulture. The griffin was said to
+inhabit Asiatic Scythia, where gold and precious stones were abundant;
+and when strangers approached to gather these the creatures leapt upon
+them and tore them in pieces, thus chastising human avarice and greed.
+The one-eyed Arimaspi waged constant war with them, according to
+Herodotus (iii. 16). Sir John de Mandeville, in his _Travels_, described
+a griffin as eight times larger than a lion.
+
+The griffin is frequently seen as a charge in heraldry (see HERALDRY,
+fig. 163); and in architectural decoration is usually represented as a
+four-footed beast with wings and the head of a leopard or tiger with
+horns, or with the head and beak of an eagle; in the latter case, but
+very rarely, with two legs. To what extent it owes its origin to Persian
+sculpture is not known, the capitals at Persepolis have sometimes
+leopard or lion heads with horns, and four-footed beasts with the beaks
+of eagles are represented in bas-reliefs. In the temple of Apollo
+Branchidae near Miletus in Asia Minor, the winged griffin of the
+capitals has leopards' heads with horns. In the capitals of the
+so-called lesser propylaea at Eleusis conventional eagles with two feet
+support the angles of the abacus. The greater number of those in Rome
+have eagles' beaks, as in the frieze of the temple of Antoninus and
+Faustina, and their tails develop into conventional foliage. A similar
+device was found in the Forum of Trajan. The best decorative employment
+of the griffin is found in the vertical supports of tables, of which
+there are two or three examples in Pompeii and others in the Vatican and
+the museums in Rome. In some of these cases the head is that of a lion
+at one end of the support and an eagle at the other end, and there is
+only one strongly developed paw; the wings circling round at the top
+form conspicuous features on the sides of these supports, the surfaces
+below being filled with conventional Greek foliage.
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1784-1878), Irish geologist, was born in
+Dublin on the 20th of September 1784. He obtained in 1799 a commission
+in the Royal Irish Artillery, but a year later, when the corps was
+incorporated with that of England, he retired, and devoted his attention
+to civil engineering and mining. He studied chemistry, mineralogy and
+mining for two years in London under William Nicholson (editor of the
+_Journal of Nat. Phil._), and afterwards examined the mining districts
+in various parts of England, Wales and Scotland. While in Cornwall he
+discovered ores of nickel and cobalt in material that had been rejected
+as worthless. He completed his studies under Robert Jameson and others
+at Edinburgh, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
+1807, a member of the newly established Geological Society of London in
+1808, and in the same year he returned to Ireland. In 1809 he was
+appointed by the commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of
+the bogs in Ireland, and the means of improving them. In 1812 he was
+elected professor of geology and mining engineer to the Royal Dublin
+Society. During subsequent years he made many surveys and issued many
+reports on mineral districts in Ireland, and these formed the foundation
+of his first geological map of the country (1815). In 1822 Griffith
+became engineer of public works in Cork, Kerry and Limerick, and was
+occupied until 1830 in repairing old roads and in laying out many miles
+of new roads. Meanwhile in 1825 he was appointed to carry out the
+perambulation or boundary survey of Ireland, the object of which was to
+ascertain and mark the boundaries of every county, barony, parish and
+townland in preparation for the ordnance survey. This work was finished
+in 1844. He was also called upon to assist in preparing a bill for the
+general valuation of Ireland; the act was passed in 1826, and he was
+appointed commissioner of valuation, in which capacity he continued to
+act until 1868. On "Griffith's valuation" the various local and public
+assessments were made. His extensive investigations furnished him with
+ample material for improving his geological map, and the second edition
+was published in 1835. A third edition on a larger scale (1 in. to 4 m.)
+was issued under the Board of Ordnance in 1839, and it was further
+revised in 1855. For this great work and his other services to science
+he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1854. In
+1850 he was made chairman of the Irish Board of Works, and in 1858 he
+was created a baronet. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of September 1878.
+
+  Among his many geological works the following may be mentioned:
+  _Outline of the Geology of Ireland_ (1838); _Notice respecting the
+  Fossils of the Mountain Limestone of Ireland, as compared with those
+  of Great Britain, and also with the Devonian System_ (1842); _A
+  Synopsis of the Characters of the Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of
+  Ireland_ (1844) (with F. McCoy); _A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils
+  of Ireland_ (1846) (with F. McCoy). See memoirs in _Quart. Journ.
+  Geol. Soc._ xxxv. 39; and _Geol. Mag._, 1878, p. 524, with
+  bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+GRILLE, a French term for an enclosure in either iron or bronze; there
+is no equivalent in English, "grating" applying more to a horizontal
+frame of bars over a sunk area, and "grate" to the iron bars of an open
+fireplace. The finest examples of the grille are those known as the
+_rejas_, which in Spanish churches form the enclosures of the chapels,
+such as the _reja_ in the Capilla Real at Granada in wrought iron partly
+gilt (1522). Similar grilles are employed to protect the ground-floor
+windows of mansions not only in Spain but in Italy and Germany. In
+England the most beautiful example is that in front of Queen Eleanor's
+tomb in Westminster Abbey, in wrought iron. The finest grilles in Italy
+are the enclosures of the tombs of the Della Scalas at Verona (end of
+13th century), in Germany the grille of the cenotaph of Maximilian at
+Innsbruck (early 16th century) and in France those which enclose the
+Place Stanislaus, the Place de la Carrière and the churches of Nancy,
+which were wrought by Jean Lamour in the middle of the 18th century.
+Generally, however, throughout Germany the wrought iron grilles are fine
+examples of forging, and they are employed for the enclosures of the
+numerous fountains, in the tympana of gateways, and for the protection
+of windows. At Danzig in the Marienkirche are some fine examples in
+brass.
+
+
+
+
+GRILLPARZER, FRANZ (1791-1872), the greatest dramatic poet of Austria,
+was born in Vienna, on the 15th of January 1791. His father, severe,
+pedantic, a staunch upholder of the liberal traditions of the reign of
+Joseph II., was an advocate of some standing; his mother, a nervous,
+finely-strung woman, belonged to the well-known musical family of
+Sonnleithner. After a desultory education, Grillparzer entered in 1807
+the university of Vienna as a student of jurisprudence; but two years
+later his father died, leaving the family in straitened circumstances,
+and Franz, the eldest son, was obliged to turn to private tutoring. In
+1813 he received an appointment in the court library, but as this was
+unpaid, he accepted after some months a clerkship that offered more
+solid prospects, in the Lower Austrian revenue administration. Through
+the influence of Graf Stadion, the minister of finance, he was in 1818
+appointed poet to the Hofburgtheater, and promoted to the _Hofkammer_
+(exchequer); in 1832 he became director of the archives of that
+department, and in 1856 retired from the civil service with the title of
+_Hofrat_. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official career and
+regarded his office merely as a means of independence.
+
+In 1817 the first representation of his tragedy _Die Ahnfrau_ made him
+famous, but before this he had written a long tragedy in iambics,
+_Bianca von Castilien_ (1807-1809), which was obviously modelled on
+Schiller's _Don Carlos_; and even more promising were the dramatic
+fragments _Spartacus_ and _Alfred der Grosse_ (1809). _Die Ahnfrau_ is a
+gruesome "fate-tragedy" in the trochaic measure of the Spanish drama,
+already made popular by Adolf Müllner in his _Schuld_; but Grillparzer's
+work is a play of real poetic beauties, and reveals an instinct for
+dramatic as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it
+from other "fate-dramas" of the day. Unfortunately its success led to
+the poet's being classed for the best part of his life with playwrights
+like Müllner and Houwald. _Die Ahnfrau_ was followed by _Sappho_ (1818),
+a drama of a very different type; in the classic spirit of Goethe's
+_Tasso_, Grillparzer unrolled the tragedy of poetic genius, the
+renunciation of earthly happiness imposed upon the poet by his higher
+mission. In 1821 appeared _Das goldene Vliess_, a trilogy which had been
+interrupted in 1819 by the death of the poet's mother--in a fit of
+depression she had taken her own life--and a subsequent visit to Italy.
+Opening with a powerful dramatic prelude in one act, _Der Gastfreund_,
+Grillparzer depicts in _Die Argonauten_ Jason's adventures in his quest
+for the Fleece; while _Medea_, a tragedy of noble classic proportions,
+contains the culminating events of the story which had been so often
+dramatized before. The theme is similar to that of _Sappho_, but the
+scale on which it is represented is larger; it is again the tragedy of
+the heart's desire, the conflict of the simple happy life with that
+sinister power--be it genius, or ambition--which upsets the equilibrium
+of life. The end is bitter disillusionment, the only consolation
+renunciation. Medea, her revenge stilled, her children dead, bears the
+fatal Fleece back to Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the
+nothingness of human striving and earthly happiness.
+
+For his historical tragedy _König Ottokars Glück und Ende_ (1823, but
+owing to difficulties with the censor, not performed until 1825),
+Grillparzer chose one of the most picturesque events in Austrian
+domestic history, the conflict of Ottokar of Bohemia with Rudolph von
+Habsburg. With an almost modern realism he reproduced the motley world
+of the old chronicler, at the same time not losing sight of the needs of
+the theatre; the fall of Ottokar is but another text from which the poet
+preached the futility of endeavour and the vanity of worldly greatness.
+A second historical tragedy, _Ein treuer Diener seines Herrn_ (1826,
+performed 1828), attempts to embody a more heroic gospel; but the
+subject--the superhuman self-effacement of Bankbanus before Duke Otto of
+Meran--proved too uncompromising an illustration of Kant's categorical
+imperative of duty to be palatable in the theatre. With these historical
+tragedies began the darkest ten years in the poet's life. They brought
+him into conflict with the Austrian censor--a conflict which grated on
+Grillparzer's sensitive soul, and was aggravated by his own position as
+a servant of the state; in 1826 he paid a visit to Goethe in Weimar, and
+was able to compare the enlightened conditions which prevailed in the
+little Saxon duchy with the intellectual thraldom of Vienna. To these
+troubles were added more serious personal worries. In the winter of
+1820-1821 he had met for the first time Katharina Fröhlich (1801-1879),
+and the acquaintance rapidly ripened into love on both sides; but
+whether owing to a presentiment of mutual incompatibility, or merely
+owing to Grillparzer's conviction that life had no happiness in store
+for him, he shrank from marriage. Whatever the cause may have been, the
+poet was plunged into an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary
+bears heart-rending witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in
+the fine cycle of poems bearing the significant title _Tristia ex Ponto_
+(1835).
+
+Yet to these years we owe the completion of two of Grillparzer's
+greatest dramas, _Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen_ (1831) and _Der
+Traum, ein Leben_ (1834). In the former tragedy, a dramatization of the
+story of Hero and Leander, he returned to the Hellenic world of
+_Sappho_, and produced what is perhaps the finest of all German
+love-tragedies. His mastery of dramatic technique is here combined with
+a ripeness of poetic expression and with an insight into motive which
+suggests the modern psychological drama of Hebbel and Ibsen; the old
+Greek love-story of Musaeus is, moreover, endowed with something of that
+ineffable poetic grace which the poet had borrowed from the great
+Spanish poets, Lope de Vega and Calderon. _Der Traum, ein Leben_,
+Grillparzer's technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more
+Spanish; it is also more of what Goethe called a "confession." The
+aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are shadowed forth in
+the hero's dream, which takes up nearly three acts of the play;
+ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare to realize the truth of
+Grillparzer's own pessimistic doctrine that all earthly ambitions and
+aspirations are vanity; the only true happiness is contentment with
+one's lot, "des Innern stiller Frieden und die schuldbefreite Brust."
+_Der Traum, ein Leben_ was the first of Grillparzer's dramas which did
+not end tragically, and in 1838 he produced his only comedy, _Weh' dem,
+der lügt_. But _Weh' dem, der lügt_, in spite of its humour of
+situation, its sparkling dialogue and the originality of its
+idea--namely, that the hero gains his end by invariably telling the
+truth, where his enemies as invariably expect him to be lying--was too
+strange to meet with approval in its day. Its failure was a blow to the
+poet, who turned his back for ever on the German theatre. In 1836
+Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris and London, in 1843 to Athens and
+Constantinople. Then came the Revolution which struck off the
+intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and his contemporaries had
+groaned in Austria, but the liberation came too late for him. Honours
+were heaped upon him; he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences;
+Heinrich Laube, as director of the Burgtheater, reinstated his plays on
+the repertory; he was in 1861 elected to the Austrian _Herrenhaus_; his
+eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died in Vienna,
+on the 21st of January 1872, the mourning of the Austrian people was
+universal. With the exception of a beautiful fragment, _Esther_ (1861),
+Grillparzer published no more dramatic poetry after the fiasco of _Weh'
+dem, der lügt_, but at his death three completed tragedies were found
+among his papers. Of these, _Die Jüdin von Toledo_, an admirable
+adaptation from the Spanish, has won a permanent place in the German
+classical repertory; _Ein Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg_ is a powerful
+historical tragedy and _Libussa_ is perhaps the ripest, as it is
+certainly the deepest, of all Grillparzer's dramas; the latter two plays
+prove how much was lost by the poet's divorce from the theatre.
+
+Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, his lyric poetry is in
+the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior to Lenau's; and the
+bitterness of his later years found vent in biting and stinging epigrams
+that spared few of his greater contemporaries. As a prose writer, he has
+left one powerful short story, _Der arme Spielmann_ (1848), and a volume
+of critical studies on the Spanish drama, which shows how completely he
+had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point of view.
+
+Grillparzer's brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of will-power,
+his pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which his self-imposed
+martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly adapted to express the
+mood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual thraldom that lay between
+the Napoleonic wars and the Revolution of 1848; his poetry reflects
+exactly the spirit of his people under the Metternich régime, and there
+is a deep truth behind the description of _Der Traum, ein Leben_ as the
+Austrian _Faust_. His fame was in accordance with the general tenor of
+his life; even in Austria a true understanding for his genius was late
+in coming, and not until the centenary of 1891 did the German-speaking
+world realize that it possessed in him a dramatic poet of the first
+rank; in other words, that Grillparzer was no mere "Epigone" of the
+classic period, but a poet who, by a rare assimilation of the strength
+of the Greeks, the imaginative depth of German classicism and the
+delicacy and grace of the Spaniards, had opened up new paths for the
+higher dramatic poetry of Europe.
+
+  Grillparzer's _Sämtliche Werke_ are edited by A. Sauer, in 20 vols.,
+  5th edition (Stuttgart, 1892-1894); also, since the expiry of the
+  copyright in 1901, innumerable cheap reprints. _Briefe und
+  Tagebücher_, edited by C. Glossy and A. Sauer (2 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1903). _Jahrbuch der Grillparzer-Gesellschaft_, edited by K. Glossy
+  (the publication of the Grillparzer Society) (Vienna, 1891 ff.). See
+  also H. Laube, _Franz Grillparzers Lebensgeschichte_ (Stuttgart,
+  1884); J. Volkelt, _Franz Grillparzer als Dichter des Tragischen_
+  (Nördlingen, 1888); E. Reich, _Franz Grillparzers Dramen_ (Dresden,
+  1894); A. Ehrhard, _Franz Grillparzer_ (Paris, 1900) (German
+  translation by M. Necker, Munich, 1902); H. Sittenberger,
+  _Grillparzer, sein Leben und Wirken_ (Berlin, 1904); Gustav Pollak,
+  _F. Grillparzer and the Austrian Drama_ (New York, 1907). Of
+  Grillparzer's works, translations have appeared in English of _Sappho_
+  (1820, by J. Bramsen; 1846, by E. B. Lee; 1855, by L. C. Cumming;
+  1876, by E. Frothingham); and of _Medea_ (1879, by F. W. Thurstan and
+  J. A. Wittmann). Byron's warm admiration of _Sappho_ (_Letters and
+  Journals_, v. 171) is well known, while Carlyle's criticism, in his
+  essay on _German Playwrights_ (1829), is interesting as expressing the
+  generally accepted estimate of Grillparzer in the first half of the
+  19th century. See the bibliography in K. Goedeke's _Grundriss zur
+  Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed., vol. viii. (1905).
+       (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIMALD (or GRIMOALD), NICHOLAS (1519-1562), English poet, was born in
+Huntingdonshire, the son probably of Giovanni Baptista Grimaldi, who had
+been a clerk in the service of Empson and Dudley in the reign of Henry
+VII. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took his
+B.A. degree in 1540. He then removed to Oxford, becoming a
+probationer-fellow of Merton College in 1541. In 1547 he was lecturing
+on rhetoric at Christ Church, and shortly afterwards became chaplain to
+Bishop Ridley, who, when he was in prison, desired Grimald to translate
+Laurentius Valla's book against the alleged _Donation of Constantine_,
+and the _De gestis Basiliensis Concilii_ of Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.).
+His connexion with Ridley brought him under suspicion, and he was
+imprisoned in the Marshalsea. It is said that he escaped the penalties
+of heresy by recanting his errors, and was despised accordingly by his
+Protestant contemporaries. Grimald contributed to the original edition
+(June 1557) of _Songes and Sonettes_ (commonly known as _Tottel's
+Miscellany_), forty poems, only ten of which are retained in the second
+edition published in the next month. He translated (1553) Cicero's _De
+officiis as Marcus Tullius Ciceroes thre bokes of duties_ (2nd ed.,
+1556); a Latin paraphrase of Virgil's _Georgics_ (printed 1591) is
+attributed to him, but most of the works assigned to him by Bale are
+lost. Two Latin tragedies are extant; _Archipropheta sive Johannes
+Baptista_, printed at Cologne in 1548, probably performed at Oxford the
+year before, and _Christus redivivus_ (Cologne, 1543), edited by Prof.
+J. M. Hart (for the Modern Language Association of America, 1886,
+separately issued 1899). It cannot be determined whether Grimald was
+familiar with Buchanan's _Baptistes_ (1543), or with J. Schoeppe's
+_Johannes decollatus vel Ectrachelistes_ (1546). Grimald provides a
+purely romantic motive for the catastrophe in the passionate attachment
+of Herodias to Herod, and constantly resorts to lyrical methods. As a
+poet Grimald is memorable as the earliest follower of Surrey in the
+production of blank verse. He writes sometimes simply enough, as in the
+lines on his own childhood addressed to his mother, but in general his
+style is more artificial, and his metaphors more studied than is the
+case with the other contributors to the _Miscellany_. His classical
+reading shows itself in the comparative terseness and smartness of his
+verses. His epitaph was written by Barnabe Googe in May 1562.
+
+  See C. H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations of England and
+  Germany_ (pp. 113-119, 1886). _A Catalogue of printed books ... by
+  writers bearing the name of Grimaldi_ (ed. A. B. Grimaldi), printed
+  1883; and Arber's reprint oí _Tottel's Miscellany_.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (1606-1680), Italian architect and painter,
+named Il Bolognese from the place of his birth, was a relative of the
+Caracci family, under whom it is presumed he studied first. He was
+afterwards a pupil of Albani. He went to Rome, and was appointed
+architect to Pope Paul V., and was also patronized by succeeding popes.
+Towards 1648 he was invited to France by Cardinal Mazarin, and for about
+two years was employed in buildings for that minister and for Louis
+XIV., and in fresco-painting in the Louvre. His colour was strong,
+somewhat excessive in the use of green; his touch light. He painted
+history, portraits and landscapes--the last with predilection,
+especially in his advanced years--and executed engravings and etchings
+from his own landscapes and from those of Titian and the Caracci.
+Returning to Rome, he was made president of the Academy of St Luke; and
+in that city he died on the 28th of November 1680, in high repute not
+only for his artistic skill but for his upright and charitable deeds.
+His son Alessandro assisted him both in painting and in engraving.
+Paintings by Grimaldi are preserved in the Quirinal and Vatican palaces,
+and in the church of S. Martino a'Monti; there is also a series of his
+landscapes in the Colonna Gallery.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMALDI, JOSEPH (1779-1837), the most celebrated of English clowns, was
+born in London on the 18th of December 1779, the son of an Italian
+actor. When less than two years old he was brought upon the stage at
+Drury Lane; at the age of three he began to appear at Sadler's Wells;
+and he did not finally retire until 1828. As the clown of pantomime he
+was considered without an equal, his greatest success being in _Mother
+Goose_, at Covent Garden (1806 and often revived). Grimaldi died on the
+31st of May 1837.
+
+  His _Memoirs_ in two volumes (1838) were edited by Charles Dickens.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMKÉ, SARAH MOORE (1792-1873) and ANGELINA EMILY (1805-1879), American
+reformers, born in Charleston, South Carolina--Sarah on the 6th of
+November 1792, and Angelina on the 20th of February 1805--were daughters
+of John Fachereau Grimké (1752-1819), an artillery officer in the
+Continental army, a jurist of some distinction, a man of wealth and
+culture and a slave-holder.
+
+Their older brother, THOMAS SMITH GRIMKÉ (1786-1834), was born in
+Charleston; graduated at Yale in 1807; was a successful lawyer, and in
+1826-1830 was a member of the state Senate, in which he, almost alone of
+the prominent lawyers of the state, opposed nullification; he strongly
+advocated spelling-reform, temperance and absolute non-resistance, and
+published _Addresses on Science, Education and Literature_ (1831). His
+early intellectual influence on Sarah was strong.
+
+In her thirteenth year Sarah was godmother to her sister Angelina. Sarah
+in 1821 revisited Philadelphia, whither she had accompanied her father
+on his last illness, and there, having been already dissatisfied with
+the Episcopal Church and with the Presbyterian, she became a Quaker; so,
+too, did Angelina, who joined her in 1829. Both sisters (Angelina first)
+soon grew into a belief in immediate abolition, strongly censured by
+many Quakers, who were even more shocked by a sympathetic letter dated
+"8th Month, 30th, 1835" written by Angelina to W. L. Garrison, followed
+in 1836 by her _Appeal to the Christian Women of the South_, and at the
+end of that year, by an _Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States_,
+written by Sarah, who now thoroughly agreed with her younger sister. In
+the same year, at the invitation of Elizur Wright (1804-1885),
+corresponding secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Angelina,
+accompanied by Sarah, began giving talks on slavery, first in private
+and then in public, so that in 1837, when they set to work in
+Massachusetts, they had to secure the use of large halls. Their speaking
+from public platforms resulted in a letter issued by some members of the
+General Association of Congregational Ministers of Massachusetts,
+calling on the clergy to close their churches to women exhorters;
+Garrison denounced the attack on the Grimké sisters and Whittier
+ridiculed it in his poem "The Pastoral Letter." Angelina pointedly
+answered _Miss Beecher on the Slave Question_ (1837) in letters in the
+_Liberator_. Sarah, who had never forgotten that her studies had been
+curtailed because she was a girl, contributed to the Boston _Spectator_
+papers on "The Province of Woman" and published _Letters on the
+Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes_ (1838)--the real
+beginning of the "woman's rights" movement in America, and at the time a
+cause of anxiety to Whittier and others, who urged upon the sisters the
+prior importance of the anti-slavery cause. In 1838 Angelina married
+Theodore Dwight Weld (1803-1895), a reformer and abolition orator and
+pamphleteer, who had taken part in the famous Lane Seminary debates in
+1834, had left the Seminary for the lecture platform when the
+anti-slavery society was broken up by the Lane trustees, but had lost
+his voice in 1836 and had become editor of the publications of the
+American Anti-Slavery Society.[1] They lived, with Sarah, at Fort Lee,
+New Jersey, in 1838-1840, then on a farm at Belleville, New Jersey, and
+then conducted a school for black and white alike at Eagleswood, near
+Perth Amboy, New Jersey, from 1854 to 1864. Removing to Hyde Park,
+Massachusetts, the three were employed in Dr Lewis's school. There Sarah
+died on the 23rd of December 1873, and Angelina on the 26th of October
+1879. Both sisters indulged in various "fads"--Graham's diet,
+bloomer-wearing, absolute non-resistance. Angelina did no public
+speaking after her marriage, save at Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia),
+destroyed by a mob immediately after her address there; but besides her
+domestic and school duties she was full of tender charity. Sarah at the
+age of 62 was still eager to study law or medicine, or to do something
+to aid her sex; at 75 she translated and abridged Lamartine's life of
+Joan of Arc.
+
+  See Catherine H. Birney, _The Grimké Sisters_ (Boston, 1885).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Weld was the author of several anti-slavery books which had
+    considerable influence at the time. Among them are _The Bible against
+    Slavery_ (1837), _American Slavery as It Is_ (1839), a collection of
+    extracts from Southern papers, and _Slavery and the Internal Slave
+    Trade in the U.S._ (1841).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, BARON VON (1723-1807), French author, the son
+of a German pastor, was born at Ratisbon on the 26th of December 1723.
+He studied at the University of Leipzig, where he came under the
+influence of Gottsched and of J. A. Ernesti, to whom he was largely
+indebted for his critical appreciation of classical literature. When
+nineteen he produced a tragedy, _Banise_, which met with some success.
+After two years of study he returned to Ratisbon, where he was attached
+to the household of Count Schönberg. In 1748 he accompanied August
+Heinrich, Count Friesen, to Paris as secretary, and he is said by
+Rousseau to have acted for some time as reader to Frederick, the young
+hereditary prince of Saxe-Gotha. His acquaintance with Rousseau, through
+a mutual sympathy in regard to musical matters, soon ripened into
+intimate friendship, and led to a close association with the
+encyclopaedists. He rapidly obtained a thorough knowledge of the French
+language, and acquired so perfectly the tone and sentiments of the
+society in which he moved that all marks of his foreign origin and
+training seemed effaced. A witty pamphlet entitled _Le Petit Prophète de
+Boehmischbroda_ (1753), written by him in defence of Italian as against
+French opera, established his literary reputation. It is possible that
+the origin of the pamphlet is partly to be accounted for by his vehement
+passion[1] for Mlle Fel, the _prima donna_ of the Italian company. In
+1753 Grimm, following the example of the abbé Raynal, began a literary
+correspondence with various German sovereigns. Raynal's letters,
+_Nouvelles littéraires_, ceased early in 1755. With the aid of friends,
+especially of Diderot and Mme d'Épinay, during his temporary absences
+from France, Grimm himself carried on the correspondence, which
+consisted of two letters a month, until 1773, and eventually counted
+among his subscribers Catherine II. of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski,
+king of Poland, and many princes of the smaller German States. It was
+probably in 1754 that Grimm was introduced by Rousseau to Madame
+d'Épinay, with whom he soon formed a _liaison_ which led to an
+irreconcilable rupture between him and Rousseau. Rousseau was induced by
+his resentment to give in his _Confessions_ a wholly mendacious portrait
+of Grimm's character. In 1755, after the death of Count Friesen, who was
+a nephew of Marshal Saxe and an officer in the French army, Grimm became
+_secrétaire des commandements_ to the duke of Orleans, and in this
+capacity he accompanied Marshal d'Estrées on the campaign of Westphalia
+in 1756-57. He was named envoy of the town of Frankfort at the court of
+France in 1759, but was deprived of his office for criticizing the comte
+de Broglie in a despatch intercepted by Louis XV. He was made a baron of
+the Holy Roman Empire in 1775. His introduction to Catherine II. of
+Russia took place at St Petersburg in 1773, when he was in the suite of
+Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt on the occasion of her marriage to the
+czarevitch Paul. He became minister of Saxe-Gotha at the court of France
+in 1776, but in 1777 he again left Paris on a visit to St Petersburg,
+where he remained for nearly a year in daily intercourse with Catherine.
+He acted as Paris agent for the empress in the purchase of works of art,
+and executed many confidential commissions for her. In 1783 and the
+following years he lost his two most intimate friends, Mme d'Épinay and
+Diderot. In 1792 he emigrated, and in the next year settled in Gotha,
+where his poverty was relieved by Catherine, who in 1796 appointed him
+minister of Russia at Hamburg. On the death of the empress Catherine he
+took refuge with Mme d'Épinay's granddaughter, Émilie de Belsunce,
+comtesse de Bueil. Grimm had always interested himself in her, and had
+procured her dowry from the empress Catherine. She now received him with
+the utmost kindness. He died at Gotha on the 19th of December 1807.
+
+The correspondence of Grimm was strictly confidential, and was not
+divulged during his lifetime. It embraces nearly the whole period from
+1750 to 1790, but the later volumes, 1773 to 1790, were chiefly the work
+of his secretary, Jakob Heinrich Meister. At first he contented himself
+with enumerating the chief current views in literature and art and
+indicating very slightly the contents of the principal new books, but
+gradually his criticisms became more extended and trenchant, and he
+touched on nearly every subject--political, literary, artistic, social
+and religious--which interested the Parisian society of the time. His
+notices of contemporaries are somewhat severe, and he exhibits the
+foibles and selfishness of the society in which he moved; but he was
+unbiassed in his literary judgments, and time has only served to confirm
+his criticisms. In style and manner of expression he is thoroughly
+French. He is generally somewhat cold in his appreciation, but his
+literary taste is delicate and subtle; and it was the opinion of
+Sainte-Beuve that the quality of his thought in his best moments will
+compare not unfavourably even with that of Voltaire. His religious and
+philosophical opinions were entirely negative.
+
+  Grimm's _Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique ...,
+  depuis 1753 jusqu'en 1769_, was edited, with many excisions, by J. B.
+  A. Suard and published at Paris in 1812, in 6 vols. 8vo; _deuxième
+  partie, de 1771 à 1782_, in 1812 in 5 vols. 8vo; and _troisième
+  partie, pendant une partie des années 1775 et 1776, et pendant les
+  années 1782 à 1790 inclusivement_, in 1813 in 5 vols. 8vo. A
+  supplementary volume appeared in 1814; the whole correspondence was
+  collected and published by M. Jules Taschereau, with the assistance of
+  A. Chaudé, in a _Nouvelle Edition, revue et mise dans un meilleur
+  ordre, avec des notes et des éclaircissements, et où se trouvent
+  rétablies pour la première fois les phrases supprimées par la censure
+  impériale_ (Paris, 1829, 15 vols. 8vo); and the _Correspondance
+  inédite, et recueil de lettres, poésies, morceaux, et fragments
+  retranchés par la censure impériale en 1812 et 1813_ was published in
+  1829. The standard edition is that of M. Tourneux (16 vols.,
+  1877-1882). Grimm's _Mémoire historique sur l'origine et les suites de
+  mon attachement pour l'impératrice Catherine II jusqu'au décès de sa
+  majesté impériale_, and Catherine's correspondence with Grimm
+  (1774-1796) were published by J. Grot in 1880, in the _Collection_ of
+  the Russian Imperial Historical Society. She treats him very
+  familiarly, and calls him Héraclite, Georges Dandin, &c. At the time
+  of the Revolution she begged him to destroy her letters, but he
+  refused, and after his death they were returned to St Petersburg.
+  Grimm's side of the correspondence, however, is only partially
+  preserved. He signs himself "Pleureur." Some of Grimm's letters,
+  besides the official correspondence, are included in the edition of M.
+  Tourneux; others are contained in the _Erinnerungen einer
+  Urgrossmutter_ of K. von Bechtolsheim, edited (Berlin, 1902) by Count
+  C. Oberndorff. See also Mme d'Épinay's _Mémoires_; Rousseau's
+  _Confessions_; the notices contained in the editions quoted; E.
+  Scherer, _Melchior Grimm_ (1887); Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_,
+  vol. vii. For further works bearing on the subject, see K. A. Georges,
+  _Friedrich Melchior Grimm_ (Hanover and Leipzig, 1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Rousseau's account of this affair (_Confessions_, 2nd part, 8th
+    book) must be received with caution.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1863), German philologist and
+mythologist, was born on the 4th of January 1785 at Hanau, in
+Hesse-Cassel. His father, who was a lawyer, died while he was a child,
+and the mother was left with very small means; but her sister, who was
+lady of the chamber to the landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and
+educate her numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm
+(born on the 24th of February 1786), was sent in 1798 to the public
+school at Cassel. In 1802 he proceeded to the university of Marburg,
+where he studied law, a profession for which he had been destined by his
+father. His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just
+recovered from a long and severe illness, and likewise began the study
+of law. Up to this time Jacob Grimm had been actuated only by a general
+thirst for knowledge and his energies had not found any aim beyond the
+practical one of making himself a position in life. The first definite
+impulse came from the lectures of Savigny, the celebrated investigator
+of Roman law, who, as Grimm himself says (in the preface to the
+_Deutsche Grammatik_), first taught him to realize what it meant to
+study any science. Savigny's lectures also awakened in him that love for
+historical and antiquarian investigation which forms the basis of all
+his work. Then followed personal acquaintance, and it was in Savigny's
+well-provided library that Grimm first turned over the leaves of
+Bodmer's edition of the Old German minnesingers and other early texts,
+and felt an eager desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and
+half-revealed mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 1805 he
+received an invitation from Savigny, who had removed to Paris, to help
+him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very happy time in Paris,
+strengthening his taste for the literatures of the middle ages by his
+studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the close of the year he
+returned to Cassel, where his mother and Wilhelm had settled, the latter
+having finished his studies. The next year he obtained a situation in
+the war office with the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his
+grievances was that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a
+stiff uniform and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution
+of his studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was
+appointed superintendent of the private library of Jerome Buonaparte,
+king of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Cassel had been incorporated by
+Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an auditor to the state council, while he
+retained his other post. His salary was increased in a short interval
+from 2000 to 4000 francs, and his official duties were hardly more than
+nominal. After the expulsion of Jerome and the reinstalment of an
+elector, Grimm was appointed in 1813 secretary of legation, to accompany
+the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814 he
+was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books carried off by the
+French, and in 1814-1815 he attended the congress of Vienna as secretary
+of legation. On his return he was again sent to Paris on the same errand
+as before. Meanwhile Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Cassel
+library, and in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Völkel. On
+the death of Völkel in 1828 the brothers expected to be advanced to the
+first and second librarianships respectively, and were much dissatisfied
+when the first place was given to Rommel, keeper of the archives. So
+they removed next year to Göttingen, where Jacob received the
+appointment of professor and librarian, Wilhelm that of under-librarian.
+Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary
+history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on
+the _Germania_ of Tacitus. At this period he is described as small and
+lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian dialect.
+His powerful memory enabled him to dispense with the manuscript which
+most German professors rely on, and he spoke extempore, referring only
+occasionally to a few names and dates written on a slip of paper. He
+himself regretted that he had begun the work of teaching so late in
+life; and as a lecturer he was not successful: he had no idea of
+digesting his facts and suiting them to the comprehension of his
+hearers; and even the brilliant, terse and eloquent passages which
+abound in his writings lost much of their effect when jerked out in the
+midst of a long array of dry facts. In 1837, being one of the seven
+professors who signed a protest against the king of Hanover's abrogation
+of the constitution established some years before, he was dismissed from
+his professorship, and banished from the kingdom of Hanover. He returned
+to Cassel together with his brother, who had also signed the protest,
+and remained there till, in 1840, they accepted an invitation from the
+king of Prussia to remove to Berlin, where they both received
+professorships, and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Not
+being under any obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together
+with his brother worked at the great dictionary. During their stay at
+Cassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy, where he
+read papers on the most varied subjects. The best known of these are
+those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother Wilhelm (who died in 1859),
+on old age, and on the origin of language. He also described his
+impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more
+general observations with linguistic details, as is the case in all his
+works.
+
+Grimm died in 1863, working up to the last. He was never ill, and worked
+on all day, without haste and without pause. He was not at all impatient
+of interruption, but seemed rather to be refreshed by it, returning to
+his work without effort. He wrote for the press with great rapidity, and
+hardly ever made corrections. He never revised what he had written,
+remarking with a certain wonder of his brother, "Wilhelm reads his
+manuscripts over again before sending them to press!" His temperament
+was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused. Outside his own
+special work he had a marked taste for botany. The spirit which animated
+his work is best described by himself at the end of his autobiography.
+"Nearly all my labours have been devoted, either directly or indirectly,
+to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws. These
+studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me
+they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and
+inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to
+foster the love of it. My principle has always been in these
+investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the
+illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of
+the written monuments."
+
+The purely scientific side of Grimm's character developed slowly. He
+seems to have felt the want of definite principles of etymology without
+being able to discover them, and indeed even in the first edition of his
+grammar (1819) he seems to be often groping in the dark. As early as
+1815 we find A. W. Schlegel reviewing the _Altdeutsche Wälder_ (a
+periodical published by the two brothers) very severely, condemning the
+lawless etymological combinations it contained, and insisting on the
+necessity of strict philological method and a fundamental investigation
+of the laws of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds.
+This criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the
+direction of Grimm's studies.
+
+The first work he published, _Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang_
+(1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in this essay Grimm
+showed that _Minnesang_ and _Meistersang_ were really one form of
+poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of
+development, and also announced his important discovery of the
+invariable division of the _Lied_ into three strophic parts.
+
+His text-editions were mostly prepared in common with his brother. In
+1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the _Hildebrandslied_
+and the _Weissenbrunner Gebet_, Jacob having discovered what till then
+had never been suspected--the alliteration in these poems. However,
+Jacob had little taste for text-editing, and, as he himself confessed,
+the evolving of a critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore
+left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his
+brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical
+philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. Both brothers
+were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the
+form of epics, ballads or popular tales. They published in 1816-1818 an
+analysis and critical sifting of the oldest epic traditions of the
+Germanic races under the title of _Deutsche Sagen_. At the same time
+they collected all the popular tales they could find, partly from the
+mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published
+in 1812-1815 the first edition of those _Kinder- und Hausmärchen_ which
+have carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the
+civilized world, and founded the science of folk-lore. The closely
+allied subject of the satirical beast epic of the middle ages also had a
+great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the
+_Reinhart Fuchs_ in 1834. His first contribution to mythology was the
+first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken conjointly
+with his brother, published in 1815, which, however, was not followed by
+any more. The first edition of his _Deutsche Mythologie_ appeared in
+1835. This great work covers the whole range of the subject, tracing the
+mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of
+direct evidence, and following their decay and loss down to the popular
+traditions, tales and expressions in which they still linger.
+
+Although by the introduction of the Code Napoléon into Westphalia
+Grimm's legal studies were made practically barren, he never lost his
+interest in the scientific study of law and national institutions, as
+the truest exponents of the life and character of a people. By the
+publication (in 1828) of his _Rechtsalterthümer_ he laid the foundations
+of that historical study of the old Teutonic laws and constitutions
+which was continued with brilliant success by Georg L. Maurer and
+others. In this work Grimm showed the importance of a linguistic study
+of the old laws, and the light that can be thrown on many a dark passage
+in them by a comparison of the corresponding words and expressions in
+the other old cognate dialects. He also knew how--and this is perhaps
+the most original and valuable part of his work--to trace the spirit of
+the laws in countless allusions and sayings which occur in the old poems
+and sagas, or even survive in modern colloquialisms.
+
+Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching is his
+_Geschichte der deutschen Sprache_, where at the same time the
+linguistic element is most distinctly brought forward. The subject of
+the work is, indeed, nothing less than the history which lies hidden in
+the words of the German language--the oldest national history of the
+Teutonic tribes determined by means of language. For this purpose he
+laboriously collects the scattered words and allusions to be found in
+classical writers, and endeavours to determine the relations in which
+the German language stood to those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians,
+and many other nations whose languages are known only by doubtfully
+identified, often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and
+Latin authors. Grimm's results have been greatly modified by the wider
+range of comparison and improved methods of investigation which now
+characterize linguistic science, and many of the questions raised by him
+will probably for ever remain obscure; but his book will always be one
+of the most fruitful and suggestive that have ever been written.
+
+Grimm's famous _Deutsche Grammatik_ was the outcome of his purely
+philological work. The labours of past generations--from the humanists
+onwards--had collected an enormous mass of materials in the shape of
+text-editions, dictionaries and grammars, although most of it was
+uncritical and often untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the
+way of comparison and the determination of general laws, and the
+conception of a comparative Teutonic grammar had been clearly grasped by
+the illustrious Englishman George Hickes, at the beginning of the 18th
+century, and partly carried out by him in his _Thesaurus_. Ten Kate in
+Holland had afterwards made valuable contributions to the history and
+comparison of the Teutonic languages. Even Grimm himself did not at
+first intend to include all the languages in his grammar; but he soon
+found that Old High German postulated Gothic, that the later stages of
+German could not be understood without the help of the Low German
+dialects, including English, and that the rich literature of Scandinavia
+could as little be ignored. The first edition of the first part of the
+_Grammar_, which appeared in 1819, and is now extremely rare, treated of
+the inflections of all these languages, together with a general
+introduction, in which he vindicated the importance of an historical
+study of the German language against the a priori, quasi-philosophical
+methods then in vogue.
+
+In 1822 this volume appeared in a second edition--really a new work,
+for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, it cost him little reflection
+to mow down the first crop to the ground. The wide distance between the
+two stages of Grimm's development in these two editions is significantly
+shown by the fact that while the first edition gives only the
+inflections, in the second volume phonology takes up no fewer than 600
+pages, more than half of the whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened
+to the full conviction that all sound philology must be based on
+rigorous adhesion to the laws of sound-change, and he never afterwards
+swerved from this principle, which gave to all his investigations, even
+in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and that force of
+conviction which distinguish science from dilettanteism; up to Grimm's
+time philology was nothing but a more or less laborious and
+conscientious dilettanteism, with occasional flashes of scientific
+inspiration; he made it into a science. His advance must be attributed
+mainly to the influence of his contemporary R. Rask. Rask was born two
+years later than Grimm, but his remarkable precocity gave him somewhat
+the start. Even in Grimm's first editions his Icelandic paradigms are
+based entirely on Rask's grammar, and in his second edition he relied
+almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to Rask can only be
+estimated at its true value by comparing his treatment of Old English in
+the two editions; the difference is very great. Thus in the first
+edition he declines _dæg_, _dæges_, plural _dægas_, not having observed
+the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask. There can be little doubt
+that the appearance of Rask's Old English grammar was a main inducement
+for him to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask also belongs the
+merit of having first distinctly formulated the laws of
+sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the
+vowels, those more fleeting elements of speech which had hitherto been
+ignored by etymologists.
+
+This leads to a question which has been the subject of much
+controversy,--Who discovered what is known as _Grimm's law_? This law of
+the correspondence of consonants in the older Indo-germanic, Low and
+High German languages respectively was first fully stated by Grimm in
+the second edition of the first part of his grammar. The correspondence
+of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several
+of his predecessors; but the one who came nearest to the discovery of
+the complete law was the Swede J. Ihre, who established a considerable
+number of "literarum permutationes," such as _b_ for _f_, with the
+examples _bæra = ferre_, _befwer = fiber_. Rask, in his essay on the
+origin of the Icelandic language, gives the same comparisons, with a few
+additions and corrections, and even the very same examples in most
+cases. As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentions
+this essay of Rask, there is every probability that it gave the first
+impulse to his own investigations. But there is a wide difference
+between the isolated permutations of his predecessors and the
+comprehensive generalizations under which he himself ranged them. The
+extension of the law to High German is also entirely his own. The only
+fact that can be adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished
+to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is that he does not expressly
+mention Rask's results in his second edition. But this is part of the
+plan of his work, viz. to refrain from all controversy or reference to
+the works of others. In his first edition he expressly calls attention
+to Rask's essay, and praises it most ungrudgingly. Rask himself refers
+as little to Ihre, merely alluding in a general way to Ihre's
+permutations, although his own debt to Ihre is infinitely greater than
+that of Grimm to Rask or any one else. It is true that a certain
+bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but
+this was the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and
+irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of Grimm's
+views when they involved modification of his own. The importance of
+Grimm's generalization in the history of philology cannot be
+overestimated, and even the mystic completeness and symmetry of its
+formulation, although it has proved a hindrance to the correct
+explanation of the causes of the changes, was well calculated to strike
+the popular mind, and give it a vivid idea of the paramount importance
+of law, and the necessity of disregarding mere superficial resemblance.
+The most lawless etymologist bows down to the authority of Grimm's law,
+even if he honours it almost as much in the breach as in the observance.
+
+The grammar was continued in three volumes, treating principally of
+derivation, composition and syntax, which last was left unfinished.
+Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the
+vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by
+the dictionary. The grammar stands alone in the annals of science for
+comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail. Every law, every
+letter, every syllable of inflection in the different languages is
+illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material. It has served as a
+model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the Romance
+languages is founded entirely on its methods, which have also exerted a
+profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-Germanic languages in
+general.
+
+In the great German dictionary Grimm undertook a task for which he was
+hardly suited. His exclusively historical tendencies made it impossible
+for him to do justice to the individuality of a living language; and the
+disconnected statement of the facts of language in an ordinary
+alphabetical dictionary fatally mars its scientific character. It was
+also undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for him and
+his brother to complete it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was
+worked out by Grimm himself, may be described as a collection of
+disconnected antiquarian essays of high value.
+
+Grimm's scientific character is notable for its combination of breadth
+and unity. He was as far removed from the narrowness of the specialist
+who has no ideas, no sympathies beyond some one author, period or corner
+of science, as from the shallow dabbler who feverishly attempts to
+master the details of half-a-dozen discordant pursuits. Even within his
+own special studies there is the same wise concentration; no
+Mezzofanti-like parrot display of useless polyglottism. The very
+foundations of his nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of
+historical investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the
+study of the language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his
+own countrymen and their nearest kindred. But from this centre his
+investigations were pursued in every direction as far as his unerring
+instinct of healthy limitation would allow. He was equally fortunate in
+the harmony that subsisted between his intellectual and moral nature. He
+made cheerfully the heavy sacrifices that science demands from its
+disciples, without feeling any of that envy and bitterness which often
+torment weaker natures; and although he lived apart from his fellow men,
+he was full of human sympathies, and no man has ever exercised a
+profounder influence on the destinies of mankind. His was the very ideal
+of the noblest type of German character.
+
+  The following is a complete list of his separately published works,
+  those which he published in common with his brother being marked with
+  a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, &c., see vol. v. of
+  his _Kleinere Schriften_, from which the present list is taken. His
+  life is best studied in his own "Selbstbiographie," in vol. i. of the
+  _Kleinere Schriften_. There is also a brief memoir by K. Gödeke in
+  _Göttinger Professoren_ (Gotha (Perthes), 1872): _Über den
+  altdeutschen Meistergesang_ (Göttingen, 1811); *_Kinder- und
+  Hausmärchen_ (Berlin, 1812-1815) (many editions); *_Das Lied von
+  Hildebrand und das Weissenbrunner Gebet_ (Cassel, 1812); _Altdeutsche
+  Wälder_ (Cassel, Frankfort, 1813-1816, 3 vols.); *_Der arme Heinrich
+  von Hartmann von der Aue_ (Berlin, 1815); *_Irmenstrasse und
+  Irmensäule_ (Vienna, 1815); *_Die Lieder der allen Edda_ (Berlin,
+  1815), _Silva de romances viejos_ (Vienna, 1815); *_Deutsche Sagen_
+  (Berlin, 1816-1818, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1865-1866); _Deutsche Grammatik_
+  (Göttingen, 1819, 2nd ed., Göttingen, 1822-1840) (reprinted 1870 by W.
+  Scherer, Berlin); _Wuk Stephanovitsch's kleine serbische Grammatik,
+  verdeutscht mit einer Vorrede_ (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824); _Zur
+  Recension der deutschen Grammatik_ (Cassel, 1826); *_Irische
+  Elfenmärchen, aus dem Englischen_ (Leipzig, 1826); _Deutsche
+  Rechtsaltertümer_ (Göttingen, 1828, 2nd ed., 1854); _Hymnorum veteris
+  ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio theodisca_ (Göttingen, 1830); _Reinhart
+  Fuchs_ (Berlin, 1834); _Deutsche Mythologie_ (Göttingen, 1835, 3rd
+  ed., 1854, 2 vols.); _Taciti Germania edidit_ (Göttingen, 1835); _Über
+  meine Entlassung_ (Basel, 1838); (together with Schmeller)
+  _Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI. Jahrhunderts_ (Göttingen, 1838);
+  _Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann über Reinhart Fuchs_ (Berlin, 1840);
+  _Weistümer_, Th. i. (Göttingen, 1840) (continued, partly by others, in
+  5 parts, 1840-1869); _Andreas und Elene_ (Cassel, 1840); _Frau
+  Aventure_ (Berlin, 1842); _Geschichte der deutschen Sprache_ (Leipzig,
+  1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.); _Das Wort des Besitzes_ (Berlin, 1850);
+  *_Deutsches Wörterbuch_, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1854); _Rede auf Wilhelm
+  Grimm und Rede über das Alter_ (Berlin, 1868, 3rd ed., 1865);
+  _Kleinere Schriften_ (Berlin, 1864-1870, 5 vols.).     (H. Sw.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859). For the chief events in the life of
+Wilhelm Grimm see article on Jacob Grimm above. As Jacob himself said in
+his celebrated address to the Berlin Academy on the death of his
+brother, the whole of their lives were passed together. In their
+schooldays they had one bed and one table in common, as students they
+had two beds and two tables in the same room, and they always lived
+under one roof, and had their books and property in common. Nor did
+Wilhelm's marriage in any way disturb their harmony. As Cleasby said
+("Life of Cleasby," prefixed to his _Icelandic Dictionary_, p. lxix.),
+"they both live in the same house, and in such harmony and community
+that one might almost imagine the children were common property."
+Wilhelm's character was a complete contrast to that of his brother. As a
+boy he was strong and healthy, but as he grew up he was attacked by a
+long and severe illness, which left him weak all his life. His was a
+less comprehensive and energetic mind than that of his brother, and he
+had less of the spirit of investigation, preferring to confine himself
+to some limited and definitely bounded field of work; he utilized
+everything that bore directly on his own studies, and ignored the rest.
+These studies were almost always of a literary nature. It is
+characteristic of his more aesthetic nature that he took great delight
+in music, for which his brother had but a moderate liking, and had a
+remarkable gift of story-telling. Cleasby, in the account of his visit
+to the brothers, quoted above, tells that "Wilhelm read a sort of farce
+written in the Frankfort dialect, depicting the 'malheurs' of a rich
+Frankfort tradesman on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and
+he read it admirably." Cleasby describes him as "an uncommonly animated,
+jovial fellow." He was, accordingly, much sought in society, which he
+frequented much more than his brother.
+
+  His first work was a spirited translation of the Danish _Kæmpeviser,
+  Altdänische Heldenlieder_, published in 1811-1813, which made his name
+  at first more widely known than that of his brother. The most
+  important of his text editions are--_Ruolandslied_ (Göttingen, 1838);
+  _Konrad von Würzburg's Goldene Schmiede_ (Berlin, 1840); _Grave
+  Ruodolf_ (Göttingen, 1844, 2nd ed.); _Athis und Prophilias_ (Berlin,
+  1846); _Altdeutsche Gespräche_ (Berlin, 1851); _Freidank_ (Göttingen,
+  1860, 2nd ed.). Of his other works the most important is _Deutsche
+  Heldensage_ (Berlin, 1868, 2nd ed.). His _Deutsche Runen_ (Göttingen,
+  1821) has now only an historical interest.     (H. Sw.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIMMA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of the Mulde,
+19 m. S.E. of Leipzig on the railway Döbeln-Dresden. Pop. (1905) 11,182.
+It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, and among other
+principal buildings are the Schloss built in the 12th century, and long
+a residence of the margraves of Meissen and the electors of Saxony; the
+town-hall, dating from 1442, and the famous school Fürstenschule
+(_Illustre Moldanum_), erected by the elector Maurice on the site of the
+former Augustinian monastery in 1550, having provision for 104 free
+scholars and a library numbering 10,000 volumes. There are also a modern
+school, a teachers' seminary, a commercial school and a school of
+brewing. Among the industries of the town are ironfounding, machine
+building and dyeworks, while paper and gloves are manufactured there.
+Gardening and agriculture generally are also important branches of
+industry. In the immediate neighbourhood are the ruins of the Cistercian
+nunnery from which Catherine von Bora fled in 1523, and the village of
+Döben, with an old castle. Grimma is of Sorbian origin, and is first
+mentioned in 1203. It passed then into possession of Saxony and has
+remained since part of that country.
+
+  See Lorenz, _Die Stadt Grimma, historisch beschrieben_ (Leipzig,
+  1871); Rössler, _Geschichte der königlich sächsischen Fürsten- und
+  Landesschule Grimma_ (Leipzig, 1891); L. Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der
+  Stadt Grimma_ (Leipzig, 1895); and Fraustadt, _Grimmenser Stammbuch_
+  (Grimma, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON (c. 1625-1676), German
+author, was born at Gelnhausen in or about 1625. At the age of ten he
+was kidnapped by Hessian soldiery, and in their midst tasted the
+adventures of military life in the Thirty Years' War. At its close,
+Grimmelshausen entered the service of Franz Egon von Fürstenberg, bishop
+of Strassburg and in 1665 was made _Schultheiss_ (magistrate) at Renchen
+in Baden. On obtaining this appointment, he devoted himself to literary
+pursuits, and in 1669 published _Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus,
+Teutsch, d.h. die Beschreibung des Lebens eines seltsamen Vaganten,
+genannt Melchior Sternfels von Fuchsheim_, the greatest German novel of
+the 17th century. For this work he took as his model the picaresque
+romances of Spain, already to some extent known in Germany.
+_Simplicissimus_ is in great measure its author's autobiography; he
+begins with the childhood of his hero, and describes the latter's
+adventures amid the stirring scenes of the Thirty Years' War. The
+realistic detail with which these pictures are presented makes the book
+one of the most valuable documents of its time. In the later parts
+Grimmelshausen, however, over-indulges in allegory, and finally loses
+himself in a Robinson Crusoe story. Among his other works the most
+important are the so-called _Simplicianische Schriften: Die
+Erzbetrügerin und Landstörtzerin Courasche_ (c. 1669); _Der seltsame
+Springinsfeld_ (1670) and _Das wunderbarliche Vogelnest_ (1672). His
+satires, such as _Der teutsche Michel_ (1670), and "gallant" novels,
+like _Dietwald und Amelinde_ (1670) are of inferior interest. He died at
+Renchen on the 17th of August 1676, where a monument was erected to him
+in 1879.
+
+  Editions of _Simplicissimus_ and the _Simplicianische Schriften_ have
+  been published by A. von Keller (1854), H. Kurz (1863-1864), J.
+  Tittmann (1877) and F. Bobertag (1882). A reprint of the first edition
+  of the novel was edited by R. Kögel for the series of _Neudrucke des
+  16. und 17. Jahrhunderts_ (1880). See the introductions to these
+  editions; also F. Antoine, _Étude sur le Simplicissimus de
+  Grimmelshausen_ (1882) and E. Schmidt in his _Charakteristiken_, vol.
+  i. (1886).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI, COMTE DE (1753-1815), French soldier and
+military writer, entered the royal army at the age of sixteen, and in
+1775 published his _Essai théorique et practique sur les batailles_.
+Shortly afterwards Louis XVI. placed him in his own military cabinet and
+employed him especially in connexion with schemes of army reform. By the
+year of the Revolution he had become one of Louis's most valued
+counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and was marked
+out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of War. In 1791
+Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation of the scheme of defence for
+France, which proved two years later of great assistance to the
+Committee of Public Safety. The events of 1792 put an end to his
+military career, and the remainder of his life was spent in writing
+military books.
+
+  The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained
+  some importance: _Histoire des dernières campagnes de Turenne_ (Paris,
+  1780), _Lettres et mémoires de Turenne_ (Paris, 1780), _Troupes
+  légères et leur emploi_ (Paris, 1782), _Conquêtes de Gustave-Adolphe_
+  (Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1782-1791); _Mémoires de Gustave Adolphe_
+  (Paris, 1790), Correspondence of Marshal Richelieu (Paris, 1789), St
+  Germain (1789), and Bernis (1790), _Vie et règne de Frédéric le Grand_
+  (London, 1788), _Lettres et mémoires du maréchal de Saxe_ (Paris,
+  1794), _L'Expédition de Minorque en 1756_ (Paris, 1798), _Recherches
+  sur la force de l'armée française depuis Henri IV jusqu'en 1805_
+  (Paris, 1806), _Mémoires du maréchal de Tessé_ (Paris, 1806), _Lettres
+  de Bolingbroke_ (Paris, 1808), _Traité, sur le service d'état-major_
+  (Paris, 1809), and (with Servan) _Tableau historique de la guerre de
+  la Révolution 1792-1794_ (Paris, 1808).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMSBY, or GREAT GRIMSBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
+of Lincolnshire, England; an important seaport near the mouth of the
+Humber on the south shore. Pop. (1901) 63,138. It is 155 m. N. by E.
+from London by the Great Northern railway, and is also served by the
+Great Central railway. The church of St James, situated in the older
+part of the town, is a cruciform Early English building, retaining, in
+spite of injudicious restoration, many beautiful details. The chief
+buildings are that containing the town hall and the grammar school (a
+foundation of 1547), the exchange, a theatre, and the customs house and
+dock offices. A sailors' and fishermen's Harbour of Refuge, free
+library, constitutional club and technical school are maintained. The
+duke of York public gardens were opened in 1894. Adjacent to Grimsby on
+the east is the coastal watering-place of Cleethorpes.
+
+The dock railway station lies a mile from the town station. In 1849 the
+Great Central (then the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire) railway
+initiated a scheme of reclamation and dock-construction. This was
+completed in 1854, and subsequent extensions were made. There are two
+large fish-docks, and, for general traffic, the Royal dock,
+communicating with the Humber through a tidal basin, the small Union
+dock, and the extensive Alexandra dock, together with graving docks,
+timber yards, a patent slip, &c. These docks have an area of about 104
+acres, but were found insufficient for the growing traffic of the port,
+and in 1906 the construction of a large new dock, of about 40 acres'
+area and 30 to 35 ft. depth, was undertaken by the Great Central Company
+at Immingham, 5 m. above Grimsby on the Humber. The principal imports
+are butter, woollens, timber, cereals, eggs, glass, cottons, preserved
+meat, wool, sugar and bacon. The exports consist chiefly of woollen
+yarn, woollens, cotton goods, cotton yarn, machinery, &c. and coal. It
+is as a fishing port, however, that Grimsby is chiefly famous. Two of
+the docks are for the accommodation of the fishing fleet, which,
+consisting principally of steam trawlers, numbers upwards of 500
+vessels. Regular passenger steamers run from Grimsby to Dutch and south
+Swedish ports, and to Esbjerg (Denmark), chiefly those of the Wilson
+line and the Great Central railway. The chief industries of Grimsby are
+shipbuilding, brewing, tanning, manufactures of ship tackle, ropes, ice
+for preserving fish, turnery, flour, linseed cake, artificial manure;
+and there are saw mills, bone and corn mills, and creosote works. The
+municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors.
+Area, 2852 acres.
+
+Grimsby (_Grimesbi_) is supposed to have been the landing-place of the
+Danes on their first invasion of Britain towards the close of the 8th
+century. It was a borough by prescription as early as 1201, in which
+year King John granted the burgesses a charter of liberties according to
+the custom of the burgesses of Northampton. Henry III. in 1227 granted
+to "the mayor and good men" of Grimsby, that they should hold the town
+for a yearly rent of £111, and confirmed the same in 1271. These
+charters were confirmed by later sovereigns. A governing charter, under
+the title of mayor and burgesses, was given by James II. in 1688, and
+under this the appointment of officers and other of the corporation,
+arrangements are to a great extent regulated. In 1201 King John granted
+the burgesses an annual fair for fifteen days, beginning on the 25th of
+May. Two annual fairs are now held, namely on the first Monday in April
+and the second Monday in October. No early grant of a market can be
+found, but in 1792 the market-day was Wednesday. In 1888 it had ceased
+to exist. Grimsby returned two members to the parliament of 1298, but in
+1833 the number was reduced to one.
+
+In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was an important seaport, but the
+haven became obstructed by sand and mud deposited by the Humber, and so
+the access of large vessels was prevented. At the beginning of the 19th
+century a subscription was raised by the proprietors of land in the
+neighbourhood for improving the harbour, and an act was obtained by
+which they were incorporated under the title "The Grimsby Haven Co." The
+fishing trade had become so important by 1800 that it was necessary to
+construct a new dock.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE (1603-1685), English politician, second son of
+Sir Harbottle Grimston, Bart. (d. 1648), was born at Bradfield Hall,
+near Manningtree, on the 27th of January 1603. Educated at Emmanuel
+College, Cambridge, he became a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, then
+recorder of Harwich and recorder of Colchester. As member for
+Colchester, Grimston sat in the Short Parliament of 1640, and he
+represented the same borough during the Long Parliament, speedily
+becoming a leading member of the popular party. He attacked Archbishop
+Laud with great vigour; was a member of the important committees of the
+parliament, including the one appointed in consequence of the attempted
+seizure of the five members; and became deputy-lieutenant of Essex after
+the passing of the militia ordinance in January 1642. He disliked taking
+up arms against the king, but remained nominally an adherent of the
+parliamentary party during the Civil War. In the words of Clarendon, he
+"continued rather than concurred with them." Grimston does not appear to
+have taken the Solemn League and Covenant, but after the conclusion of
+the first period of the war he again became more active. He was
+president of the committee which investigated the escape of the king
+from Hampton Court in 1647, and was one of those who negotiated with
+Charles at Newport in 1648, when, according to Burnet, he fell upon his
+knees and urged the king to come to terms. From this time Grimston's
+sympathies appear to have been with the Royalists. Turned out of the
+House of Commons when the assembly was "purged" by colonel Pride, he was
+imprisoned; but was released after promising to do nothing detrimental
+to the parliament or the army, and spent the next few years in
+retirement. Before this time, his elder brother having already died, he
+had succeeded his father as 2nd baronet. In 1656 Sir Harbottle was
+returned to Cromwell's second parliament as member for Essex; but he was
+not allowed to take his seat; and with 97 others who were similarly
+treated he issued a remonstrance to the public. He was among the
+secluded members who re-entered the Long Parliament in February 1660,
+was then a member of the council of state, and was chosen Speaker of the
+House of Commons in the Convention Parliament of 1660. As Speaker he
+visited Charles II. at Breda, and addressed him in very flattering terms
+on his return to London; but he refused to accede to the king's demand
+that he should dismiss Burnet from his position as chaplain to the
+Master of the Rolls, and in parliament he strongly denounced any
+relaxation of the laws against papists. Grimston did not retain the
+office of Speaker after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament,
+but he was a member of the commission which tried the regicides, and in
+November 1660 he was appointed Master of the Rolls. Report says he paid
+Clarendon £8000 for the office, while Burnet declares he obtained it
+"without any application of his own." He died on the 2nd of January
+1685. His friend and chaplain, Burnet, speaks very highly of his piety
+and impartiality, while not omitting the undoubted fact that he was
+"much sharpened against popery." He translated the law reports of his
+father-in-law, the judge, Sir George Croke (1560-1642), which were
+written in Norman-French, and five editions of this work have appeared.
+Seven of his parliamentary speeches were published, and he also wrote
+_Strena Christiana_ (London, 1644, and other editions). Grimston's first
+wife, Croke's daughter Mary, bore him six sons and two daughters; and by
+his second wife, Anne, daughter and heiress of Sir Nathaniel Bacon,
+K.B., a grandson of Sir Nicholas Bacon, he had one daughter.
+
+Of his sons one only, Samuel (1643-1700), survived his father, and when
+he died in October 1700 the baronetcy became extinct. Sir Harbottle's
+eldest daughter, Mary, married Sir Capel Luckyn, Bart., and their
+grandson, William Luckyn, succeeded to the estates of his great-uncle,
+Sir Samuel Grimston, and took the name of Grimston in 1700. This William
+Luckyn Grimston (1683-1756) was created Baron Dunboyne and Viscount
+Grimston in the peerage of Ireland in 1719. He was succeeded as 2nd
+viscount by his son James (1711-1773), whose son James Bucknall
+(1747-1808) was made an English peer as baron Verulam of Gorhambury in
+1790. Then in 1815 his son James Walter (1775-1845), 2nd baron Verulam,
+was created earl of Verulam, and the present peer is his direct
+descendant. Sir Harbottle Grimston bought Sir Nicholas Bacon's estate
+at Gorhambury, which is still the residence of his descendants.
+
+  See G. Burnet, _History of My Own Time_, edited by O. Airy (Oxford,
+  1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT, 1ST BARON (1816-1905), son of Sir Edmund
+Beckett Denison, was born on the 12th of May 1816. He was educated at
+Doncaster and Eton, whence he proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge,
+and graduated thirtieth wrangler in 1838. He was called to the bar at
+Lincoln's Inn in 1841. Upon succeeding to the baronetcy in 1874 he
+dropped the name of Denison, which his father had assumed in 1816. From
+1877 to 1900 he was chancellor and vicar-general of York, and he was
+raised to the peerage in 1886. He was made a Q.C. in 1854, and was for
+many years a leader of the Parliamentary Bar. He devoted himself to the
+study of astronomy, horology and architecture, more especially Gothic
+ecclesiastical architecture. As early as 1850 he had become a recognized
+authority on clocks, watches and bells, and in particular on the
+construction of turret clocks, for he had designed Dent's Great
+Exhibition clock, and his _Rudimentary Treatise_ had gone through many
+editions. In 1851 he was called upon, in conjunction with the astronomer
+royal (Mr, afterwards Sir, G. B. Airy) and Mr Dent, to design a suitable
+clock for the new Houses of Parliament. The present tower clock,
+popularly known as "Big Ben," was constructed after Lord Grimthorpe's
+designs. In a number of burning questions during his time Lord
+Grimthorpe took a prominent part. It is, however, in connexion with the
+restoration of St Albans Abbey that he is most widely known. The St
+Albans Abbey Reparation Committee, which had been in existence since
+1871, and for which Sir Gilbert Scott had carried out some admirable
+repairs, obtained a faculty from the Diocesan Court in 1877 to repair
+and restore the church and fit it for cathedral and parochial services.
+Very soon, however, the committee found itself unable to raise the
+necessary funds, and it was at this juncture that a new faculty was
+granted to Lord Grimthorpe (then Sir Edmund Beckett) to "restore, repair
+and refit" the abbey at his own expense. Lord Grimthorpe made it an
+express stipulation that the work should be done according to his own
+designs and under his own supervision. His public spirit in undertaking
+the task was undeniable, but his treatment of the roof, the new west
+front, and the windows inserted in the terminations of the transepts,
+excited a storm of adverse criticism, and was the subject of vigorous
+protests from the professional world of architecture. He died on the
+29th of April 1905, being succeeded as 2nd baron by his nephew, E. W.
+Beckett (b. 1856), who had sat in parliament as conservative member for
+the Whitby division of Yorkshire from 1885.
+
+
+
+
+GRINDAL, EDMUND (c. 1519-1583), successively bishop of London,
+archbishop of York and archbishop of Canterbury, born about 1519, was
+son of William Grindal, a farmer of Hensingham, in the parish of St
+Bees, Cumberland. He was educated at Magdalene and Christ's Colleges and
+then at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was
+elected fellow in 1538. He proceeded M.A. in 1541, was ordained deacon
+in 1544 and was proctor and Lady Margaret preacher in 1548-1549.
+Probably through the influence of Ridley, who had been master of
+Pembroke Hall, Grindal was selected as one of the Protestant disputants
+during the visitation of 1549. He had a considerable talent for this
+work and was often employed on similar occasions. When Ridley became
+bishop of London, he made Grindal one of his chaplains and gave him the
+precentorship of St Paul's. He was soon promoted to be one of Edward
+VI.'s chaplains and prebendary of Westminster, and in October 1552 was
+one of the six divines to whom the Forty-two articles were submitted for
+examination before being sanctioned by the Privy Council. According to
+Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of the court preachers in
+1553 by denouncing the worldliness of the courtiers and foretelling the
+evils to follow on the king's death.
+
+That event frustrated Grindal's proposed elevation to the episcopal
+bench and he did not consider himself bound to await the evils which he
+had foretold. He abandoned his preferments on Mary's accession and made
+his way to Strassburg. Thence, like so many of the Marian exiles, he
+proceeded to Frankfurt, where he endeavoured to compose the disputes
+between the "Coxians" (see COX, RICHARD), who regarded the 1552 Prayer
+Book as the perfection of reform, and the Knoxians, who wanted further
+simplification. He returned to England in January 1559, was appointed
+one of the committee to revise the liturgy, and one of the Protestant
+representatives at the Westminster conference. In July he was also
+elected Master of Pembroke Hall in succession to the recusant Dr Thomas
+Young (1514-1580) and Bishop of London in succession to Bonner.
+
+Grindal himself was, however, inclined to be recalcitrant from different
+motives. He had qualms about vestments and other traces of "popery" as
+well as about the Erastianism of Elizabeth's ecclesiastical government.
+His Protestantism was robust enough; he did not mind recommending that a
+priest "might be put to some torment" (_Hatfield MSS._ i. 269); and in
+October 1562 he wrote to Cecil begging to know "if that second Julian,
+the king of Navarre, is killed; as he intended to preach at St Paul's
+Cross, and might take occasion to mention God's judgements on him"
+(_Domestic Cal._, 1547-1580, p. 209). But he was loth to execute
+judgments upon English Puritans, and modern high churchmen complain of
+his infirmity of purpose, his opportunism and his failure to give Parker
+adequate assistance in rebuilding the shattered fabric of the English
+Church. Grindal lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of
+uniformity and autocracy which enabled Whitgift to persecute with a
+clear conscience nonconformists whose theology was indistinguishable
+from his own. Perhaps he was as wise as his critics; at any rate the
+rigour which he repudiated hardly brought peace or strength to the
+Church when practised by his successors, and London, which was always a
+difficult see, involved Bishop Sandys in similar troubles when Grindal
+had gone to York. As it was, although Parker said that Grindal "was not
+resolute and severe enough for the government of London," his attempts
+to enforce the use of the surplice evoked angry protests, especially in
+1565, when considerable numbers of the nonconformists were suspended;
+and Grindal of his own motion denounced Cartwright to the Council in
+1570. Other anxieties were brought upon him by the burning of his
+cathedral in 1561, for although Grindal himself is said to have
+contributed £1200 towards its rebuilding, the laity of his diocese were
+niggardly with their subscriptions and even his clergy were not liberal.
+
+In 1570 Grindal was translated to the archbishopric of York, where
+Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly for Roman
+Catholics. His first letter from Cawood to Cecil told that he had not
+been well received, that the gentry were not "well-affected to godly
+religion and among the common people many superstitious practices
+remained." It is admitted by his Anglican critics that he did the work
+of enforcing uniformity against the Roman Catholics with good-will and
+considerable tact. He must have given general satisfaction, for even
+before Parker's death two persons so different as Burghley and Dean
+Nowell independently recommended Grindal's appointment as his successor,
+and Spenser speaks warmly of him in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ as the
+"gentle shepherd Algrind." Burghley wished to conciliate the moderate
+Puritans and advised Grindal to mitigate the severity which had
+characterized Parker's treatment of the nonconformists. Grindal indeed
+attempted a reform of the ecclesiastical courts, but his metropolitical
+activity was cut short by a conflict with the arbitrary temper of the
+queen. Elizabeth required Grindal to suppress the "prophesyings" or
+meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the Puritan
+clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching; she would have
+no doctrine that was not inspired by her authority. Grindal
+remonstrated, claiming some voice for the Church, and in June 1577 was
+suspended from his jurisdictional, though not his spiritual, functions
+for disobedience. He stood firm, and in January 1578 Secretary Wilson
+informed Burghley that the queen wished to have the archbishop deprived.
+She was dissuaded from this extreme course, but Grindal's sequestration
+was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 1581 for his
+reinstatement. Elizabeth then suggested that he should resign; this he
+declined to do, and after making an apology to the queen he was
+reinstated towards the end of 1582. But his infirmities were increasing,
+and while making preparations for his resignation, he died on the 6th of
+July 1583 and was buried in Croydon parish church. He left considerable
+benefactions to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, Queen's College, Oxford, and
+Christ's College, Cambridge; he also endowed a free school at St Bees,
+and left money for the poor of St Bees, Canterbury, Lambeth and Croydon.
+
+  Strype's _Life of Grindal_ is the principal authority; see also _Dict.
+  Nat. Biogr._ and, besides the authorities there cited, Gough's General
+  Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. of
+  Hatfield MSS.; Dixon's _Hist. of the Church of England_; Frere's
+  volume in Stephens' and Hunt's series; _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ vol.
+  iii.; Gee's _Elizabethan Clergy_; Birt's _Elizabethan Religious
+  Settlement_; and Pierce's _Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts_
+  (1909).     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GRINDELWALD, a valley in the Bernese Oberland, and one of the chief
+resorts of tourists in Switzerland. It is shut in on the south by the
+precipices of the Wetterhorn, Mettenberg and Eiger, between which two
+famous glaciers flow down. On the north it is sheltered by the Faulhorn
+range, while on the east the Great Scheidegg Pass leads over to
+Meiringen; and on the south-west the Little Scheidegg or Wengern Alp
+(railway 11½ m. across) divides it from Lauterbrunnen. The main village
+is connected with Interlaken by a rack railway (13 m.). The valley is
+very green, and possesses excellent pastures, as well as fruit trees,
+though little corn is grown. It is watered by the Black Lütschine, a
+tributary of the Aar. The height of the parish church above the
+sea-level is 3468 ft. The population in 1900 was 3346, practically all
+Protestant and German-speaking, and living in 558 houses. The glacier
+guides are among the best in the Alps. The valley was originally
+inhabited by the serfs of various great lords in summer for the sake of
+pasturage. A chapel in a cave was superseded about 1146 by a wooden
+church, replaced about 1180 by a stone church, which was pulled down in
+1793 to erect the present building. Gradually the Austin canons of
+Interlaken bought out all the other owners in the valley, but when that
+house was suppressed in 1528 by the town of Bern the inhabitants gained
+their freedom. The houses near the hotel Adler bear the name of
+Gydisdorf, but there is no village of Grindelwald properly speaking,
+though that name is usually given to the assemblage of hotels and shops
+between Gydisdorf and the railway station. Grindelwald is now very much
+frequented by visitors in winter.
+
+  See W. A. B. Coolidge, _Walks and Excursions in the Valley of
+  Grindelwald_ (also in French and German) (Grindelwald, 1900); Emmanuel
+  Friedli, _Bärndütsch als Spiegel bernischen Volkstums_, vol. ii.
+  (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); E. F. von Mülinen, _Beiträge zur
+  Heimatkunde des Kantons Bern, deutschen Teils_, vol. i. (Bern, 1879),
+  pp. 24-26; G. Strasser, _Der Gletschermann_ (Grindelwald, 1888-1890).
+  Scattered notices may be found in the edition (London, 1899) of the
+  "General Introduction" (entitled "Hints and Notes for Travellers in
+  the Alps") to John Ball's _Alpine Guide_.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRINGOIRE (or GRINGORE), PIERRE (c. 1480-1539), French poet and
+dramatist, was born about the year 1480, probably at Caen. In his first
+work, _Le Chasteau de labour_ (1499), a didactic poem in praise of
+diligence, he narrates the troubles following on marriage. A young
+couple are visited by Care, Need, Discomfort, &c.; and other personages
+common to medieval allegories take part in the action. In November 1501
+Gringoire was in Paris directing the production of a mystery play in
+honour of the archduke Philip of Austria, and in subsequent years he
+received many similar commissions. The fraternity of the _Enfans sans
+Souci_ advanced him to the dignity of _Mère Sotte_ and afterwards to the
+highest honour of the gild, that of _Prince des Sots_. For twenty years
+Gringoire seems to have been at the head of this illustrious confrérie.
+As _Prince des Sots_ he exercised an extraordinary influence. At no time
+was the stage, rude and coarse as it was, more popular as a true
+exponent of the popular mind. Gringoire's success lay in the fact that
+he followed, but did not attempt to lead; on his stage the people saw
+exhibited their passions, their judgments of the moment, their
+jealousies, their hatreds and their ambitions. Brotherhoods of the kind
+existed all over France. In Paris there were the _Enfans sans Souci_,
+the _Basochiens_, the _Confrérie de la Passion_ and the _Souverain
+Empire de Galilée_; at Dijon there were the _Mère Folle_ and her family;
+in Flanders the _Société des Arbalétriers_ played comedies; at Rouen the
+_Cornards_ or _Conards_ yielded to none in vigour and fearlessness of
+satire. On Shrove Tuesday 1512 Gringoire, who was the accredited
+defender of the policy of Louis XII., and had already written many
+political poems, represented the _Jeu du Prince des Sots et Mère Sotte_.
+It was at the moment when the French dispute with Julius II. was at its
+height. _Mère Sotte_ was disguised as the Church, and disputed the
+question of the temporal power with the prince. The political meaning
+was even more thinly veiled in the second part of the entertainment, a
+morality named _L'Homme obstiné_, the principal personage representing
+the pope. The performance concluded with a farce. Gringoire adopted for
+his device on the frontispiece of this trilogy, _Tout par Raison_,
+_Raison par Tout_, _Par tout Raison_. He has been called the
+_Aristophane des Halles_. In one respect at least he resembles
+Aristophanes. He is serious in his merriment; there is purpose behind
+his extravagances. The Church was further attacked in a poem printed
+about 1510, _La Chasse du cerf des cerfs_ (_serf des serfs_, i.e.
+_servus servorum_), under which title that of the pope is thinly veiled.
+About 1514 he wrote his mystery of the _Vie de Monseigneur Saint-Louis
+par personnages_ in nine books for the _confrérie_ of the masons and
+carpenters. He became in 1518 herald at the court of Lorraine, with the
+title of Vaudemont, and married Catherine Roger, a lady of gentle birth.
+During the last twenty years of a long life he became orthodox, and
+dedicated a _Blason des hérétiques_ to the duke of Lorraine. There is no
+record of the payment of his salary as a herald after Christmas 1538, so
+that he died probably in 1539.
+
+  His works were edited by C. d'Héricault and A. de Montaiglon for the
+  _Bibliothèque elzévirienne_ in 1858. This edition was incomplete, and
+  was supplemented by a second volume in 1877 by Montaiglon and M. James
+  de Rothschild. These volumes include the works already mentioned,
+  except _Le Chasteau de labour_, and in addition, _Les Folles
+  Entreprises_ (1505), a collection of didactic and satirical poems,
+  chiefly ballades and rondeaux, one section of which is devoted to the
+  exposition of the tyranny of the nobles, and another to the vices of
+  the clergy; _L'Entreprise de Venise_ (c. 1509), a poem in seven-lined
+  stanzas, giving a list of the Venetian fortresses which belonged,
+  according to Gringoire, to other powers; _L'Espoir de paix_ (1st ed.
+  not dated; another, 1510), a verse treatise on the deeds of "certain
+  popes of Rome," dedicated to Louis XII.; and _La Coqueluche_ (1510), a
+  verse description of an epidemic, apparently influenza. For details of
+  his other satires, _Les Abus du monde_ (1509), _Complainte de trop
+  tard marié, Les Fantasies du monde qui règne_; of his religious verse,
+  _Chants royaux_ (on the Passion, 1527), _Heures de Notre Dame_ (1525);
+  and a collection of tales in prose and verse, taken from the _Gesta
+  Romanorum_, entitled _Les Fantasies de Mère Sotte_ (1516), see G.
+  Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_ (_s.v._ Gringore). Most of Gringoire's
+  works conclude with an acrostic giving the name of the author. The
+  _Chasteau de labour_ was translated into English by Alexander Barclay
+  and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1506. Barclay's translation was
+  edited (1905) with his original for the Roxburghe Club by Mr A. W.
+  Pollard, who provided an account of Gringoire, and a bibliography of
+  the book. See also, for the _Jeu du Prince des Sots_, Petit de
+  Julleville, _La Comédie et les moeurs en France au moyen âge_, pp.
+  151-168 (Paris, 1886); for _Saint Louis_, the same author's _Les
+  Mystères_, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further
+  bibliographical references; and E. Picot, _Gringore et les comédiens
+  italiens_ (1877). The real Gringoire cannot be said to have many
+  points of resemblance with the poet described in Victor Hugo's
+  _Notre-Dame de Paris_, nor is there more foundation in fact for the
+  one-act prose comedy of Théodore de Banville.
+
+
+
+
+GRINNELL, a city in Poweshiek county, Iowa, U.S.A., 55 m. E. by N. of
+Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 3860, of whom 274 were foreign-born; (1905)
+4634; (1910) 5036. Grinnell is served by the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific, and the Iowa Central railways. It is the seat of Iowa College
+(co-educational), founded in 1847 by the Iowa Band (Congregationalists
+and graduates of New England colleges and Andover Theological Seminary,
+who had devoted themselves to home missionary educational work in Iowa,
+and who came to Iowa in 1843), and by a few earlier pioneers from New
+England. The college opened in 1848 at Davenport, and in 1859 removed to
+Grinnell, where there was a school called Grinnell University, which it
+absorbed. Closely affiliated with the college are the Grinnell Academy
+and the Grinnell School of Music. In 1907-1908 the College had 463
+students, the Academy had 129 students, and the School of Music had 141
+students. Among the manufactures are carriages and gloves. The city was
+named in honour of one of its founders, Josiah Bushnell Grinnell
+(1821-1891), a Congregational clergyman, friend of and sympathizer with
+John Brown, and from 1863 to 1867 a member of the National House of
+Representatives. Grinnell was settled in 1854, was incorporated as a
+town in 1865, and in 1882 was chartered as a city of the second class.
+In 1882 it suffered severely from a cyclone.
+
+
+
+
+GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST, territorial divisions of the Cape
+Province of the Union of South Africa. Griqualand East, which lies south
+of Basutoland and west of Natal, is so named from the settlement there
+in 1862 of Griquas under Adam Kok. It forms part of the Transkeian
+Territories of the Cape, and is described under KAFFRARIA. Griqualand
+West, formerly Griqualand simply, also named after its Griqua
+inhabitants, is part of the great tableland of South Africa. It is
+bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by Bechuanaland, E. by the
+Transvaal and Orange Free State Province, and has an area of 15,197 sq.
+m. It has a general elevation of 3000 to 4000 ft. above the sea, low
+ranges of rocky hills, the Kaap, Asbestos, Vansittart and Langeberg
+mountains, traversing its western portion in a general N.E.-S.W.
+direction. The only perennial rivers are in the eastern district,
+through which the Vaal flows from a point a little above Fourteen
+Streams to its junction with the Orange (160 m.). In this part of its
+course the Vaal receives the Harts river from the north and the Riet
+from the east. The Riet, 4 m. within the Griqualand frontier, is joined
+by the Modder. The banks of the rivers are shaded by willows; elsewhere
+the only tree is the mimosa. The greater part of the country is barren,
+merging N.W. into absolute desert. The soil is, however, wherever
+irrigated, extremely fertile. The day climate is hot and dry, but the
+nights are frequently cold. Rain rarely falls, though thunderstorms of
+great severity occasionally sweep over the land, and sandstorms are
+prevalent in the summer. A portion of the country is adapted for
+sheep-farming and the growing of crops, horse-breeding is carried on at
+Kimberley, and asbestos is worked in the south-western districts, but
+the wealth of Griqualand West lies in its diamonds, which are found
+along the banks of the Vaal and in the district between that river and
+the Riet. From the first discovery of diamonds in 1867 up to the end of
+1905 the total yield of diamonds was estimated at 13½ tons, worth
+£95,000,000.
+
+The chief town is Kimberley (q.v.), the centre of the diamond mining
+industry. It is situated on the railway from Cape Town to the Zambezi,
+which crosses the country near its eastern border. Three miles south of
+Kimberley is Beaconsfield (q.v.). On the banks of the Vaal are Barkly
+West (q.v.), Windsorton (pop. 800) and Warrenton (pop. 1500); at all
+these places are river diggings, diamonds being found along the river
+from Fourteen Streams to the Harts confluence. Warrenton is 44 m. N. by
+rail from Kimberley. Douglas (pop. 300), on the south bank of the Vaal,
+12 m. above its confluence with the Orange, is the centre of an
+agricultural district, a canal 9½ m. long serving to irrigate a
+considerable area. Thirty-five miles N.W. of Douglas is Griquatown (pop.
+401), the headquarters of the first Griqua settlers. Campbell (pop. 250)
+is 30 m. E. of Griquatown, and Postmasburg 42 m. N. by W. A census taken
+in 1877 showed the population of Griqualand West to be 45,277, of whom
+12,347 were whites. At the census of 1891 the population was 83,215, of
+whom 29,602 were whites, and in 1904 the population was 108,498, of whom
+32,570 were whites.
+
+_History._--Before the settlement in it of Griqua clans the district was
+thinly inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots. At the end of the 18th
+century a horde known as Bastaards, descendants of Dutch farmers and
+Hottentot women, led a nomadic life on the plains south of the Orange
+river. In 1803 a missionary named Anderson induced a number of the
+Bastaards with their chief Barend Barends to settle north of the river,
+and a mission station was formed at a place where there was a strong
+flowing fountain, which has now disappeared, which gave the name of
+Klaarwater to what is now known as Griquatown or Griquastad. Klaarwater
+became a retreat for other Bastaards, Hottentot refugees, Kaffirs and
+Bechuanas. From Little Namaqualand came a few half-breeds and others
+under the leadership of Adam Kok, son of Cornelius Kok and grandson of
+Adam Kok (c. 1710-1795), a man of mixed white and Hottentot blood who is
+regarded as the founder of the modern Griquas. The settlement prospered,
+and in 1813, at the instance of the Rev. John Campbell, who had been
+sent by the London Missionary Society to inspect the country, the
+tribesmen abandoned the name of Bastaards in favour of that of
+Griquas,[1] some of them professing descent from a Hottentot tribe,
+originally settled near Saldanha Bay, called by the early Dutch settlers
+at the Cape Chariguriqua or Grigriqua. Under the guidance of
+missionaries the Griquas made some progress in civilization, and many
+professed Christianity. Adam Kok and Barends having moved eastward in
+1820, those who remained behind elected as their head man a teacher in
+the mission school named Andries Waterboer, who successfully
+administered the settlement, and by defeating the Makololo raiders
+greatly increased the prestige of the tribe. Meanwhile Adam Kok and his
+companions had occupied part of the country between the Modder and
+Orange rivers. In 1825 Kok settled at the mission station of Philippolis
+(founded two years previously), and in a short time had exterminated the
+Bushmen inhabiting that region. He died about 1835, and after a period
+of civil strife was succeeded by his younger son, Adam Kok III. This
+chief in November 1843 signed a treaty placing himself under British
+protection. Many Dutch farmers were settled on the land he claimed. In
+1845 he received British military aid in a contest with the white
+settlers, and in 1848 helped the British under Sir Harry Smith against
+the Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_). Eventually finding himself
+straitened by the Boers of the newly established Orange Free State, he
+removed in 1861-1863 with his people, some 3000 in number, to the region
+(then depopulated by Kaffir wars) now known as Griqualand East. His
+sovereign rights to all territory north of the Orange he sold to the
+Free State for £4000. He founded Kokstad (q.v.) and died in 1876.
+Waterboer, the principal Griqua chief, had entered into treaty relations
+with the British government as early as 1834, and he received a subsidy
+of £150 a year. He proved a stanch ally of the British, and kept the
+peace on the Cape frontier to the day of his death in 1852. He was
+succeeded by his son Nicholas Waterboer, under whom the condition of the
+Griquas declined--a decline induced by the indolence of the people and
+intensified by the drying up of the water supplies, cattle plague and
+brandy drinking. During this period white settlers acquired farms in the
+country, and the loss of their independence by the Griquas became
+inevitable. The discovery of diamonds along the banks of the Vaal in
+1867 entirely altered the fortunes of the country, and by the end of
+1869 the rush to the alluvial diggings had begun. At the diggers' camps
+the Griquas exercised no authority, but over part of the district the
+South African Republic and the Orange Free State claimed sovereignty. At
+Klip Drift (now Barkly West) the diggers formed a regular government and
+elected Theodore Parker as their president. Most of the diggers being
+British subjects, the high commissioner of South Africa interfered, and
+a Cape official was appointed magistrate at Klip Drift, President Parker
+resigning office in February 1871. At this time the "dry diggings," of
+which Kimberley is the centre, had been discovered,[2] and over the
+miners there the Orange Free State asserted jurisdiction. The land was,
+however, claimed by Nicholas Waterboer, who, on the advice of his agent,
+David Arnot, petitioned the British to take over his country. This Great
+Britain consented to do, and on the 27th of October 1871 proclamations
+were issued by the high commissioner receiving Waterboer and his
+Griquas as British subjects and defining the limits of his territory. In
+addition to the Kimberley district this territory included that part of
+the diamondiferous area which had been claimed by the Transvaal, but
+which had been declared, as the result of the arbitration of R. W.
+Keate, lieutenant-governor of Natal, part of Waterboer's land. On the
+4th of November a small party of Cape Mounted Police took possession of
+the dry diggings and hoisted the British flag. Shortly afterwards the
+representative of the Orange Free State withdrew. The Free State was
+greatly incensed by the action of the British government, but the
+dispute as to the sovereignty was settled in 1876 by the payment of
+£90,000 by the British to the Free State as compensation for any injury
+inflicted on the state.
+
+The diggers, who under the nominal rule of the Transvaal and Free State
+had enjoyed practical independence, found the new government did little
+for their benefit, and a period of disorder ensued, which was not put an
+end to by the appointment in January 1873 of Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard
+Southey[3] as sole administrator, in place of the three commissioners
+who had previously exercised authority. In the July following the
+territory was made a crown colony and Southey's title changed to that of
+lieutenant-governor. The government remained unpopular, the diggers
+complaining of its unrepresentative character, the heavy taxation
+exacted, and the inadequate protection of property. They formed a
+society for mutual protection, and the discontent was so great that an
+armed force was sent (early in 1875) from the Cape to overawe the
+agitators. At the same time measures were taken to render the government
+more popular. The settlement of the dispute with the Free State paved
+the way for the annexation of Griqualand to the Cape Colony on the 15th
+of October 1880.
+
+  See KIMBERLEY, CAPE COLONY, TRANSVAAL and ORANGE FREE STATE. For the
+  early history of the country and an account of life at the diggings,
+  1871-1875, consult G. M'Call Theal's _Compendium of the History and
+  Geography of South Africa_ (London, 1878), chapters xl. and xli.;
+  Gardner F. Williams, _The Diamond Mines of South Africa_ (New York and
+  London, 1902); and the works bearing on the subject quoted in that
+  book. See also Theal's _History of South Africa ... 1834-1854_
+  (London, 1893); J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1815),
+  _Travels ... A Second journey ..._ (2 vols., London, 1822); the Blue
+  Books C. 459 of 1871 and C. 508 of 1872 (the last-named containing the
+  Keate award, &c.); the Griqualand West report in _Papers relating to
+  Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions_, part ii. (1875), and the Life of
+  _Sir Richard Southey, K.C.M.G._, by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the
+  Griqua people consult G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_,
+  chapters xvii.-xx. (London, 1905).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of
+    1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and
+    Bechuana tribes.
+
+  [2] The order of discovery of the chief mines was:--Dutoitspan, Sept.
+    1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Colesberg Kop
+    (Kimberley), July 1871.
+
+  [3] Sir Richard Southey (1809-1901) was the son of one of the
+    emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He
+    organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of
+    1834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smith at Boomplaats (1848). From 1864
+    to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Cape. He gave up his
+    appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in
+    retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G.
+
+
+
+
+GRISAILLE, a French term, derived from _gris_, grey, for painting in
+monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly used in decoration to
+represent objects in relief. The frescoes of the roof of the Sistine
+chapel have portions of the design in _grisaille_. At Hampton Court the
+lower part of the decoration of the great staircase by Verrio is in
+_grisaille_. The term is also applied to monochrome painting in enamels,
+and also to stained glass; a fine example of _grisaille_ glass is in the
+window known as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in
+York cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+GRISELDA, a heroine of romance. She is said to have been the wife of
+Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the 11th century, and her
+misfortunes were considered to belong to history when they were handled
+by Boccaccio and Petrarch, although the probability is that Boccaccio
+borrowed his narrative from a Provençal _fabliau_. He included it in the
+recitations of the tenth day (_Decamerone_), and must have written it
+about 1350. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his
+translation formed the basis of much of the later literature. The letter
+was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often subsequently. It was
+translated into French as _La Patience de Griselidis_ and printed at
+Bréhan-Loudéac in 1484, and its popularity is shown by the number of
+early editions quoted by Brunet (_Manuel du libraire, s.v._ Petrarca).
+The story was dramatized in 1395, and a _Mystère de Griselidis, marquise
+de Saluses par personnaiges_ was printed by Jehan Bonfons (no date).
+Chaucer followed Petrarch's version in the _Canterbury Tales_. Ralph
+Radcliffe, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to have written a
+play on the subject, and the story was dramatized by Thomas Dekker,
+Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603.
+
+  An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. Deloney's
+  _Garland of Good Will_ (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, _The
+  History of Patient Grisel_ (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885)
+  for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary
+  introduction.
+
+
+
+
+GRISI, GIULIA (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter of one of
+Napoleon's Italian officers, was born in Milan. She came of a family of
+musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephina Grassini (1773-1850) being a
+favourite opera-singer both on the continent and in London; her mother
+had also been a singer, and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin
+Carlotta were both exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical
+career, and made her stage début in 1828. Rossini and Bellini both took
+an interest in her, and at Milan she was the first Adalgisa in Bellini's
+_Norma_, in which Pasta took the title-part. Grisi appeared in Paris in
+1832, as Semiramide in Rossini's opera, and had a great success; and in
+1834 she appeared in London. Her voice was a brilliant dramatic soprano,
+and her established position as a prima donna continued for thirty
+years. She was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her
+association with such singers as Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini and Mario
+was long remembered as the palmy days of Italian opera. In 1854 she
+toured with Mario In America. She had married Count de Melcy in 1836,
+but this ended in a divorce; and in 1856 she married Mario (q.v.). She
+died in Berlin on the 29th of November 1869.
+
+
+
+
+GRISON (_Galictis vittata_), a carnivorous mammal, of the family
+_Mustelidae_, common in Central and South America and Mexico. It is
+about the size of a marten, and has the upper surface of a bluish-grey
+tint, and the under surface is dark brown. The grison lives on small
+mammals and birds, and in settled districts is destructive to poultry.
+Allamand's grison (_G. allamandi_), with the same range, is somewhat
+larger. Another member of the genus is the tayra or taira (_G.
+barbara_), about as large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to
+Argentina. This species hunts in companies (see CARNIVORA).
+
+
+
+
+GRISONS (Ger. _Graubünden_), the most easterly of the Swiss cantons and
+also the largest in extent, though relatively the most sparsely
+populated. Its total area is 2753.2 sq. m., of which 1634.4 sq. m. are
+classed as "productive" (forests covering 503.1 sq. m. and vineyards 1.3
+sq. m.), but it has also 138.6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this
+respect next after the Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is
+mountainous, the principal glacier groups being those of the Tödi, N.
+(11,887 ft.), of Medels, S.W. (Piz Medel, 10,509 ft.), of the Rheinwald
+or the Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorn, 11,149 ft.), with the chief
+source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.), the
+most extensive, of the Albula, E. (Piz Kesch, 11,228 ft.), and of the
+Silvretta, N.E. (Piz Linard, 11,201 ft.). The principal valleys are
+those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or Engadine, q.v.). The
+three main sources of the Rhine are in the canton. The valley of the
+Vorder Rhine is called the Bündner Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhine
+the Val Medels, and that of the Hinter Rhine (the principal), in
+different parts of its course, the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the
+Domleschg valley, while the upper valley of the Julia is named the
+Oberhalbstein. The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canton are the
+Glenner (flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the
+Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur (Schanfigg
+valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prättigau). The Rhine and the
+Inn flow respectively into the North and the Black Seas. Of other
+streams that of Val Mesocco joins the Ticino and so the Po, while the
+Maira or Mera (Val Bregaglia) and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the
+Rambach (Münster valley) the Adige, all four thus ultimately reaching
+the Adriatic Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe,
+and among the loftiest villages are Juf, 6998 ft. (the highest
+permanently inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers
+glen, and St Moritz, 6037 ft., in the Upper Engadine. The lower courses
+of the various streams are rent by remarkable gorges, such as the Via
+Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those in the Avers, Medels and Lugnetz
+glens, as well as that of the Züge in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire,
+near Malans, good wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, &c., maize
+and chestnuts flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are
+the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine breed of
+cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Bergamasque shepherds.
+There are many mineral springs, such as those of St Moritz, Schuls,
+Alvaneu, Fideris, Le Prese and San Bernardino. The climate and
+vegetation, save on the southern slope of the Alps, are alpine and
+severe. But yearly vast numbers of strangers visit different spots in
+the canton, especially Davos (q.v.), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet
+there are comparatively few railways. There is one from Maienfeld
+(continued north to Constance and north-west to Zürich) to Coire (11
+m.), which sends off a branch line from Landquart, E., past Klosters to
+Davos (31 m.). From Coire the line bears west to Reichenau (6 m.),
+whence one branch runs S.S.E. beneath the Albula Pass to St Moritz (50
+m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine valley to Ilanz (20½ m.).
+There are, however, a number of fine carriage roads across the passes
+leading to or towards Italy. Besides those leading to the Engadine may
+be noted the roads from Ilanz past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719
+ft.) to Andermatt, from Disentis over the Lukmanier Pass (6289 ft.) to
+Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Reichenau past Thusis and
+Splügen over the San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.) to Bellinzona on the
+same railway line, and from Splügen over the Splügen Pass (6946 ft.) to
+Chiavenna. The Septimer Pass (7582 ft.) from the Julier route to the
+Maloja route has now only a mule path, but was probably known in Roman
+times (as was possibly the Splügen), and was much frequented in the
+middle ages.
+
+The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. Of this number 55,155
+(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prättigau and in the Schanfigg
+valley) were Protestants, while 49,142 (mainly in the Bündner Oberland,
+the Val Mesocco and the Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were
+also 114 Jews (81 of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762
+(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prättigau and in the Schanfigg
+valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (mostly in the Val Mesocco,
+the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo, but including a number of
+Italian labourers engaged on the construction of the Albula railway)
+were Italian-speaking. But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a
+survival of an ancient Romance language (the _lingua rustica_ of the
+Roman Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty
+printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the 38,651
+persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer than 36,472
+are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two dialects: the Romonsch
+(sometimes wrongly called Romansch), which prevails in the Bündner
+Oberland and in the Hinter Rhine valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the
+Ladin (closely related to the tongue spoken in parts of the South
+Tyrol), that survives in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of
+Bergün, Oberhalbstein and Münster. (See F. Rausch's _Geschichte der
+Literatur des rhaeto-romanischen Volkes_, Frankfort, 1870, and Mr
+Coolidge's bibliography of this language, given on pp. 22-23 of Lorria
+and Martel's _Le Massif de la Bernina_, Zürich, 1894.) Yet in the midst
+of this Romance-speaking population are islets (mostly, if not entirely,
+due to immigration in the 13th century from the German-speaking Upper
+Valais) of German-speaking inhabitants, so in the Vals and Safien glens,
+and at Obersaxen (all in the Bündner Oberland), in the Rheinwald (the
+highest part of the Hinter Rhine valley), and in the Avers glen (middle
+reach of the Hinter Rhine valley), as well as in and around Davos
+itself.
+
+There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A considerable
+portion of the population is engaged in attending to the wants of the
+foreign visitors, but there is a considerable trade with Italy,
+particularly in the wines of the Valtellina, while many young men seek
+their fortunes abroad (returning home after having accumulated a small
+stock of money) as confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers.
+A certain number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are
+now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (q.v.).
+
+The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and includes 224
+communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a popular vote) to the Federal
+_Ständerath_, and 5 members (also elected by a popular vote) to the
+Federal _Nationalrath_. The existing cantonal constitution was accepted
+by the people in 1892, and came into force on 1st January 1894. The
+legislature (_Grossrath_--no numbers fixed by the constitution) is
+elected for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the
+executive (_Kleinrath_) for 3 years. The "obligatory referendum" obtains
+in the case of all laws and important matters of expenditure, while 3000
+citizens can demand ("facultative referendum") a popular vote as to
+resolutions and ordinances made by the legislature. Three thousand
+citizens also have the right of "initiative" as to legislative projects,
+but 5000 signatures are required for a proposed revision of the cantonal
+constitution. In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are
+never counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to the
+capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the
+constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount of
+the land tax varies annually according to the amount that _must_ be
+provided. In the pre-1799 constitution of the three Raetian Leagues the
+system of the "referendum" was in working as early as the 16th century,
+not merely as between the three Leagues themselves, but as between the
+bailiwicks (_Hochgerichte_), the sovereign units within each League, and
+sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages composing each
+bailiwick.
+
+The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the inhabitants
+speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Grisons formed the southern
+part of the province of Raetia (probably the aboriginal inhabitants, the
+Raeti, were Celts rather than, as was formerly believed, Etruscans), set
+up by the Romans after their conquest of the region in 15 B.C. The
+Romanized inhabitants were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin
+tongue is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the
+Ostrogoths (A.D. 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537 onwards).
+Governors called _Praesides_ are mentioned in the 7th and 8th centuries,
+while members of the same family occupied the episcopal see of Coire
+(founded 4th-5th centuries). About 806 Charles the Great made this
+region into a county, but in 831 the bishop procured for his dominions
+exemption ("immunity") from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before
+847 his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the
+German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from Italy to be
+joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united with the duchy of
+Alamannia, but the bishop still retained practical independence, and his
+wide-spread dominions placed him even above the abbots of Disentis and
+Pfäfers, who likewise enjoyed "immunity." In the 10th century the bishop
+obtained fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia
+in 960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who struggled
+for power in the region. He became a prince of the empire in 1170 and
+later allied himself with the rising power (in the region) of the
+Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the foundation of the League of God's
+House or the _Gotteshausbund_ (composed of the city and chapter of
+Coire, and of the bishop's subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val
+Bregaglia, Domleschg and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising
+power, the bishop entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis,
+the men of the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Räzuns and
+Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another League,
+called the _Ober Bund_ (as comprising the highlands in the Vorder Rhine
+valley) and also wrongly the "Grey League" (as the word interpreted
+"grey" is simply a misreading of _graven_ or counts, though the false
+view has given rise to the name of Grisons or Graubünden for the whole
+canton), their alliance being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free
+men of the Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco
+also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded, that of
+the _Zehngerichtenbund_ or League of the Ten Jurisdictions, by the
+former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose dynasty then became
+extinct; they include the inhabitants of the Prättigau, Davos,
+Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Churwalden, and the lordship of Belfort
+(i.e. the region round Alvaneu), and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the
+name of the League. In 1450 the _Zehngerichtenbund_ concluded an
+alliance with the _Gotteshausbund_ and in 1471 with the _Ober Bund_; but
+of the so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels,
+there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though
+diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496) nearly
+all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of Toggenburg
+in the Prättigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese line of the
+Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they passed to the elder
+line, the head of which, Maximilian, was already emperor-elect and
+desired to maintain the rights of his family there and in the Lower
+Engadine. Hence in 1497 the Ober Bund and in 1498 the _Gotteshausbund_
+became allies of the Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was
+ended by the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the
+Calven gorge (above Mals) which, added to another Swiss victory at
+Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize the _practical_
+independence of the Swiss and their allies of the Empire. The religious
+Reformation brought disunion into the three Leagues, as the _Ober Bund_
+clung in the main to the old faith, and for this reason their connexion
+with the Swiss Confederation was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles
+of Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction of the
+bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1486 Poschiavo had at last been
+secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was bought in 1509, while
+in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the _Ober Bund_ since 1480)
+purchased its freedom of its lords, the Trivulzió family of Milan. In
+1512 the three Leagues conquered from Milan the rich and fertile
+Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, and held these districts as
+subject lands till in 1797 they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic.
+The struggle for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the
+long rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis (Val
+Bregaglia), while in the 17th century this rivalry was complicated by
+political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the Spanish side and the
+Salis that of France during the long struggle (1620-1639) for the
+Valtellina (see JENATSCH and VALTELLINA). Troubles arose (1622) also in
+the Prättigau through the attempts of the Habsburgers to force the
+inhabitants to give up Protestantism. Finally, after the emperor had
+_formally_ recognized, by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the
+independence of the Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers
+in the Prättigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 and 1652).
+But the Austrian _enclaves_ of Tarasp (Lower Engadine) and of Räzuns
+(near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Grisons in 1809 and 1815
+respectively, in each case France holding the lordship for a short time
+after its cession by Austria. In 1748 (finally in 1762) the three
+Leagues secured the upper portion of the valley of Münster. In 1799 the
+French invaded the canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict
+(1799-1800) between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in
+the course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent of
+Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the provisional
+government agreed to the incorporation of the three Leagues in the
+Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June 1801 that the canton of
+Raetia became formally part of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by
+Napoleon's Act of Mediation, it entered, under the name of Canton of the
+Grisons or Graubünden, the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which
+it then first became a full member.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901);
+  _Bündnergeschichte in 11 Vorträgen_, by various writers (Coire, 1902);
+  _Codex diplomaticus Raetiae_ (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe,
+  _Travels in Switzerland_, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition; E.
+  Dunant, _La Réunion des Grisons à la Suisse_ (1798-1799) (Basel,
+  1899); G. Fient, _Das Prättigau_ (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa,
+  _Das bündnerische Münsterthal_ (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, _Codice
+  diplomatico della Rezia_ (originally published in the _Periodico_ of
+  the _Società storica a Comense_ at Como; separate reprint, Como,
+  1901); R. A. Ganzoni, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis d. bündnerischen
+  Referendums_ (Zürich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, _A Summer Tour in
+  the Grisons_ (London, 1862); C. and F. Jecklin, _Der Anteil
+  Graubündens am Schwabenkrieg_ (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor,
+  _Geschichte von Curraetien_ (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874), and
+  _Wegweiser_ (Coire, 1873); E. Lechner, _Das Thal Bergell_ (2nd ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1874); G. Leonhardi, _Das Poschiavinothal_ (Leipzig, 1859);
+  A. Lorria and E. A. Martel, _Le Massif de la Bernina_ (Upper Engadine
+  and Val Bregaglia) (Zürich, 1894); P. C. von Planta, _Das alte
+  Raetien_ (Berlin, 1872); _Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d.
+  Feudalzeit_ (Bern, 1881); _Geschichte von Graubünden_ (Bern, 1892);
+  and _Chronik d. Familie von Planta_ (Zürich, 1892); W. Plattner, _Die
+  Entstehung d. Freistaates der 3 Bünde_ (Davos, 1895), R. von
+  Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799_ (Stans,
+  1895); N. Salis-Soglio, _Die Familie von Salis_ (Lindau, 1891); G.
+  Theobald, _Das Bündner Oberland_ (Coire, 1861), and _Naturbilder aus
+  den rhätischen Alpen_ (3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, _Johannes von
+  Planta_ (d. 1572) (Zürich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis,
+  _Rechtsquellen d. Cant. Graubünden_ (Basel, 1877-1892); F. Jecklin,
+  _Materialen zur Standes- und Landesgeschichte Gem. iii. Bünde_
+  (Graubünden), _1464-1803_ (pt. i., _Regesten_, was published at Basel
+  in 1907). See also COIRE, ENGADINE, JENATSCH and VALTELLINA.
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT (1815-1857), American editor and compiler, was
+born in Benson, Vermont, on the 15th of February 1815. He travelled
+extensively, worked in newspaper offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a
+time, and finally became a journalist in New York City, where he was
+successively a member of the staffs of _The Brother Jonathan_, _The New
+World_ (1839-1840) and _The New Yorker_ (1840). From 1841 to 1843 he
+edited _Graham's Magazine_ (Philadelphia), and added to its list of
+contributors many leading American writers. From 1850 to 1852 he edited
+the _International Magazine_ (New York), which in 1852 was merged into
+_Harper's Magazine_. He died in New York City on the 27th of August
+1857. He is best known as the compiler and editor of various anthologies
+(with brief biographies and critiques), such as _Poets and Poetry of
+America_ (1842), his most popular and valuable book; _Prose Writers of
+America_ (1846); _Female Poets of America_ (1848); and _Sacred Poets of
+England and America_ (1849). Of his own writings his _Republican Court:
+or American Society in the Days of Washington_ (1854) is the only one of
+permanent value. He edited the first American edition of Milton's prose
+works (1845), and, as literary executor, edited, with James R. Lowell
+and N. P. Willis, the works (1850) of Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold's great
+contemporary reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but
+he rendered a valuable service in making Americans better acquainted
+with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen.
+
+  See _Passages from the Correspondence and Other Papers of Rufus W.
+  Griswold_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William
+  McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899).
+
+
+
+
+GRIVET, a monkey, _Cercopithecus sabaeus_, of the guenon group, nearly
+allied to the green monkey. It is common throughout equatorial Africa.
+The chin, whiskers and a broad band across the forehead, as well as the
+under-parts, are white, and the head and back olive-green. These monkeys
+are very commonly seen in menageries.
+
+
+
+
+GROAT (adapted from the Dutch _groot_, great, thick; cf. Ger.
+_Groschen_; the Med. Lat. _grossus_ gives Ital. _grosso_, Fr. _gros_, as
+names for the coin), a name applied as early as the 13th century on the
+continent of Europe to any large or thick coin. The groat was almost
+universally a silver coin, but its value varied considerably, as well at
+different times as in different countries. The English groat was first
+coined in 1351, of a value somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous
+debasement of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth
+four pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662, but a
+coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although frequently
+referred to as a groat, it had no other official designation than a
+"fourpenny piece." Its issue was again discontinued in 1856. The groat
+was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck by David II. in 1358. In
+Ireland it was first struck by Edward IV. in 1460.
+
+
+
+
+GROCER, literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale dealer; the
+word is derived through the O. Fr. form, _grossia_, from the Med. Lat.
+_grossarius_, defined by du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. _Grossares_, as
+_solidae mercis propola_. The name, as a general one for dealers by
+wholesale, "engrossers" as opposed to "regrators," the retail dealers,
+is found with the commodity attached; thus in the _Munimenta Gildhallae_
+("Rolls" series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) is
+found an allusion to _grossours de vin_, cf. _groser of fysshe_,
+_Surtees Misc._ (1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted _ib._). The
+specific application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale or
+retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all kinds
+of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected with the
+history of the Grocers' Company of London, one of the twelve "great"
+livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and the spicers amalgamated and
+were known as the Fraternity of St Anthony. The name "grocers" first
+appears in 1373 in the records of the company. In 1386 the association
+was granted a right of search over all "spicers" in London, and in 1394
+they obtained the right to inspect or "garble" spices and other "subtil
+wares." Their first charter was obtained in 1428; letters patent in 1447
+granted an extension of the right of search over the whole county, but
+removed the "liberties" of the city of London. They sold all kinds of
+drugs, medicines, ointments, plasters, and medicated and other waters.
+For the separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 1617 see
+APOTHECARY. (See further LIVERY COMPANIES.)
+
+  See _The Grocery Trade_, by J. Aubrey Rees (1910).
+
+
+
+
+GROCYN, WILLIAM (1446?-1519), English scholar, was born at Colerne,
+Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents for the church, he was
+sent to Winchester College, and in 1465 was elected to a scholarship at
+New College, Oxford. In 1467 he became a fellow, and had among his
+pupils William Warham, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 he
+accepted the rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but
+continued to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College
+in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of divinity,
+in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknowledged his skill as
+a debater by the present of a buck and five marks. In 1485 he became
+prebendary of Lincoln cathedral. About 1488 Grocyn left England for
+Italy, and before his return in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and
+Padua, and studied Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and
+Politian. As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of
+indoctrinating his countrymen in the new Greek learning.
+
+Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek at Oxford
+before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College, Thomas Chaundler,
+invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to Oxford, to act as
+praelector. This was about 1475, and as Vitelli was certainly familiar
+with Greek literature, Grocyn may have learnt Greek from him. He seems
+to have lived in Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became
+dean of St Paul's in 1504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by his
+friend to deliver lectures in St Paul's; and in this connexion he gave a
+singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced all who
+impugned the authenticity of the _Hierarchia ecclesiastica_ ascribed to
+Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify his views by further
+investigation, he openly declared that he had been completely mistaken.
+He also counted Linacre, William Lily, William Latimer and More among
+his friends, and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by
+Grocyn in London, and calls him "the friend and preceptor of us all." He
+held several preferments, but his generosity to his friends involved him
+in continual difficulties, and though in 1506 he was appointed on
+Archbishop Warham's recommendation master or warden of All Hallows
+College at Maidstone in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his
+friends, and even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519,
+and was buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted as
+his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts to the poor
+and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With the exception of a few
+lines of Latin verse on a lady who snowballed him, and a letter to Aldus
+Manutius at the head of Linacre's translation of Proclus's _Sphaera_
+(Venice, 1499), Grocyn has left no literary proof of his scholarship or
+abilities. His proposal to execute a translation of Aristotle in company
+with Linacre and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin
+works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus he has been
+described as "vir severissimae castissimae vitae, ecclesiasticarum
+constitutionum observantissimus pene usque ad superstitionem,
+scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus ac natura etiam acerrimi
+judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum genere exacte versatus"
+(_Declarationes ad censuras facultatis theologiae Parisianae_, 1522).
+
+  An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the Oxford
+  Historical Society's _Collectanea_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GRODNO, one of the Lithuanian governments of western Russia, lying
+between 51° 40' and 52° N. and between 22° 12' and 26° E., and bounded
+N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk, S. by Volhynia, and W. by
+the Polish governments of Lomza and Siedlce. Area, 14,926 sq. m. Except
+for some hills (not exceeding 925 ft.) in the N., it is a uniform plain,
+and is drained chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev and Bobr, all
+navigable. There are also several canals, the most important being the
+Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop out along the Bug,
+Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits elsewhere. The soil is
+mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and along the rivers is
+often drift-sand. Forests, principally of _Coniferae_, cover more than
+one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are some of vast extent, e.g. those
+of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa (Bialowice) (376 sq. m.),
+embracing wide areas of marshy ground. In the last mentioned forest the
+wild ox survives, having been jealously preserved since 1803. Peat bogs,
+sometimes as much as 4 to 7 ft. thick, cover extensive districts. The
+climate is wet and cold; the annual mean temperature being 44.5° F., the
+January mean 22.5° and the July mean 64.5°. The rainfall amounts to 21½
+in.; hail is frequent. Agriculture is the predominant industry. The
+peasants own 42½% of the land, that is, about 4,000,000 acres, and of
+these over 2¼ million acres are arable. The crops principally grown are
+potatoes, rye, oats, wheat, flax, hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle
+and sheep are bred in fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain
+amount of manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and
+tobacco. In woollens this government ranks second (after Moscow) in the
+empire, the centre of the industry being Byelostok. Other factories
+produce silk, shoddy and leather. The government is crossed by the main
+lines of railway from Warsaw to St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow.
+The population numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of
+these last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906 it was
+estimated at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate (54%), then follow
+Jews (17.4%), Poles (10%), Lithuanians and Germans. The government is
+divided into nine districts, the chief towns, with their populations in
+1897, being Grodno (q.v.), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1901), Byelsk
+(7461), Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1901), Kobrin (10,365),
+Pruzhany (7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk (10,584).
+In 1795 Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was annexed by Russia.
+
+
+
+
+GRODNO, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name in
+53° 40' N. and 23° 50' E., on the right bank of the Niemen, 160 m. by
+rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna on the main line to St
+Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly two-thirds Jews. It is an
+episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek church and the headquarters of the
+II. Army Corps. It has two old castles, now converted to other uses, and
+two churches (16th and 17th centuries). Tobacco factories and
+distilleries are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and
+firearms are also made. Built in the 12th century, Grodno was almost
+entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights (1284 and
+1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his capital, and died
+there in 1586. The Polish Estates frequently met at Grodno after 1673,
+and there in 1793 they signed the second partition of Poland. It was at
+Grodno that Stanislaus Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795.
+
+
+
+
+GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801-1876), Dutch politician and
+historian, was born at Voorburg, near the Hague, on the 21st of August
+1801. He studied at Leiden university, and graduated in 1823 both as
+doctor of literature and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary
+to King William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in Dutch
+home politics, and gradually became the leader of the so-called
+anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber, of which he was
+for many years a member, and outside. In Groen the doctrines of Guizot
+and Stahl found an eloquent exponent. They permeate his controversial
+and political writings and historical studies, of which his _Handbook of
+Dutch History_ (in Dutch) and _Maurice et Barnevelt_ (in French, 1875, a
+criticism of Motley's _Life of Van Olden-Barnevelt_) are the principal.
+Groen was violently opposed to Thorbecke, whose principles he denounced
+as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived to see these principles
+triumph, he never ceased to oppose them until his death, which occurred
+at the Hague on the 19th of May 1876. He is best known as the editor of
+the _Archives et correspondance de la maison d'Orange_ (12 vols.,
+1835-1845), a great work of patient erudition, which procured for him
+the title of the "Dutch _Gachard_." J. L. Motley acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Groen's Archives in the preface to his _Rise of the
+Dutch Republic_, at a time when the American historian had not yet made
+the acquaintance of King William's archivist, and also bore emphatic
+testimony to Groen's worth as a writer of history in the correspondence
+published after his death. At the first reception, in 1858, of Motley at
+the royal palace at the Hague, the king presented him with a copy of
+Groen's _Archives_ as a token of appreciation and admiration of the work
+done by the "worthy vindicator of William I., prince of Orange." This
+copy, bearing the king's autograph inscription, afterwards came into the
+possession of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley's son-in-law.
+
+
+
+
+GROIN. (1) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine, from Lat.
+_grunnire_, and so applied to the snout of a pig; it is probably the
+origin of the word, more commonly spelled "groyne," for a small timber
+framework or wall of masonry used on sea coasts as a breakwater to
+prevent the encroachment of sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin;
+from an older form _grynde_ or _grinde_; the derivation from "grain," an
+obsolete word meaning "fork," cannot, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed
+between the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the
+inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle or "arris"
+formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one another,
+occasionally called by workmen "groin point." If the vaults are both of
+the same radius and height, their intersections lie in a vertical plane,
+in other cases they form winding curves for which it is difficult to
+provide centering. In early medieval vaulting this was sometimes
+arranged by a slight alteration in the geometrical curve of the vault,
+but the problem was not satisfactorily solved until the introduction of
+the rib which henceforth ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell
+(see VAULT). The name "Welsh groin" or "underpitch" is generally given
+to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal vault is
+higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the transverse rib (of
+much greater radius than that of the wall rib), projected diagonally in
+front of the latter, the filling-in or web has to be carried back from
+the transverse to the wall rib. The term "groin centering" is used
+where, in groining without ribs, the whole surface is supported by
+centering during the erection of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone
+ribs only are supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work,
+any light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See VAULT.)
+
+
+
+
+GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON (1777-1843), Prussian soldier, was born
+in Berlin on the 30th of July 1777. He entered an infantry regiment when
+scarcely thirteen, became an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797,
+first lieutenant 1804 and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had
+become one of Scharnhorst's intimates, and he was distinguished for his
+energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which he
+served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a staff officer,
+and won the rank of major for distinguished service in action. After the
+peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was one of the most active of
+Scharnhorst's assistants in the work of reorganization (1809), joined the
+_Tugendbund_ and endeavoured to take part in Schill's abortive
+expedition, after which he entered the Austrian service as a major on the
+general staff. Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards
+against Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that
+port against Marshal Victor in 1810. He was present at the battle of
+Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a prisoner of war at the
+surrender of the last-named place. Soon, however, he escaped to
+Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he returned to Prussia as a major on
+the general staff. He served successively under Colonel von Dolffs and
+General von Kleist, and as commissioner at the headquarters of the
+Russian general Barclay de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory
+of Kulm, and recovered from a severe wound received at that action in
+time to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous part
+in the campaign of 1814 in France, after which he was made a
+major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster-general to
+Field Marshal Prince Blücher, and, after his chief and Gneisenau,
+Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the Prussian operations of
+1815. In the decision, on the 18th of June 1815, to press forward to
+Wellington's assistance (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN), Grolmann actively
+concurred, and as the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to
+have overcome the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and the
+chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After the peace of
+1815, Grolmann occupied important positions in the ministry of war and
+the general staff. His last public services were rendered in Poland as
+commander-in-chief, and practically as civil administrator of the
+province of Posen. He was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died
+on the 1st of June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the
+Prussian army. The Prussian 18th infantry regiment bears his name.
+
+General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the material for
+von Damitz's _Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815_ (Berlin, 1837-1838), and _Gesch.
+des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1842-1843).
+
+  See v. Conrady, _Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann_
+  (Berlin, 1894-1896).
+
+
+
+
+GROMATICI (from _groma_ or _gruma_, a surveyor's pole), or
+_Agrimensores_, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans. The art
+of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the augurs, by whom
+it was exercised in all cases where the demarcation of a _templum_ (any
+consecrated space) was necessary. Thus, the boundaries of Rome itself,
+of colonies and camps, were all marked out in accordance with the rules
+of augural procedure. The first professional surveyor mentioned is L.
+Decidius Saxa, who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps
+(Cicero, _Philippics_, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their number
+and reputation increased. The distribution of land amongst the veterans,
+the increase in the number of military colonies, the settlement of
+Italian peasants in the provinces, the general survey of the empire
+under Augustus, the separation of private and state domains, led to the
+establishment of a recognized professional corporation of surveyors.
+During later times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some
+cases were even honoured with the title _clarissimus_. Their duties were
+not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal knowledge for
+consultations or the settlement of disputes. This led to the institution
+of special schools for the training of surveyors and a special
+literature, which lasted from the 1st to the 6th century A.D. The
+earliest of the gromatic writers was Frontinus (q.v.), whose _De agrorum
+qualitate_, dealing with the legal aspect of the art, was the subject of
+a commentary by Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan
+a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his Dacian
+campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for land surveyors
+(_Expositio et ratio omnium formarum_ or _mensurarum_, probably after a
+Greek original by Hero), dedicated to a certain Celsus who had invented
+an improvement in a gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling
+the modern theodolite); for the treatises of Hyginus see that name.
+Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus (_De condicionibus
+agrorum_, extant), while the most curious treatise on the subject,
+written in barbarous Latin and entitled _Casae litterarum_ (long a
+school text-book) is the work of a certain Innocentius (4th-5th
+century). It is doubtful whether Boëtius is the author of the treatises
+attributed to him. The _Gromatici veteres_ also contains extracts from
+official registers (probably belonging to the 5th century) of colonial
+and other land surveys, lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and
+extracts from the Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection
+had its origin during the 5th century in the office of a vicarius
+(diocesan governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under him.
+The surveyors were known by various names: _decempedator_ (with
+reference to the instrument used); _finitor_, _metator_ or _mensor
+castrorum_ in republican times; _togati Augustorum_ as imperial civil
+officials; _professor_, _auctor_ as professional instructors.
+
+  The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others (1848)
+  with supplementary volume, _Die Schriften der römischen Feldmesser_
+  (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, _Roman History_, ii., appendix (Eng.
+  trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M. Cantor, _Die
+  römischen Agrimensoren_ (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot, _La Condition
+  des Agrimensores dans l'ancienne Rome_ (1879); G. Rossi, _Groma e
+  squadro_ (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Hultsch in Ersch and Gruber's
+  _Allgem. Encyklopädie_, and by G. Humbert in Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquités_; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman
+  Literature_, 58.
+
+
+
+
+GRONINGEN, the most northerly province of Holland, bounded S. by Drente,
+W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee, N. and N.E. by the North Sea and
+the mouth of the Ems with the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian
+province of Hanover. It includes the islands of Boschplaat and
+Rottumeroog, belonging to the group of Frisian islands (q.v.). Area, 887
+sq. m.; pop. (1900) 299,602. Groningen is connected with the Drente
+plateau by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to
+the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is flat and
+consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except where patches of low
+and high fen occur on the Frisian borders. Low fen predominates to the
+east of the capital, between the Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or
+lakes. The south-eastern portion of the province consists of high fen
+resting on diluvial sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and
+the sandy soil laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas
+of fen still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian
+border was long considered as the natural protection of the eastern
+frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable condition
+neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised here until
+1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of houses was sanctioned
+and the work of reclamation begun. The gradual extension of the seaward
+boundaries of the province owing to the process of littoral deposits may
+be easily traced, a triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the
+successive stages in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending
+from the Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued
+by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through a lock),
+and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south-eastern corner of the
+province is traversed by the Westerwolde Aa, which discharges into the
+Dollart. The railway system belongs to the northern section of the State
+railways, and affords communication with Germany via Winschoten.
+Steam-tramways also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the
+main industry. The proportion of landowners is a very large one, and the
+prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested by the style of
+his home, his dress and his gig. As a result, however, partly of the
+usual want of work on the grasslands in certain seasons, there has been
+a considerable emigration to America. The ancient custom called the
+_beklem-recht_, or lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended
+ownership of the land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath
+his farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity.
+
+The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and in the
+north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South Holland and
+Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing and horse-breeding
+are also practised, together with butter and cheese making. The
+cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds in the south and the fen
+colonies along the Stads-Canal invite general comparison with the
+industries of Drente (q.v.). Hoogezand and Sappemeer, Veendam and
+Wildervank, New and Old Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of
+villages which have extended until they overlap one another and are
+similar in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in
+North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen (q.v.) is
+the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl, which was
+formerly an important fortress for the protection of the ancient sluices
+on the little river Delf (hence its name), has greatly benefited by the
+construction of the Ems (Eems) ship-canal connecting it with Groningen,
+and has a good harbour with a considerable import trade in wood.
+Appingedam and Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle
+and horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out by the
+Society for Public Welfare (_Tot Nut van het Algemeen_) in 1826.
+
+
+
+
+GRONINGEN, a town of Holland, capital of the province of the same name,
+at the confluence of the two canalized rivers the Drentsche Aa and the
+Hunse (which are continued to the Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m.
+N. of Assen and 33 m. E. of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (1900) 67,563.
+Groningen is the centre from which several important canals radiate.
+Besides the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and the Damster Diep,
+connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the Kolonel's Diep with
+Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem's Canal with Assen and the south and the
+Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence steamers ply in all
+directions, and there is a regular service to Emden and the island of
+Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the Lauwers Zee to the island of
+Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is the most important town in the north of
+Holland, with its fine shops and houses and wide clean streets, while
+brick houses of the 16th and 17th centuries help it to retain a certain
+old-world air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the
+former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of which the
+Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares in Holland. Pleasant
+gardens and promenades extend on the north side of the town, together
+with a botanical garden. The chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a
+high tower (432 ft.) dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the
+famous scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near
+Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was founded in
+1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt at the end of the 19th
+century) contains some remarkable pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx
+(1865). There is also a Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in
+classical style), one of the finest public buildings, was built at the
+beginning of the 19th century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial
+government offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid
+front in 1871. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial museum of
+antiquities, containing interesting Germanic antiquities, as well as
+medieval and modern collections of porcelain, pictures, &c.; the courts
+of justice (transformed in the middle of the 18th century); the old
+Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted to the administration of the
+surrounding district, built in 1509 and restored in 1899; the
+weigh-house (1874); the civil and military prison; the arsenal; the
+military hospital; and the concert hall.
+
+The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its present fine
+buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its auxiliary establishments
+are a good natural history museum, an observatory, a laboratory, and a
+library which contains a copy of Erasmus' New Testament with marginal
+annotations by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and
+dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in 1790, a
+gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music. There are learned
+societies for the study of law (1761) and natural science (1830); an
+academy of fine arts (1830); an archaeological society; and a central
+bureau for collecting information concerning the province.
+
+As capital of the province, and on account of the advantages of its
+natural position, Groningen maintains a very considerable trade, chiefly
+in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle, with Great Britain, Germany,
+Scandinavia and Russia. The chief industries are flax-spinning,
+rope-making, sugar refining, book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and
+it also manufactures beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen
+stuffs, furniture, organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil
+and grain mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and
+silversmiths.
+
+_History._--The town of Groningen belonged originally to the _pagus_, or
+_gouw_, of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which was bestowed by the
+emperor Henry II. on the bishop and chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040
+Henry III. gave the church of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and
+in the deed of gift the "villa Cruoninga" is mentioned. Upon this
+charter the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of
+the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the time of the
+donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to have existed, but the
+royal "villa" rapidly developed into a community which strove to assert
+the rights of a free imperial city. At first the bishops were too strong
+for the townsmen; the defences built in 1110 were pulled down by the
+bishop's order two years later; and during the 12th and 13th centuries
+the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in
+maintaining its authority. Down to the 15th century an episcopal
+prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority extending
+over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht. In 1143 Heribert
+of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the office into an hereditary
+fief in favour of his brother Liffert, on the extinction of whose male
+line it was partitioned between the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden)
+and van den Hove. Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the
+neighbouring Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the
+episcopal yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had
+become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of the 14th
+century it was practically a powerful independent republic, which
+exercised an effective control over the Frisian Ommelande between the
+Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the close of the 14th century the heirs of
+the Koevorden and van den Hove families sold their rights, first to the
+town, and then to the bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was
+temporarily worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the
+city the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht.
+
+The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of Utrecht, was
+aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none; and the craft gilds were
+without direct influence on the city government, which held them in
+subjection. Membership of the governing council, which selected from its
+own body the four _rationales_ or burgomasters, was confined to men of
+approved "wisdom," and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This
+_Raad_ of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power. The bishop's
+bailiff (_schout_), with his nominated assessors (_scabini_), continued
+to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the Raad sat on the bench with
+him, and an appeal lay from his court to the Raad itself. The council
+was, in fact, supreme in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 it
+decreed that no one might trade in all the district between the Ems and
+the Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the
+_burwal_ (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the gilds.
+Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony, hereditary
+podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred to accept the
+protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when Albert's son George
+attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they recognized the lordship of
+Edzart of East Frisia. On George's renewal of hostilities they
+transferred their allegiance to Duke Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In
+1536 the city passed into the hands of Charles V., and in the great
+wars of the 16th century suffered all the miseries of siege and military
+occupation. From 1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards,
+was constantly at war with the "Ommelanden" which had declared against
+the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the capture of the
+city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree of the States in 1597
+which was intended to set them at rest. In 1672 the town was besieged by
+the bishop of Münster, but it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its
+fortifications were improved under Coehoorn's direction. The French
+Republicans planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the
+14th of February 1795, and they continued in authority till the 16th of
+November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed to destruction
+by the law of the 18th of April 1874.
+
+  See C. Hegel, _Städte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, _Manuel
+  d'histoire_, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.v. in Chevalier,
+  _Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge_ (_Topo-bibliographie_).
+
+
+
+
+GRONLUND, LAURENCE (1846-1899), American socialist, was born in
+Copenhagen, Denmark, on the 13th of July 1846. He graduated from the
+university of Copenhagen in 1865, began the study of law, removed to the
+United States in 1867, taught German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the
+bar in 1869, and practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer
+on socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist
+Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost exclusively
+to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the bureau of labour
+statistics. He again returned to the lecture field, and was an editorial
+writer for the New York and Chicago _American_ from 1898 until his death
+in New York City on the 15th of October 1899. His principal works are:
+_The Coming Revolution_ (1880); _The Co-operative Commonwealth in its
+Outlines, An Exposition of Modern Socialism_ (1884); _Ça Ira, or Danton
+in the French Revolution_ (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton; _Our
+Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion_ (1890); and
+_The New Economy_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+GRONOVIUS (the latinized form of GRONOV), JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1611-1671),
+German classical scholar and critic, was born at Hamburg on the 8th of
+September 1611. Having studied at several universities, he travelled in
+England, France and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of
+rhetoric and history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at
+Leiden, where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also FABRETTI,
+RAPHAEL.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy, Tacitus,
+Aulus Gellius and Seneca's tragedies, Gronovius was the author, amongst
+numerous other works, of _Commentarius de sestertiis_ (1643) and of an
+edition of Hugo Grotius' De jure belli et pacis (1660). His
+_Observationes_ contain a number of brilliant emendations. His son,
+JAKOB GRONOVIUS (1645-1716), is chiefly known as the editor of the
+_Thesaurus antiquitatum Graecarum_ (1697-1702, in 13 volumes).
+
+  See J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ ii. (1908); F. A. Eckstein
+  in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+GROOM, in modern usage a male servant attached to the stables, whose
+duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding, currying and care
+generally of horses. The earliest meaning of the word appears to be that
+of a boy, and in 16th and 17th century literature it frequently occurs,
+in pastorals, for a shepherd lover. Later it is used for any male
+attendant, and thus survives in the name for several officials in the
+royal household, such as the grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the
+great chamber. The groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George
+III., saw to the preparation of the sovereign's apartment, and, during
+the 16th and 17th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and
+was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of gaming within
+the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The O. Fr. _gromet_, shop
+boy, is taken by French etymologists to be derived from the English.
+From the application of this word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant's
+shop, is derived _gourmet_, an epicure. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_, though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic
+languages, the word may be ultimately connected with the root of "to
+grow." In "bridegroom," a newly married man, "grom" in the 16th century
+took the place of an older _gome_, a common old Teutonic word meaning
+"man," and connected with the Latin _homo_. The Old English word was
+_brydguma_, later _bridegome_. The word survives in the German
+_Bräutigam_.
+
+
+
+
+GROOT, GERHARD (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert Groet, in Latin
+Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of the society of Brothers of
+Common Life (q.v.), was born in 1340 at Deventer in the diocese of
+Utrecht, where his father held a good civic position. He went to the
+university of Paris when only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic
+philosophy and theology under a pupil of Occam's, from whom he imbibed
+the nominalist conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon
+law, medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some Hebrew.
+After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and possibly became
+master in 1363. He pursued his studies still further in Cologne, and
+perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited the papal court at Avignon. About
+this time he was appointed to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly
+becoming luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change
+passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every worldly
+enjoyment. This conversion, which took place In 1374, appears to have
+been due partly to the effects of a dangerous illness and partly to the
+influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned and pious prior of the
+Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen near Arnhem, who had remonstrated
+with him on the vanity of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this
+monastery and there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study,
+without, however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received
+ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher throughout the
+diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his labours not only in
+the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle, Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam,
+Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden, Delft, Zütphen and elsewhere, was immense;
+according to Thomas à Kempis the people left their business and their
+meals to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the
+crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop of Utrecht
+supported him warmly, and got him to preach against concubinage in the
+presence of the clergy assembled in synod. The impartiality of his
+censures, which he directed not only against the prevailing sins of the
+laity, but also against heresy, simony, avarice, and impurity among the
+secular and regular clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and
+accusations of heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that
+Groot emitted a _Publica Protestatio_, in which he declared that Jesus
+Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all of them he
+believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic doctrine, and that he
+willingly subjected them to the candid judgment of the Roman Church. The
+bishop was induced to issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all
+who were not in priest's orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without
+effect. There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either
+it was only a few months before Groot's death, or else it must have been
+removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached in public in the
+last year of his life. At some period (perhaps 1381, perhaps earlier) he
+paid a visit of some days' duration to the famous mystic Johann
+Ruysbroeck, prior of the Augustinian canons at Groenendael near
+Brussels; at this visit was formed Groot's attraction for the rule and
+life of the Augustinian canons which was destined to bear such notable
+fruit. At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who
+attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, and
+Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St Augustine. No
+time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, but Groot died
+before a foundation could be made. In 1387, however, a site was secured
+at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of Deventer, and here was established
+the monastery that became the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of
+canons regular, embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses,
+and leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the 15th
+century by all the religious orders in Germany. The initiation of this
+movement was the great achievement of Groot's life; he lived to preside
+over the birth and first days of his other creation, the society of
+Brothers of Common Life. He died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at
+the age of 44.
+
+  The chief authority for Groot's life is Thomas à Kempis, _Vita Gerardi
+  Magni_ (translated into English by J. P. Arthur, _The Founders of the
+  New Devotion_, 1905); also the _Chronicon Windeshemense_ of Johann
+  Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these sources, will
+  be found in S. Kettlewell, _Thomas à Kempis and the Brothers of Common
+  Life_ (1882). i. c. 5; and a shorter account in F. R. Cruise, _Thomas
+  à Kempis_, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch, with an account of
+  Groot's writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot's
+  theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in
+  his day, and that the attempts to make him "a reformer before the
+  Reformation" are unhistorical.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL, a large and brilliantly coloured Bornean
+squirrel, _Rhithrosciurus macrotis_, representing a genus by itself
+distinguished from all other members of the family _Sciuridae_ by having
+numerous longitudinal grooves on the front surface of the incisor teeth;
+the molars being of a simpler type than in other members of the family.
+The tail is large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks
+marked by black and white bands.
+
+
+
+
+GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON (1771-1835), French painter, was born at Paris
+in 1771. His father, who was a miniature painter, began to teach him to
+draw at the age of six, and showed himself from the first an exacting
+master. Towards the close of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the
+studio of David, which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same
+time to follow the classes of the Collège Mazarin. The death of his
+father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolution,
+threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now devoted himself
+wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792 for the _grand prix_, but
+unsuccessfully. About this time, however, on the recommendation of the
+École des Beaux Arts, he was employed on the execution of portraits of
+the members of the Convention, and when--disturbed by the development of
+the Revolution--Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported himself
+at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity of miniatures and
+_fixés_. He visited Florence, but returning to Genoa made the
+acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to Milan, where he was well
+received by her husband. On November 15, 1796, Gros was present with the
+army near Arcola when Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros
+seized on this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had
+found his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of "inspecteur
+aux revues," which enabled him to follow the army, and in 1797 nominated
+him on the commission charged to select the spoils which should enrich
+the Louvre. In 1799, having escaped from the besieged city of Genoa,
+Gros made his way to Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his
+quarters in the Capucins. His "esquisse" (Musée de Nantes) of the
+"Battle of Nazareth" gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls,
+but was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt
+by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him to paint his
+own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. "Les Pestiférés de Jaffa" (Louvre)
+was followed by the "Battle of Aboukir" 1806 (Versailles), and the
+"Battle of Eylau," 1808 (Louvre). These three subjects--the popular
+leader facing the pestilence unmoved, challenging the splendid instant
+of victory, heart-sick with the bitter cost of a hard-won field--gave to
+Gros his chief title to fame. As long as the military element remained
+bound up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and
+energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the events
+which he depicted; but as the army and its general separated from the
+people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes representative only of
+the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased to find the nourishment
+necessary to his genius, and the defect of his artistic position became
+evident. Trained in the sect of the Classicists, he was shackled by
+their rules, even when--by his naturalistic treatment of types, and
+appeal to picturesque effect in colour and tone--he seemed to run
+counter to them. In 1810 his "Madrid" and "Napoleon at the Pyramids"
+(Versailles) show that his star had deserted him. His "Francis I." and
+"Charles V.," 1812 (Louvre), had considerable success; but the
+decoration of the dome of St Geneviève (begun in 1811 and completed in
+1824) is the only work of Gros's later years which shows his early force
+and vigour, as well as his skill. The "Departure of Louis XVIII."
+(Versailles), the "Embarkation of Madame d'Angoulême" (Bordeaux), the
+plafond of the Egyptian room in the Louvre, and finally his "Hercules
+and Diomedes," exhibited in 1835, testify only that Gros's efforts--in
+accordance with the frequent counsels of his old master David--to stem
+the rising tide of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant
+reputation. Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure,
+Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 25th of June
+1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near Sèvres. From a
+paper which he had placed in his hat it became known that "las de la
+vie, et trahi par les dernières facultés qui la lui rendaient
+supportable, il avait résolu de s'en défaire." The number of Gros's
+pupils was very great, and was considerably augmented when, in 1815,
+David quitted Paris and made over his own classes to him. Gros was
+decorated and named baron of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of
+1808, at which he had exhibited the "Battle of Eylau." Under the
+Restoration he became a member of the Institute, professor at the École
+des Beaux Arts, and was named chevalier of the order of St Michel.
+
+  M. Delécluze gives a brief notice of his life in _Louis David et son
+  temps_, and Julius Meyer's _Geschichte der modernen französischen
+  Malerei_ contains an excellent criticism on his works.
+
+
+
+
+GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1827-1899), Scottish divine and literary
+editor, the son of a building contractor, was born at Stirling on the
+18th of June 1827. He was educated at Edinburgh University, and in 1856
+became a Presbyterian minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool,
+and three years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in
+1892, and died at Dublin on the 16th of March 1899. Dr Grosart is
+chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare Elizabethan
+literature, a work which he undertook in the first instance from his
+strong interest in Puritan theology. Among the first writers whose works
+he edited were the Puritan divines, Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and
+Herbert Palmer. Editions of Michael Bruce's _Poems_ (1865) and Richard
+Gilpin's _Demonologia sacra_ (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a
+bibliography of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year until
+1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers the "Fuller
+Worthies Library," a series of thirty-nine volumes which included the
+works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies, Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan,
+Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir
+Philip Sidney. The last four volumes of the series were devoted to the
+works of many little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His
+_Occasional Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books_ (1875-1881) is of the
+utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other things the
+_Annalia Dubrensia_ of Robert Dover. In 1876 still another series, known
+as the "Chertsey Worthies Library," was begun. It included editions of
+the works of Nicholas Breton, Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont,
+Abraham Cowley, Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was
+untiring in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two
+last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881, and no
+sooner had they been completed than Grosart began the "Huth Library," so
+called from the bibliophile Henry Huth, who possessed the originals of
+many of the reprints. It included the works of Robert Greene, Thomas
+Nash, Gabriel Harvey, and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also
+edited the complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From the
+Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and edited Sir John
+Eliot's works, Sir Richard Boyle's _Lismore Papers_, and various
+publications for the Chetham Society, the Camden Society and the
+Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart's faults of style and occasional inaccuracy
+do not seriously detract from the immense value of his work. He was
+unwearied in searching for rare books, and he brought to light much
+interesting literature, formerly almost inaccessible.
+
+
+
+
+GROSBEAK (Fr. _Grosbec_), a name very indefinitely applied to many birds
+belonging to the families _Fringillidae_ and _Ploceidae_ of modern
+ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the _Emberizidae_ and
+_Tanagridae_, but always to birds distinguished by the great size of
+their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a synonym of hawfinch (q.v.), but
+a prefix is usually added to indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak,
+cardinal-grosbeak and the like. By early writers the word was generally
+given as an equivalent of the Linnaean _Loxia_, but that genus has been
+found to include many forms not now placed in the same family.
+
+The Pine-grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_) inhabits the conifer-zone of
+both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe and probably
+elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches--often journeying in
+large flocks; stragglers have occasionally reached the British Islands
+(Yarrell, _Br. Birds_, ed. 4, ii. 177-179). In structure and some of its
+habits much resembling a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in
+size, it has the plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same
+changes as do the members of the restricted genus _Loxia_--the young
+being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black, the adult
+hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing with crimson-red on
+nearly all the body-feathers, this last colour being replaced after
+moulting in confinement by bright yellow. Nests of this species were
+found in 1821 by Johana Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjärwi in Swedish
+Lapland, but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855,
+when John Wolley, after two years' ineffectual search, succeeded in
+obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish frontier,
+well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of which are like
+exaggerated bullfinches'. The food of this species seems to consist of
+the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees, though the staple may very
+possibly be those of some kind of pine.
+
+Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller size, but
+its equals in beauty of plumage.[1] They have been referred to several
+genera, such as _Carpodacus_, _Propasser_, _Bycanetes_, _Uragus_ and
+others; but possibly _Carpodacus_ is sufficient to contain all. Most of
+them are natives of the Old World, and chiefly of its eastern division,
+but several inhabit the western portion of North America, and one, _C.
+githagineus_ (of which there seem to be at least two local races), is an
+especial native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North
+Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands--a singular
+modification in the _habitat_ of a form which one would be apt to
+associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers.
+
+The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, _Cardinalis
+virginianus_, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained as to
+the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable for its
+bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same colour, than
+for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confinement has made it a
+popular cage-bird on both sides of the Atlantic. The hen is not so good
+a songster as the cock bird. Her plumage, with exception of the wings
+and tail, which are of a dull red, is light-olive above and
+brownish-yellow beneath. This species inhabits the eastern parts of the
+United States southward of 40° N. lat., and also occurs in the Bermudas.
+It is represented in the south-west of North America by other forms that
+by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern parts of South
+America by the _C. phoeniceus_, which would really seem entitled to
+distinction. Another kindred bird placed from its short and broad bill
+in a different genus, and known as _Pyrrhuloxia sinuata_ or the Texan
+cardinal, is found on the southern borders of the United States and in
+Mexico; while among North American "grosbeaks" must also be named the
+birds belonging to the genera _Guiraca_ and _Hedymeles_--the former
+especially exemplified by the beautiful blue _G. caerulea_, and the
+latter by the brilliant rose-breasted _H. ludovicianus_, which last
+extends its range into Canada.
+
+The species of the Old World which, though commonly called "grosbeaks,"
+certainly belong to the family _Ploceidae_, are treated under
+WEAVER-BIRD.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Many of them are described and illustrated in the _Monographie
+    des loxiens_ of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850),
+    though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call
+    "grosbeaks."
+
+
+
+
+GROSE, FRANCIS (c. 1730-1791), English antiquary, was born at Greenford
+in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His father was a wealthy Swiss
+jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey. Grose early showed an interest in
+heraldry and antiquities, and his father procured him a position in the
+Heralds' College. In 1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his
+tabard, and shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the
+Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed, the only
+account-books he kept were his right and left pockets, into the one of
+which he received, and from the other of which he paid. This
+carelessness exposed him to serious financial difficulties; and after a
+vain attempt to repair them by accepting a captaincy in the Surrey
+militia, the fortune left him by his father being squandered, he began
+to turn to account his excellent education and his powers as a
+draughtsman. In 1757 he had been elected fellow of the Society of
+Antiquaries. In 1773 he began to publish his _Antiquities of England and
+Wales_, a work which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its
+supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not completed
+till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour through Scotland,
+and in the course of this journey met Burns, who composed in his honour
+the famous song beginning "Ken ye aught o' Captain Grose," and in that
+other poem, still more famous, "Hear, land o' cakes, and brither Scots,"
+warned all Scotsmen of this "chield amang them taking notes." In 1790 he
+began to publish the results of what Burns called "his peregrinations
+through Scotland;" but he had not finished the work when he bethought
+himself of going over to Ireland and doing for that country what he had
+already done for Great Britain. About a month after his arrival, while
+in Dublin, he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend,
+on the 12th of June 1791.
+
+Grose was a sort of antiquarian Falstaff--at least he possessed in a
+striking degree the knight's physical peculiarities; but he was a man of
+true honour and charity, a valuable friend, "overlooking little faults
+and seeking out greater virtues," and an inimitable boon companion. His
+humour, his varied knowledge and his good nature were all eminently
+calculated to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him--
+
+    "But wad ye see him in his glee,
+     For meikle glee and fun has he,
+     Then set him down, and twa or three
+             Gude fellows wi' him;
+     And _port, O port!_ shine thou a wee,
+             And THEN ye'll see him!"
+
+  Grose's works include _The Antiquities of England and Wales_ (6 vols.,
+  1773-1787); _Advice to the Officers of the British Army_ (1782), a
+  satire in the manner of Swift's _Directions to Servants; A Guide to
+  Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour_ (1783), a collection of
+  advertisements of the period, with characteristic satiric preface; _A
+  Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue_ (1785); _A Treatise on
+  Ancient Armour and Weapons_ (1785-1789); Darrell's _History of Dover_
+  (1786); _Military Antiquities_ (2 vols., 1786-1788); _A Provincial
+  Glossary_ (1787); _Rules for Drawing Caricatures_ (1788); _The
+  Antiquities of Scotland_ (2 vols., 1789-1791); _Antiquities of
+  Ireland_ (2 vols., 1791), edited and partly written by Ledwich. _The
+  Grumbler_, sixteen humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death;
+  and in 1793 _The Olio_, a collection of essays, jests and small pieces
+  of poetry, highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by
+  him, was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also
+  his executor.
+
+  A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first
+  volume of the _Antiquities of England and Wales_, and another is among
+  Kay's _Portraits_. A versified sketch of him appeared in the
+  _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi. 660. See _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi.
+  498, 582; Noble's _Hist. of the College of Arms_, p. 434; _Notes and
+  Queries_, 1st ser., ix. 350; 3rd ser., i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser.,
+  xii. 148; 6th ser., ii. 47, 257, 291; Hone, _Every-day Book_, i. 655.
+
+
+
+
+GROSS, properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat. _grossus_.
+The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate with _crassus_, thick,
+but this is now doubted. It also appears not to be connected with the
+Ger. _gross_, a Teutonic word represented in English by "great." Apart
+from its direct meaning, and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar
+or flagrant, the chief uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as
+opposed to "net," or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed
+to "retail" (cf. "grocer" and "engrossing"). As a unit of tale, "gross"
+equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as "small gross," in contrast with
+"great gross," i.e. 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a technical expression in
+English common law, "in gross" is applied to an incorporeal hereditament
+attached to the person of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is
+appendant or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land
+(see COMMONS).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828-1902), German poet, the son of a military
+chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 25th of April 1828. He received his
+early education at the gymnasium in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and
+showing disinclination for the ministry, entered an architect's office.
+But his mind was bent upon literature, and in 1849 he entered the
+university of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he
+devoted himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay
+was with the tragedy _Cola di Rienzi_ (1851), followed in the same year
+by a comedy, _Eine Nachtpartie Shakespeares_, which was at once produced
+on the stage. The success of these first two pieces encouraged him to
+follow literature as a profession, and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he
+joined the circle of young poets of whom Paul Heyse (q.v.) and Hermann
+Lingg (1820-1905) were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was
+dramatic critic of the _Neue Münchener Zeitung_, and was then for a
+while on the staff of the _Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung_, but in 1862
+he returned to Munich as editor of the _Bayrische Zeitung_, a post he
+retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse was
+appointed secretary of the _Schiller-Stiftung_, and lived for the next
+few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich, until, in 1890, he
+took up his permanent residence in Weimar. He was made grand-ducal
+_Hofrat_ and had the title of "professor." He died at Torbole on the
+Lago di Garda on the 9th of May 1902.
+
+Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems. As a
+lyric poet, especially in _Gedichte_ (1857) and _Aus bewegten Tagen_, a
+volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to advantage than in his
+novels, of which latter, however, _Untreu aus Mitleid_ (2 vols., 1868);
+_Vox populi, vox dei_ (1869); _Maria Mancini_ (1871); _Neue Erzählungen_
+(1875); _Sophie Monnier_ (1876), and _Ein Frauenlos_ (1888) are
+remarkable for a certain elegance of style. His tragedies, _Die
+Ynglinger_ (1858); _Tiberius_ (1876); _Johann von Schwaben_; and the
+comedy _Die steinerne Braut_, had considerable success on the stage.
+
+  Grosse's _Gesammelte dramatische Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. in Leipzig
+  (1870), while his _Erzählende Dichtungen_ were published at Berlin (6
+  vols., 1871-1873). An edition of his selected works by A. Bartels is
+  in preparation. See also his autobiography, _Literarische Ursachen und
+  Wirkungen_ (1896); R. Prutz, _Die Literatur der Gegenwart_ (1859); J.
+  Ethé, _J. Grosse als epischer Dichter_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSENHAIN, a town In the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N. from Dresden, on
+the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda) to Berlin and at the junction
+of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 12,015. It
+has an Evangelical church, a modern and a commercial school, a library
+and an extensive public park. The industries are very important, and
+embrace manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather,
+glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settlement. It
+was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom it was strongly
+fortified. It afterwards came into the possession of the margraves of
+Meissen, from whom it was taken in 1312 by the margraves of Brandenburg.
+It suffered considerably in all the great German wars, and in 1744 was
+nearly destroyed by fire. On the 16th of May 1813, a battle took place
+here between the French and the Russians.
+
+  See G. W. Schuberth, _Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain_ (Grossenhain,
+  1887-1892).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175-1253), English statesman, theologian and
+bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents at Stradbrook in Suffolk.
+He received his education at Oxford where he became proficient in law,
+medicine and the natural sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose
+acquaintance he had made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de
+Vere, bishop of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop's
+household, but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself to
+the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris for this
+purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher. His first
+preferment of importance was the chancellorship of the university. He
+gained considerable distinction as a lecturer, and was the first rector
+of the school which the Franciscans established in Oxford about 1224.
+Grosseteste's learning is highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a
+severe critic. According to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or
+Hebrew and paid slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was
+pre-eminent among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural
+sciences. Between 1214 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession the
+archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester. In 1232, after a
+severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and preferments except one
+prebend which he held at Lincoln. His intention was to spend the rest of
+his life in contemplative piety. But he retained the office of
+chancellor, and in 1235 accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook
+without delay the reformation of morals and clerical discipline
+throughout his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with
+more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his own
+chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the right of
+visitation over their community. The dispute raged hotly from 1239 to
+1245. It was conducted on both sides with unseemly violence, and those
+who most approved of Grosseteste's main purpose thought it needful to
+warn him against the mistake of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal
+visit to the papal court at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In
+ecclesiastical politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His
+zeal for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian,
+pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should admit.
+He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry III. upon this
+subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle the question of
+principle in favour of the state. The devotion of Grosseteste to the
+hierarchical theories of his age is attested by his correspondence with
+his chapter and the king. Against the former he upheld the prerogative
+of the bishops; against the latter he asserted that it was impossible
+for a bishop to disregard the commands of the Holy See. Where the
+liberties of the national church came into conflict with the pretensions
+of Rome he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded that
+the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had assaulted the
+legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1247 he submitted patiently to
+papal encroachments, contenting himself with the protection (by a
+special papal privilege) of his own diocese from alien clerks. Of royal
+exactions he was more impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop
+Saint Edmund (q.v.) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical
+estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee which was
+empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy. The committee rejected
+the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an attempt on the king's part to
+separate the clergy from the baronage. "It is written," the bishop said,
+"that united we stand and divided we fall."
+
+It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope were in alliance
+to crush the independence of the English clergy; and from 1250 onwards
+Grosseteste openly criticized the new financial expedients to which
+Innocent IV. had been driven by his desperate conflict with the Empire.
+In the course of a visit which he made to Innocent in this year, the
+bishop laid before the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he
+ascribed all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the
+Curia. It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that
+Grosseteste was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much
+discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In the end,
+however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle. In 1251 he
+protested against a papal mandate enjoining the English clergy to pay
+Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for a crusade; and called
+attention to the fact that, under the system of provisions, a sum of
+70,000 marks was annually drawn from England by the alien nominees of
+Rome. In 1253, upon being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a
+papal nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to the
+pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent, through whom he
+received the mandate. The text of the remonstrance, as given in the
+_Burton Annals_ and in Matthew Paris, has possibly been altered by a
+forger who had less respect than Grosseteste for the papacy. The
+language is more violent than that which the bishop elsewhere employs.
+But the general argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so
+far as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and the
+apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical
+reformer of Grosseteste's time. There is much more reason for suspecting
+the letter addressed "to the nobles of England, the citizens of London,
+and the community of the whole realm," in which Grosseteste is
+represented as denouncing in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its
+branches. But even in this case allowance must be made for the
+difference between modern and medieval standards of decorum.
+
+Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the Franciscan
+teacher, Adam Marsh (q.v.). Through Adam he came into close relations
+with Simon de Montfort. From the Franciscan's letters it appears that
+the earl had studied a political tract by Grosseteste on the difference
+between a monarchy and a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm
+the bishop's projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as
+early as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a
+reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no reason to
+suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured before the
+death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy himself overmuch with
+secular politics, except in so far as they touched the interest of the
+Church. Grosseteste realized that the misrule of Henry III. and his
+unprincipled compact with the papacy largely accounted for the
+degeneracy of the English hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical
+discipline. But he can hardly be termed a constitutionalist.
+
+Grosseteste died on the 9th of October 1253. He must then have been
+between seventy and eighty years of age. He was already an elderly man,
+with a firmly established reputation, when he became a bishop. As an
+ecclesiastical statesman he showed the same fiery zeal and versatility
+of which he had given proof in his academical career; but the general
+tendency of modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and
+ecclesiastical services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist
+and scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew Paris
+and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries, while admitting
+the excellence of his intentions as a statesman, lay stress upon his
+defects of temper and discretion. But they see in him the pioneer of a
+literary and scientific movement; not merely a great ecclesiastic who
+patronized learning in his leisure hours, but the first mathematician
+and physicist of his age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in
+these fields of thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger
+Bacon subsequently gave a wider currency.
+
+  See the _Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste_ (Rolls Series, 1861) edited
+  with a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste's famous
+  memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown's
+  _Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum_ (1690). A tract _De
+  phisicis, lineis, angulis et figuris_ was printed at Nuremberg in
+  1503, A French poem, _Le Chastel d'amour_, sometimes attributed to
+  him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts, the
+  "De moribus pueri ad mensam" (printed by Wynkyn de Worde) and the
+  "Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste" (printed by J. S. Brewer in
+  _Monumenta Franciscana_, i. 582), may be from his pen; but the editor
+  of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh. There is less doubt
+  respecting the _Reules Seynt Robert_, a tract giving advice for the
+  management of the household of the countess of Lincoln. For
+  Grosseteste's life and work see Roger Bacon's _Opus majus_ (ed. J. H.
+  Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and _Opera quaedam inedita_ (ed. J. S. Brewer,
+  Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris's _Chronica majora_ (ed. H. R. Luard,
+  Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the _Lives_ by S. Pegge (1793)
+  and F. S. Stevenson (1899).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GROSSETO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of the province
+of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop. (1901) 5856 (town), 8843
+(commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level, and is almost circular in
+shape; it is surrounded by fortifications, constructed by Francis I.
+(1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587-1609), which form a hexagonal
+enceinte with projecting bastions, with two gates only. The small
+cathedral, begun in 1294, is built of red and white marble alternating,
+in the Italian Gothic style; it was restored in 1855. The citadel was
+built in 1311 by the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to
+Rome, and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is
+the exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and Siena.
+
+The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal see was
+transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the rest of the
+Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the dominion of Siena.
+By the peace of 1559, however, it passed to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In
+1745 the malaria had grown to such an extent, owing to the neglect of
+the drainage works, that Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in
+1224 it had 3000 men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage
+operations, and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is
+not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters of
+the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.), 20 m. to
+the S.E. by road.
+
+
+
+
+GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (?-1699), one of the greatest Italian singers
+of the age of _bel canto_, better known as Siface, was born at Pescia in
+Tuscany about the middle of the 17th century. He entered the papal
+chapel in 1675, and later sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of
+Siface from his impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli.
+It has generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro
+Scarlatti's _Mitridate_, but the confusion is due to his having sung the
+part of Mitridate in Scarlatti's _Pompeo_ at Naples in 1683. In 1687 he
+was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become a member of the
+chapel of James II. He probably did much for the introduction of Italian
+music into England, but soon left the country on account of the climate.
+Among Purcell's harpsichord music is an air entitled "Sefauchi's
+Farewell." He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and
+Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife he had a
+_liaison_.
+
+  See Corrado Ricci's _Vita Barocca_ (Milan, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSI, TOMMASO (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist, was born at
+Bellano, on the Lake of Como, on the 20th of January 1791. He took his
+degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded thence to Milan to
+exercise his profession; but the Austrian government, suspecting his
+loyalty, interfered with his prospects, and in consequence Grossi was a
+simple notary all his life. That the suspicion was well grounded he soon
+showed by writing in the Milanese dialect the battle poem _La Prineide_,
+in which he described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina,
+chief treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated
+by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through the
+streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous, was first
+attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of his own accord
+acknowledged himself the author. In 1816 he published other two poems,
+written likewise in Milanese--_The Golden Rain_ (La Pioggia d'oro) and
+_The Fugitive_ (La Fuggitiva). These compositions secured him the
+friendship of Porta and Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort
+of romantic literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the
+popularity of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he
+sought to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction
+in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful
+with his poem _Ildegonda_ (1814). He next wrote an epic poem, entitled
+_The Lombards in the First Crusade_, a work of which Manzoni makes
+honourable mention in _I Promessi Sposi_. This composition, which was
+published by subscription (1826), attained a success unequalled by that
+of any other Italian poem within the century. The example of Manzoni
+induced Grossi to write an historical novel entitled _Marco Visconti_
+(1834)--a work which contains passages of fine description and deep
+pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, _Ulrico and
+Lida_, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased. After
+his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as a notary in Milan
+till his death on the 10th of December 1853.
+
+  His _Life_ by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854.
+
+
+
+
+GROSSMITH, GEORGE (1847-   ), English comedian, was born on the 9th of
+December 1847, the son of a law reporter and entertainer of the same
+name. After some years of journalistic work he started about 1870 as a
+public entertainer, with songs and recitations; but in 1877 he began a
+long connexion with the Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy
+Theatre, London, in _The Sorcerer_. For twelve years he had the leading
+part, his capacity for "patter-songs," and his humorous acting, dancing
+and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the Gilbert
+and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original
+individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an
+entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United
+States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote _The
+Reminiscences of a Society Clown_ (1888); and, with his brother Weedon,
+_The Diary of a Nobody_ (1894). His humorous songs and sketches numbered
+over six hundred. His younger brother, Weedon Grossmith, who was
+educated as a painter and exhibited at the Academy, also took to the
+stage, his first notable success being in the _Pantomime Rehearsal_; in
+1894 he went into management on his own account, and had much success as
+a comedian. George Grossmith's two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George
+Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well-known
+figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre, London.
+
+
+
+
+GROS VENTRES (Fr. for "Great Bellies"), or Atsina, a tribe of North
+American Indians of Algonquian stock. The name is said to have reference
+to the greediness of the people, but more probably originated from their
+prominent tattooing. They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana.
+The name has also been given to other tribes, e.g. the Hidatsa or
+Minitari, now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota.
+
+
+
+
+GROTE, GEORGE (1794-1871), English historian of Greece, was born on the
+17th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near Beckenham in Kent. His
+grandfather, Andreas, originally a Bremen merchant, was one of the
+founders (1st of January 1766) of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott &
+Company in Threadneedle Street, London (the name of Grote did not
+disappear from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married
+(1793) Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747-1787), minister of the
+countess of Huntingdon's chapel in Westminster (descended from a
+Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine on the
+revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter and ten sons,
+of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated at first by his mother,
+George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks grammar school (1800-1804) and
+afterwards to Charterhouse (1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine
+in company with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and Henry
+Havelock. In spite of Grote's school successes, his father refused to
+send him to the university and put him in the bank in 1810. He spent all
+his spare time in the study of classics, history, metaphysics and
+political economy, and in learning German, French and Italian. Driven by
+his mother's Puritanism and his father's contempt for academic learning
+to outside society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who
+strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W. Norman,
+through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin (see below). After
+various difficulties the marriage took place on the 5th of March 1820,
+and was in all respects a happy union.
+
+In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic and political
+attitude. In 1817 he came under the influence of David Ricardo, and
+through him of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a
+house attached to the bank in Threadneedle Street, where his only child
+died a week after its birth. During Mrs Grote's slow convalescence at
+Hampstead, he wrote his first published work, the _Statement of the
+Question of Parliamentary Reform_ (1821), in reply to Sir James
+Mackintosh's article in the _Edinburgh Review_, advocating popular
+representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments. In 1822 he
+published in the _Morning Chronicle_ (April) a letter against Canning's
+attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or rather re-wrote, some
+discursive papers of Bentham, which he published under the title
+_Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness
+of Mankind by Philip Beauchamp_ (1822). The book was published in the
+name of Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a member
+of J. S. Mill's Utilitarian Society (1822-1823). he took a great
+interest in a society for reading and discussion, which met (from 1823)
+in a room at the bank before business hours twice a week. From the
+_Posthumous Papers_ (pp. 22, 24) it is clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in
+asserting that she first in 1823 (autumn) suggested the _History of
+Greece_; the book was already in preparation in 1822, though what was
+then written was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in
+the _Westminster Review_ (April) a criticism of Mitford's _History of
+Greece_, which shows that his ideas were already in order. From 1826 to
+1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and Henry Brougham in the
+organization of the new "university" in Gower Street. He was a member of
+the council which organized the faculties and the curriculum; but in
+1830, owing to a difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the
+philosophical chairs, he resigned his position.
+
+In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis, spent
+some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders. Recalled by
+his father's death (6th of July), he not only became manager of the
+bank, but took a leading position among the city Radicals. In 1831 he
+published his important _Essentials of Parliamentary Reform_ (an
+elaboration of his previous _Statement_), and, after refusing to stand
+as parliamentary candidate for the city in 1831, changed his mind and
+was elected head of the poll, with three other Liberals, in December
+1832. After serving in three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which
+time his party ("the philosophic Radicals") had dwindled away. During
+these years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and
+philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he severed
+his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to literature. In 1846
+the first two volumes of the _History_ appeared, and the remaining ten
+between 1847 and the spring of 1856. In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes
+Currie he gave monetary assistance to Auguste Comte (q.v.), then in
+financial difficulties. The formation of the Sonderbund (20th of July
+1847) led him to visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of
+things in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states. This
+visit resulted in the publication in the _Spectator_ of seven weekly
+letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a letter to de
+Tocqueville in Mrs Grote's reprint of the _Seven Letters_, 1876).
+
+In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and Aristotle. _Plato
+and the Other Companions of Sokrates_ (3 vols.) appeared in 1865, but
+the work on Aristotle he was not destined to complete. He had finished
+the _Organon_ and was about to deal with the metaphysical and physical
+treatises when he died on the 18th of June 1871, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey. He was a man of strong character and self-control,
+unfailing courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the
+best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates alike, he
+was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming, trustworthy in the
+smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive in thought, energetic and
+conscientious in action. Yet, hidden under his calm exterior there was a
+burning enthusiasm and a depth of passion of which only his intimate
+friends were aware.
+
+His work may best be considered under the following heads:
+
+1. _Grote's Services to Education._--He took, as already stated, an
+important part in the foundation and organization of the original
+university of London, which began its public work in Gower Street on the
+28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the incorporation of the
+university of London proper, became known as University College. In 1849
+he was re-elected to the council, in 1860 he became treasurer, and on
+the death of Brougham (1868) president. He took a keen interest in all
+the work of the college, presented to it the _Marmor Homericum_, and
+finally bequeathed the reversion of £6000 for the endowment of a chair
+of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum were,
+however, to be held over and added to the principal if at any time the
+holder of the chair should be "a minister of the Church of England or of
+any other religious persuasion." In 1850 the senate of the university
+was reconstituted, and Grote was one of seven eminent men who were added
+to it. Eventually he became the strongest advocate for open
+examinations, for the claims not only of philosophy and classics but
+also of natural science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the
+admission of women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in
+1868. He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British
+Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the departments
+of antiquities and natural science.
+
+The honours which he received in recognition of these services were as
+follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge (1861); F.R.S. (1857);
+honorary professor of ancient history in the Royal Academy (1859). By
+the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences he was made
+correspondent (1857) and foreign associate (the first Englishman since
+Macaulay) (1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone's offer of a peerage.
+
+2. _Political Career._--In politics Grote belonged to the "philosophic
+Radicals" of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose chief
+principles were representative government, vote by ballot, the abolition
+of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered to these principles
+throughout, and refused to countenance any reforms which were
+incompatible with them. By this uncompromising attitude, he gradually
+lost all his supporters save a few men of like rigidity. As a speaker,
+he was clear, logical and impressive, and on select committees his
+common sense was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the
+_Minor Works_; see also BALLOT.
+
+3. _The History of Greece._--It is on this work that Grote's reputation
+mainly rests. Though half a century has passed since its production, it
+is still in some sense the text-book. It consists of two parts, the
+"Legendary" and the "Historical" Greece. The former, owing to the
+development of comparative mythology, is now of little authority, and
+portions of part ii. are obsolete owing partly to the immense
+accumulations of epigraphic and archaeological research, partly to the
+subsequent discovery of the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_, and
+partly also to the more careful weighing of evidence which Grote himself
+misinterpreted. The interest of the work is twofold. In the first place
+it contains a wonderful mass of information carefully collected from all
+sources, arranged on a simple plan, and expressed in direct forcible
+language. It is in this respect one of the few great comprehensive
+histories in our possession, great in scope, conception and
+accomplishment. But more than this it is interesting as among the first
+works in which Greek history became a separate study, based on real
+evidence and governed by the criteria of modern historical science.
+Further Grote, a practical man, a rationalist and an enthusiast for
+democracy, was the first to consider Greek political development with a
+sympathetic interest (see GREECE: _History, Ancient_, section
+"Authorities"), in opposition to the Tory attitude of John Gillies and
+Mitford, who had written under the influence of horror at the French
+Revolution. On the whole his work was done with impartiality, and more
+recent study has only confirmed his general conclusions. Much has been
+made of his defective accounts of the tyrants and the Macedonian empire,
+and his opinion that Greek history ceased to be interesting or
+instructive after Chaeronea. It is true that he confined his interest to
+the fortunes of the city state and neglected the wider diffusion of the
+Greek culture, but this is after all merely a criticism of the title of
+the book. The value of the _History_ consists to-day primarily in its
+examination of the Athenian democracy, its growth and decline, an
+examination which is still the most inspiring, and in general the most
+instructive, in any language. In the description of battles and military
+operations generally Grote was handicapped by the lack of personal
+knowledge of the country. In this respect he is inferior to men like
+Ernst Curtius and G. B. Grundy.
+
+4. _In Philosophy_ Grote was a follower of the Mills and Bentham. J. S.
+Mill paid a tribute to him in the preface to the third edition of his
+_Examination of Sir Wm. Hamilton's Philosophy_, and there is no doubt
+that the empirical school owed a great deal to his sound, accurate
+thinking, untrammelled by any reverence for authority, technique and
+convention. In dealing with Plato he was handicapped by this very common
+sense, which prevented him from appreciating the theory of ideas in its
+widest relations. His _Plato_ is important in that it emphasizes the
+generally neglected passages of Plato in which he seems to indulge in
+mere Socratic dialectic rather than to seek knowledge; it is, therefore,
+to be read as a corrective to the ordinary criticism of Plato. The more
+congenial study of Aristotle, though incomplete, is more valuable in the
+positive sense, and has not received the attention it deserves. Perhaps
+Grote's most distinctive contribution to the study of Greek philosophy
+is his chapter in the _History of Greece_ on the Sophists, of whom he
+took a view somewhat more favourable than has been accepted before or
+since.
+
+His wife, HARRIET LEWIN (1792-1878), was the daughter of Thomas Lewin, a
+retired Indian civilian, settled in Southampton. After her marriage with
+Grote in 1820 she devoted herself to the subjects in which he was
+interested and was a prominent figure in the literary, political and
+philosophical circle in which he lived. She carefully read the proofs of
+his work and relieved him of anxiety in connexion with his property.
+Among her writings are: _Memoir of Ary Scheffer_ (1860); _Collected
+Papers_ (1862); and her biography of her husband (1873). Another
+publication, _The Philosophical Radicals of 1832_ (privately circulated
+in 1866), is interesting for the light it throws on the Reform movement
+of 1832 to 1842, especially on Molesworth.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The History of Greece_ passed through five editions
+  the fifth (10 vols., 1888) being final. An edition covering the period
+  from Solon to 403, with new notes and excursuses, was published by J.
+  M. Mitchell and M. O. B. Caspari in 1907. The _Plato_ was finally
+  edited by Alexander Bain in 4 vols. See Mrs Grote's _Personal Life of
+  George Grote_, and article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ by G. Croom
+  Robertson.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1775-1853), German epigraphist, was born at
+Münden in Hanover on the 9th of June 1775. He was educated partly in his
+native town, partly at Ilfeld, where he remained till 1795, when he
+entered the university of Göttingen, and there became the friend of
+Heyne, Tychsen and Heeren. Heyne's recommendation procured for him an
+assistant mastership in the Göttingen gymnasium in 1797. While there he
+published his work _De pasigraphia sive scriptura universali_ (1799),
+which led to his appointment in 1803 as prorector of the gymnasium of
+Frankfort-on-Main, and shortly afterwards as conrector. Grotefend was
+best known during his lifetime as a Latin and Italian philologist,
+though the attention he paid to his own language is shown by his
+_Anfangsgründe der deutschen Poesie_, published in 1815, and his
+foundation of a society for investigating the German tongue in 1817. In
+1821 he became director of the gymnasium at Hanover, a post which he
+retained till his retirement in 1849. In 1823-1824 appeared his revised
+edition of Wenck's Latin grammar, in two volumes, followed by a smaller
+grammar for the use of schools in 1826; in 1835-1838 a systematic
+attempt to explain the fragmentary remains of the Umbrian dialect,
+entitled _Rudimenta linguae Umbricae ex inscriptionibus antiquis
+enodata_ (in eight parts); and in 1839 a work of similar character upon
+Oscan (_Rudimenta linguae Oscae_). In the same year he published an
+important memoir on the coins of Bactria, under the name of _Die Münzen
+der griechischen, parthischen, und indoskythischen Könige von Bactrien
+und den Ländern am Indus_. He soon, however, returned to his favourite
+subject, and brought out a work in five parts, _Zur Geographie und
+Geschichte von Altitalien_ (1840-1842). Previously, in 1836, he had
+written a preface to Wagenfeld's translation of the spurious
+_Sanchoniathon_ of Philo Byblius, which was alleged to have been
+discovered in the preceding year in the Portuguese convent of Santa
+Maria de Merinhao. But it was in the East rather than in the West that
+Grotefend did his greatest work. The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia
+had for some time been attracting attention in Europe; exact copies of
+them had been published by the elder Niebuhr, who lost his eyesight over
+the work; and Grotefend's friend, Tychsen of Rostock, believed that he
+had ascertained the characters in the column, now known to be Persian,
+to be alphabetic. At this point Grotefend took the matter up. His first
+discovery was communicated to the Royal Society of Göttingen in 1800,
+and reviewed by Tychsen two years afterwards. In 1815 he gave an account
+of it in Heeren's great work on ancient history, and in 1837 published
+his _Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der persepolitanischen Keilschrift_.
+Three years later appeared his _Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der
+babylonischen Keilschrift_. His discovery may be summed up as follows:
+(1) that the Persian inscriptions contain three different forms of
+cuneiform writing, so that the decipherment of the one would give the
+key to the decipherment of the others; (2) that the characters of the
+Persian column are alphabetic and not syllabic; (3) that they must be
+read from left to right; (4) that the alphabet consists of forty
+letters, including signs for long and short vowels; and (5) that the
+Persepolitan inscriptions are written in Zend (which, however, is not
+the case), and must be ascribed to the age of the Achaemenian princes.
+The process whereby Grotefend arrived at these conclusions is a
+prominent illustration of persevering genius (see CUNEIFORM). A solid
+basis had thus been laid for the interpretation of the Persian
+inscriptions, and all that remained was to work out the results of
+Grotefend's brilliant discovery, a task ably performed by Burnouf,
+Lassen and Rawlinson. Grotefend died on the 15th of December 1853.
+
+
+
+
+GROTESQUE, strictly a form of decorative art, in painting or sculpture,
+consisting of fantastic shapes of human beings, animals and the like,
+joined together by wreaths of flowers, garlands or arabesques. The word
+is also applied to any whimsical design or decorative style, if
+characterized by unnatural distortion, and, generally, to anything
+ludicrous or extravagantly fanciful. "Grotesque" comes through the
+French from the Ital. _grottesco_, an adjective formed from _grotta_,
+which has been corrupted in English to "grotto." The commonly accepted
+explanation of the special use of the term "grotesque" is that this
+particular form of decorative art was most frequently found in the
+excavated ancient Roman and Greek dwellings found in Italy, to which was
+applied the name _grotte_. The derivation of _grotta_ is through popular
+Lat. _crupta_ or _grupta_ (cf. "crypt"), from Gr. [Greek: kyptê], a
+vault, [Greek: kryptein], to hide. Such a term would be applicable both
+to the buried dwellings of ancient Italy, and to a cavern, artificial or
+natural, the ordinary sense of the word. An interesting parallel with
+this origin of the word is found in that of "antic," now meaning a
+freak, a jest, absurd fancy, &c. This word is the same as "antique," and
+was, like "grotesque," first applied to the fanciful decorations of
+ancient art.
+
+
+
+
+GROTH, KLAUS (1819-1899), Low German poet, was born at Heide in
+Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After studying at the
+seminary in Tondern (1838-1841), he became a teacher at the girls'
+school in his native village, but in 1847 went to Kiel to qualify for a
+higher educational post. Ill-health interrupted his studies and it was
+not until 1853 that he was able to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took
+the degree of doctor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as
+_privatdocent_ in German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in
+1866, he was made professor, and where he lived until his death on the
+1st of June 1899. In his Low German (_Plattdeutsch_) lyric and epic
+poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (q.v.), Groth
+gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern home; and
+though his descriptions may not always reflect the peculiar
+characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully as those of
+F. Reuter (q.v.), yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine inspiration. His
+chief works are _Quickborn, Volksleben in plattdeutschen Gedichten
+Ditmarscher Mundart_ (1852; 25th ed. 1900; and in High German
+translations, notably by M. J. Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes
+of stories, _Vertelln_ (1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also _Voer de Goern_
+(1858) and _Ut min Jungsparadies_ (1875).
+
+  Groth's _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 4 vols. (1893). His
+  _Lebenserinnerungen_ were edited by E. Wolff in 1891; see also K.
+  Eggers, _K. Groth und die plattdeutsche Dichtung_ (1885); and
+  biographies by A. Bartels (1899) and H. Siercks (1899.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON (1843-   ), German mineralogist, was born at
+Magdeburg on the 23rd of June 1843. He was educated at Freiberg, Dresden
+and Berlin, and took the degree of Ph.D. in 1868. After holding from
+1872 the chair of mineralogy at Strasburg, he was in 1883 appointed
+professor of mineralogy and curator of minerals in the state museum at
+Munich. He carried on extensive researches on crystals and minerals, and
+also on rocks; and published _Tabellarische Übersicht der einfachen
+Mineralien_ (1874-1898), and _Physikalische Krystallographie_
+(1876-1895, ed. 4, 1905). He edited for some years the _Zeitschrift für
+Krystallographie und Mineralogie_.
+
+
+
+
+GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645), in his native country Huig van Groot, but
+known to the rest of Europe by the latinized form of the name, Dutch
+publicist and statesman, was born at Delft on Easter day, the 10th of
+April 1583. The Groots were a branch of a family of distinction, which
+had been noble in France, but had removed to the Low Countries more than
+a century before. Their French name was de Cornets, and this cadet
+branch had taken the name of Groot on the marriage of Hugo's
+great-grandfather with a Dutch heiress. The father of Hugo was a lawyer
+in considerable practice, who had four times served the office of
+burgomaster of Leiden, and was one of the three curators of the
+university of that place.
+
+In the annals of precocious genius there is no greater prodigy on record
+than Hugo Grotius, who was able to make good Latin verses at nine, was
+ripe for the university at twelve, and at fifteen edited the
+encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella. At Leiden he was much noticed
+by J. J. Scaliger, whose habit it was to engage his young friends in the
+editing of some classical text. At fifteen Grotius accompanied Count
+Justin of Nassau, and the grand pensionary J. van Olden Barneveldt on
+their special embassy to the court of France. After a year spent in
+acquiring the language and making acquaintance with the leading men of
+France, Grotius returned home. He took the degree of doctor of law at
+Leiden, and entered on practice as an advocate.
+
+Notwithstanding his successes in his profession, his inclination was to
+literature. In 1600 he edited the remains of Aratus, with the versions
+of Cicero, Germanicus and Avienus. Of the _Germanicus_ Scaliger says--"A
+better text than that which Grotius has given, it is impossible to
+give"; but it is probable that Scaliger had himself been the reviser.
+Grotius vied with the Latinists of his day in the composition of Latin
+verses. Some lines on the siege of Ostend spread his fame beyond the
+circle of the learned. He wrote three dramas in Latin:--_Christus
+patiens; Sophomphaneas_, on the story of Joseph and his brethren; and
+_Adamus exul_, a production still remembered as having given hints to
+Milton. The _Sophomphaneas_ was translated into Dutch by Vondel, and
+into English by Francis Goldsmith (1652); the _Christus patiens_ into
+English by George Sandys (1640).
+
+In 1603 the United Provinces, desiring to transmit to posterity some
+account of their struggle with Spain, determined to appoint a
+historiographer. The choice of the states fell upon Grotius, though he
+was but twenty years of age, and had not offered himself for the post.
+There was some talk at this time in Paris of calling Grotius to be
+librarian of the royal library. But it was a ruse of the Jesuit party,
+who wished to persuade the public that the opposition to the appointment
+of Isaac Casaubon did not proceed from theological motives, since they
+were ready to appoint a Protestant in the person of Grotius.
+
+His next preferment was that of advocate-general of the fisc for the
+provinces of Holland and Zeeland. This was followed by his marriage, in
+1608, to Marie Reigersberg, a lady of family in Zeeland, a woman of
+great capacity and noble disposition.
+
+Grotius had already passed from occupation with the classics to studies
+more immediately connected with his profession. In the winter of 1604 he
+composed (but did not publish) a treatise entitled _De jure praedae_.
+The MS. remained unknown till 1868, when it was brought to light, and
+printed at the Hague under the auspices of Professor Fruin. It shows
+that the principles and the plan of the celebrated _De jure belli_,
+which was not composed till 1625, more than twenty years after, had
+already been conceived by a youth of twenty-one. It has always been a
+question what it was that determined Grotius, when an exile in Paris in
+1625, to that particular subject, and various explanations have been
+offered; among others a casual suggestion of Peiresc in a letter of
+early date. The discovery of the MS. of the _De jure praedae_ discloses
+the whole history of Grotius's ideas, and shows that from youth upwards
+he had steadily read and meditated in one direction, that, namely, of
+which the famous _De jure belli_ was the mature product. In the _De jure
+praedae_ of 1604 there is much more than the germ of the later treatise
+_De jure belli_. Its main principles, and the whole system of thought
+implied in the later, are anticipated in the earlier work. The
+arrangement even is the same. The chief difference between the two
+treatises is one which twenty years' experience in affairs could not but
+bring--the substitution of more cautious and guarded language, less
+dogmatic affirmation, more allowance for exceptions and deviations. The
+_Jus pacis_ was an addition introduced first in the later work, an
+insertion which is the cause of not a little of the confused arrangement
+which has been found fault with in the _De jure belli_.
+
+The _De jure praedae_ further demonstrates that Grotius was originally
+determined to this subject, not by any speculative intellectual
+interest, but by a special occasion presented by his professional
+engagements. He was retained by the Dutch East India Company as their
+advocate. One of their captains, Heemskirk, had captured a rich
+Portuguese galleon in the Straits of Malacca. The right of a private
+company to make prizes was hotly contested in Holland, and denied by the
+stricter religionists, especially the Mennonites, who considered all war
+unlawful. Grotius undertook to prove that Heemskirk's prize had been
+lawfully captured. In doing this he was led to investigate the grounds
+of the lawfulness of war in general. Such was the casual origin of a
+book which long enjoyed such celebrity that it used to be said, with
+some exaggeration indeed, that it had founded a new science.
+
+A short treatise which was printed in 1609, Grotius says without his
+permission, under the title of _Mare liberum_, is nothing more than a
+chapter--the 12th--of the _De jure praedae_. It was necessary to
+Grotius's defence of Heemskirk that he should show that the Portuguese
+pretence that Eastern waters were their private property was untenable.
+Grotius maintains that the ocean is free to all nations. The occasional
+character of this piece explains the fact that at the time of its
+appearance it made no sensation. It was not till many years afterwards
+that the jealousies between England and Holland gave importance to the
+novel doctrine broached in the tract by Grotius, a doctrine which Selden
+set himself to refute in his _Mare clausum_ (1632).
+
+Equally due to the circumstances of the time was his small contribution
+to constitutional history entitled _De antiquitate reipublicae Batavae_
+(1610). In this he vindicates, on grounds of right, prescriptive and
+natural, the revolt of the United Provinces against the sovereignty of
+Spain.
+
+Grotius, when he was only thirty, was made pensionary of the city of
+Rotterdam. In 1613 he formed one of a deputation to England, in an
+attempt to adjust those differences which gave rise afterwards to a
+naval struggle disastrous to Holland. He was received by James with
+every mark of distinction. He also cultivated the acquaintance of the
+Anglican ecclesiastics John Overall and L. Andrewes, and was much in the
+society of the celebrated scholar Isaac Casaubon, with whom he had been
+in correspondence by letter for many years. Though the mediating views
+in the great religious conflict between Catholic and Protestant, by
+which Grotius was afterwards known, had been arrived at by him by
+independent reflection, yet it could not but be that he would be
+confirmed in them by finding in England a developed school of thought of
+the same character already in existence. How highly Casaubon esteemed
+Grotius appears from a letter of his to Daniel Heinsius, dated London,
+13th of April 1613. "I cannot say how happy I esteem myself in having
+seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius. A wonderful man! This I
+knew him to be before I had seen him; but the rare excellence of that
+divine genius no one can sufficiently feel who does not see his face,
+and hear him speak. Probity is stamped on his features; his conversation
+savours of true piety and profound learning. It is not only upon me that
+he has made this impression; all the pious and learned to whom he has
+been here introduced have felt the same towards him; the king especially
+so!"
+
+After Grotius's return from England the exasperation of theological
+parties in Holland rose to such a pitch that it became clear that an
+appeal to force would be made. Grotius sought to find some mean term in
+which the two hostile parties of Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, or
+as they were subsequently called Arminians and Gomarists (see
+Remonstrants), might agree. A form of edict drawn by Grotius was
+published by the states, recommending mutual toleration, and forbidding
+ministers in the pulpit from handling the disputed dogmas. To the
+orthodox Calvinists the word toleration was insupportable. They had the
+populace on their side. This fact determined the stadtholder, Maurice of
+Nassau, to support the orthodox party--a party to which he inclined the
+more readily that Olden Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the man whose
+uprightness and abilities he most dreaded, sided with the Remonstrants.
+
+In 1618 Prince Maurice set out on a sort of pacific campaign, disbanding
+the civic guards in the various cities of Guelders, Holland and Zeeland,
+and occupying the places with troops on whom he could rely. The states
+of Holland sent a commission, of which Grotius was chairman, to Utrecht,
+with the view of strengthening the hands of their friends, the
+Remonstrant party, in that city. Feeble plans were formed, but not
+carried into effect, for shutting the gates upon the stadtholder, who
+entered the city with troops on the night of the 26th of July 1618.
+There were conferences in which Grotius met Prince Maurice, and taught
+him that Olden Barneveldt was not the only man of capacity in the ranks
+of the Remonstrants whom he had to fear. On the early morning of the
+31st of July the prince's _coup d'état_ against the liberties of Utrecht
+and of Holland was carried out; the civic guard was disarmed--Grotius
+and his colleagues saving themselves by a precipitate flight. But it was
+only a reprieve. The grand pensionary, Olden Barneveldt, the leader of
+the Remonstrant party, Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, brought to
+trial, and condemned--Olden Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to
+imprisonment for life and confiscation of his property. In June 1619 he
+was immured in the fortress of Louvestein near Gorcum. His confinement
+was rigorous, but after a time his wife obtained permission to share his
+captivity, on the condition that if she came out, she should not be
+suffered to return.
+
+Grotius had now before him, at thirty-six, no prospect but that of a
+life-long captivity. He did not abandon himself to despair, but sought
+refuge in returning to the classical pursuits of his youth. Several of
+his translations (into Latin) from the Greek tragedians and other
+writers, made at this time, have been printed. "The Muses," he writes to
+Voss, "were now his consolation, and appeared more amiable than ever."
+
+The ingenuity of Madame Grotius at length devised a mode of escape. It
+had grown into a custom to send the books which he had done with in a
+chest along with his linen to be washed at Gorcum. After a time the
+warders began to let the chest pass without opening it. Madame Grotius,
+perceiving this, prevailed on her husband to allow himself to be shut up
+in it at the usual time. The two soldiers who carried the chest out
+complained that it was so heavy "there must be an Arminian in it."
+"There are indeed," said Madame Grotius, "Arminian books in it." The
+chest was carried to the house of a friend, where Grotius was released.
+He was then dressed like a mason with hod and trowel, and so conveyed
+over the frontier. His first place of refuge was Antwerp, from which he
+proceeded to Paris, where he arrived in April 1621. In October he was
+joined by his wife. There he was presented to the king, Louis XIII., and
+a pension of 3000 livres conferred upon him. French pensions were easily
+granted, all the more so as they were never paid. Grotius was now
+reduced to great straits. He looked about for any opening through which
+he might earn a living. There was talk of something in Denmark; or he
+would settle in Spires, and practise in the court there. Some little
+relief he got through the intervention of Étienne d'Aligre, the
+chancellor, who procured a royal mandate which enabled Grotius to draw,
+not all, but a large part of his pension. In 1623 the president Henri de
+Même lent him his château of Balagni near Senlis (dep. Oise), and there
+Grotius passed the spring and summer of that year. De Thou gave him
+facilities to borrow books from the superb library formed by his father.
+
+In these circumstances the _De jure belli et pacis_ was composed. That a
+work of such immense reading, consisting in great part of quotation,
+should have been written in little more than a year was a source of
+astonishment to his biographers. The achievement would have been
+impossible, but for the fact that Grotius had with him the first draft
+of the work made in 1604. He had also got his brother William, when
+reading his classics, to mark down all the passages which touched upon
+law, public or private. In March 1625 the printing of the _De jure
+belli_, which had taken four months, was completed, and the edition
+despatched to the fair at Frankfort. His own honorarium as author
+consisted of 200 copies, of which, however, he had to give away many to
+friends, to the king, the principal courtiers, the papal nuncio, &c.
+What remained he sold for his own profit at the price of a crown each,
+but the sale did not recoup him his outlay. But though his book brought
+him no profit it brought him reputation, so widely spread, and of such
+long endurance, as no other legal treatise has ever enjoyed.
+
+Grotius hoped that his fame would soften the hostility of his foes, and
+that his country would recall him to her service. Theological rancour,
+however, prevailed over all other sentiments, and, after fruitless
+attempts to re-establish himself in Holland, Grotius accepted service
+under Sweden, in the capacity of ambassador to France. He was not very
+successful in negotiating the treaty on behalf of the Protestant
+interest in Germany, Richelieu having a special dislike to him. He never
+enjoyed the confidence of the court to which he was accredited, and
+frittered away his influence in disputes about precedence. In 1645 he
+demanded and obtained his recall. He was honourably received at
+Stockholm, but neither the climate nor the tone of the court suited him,
+and he asked permission to leave. He was driven by a storm on the coast
+near Dantzig. He got as far as Rostock, where he found himself very ill.
+Stockman, a Scottish physician who was sent for, thought it was only
+weakness, and that rest would restore the patient. But Grotius sank
+rapidly, and died on the 29th of August 1645.
+
+Grotius combined a wide circle of general knowledge with a profound
+study of one branch of law. History, theology, jurisprudence, politics,
+classics, poetry,--all these fields he cultivated. His commentaries on
+the Scriptures were the first application on an extensive scale of the
+principle affirmed by Scaliger, that, namely, of interpretation by the
+rules of grammar without dogmatic assumptions. Grotius's philological
+skill, however, was not sufficient to enable him to work up to this
+ideal.
+
+As in many other points Grotius inevitably recalls Erasmus, so he does
+in his attitude towards the great schism. Grotius was, however, animated
+by an ardent desire for peace and concord. He thought that a basis for
+reconciliation of Protestant and Catholic might be found in a common
+piety, combined with reticence upon discrepancies of doctrinal
+statement. His _De veritate religionis Christianae_ (1627), a
+presentment of the evidences, is so written as to form a code of common
+Christianity, irrespective of sect. The little treatise became widely
+popular, gaining rather than losing popularity in the 18th century. It
+became the classical manual of apologetics in Protestant colleges, and
+was translated for missionary purposes into Arabic (by Pococke, 1660),
+Persian, Chinese, &c. His _Via et votum ad pacem ecclesiasticam_ (1642)
+was a detailed proposal of a scheme of accommodation. Like all men of
+moderate and mediating views, he was charged by both sides with
+vacillation. An Amsterdam minister, James Laurent, published his
+_Grotius papizans_ (1642), and it was continually being announced from
+Paris that Grotius had "gone over." Hallam, who has collected all the
+passages from Grotius's letters in which the prejudices and narrow
+tenets of the Reformed clergy are condemned, thought he had a "bias
+towards popery" (_Lit. of Europe_, ii. 312). The true interpretation of
+Grotius's mind appears to be an indifference to dogmatic propositions,
+produced by a profound sentiment of piety. He approached parties as a
+statesman approaches them, as facts which have to be dealt with, and
+governed, not suppressed in the interests of some one of their number.
+
+His editions and translations of the classics were either juvenile
+exercises prescribed by Scaliger, or "lusus poetici," the amusement of
+vacant hours. Grotius read the classics as a humanist, for the sake of
+their contents, not as a professional scholar.
+
+His _Annals of the Low Countries_ was begun as an official duty while he
+held the appointment of historiographer, and was being continued and
+retouched by him to the last. It was not published till 1657, by his
+sons Peter and Cornelius.
+
+Grotius was a great jurist, and his _De jure belli et pacis_ (Paris,
+1625), though not the first attempt in modern times to ascertain the
+principles of jurisprudence, went far more fundamentally into the
+discussion than any one had done before him. The title of the work was
+so far misleading that the _jus belli_ was a very small part of his
+comprehensive scheme. In his treatment of this narrower question he had
+the works of Alberico Gentili and Ayala before him, and has acknowledged
+his obligations to them. But it is in the larger questions to which he
+opened the way that the merit of Grotius consists. His was the first
+attempt to obtain a principle of right, and a basis for society and
+government, outside the church or the Bible. The distinction between
+religion on the one hand and law and morality on the other is not indeed
+clearly conceived by Grotius, but he wrestles with it in such a way as
+to make it easy for those who followed him to seize it. The law of
+nature is unalterable; God Himself cannot alter it any more than He can
+alter a mathematical axiom. This law has its source in the nature of man
+as a social being; it would be valid even were there no God, or if God
+did not interfere in the government of the world. These positions,
+though Grotius's religious temper did not allow him to rely unreservedly
+upon them, yet, even in the partial application they find in his book,
+entitle him to the honour of being held the founder of the modern
+science of the law of nature and nations. The _De jure_ exerted little
+influence on the practice of belligerents, yet its publication was an
+epoch in the science. De Quincey has said that the book is equally
+divided between "empty truisms and time-serving Dutch falsehoods." For a
+saner judgment and a brief abstract of the contents of the _De jure_,
+consult J. K. Bluntschli, _Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts_
+(Munich, 1864). A fuller analysis, and some notice of the predecessors
+of Grotius, will be found in Hély, _Étude sur le droit de la guerre de
+Grotius_ (Paris, 1875). The writer, however, had never heard of the _De
+jure praedae_, published in 1868. Hallam, _Lit. of Europe_, ii. p. 543,
+has an abstract done with his usual conscientious pains. Dugald Stewart
+(_Collected Works_, i. 370) has dwelt upon the confusion and defects of
+Grotius's theory. Sir James Mackintosh (_Miscell. Works_, p. 166) has
+defended Grotius, affirming that his work "is perhaps the most complete
+that the world has yet owed, at so early a stage in the progress of any
+science, to the genius and learning of one man."
+
+  The chief writings of Grotius have been named. For a complete
+  bibliography of his works, see Lehmann, _Hugonis Grotii manes
+  vindicati_ (Delft, 1727), which also contains a full biography. Of
+  this Latin life De Burigny published a réchauffée in French (2 vols.,
+  8vo, Paris, 1752). Other lives are: Van Brandt, _Historie van het
+  Leven H. de Groot_ (2 vols., 8vo, Dordrecht, 1727); Von Luden, _Hugo
+  Grotius nach seinen Schicksalen und Schriften dargestellt_ (8vo,
+  Berlin, 1806); _Life of Hugo Grotius_, by Charles Butler of Lincoln's
+  Inn (8vo, London, 1826). The work of the Abbé Hély contains a life of
+  Grotius. See also _Hugo Grotius_, by L. Neumann (Berlin, 1884);
+  _Opinions of Grotius_, by D. P. de Bruyn (London, 1894).
+
+  Grotius's theological works were collected in 3 vols. fol. at
+  Amsterdam (1644-1646; reprinted London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1679; and
+  again Amsterdam, 1698). His letters were printed first in a selection,
+  _Epistolae ad Gallos_ (12mo, Leiden, 1648), abounding, though an
+  Elzevir, in errors of the press. They were collected in _H. Grotii
+  epistolae quotquot reperiri poluerunt_ (fol., Amsterdam, 1687). A few
+  may be found scattered in other collections of _Epistolae_.
+  Supplements to the large collection of 1687 were published at Haarlem,
+  1806; Leiden, 1809; and Haarlem, 1829. The _De jure belli_ was
+  translated into English by Whewell (3 vols., 8vo, Cambridge, 1853);
+  into French by Barbeyrac (2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1724); into German
+  in Kirchmann's _Philosophische Bibliothek_ (3 vols. 12mo, Leipzig,
+  1879).     (M. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GROTTAFERRATA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, from which
+it is 13 m. S.E. by electric tramway, and 2½ m. S. of Frascati, 1080 ft.
+above sea-level, in the Alban Hills. Pop. (1901) 2645. It is noticeable
+for the Greek monastery of Basilians founded by S. Nilus in 1002 under
+the Emperor Otho III., and which occupies the site of a large Roman
+villa, possibly that of Cicero. It was fortified at the end of the 15th
+century by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (afterwards Pope Julius II.),
+whose arms may be seen about it. The massive towers added by him give it
+a picturesque appearance. The church belongs to the 12th century, and
+the original portal, with a mosaic over it, is still preserved; the
+interior was restored in 1574 and in 1754, but there are some remains of
+frescoes of the 13th century. The chapel of S. Nilus contains frescoes
+by Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino) of 1610, illustrating the life of the
+saint, which are among his most important works. The abbot's palace has
+a fine Renaissance portico, and contains an interesting museum of local
+antiquities. The library contains valuable MSS., among them one from the
+hand of S. Nilus (965); and a palaeographical school, for the copying of
+MSS. in the ancient style, is maintained. An _omophorion_ of the 11th or
+12th century, with scenes from the Gospel in needlework, and a chalice
+of the 15th century with enamels, given by Cardinal Bessarion, the
+predecessor of Giuliano della Rovere as commendatory of the abbey, are
+among its treasures. An important exhibition of Italo-Byzantine art was
+held here in 1905-1906.
+
+  See A. Rocchi, _La Badia di Grottaferrata_ (Rome, 1884); A. Muñoz,
+  _L'Art byzantin à l'exposition de Grottaferrata_ (Rome, 1905); T.
+  Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iv. (1907).
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GROUCHY, EMMANUEL, MARQUIS DE (1766-1847), marshal of France, was born
+in Paris on the 23rd of October 1766. He entered the French artillery in
+1779, transferred to the cavalry in 1782, and to the _Gardes du corps_
+in 1786. In spite of his aristocratic birth and his connexions with the
+court, he was a convinced supporter of the principles of the Revolution,
+and had in consequence to leave the Guards. About the time of the
+outbreak of war in 1792 he became colonel of a cavalry regiment, and
+soon afterwards, as a _maréchal de camp_, he was sent to serve on the
+south-eastern frontier. In 1793 he distinguished himself in La Vendée,
+and was promoted general of division. Grouchy was shortly afterwards
+deprived of his rank as being of noble birth, but in 1795 he was again
+placed on the active list. He served on the staff of the Army of Ireland
+(1796-1797), and took a conspicuous part in the Irish expedition. In
+1798 he administered the civil and military government of Piedmont at
+the time of the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and in 1799 he
+distinguished himself greatly as a divisional commander in the campaign
+against the Austrians and Russians. In covering the retreat of the
+French after the defeat of Novi, Grouchy received fourteen wounds and
+was taken prisoner. On his release he returned to France. In spite of
+his having protested against the _coup d'état_ of the 18th of Brumaire
+he was at once re-employed by the First Consul, and distinguished
+himself again at Hohenlinden. It was not long before he accepted the new
+régime in France, and from 1801 onwards he was employed by Napoleon in
+military and political positions of importance. He served in Austria in
+1805, in Prussia in 1806, Poland in 1807, Spain in 1808, and commanded
+the cavalry of the Army of Italy in 1809 in the Viceroy Eugène's advance
+to Vienna. In 1812 he was made commander of one of the four cavalry
+corps of the Grand Army, and during the retreat from Moscow Napoleon
+appointed him to command the escort squadron, which was composed
+entirely of picked officers. His almost continuous service with the
+cavalry led Napoleon to decline in 1813 to place Grouchy at the head of
+an army corps, and Grouchy thereupon retired to France. In 1814,
+however, he hastened to take part in the defensive campaign in France,
+and he was severely wounded at Craonne. At the Restoration he was
+deprived of the post of colonel-general of _chasseurs à cheval_ and
+retired. He joined Napoleon on his return from Elba, and was made
+marshal and peer of France. In the campaign of Waterloo he commanded the
+reserve cavalry of the army, and after Ligny he was appointed to command
+the right wing to pursue the Prussians. The march on Wavre, its
+influence on the result of the campaign, and the controversy to which
+Grouchy's conduct on the day of Waterloo has given rise, are dealt with
+briefly in the article WATERLOO CAMPAIGN, and at length in nearly every
+work on the campaign of 1815. Here it is only necessary to say that on
+the 17th Grouchy was unable to close with the Prussians, and on the
+18th, though urged to march towards the sound of the guns of Waterloo,
+he permitted himself, from whatever cause, to be held up by a Prussian
+rearguard while the Prussians and English united to crush Napoleon. On
+the 19th Grouchy won a smart victory over the Prussians at Wavre, but it
+was then too late. So far as resistance was possible after the great
+disaster, Grouchy made it. He gathered up the wrecks of Napoleon's army,
+and retired, swiftly and unbroken, to Paris, where, after interposing
+his reorganized forces between the enemy and the capital, he resigned
+his command into the hands of Marshal Davout. The rest of his life was
+spent in defending himself. An attempt to have him condemned to death by
+a court-martial failed, but he was exiled and lived in America till
+amnestied in 1821. On his return to France he was reinstated as general,
+but not as marshal nor as peer of France. For many years thereafter he
+was equally an object of aversion to the court party, as a member of
+their own caste who had followed the Revolution and Napoleon, and to his
+comrades of the Grand Army as the supposed betrayer of Napoleon. In 1830
+Louis Philippe gave him back the marshal's bâton and restored him to the
+Chamber of Peers. He died at St-Étienne on the 29th of May 1847.
+
+  See Marquis de Grouchy, _Mémoires du maréchal Marquis de Grouchy_
+  (Paris, 1873-1874); General Marquis de Grouchy, _Le Général Grouchy en
+  Irlande_ (Paris, 1866), and _Le Maréchal Grouchy du 16 au 18 juin,
+  1815_ (Paris, 1864); _Appel à l'histoire sur les faites de l'aile
+  droite de l'armée française_ (Paris, n.d.); _Sévère Justice sur les
+  faits ... du 28 juin au 3 juillet, 1815_ (Paris, 1866); and the
+  literature of the Waterloo campaign. Marshal Grouchy himself wrote the
+  following: _Observations sur la relation de la campagne de 1815 par le
+  général de Gourgaud_ (Philadelphia and Paris, 1818); _Réfutation de
+  quelques articles des mémoires de M. le Duc de Rovigo_ (Paris, 1829);
+  _Fragments historiques relatifs à la campagne et à la bataille de
+  Waterloo_ (Paris, 1829-1830, in reply to Barthélemy and Méry, and to
+  Marshal Gérard); _Réclamation du maréchal de Grouchy_ (Paris, 1834);
+  _Plainte contre le général Baron Berthezène_ (Berthezène, formerly a
+  divisional commander under Gérard, stated in reply to this defence
+  that he had no intention of accusing Grouchy of ill faith).
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-ICE,[1] ice formed at the bottom of streams while the temperature
+of the water is above freezing-point. Everything points to radiation as
+the prime cause of the formation of ground-ice. It is formed only under
+a clear sky, never in cloudy weather; it is most readily formed on dark
+rocks, and never under any covering such as a bridge, and rarely under
+surface-ice. Professor Howard T. Barnes of McGill University concludes
+that the radiation from a river bed in cold and clear nights goes
+through the water in long rays that penetrate much more easily from
+below upwards than the sun's heat rays from above downwards, which are
+mostly absorbed by the first few feet of water. On a cold clear night,
+therefore, the radiation from the bottom is excessive, and loosely-grown
+spongy masses of anchor-ice form on the bottom, which on the following
+bright sunny day receive just sufficient heat from the sun to detach the
+mass of ice, which rises to the surface with considerable force. It is
+probable that owing to surface tension a thin film of stationary water
+rests upon the boulders and sand over which a stream flows, and that
+this, becoming frozen owing to radiation, forms the foundation for the
+anchor-ice and produces a surface upon which the descending frazil-ice
+(see below) can lodge. The theory of radiation from the boulders is
+supported by the fact that as the ice is formed upon them in response to
+a sudden fall in the air temperature, it is only released under the
+influence of a strong rise of temperature during the morning. It may not
+rise for several days, but the advent of bright sunlight is followed by
+the appearance on the surface of masses of ground-ice. This ice has a
+spongy texture and frequently carries gravel with it when it rises. It
+is said that the bottom of Lake Erie is strewn with gravel that has been
+floated down in this way. This "anchor-ice," as it was called by
+Canadian trappers, frequently forms dams across narrow portions of the
+river where the floating masses are caught. Dr H. Landor pointed out
+that the Mackenzie and Mississippi rivers, which rise in the same region
+and flow in opposite directions, carry ground-ice from their head-waters
+for a considerable distance down stream, and suggested that here and in
+Siberia many forms of vegetable and animal life may be distributed from
+a centre by this agency, since the material carried by the floating ice
+would contain the seeds and eggs or larvae of many forms.
+
+Besides ground-ice and anchor-ice this formation is called also
+bottom-ice, ground-gru and lappered ice, the two last names being
+Scottish. In France it is called _glace du fond_, in Germany _Grundeis_,
+and in French Canada _moutonne_ from the appearance of sheep at rest,
+since the ice formed at the bottom grows in woolly, spongy masses upon
+boulders or other projections.
+
+"Frazil-ice" is a Canadian term from the French for "forge-cinders." It
+is surface ice formed in spicules and carried downwards in water
+agitated by winds or rapids. The frazil-ice may render swiftly moving
+water turbid with ice crystals, it may be swirled downwards and
+accumulated upon the ground ice, or it may be swept under the sheet of
+surface-ice, coating the under surface of the sheet to a thickness as
+great as 80 ft. of loose spicular ice.
+
+  See W. G. Thompson, in _Nature_, i. 555 (1870); H. Landor, in
+  _Geological Magazine_, decade II., vol. iii., p. 459 (1876); H. T.
+  Barnes, _Ice Formation with special Reference to Anchor-ice and
+  Frazil_ (1906).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The O. Eng. word _grund_, ground, is common to Teutonic
+    languages, cf. Du. _grond_, Ger. _Grund_, but has no cognates outside
+    Teutonic. The suggestion that the origin is to be found in "grind,"
+    to crush small, reduce to powder, is plausible, but the primary
+    meaning seems to be the lowest part or bottom of anything rather than
+    grit, sand or gravel. The main branches in sense appear to be, first,
+    bottom, as of the sea or a river, cf. the use, in the plural, for
+    dregs; second, base or foundation, actual, as of the first or main
+    surface of a painting, fabric, &c., or figurative, as of a principle
+    or reason; third, the surface of the earth, or a particular part of
+    that surface.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND NUT (Earth Nut, Pistache de Terre, Monkey Nut, Pea Nut, Manilla
+Nut), in botany, the fruit or pod of _Arachis hypogaea_ (nat. ord.
+Leguminosae). The plant is an annual of diffuse habit, with hairy stem,
+and two-paired, abruptly pinnate leaflets. The pods or legumes are
+stalked, oblong, cylindrical, about 1 in. in length, the thin
+reticulated shell containing one or two irregularly ovoid seeds. After
+the flower withers, the stalk of the ovary has the peculiarity of
+elongating and bending down, forcing the young pod underground, and thus
+the seeds become matured at some distance below the surface. Hence the
+specific and vernacular names of the plant. Originally a native of South
+America, it is extensively cultivated in all tropical and subtropical
+countries. The plant affects a light sandy soil, and is very prolific,
+yielding in some instances 30 to 38 bushels of nuts per acre. The pods
+when ripe are dug up and dried. The seeds when fresh are largely eaten
+in tropical countries, and in taste are almost equal to almonds; when
+roasted they are used as a substitute for chocolate. In America they are
+consumed in large quantities as the "pea-nut"; but are not much
+appreciated in England except by the poorer children, who know them as
+"monkey-nuts." By expression the seeds yield a large quantity of oil,
+which is used by natives for lamps, as a fish or curry oil and for
+medicinal purposes. The leaves form an excellent food for cattle, being
+very like clover.
+
+Large quantities of seeds are imported to Europe, chiefly to Marseilles,
+London and Hamburg, for the sake of their contained oil. The seeds yield
+from 42 to 50% of oil by cold expression, but a larger quantity is
+obtained by heat, although of an inferior quality. The seeds being soft
+facilitate mechanical expression, and where bisulphide of carbon or
+other solvent is used, a very pure oil is obtained.
+
+The expressed oil is limpid, of a light yellowish or straw colour,
+having a faint smell and bland taste; it forms an excellent substitute
+for olive oil, although in a slight degree more prone to rancidity than
+the latter. Its specific gravity is 0.916 to 0.918; it becomes turbid at
+3° C., concretes at +3° to -4° C., and hardens at +7° C. It is a
+non-drying oil. Ground nut oil consists of (1) oleic acid (C18H34O2);
+(2) hypogaeic acid (C16H30O2), by some supposed to be identical with a
+fatty acid found in whale oil; (3) palmitic acid (C16H32O2); and (4)
+arachic acid (C20H40O2). The oil is used in the adulteration of gingelly
+oil.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-PEARL, the glassy secretion forming the pupacase of coccid
+insects of the genus _Margarodes_, belonging to the homopterous division
+of the Hemiptera.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND RENT. In Roman law, ground rent (_solarium_) was an annual rent
+payable by the lessee of a _superficies_ or perpetual lease of building
+land. In English law, it appears that the term was at one time popularly
+used for the houses and lands out of which ground rents issue as well as
+for the rents themselves (cf. _Maundy_ v. _Maundy_, 2 Strange, 1020);
+and Lord Eldon observed in 1815 that the context in which the term
+occurred may materially vary its meaning (_Stewart_ v. _Alliston_, 1
+Mer. 26). But at the present time the accepted meaning of ground rent is
+the rent at which land is let for the purpose of improvement by
+building, i.e. a rent charged in respect of the land only and not in
+respect of the buildings to be placed thereon. It thus conveys the idea
+of something lower than a rack rent (see RENT); and accordingly if a
+vendor described property as property for which he paid a "ground rent,"
+without any further explanation of the term, a purchaser would not be
+obliged to accept the property if it turned out to be held at a rack
+rent. But while a rack rent is generally higher in amount than a ground
+rent, the latter is usually better secured, as it carries with it the
+reversionary interest in buildings and improvements put on the ground
+_after_ the date at which the ground rent was fixed, and accordingly
+ground rents have been regarded as a good investment. Trustees empowered
+to invest money on the security of freehold or copyhold hereditaments,
+may invest upon freehold ground rents reserved out of house property. In
+estimating the amount that may be so invested, account may be taken of
+the value of the houses, as, if the ground rents are not paid, the
+landlord can re-enter. Again, where a settlement authorizes trustees to
+purchase lands or hereditaments in fee-simple or possession, a purchase
+of freehold ground rents has been held to be proper. A devise of "ground
+rent" carries not only the rent but the reversion. Where a tenant is
+compelled, in order to protect himself in the enjoyment of the land in
+respect of which his rent is payable, to pay ground rent to a superior
+landlord (who is of course in a position to distrain on him for it), he
+is considered as having been authorized by his immediate landlord to
+apply his rent, due or accruing due, in this manner, and the payment of
+the ground rent will be held to be payment of the rent itself or part of
+it. A lodger should make any payment of this character under the Law of
+Distress Amendment Act 1908 (s. 3; and see RENT). Ground rents are
+apportionable (see APPORTIONMENT).
+
+  In Scots law, the term "ground rent" is not employed, but its place is
+  taken, for practical purposes, by the "ground-annual," which bears a
+  double meaning. (i.) At the time of the Reformation in Scotland, the
+  lands of the Church were parcelled out by the crown into various
+  lordships--the grantees being called Lords of Erection. In the 17th
+  century these Lords of Erection resigned their superiorities to the
+  crown, with the exception of the feu-duties, which were to be retained
+  till a price agreed upon for their redemption had been paid. This
+  reserved power of redemption was, however, resigned by the crown on
+  the eve of the Union and the feu-duties became payable in perpetuity
+  to the Lords of Erection as a "ground-annual." (ii.) Speculators in
+  building ground usually grant sub-feus to builders at a high feu-duty.
+  But where sub-feus are prohibited--as they might be, prior to the
+  Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874--and there is much demand for
+  building ground, the feuars frequently stipulate for an annual rent
+  from the builders rather than for a price payable at once. This annual
+  rent is called a "ground-annual." Interest is not due on arrears of
+  ground-annuals. Like other real burdens, ground-annuals may now be
+  freely assigned and conveyed (Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874, s.
+  30).
+
+The term "ground rent" in the English sense does not seem to be
+generally used in the United States, but is applied in Pennsylvania to a
+kind of tenure, created by a grant in fee simple, the grantor reserving
+to himself and his heirs a certain rent, which is the interest of the
+money value of the land. These "ground rents" are real estate, and, in
+cases of intestacy, go to the heir. They are rent services and not rent
+charges--the statute _Quia Emptores_ never having been in force in
+Pennsylvania, and are subject to all the incidents of such rents (see
+RENT). The grantee of such a "ground rent" may mortgage, sell, or
+otherwise dispose of the grant as he pleases; and while the rent is paid
+the land cannot be sold or the value of the improvements lost.
+
+A ground rent being a freehold estate, created by deed and perpetual in
+duration, no presumption could, at common law, arise from lapse of time,
+that it had been released. But now, by statute (Act of 27th of April
+1855, s. 7), a presumption of release or extinguishment is created where
+no payment, claim or demand has been made for the rent, nor any
+declaration or acknowledgment of its existence made or given by the
+owner of the premises subject to it, for the period of 21 years. Ground
+rents were formerly irredeemable after a certain time. But the creation
+of irredeemable ground rents is now forbidden (Pennsylvania Act 7
+Assembly, 22nd of April 1850).
+
+  For English Law see Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed., London,
+  1901); Scots Law, Bell's _Principles_ (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899);
+  American Law, Bouvier, _Law Dict._ (Boston and London, 1897).
+       (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GROUNDSEL (Ger. _Kreuzkraut_; Fr. _seneçon_), _Senecio vulgaris_, an
+annual, glabrous, or more or less woolly plant of the natural order
+Compositae, having a branched succulent stem 6 to 15 in. in height,
+pinnatifid irregularly and coarsely-toothed leaves, and small
+cylindrical heads of yellow tubular florets enveloped in an involucre of
+numerous narrow bracts; the ribbed fruit bears a soft, feathery, hoary
+tuft of hairs (_pappus_). The plant is indigenous to Europe, whence it
+has been introduced into all temperate climates. It is a troublesome
+weed, flowering throughout the year, and propagating itself rapidly by
+means of its light feathery fruits; it has its use, however, as a food
+for cage-birds. _Senecio Jacobaea_, ragwort, is a showy plant with heads
+of bright yellow flowers, common in pastures and by roadsides. The genus
+_Senecio_ is a very large one, widely distributed in temperate and cold
+climates. The British species are all herbs, but the genus also includes
+shrubs and even arborescent forms, which are characteristic features of
+the vegetation of the higher levels on the mountains of tropical Africa.
+Many species of the genus are handsome florists' plants. The groundsel
+tree, _Baccharis halimifolia_, a native of the North American sea-coast
+from Massachusetts southward, is a Composite shrub, attaining 6 to 12
+ft. in height, and having angular branches, obovate or oblong-cuneate,
+somewhat scurfy leaves, and flowers larger than but similar to those of
+common groundsel. The long white pappus of the female plant renders it a
+conspicuous object in autumn. The groundsel tree has been cultivated in
+British gardens since 1683.
+
+  The Old English word, represented by "groundsel," appears in two
+  forms, _grundeswylige_ and _gundæswelgiæ_; of the first form the
+  accepted derivation is from _grund_, ground, and _swelgau_, to
+  swallow; a weed of such rapid growth would not inaptly be styled a
+  "ground-swallower." If the form without the r be genuine, the word
+  might mean "pus-absorber" (O.E. _gund_, filth, matter), with reference
+  to its use in poultices for abscesses and the like.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-SQUIRREL, one of the names for a group of (chiefly) North
+American striped terrestrial squirrel-like rodents, more generally known
+as chipmunks. They are closely allied to squirrels, from which they are
+distinguished by the possession of cheek-pouches for the storage of
+food. The sides, or the sides and back, are marked with light stripes
+bordered by dark bands; the ears are small, and without tufts; and the
+tail is relatively short. With the exception of one Siberian species
+(_Tamias asiaticus_), ground-squirrels are confined to North America,
+where they are represented by a large number of species and races, all
+referable to the genus _Tamias_. In North America ground-squirrels are
+migratory, and may be abundant in a district one year, and absent the
+next. They feed on nuts, beechmast, corn and roots, and also on grubs.
+With the assistance of their cheek-pouches they accumulate large
+supplies of food for the winter, during which season they lie dormant in
+holes. Although generally keeping to the ground, when hunted they take
+to trees, which they climb in search of food. One of the longest known
+American species is _T. striatus_.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38202-8.txt or 38202-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/2/0/38202/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/38202-8.zip b/38202-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44edad6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-8.zip
diff --git a/38202-h.zip b/38202-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c4f896
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h.zip
diff --git a/38202-h/38202-h.htm b/38202-h/38202-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ce4b34
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/38202-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,21045 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
+
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume XII Slice V - Greek Law to Ground-Squirrel.
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body    { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; }
+    p       { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.c     { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; }
+
+    h2,h3        { text-align: center; }
+    hr           { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; }
+    hr.art       { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899;
+                          margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em }
+    hr.foot      {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; }
+    hr.full      {width: 100%}
+
+    table.ws      {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;
+                   margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;}
+    table.reg     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;}
+    table.reg td  { white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.flt     { border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.pic     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;}
+    table.math0 td  {text-align: center;}
+    table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;}
+
+    table.reg p     {text-indent: 1em; margin-left: 1.5em; text-align: justify;}
+    table.reg td.tc5p  { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr td, table.flt td { white-space: normal; }
+    table.pic td    { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;}
+    table.nobctr p, table.flt p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+    table.pic td p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+
+    td            { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+    td.norm       { white-space: normal; }
+    td.denom      { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+
+    td.tcc        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tccm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tccb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcr        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tcrb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcrm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tcl        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tclb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tclm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.vb         { vertical-align: bottom; }
+
+      .caption    { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;}
+      .caption1   { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;}
+      .caption80  { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;}
+
+    td.lb       {border-left: black 1px solid;}
+    td.ltb      {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb       {border-right: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb2      {border-right: black 2px solid;}
+    td.tb, span.tb  {border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb       {border-bottom: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb1      {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.rlb      {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;}
+    td.allb     {border: black 1px solid;}
+    td.cl       {background-color: #e8e8e8}
+
+    table p       { margin: 0;}
+
+    a:link, a:visited, link  {text-decoration:none}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;}
+    .center1  {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    .f80      {font-size: 80%}
+    .f90      {font-size: 90%}
+    .f150     {font-size: 150%}
+    .f200     {font-size: 200%}
+
+    .sp       {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .sp1      {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su       {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su1      {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;}
+    .spp      {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .suu      {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .scs      {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .ov       {text-decoration: overline}
+    .cl       {background-color: #f5f5f5;}
+    .bk       {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;}
+    .bk1      {margin-left: -1em;}
+
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt;
+                  background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0;
+                  padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; }
+    span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em;
+	           font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold;
+                   font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;
+                   background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; }
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    .fn       { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5;
+                text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; }
+    span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;}
+
+    div.poemr        { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    div.poemr p      { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; }
+    div.poemr p.s     { margin-top: 1.5em; }
+    div.poemr p.i05   { margin-left: 0.4em; }
+    div.poemr p.i1    { margin-left: 1em; }
+    div.poemr p.i3    { margin-left: 3em; }
+    div.poemr p.i5    { margin-left: 5em; }
+
+    .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figleft1  { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figcenter   {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;}
+    .figcenter1  {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;}
+    .figure      {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;}
+    .bold        {font-weight: bold; }
+
+     div.minind   {text-align: justify;}
+     div.condensed, div.condensed1  { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; }
+     div.condensed1 p  {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%}
+
+     div.list   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.list1   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    .pt05       {padding-top: 0.5em;}
+    .pt1        {padding-top: 1em;}
+    .pt2        {padding-top: 2em;}
+    .ptb1       {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.prl      {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5
+       "Greek Law" to "Ground-Squirrel"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38202]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE V<br /><br />
+Greek Law to Ground-Squirrel</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GREEK LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GREY, SIR GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GREEK LITERATURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GREY, HENRY GREY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GREEK RELIGION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GREY, LADY JANE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GREELEY, HORACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GREY DE WILTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GREELEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GREYMOUTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GREYTOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GREEN, DUFF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GREYWACKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GREEN, JOHN RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GREEN, MATTHEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GREEN, THOMAS HILL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GREEN, VALENTINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GRIESBACH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GREENAWAY, KATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GRIFFE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GREENBACKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GREEN BAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GRIFFIN, GERALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GREENCASTLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GRIFFIN</a> (Georgia, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GRIFFIN</a> (creature)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GREENE, MAURICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GREENE, NATHANAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GRILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GREENE, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GRILLPARZER, FRANZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GREENFIELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GRIMALD, NICHOLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GREENFINCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GREENHEART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GRIMALDI, JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GREENLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GRIMKÉ, SARAH MOORE and ANGELINA EMILY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GREENLAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GREENLEAF, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GREEN MONKEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GRIMM, WILHELM CARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GREENOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GRIMMA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GREENOCKITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GREENORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GRIMSBY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GREENOUGH, HORATIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GREEN RIBBON CLUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GRINDAL, EDMUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GREENSAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GRINDELWALD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GREENSBORO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GRINGOIRE, PIERRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GREENSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GRINNELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GREENSHANK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GREENVILLE</a> (Mississippi, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GRISAILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GREENVILLE</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GRISELDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GREENVILLE</a> (South Carolina, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GRISI, GIULIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GREENVILLE</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GRISON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GREENWICH</a> (Connecticut, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GRISONS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GREENWICH</a> (England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GREENWOOD, FREDERICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GRIVET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GREENWOOD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GROAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GROCER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GREGARINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GROCYN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GRÉGOIRE, HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GRODNO</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GRODNO</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GREGORY, ST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GROIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GROMATICI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GRONINGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GRONINGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GREGORY</a> (popes)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GRONLUND, LAURENCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GREGORY</a> (Scottish family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GRONOVIUS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GROOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GROOT, GERHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GREIFENBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GREIFENHAGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GROS, ANTOINE JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GREIFSWALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GREISEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GROSBEAK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GREIZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GROSE, FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GRENADA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GROSS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GRENADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GRENADIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GROSSENHAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GRENADINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GROSSETESTE, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GRENOBLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GROSSETO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GRENVILLE, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GROSSI, TOMMASO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD</a> (naval commander)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GROSSMITH, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD</a> (English royalist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GROS VENTRES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GROTE, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GROTESQUE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GRESHAM&rsquo;S LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GROTH, KLAUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GRETNA GREEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GROTIUS, HUGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GRÉTRY, ANDRÉ ERNEST MODESTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GROTTAFERRATA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GROUCHY, EMMANUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GROUND-ICE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GRÉVIN, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GROUND NUT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GRÈVY, FRANÇOIS PAUL JULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GROUND-PEARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GREW, NEHEMIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GROUND RENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GREY, CHARLES GREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GROUNDSEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GREY, SIR EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GROUND-SQUIRREL</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GREEK LAW.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative
+jurisprudence the importance of which has been long ignored.
+Jurists have commonly left its study to scholars, who
+have generally refrained from comparing the institutions
+<span class="sidenote">Greek law and comparative jurisprudence.</span>
+of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek
+law has, however, been partially compared with
+Roman law, and has been incidentally illustrated
+with the aid of the primitive institutions of the Germanic
+nations. It may now be studied in its earlier stages in the
+laws of Gortyn; its influence may be traced in legal documents
+preserved in Egyptian papyri; and it may be recognized
+as a consistent whole in its ultimate relations to Roman law in
+the eastern provinces of the Roman empire.</p>
+
+<p>The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law is implied
+by the custom of settling a difference between two Greek states,
+or between members of a single state, by resorting to external
+arbitration. The general unity of Greek law is mainly to be
+seen in the laws of inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce
+and contract, and in the publicity uniformly given to legal
+agreements.</p>
+
+<p>No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to
+us. Our knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject
+is derived from the Homeric poems. For the details
+of Attic law we have to depend on <i>ex parte</i> statements
+<span class="sidenote">Original authorities.</span>
+in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are sometimes
+enabled to check those statements by the
+trustworthy, but often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental
+illustrations of the laws of Athens may be found in the Laws
+of Plato, who deals with the theory of the subject without
+exercising any influence on actual practice. The Laws of
+Plato are criticized in the <i>Politics</i> of Aristotle, who, besides
+discussing laws in their relation to constitutions, reviews the
+work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The treatise on the
+<i>Constitution of Athens</i> includes an account of the jurisdiction of
+the various public officials and of the machinery of the law courts,
+and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand testimony
+of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information
+from that treatise (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constitution of Athens</a></span>). The works
+of Theophrastus <i>On the Laws</i>, which included a recapitulation of
+the laws of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now
+represented by only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106, ed. Wimmer).</p>
+
+<p>Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems.
+In the primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato)
+written laws were necessarily unknown; for, &ldquo;in
+<span class="sidenote">Law in Homer.</span>
+that early period, they had no letters; they lived
+by habit and by the customs of their ancestors&rdquo; (<i>Laws</i>,
+680 A). We find a survival from a still more primitive time in
+the savage Cyclops, who is &ldquo;unfamiliar with dooms of law, or
+rules of right&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="oute dikas eu eidota oute themistas">&#959;&#8020;&#964;&#949; &#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#962; &#949;&#8022; &#949;&#7984;&#948;&#972;&#964;&#945; &#959;&#8020;&#964;&#949; &#952;&#941;&#956;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#962;</span>, <i>Od.</i> ix. 215
+and 112 f.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Dik&#275;</i> (<span class="grk" title="dikê">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;</span>), assigned by Curtius (<i>Etym.</i> 134) to the same root as
+<span class="grk" title="deiknymi">&#948;&#949;&#943;&#954;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#953;</span>, primarily means a &ldquo;way pointed out,&rdquo; a &ldquo;course prescribed
+by usage,&rdquo; hence &ldquo;way&rdquo; or &ldquo;fashion,&rdquo; &ldquo;manner&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Dik&#275;.</span>
+or &ldquo;precedent.&rdquo; In the Homeric poems it sometimes
+signifies a &ldquo;doom&rdquo; of law, a legal &ldquo;right,&rdquo; a &ldquo;lawsuit&rdquo;; while it
+is rarely synonymous with &ldquo;justice,&rdquo; as in <i>Od.</i> xiv. 84, where
+&ldquo;the gods honour justice,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="tiousi dikên">&#964;&#943;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953; &#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Various senses of &ldquo;right&rdquo; are expressed in the same poems by
+<i>themis</i> (<span class="grk" title="themis">&#952;&#7952;&#956;&#953;&#962;</span>), a term assigned (<i>ib.</i> 254) to the same root as <span class="grk" title="tithêmi">&#964;&#943;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#953;</span>.
+In its primary sense <i>themis</i> is that which &ldquo;has been laid
+down&rdquo;; hence a particular decision or &ldquo;doom.&rdquo; The
+<span class="sidenote">Themis.</span>
+plural <i>themistes</i> implies a body of such precedents, &ldquo;rules of right,&rdquo;
+which the king receives from Zeus with his sceptre (<i>Il.</i> ix. 99).
+<i>Themis</i> and <i>dik&#275;</i> have sometimes been compared with the Roman <i>fas</i>
+and <i>jus</i> respectively, the former being regarded as of divine, the
+latter of human origin; and this is more satisfactory than the latest
+view (that of Hirzel), which makes &ldquo;counsel&rdquo; the primary meaning
+of <i>themis</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thesmos</i> (<span class="grk" title="thesmos">&#952;&#949;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>), an ordinance (from the same root as themis), is
+not found in &ldquo;Homer,&rdquo; except in the last line of the
+<span class="sidenote">Thesmos. Nomos.</span>
+original form of the <i>Odyssey</i> (xxiii. 296), where it probably
+refers to the &ldquo;ordinance&rdquo; of wedlock. The common
+term for law, <span class="grk" title="nomos">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially
+legal sense (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Op.</i> 276).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the
+shield of Achilles (<i>Il.</i> xviii. 497-508). The folk are here to be
+seen thronging the market-place, where a strife has
+arisen between two men as to the price of a man that
+<span class="sidenote">The trial scene.</span>
+has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all
+(<span class="grk" title="eucheto pant' apodounai">&#949;&#8020;&#967;&#949;&#964;&#959; &#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#8125; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>), the kinsman of the slain protests
+that he has received nothing (<span class="grk" title="anaineto mêden helesthai">&#7936;&#957;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#964;&#959; &#956;&#951;&#948;&#8050;&#957; &#7953;&#955;&#941;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>); both
+are eager to join issue before an umpire, and both are favoured
+by their friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds.
+The cause is tried by the elders, who are seated on polished
+stones in a sacred circle, and in the midst there lie two talents
+of gold, &ldquo;to give to him who, among them all, sets forth the
+cause most rightly&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="tô domen hos meta toisi dikên ithyntata eipoi">&#964;&#8183; &#948;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957; &#8003;&#962; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#8048; &#964;&#959;&#8150;&#963;&#953; &#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#957; &#7984;&#952;&#973;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#949;&#7988;&#960;&#959;&#953;</span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned on two
+points: (1) the legal questions at issue; and (2) the destination of
+the &ldquo;two talents.&rdquo; (1) In the ordinary view (<i>a</i>), it is solely a question
+whether the fine or blood-money, corresponding to the <i>Wergeld</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wergeld</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic Peoples</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>: <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>) of the old
+Germanic law (Grimm, <i>Rechtsalterthümer</i>, 661 f.), has been paid or
+not. (This is accepted by Thonissen, Lipsius, Sidgwick and Ridgeway.)
+In the other view (<i>b</i>), it is held that the slayer &ldquo;claimed to
+pay&rdquo; the fine, and the kinsman of the slain &ldquo;refused to accept any
+compensation&rdquo; (so Passow and Leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The
+&ldquo;two talents&rdquo; (shown by Ridgeway to be a small sum, equal in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
+value to two oxen) are awarded either (<i>a</i>) to the litigant who &ldquo;pleads
+his cause most justly before them&rdquo; (so Thonissen, Shilleto and
+Lipsius, in accordance with the Attic use of phrases like <span class="grk" title="dikên eipein">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#957; &#949;&#7984;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>),
+or (<i>b</i>) to the judge &ldquo;who, among all the elders, gives the most
+righteous judgment&rdquo; (so Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock,
+Leaf and Ridgeway).</p>
+
+<p>On this controversy, cf. Maine&rsquo;s <i>Ancient Law</i>, chap. x. pp. 385 f.,
+405 f., ed. Pollock; Thonissen, <i>Droit pénal</i> (1875), 27; P. M.
+Laurence (on Shilleto&rsquo;s view) in <i>Journal of Philology</i>, viii. (1879),
+125 f.; Ridgeway, <i>ib.</i> x. (1882), 30 f., and <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>,
+viii. (1887), 133 f.; and Leaf, <i>ib.</i> viii. 122 f., and in his Commentary
+on <i>Iliad</i>, ii. (1902), 610-614; also J. H. Lipsius in <i>Leipziger Studien</i>,
+xii. (1890), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick in <i>Classical Review</i>,
+viii. (1894), 1-4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted
+blood-money from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that
+the slayer remained in the land after paying this penalty (<i>Il.</i> ix.
+633). As a rule the slayer found it safest to flee (<i>Od.</i> xxiii.
+118 f.), but even so, he might be pursued by the friends of the
+slain (<i>Od.</i> xv. 272-278). If he remained, the land was not (as
+in later ages) deemed to be polluted by his presence. In Homer,
+Orestes does not slay Clytaemestra, and he needs no &ldquo;purification&rdquo;
+for slaying Aegisthus.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus,
+whose traditional date is 884 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Written laws are said to have
+been expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch,
+<i>Lycurgus</i>, 13); hence the &ldquo;laws of Sparta&rdquo; are simply
+<span class="sidenote">Greek lawgivers: Lycurgus at Sparta.</span>
+a body of traditional observances. We learn that all
+trials for homicide came before the Council of Elders
+and lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried
+by the ephors (<i>q.v.</i>). We are also told that originally the land
+was equally divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this
+equality was enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the
+4th century the ephor Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with
+his son, enacted that every Spartan should be allowed to transfer
+his estate and his allotment to any other person (Plutarch, <i>Agis</i>,
+5), while Aristotle, in a much-debated passage of the <i>Politics</i>
+(ii. 9. 14-15), criticizes the Spartan constitution for allowing the
+accumulation of property in a few hands, an evil aggravated by
+the large number of &ldquo;heiresses&rdquo;; &ldquo;a man (he adds) may
+bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies intestate,
+this privilege descends to his heir.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A
+written code is a necessary condition of just judgment, and
+<span class="sidenote">Era of written laws.</span>
+such a code was the first concession which the people
+in the Greek cities extorted from the ruling aristocracies.
+The change was generally effected with the aid of a
+single legislator entrusted with complete authority
+to draw up a code.</p>
+
+<p>The first communities to reach this stage of progress were
+the Greek colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian Locrians,
+near the extreme south of Italy, received the earliest
+written code from Zaleucus (663 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose strict
+<span class="sidenote">Zaleucus at Locri Epizephyrii.<br />
+Charondas at Catana, etc.</span>
+and severe legislation put an end to a period of strife
+and confusion, though we know little of his laws,
+except that they attached definite penalties to each offence,
+and that they strictly protected the rights of property. Two
+centuries later, his code was adopted even by the
+Athenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Charondas, the &ldquo;disciple&rdquo; of Zaleucus, became the
+lawgiver, not only of his native town of Catana on the
+east coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian colonies in
+Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a
+<span class="sidenote">Androdamas of Rhegium.<br />
+Philolaus of Corinth.</span>
+singular precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle)
+that he could claim as his own except the special
+procedure against false witnesses (<i>Politics</i>, ii. 12. 11).
+In the case of judges who neglected to serve in the
+law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small fine
+on the poor (<i>ib.</i> vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdamas of Rhegium gave
+laws on homicide and on heiresses to the Chalcidians
+of Thrace, while Philolaus of Corinth provided the
+Thebans with &ldquo;laws of adoption&rdquo; with a view to
+preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land
+(<i>ib.</i> ii. 12. 8-14).</p>
+
+<p>Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the
+important city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a
+plain watered by the Lethaeus. Part of that stream
+forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or near this mill
+<span class="sidenote">The laws of Gortyn.</span>
+some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French
+archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to
+which most of our knowledge of the laws is due, was not discovered
+until 1884. It had been preserved on a wall 27 ft.
+long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of which was buried in the
+ground, while its farthest extremity passed obliquely athwart
+the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert the water
+before the last four columns could be transcribed by the Italian
+scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the
+same year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight
+columns by the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the following
+year Halbherr discovered more than eighty small fragments on
+the neighbouring site of a former temple of the Pythian
+Apollo.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription
+above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They
+precede the introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties
+being reckoned, not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the
+powers of the magistrates and the observances of religion, but are
+mainly concerned with private matters of barter and sale, dowry
+and adoption, inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and
+questions of blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a
+fixed scale of penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and ranging
+from one to a hundred caldrons.</p>
+
+<p>The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (<i>c.</i> 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+It consists of a number of amendments or additions to an earlier code,
+and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and
+family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely
+oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted; there are
+no documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the
+memory of the judge or of his &ldquo;remembrancer.&rdquo; All the causes are
+tried before a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the
+suit. Where the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judgment
+(<span class="grk" title="dikadden">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#948;&#948;&#949;&#957;</span>) in accordance with the law and the &ldquo;witnesses or
+oaths,&rdquo; but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide
+(<span class="grk" title="krinein">&#954;&#961;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>) in view of &ldquo;the contentions of the parties,&rdquo; as distinguished
+from &ldquo;the declarations of the witnesses.&rdquo; Offences against the
+person are treated as matters of private compensation according to
+a carefully graduated tariff. In certain cases the defendant may
+clear himself by an &ldquo;oath of purgation&rdquo; with the support of &ldquo;cojurors&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="homômotai">&#8001;&#956;&#969;&#956;&#972;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>), the <i>Eideshelfer</i> of old Germanic law (Grimm
+859 f.), who have no necessary knowledge of the facts. There is no
+interference with the exposure of infants, except in the interest of
+the father (if the child is free-born) or of the lord (in the case of serfs).
+The law of debt is primitive, though less severe than that of the early
+Romans. In contrast with these primitive elements we have others
+which are distinctly progressive. The estates of husband, wife and
+sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wills are unknown, even
+in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions are made to
+secure with all speed the marriage of an &ldquo;heiress&rdquo;; she is bound to
+marry the eldest of her paternal uncles or to surrender part of her
+estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles that she is
+permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their sons. Adoption
+is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of stone in the
+market-place and making a public announcement at a time when the
+citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any larger
+share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate his
+adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person
+repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the gift of a
+small number of staters. In these later &ldquo;laws of Gortyn&rdquo; we have
+reached the time when payments are made, not in &ldquo;caldrons,&rdquo; but
+in coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as
+&ldquo;these writings.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The text of the great inscription was first published by E. Fabricius
+in <i>Ath. Mitth.</i> ix. (1885), 362-384; there is a cast of the whole in
+the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Comparetti&rsquo;s
+<i>Leggi di Gortyna</i> (1893); Bücheler and Zittelmann in <i>Rhein. Mus.</i>
+xl. (1885); Dareste, Haussoullier and Th. Reinach, <i>Inscr. juridiques
+grecques</i>, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with the literature there quoted).
+Eng. trans. by Roby in <i>Law Quarterly Review</i> (1886), 135-152; see
+also E. S. Roberts, <i>Gk. Epigraphy</i>, i. 39 f., 52 f., 325-332; J. W.
+Headlam in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xiii. (1892-1893), 48-69;
+P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, <i>Greek Antiquities</i> (1895), 560-574;
+W. Wyse in Whibley&rsquo;s <i>Companion to Greek Studies</i> (1905), 378-383;
+and Hermann Lipsius, <i>Zum Recht von Gortyns</i> (Leipzig, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention
+of lawsuits (Aelian, <i>Var. Hist.</i> iii. 38), and the Athenians
+themselves regarded their tribunals of homicide as
+institutions of immemorial antiquity (Isocr. <i>Paneg.</i> 40).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span>
+<span class="sidenote">Athens.<br />
+The three senior archons.</span>
+On the abolition of the single decennial archon<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in 683 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, his
+duties were distributed over several officials holding office for
+one year only. The judicial duties thenceforth discharged by
+the chief archon (<i>the</i> archon), in the case of citizens,
+were discharged by the polemarch in the case of foreign
+settlers or metics (<span class="grk" title="metoikoi">&#956;&#941;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;</span>); while the king-archon,
+who succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient
+kings, decided cases connected with religious observances (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>). He also presided over the primitive council of the
+state, which was identical with the council of the Areopagus.
+It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the rights of the
+lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the
+three archons were raised to the number of nine by the institution
+<span class="sidenote">The thesmothetae.</span>
+of the joint board of the six <i>thesmothetae</i>, who superintended
+the judicial system in general, kept a record
+of all legal decisions, and drew attention to any defects
+in the laws. It is probable that in their title we have
+the earliest example in Attic Greek of the use of <i>thesmos</i> in the
+sense of &ldquo;law.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical.
+With a view, however, to providing a remedy for the conflict
+between the several orders of the state, the first code
+of Athenian law was drawn up and published by Draco
+<span class="sidenote">Draco.</span>
+(strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a <i>thesmothet&#275;s</i>
+(621). His laws were known as <i>thesmoi</i>. The distinctive part
+of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in
+such high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of
+Solon and in the democratic restoration of 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is partly
+preserved in an inscription of 409, which has been restored with
+the aid of quotations from the orators (<i>C.I.A.</i> i. 61; <i>Inscr. jurid.
+grecques</i>, ii. 1. 1-24; and Hicks, <i>Gk. Hist. Inscr.</i> No. 59). It drew
+a careful distinction between different kinds of homicide. Of
+the rest of Draco&rsquo;s legislation we only know that Aristotle
+(<i>Politics</i>, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the severity of the penalties,
+and that the creditor was permitted to seize the person of the
+debtor as security for his debt.</p>
+
+<p>The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties
+agreed in choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Solon cancelled all mortgages and debts secured on
+the person of the debtor, set free all who had become
+<span class="sidenote">Solon.</span>
+slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>). Thenceforth every citizen had also &ldquo;the right of appeal
+to the law-courts,&rdquo; and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction
+on behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional
+law (<i>inter alia</i>) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds
+of jurors, and the power of voting in these law-courts made the
+people masters of the constitution (Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of
+Athens</i>, c. 9). Solon&rsquo;s legislation also had an important effect
+on the law of property. In primitive times, on a man&rsquo;s death, his
+money or lands remained in the family, and, even in the absence
+of direct descendants, the owner could not dispose of his property
+by will. Permission to execute a will was first given to Athenian
+citizens by the laws of Solon. But &ldquo;the Athenian Will was only
+an inchoate Testament&rdquo; (Maine&rsquo;s <i>Ancient Law</i>, c. vi.); for this
+permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no
+direct male descendants (Dem. <i>Lept.</i> 102; Plutarch, <i>Solon</i>, 21;
+cf. Wyse on Isaeus, p. 325).</p>
+
+<p>The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in
+[Dem.] 43, § 51 (cf. Wyse, <i>ib.</i> p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct
+male descendants, a daughter who survived her father was
+known as an <span class="grk" title="epiklêros">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, not an &ldquo;heiress,&rdquo; but a &ldquo;person who
+went with the estate&rdquo;; and, in the absence of a will, the right
+or duty of marrying the daughter followed (with certain obvious
+exceptions) the same rules as the right of succession to the
+estate (cf. Wyse, <i>ib.</i> p. 348 f.).</p>
+
+<p>Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (508) was the law of
+ostracism (<i>q.v.</i>). The privileges of the Areopagus were
+<span class="sidenote">Cleisthenes, Ephialtes.<br />
+Pericles, Cleon.</span>
+curtailed (while its right to try certain cases of homicide
+was left untouched) by the reforms of Ephialtes (462),
+and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty &ldquo;local justices&rdquo;
+(453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood
+by both parents (451), and was the first to assign to
+jurors a fee for their services in the law-courts, which
+was raised to three obols by Cleon (425).</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers
+entrusted with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and
+<span class="sidenote">Ordinary course of legislation.</span>
+Cleisthenes, there was the regular and normal course
+of public legislation. The legislative power was not
+exercised directly by the popular assembly (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>), but the preliminary consent of that body
+was necessary for the appointment of a legislative commission.</p>
+
+<p>In the 5th century (<i>e.g.</i> in 450 and 446 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) certain commissioners
+called <span class="grk" title="syngrapheis">&#963;&#965;&#947;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span> were appointed to draw up laws
+which, after approval by the council, were submitted
+<span class="sidenote">Syngrapheis. Nomothetae.</span>
+to the assembly. The same term was still in use
+in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 61). But in October, on
+the overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners
+are for the first time called <i>nomothetae</i> (<i>ib.</i> 97).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first
+meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it
+would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the
+existing laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were granted,
+any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effect was
+required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand
+them to the secretary of the council (Boul&#275;) to be read aloud at more
+than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the
+people appointed the legislative commissioners, who were drawn by
+lot from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors.
+The number, and the duration of the commission, were determined in
+each case by the people. The proceedings before the commission
+were conducted exactly in the manner of a lawsuit. Those who
+desired to see old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws
+came forward as <i>accusers</i> of those laws; those of the contrary opinion,
+as <i>defenders</i>; and the defence was formally entrusted to public
+advocates specially appointed for the purpose (<span class="grk" title="sunêgoroi">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#942;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>). The
+number of the commissioners varied with the number or importance
+of the laws in question; there is evidence for the number 1001 (Dem.
+xxiv. 27). If a law approved by the commission was deemed to be
+unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a
+<span class="grk" title="graphê paranomôn">&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#8052; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span>), just as in the case of the proposer of an unconstitutional
+decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings might
+also be instituted against laws on the sole ground of their inexpediency
+(see note on Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, p. 219, ed.
+Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment of
+Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000
+<i>drachmae</i> (£40), and lost the right to adopt this procedure in future.
+When a year had elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was free
+from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines, but
+the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five advocates
+were appointed to defend it (<span class="grk" title="sundikoi">&#963;&#973;&#957;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;</span>), cf. Dem. <i>Lept.</i> 144, 146.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present
+article any survey of the purport of the extant remains of the
+laws of Athens. Such a survey would begin with the
+laws of the family, including laws of marriage, adoption
+<span class="sidenote">The laws of Athens.</span>
+and inheritance, followed by the law of property
+and contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the
+protection of the person, and the protection of the constitution.
+The texts have been collected and classified in Télfy&rsquo;s <i>Corpus
+juris Attici</i> (1867), a work which can be supplemented or
+corrected with the aid of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>;
+while some of the recent expositions of the subject are mentioned
+in the bibliography at the end of this article. We now proceed
+to notice the law of homicide, but solely in connexion with
+jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p>The general term for a tribunal is <span class="grk" title="dikastêrion">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span> (from <span class="grk" title="dikazô">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#950;&#969;</span>),
+Anglicized &ldquo;dicastery.&rdquo; Of all the tribunals of Athens those
+for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive
+<span class="sidenote">Jurisdiction; the five primitive tribunals for the trial of homicide.</span>
+and the least liable to suffer change through lapse
+of time. In the old Germanic law all trials whatsoever
+were held in the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At Athens
+this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive
+courts of homicide, the object being to prevent the
+prosecutor and the judges from coming under the
+same roof as one who was charged with the shedding of blood
+(Antiphon, <i>De caede Herodis</i>, 11). The place where the trial
+was held depended on the nature of the charge.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The rock of the Acropolis, outside the earliest of the city-walls,
+was the proper place for the trial of persons charged with premeditated
+homicide, or with wounding with intent to kill.
+<span class="sidenote">On the Areopagus.</span>
+The penalty for the former crime was death; for the latter
+exile; and, in either case, the property was confiscated.
+If the votes were equal, the person accused was acquitted. The
+proceedings lasted for three days, and each side might make two
+speeches. After the first speech the person accused of premeditated
+homicide was mercifully permitted to go into exile, in which case his
+property was confiscated, and in the ordinary course he remained in
+exile for the rest of his life.</p>
+
+<p>2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another
+to inflict bodily harm on a third person, or of killing a slave or a
+resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion,
+<span class="sidenote">At the Palladion.</span>
+the ancient shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The
+punishment for unpremeditated homicide was exile
+(without confiscation) until such time as the criminal had propitiated
+the relatives of the person slain, or (failing that) for some
+definite time. The punishment for instigating a crime was the same
+as for actually committing it.</p>
+
+<p>3. Trials at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo
+<span class="sidenote">At the Delphinion.<br />
+At Phreatto.</span>
+Delphinios, in the same quarter, were reserved for special
+cases of either accidental or justifiable homicide.</p>
+
+<p>4. If a man already in exile for unpremeditated homicide were
+accused of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to
+kill, provision was made for this rare contingency by permitting
+him to approach the shore of Attica and conduct
+his defence on board a boat, while his judges heard the
+cause on shore, at a &ldquo;place of pits&rdquo; called Phreatto, near the
+harbour of Zea. If the accused were found guilty, he incurred the
+proper penalty; if acquitted, he remained in exile.</p>
+
+<p>5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaneum, to the north of the
+Acropolis, was only of ceremonial importance. It &ldquo;solemnly heard
+and condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or
+<span class="sidenote">At the Prytaneum.</span>
+inanimate objects that had caused the loss of life.&rdquo;<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+The writ ran &ldquo;against the doer of the deed,&rdquo; and any
+instrument of death that was found guilty was thrown across the
+frontier. The trial was held by the four &ldquo;tribe-kings&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="phylobasileis">&#966;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span>),
+an archaic survival from before the time of Cleisthenes. (On these
+five courts see Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, c. 57, and Dem.
+<i>Aristocr.</i> 65-79.)</p>
+
+<p>In all the courts of homicide the president was the archon-basileus,
+or king-archon, who on these occasions laid aside his crown.
+Originally all these courts were under the jurisdiction of
+an ancient body of judges called the ephetae (<span class="grk" title="ephetai">&#7952;&#966;&#941;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>),
+<span class="sidenote">Ephetae.</span>
+whose institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer of the first
+of the above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed
+to Solon. In practice the jurisdiction of the ephetae (see also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Areopagus</a></span>) was probably confined to the courts at the Palladion
+and Delphinion; but even there the rights of this primitive body
+became obsolete, for trials &ldquo;at the Palladion&rdquo; sometimes came before
+an ordinary tribunal of 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. <i>c. Callim.</i> 52, 54;
+[Dem.] <i>c. Neaeram</i>, 10).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the
+right of jurisdiction was entrusted to the several archons until
+the date of Solon (594). When the direct jurisdiction
+of the archons was impaired by Solon&rsquo;s institution
+<span class="sidenote">The presidents of the tribunals.<br />
+The chief archon.<br />
+The king-archon.</span>
+of the &ldquo;right of appeal to the law-courts,&rdquo; the
+dignity of those officials was recognized by their having
+the privilege of presiding over the new tribunals (<span class="grk" title="hêgemonia
+dikastêriou">&#7969;&#947;&#949;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#945; &#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span>). A similar position was assigned to the other
+executive officers, such as the strategi (generals), the
+board of police called the &ldquo;Eleven,&rdquo; and the financial
+officers, all of whom presided over cases connected
+with their respective departments. In their new position
+as presidents of the several courts, the archons received
+plaints, obtained from both parties the evidence which
+they proposed to present, formally presided at the
+trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the
+sentence. The choice of the presiding magistrate in each case
+was determined by the normal duties of his office. Thus the
+chief archon, the official guardian of orphans and
+<span class="sidenote">The polemarch.<br />
+The strategi.<br />
+The thesmothetae.</span>
+widows, presided in all cases, public or private, connected
+with the family property of citizens (Aristotle,
+<i>u.s.</i> c. 56). The king-archon had charge of all offences against
+religion, <i>e.g.</i> indictments for impiety, disputes within
+the family as to the right to hold a particular priesthood,
+and all actions for homicide (c. 57). The third
+archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to resident aliens
+all such legal duties as were discharged by the chief archon in
+relation to citizens (c. 58). The trial of military offences
+was under the presidency of the strategi, who were
+assisted by the other military officers in preparing
+the case for the court. The six junior archons, the <i>thesmothetae</i>,
+acted as a board which was responsible for all cases not specially
+assigned to any other officials (details in c. 59).</p>
+
+<p>The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the
+ten tribes, acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages
+claimed did not exceed ten <i>drachmae</i>. Claims beyond
+that amount they handed over to the arbitrators.
+<span class="sidenote">The Forty.</span>
+The four representatives of any given tribe received
+notice of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It
+seems probable that they dealt with all private suits not otherwise
+assigned, but, unlike the archons, they did not prepare any
+case for the court but referred it, in the first instance, to a public
+arbitrator appointed by lot (c. 53).<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The public arbitrators (<span class="grk" title="diaitêtai">&#948;&#953;&#945;&#953;&#964;&#951;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span>) were a body including all
+Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator,
+on receiving the case from the four representatives
+of the Forty, first endeavoured to bring the parties
+<span class="sidenote">The public arbitrators.</span>
+to an agreement. If this failed, he heard the evidence
+and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted,
+the case was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted
+on appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets
+(one for each party) copies of all the depositions, oaths and
+challenges, and of all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up,
+and, after attaching a copy of his own decision, handed them
+over to the four representatives of the Forty, who brought the
+case into court and presided over the trial. Documents which
+had not been brought before the arbitrator could not be produced
+in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors where the sum in
+question was not more than 1000 <i>drachmae</i> (£40); in other
+cases the number of jurors was 401 (c. 53).</p>
+
+<p>A small board of five appointed by lot, one for each pair of
+tribes, and known as the &ldquo;introducers&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="eisagôgeis">&#949;&#7984;&#963;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span>), brought
+<span class="sidenote">Eisag&#333;geis.</span>
+up certain of the cases that had to be decided within
+a month (<span class="grk" title="emmênoi dikai">&#7956;&#956;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#959;&#953; &#948;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#953;</span>), such as actions for restitution
+of dowry, repayment of capital for setting up a business,
+and cases connected with banking.</p>
+
+<p>The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the
+&ldquo;dicastery&rdquo; (<i>par excellence</i>), was known as the <i>heliaea</i>. The
+name, which is of uncertain origin,<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> denotes not only
+the place where the court was held but also the members
+<span class="sidenote">Heliaea.</span>
+of the court,&mdash;the <i>heliastae</i> of Aristophanes, the <i>dicastae</i>, or
+<span class="grk" title="andres dikastai">&#7940;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#949;&#962; &#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span>, of the Attic orators. During the palmy days
+of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the Persian
+and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve
+as jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, <i>u.s.</i> c. 24. 3),
+and this number was never exceeded (Aristoph. <i>Vesp.</i> 661 f.).
+Any Athenian citizen in full possession of his rights, and over
+thirty years of age, was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle,
+<i>u.s.</i> c. 63. 3). At the beginning of the year the whole body of
+jurors assembled on the hill of Ard&#275;ttos looking down on the
+Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a solemn oath to the
+effect that they would judge according to the laws and decrees
+of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five Hundred
+(Boul&#275;), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would
+decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both
+sides impartially, and vote on the case actually before the court.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested that, as the normal number of a court
+was 500, the maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably
+divided into ten sections of 500 each, with 1000 reserves. There
+is evidence in the 4th century for courts of 200, 400, 500, 700 and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span>
+(in important political trials) various multiples of 500, namely,
+1000, 1500, 2000 or 2500. To some of these numbers one juror
+is added; it was probably added to all, to obviate the risk of
+the votes being exactly equal.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence as to the organization of the jurors in the early
+part of the 4th century is imperfect. Passages in Aristophanes
+(<i>Ecclesiazusae</i>, 682-688; <i>Plutus</i>, 1166 f.) imply that in 392-388
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the total number was divided into ten sections distinguished
+by the first ten letters of the Greek alphabet, A to K. Every
+juror, on his first appointment, received a ticket of boxwood
+(or of bronze) bearing his name with that of his father and his
+deme, and with one of the above letters in the upper left-hand
+corner. Of the bronze tickets many have been found (see
+notes on Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, c. 63, and fig. 1 in
+frontispiece, ed. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the
+machinery for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To
+guard against the possibility of bribery or other undue influence,
+the allotment did not take place until immediately before the
+hearing of the case. Each court contained an equal number
+of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and thus represented the
+whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the court
+assigned him, received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece, <i>u.s.</i>),
+on presenting which at the end of the day he received his fee.
+The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is
+minutely described at the end of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of
+Athens</i> (for details, cf. Gilbert, 397-399, Eng. trans., or Wyse
+in Whibley&rsquo;s <i>Companion to Greek Studies</i>, 387 f.).</p>
+
+<p>The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient
+judicial functions of the council and the assembly, but the
+council continued to hold a strict scrutiny (<span class="grk" title="dokimasia">&#948;&#959;&#954;&#953;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span>)
+of candidates for office or for other privileges, while
+<span class="sidenote">Jurisdiction of the council and assembly.<br />
+Eisangelia.</span>
+the council itself, as well as all other officials, had to
+give account (<span class="grk" title="euthyna">&#949;&#8020;&#952;&#965;&#957;&#945;</span>) on ceasing to hold office. The
+council also retained the right to deal with extraordinary
+crimes against the state. It was open to any
+citizen to bring such crimes to the knowledge of the council in
+writing. The technical term for this information, denunciation
+or impeachment was <i>eisangelia</i> (<span class="grk" title="eisangelia">&#949;&#7984;&#963;&#945;&#947;&#947;&#949;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>). The
+council could inflict a fine of 500 <i>drachmae</i> (£20), or,
+in important cases, refer the matter either to a law-court,
+as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuc. viii. 68), or to the
+ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and the strategi in
+command at Arginusae (406; Xen. <i>Hell.</i> i. 7. 19). The term
+<span class="grk" title="eisangelia">&#949;&#7984;&#963;&#945;&#947;&#947;&#949;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span> was also applied to denunciations brought against
+persons who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public
+arbitrator who had neglected his duty (Dem. <i>Meidias</i>, 86 f.).</p>
+
+<p>A &ldquo;presentation&rdquo; of criminal information (<span class="grk" title="probolê">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#942;</span>) might
+be laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its preliminary
+sanction for bringing the case before a
+judicial tribunal. Such was the mode of procedure
+<span class="sidenote">Probol&#275;.</span>
+adopted against persons who had brought malicious, groundless
+or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of
+certain public festivals. The leading example of the former
+is the trial of the accusers who prompted the people to put to
+death the generals who had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen.
+<i>Hell.</i> i. 7. 34); and, of the latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes
+against Meidias.</p>
+
+<p>Legal actions (<span class="grk" title="dikai">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#953;</span>) were classified as private (<span class="grk" title="idiai">&#7988;&#948;&#953;&#945;&#953;</span>) or
+public (<span class="grk" title="dêmosiai">&#948;&#951;&#956;&#972;&#963;&#953;&#945;&#953;</span>). The latter were also described as <span class="grk" title="graphai">&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#945;&#943;</span> or
+&ldquo;prosecutions,&rdquo; but some <span class="grk" title="graphai">&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#945;&#943;</span> were called &ldquo;private,&rdquo;
+when the state was regarded as only indirectly injured
+<span class="sidenote">Classes of legal actions.</span>
+by a wrong done to an individual citizen (Dem. xxi. 47).
+A private suit could only be brought by the man
+directly interested, or, in the case of a slave, a ward or an alien,
+by the master, guardian or patron respectively; and, if the suit
+were successful, the sum claimed generally went to the plaintiff.
+Public actions may be divided into ordinary criminal cases, and
+offences against the state. As a rule they could be instituted
+by any person who possessed the franchise, and the penalty
+was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain one-fifth
+of the votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 <i>drachmae</i> (£40), and
+lost the right of ever bringing a similar action.</p>
+
+<p>Lawsuits, whether public or private, were also distinguished
+as <span class="grk" title="dikai kata tinos">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#940; &#964;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="pros tina">&#960;&#961;&#972;&#962; &#964;&#953;&#957;&#945;</span>, according as the defeated
+party could or could not be personally punished. Actions
+(<span class="grk" title="agônes">&#7936;&#947;&#8182;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>) were also distinguished as <span class="grk" title="agônes timêtoi">&#7936;&#947;&#8182;&#957;&#949;&#962; &#964;&#953;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#943;</span> (&ldquo;to be
+assessed&rdquo;), in which the amount of damages had to be determined
+by the court, because it had not been fixed by law, and
+<span class="grk" title="atimêtoi">&#7936;&#964;&#943;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#953;</span> (&ldquo;not to be assessed&rdquo;), in which the damages had <i>not</i>
+to be determined by the court, because they had already been
+fixed by law or by special agreement.</p>
+
+<p>Among special kinds of action were <span class="grk" title="apagôgê">&#7936;&#960;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#942;</span>, <span class="grk" title="ephêgêsis">&#7952;&#966;&#942;&#947;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> and
+<span class="grk" title="endeixis">&#7956;&#957;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span>. These could only be employed when the offence
+was patent and could not be denied. In the first, the person
+accused was summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled
+into the presence of the proper official. In the second, the
+accuser took the officer with him to arrest the culprit (Dem.
+xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an information with the
+official, and left the latter to effect the capture. <span class="grk" title="Phasis">&#934;&#940;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, a general
+term for many kinds of legal &ldquo;information,&rdquo; was a form of
+procedure specially directed against those who injured the fiscal
+interests of the state, and against guardians who neglected
+the pecuniary interests of their wards. <span class="grk" title="Apographê">&#7944;&#960;&#959;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#942;</span> was an action
+for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed
+as belonging to the state, the term being derived from the
+claimants&rsquo; written inventory of the property in question.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private,
+began with a personal summons (<span class="grk" title="prosklêsis">&#960;&#961;&#972;&#963;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>) of the
+<span class="sidenote">Ordinary legal procedure.</span>
+defendant by the plaintiff accompanied by two
+witnesses (<span class="grk" title="klêtêres">&#954;&#955;&#951;&#964;&#8134;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>). If the defendant failed to
+appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the
+summons, and judgment went by default.</p>
+
+<p>The action was begun by presenting a written statement of
+the case to the magistrate who presided over trials of the class
+in question. If the statement were accepted, court-fees were
+paid by both parties in a private action, and by the prosecutor
+alone in a public action. The magistrate fixed a day for the
+preliminary investigation (<span class="grk" title="anakrisis">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#954;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>), and, whenever several
+causes were instituted at the same time, he drew lots to determine
+the order in which they should be taken. Hence the plaintiff
+was said &ldquo;to have a suit assigned him by lot&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="lanchanein dikên">&#955;&#945;&#947;&#967;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957; &#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#957;</span>),
+a phrase practically equivalent to &ldquo;obtaining leave to bring an
+action.&rdquo; At the <span class="grk" title="anakrisis">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#954;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> the plaintiff and defendant both
+swore to the truth of their statements. If the defendant raised
+no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular course (<span class="grk" title="euthydikia">&#949;&#8016;&#952;&#965;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#945;</span>),
+but he might contend that the suit was inadmissible, and, to
+prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront those on the
+side of the plaintiff (<span class="grk" title="diamartyria">&#948;&#953;&#945;&#956;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>), or he might rely on argument
+without witnesses by means of a written statement traversing
+that of the plaintiff (<span class="grk" title="paragraphê">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#942;</span>). The person who submitted the
+special plea in bar of action naturally spoke first, and, if he
+gained the verdict, the main suit could not come on, or, at any
+rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A
+cross-action (<span class="grk" title="antigraphê">&#7936;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#942;</span>) might be brought by the defendant,
+but the verdict did not necessarily affect that of the original
+suit.</p>
+
+<p>In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other
+documents bearing on the case were produced. If any such
+document were in the hands of a third person, he
+could be compelled to produce it by an action for that
+<span class="sidenote">Documents.</span>
+purpose (<span class="grk" title="eis emphanôn katastasin">&#949;&#7984;&#962; &#7952;&#956;&#966;&#945;&#957;&#8182;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#957;</span>). The depositions
+were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were
+taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to
+be absent, a certified copy of his deposition might be sent
+(<span class="grk" title="ekmartyria">&#7952;&#954;&#956;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>). The depositions of slaves were not accepted,
+unless made under torture, and for receiving such evidence
+the consent of both parties was required. Either party could
+challenge the other to submit his slaves to the
+<span class="sidenote">Challenges.</span>
+test (<span class="grk" title="proklêsis eis basanon">&#960;&#961;&#972;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#949;&#7984;&#962; &#946;&#940;&#963;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span>), and, in the event of the
+challenge being refused, could comment on the fact
+when the case came before the court. Either party could also
+challenge the other to take an oath (<span class="grk" title="proklêsis eis horkon">&#960;&#961;&#972;&#954;&#955;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#949;&#7984;&#962; &#8004;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#957;</span>),
+and, if the oath were declined, could similarly comment on the
+fact.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span></p>
+
+<p>Mercantile cases had to be decided within the interval of a
+month; others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the
+day of trial, one of the parties was absent, his
+representative had to show cause under oath (<span class="grk" title="hupômosia">&#8017;&#960;&#969;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span>);
+<span class="sidenote">The trial.</span>
+if the other party objected, he did so under oath
+(<span class="grk" title="anthupômosia">&#7936;&#957;&#952;&#965;&#960;&#969;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span>). If the plea for delay were refused by the court,
+and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went
+by default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given
+in favour of the defendant.</p>
+
+<p>The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry
+also presided at the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn
+sacrifice. The plea of the plaintiff and the formal reply of the
+defendant were then read by the clerk. The court was next
+addressed first by the plaintiff, next by the defendant; in some
+cases there were two speeches on each side. Every litigant was
+legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were
+often composed by professional experts for delivery by the
+parties to the suit, who were required to speak in person, though
+one or more unprofessional supporters (<span class="grk" title="synhêgoroi">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#942;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>) might subsequently
+speak in support of the case. The length of the speeches
+was in many cases limited by law to a fixed time recorded by
+means of a water-clock (clepsydra). Documents were not
+regarded as part of the speech, and, while these were being read,
+the clock was stopped (Goethe found a similar custom in force
+in Venice in October 1786). The witnesses were never cross-examined,
+but one of the litigants might formally interrogate
+the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally
+supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and
+friends.</p>
+
+<p>When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the
+5th century mussel-shells (<span class="grk" title="choirinai">&#967;&#959;&#953;&#961;&#8150;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>) were used for the purpose.
+Each of the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the
+two urns, in that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that
+to the back if he voted for condemnation. If a second vote had
+to be taken to determine the amount of the penalty, wax tablets
+were used, on which the juror drew a long line, if he gave the
+heavy penalty demanded by the plaintiff; a short one, if he decided
+in favour of the lighter penalty proposed by the defendant.</p>
+
+<p>In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks
+of bronze. Each disk (inscribed with the words <span class="grk" title="PSÊPHOS
+DÊMOSIA">&#936;&#919;&#934;&#927;&#931; &#916;&#919;&#924;&#927;&#931;&#921;&#913;</span>) was about 1 in. in diameter, with a short tube running
+through the centre. This tube was either perforated or closed
+(see figs. 6 and 7 in frontispiece to Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>,
+ed. Sandys). One of each kind was given to every juror, who
+was required to use the perforated or the closed disk, according
+as he voted for the plaintiff or for the defendant. On the
+platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of wood.
+The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he
+proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the
+tube, so that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk
+or not, and then deposited it in the bronze urn, and (with the
+same precaution to ensure secrecy) dropped the unused disk into
+the wooden urn. The votes were sorted by persons appointed
+by lot, and counted by the president of the court, and the
+result announced by the herald. For any second vote the same
+procedure was adopted (Aristotle, <i>u.s.</i>, c. 68 of Kenyon&rsquo;s Berlin
+text).</p>
+
+<p>Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in
+private suits; personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal
+penalties included sentences of death or exile, or
+different degrees of disfranchisement (<span class="grk" title="atimia">&#7936;&#964;&#953;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span>) with or
+<span class="sidenote">Penalties.</span>
+without confiscation. Imprisonment <i>before</i> trial was common,
+and persons mulcted in penalties might be imprisoned
+until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never
+inflicted as the <i>sole</i> penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone
+could be sold into slavery. Sentences of death were carried
+out under the supervision of the board of police called the
+&ldquo;Eleven.&rdquo; In ancient times a person condemned was hurled
+into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western suburb of
+Athens. In later times he was compelled to drink the fatal
+draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to
+death with clubs. Fines were collected and confiscated property
+sold by special officials, called <span class="grk" title="praktores">&#960;&#961;&#940;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="pôlêtai">&#960;&#969;&#955;&#951;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span> respectively.
+In private suits the sentence was executed by the state
+if the latter had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprisonment
+were part of the penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the
+sentence was left to the plaintiff, who had the right of distraint,
+or, if this failed, could bring an action of ejectment (<span class="grk" title="dikê hexougês">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951; &#7952;&#958;&#959;&#973;&#947;&#951;&#962;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But,
+if judgment had been given by default, the person condemned
+might bring an action to prove that he was not responsible for
+such default, <span class="grk" title="tên erêmon">&#964;&#8052;&#957; &#7956;&#961;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#957;</span> (<i>sc.</i> <span class="grk" title="dikên">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#957;</span>) <span class="grk" title="antilanchanein">&#7936;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#955;&#945;&#947;&#967;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>. The corresponding
+term for challenging the award of an arbitrator was
+<span class="grk" title="tên mê ousan antilanchanein">&#964;&#8052;&#957; &#956;&#8052; &#959;&#8022;&#963;&#945;&#957; &#7936;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#955;&#945;&#947;&#967;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>. He might also bring an action for
+false evidence (<span class="grk" title="dikê pseudomartyrion">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951; &#968;&#949;&#965;&#948;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#965;&#961;&#953;&#8182;&#957;</span>) against his opponent&rsquo;s
+witnesses, and, on their conviction, have the sentence annulled.
+This &ldquo;denunciation&rdquo; of false evidence was technically called
+<span class="grk" title="episkêpsis">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#963;&#954;&#951;&#968;&#953;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="episkêptesthai">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#954;&#942;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but,
+as was first proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also
+diminished the feeling of personal responsibility, while
+it increased the influence of political motives. In
+<span class="sidenote">Character of the Athenian tribunals.</span>
+addressing such a court, the litigants were not above
+appealing to the personal interests of the general
+public. We have a striking example of this in the terms
+in which Lysias makes one of his clients close a speech in
+prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who have incurred the
+penalty of death by buying more than 75 bushels of wheat at
+one time: &ldquo;If you <i>condemn</i> these persons, you will be doing
+what is right, and will pay <i>less</i> for the purchase of your corn;
+if you <i>acquit</i> them, you will pay <i>more</i>&rdquo; (xxii. § 22).</p>
+
+<p>Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular
+ignorance by misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the
+jurors could look for no aid from the officials who formally
+presided over the courts. The latter were not necessarily experts,
+for they owed their own original appointment to the caprice of
+the lot. Almost the only officials specially elected as experts
+were the strategi, and these presided only in their own courts.
+Again, there was every temptation for the informer to propose
+the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who would
+naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having
+his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every
+temptation to decide in the interests of the treasury. In conclusion
+we may quote the opinions on the judicial system of
+Athens which have been expressed by two eminent classical
+scholars and English lawyers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion
+&ldquo;that it would be difficult to devise a judicial system less adapted
+for the due administration of justice&rdquo; (Preface to <i>Wasps</i>, xxxv. f.),
+while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. R. Kennedy, observes that
+the Athenian jurors &ldquo;were persons of no legal education or learning;
+taken at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly
+belonging to the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the
+Athenians were naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the
+world. Their wits were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an
+active part in important debates, and hearing the most splendid
+orators. There was so much litigation at Athens that they were
+constantly either engaged as jurors, or present as spectators in courts
+of law&rdquo; (<i>Private Orations</i>, p. 361).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;1. <b>Greek Law.</b> B. W. Leist, <i>Gräco-italische
+Rechtsgeschichte</i> (Jena, 1884); L. Mitteis, <i>Reichsrecht und Volksrecht
+in den östlichen Provinzen des römischen Kaiserreichs, mit Beiträgen zur
+Kenntnis des griechischen Rechts</i> (Leipzig, 1891); J. H. Lipsius, <i>Von
+der Bedeutung des griechischen Rechts</i> (Leipzig, 1893); G. Gilbert, &ldquo;Zur
+Entwickelungsgeschichte des ... griechischen Rechtes&rdquo; in <i>Jahrb.
+für kl. Philologie</i> (Leipzig, 1896); H. J. Hitzig, <i>Die Bedeutung des
+altgriechischen Rechtes für die vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i> (Stuttgart,
+1906); R. Hirzel, <i>Themis, Dike und Verwandtes</i> (Leipzig, 1907);
+J. J. Thonissen, <i>Le Droit criminel de la Grèce légendaire</i>, followed by
+<i>Le Droit pénal de la république athénienne</i> (Brussels, 1875).</p>
+
+<p>2. <b>Attic Law.</b> (<i>a</i>) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. Télfy, <i>Corpus
+juris Attici</i> (Pest and Leipzig, 1868); Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of
+Athens</i>, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, &amp;c., and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903);
+ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig, 1903); text with critical and explanatory notes,
+ed. Sandys (London, 1893); Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig, 1866-1871);
+Isaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, <i>Private
+Orations</i>, ed. Paley and Sandys, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898);
+<i>Against Midias</i>, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906); Dareste, Haussoullier,
+Th. Reinach, <i>Inscr. juridiques grecques</i> (Paris, 1891-1904).
+(<i>b</i>) Modern treatises: K. F. Hermann, <i>De vestigiis institutorum</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span>
+<i>... Atticorum per Platonis de legibus libros indagandis</i> (Marburg,
+1836); <i>Staatsaltertümer</i>, ed. 6, Thumser (Freiburg, 1892); <i>Rechtsaltertümer</i>,
+ed. 3, Thalheim (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt, <i>Staatsund
+Rechtsaltertümer</i>, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff,
+<i>Aristoteles und Athen</i> (Berlin, 1893); G. Gilbert, <i>Gk.
+Constitutional Antiquities</i> (vol. i., Eng. trans., pp. 376-416, London,
+1895); J. H. Lipsius, (1) new ed. of Meier and Schömann, <i>Der
+attische Process</i> (Berlin, 1883-1887); (2) ed. 4 of Schömann, <i>Gr.
+Altertümer</i> (Berlin, 1897-1902); (3) <i>Das attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren</i>
+(Leipzig, 1905); Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des
+antiquités</i> (Paris, 1877); G. Glotz, <i>La Solidarité de la famille dans le
+droit criminel en Grèce</i> (Paris, 1904); L. Beauchet, <i>Droit privé de la
+rép. athén.</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C. R. Kennedy, <i>Appendices to
+transl. of Dem.</i> vols. iii. and iv. (1856-1861); Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of
+... Antiquities</i>, ed. 3 (1891); F. B. Jevons, in Gardner and Jevons,
+<i>Greek Antiquities</i> (1895, pp. 526-597); W. Wyse, in Whibley&rsquo;s
+<i>Companion to Greek Studies</i> (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. E. S.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian
+constitution see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Areopagus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boul&#275;</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>,
+and articles on all the chief legislators.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In the case of &ldquo;animals,&rdquo; we may compare the Mosaic law of
+Exod. xxxi. 28 and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664); and in that
+of &ldquo;inanimate objects,&rdquo; the English law of deodands (Blackstone i.
+300), repealed in 1846. See also Frazer on Pausanias, i. 28. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cf. R. J. Bonner, in <i>Classical Philology</i> (Chicago, 1907), 407-418,
+who urges that only cases belonging to the Forty were subject to
+public arbitration.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Connected either with <span class="grk" title="halizesthai">&#7937;&#955;&#943;&#950;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>, &ldquo;to assemble,&rdquo; or <span class="grk" title="hêlios">&#7973;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, or
+<span class="grk" title="Hêlis">&#7981;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span> (cf. Curt Wachsmuth, <i>Stadt Athen</i>, ii. (1) 359-364). The first is
+possibly right (cf. Rogers on Aristoph. <i>Wasps</i>, xvii. f.); the second
+implies that this large court was held in the open air (Lipsius, <i>Att.
+Recht</i>, 172).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEK LITERATURE.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span>&mdash;The literature of the Greek language
+is broadly divisible into three main sections: (1) Ancient, (2)
+Byzantine, (3) Modern. These are dealt with below in that
+order.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">1. The Ancient Greek Literature</p>
+
+<p>The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) <i>The
+Early Literature</i>, to about 475 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; epic, elegiac, iambic and
+lyric poetry; the beginnings of literary prose. (B) <i>The Attic
+Literature</i> 475-300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; tragic and comic drama; historical,
+oratorical and philosophical prose. (C) <i>The Literature of the
+Decadence</i>, 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529; which may again be divided
+into the Alexandrian period, 300-146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the Graeco-Roman
+period, 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529.</p>
+
+<p>For details regarding particular works or the lives of their
+authors reference should be made to the separate articles devoted
+to the principal Greek writers. The object of the following
+pages is to sketch the literary development as a whole, to show
+how its successive periods were related to each other, and to
+mark the dominant characteristics of each.</p>
+
+<p>(A) <i>The Early Literature.</i>&mdash;A process of natural growth may
+be traced through all the best work of the Greek genius. The
+Greeks were not literary imitators of foreign models; the forms
+of poetry and prose in which they attained to such unequalled
+excellence were first developed by themselves. Their literature
+had its roots in their political and social life; it is the spontaneous
+expression of that life in youth, maturity and decay; and the
+order in which its several fruits are produced is not the result
+of accident or caprice. Further, the old Greek literature has a
+striking completeness, due to the fact that each great branch of
+the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its development.
+Ionians, Aeolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their share.
+Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life
+and character. Each found its appropriate work.</p>
+
+<p>The Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor&mdash;a lively and genial
+people, delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to everything
+bright and joyous&mdash;created artistic epic poetry
+out of the lays in which Aeolic minstrels sang of the old
+<span class="sidenote">The dialects.</span>
+Achaean wars. And among the Ionians arose elegiac
+poetry, the first variation on the epic type. These found a
+fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible
+utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of
+Lesbos next created the lyric of personal passion, in which the
+traits of their race&mdash;its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous
+fancy&mdash;found a fitting voice in the fiery strength and tenderness
+of Aeolic speech. The Dorians of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and
+Magna Graecia then perfected the choral lyric for festivals and
+religious worship; and here again an earnest faith, a strong
+pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter in
+the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of
+the Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all
+the other kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in
+history, oratory and philosophy. It is in the Attic literature
+that the Greek mind receives its most complete interpretation.</p>
+
+<p>A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and
+that species of composition for which it had been specially used.
+Hence the dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted
+with more or less thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who
+were not Ionians. Thus the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the
+Dorian Theognis in elegy, though not without alloy. Similarly,
+the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in Aeolic. All the
+faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually brought
+out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature
+has an essential unity&mdash;the unity of a living organism; and this
+unity comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which
+is complete in its own kind.</p>
+
+<p>Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems.
+These are works of art which imply a long period of antecedent
+poetical cultivation. Of the pre-Homeric poetry we
+have no remains, and very little knowledge. Such
+<span class="sidenote">Pre-Homeric poetry.</span>
+glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different
+stages in the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes. The
+first of these stages is that in which the agencies or forms of
+external nature were personified indeed, yet with the consciousness
+that the personal names were only symbols. Some very
+ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may
+<span class="sidenote">Songs of the seasons.</span>
+have belonged to this stage&mdash;as the songs of Linus,
+Ialemus and Hylas. Linus, the fair youth killed by
+dogs, seems to be the spring passing away before
+Sirius. Such songs have been aptly called &ldquo;songs of the seasons.&rdquo;
+The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now definitively
+personified the powers which they worship. Apollo,
+Demeter, Dionysus, Cybele, have now become to them beings
+with clearly conceived attributes. To this second stage belong
+<span class="sidenote">Hymns.</span>
+the hymns connected with the names of the legendary
+bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who are
+themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses and
+the Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred
+poetry are not only &ldquo;Thracian&rdquo;&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> on the borders of northern
+Greece&mdash;but also &ldquo;Phrygian&rdquo; and &ldquo;Cretan.&rdquo; It belongs,
+that is, presumably to an age when the ancestors of the Hellenes
+had left the Indo-European home in central Asia, but had not
+yet taken full possession of the lands which were afterwards
+Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others were
+settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through
+the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when
+the Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a
+religious ritual, it may be conjectured that it was not of long
+duration. Already in the <i>Iliad</i> a secular character belongs to the
+marriage hymn and to the dirge for the dead, which in ancient
+India were chanted by the priest. The bent of the Greeks was
+to claim poetry and music as public joys; they would not long
+have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries. And among
+the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was employed
+were probably war-ballads, sung by minstrels in the houses of
+the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated.</p>
+
+<p>Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest
+epic poetry of Greece was constructed. By an &ldquo;epic&rdquo; poem
+the Greeks meant a narrative of heroic action in
+hexameter verse. The term <span class="grk" title="epê">&#7956;&#960;&#951;</span> meant at first simply
+<span class="sidenote">Epos.</span>
+&ldquo;verses&rdquo;; it acquired its special meaning only when <span class="grk" title="melê">&#956;&#941;&#955;&#951;</span>,
+lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished from <span class="grk" title="epê">&#7956;&#960;&#951;</span>
+verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic poetry is the
+only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about
+700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The early epos of Greece is represented by the <i>Iliad</i>
+and the <i>Odyssey</i>, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by
+some fragments of the &ldquo;Cyclic&rdquo; poets.</p>
+
+<p>After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian
+emigrants who settled in the north-west of Asia Minor brought
+with them the warlike legends of their chiefs, the
+Achaean princes of old. These legends lived in the
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Iliad&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Odyssey.&rdquo;</span>
+ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed
+southward into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually
+shaped them into higher artistic forms. Among the seven
+places which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer, that which
+has the best title is Smyrna. Homer himself is called &ldquo;son of
+Meles&rdquo;&mdash;the stream which flowed through old Smyrna, on the
+border between Aeolia and Ionia. The tradition is significant in
+regard to the origin and character of the <i>Iliad</i>, for in the <i>Iliad</i> we
+have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. A preponderance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span>
+of evidence is in favour of the view that the <i>Odyssey</i> also, at
+least in its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast
+of Asia Minor. According to the Spartan account, Lycurgus
+was the first to bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric
+poems, which he had obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or
+gild of poets in Samos. A better authenticated tradition connects
+Athens with early attempts to preserve the chief poetical treasure
+of the nation. Peisistratus is said to have charged some learned
+men with the task of collecting all &ldquo;the poems of Homer&rdquo;;
+but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended under
+this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission
+went beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be determined
+what exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respectively
+did for the Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought,
+enacted that the poems should be recited from an authorized
+text (<span class="grk" title="ex hypobolês">&#7952;&#958; &#8017;&#960;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#8134;&#962;</span>); Hipparchus, that they should be recited
+in a regular order (<span class="grk" title="ex hypolêpseôs">&#7952;&#958; &#8017;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#942;&#968;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>). At any rate, we know that
+in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a recitation of the poems of Homer was
+one of the established competitions at the Panathenaea, held
+once in four years. The reciter was called a <i>rhapsodist</i>&mdash;properly
+one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing chant, then
+an epic poet who chants his own or another&rsquo;s poem. The
+rhapsodist did not, like the early minstrel, use the accompaniment
+of the harp; he gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing
+in his hand a branch of laurel, the symbol of Apollo&rsquo;s inspiration.
+In the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we find that various Greek cities had
+their own editions (<span class="grk" title="hai politikai, kata poleis">&#945;&#7985; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;, &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="ek poleôn
+ekdoseis">&#7952;&#954; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#969;&#957; &#7952;&#954;&#948;&#972;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>) of the poems, for recitation at their festivals. Among
+these were the editions of Massilia, of Chios and of Argolis.
+There were also editions bearing the name of the individual
+editor (<span class="grk" title="hai kat&rsquo; andra">&#945;&#7985; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8125; &#7940;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#945;</span>)&mdash;the best known being that which
+Aristotle prepared for Alexander. The recension of the poems
+by Aristarchus (156 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) became the standard one, and is
+probably that on which the existing text is based. The oldest
+Homeric MS. extant, Venetus A of the <i>Iliad</i>, is of the 10th
+century; the first printed edition of Homer was that edited
+by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondyles (Florence, 1488).</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the
+<i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom
+they also ascribed some extant hymns, and probably
+much more besides. Aristotle and Aristarchus seem
+<span class="sidenote">The Homeric question.</span>
+to have put Homer&rsquo;s date about 1044 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Herodotus
+about 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is not till about 170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the
+grammarians Hellanicus and Xenon put forward the view that
+Homer was the author of the <i>Iliad</i>, but not of the <i>Odyssey</i>.
+Those who followed them in assigning different authors to the
+two poems were called the Separators (<i>Chorizontes</i>). Aristarchus
+combated &ldquo;the paradox of Xenon,&rdquo; and it does not seem to
+have had much acceptance in antiquity. Giovanni Battista
+Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first
+modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition
+of the Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support
+of his theory that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are
+often mere symbols. F. A. Wolf, in the <i>Prolegomena</i> to his
+edition (1795), was the founder of a scientific scepticism. The
+<i>Iliad</i>, he said (for he recognized the comparative unity and
+consistency of the <i>Odyssey</i>), was pieced together from many
+small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first committed
+to writing in the time of Peisistratus. This view was in harmony
+with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed
+as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing
+from fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at
+once found enthusiastic adherents. For the course of Homeric
+controversy since Wolf the reader is referred to the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homer</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems
+founded on the legends of the Trojan war, and intended as
+introductions or continuations to the <i>Iliad</i> and the
+<i>Odyssey</i>. The grammarian Proclus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140) has
+<span class="sidenote">Cyclic poems.</span>
+preserved the names and subjects of some of these;
+but the fragments are very scanty. The <i>Nostoi</i> or <i>Homeward
+Voyages</i>, by Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of
+ten years between the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>; the <i>Lay of Telegonus</i>,
+by Eugammon of Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey
+to the death of Odysseus by the hand of Telegonus, the son
+whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the <i>Cyprian Lays</i> by Stasinus
+of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or Hegesinus) of
+Salamis or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the <i>Iliad</i>; the
+<i>Aethiopis</i> and the <i>Sack of Troy</i>, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the
+<i>Little Iliad</i>, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it.
+These and many other names of lost epics&mdash;some taken also
+from the Theban myths (<i>Thebaïs</i>, <i>Epigoni</i>, <i>Oedipodea</i>)&mdash;serve
+to show how prolific was that epic school of which only two great
+examples remain. The name of <i>epic cycle</i> was properly applied
+to a prose compilation of abstracts from these epics, pieced
+together in the order of the events. The compilers were called
+&ldquo;cyclic&rdquo; writers; and the term has now been transferred to
+the epic poets whom they used.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes
+in the old wars. But in Greece proper there arose another
+school of epos, which busied itself with religious lore
+and ethical precepts, especially in relation to the rural
+<span class="sidenote">Hesiodic epos.</span>
+life of Boeotia. This school is represented by the name
+of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer
+in a poetical contest of Chalcis in Euboea; and it expresses the
+fact that, to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two
+contrasted epic types. Nothing is certainly known of his date,
+except that it must have been subsequent to the maturity of
+Ionian epos. He is conjecturally placed about 850-800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>;
+but some would refer him to the early part of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+His home was at Ascra, a village in a valley under Helicon,
+whither his father had migrated from Cyme in Aeolis on the
+coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod&rsquo;s <i>Works and Days</i> we have the
+earliest example of a didactic poem. The seasons and the labours
+of the Boeotian farmer&rsquo;s year are followed by a list of the days
+which are lucky or unlucky for work. The <i>Theogony</i>, or &ldquo;Origin
+of the Gods,&rdquo; describes first how the visible order of nature arose
+out of chaos; next, how the gods were born. Though it never
+possessed the character of a sacred book, it remained a standard
+authority on the genealogies of the gods. So far as a corrupt
+and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was piecing
+together&mdash;not always intelligently&mdash;the fragments of a very old
+cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns
+preserved in the temples and the myths which lived in folklore.
+The epic lay in 480 lines called the <i>Shield of Heracles</i>&mdash;partly
+imitated from the 18th book of the <i>Iliad</i>&mdash;is the work of an
+author or authors later than Hesiod. In the Hesiodic poetry,
+as represented by the <i>Works and Days</i> and the <i>Theogony</i>, we
+see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod recognizes
+the existence of <span class="grk" title="daimones">&#948;&#945;&#943;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>&mdash;spirits of the departed who haunt
+the earth as the invisible guardians of justice; and he connects
+the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is one
+whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical
+duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic
+of the Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as
+relics of a sacred history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner,
+as subjects of idealizing art. Such titles as the <i>Maxims of
+Cheiron</i> and the <i>Lay of Melampus</i>, the seer&mdash;lost poems of the
+Hesiodic school&mdash;illustrate its ethical and its mystic tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Homeric Hymns</i> are a collection of pieces, some of them
+very short, in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is&mdash;<i>Hymns</i>
+or <i>Preludes of Homer and the Homeridae</i>. The
+second of the alternative designations is the true one.
+<span class="sidenote">The Homeric hymns.</span>
+The pieces are not &ldquo;hymns&rdquo; used in formal worship,
+but &ldquo;preludes&rdquo; or prefatory addresses (<span class="grk" title="prooimia">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#959;&#943;&#956;&#953;&#945;</span>)
+with which the rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic
+poetry. The &ldquo;prelude&rdquo; might be addressed to the presiding
+god of the festival, or to any local deity whom the reciter wished
+to honour. The pieces (of which there are 33) range in date
+perhaps from 750 to 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (though some authorities assign
+dates as late as the 3rd and 4th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span>; see ed. by Sikes
+and Allen, <i>e.g.</i> p. 228), and it is probable that the collection was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span>
+formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that
+of the Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces
+of the Hesiodic or Boeotian school. The principal &ldquo;hymns&rdquo;
+are (1) to Apollo (generally treated as two or more hymns
+combined in one); (2) to Hermes; (3) to Aphrodite; and (4)
+to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by Thucydides (iii.
+104) as Homer&rsquo;s, is of peculiar interest on account of the lines
+describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces
+of a sportive kind passed under Homer&rsquo;s name. The <i>Margites</i>&mdash;a
+comic poem on one &ldquo;who knew many things but knew them
+all badly&rdquo;&mdash;is regarded by Aristotle as the earliest germ of
+comedy, and was possibly as old as 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Only a few lines
+remain. The <i>Batracho</i>(<i>myo</i>)<i>machia</i>, or <i>Battle of the Frogs and
+Mice</i> probably belongs to the decline of Greek literature, perhaps
+to the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> About 300 verses of it are extant.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> the personal opinions or sympathies
+of the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are
+not declared or even hinted. Hesiod, indeed, sometimes
+gives us a glimpse of his own troubles or views.
+<span class="sidenote">Transition from epos to elegy.</span>
+Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet.
+The message which he delivers is not from himself;
+the truths which he imparts have not been discovered
+by his own search. He is the mouthpiece of the Delphian
+Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his utterance,
+but they do not determine its general complexion. The egotism
+is a single thread; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry
+was in Greece the foundation of all other poetry; for many
+centuries no other kind was generally cultivated, no other could
+speak to the whole people. Politically, the age was monarchical
+or aristocratic; intellectually, it was too simple for the analysis
+of thought or emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the
+great deeds of their ancestors; common men loved to hear of
+them too, for they had no other interest. The mind of Greece
+found no subject of contemplation so attractive as the warlike
+past of the race, or so useful as that lore which experience and
+tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the 8th century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear. Monarchy
+gave place to oligarchy, and this&mdash;often after the intermediate
+phase of a tyrannis&mdash;to democracy. Such a change was necessarily
+favourable to the growth of reflection. The private citizen
+is no longer a mere cipher, the Homeric <span class="grk" title="tis">&#964;&#953;&#962;</span>, a unit in the dim
+multitude of the king-ruled folk; he gains more power of
+independent action, his mental horizon is widened, his life
+becomes fuller and more interesting. He begins to feel the need
+of expressing the thoughts and feelings that are stirred in him.
+But as yet a prose literature does not exist; the new thoughts,
+like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse. The forms
+of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic.</p>
+
+<p>The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic
+metre, obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as
+to make it a verse of five feet or measures. But the
+poetical capabilities of the elegiac couplet are of a
+<span class="sidenote">Elegy.</span>
+wholly different kind from those of heroic verse. <span class="grk" title="elegos">&#7956;&#955;&#949;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> seems
+to be the Greek form of a name given by the Carians and Lydians
+to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by the soft
+music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated with
+Greek elegy. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by
+this very fact. The flute was to the Greeks an Asiatic instrument&mdash;string
+instruments were those which they made their own&mdash;and
+it would hardly have been wedded by them to a species of
+poetry which had arisen among themselves. The early elegiac
+poetry of Greece was by no means confined to mourning for the
+dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, were in turn
+its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of the poet
+and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the
+direct expression of the poet&rsquo;s own thoughts, addressed to a
+sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The
+second is that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it
+still preserves, on the whole, the tone of conversation or of
+narrative. Greek elegy stops short of lyric passion. English
+elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and Pope, or reflective
+as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type. Roman
+elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on
+the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or
+sentimental; and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early
+Greek elegists, not Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian
+elegists, such as Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced
+the metre to Latin literature, and used it with more fidelity than
+his followers to its genuine Greek inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from
+epos. But almost at the same time another species arose which
+had nothing in common with epos, either in form or in
+spirit. This was the iambic. The word <span class="grk" title="iambos">&#7988;&#945;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+<span class="sidenote">Iambic verse.</span>
+<i>iambus</i> (<span class="grk" title="iaptein">&#7984;&#940;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to dart or shoot) was used in reference
+to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter; it was the
+maiden Iambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from
+the mourning goddess. The iambic metre was at first used for
+satire; and it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed
+by its earliest master of note, Archilochus of Paros (670 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+But it was adapted to the expression generally of any pointed
+thought. Thus it was suitable to fables. Elegiac and iambic
+poetry both belong to the borderland between epic and lyric.
+While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic stands
+nearer to the lyric. Iambic poetry can express the personal
+feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on
+the other hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment
+or glow. As we see in the case of Solon, iambic verse could
+serve for the expression of that deeper thought, that more
+inward self-communing, for which the elegiac form would have
+been inappropriate.</p>
+
+<p>But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and
+the iambic, belong essentially to the same stage of the literature.
+They stand between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the
+Aeolians and Dorians. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus
+and Tyrtaeus, use elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking
+hearts. Archilochus too wrote warlike elegy, but used it also
+in other strains, as in lament for the dead. The elegy of Mimnermus
+of Smyrna or Colophon is the plaintive farewell of an ease-loving
+Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In Solon elegy
+takes a higher range; it becomes political and ethical.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Theognis
+represents the maturer union of politics with a proverbial
+philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylides of Miletus;
+an admonitory poem extant under his name is probably the
+work of an Alexandrine Jewish Christian. Xenophanes gives
+a philosophic strain to elegy. With Simonides of Ceos it reverts,
+in an exquisite form, to its earliest destination, and becomes
+the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the Persian Wars.
+Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of Amorgus,
+as by Archilochus, for satire&mdash;but satire directed against classes
+rather than persons. Solon&rsquo;s iambics so far preserve the old
+associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or
+controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus
+was another iambic satirist&mdash;using the <span class="grk" title="skazôn">&#963;&#954;&#940;&#950;&#969;&#957;</span> (&ldquo;limping&rdquo;) or
+choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an
+iambus in the last place. But it was not until the rise of the
+Attic drama that the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen.</p>
+
+<p>The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final
+form of that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and
+iambic is still incomplete. The lyric expression is
+deeper and more impassioned. Its intimate union
+<span class="sidenote">Lyric poetry.</span>
+with music and with the rhythmical movement of
+the dance gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same
+time the continuity of the music permits pauses to the voice&mdash;pauses
+necessary as reliefs after a climax. Before lyric poetry
+could be effective, it was necessary that some progress should
+have been made in the art of music. The instrument used by
+the Greeks to accompany the voice was the four-stringed lyre,
+and the first great epoch in Greek music was when Terpander
+of Lesbos (660 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), by adding three strings, gave the lyre the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span>
+compass of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to
+Olympus and Thaletas. By 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greek music had probably
+acquired all the powers of expression which the lyric poet could
+demand. The period of Greek lyric poetry may be roughly
+defined as from 670 to 440 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Two different parts in its
+development were taken by the Aeolians and the Dorians.</p>
+
+<p>The lyric poetry of the Aeolians&mdash;especially of Lesbos&mdash;was
+essentially the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually
+intended for a single voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos,
+in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had attained some naval
+<span class="sidenote">Aeolian school.</span>
+and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy
+and democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often
+driven by revolution to exchange their luxurious home-life
+for the hardships of exile. It is such a life of contrasts and
+excitements, working on a sensuous and fiery temperament,
+that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In these glimpses
+of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state and of
+careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if Archilochus
+is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be
+compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the
+Aeolian lyric is Sappho, the only woman of Greek race who is
+known to have possessed poetical genius of the first order.
+Intensity and melody are the characteristics of the fragments
+that remain to us.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Probably no poet ever surpassed Sappho
+as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of
+form and sound. Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, may be classed
+with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his
+work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which he wrote was
+mainly the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns
+to the gods, from love-poems and festive songs. The collection
+of sixty short pieces which passes current under his name date
+only from the 10th century. The short poems which it comprises
+are of various age and authorship, probably ranging in date
+from <i>c.</i> 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 or 500. They have not the pure style,
+the flexible grace, or the sweetness of the classical fragments;
+but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty.</p>
+
+<p>The Dorian lyric poetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had
+more of a public than of a personal character, and was for the
+most part choral. Hymns or choruses for the public
+worship of the gods, and odes to be sung at festivals on
+<span class="sidenote">Dorian school.</span>
+occasions of public interest, were its characteristic
+forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the Dorians in
+the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government and
+social usage. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not
+present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like
+those of Alcaeus and Sappho, but rather with a series of artists
+whose names are associated with improvements of form. Thus
+Alcman (the Doric form of Alcmaeon; 660 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is said to have
+introduced the balanced movement of strophe and antistrophe.
+Stesichorus, of Himera in Sicily, added the epode, sung by the
+chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion of
+Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn
+(&ldquo;dithyramb&rdquo;) in honour of Dionysus, and organized the
+&ldquo;cyclic&rdquo; or circular chorus which sang it at the altar. Ibycus
+of Rhegium (<i>c.</i> 540) wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and
+glowing love-songs in the Aeolic style.</p>
+
+<p>The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great
+names, Simonides and Pindar. Simonides (556-468) was an
+Ionian of the island of Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by
+form to the choral Dorian school. Many of his subjects
+<span class="sidenote">Simonides and Pindar.</span>
+were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his
+epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis
+were celebrated. In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted
+by Ionian genius, and Athens&mdash;where part of his life was passed&mdash;is
+the point at which they meet. Simonides is the first Greek
+lyrist whose significance is not merely Aeolian or Dorian but
+Panhellenic. The same character belongs even more completely
+to his younger contemporary. Pindar (518-<i>c.</i> 443) was born
+in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian
+elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements
+meet in Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and
+most exquisite of the lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the
+most fervid and the most sublime. His extant fragments<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+represent almost every branch of the lyric art. But he is known
+to us mainly by forty-four <i>Epinicia</i>, or odes of victory, for the
+Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian festivals. The
+general characteristic of the treatment is that the particular
+victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends
+connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating
+the moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry
+can be completely appreciated apart from the music, now lost,
+to which it was set. Pindar&rsquo;s odes were, further, essentially
+occasional poems; they abound in allusions of which the effect
+is partly or wholly lost on us; and the glories which they celebrate
+belong to a life which we can but imperfectly realize.
+Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the one to whom
+it is hardest for us to do justice; yet we can at least recognize
+his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his soaring
+flight.</p>
+
+<p>Bacchylides of Ceos (<i>c.</i> 504-430), the youngest of the three
+great lyric poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by
+scanty fragments until the discovery of nineteen poems on an
+Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They consist of thirteen (or fourteen)
+epinicia, two of which celebrate the same victories as two odes
+of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes for the festivals
+of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable information on
+the court life of the time and legendary history. Bacchylides,
+the little &ldquo;Cean nightingale,&rdquo; is inferior to his great rival Pindar,
+&ldquo;the Swan of Dirce,&rdquo; in originality and splendour of language,
+but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent <span class="grk" title="gnômai">&#947;&#957;&#8182;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>
+attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind, amongst them
+the emperor Julian.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus
+(d. 357), musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven-stringed
+lyre, were increased by the discovery in 1902 of some
+250 lines of his &ldquo;nome&rdquo; the <i>Persae</i>, written after the manner of
+Terpander. The beginning is lost; the middle describes the
+battle of Salamis; the end is of a personal nature. The papyrus
+is the oldest Greek MS. and belongs to the age of Alexander the
+Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and the whole
+is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline.</p>
+
+<p>(B) <i>The Attic Literature.</i>&mdash;The Ionians of Asia Minor, the
+Aeolians and the Dorians had now performed their special parts
+in the development of Greek literature. Epic poetry had interpreted
+the heroic legends of warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished
+kings and chiefs. Then, as the individual life became more and
+more elegiac and iambic poetry had become the social expression
+of that life in all its varied interests and feelings. Lastly, lyric
+poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold need&mdash;to be the more
+intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give choral voice, at
+stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or the sorrow,
+of a city or a race. A new form of poetry was now to be created,
+with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be
+achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and
+language the distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were
+tempered with some of the best qualities of the Dorian stock.</p>
+
+<p>The drama (<i>q.v.</i>) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the
+god of wine, which were held at intervals from the beginning of
+winter to the beginning of spring. A troop of rustic
+<span class="sidenote">Origin of drama.<br />
+Tragedy.</span>
+worshippers would gather around the altar of the god,
+and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his victories
+or sufferings in his progress over the earth. &ldquo;Tragedy&rdquo; meant
+&ldquo;the goat-song,&rdquo; a goat (<span class="grk" title="tragos">&#964;&#961;&#940;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>) being sacrificed to Dionysus
+before the hymn was sung. &ldquo;Comedy,&rdquo; &ldquo;the village-song,&rdquo;
+is the same hymn regarded as an occasion for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span>
+rustic jest. Then the leader of the chorus would assume the
+part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the god
+himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made
+choral response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between
+the leader (<span class="grk" title="koryphaios">&#954;&#959;&#961;&#965;&#966;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>, <i>coryphaeus</i>) and one chosen member of the
+chorus, hence called &ldquo;the answerer&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="hypokritês">&#8017;&#960;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>, <i>hypocrit&#275;s</i>,
+afterwards the ordinary word for &ldquo;actor&rdquo;). This last improvement
+is ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The
+elements of drama were now ready. The choral hymn to
+Dionysus (the &ldquo;dithyramb&rdquo;) had received an artistic form
+from the Dorians; dialogue, though only between the leader
+of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced in Attica.
+Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some events
+of the Persian Wars; but in his &ldquo;drama&rdquo; there was still only
+one actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Phlius, who
+belonged to the same period, developed the satyric drama;
+Pratinas also wrote tragedies, dithyrambs, and <i>hyporchemata</i>
+(lively choral odes chiefly in honour of Apollo).</p>
+
+<p>Aeschylus (born 525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) became the real founder of tragedy
+by introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue
+independent of the chorus. At the same time the
+choral song&mdash;hitherto the principal part of the performance&mdash;became
+<span class="sidenote">Aeschylus.</span>
+subordinate to the dialogue; and drama
+was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various
+improvements of detail in costume and the like; and it was
+early in his career that the theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis
+was commenced&mdash;the first permanent home of Greek drama, in
+place of the temporary wooden platforms which had hitherto
+been used. The system of the &ldquo;trilogy&rdquo; and the &ldquo;tetralogy&rdquo;
+is further ascribed to Aeschylus,&mdash;the &ldquo;trilogy&rdquo; being properly
+a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the
+<i>Agamemnon</i>, <i>Choëphori</i>, <i>Eumenides</i>, which together form the
+<i>Oresteia</i>, or Story of Orestes. The &ldquo;tetralogy&rdquo; is such a triad
+with a &ldquo;satyric drama&rdquo; added&mdash;that is, a drama in which
+&ldquo;satyrs,&rdquo; the grotesque woodland beings who attended on
+Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the earlier dithyramb from
+which drama sprang. The <i>Cyclops</i> of Euripides is the only
+extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies
+which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to
+have composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur
+which is truly Homeric; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriotism
+such as the Persian Wars in which he fought might well
+quicken in a soldier-poet; and, pervading all, there is a strain
+of speculative thought which seeks to reconcile the apparent
+conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the underworld by
+the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity, are working
+<span class="sidenote">Sophocles.</span>
+out the law of righteousness. Sophocles, who was
+born thirty years after Aeschylus (495 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), is the
+most perfect artist of the ancient drama. No one before or after
+him gave to Greek tragedy so high a degree of ideal beauty,
+or appreciated so finely the possibilities and the limitations of its
+sphere. He excels especially in drawing character; his <i>Antigone</i>,
+his <i>Ajax</i>, his <i>Oedipus</i>&mdash;indeed, all the chief persons of his dramas&mdash;are
+typical studies in the great primary emotions of human
+nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by adding a
+third actor; and in one of his later plays, the <i>Oedipus at Colonus</i>,
+a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the
+tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+he was the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not
+only a great dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative
+of the age of Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of
+<span class="sidenote">Euripides.</span>
+another kind. He was only fifteen years younger than
+Sophocles; but when he entered on his poetical career,
+the old inspirations of tragedy were already failing. Euripides
+marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and is, in fact, the
+mediator between the classical and the romantic drama. The
+myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt
+no longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself
+was imbued with the new intellectual scepticism of the day;
+and the speculative views which were conflicting in his own mind
+are reflected in his plays. He had much picturesque and pathetic
+power; he was a master of expression; and he shows ingenuity
+in devising fresh resources for tragedy&mdash;especially in his management
+of the choral songs. Aeschylus is Panhellenic, Sophocles
+is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands nearer to the
+modern world than either of his predecessors; and though with
+him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new
+elements of familiar human interest.</p>
+
+<p>In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years
+sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The
+two distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its originality
+and its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the
+only inventors of drama, but they were the first people who
+made drama a complete work of art. And the great tragic poets
+of Attica were remarkably prolific. Aeschylus was the reputed
+author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 113, Euripides of 92; and
+there were others whose productiveness was equally great.</p>
+
+<p>Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver
+side, of the Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following
+the gloom of winter. The process of growth was
+nearly the same as in tragedy; but the Dorians, not
+<span class="sidenote">Comedy.</span>
+the Ionians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to the
+comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about
+580 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, pieces of the kind known as &ldquo;Megarian farces.&rdquo;
+Epicharmus of Cos (who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form
+to the Doric farce, and treated in burlesque style the stories of
+gods and heroes, and subjects taken from everyday life. His
+Syracusan contemporary Sophron (<i>c.</i> 450) was a famous writer
+of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The most artistic
+form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in
+Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of
+Cratinus and Eupolis; but from about 470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there seems to
+have been a continuous succession of comic dramatists, amongst
+them Plato Comicus, the author of 28 comedies, political satires
+<span class="sidenote">Aristophanes.</span>
+and parodies after the style of the Middle Comedy.
+Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+and retained his popularity for about forty years. He
+presents a perhaps unique union of bold fancy, exquisite humour,
+critical acumen and lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may
+be divided into three groups, according as the licence of political
+satire becomes more and more restricted. In the <i>Acharnians</i>,
+<i>Knights</i>, <i>Clouds</i>, <i>Wasps</i> and <i>Peace</i> (425-421) the poet uses
+unrestrained freedom. In the <i>Birds</i>, <i>Lysistrata</i>, <i>Thesmophoriazusae</i>
+and <i>Frogs</i> (414-405) a greater reserve may be perceived.
+Lastly, in the <i>Ecclesiazusae</i> and the <i>Plutus</i> (392-388) personal
+satire is almost wholly avoided. The same general tendency
+continued. The so-called &ldquo;Middle Comedy&rdquo; (390-320) represents
+the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to
+satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Antiphanes
+of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The &ldquo;New Comedy&rdquo;
+(320-250) resembled the modern &ldquo;comedy of manners.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Its chief representative was Menander (342-291), the author of
+105 comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of
+these, of sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action.
+His plays were produced on the stage as late as the time of
+Plutarch, and his <span class="grk" title="gnômai">&#947;&#957;&#8182;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>, distinguished by worldly wisdom,
+were issued in the form of anthologies, which enjoyed great
+popularity. Other prominent writers of this class were Diphilus,
+Philemon, Posidippus and Apollodorus of Carystus. About
+330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Rhinthon of Tarentum revived the old Doric farce in
+his <i>Hilarotragoediae</i> or travesties of tragic stories. These
+successive periods cannot be sharply or precisely marked off.
+The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was
+simply the reflection of the change which passed over the political
+and social life of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the
+earlier plays of Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful
+engine of public criticism that has ever existed in any community.
+Unsparing personality was its essence. The comic poet used
+this recognized right on an occasion at once festive and sacred,
+in a society where every man of any note was known by name
+and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a policy
+or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be
+required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or in
+the courts of law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span></p>
+
+<p>The development of Greek poetry had been completed before
+a prose literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in
+extant Greek prose literature is that of Herodotus;
+and, when he wrote, the Attic drama had already
+<span class="sidenote">Literary prose.</span>
+passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of
+prose before Herodotus; but there had not been, in the proper
+sense of the term, a prose literature. The causes of this comparatively
+late origin of Greek literary prose are independent of
+the question as to the time at which the art of writing began to
+be generally used for literary purposes. Epic poetry exercised
+for a very long period a sovereign spell over the Greek mind.
+In it was deposited all that the race possessed of history, theology,
+philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection had begun,
+elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic verse,
+the vehicle of much which among other races would have been
+committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially
+poetical. A political cause worked in the same direction. In
+the Eastern monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the
+royal records afforded the elements of history from a remote date.
+The Greek nation was broken up into small states, each busied
+with its own affairs and its own men. It was the collision
+between the Greek and the barbarian world which first provided
+a national subject for a Greek historian. The work of Herodotus,
+in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous to the <i>Iliad</i>
+in its relation to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest work of art,
+and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp.</p>
+
+<p>The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original
+may be inferred from what is known of earlier prose-writers.
+For about a century before Herodotus there had been
+a series of writers in philosophy, mythology, geography
+<span class="sidenote">Early prose writers.</span>
+and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of
+the philosophical writers were Pherecydes of Syros
+(550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the Ionian Anaximenes and Anaximander. It
+is doubtful whether Cadmus of Miletus, supposed to have been
+the first prose writer, was an historical personage. The Ionian
+writers, especially called <span class="grk" title="logographoi">&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#959;&#953;</span>, &ldquo;narrators in prose&rdquo;
+(as distinguished from <span class="grk" title="epopoioi">&#7952;&#960;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#959;&#943;</span>, makers of verse), were those
+who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or who
+described foreign countries, their physical features, usages
+and traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is the best-known
+representative of the <i>logographi</i> in both these branches.
+Hellanicus of Mytilene (450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), among whose works was a
+history of Attica, appears to have made a nearer approach to
+the character of a systematic historian. Other logographi were
+Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of Leros, who wrote on
+the myths of early Attica; Hippys of Rhegium, the oldest writer
+on Italy and Sicily; and Acusilaus of Argos in Boeotia, author
+of genealogies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logographi</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>,
+&ldquo;Authorities&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>Herodotus was born in 484 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and his history was probably
+not completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War
+(431 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). His subject is the struggle between Greece
+and Asia, which he deduces from the legendary rape
+<span class="sidenote">Herodotus.</span>
+of the Argive Io by Phoenicians, and traces down to the
+final victory of the Greeks over the invading host of Xerxes.
+His literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers
+who had preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First,
+though he draws a line between the mythological and the
+historical age, he still holds that myths, as such, are worthy to
+be reported, and that in certain cases it is part of his duty to
+report them. Secondly, he follows the example of such writers
+as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features of
+countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or
+intelligent traveller with his proper part as historian. But when
+we turn from these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work,
+Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose
+method were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various
+as are the subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and
+complete; and the unity is due to this, that Herodotus refers all
+events of human history to the principle of divine Nemesis.
+If Sophocles had told the story of Oedipus in the <i>Oedipus
+Tyrannus</i> alone, and had not added to it the <i>Oedipus at Colonus</i>,
+it would have been comparable to the story of Xerxes as told by
+Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the largeness of his
+historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lack of insight
+into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in regard
+to the history of political institutions. Both his strength and
+his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with
+that other historian who was strictly his contemporary and
+who yet seems divided from him by centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus;
+but the intellectual space between the men is so great that they
+seem to belong to different ages. Herodotus is the
+first artist in historical writing; Thucydides is the
+<span class="sidenote">Thucydides.</span>
+first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of
+causation&mdash;human agency, represented by the good or bad
+qualities of men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance
+of the gods on behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his
+attention on the human agency (without, however, denying the
+other), and strives to trace its exact course. The subject of
+Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In resolving to write
+its history, he was moved, he says, by these considerations. It
+was probably the greatest movement which had ever affected
+Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary
+to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was
+likely to have a general value, over and above its particular
+interest as a record, seeing that the political future was likely
+to resemble the political past. This is what Thucydides means
+when he calls his work &ldquo;a possession for ever.&rdquo; The speeches
+which he ascribes to the persons of the history are, as regards
+form, his own essays in rhetoric of the school to which Antiphon
+belongs. As regards matter, they are always so far dramatic
+that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived
+possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a
+rule, from moral comment; but he tells his story as no one
+could have told it who did not profoundly feel its tragic force;
+and his general claim to the merit of impartiality is not invalidated
+by the possible exceptions&mdash;difficult to estimate&mdash;in the
+cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus.</p>
+
+<p>Strong as is the contrast between Herodotus and Thucydides,
+their works have yet a character which distinguish both alike
+from the historical work of Xenophon in the <i>Anabasis</i>
+and the <i>Hellenica</i>. Herodotus gives us a vivid drama
+<span class="sidenote">Xenophon.</span>
+with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great
+chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which
+are at work throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific
+unity. Xenophon has not the grasp either of the dramatist
+or of the philosopher. His work does not possess the higher
+unity either of art or of science. The true distinction of Xenophon
+consists in his thorough combination of the practical with
+the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier, who
+had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could
+make a story both clear and lively. But the several parts of
+the story are not grouped around any central idea, such as a
+divine Nemesis is for Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds
+in the nature of political man. The seven books of the <i>Hellenica</i>
+form a supplement to the history of Thucydides, beginning in
+411 and going down to 362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The chief blot on the <i>Hellenica</i>
+is the author&rsquo;s partiality to Sparta, and in particular to Agesilaus.
+Some of the greatest achievements of Epaminondas and Pelopidas
+are passed over in silence. On the whole, Xenophon is perhaps
+seen at his best in his narrative of the <i>Retreat of the Ten Thousand</i>&mdash;a
+subject which exactly suits him. The <i>Cyropaedeia</i> is a
+romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages.
+<i>The Recollections of Socrates</i>, on the other hand, derive their
+principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his
+minor pieces on various subjects Xenophon appears as the
+earliest essayist. It may be noted that one of the essays erroneously
+ascribed to him&mdash;that <i>On the Athenian Polity</i>&mdash;is probably
+the oldest specimen in existence of literary Attic prose.</p>
+
+<p>His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse
+wrote histories of Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the
+4th century a number of histories were compiled by literary
+men of little practical knowledge, who had been trained in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span>
+rhetorical schools. Such were Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus
+of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and the writers of <i>Atthides</i>
+(chronicles of Attic history), the chief of whom were Androtion
+and Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the author of
+a great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning
+by Olympiads.</p>
+
+<p>The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the
+principal forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly
+in the Attic orators. Every Athenian citizen who
+aspired to take part in the affairs of the city, or even
+<span class="sidenote">Oratory.</span>
+to be qualified for self-defence before a law-court, required
+to have some degree of skill in public speaking; and an
+Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political
+or forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art.
+Hence the speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a
+student of finished expression; and oratory had a more direct
+influence on the general structure of literary prose than has ever
+perhaps been the case elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took
+its rise in Sicily, where Corax of Syracuse (466 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) devised his
+<i>Art of Words</i> to assist those who were pleading before the law-courts;
+and it was brought to Athens by his disciple Tisias.
+The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed attention, though
+in a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of grammar
+and logic; and Gorgias of Leontini&mdash;whose declamation, however
+turgid, must have been striking&mdash;gave an impulse at Athens
+to the taste for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy.</p>
+
+<p>Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called
+the grand, style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are
+a grave, dignified movement, a frequent emphasis
+on verbal contrasts, and a certain austere elevation.
+<span class="sidenote">The Attic orators.</span>
+The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but
+he has graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the &ldquo;plain
+style,&rdquo; breaks through the rigid mannerism of the elder school,
+and uses the language of daily life with an ease and grace which,
+though the result of study, do not betray their art. He is, in his
+own way, the canon of an Attic style; and his speeches, written
+for others, exhibit also a high degree of dramatic skill. Isocrates,
+whose manner may be regarded as intermediate between that
+of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for readers rather than
+for hearers. The type of literary prose which he founded is
+distinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by
+the temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle
+of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Isocratic style of prose became
+general in Greek literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which
+it became more florid, it passed to Cicero, and through him it
+has helped to shape the literary prose of the modern world. The
+speeches of Isaeus in will-cases are interesting,&mdash;apart from
+their bearing on Attic life,&mdash;because in them we see, as Dionysius
+says, &ldquo;the seeds and the beginnings&rdquo; of that technical mastery
+in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to perfection.
+<span class="sidenote">Demosthenes.</span>
+Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of
+Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of
+Greek prose not only in power but in variety; his
+political speeches, his orations in public or private causes, show
+his consummate and versatile command over all the resources
+of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is
+completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are
+united. The modern world can more easily appreciate Demosthenes
+as a great natural orator than as an elaborate artist.
+But, in order to apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose,
+we must remember that the ancients felt him to be both; and
+that he was even reproached by detractors with excessive study
+of effect. Aeschines is the most theatrical of the Greek orators;
+he is vehement, and often brilliant, but seldom persuasive.
+Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the most effective;
+he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a fire and a
+pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches,
+found in Egypt between 1847 and 1890, are extant. The one
+oration of Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and stately,
+reminding us both of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus
+was merely a bad imitator of Demosthenes. There seems more
+reason to regret that Demades is not represented by larger
+fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be dated from
+Demetrius of Phalerum (318 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the pupil of Aristotle, and the
+first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginary
+subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero names him
+as the first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence,
+&ldquo;preferring his own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his
+predecessors.&rdquo; He forms a connecting link between Athens and
+Alexandria, where he found refuge after his downfall and promoted
+the foundation of the famous library.</p>
+
+<p>In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and
+island settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a
+new, florid style of oration arose, called the &ldquo;Asiatic,&rdquo; which
+owed its origin to Hegesias of Magnesia (<i>c.</i> 250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>The place of Plato in the history of Greek literature is as
+unique as his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary
+genius shown in the dialogues is many-sided: it
+includes dramatic power, remarkable skill in parody,
+<span class="sidenote">Philosophical prose&mdash;Plato and Aristotle.</span>
+a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command
+over the finer tones of language. In passages of
+continuous exposition, where the argument rises into
+the higher regions of discussion, Plato&rsquo;s prose takes a more
+decidedly poetical colouring&mdash;never florid or sentimental,
+however, but lofty and austere. In Plato&rsquo;s later works&mdash;such,
+for instance, as the <i>Laws</i>, <i>Timaeus</i>, <i>Critias</i>&mdash;we can perceive
+that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary
+prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle&rsquo;s
+influence on the form of Attic prose literature would probably
+have been considerable if his <i>Rhetoric</i> had been published while
+Attic oratory had still a vigorous life before it. But in this,
+as in other departments of mental effort, it was Aristotle&rsquo;s
+lot to set in order what the Greek intellect had done in that
+creative period which had now come to an end. His own chief
+contribution to the original achievements of the race was the
+most fitting one that could have been made by him in whose
+lifetime they were closed. He bequeathed an instrument by
+which analysis could be carried further, he founded a science
+of reasoning, and left those who followed him to apply it in all
+those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped out.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens
+the new age of research and scientific classification with his
+extant works on botany, but is better known to modern readers
+by his lively <i>Characters</i>, the prototypes of such sketches in
+English literature as those of Hall, Overbury and Earle.</p>
+
+<p>(C) <i>The Literature of the Decadence.</i>&mdash;The period of decadence
+in Greek literature begins with the extinction of free political
+life in the Greek cities. So long as the Greek commonwealths
+were independent and vigorous, Greek life
+<span class="sidenote">Character of the creative age.</span>
+rested on the identity of the man with the citizen.
+The city state was the highest unit of social organization;
+the whole training and character of the man were viewed
+relatively to his membership of the city. The market-place,
+the assembly, the theatre were places of frequent meeting, where
+the sense of citizenship was quickened, where common standards
+of opinion or feeling were formed. Poetry, music, sculpture,
+literature, art, in all their forms, were matters of public interest.
+Every citizen had some degree of acquaintance with them, and
+was in some measure capable of judging them. The poet and the
+musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live a life of
+studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were,
+as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their
+time. Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concentrated
+and ennobled expression of their political existence.
+Aeschylus breathed into tragedy the inspiration of one who had
+himself fought the great fight of national liberation. Sophocles
+was the colleague of Pericles in a high military command.
+Thucydides describes the operations of the Peloponnesian War
+with the practical knowledge of one who had been in charge of
+a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere
+visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span>
+real and vivid, perceptions which had been quickened in them
+by a living communion with the Athenian spirit, by a daily
+contemplation of Athenian greatness, in the theatre where
+tragic poets idealized the legends of the past, in the ecclesia
+where every citizen had his vote on the policy of the state, or in
+that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet exempt from
+vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles.
+The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was
+such as was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions
+under which they arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a
+literary clique or of a social caste. The influence of jealousy or
+malevolence, and the more fatal influence of affectation, had
+little power to affect the verdict. The verdict was pronounced
+by the whole body of the citizens. The success or failure of a
+tragedy was decided, not by the minor circumstance that it
+gained the first or second prize, but by the collective opinion of
+the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus. A work of
+architecture or sculpture was approved or condemned, not by
+the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but
+by the general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each
+of whom was in some degree qualified by education and by habit
+to form an independent estimate. The artist worked for all his
+fellow-citizens, and knew that he would be judged by all. The
+soul of his work was the fresh and living inspiration of nature;
+it was the ennobled expression of his own life; and the public
+opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and sincere.</p>
+
+<p>Philip of Macedon did not take away the municipal independence
+of the Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the
+old political life. The Athenian poet, historian, artist
+might still do good work, but he could never again have
+<span class="sidenote">The transition to Hellenism.</span>
+that which used to be the very mainspring of all such
+activity&mdash;the daily experience and consciousness of
+participation in the affairs of an independent state. He could
+no longer breathe the invigorating air of constitutional freedom,
+or of the social intercourse to which that freedom lent dignity as
+well as grace. Then came Alexander&rsquo;s conquests; Greek civilization
+was diffused over Asia and the East by means of Greek
+colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements were mingled.
+The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which
+Alexander&rsquo;s empire broke up, could not be animated by the spirit
+of the Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom.
+But the externals of Greek life were there&mdash;the temples, the
+statues, the theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals
+were conducted in the Greek manner. In private life Greek
+usages prevailed. Greek was the language most used; Greek
+books were in demand. The mixture of races would always in
+some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a community
+from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility with
+which Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different
+places. Syria, for example, was rapidly and completely Hellenized.
+Judaea resisted the process to the last. In Egypt a Greek
+aristocracy of office, birth and intellect existed side by side with
+a distinct native life. But, viewed in its broadest aspect, this
+new civilization may be called Hellenism. Hellenism (<i>q.v.</i>)
+means the adoption of Hellenic ways; and it is properly applied
+to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external things, pervading
+people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. What the
+Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature
+was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic
+form without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was
+creative; the literature of Hellenism is derivative.</p>
+
+<p>Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from
+Alexander to Augustus. Its &ldquo;Museum,&rdquo; or college, and its
+library, both founded by the first Ptolemy (Soter),
+gave it such attractions for learned men as no other
+<span class="sidenote">The Alexandrian period.<br />
+Poetry.</span>
+city could rival. The labours of research or arrangement
+are those which characterize the Alexandrian
+period. Even in its poetry spontaneous motive was replaced by
+erudite skill, as in the hymns, epigrams and elegies of Callimachus,
+in the enigmatic verses of Lycophron, in
+the highly finished epic of Apollonius Rhodius, and
+in the versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and
+Nicander. The mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Cos (<i>c.</i> 200
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), written in the Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent
+scenes from everyday life. The papyrus (published in 1891)
+contains seven complete poems and fragments of an eighth.
+They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd observations, but
+at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the age&mdash;Dorian by
+origin&mdash;was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to please at all,
+must have its spring in the contemplation of nature. Theocritus
+is not exempt from the artificialism of the Hellenizing literature;
+but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place in
+the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of
+Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of
+their bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of
+Asclepius at Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter
+poems and a paean (in Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by
+a local poet named Isyllus, who flourished about 280. Tragedy
+was represented by the poets known as the Alexandrian <i>Pleiad</i>.
+But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this period of Greek
+<span class="sidenote">Erudition and science.</span>
+literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition
+and science. Aristarchus (156 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the greatest in a
+long line of Alexandrian critics, set the example of a
+more thorough method in revising and interpreting the
+ancient texts, and may in this sense be said to have become
+the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical studies of
+Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus, gradually
+formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek
+grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born <i>c.</i> 166), a pupil of
+Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which
+employed the learned of Alexandria&mdash;where the Septuagint
+version of the Old Testament was begun, probably about 300-250
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> Chronology was treated scientifically by Eratosthenes,
+and was combined with history by Manetho in his chronicles
+of Egypt, and by Berossus in his chronicles of Chaldaea. Euclid
+was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. Herophilus
+and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and anatomists,
+and the authors of several medical works. The general results
+<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span>
+of the Alexandrian period might perhaps be stated
+thus. Alexandria produced a few eminent men of
+science, some learned poets (in a few cases, of great literary
+merit) and many able scholars. The preservation of the best
+Greek literature was due chiefly to the unremitting care of the
+Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it partly compensated
+for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in literature and art,
+and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form as free as
+possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the patronage
+of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of
+success as was possible under the existing conditions; and it was
+afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true
+literary tradition might die out of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may
+be dated from the Roman subjugation of Greece. &ldquo;Greece
+made a captive of the rough conqueror,&rdquo; but it did
+not follow from this intellectual conquest that Athens
+<span class="sidenote">The Graeco-Roman period.</span>
+became once more the intellectual centre of the world.
+Under the empire, indeed, the university of Athens
+long enjoyed a pre-eminent reputation. But Rome gradually
+became the point to which the greatest workers in every kind
+were drawn. Greek literature had already made a home there
+before the close of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Sulla brought a Greek
+library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus
+were indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The
+power of speaking and writing the Greek language became an
+indispensable accomplishment for highly educated Romans.
+The library planned by Julius Caesar and founded by Augustus
+had two principal departments, one for Latin, the other for Greek
+works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and Trajan contributed
+to enlarge the collection. Rome became more and more the
+rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but
+also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found
+appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especially
+in its higher forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and
+philosophy, were all cultivated by Greek writers at Rome.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span></p>
+
+<p>The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined
+as extending from 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the close of the Roman republic.
+At its commencement stands the name of one who
+had more real affinity than any of his contemporaries
+<span class="sidenote">First part: 146-30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span>
+with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the
+same time, saw most clearly how the empire of the
+world was passing to Rome. The subject of Polybius (<i>c.</i> 205-120)
+was the history of Roman conquest from 264 to 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His
+style, plain and straightforward, is free from the florid rhetoric
+of the time. But the distinction of Polybius is that he is the
+last Greek writer who in some measure retains the spirit of the
+old citizen-life. He chose his subject, not because it gave scope
+to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that which
+prompted the history of Thucydides&mdash;namely, because, as a
+Greek citizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those
+wars which had given Rome the mastery of the world. The
+chief historical work which the following century produced&mdash;the
+<i>Universal History</i> of Diodorus Siculus (fl. <i>c.</i> 50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)&mdash;resembled
+that of Polybius in recognizing Rome as the political
+centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier series of
+events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new
+age in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical
+knowledge and insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman,
+but only the diligence, and usually the <span class="correction" title="amended from dulness">dullness</span>, of a laborious
+compiler.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus
+to Justinian, was enormously prolific. The area over which
+the Greek language was diffused&mdash;either as a medium
+of intercourse or as an established branch of the higher
+<span class="sidenote">Second part: 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529.</span>
+education&mdash;was co-extensive with the empire itself.
+An immense store of materials had now been
+accumulated, on which critics, commentators, compilers,
+imitators, were employed with incessant industry. In very
+many of its forms, the work of composition or adaptation had
+been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one characteristic
+which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these
+five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in
+matter. Lucian is, in his way, a rare exception; and his great
+popularity&mdash;he is the only Greek writer of this period, except
+Plutarch, who has been widely popular&mdash;illustrates the flatness
+of the arid level above which he stands out. The sustained
+abundance of literary production under the empire was partly
+due to the fact that there was no open political career. Never,
+probably, was literature so important as a resource for educated
+men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or obsequious
+audiences swelled the number of writers whose taste had been
+cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought
+not to write.</p>
+
+<p>In the manifold prose work of this period, four principal
+departments may be distinguished. (1) <i>History</i>, with <i>Biography</i>,
+and <i>Geography</i>. History is represented by Dionysius
+of Halicarnassus&mdash;also memorable for his criticisms on
+<span class="sidenote">Departments of prose literature.</span>
+the orators and his effort to revive a true standard
+of Attic prose&mdash;by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian,
+Appian, Herodian, Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the
+foremost names are Plutarch, Diogenes Laërtius and Philostratus;
+in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaea, Strabo, Ptolemy
+and Pausanias. (2) <i>Erudition</i> and <i>Science.</i> The learned labours
+of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their various
+fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works
+as the lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocration and Hesychius,
+Hephaestion&rsquo;s treatise on metre, and Herodian&rsquo;s system of
+accentuation; the commentaries of Galen on Plato and on
+Hippocrates; the learned miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian
+and Stobaeus; and the <i>Stratagems</i> of Polyaenus. (3) <i>Rhetoric</i>
+and <i>Belles-Lettres</i>. The most popular writers on the theory
+of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hermogenes, Aphthonius and
+Cassius Longinus&mdash;the last the reputed author of the essay
+<i>On Sublimity</i>. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric&mdash;now
+distinctively called &ldquo;Sophists,&rdquo; or rhetoricians&mdash;were
+Dio Chrysostom, Aelius Aristides, Themistius, Himerius, Libanius
+and Herodes Atticus. Akin to the rhetorical exercises were
+various forms of ornamental or imaginative prose&mdash;dialogues,
+letters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his dialogues, exhibits
+more of the classical style and of the classical spirit than any
+writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable affinity with
+the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His Attic
+prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that
+had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was
+the author both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief
+of the Greek novelists (the forerunner of whom was Aristides
+of Miletus, <i>c.</i> 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in his <i>Milesian Tales</i>) are Xenophon of
+Ephesus and Longus, representing a purely Greek type of
+romance, and Heliodorus&mdash;with his imitators Achilles Tatius
+and Chariton&mdash;representing a school influenced by Oriental
+fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek,
+usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron&rsquo;s fictitious <i>Letters</i>&mdash;founded
+largely on the New Comedy of Athens&mdash;represent the
+same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phalaris,
+Aristaenetus and similar collections. (4) <i>Philosophy</i> is represented
+chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of
+whom the Stoic element is the prevailing one; by the Neoplatonists,
+such as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus; and by
+Proclus, of that eclectic school which arose at Athens in the
+5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p>The Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high
+merit. Babrius versified the Aesopic <i>Fables</i>; Oppian (or two
+poets of this name) wrote didactic poems on fishing
+<span class="sidenote">Verse.</span>
+and hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smyrnaeus made
+elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired
+some poems and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called
+<i>Sibylline Oracles</i>, in hexameter verse, range in date from about
+170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, and are partly the expression of the Jewish
+longings for the restoration of Israel, partly predictions of the
+triumph of Christianity. By far the most pleasing compositions
+in verse which have come to us from this age
+<span class="sidenote">The Anthology.</span>
+are some of the short poems in the Greek Anthology,
+which includes some pieces as early as the beginning of
+the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and some as late as the 6th century of the
+Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>The 4th century may be said to mark the beginning of the
+last stage in the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point
+the decline was rapid and nearly continuous. The attitude
+of the church towards it was no longer that which had been held
+by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin Martyr or by Origen.
+There was now a Christian Greek literature, and a Christian
+Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. The laity became
+more and more estranged from the Greek literature&mdash;however
+intrinsically pure and noble&mdash;of the pagan past. At the same
+time the Greek language&mdash;which had maintained its purity in
+Italian seats&mdash;was becoming corrupted in the new Greek Rome
+of the East. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529 Justinian put forth an edict by which
+the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The
+act had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard
+against the supposition that such assumed landmarks in political
+or literary history always mark a definite transition from one
+order of things to another. But it is practically convenient,
+or necessary, to use such landmarks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The first attempt at a connected history of
+Greek literature was the monumental and still indispensable work
+of J. A. Fabricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols. by
+G. C. Harless, 1790-1809); this was followed by F. Schöll&rsquo;s <i>Hist.
+de la littérature grecque</i> (1813). Both these works begin with the
+earliest times and go down to the latest period of the Byzantine
+empire. Of more modern and recent works the following may be
+mentioned: G. Bernhardy, <i>Grundriss der griechischen Literatur</i>
+(1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880; 5th ed. of vol. i., by R. Volkmann,
+1892), chiefly confined to the poets; C. O. Müller, <i>History of Greek
+Literature</i> (unfinished), written for the London Society for the
+Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and published in English in 1840,
+the translation being by G. Cornewall Lewis and J. W. Donaldson
+(the latter completed the work to the end of the Byzantine period
+for the edition of 1858; the German text was published by E.
+Müller in 1841; 4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882-1884); W. Mure, <i>Critical
+History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece</i> (1850-1857);
+T. Bergk, <i>Griechische Literaturgeschichte</i> (1872-1894, vols.
+2, 3, ed. G. Hinrichs, vol. 4 by R. Peppmüller) containing epos,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span>
+lyric, drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose; R.
+Nicolai, <i>Griechische Literaturgeschichte</i> (2nd ed., 1873-1878), useful
+for bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J. P. Mahaffy,
+<i>Hist. of Classical Greek Literature</i> (4th ed., 1903); A. and M. Croiset,
+<i>Hist. de la littérature grecque</i> (1887-1899, 2nd ed. 1896); W.
+Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur bis auf die Zeit Justinians</i>
+(4th ed., 1905; 5th ed., pt. i., by O. Stählin and W. Schmid, 1908),
+by far the most serviceable handbook for the student. F. Susemihl&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der Alexandrinerzeit</i> (1891-1892)
+is especially valuable for its notes. Of smaller manuals the
+following will be found most useful: G. G. Murray, <i>History of
+Ancient Greek Literature</i> (1897); F. B. Jevons, <i>History of Greek
+Literature</i> (3rd ed., 1900) down to the time of Demosthenes; A. and
+M. Croiset, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;hist. de la littérature grecque</i> (1900; Eng. trans.,
+by G. F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904); also the general sketches by
+U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff in <i>Die Kultur der Gegenwart</i>, i. 8
+(1905), by A. Gercke in the <i>Sammlung Göschen</i> (Leipzig, 2nd ed.,
+1905), and by R. C. Jebb in <i>Companion to Greek Studies</i> (Cambridge,
+1905). Other works generally connected with the subject are:
+E. Hübner, <i>Bibliographie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>
+(2nd ed., 1889), pp. 161-17l; W. Engelmann, <i>Bibliotheca scriptorum
+classicorum</i> (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880); J. B. Mayor, <i>Guide to
+the Choice of Classical Books</i> (1896), p. 86; W. Kroll, <i>Die Altertumswissenschaft
+im letzten Vierteljahrhundert</i> 1875-1900 (1905),
+p. 465 foll.; J. E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (1906-1908);
+&ldquo;Bibliotheca philologica classica,&rdquo; in C. Bursian&rsquo;s <i>Jahresbericht
+über die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>;
+articles in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie der klassischen
+Altertumswissenschaft</i> (1894&mdash;).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. C. J.; X.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Byzantine Literature</p>
+
+<p>By &ldquo;Byzantine literature&rdquo; is generally meant the literature,
+written in Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no
+justification whatever for the inclusion of Latin works
+of the time of the East Roman empire. The close of
+<span class="sidenote">Definition.</span>
+the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year
+1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the
+peculiar culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an
+end. It is only as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period
+that any doubts exist. There are no sufficient grounds for dating
+it from Justinian, as was formerly often done. In surveying the
+whole development of the political, ecclesiastical and literary
+life and of the general culture of the Roman empire, and particularly
+of its eastern portion, we arrive, on the contrary, at the
+conclusion that the actual date of the beginning of this new era&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>
+the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to the Pagan-Greek
+and Pagan-Roman&mdash;falls within the reign of Constantine
+the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Constantinople
+(which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the
+establishment of the Christian faith as the state religion, Constantine
+finally broke with the Roman-Pagan tradition, and
+laid the foundation of the Christian-Byzantine period of development.
+Moreover, in the department of language, so closely
+allied with that of literature, the 4th century marks a new epoch.
+About this time occurred the final disappearance of a characteristic
+of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry
+and in rhythmic prose, the difference of &ldquo;quantity.&rdquo; Its place
+was henceforth taken by the accent, which became a determining
+principle in poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the
+prose sentence. Thus the transition from the old musical
+language to a modern conversational idiom was complete.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the
+beginning of a new period in the most important spheres of
+national life, but it is equally certain that in most of
+them ancient tradition long continued to exercise an
+<span class="sidenote">Transitional period.</span>
+influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less
+common in the general culture and literary life of the
+world than in its political or ecclesiastical development. This
+is true of the transition from pagan antiquity to the Christian
+middle ages. Many centuries passed before the final victory of
+the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public and private
+intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of
+paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The
+last great educational establishment which rested upon pagan
+foundations&mdash;the university of Athens&mdash;was not abolished till
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529. The Hellenizing of the seat of empire and of the state,
+which was essential to the independent development of Byzantine
+literature, proceeds yet more slowly. The first purely <i>Greek</i>
+emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but the complete Hellenizing
+of the character of the state had not been accomplished
+until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the period
+from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between
+ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with
+the rise of a new power in the world&rsquo;s history&mdash;Islam. But
+though, in this transitional period, the old and the new elements
+are both to a large extent present and are often inextricably
+interwoven, yet it is certain that the new elements are, both as
+regards their essential force and their influence upon the succeeding
+period, of infinitely greater moment than the decrepit and
+mostly artificial survivals of the antique.</p>
+
+<p>In order to estimate rightly the character of Byzantine
+literature and its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction
+to ancient Greek, it is imperative to examine the great
+difference between the civilizations that produced
+<span class="sidenote">Mixed character of Byzantine culture.</span>
+them. The Byzantine did not possess the homogeneous,
+organically constructed system of the ancient
+civilization, but was the outcome of an amalgamation
+of which Hellenism formed the basis. For, although the Latin
+character of the empire was at first completely retained, even
+after its final division in 395, yet the dominant position of Greek
+in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing of the
+state. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the codification,
+in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565).
+But it is significant that the <i>Novels</i> of Justinian were composed
+partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period.
+Of the emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of
+course were foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others; but in
+language and education they were all Greeks. In the last five
+centuries of the empire, under the Comneni and the Palaeologi,
+court and state are purely Greek.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern
+empire, a linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the
+foundation of the old Latin <i>Imperium Romanum</i> never existed
+there. In the West, with the expansion of Rome&rsquo;s political
+supremacy, the Latin language and Latin culture were everywhere
+introduced&mdash;first into the non-Latin provinces of Italy,
+later into Spain, Gaul and North Africa, and at last even into
+certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so
+thorough that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries
+affected by it, was the parent of new and vigorous nationalities,
+the French, the Spaniards, the Portuguese and the Rumanians.
+Only in Africa did &ldquo;Latinism&rdquo; fail to take root permanently.
+From the 6th century that province relapsed into the hands of
+the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both the
+Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength
+during the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with
+Christianity, swept away without leaving a trace behind. It
+might have been expected that the Hellenizing of the political
+system of the Eastern empire would have likewise entailed the
+Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the empire. Such,
+however, was not the case; for all the conditions precedent
+to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions
+of the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually
+incorporated into the state from a Greek centre, as were the
+provinces in the West from a Latin centre. They had been
+acquired in the old period of the homogeneous Latin <i>Imperium</i>.
+In the centuries immediately following the division of the empire,
+the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces could not take
+root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least in
+principle, as the state language. During the later centuries,
+in the non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive
+inroads of barbarians began on all sides; and the government
+was too much occupied with the all but impossible task of
+preserving the political unity of the empire to entertain seriously
+the wider aim of an assimilation of language and culture. Moreover,
+the Greeks did not possess that enormous political energy
+and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate foreign races;
+and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental, mostly
+Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span>
+were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their
+impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly
+judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even
+the Romans were within a short period driven back and overwhelmed
+by the North African Semites who for centuries had
+been subjected to an apparently thorough process of Latinization.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how
+little indeed it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the
+fact that, after the violent Arab invasion in the south-east
+corner of the Mediterranean, the Copts and Syrians were able
+to retain their language and their national characteristics,
+while Greek culture almost completely disappeared. The one
+great instance of assimilation of foreign nationalities by the
+Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from the 6th century
+had migrated into central Greece and the Peloponnese. All
+other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether
+for longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern
+empire and its civilization&mdash;such as the Copts, Syrians,
+Armenians, Georgians, Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians&mdash;one
+and all retained their nationality and language. The
+complete Latinizing of the West has, accordingly, no counterpart
+in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This is clearly shown during
+the Byzantine period in the progress of Christianity. Everywhere
+in the West, even among the non-Romanized Anglo-Saxons,
+Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the
+church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical
+system; down to the Reformation the church remained a
+complete organic unity. In the East, at the earliest period of
+its conversion to Christianity, several foreign tongues competed
+with Greek, <i>i.e.</i> Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, Gothic,
+Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books were translated
+into these languages and the church services were held in them
+and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic division
+in the church was the formation of various sects and national
+churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites,
+the Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national
+churches). The Church of the West was characterized by
+uniformity in language and in constitution. In the Eastern
+Church parallel to the multiplicity of languages developed also
+a corresponding variety of doctrine and constitution.</p>
+
+<p>Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek,
+and Byzantine literature is attached by countless threads to
+ancient Greek literature, yet the Roman element
+forms a very essential part of it. The whole political
+<span class="sidenote">Roman influence.</span>
+character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its
+Greek form and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and
+administration, the military and naval traditions, are old Roman
+work, and as such, apart from immaterial alterations, they
+continued to exist and operate, even when the state in head and
+limbs had become Greek. It is strange, indeed, how strong
+was the political conception of the Roman state (<i>Staatsgedanke</i>),
+and with what tenacity it held its own, even under the most
+adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The
+Greeks even adopted the name &ldquo;Romans,&rdquo; which gradually
+became so closely identified with them as to supersede the name
+&ldquo;Hellenes&rdquo;; and thus a political was gradually converted into
+an ethnographical and linguistic designation. <i>Rhomaioi</i> was
+the most common popular term for Greeks during the Turkish
+period, and remains so still. The old glorious name &ldquo;Hellene&rdquo;
+was used under the empire and even during the middle ages
+in a contemptuous sense&mdash;&ldquo;Heathen&rdquo;&mdash;and has only in quite
+modern times, on the formation of the kingdom of &ldquo;Hellas,&rdquo;
+been artificially revived. The vast organization of the Roman
+political system could not but exercise in various ways a profound
+influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it often seemed
+as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved the
+unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The
+Roman influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language,
+Greek of the Byzantine and modern period is rich in Latin
+terms for conceptions connected with the departments of justice,
+administration and the imperial court. In literature such
+&ldquo;barbarisms&rdquo; were avoided as far as possible, and were replaced
+by Greek periphrases.</p>
+
+<p>But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought
+on the old Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet
+the transition was, in fact, by no means so abrupt as
+one might be led to believe by comparing the Pagan-Hellenic
+<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span>
+culture of Plato&rsquo;s day with the Christian-Byzantine
+of the time of Justinian. For the path had been
+most effectually prepared for the new religion by the crumbling
+away of the ancient belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine
+of the Stoics, and, finally, by the mystic intellectual tendencies
+of Neoplatonism. Moreover, in many respects Christianity met
+paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular usages and
+ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan literature.
+The whole educational system especially, even in Christian times,
+was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the
+methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the
+influences of Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of
+importance in developing the Byzantine civilization, and in
+<span class="sidenote">The Orient.</span>
+lending Byzantine literature its distinctive character.
+Much that was oriental in the Eastern empire dates
+back to ancient times, notably to the period of Alexander
+the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had
+at that period Hellenized the East to the widest extent, and
+had already founded everywhere flourishing cities, they themselves
+fell under the manifold influences of the soil they occupied.
+In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in Asia Minor as far inland
+as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental characteristics were often
+blended. In respect of the wealth and the long duration of
+its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It covers
+a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of
+Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+643). The real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during
+this long period can be properly estimated only if a practical
+attempt be made to eliminate from the history of Greek literature
+and science in pagan and in Christian times all that owed its
+origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of Egypt proved itself
+especially productive of Greek literature under the Cross (Origen,
+Athanasius, Arius, Synesius), in the same way as the soil of
+North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian,
+Cyprian, Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one
+of the chief characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine
+civilization, had its birth in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civilization
+at a later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and
+culture attained their highest development between the 3rd and
+the 8th centuries of the Christian era. Antioch rose to great
+influence, owing at first to its pagan school of rhetoric and
+later to its Christian school of exegesis. Gaza was renowned for
+its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of law. It is
+no mere accident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most
+valuable class of Byzantine literature, was born in Syria and
+Palestine.</p>
+
+<p>In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna,
+Ephesus, Nicopolis, &amp;c., were all influential centres of Greek
+culture and literature. For instance, the three great fathers
+of Cappadocia, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus
+all belonged to Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p>If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries
+of the Christian era, <i>i.e.</i> the period of the complete development
+of Byzantine culture, be classified according to the countries
+of their birth, the significant fact becomes evident that nine-tenths
+come from the African and Asiatic districts, which were
+for the most part opened up only after Alexander the Great,
+and only one-tenth from European Greece. In other words,
+the old original European Greece was, under the emperors,
+completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the
+newly founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide
+of conquest which surged from Greece over African and Syrian
+territories occupied largely by foreign races and ancient
+civilizations, could not fail to be fraught with serious consequences
+for the Greeks themselves. The experience of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span>
+Romans in their conquest of Greece (<i>Graecia capta ferum victorem
+cepit</i>) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece,
+though to a minor extent and in a different way. The whole
+literature of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite
+its international and cosmopolitan character, disavow the
+influence of the Oriental soil on which it was nourished. Yet the
+growth of too strong a local colouring in its literature was
+repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek
+tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled
+all national distinctions. Even more clearly and unmistakably
+is Oriental influence shown in the province of Byzantine art,
+as Joseph Strzygowski has conclusively proved.</p>
+
+<p>The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of
+ancient times down to the threshold of modern history was
+written in a language identical in its principal features
+with the common literary language, the so-called
+<span class="sidenote">Language.</span>
+Koin&#275;, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This is the
+literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form
+that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction
+down to one that approaches the language of everyday life
+such as we have, for instance, in the New Testament. From
+what has been already said, it follows that this stable literary
+language cannot always have remained a language of ordinary
+life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular Greek continually
+changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in vocabulary
+and grammar, and thus the living language surely and gradually
+separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf was,
+moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there
+took place in the written language a retrograde movement,
+the so-called &ldquo;Atticism.&rdquo; Introduced by Dionysius of Halicarnassus
+in the 1st century before Christ, this linguistic-literary
+fashion attained its greatest height in the 2nd century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but still continued to flourish in succeeding centuries, and,
+indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine period. It is true
+that it often seemed as though the living language would be
+gradually introduced into literature; for several writers, such
+as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis
+(the author of <i>Lives of Saints</i>) in the 7th century, the chronicler
+Theophanes at the beginning of the 9th century, and the emperor
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in
+their writings numerous concessions to the living language.
+This progressive tendency might well have led, in the 11th and
+12th centuries, to the founding in the Greek vernacular of a new
+literary language similar to the promising national languages
+and literature which, at that period, in the Romance countries,
+developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of the
+Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change never took
+place. All attempts in the direction of a popular reform of the
+literary language, which were occasionally made in the period
+from the 6th to the 10th centuries, were in turn extinguished
+by the resuscitation of classical studies, a movement which,
+begun in the 9th century by Photius and continued in the 11th
+by Psellus, attained its full development under the Comneni
+and the Palaeologi. This classical renaissance turned back the
+literary language into the old ossified forms, as had previously
+happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries of
+the empire. In the West, humanism (so closely connected
+with the Byzantine renaissance under the Comneni and the
+Palaeologi) also artificially reintroduced the &ldquo;Ciceronian&rdquo;
+Latin, but was unable seriously to endanger the development
+of the national languages, which had already attained to full
+vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic movement came
+prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had fairly
+established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers
+of the 11th-15th centuries is almost Old Greek in colour; artificially
+learnt by grammar, lexicon and assiduous reading, it
+followed Attic models more and more slavishly; to such an
+extent that, in determining the date of works, the paradoxical
+principle holds good that the more ancient the language, the
+more recent the author.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast
+that had long existed with the vernacular was now for the first
+time fully revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language
+could no longer be bridged; and this fact found its expression
+in literature also. While the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-10th
+centuries, like the Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of
+Tours), still attempted a compromise between the language of
+the schools and that of conversation, we meet after the 12th
+century with authors who freely and naturally employed the
+vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form the
+Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and
+other Romance languages. That they could not succeed like
+their Roman colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of
+Greek literature, is due to the all-powerful philological-antiquarian
+tendency which existed under the Comneni and the
+Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular attempt to assert
+its literary rights, <i>i.e.</i> in Crete and some other islands in the
+16th and 17th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled by
+the classical reaction of the 19th century. Hence it comes about
+that Greek literature even in the 20th century employs grammatical
+forms which were obsolete long before the 10th century.
+Thus the Greeks, as regards their literary language, came into
+a <i>cul de sac</i> similar to that in which certain rigidly conservative
+Oriental nations find themselves, <i>e.g.</i> the Arabs and Chinese, who,
+not possessing a literary language suited to modern requirements,
+have to content themselves with the dead Old-Arabic or the
+ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of the written and
+spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most fatal
+heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their
+Byzantine forefathers.</p>
+
+<p>The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western
+medieval period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology
+accordingly, in literature too, occupies the chief place,
+in regard to both quantity and quality. Next to it
+<span class="sidenote">General character of Byzantine literature.</span>
+comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines
+cultivated with great conscientiousness until after
+the fall of the empire. All other kinds of prose writing,
+<i>e.g.</i> in geography, philosophy, rhetoric and the technical sciences,
+were comparatively neglected, and such works are of value for
+the most part only in so far as they preserve and interpret old
+material. In poetry, again, theology takes the lead. The poetry
+of the Church produced works of high aesthetic merit and enduring
+value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams especially
+was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In popular
+literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of
+notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with.</p>
+
+<p>The great classical period of Greek theological literature is
+that of the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this
+result&mdash;some of them positive, particularly the
+establishment of Christianity as the official religion
+<span class="sidenote">Theology.</span>
+and the protection accorded to it by the state, others negative,
+<i>i.e.</i> the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at this
+period arose in the east of the empire and threatened the unity
+of the doctrine and organization of the church. It was chiefly
+against these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed
+his attacks. The learned Eusebius founded a new department
+of literature, church history. In Egypt, Antonius (St Anthony)
+founded the Greek monastic system; Synesius of Cyrene, like
+his greater contemporary Augustine in the West, represents
+both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition from
+Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great
+intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great
+Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother
+Gregory of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the
+Christian faith, and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished
+orator and poet. Closely allied to them was St Chrysostom,
+the courageous champion of ecclesiastical liberty and of moral
+purity. To modern readers the greater part of this literature
+appears strange and foreign; but, in order to be appreciated
+rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of the period in
+which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by religious
+emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their
+readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable;
+though, of course, they produced nothing of such general human
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span>
+interest, nothing so deep and true, as the <i>Confessions</i> of St
+Augustine, with which the poetical autobiography of Gregory
+of Nazianzus cannot for a moment be compared.</p>
+
+<p>The glorious bloom of the 4th century was followed by a
+perceptible decay in theological intellectual activity. Independent
+production was in succeeding centuries almost solely
+prompted by divergent dogmatical views and heresies, for the
+refutation of which orthodox authors were impelled to take up
+the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious literature
+was called into existence by the Monophysites, who maintained
+that there was but <i>one</i> nature in Christ; in the 7th century by
+the Monothelites, who acknowledged but <i>one</i> will in Christ;
+in the 8th century by the Iconoclasts and by the new teaching
+of Mahomet. One very eminent theologian, whose importance
+it has been reserved for modern times to estimate aright&mdash;Leontius
+of Byzantium (6th century)&mdash;was the first to introduce
+Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus be called
+the first scholastic. In his works he attacked the heretics of
+his age, particularly the Monophysites, who were also assailed
+by his contemporary Anastasius of Antioch. The chief adversaries
+of the Monothelites were Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem
+(whose main importance, however, is due to his work in other
+fields, in hagiography and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor,
+and Anastasius Sinaïtes, who also composed an interpretation
+of the <i>Hexaëmeron</i> in twelve books. Among writers in the
+departments of critical interpretation and asceticism in this
+period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who devoted
+himself principally to the exegesis of the Old Testament;
+Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read
+ascetic work <i>Klimax</i> (Jacob&rsquo;s ladder); and Johannes Moschus
+(d. 619), whose chief work <i>Leimon</i> (&ldquo;spiritual pasture&rdquo;) describes
+monastic life in the form of statements and narratives of their
+experiences by monks themselves. The last great heresy, which
+shook the Greek Church to its very foundations, the Iconoclast
+movement, summoned to the fray the last great Greek theologian,
+John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). Yet his chief merit
+lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the Iconoclasts,
+and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his great
+dogmatic work, <i>The Fountain of Knowledge</i>, which contains the
+first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma. It has
+remained the standard work on Greek theology down to the
+present day. Just as the internal development of the Greek
+Church in all essentials reached its limit with the Iconoclasts,
+so also its productive intellectual activity ceased with John of
+Damascus. Such theological works as were subsequently
+produced, consisted mostly in the interpretation and revision
+of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful, literature
+was produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek
+and Roman Churches. Of a more independent character is the
+literature which in the 14th century centred round the dissensions
+of the Hesychasts.</p>
+
+<p>Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned:
+the emperor Leo VI., the Wise (886-911), who wrote numerous
+homilies and church hymns, and Theodorus of Studium (759-826),
+who in his numerous writings affords us instructive glimpses
+of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the figure of the patriarch
+Photius. Yet his importance consists less in his writings, which
+often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of thought
+and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church.
+For he it was who carried the differences which had already
+repeatedly arisen between Rome and Constantinople to a point
+at which reconciliation was impossible, and was mainly instrumental
+in preparing the way for the separation of the Greek and
+Latin Churches accomplished in 1054 under the patriarch
+Michael Cerularius. In the 11th century the polyhistor Michael
+Psellus also wrote polemics against the Euchites, among whom
+the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, including
+theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni.
+In the reign of Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118), Euthymius
+Zigabenus wrote his great dogmatic work, the <i>Dogmatic Panoply</i>,
+which, like <i>The Fountain of Knowledge</i> of John of Damascus in
+earlier times, was partly positive, furnishing an armoury of
+theology, partly negative and directed against the sects. In
+addition to attacking the dead and buried doctrines of the
+Monothelites, Iconoclasts, &amp;c., to fight which was at this time
+a mere tilting at windmills, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic
+against the heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils
+and Saracens. Zigabenus&rsquo;s <i>Panoply</i> was continued and enlarged
+a century later by the historian Nicetas Acominatus, who
+published it under the title <i>Treasure of Orthodoxy</i>. To the
+writings against ancient heresies were next added a flood of
+tracts, of all shapes and sizes, &ldquo;against the Latins,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> against
+the Roman Church, and among their authors must also be
+enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore II. Lascaris (1254-1258).
+The chief champion of the union with the Roman Church
+was the learned Johannes Beccus (patriarch of Constantinople
+1275-1282). Of his opponents by far the most eminent was
+Gregory of Cyprus, who succeeded him on the patriarchal throne.
+The fluctuations in the fortunes of the two ecclesiastical parties
+are reflected in the occupation of the patriarchal throne. The
+battles round the question of the union, which were waged with
+southern passion, were for a while checked by the dissensions
+aroused by the mystic tendency of the Hesychasts. The impetus
+to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam,
+a native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an
+opponent of the Latins and was in 1339 entrusted by Andronicus
+III. with a mission to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon. He
+condemned the doctrine of the Hesychasts, and attacked them
+both orally and in writing. Among those who shared his views
+are conspicuous the historian Nicephorus Gregoras and Gregorius
+Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas Aquinas
+in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesychasts was
+essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and
+dreamy Graeco-Oriental mysticism. On the side of the Hesychasts
+fought Gregorius Palamas, who tried to give a dogmatic foundation
+to the mysticism of the Hesychasts, Cabasilas, and the
+emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus who, after his deposition,
+sought, in the peaceful retreat of a monastery, consolation in
+theological studies, and in his literary works refuted the Jews
+and the Mahommedans. For the greatest Byzantine &ldquo;apologia&rdquo;
+against Islamism we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II.
+Palaeologus (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to
+make up for the deficiency in martial prowess shown by the
+Byzantines in their struggle with the Turks. On the whole,
+theological literature was in the last century of the empire
+almost completely occupied with the struggles for and against
+the union with Rome. The reason lay in the political conditions.
+The emperors saw more and more clearly that without the aid
+of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground
+against the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent;
+while the majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the
+assistance of the West would force the Greeks to unite with
+Rome, and thereby to forfeit their ecclesiastical independence.
+Considering the supremacy of the theological party in Byzantium,
+it was but natural that religious considerations should gain the
+day over political; and this was the view almost universally
+held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of the empire;
+in the words of the chronicler Ducas: &ldquo;it is better to fall into
+the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks.&rdquo; The
+chief opponent of the union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan
+of Ephesus, who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced
+the union with Rome accomplished by John VIII. Palaeologus.
+Conspicuous there among the partisans of the union, by reason
+of his erudition and general literary merit, was Bessarion, afterwards
+cardinal, whose chief activity already falls under the
+head of Graeco-Italian humanism.</p>
+
+<p>Hagiography, <i>i.e.</i> the literature of the acts of the martyrs
+and the lives of the saints, forms an independent group and
+one comparatively unaffected by dogmatic struggles.
+The main interest centres here round the objects
+<span class="sidenote">Hagiography.</span>
+described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints
+themselves. The authors, on the other hand&mdash;the <i>Acts of the
+Martyrs</i> are mostly anonymous&mdash;keep more in the background
+than in other branches of literature. The man whose name is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span>
+mainly identified with Greek hagiography, Symeon Metaphrastes,
+is important not as an original author, but only as an editor.
+Symeon revised in the 10th century, according to the rhetorical
+and linguistic principles of his day, numerous old <i>Acts of the
+Martyrs</i>, and incorporated them in a collection consisting of
+several volumes, which was circulated in innumerable copies,
+and thus to a great extent superseded the older original texts.
+These <i>Acts of the Martyrs</i>, in point of time, are anterior to our
+period; but of the <i>Lives of Saints</i> the greater portion belong
+to Byzantine literature. They began with biographies of monks
+distinguished for their saintly living, such as were used by
+Palladius about 420 in his <i>Historia Lausiaca</i>. The most famous
+work of this description is that by Athanasius of Alexandria,
+viz. the biography of St Anthony, the founder of monachism.
+In the 6th century Cyril of Scythopolis wrote several lives of
+saints, distinguished by a simple and straightforward style.
+More expert than any one else in reproducing the naïve popular
+style was Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus who, in the 7th century,
+wrote, among other works, a life of St John the Merciful, archbishop
+of Alexandria, which is very remarkable as illustrating
+the social and intellectual conditions of the time. From the
+popular <i>Lives of Saints</i>, which for the reading public of the
+middle ages formed the chief substitute for modern &ldquo;belles
+lettres,&rdquo; it is easy to trace the transition to the religious novel.
+The most famous work of this class is the history of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barlaam
+and Josaphat</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The religious poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from
+the influence of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to
+original development. The oldest work of this class is
+the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers and
+<span class="sidenote">Religious poetry.</span>
+dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts
+with the <i>Paedagogus</i> of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215),
+but was probably not his work. The next piece of this class
+is the famous &ldquo;Maidens&rsquo; Song&rdquo; in the <i>Banquet</i> of St Methodius
+(d. about 311), in which many striking violations of the old
+rules of quantity are already apparent. More faithful to the
+tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus. But, owing
+to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification
+and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people
+or to find a place in the services of the church. Just as little
+could the artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the
+younger Apollinaris, or the subtle poems of Synesius, become
+popular. It became more and more patent that, with the archaic
+metre which was out of keeping with the character of the living
+language, no genuine poetry suited to the age could possibly be
+produced. Fortunately, an entirely new form of poetical art
+was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the
+blessings of an intelligible religious poetry&mdash;the rhythmic poem.
+This no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables,
+which had disappeared from the living language, but on the
+accent. Yet the transition was not effected by the substitution
+of accent for the old long syllables; the ancient verse form was
+entirely abandoned, and in its stead new and variously constructed
+lines and strophes were formed. In the history of the
+rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly marked&mdash;the
+preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the <i>Canones</i>.
+About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively
+little. It appears that in it church music was in the main confined
+to the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other
+portions of Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation.
+The oldest rhythmic songs date from Gregory of Nazianzus&mdash;his
+&ldquo;Maidens&rsquo; Song&rdquo; and his &ldquo;Evening Hymn.&rdquo; Church
+poetry reached its highest expression in the second period, in
+the grand development of the hymns, <i>i.e.</i> lengthy songs comprising
+from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each
+connected with the next in acrostic fashion. Hymnology,
+again, attained its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th
+century with Romanos, who in the great number and excellence
+of his hymns dominated this species of poetry, as Homer did
+the Greek epic. From this period dates, moreover, the most
+famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called <i>Acathistus</i>, an
+anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary, which has
+sometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch
+Sergius.</p>
+
+<p>Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an
+increase in artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour,
+with the composition of the <i>Canones</i>, songs artfully
+built up out of eight or nine lyrics, all differently
+<span class="sidenote">Canones.</span>
+constructed. Andreas, archbishop of Crete (<i>c.</i> 650-720), is
+regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His chief
+work, &ldquo;the great Canon,&rdquo; comprises no less than 250 strophes.
+The most celebrated writers of <i>Canones</i> are John of Damascus
+and Cosmas of Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first
+half of the 8th century. The &ldquo;vulgar&rdquo; simplicity of Romanos
+was regarded by them as an obsolete method; they again
+resorted to the classical style of Gregory of Nazianzus, and John
+of Damascus even took a special delight in the most elaborate
+tricks of expression. In spite of this, or perhaps on that very
+account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times,
+were much read, and&mdash;as was very necessary&mdash;much commentated.
+Later, sacred poetry was more particularly cultivated
+in the monastery of the Studium at Constantinople by the abbot
+Theodorus and others. Again, in the 9th century, Joseph, &ldquo;the
+hymn-writer,&rdquo; excelled as a writer of songs, and, finally, John
+Mauropus (11th century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras
+(12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century),
+were also distinguished as authors of sacred poems, <i>i.e.</i> <i>Canones</i>.
+The Basilian Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in
+1004, and still existing, was also a nursery of religious poetry.
+As regards the rhythmic church poetry, it may now be regarded
+as certain that its origin was in the East. Old Hebrew and
+Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos (<i>q.v.</i>) was
+especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great Syrian
+father Ephraem (d. about 373).</p>
+
+<p>In profane literature the writing of history takes the first
+place, as regards both form and substance. The Greeks have
+always been deeply interested in history, and they have
+never omitted, amid all the vicissitudes of their
+<span class="sidenote">Profane literature; historical accounts.</span>
+existence, to hand down a record to posterity. Thus,
+they have produced a literature extending from the
+Ionian logographers and Herodotus down to the times of
+Sultan Mahommed II. In the Byzantine period all historical
+accounts fall under one of two groups, entirely different, both in
+form and in matter, (1) historical works, the authors of which
+described, as did most historians of ancient times, a period of
+history in which they themselves had lived and moved, or one
+which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2)
+chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world. This
+latter class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature. The
+most clearly marked stage in the development of a Christian-Byzantine
+universal history was the chronicle (unfortunately
+lost) written by the Hellenized Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the
+beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era; this work
+began with the story of Moses.</p>
+
+<p>Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ
+substantially from ancient historical works, except in their
+Christian colouring. Yet even this is often very faint and blurred
+owing to close adherence to ancient methods. Apart from this,
+neither a new style nor a new critical method nor any radically
+new views appreciably altered the main character of Byzantine
+historiography. In their style most Byzantine compilers of
+contemporary history followed the beaten track of older historians,
+<i>e.g.</i> Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also
+Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to
+imitation, they displayed considerable power in the delineation
+of character and were not wanting in independent judgment.
+As regards the selection of their matter, they adhered to the
+old custom of beginning their narrative where their predecessors
+left off.</p>
+
+<p>The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which
+after the close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is
+reflected in historiography also. After Constantine the Great,
+the history of the empire, although its Latin character was
+maintained until the 6th century, was mostly written by Greeks;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span>
+<i>e.g.</i> Eunapius (<i>c.</i> 400), Olympiodorus (<i>c.</i> 450), Priscus (<i>c.</i> 450),
+Malchus (<i>c.</i> 490), and Zosimus, the last pagan historian (<i>c.</i> 500),
+all of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately
+preserved to us only in fragments. Historiography received a
+great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful Procopius and
+Agathias (<i>q.v.</i>), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described the
+stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of
+Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and
+Theophylactus of Simocatta described the second half of the
+6th century. Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished
+the last independent ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who
+wrote the history of the church from 431 to 593. There now
+followed, however, a lamentable falling off in production.
+From the 7th to the 10th century the historical side is
+represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the 10th
+century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies,
+the art of writing history showed some signs of life. Several
+historical works are associated with the name of the emperor
+Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle belonged
+also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor&rsquo;s instance
+compiled the history of the period from 813 to 886. A little work,
+interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical
+science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan
+Corsairs (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 904), which a priest, Johannes Cameniata, an
+eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity. There
+is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the
+period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of
+the Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians.
+A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael
+Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077. A
+valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from
+1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attaliata.
+The history of the Eastern empire during the Crusades was
+written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus Bryennius,
+his learned consort Anna Comnena, the &ldquo;honest Aetolian,&rdquo;
+Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an
+exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the
+4th Crusade. The melancholy conditions and the ever increasing
+decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (13th-15th centuries)
+are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer
+following of classical models. The events which took place
+between the taking of Constantinople by the Latins and the
+restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted by
+Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them.
+The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius
+Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus
+Gregoras, and the emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly,
+the death-struggle between the East Roman empire and the
+mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three
+historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus Chalcocondyles,
+Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be
+classed a fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period),
+Critobulus, a high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style
+of the age of Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan
+Mahommed II. (down to 1467).</p>
+
+<p>The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly
+chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists
+in the fact that they in part replace older lost works,
+and thus fill up many gaps in our historical survey
+<span class="sidenote">Chronicles.</span>
+(<i>e.g.</i> for the period from about 600 to 800 of which
+very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit,
+but are often serviceable for the history of language. Many such
+chronicles were furnished with illustrations. The remains of
+one such illustrated chronicle on papyrus, dating from the
+beginning of the 5th century, has been preserved for us by the
+soil of Egypt.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks,
+who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their
+brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong
+clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it is due to
+these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a circulation
+abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christianized
+from Byzantium, <i>e.g.</i> the Slavs, and in all of them sowed the
+seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles,
+despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment
+of material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far
+greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories
+designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium.
+The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved
+to us is that of Malalas (6th century), which is also the purest
+type of this class of literature. In the 7th century was completed
+the famous <i>Easter</i> or <i>Paschal Chronicle</i> (<i>Chronicon Paschale</i>).
+About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century
+Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began
+with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284.
+At the request of the author, when on his death-bed, the continuation
+of this work was undertaken by Theophanes Confessor,
+who brought down the account from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 284 to his own times
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 813). This exceedingly valuable work of Theophanes
+was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous
+chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch
+Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a <i>Short History</i> of the period
+from 602 to 769, a chronological sketch from Adam down to the
+year of his own death in 829. Of great influence on the age that
+followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance
+as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who compiled a
+chronicle of the world&rsquo;s history (from Adam until the year 843,
+the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and
+monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among
+later chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously.
+His work (covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the
+range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal
+and a contemporary history. Georgius Cedrenus (<i>c.</i> 1100)
+embodied the whole of Scylitza&rsquo;s work, almost unaltered, in
+his <i>Universal Chronicle</i>. In the 12th century the general increase
+in literary production was evident also in the department of
+chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for instance,
+the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the great
+universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century
+Michael Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world&rsquo;s history, a
+work written in the old popular style and designed for the
+widest circles of readers. Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine
+Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called
+&ldquo;political&rdquo; verse. With this verse-chronicle must be classed
+the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters
+at the beginning of the 14th century.</p>
+
+<p>Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected
+with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by
+their political forerunners, the Romans. Of purely
+practical importance are a few handbooks of navigation,
+<span class="sidenote">Geography.</span>
+itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of
+provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics. The
+geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates
+from Justinian&rsquo;s time, has been lost. To the same period belongs
+the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us,
+the <i>Christian Topography</i> of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the
+topography of Constantinople a work entitled <i>Ancient History</i>
+(<i>Patria</i>) <i>of Constantinople</i>, which may be compared to the
+medieval <i>Mirabilia urbis Romae</i>, and in late manuscripts has
+been wrongly attributed to a certain Codinus, is of great importance.</p>
+
+<p>Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two
+new shoots&mdash;Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was
+the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to
+stem the advancing tide of Christianity. The last great
+<span class="sidenote">Philosophy.</span>
+exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens
+(d. 485). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school
+of philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous
+system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it
+a living force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity
+was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy,
+<i>e.g.</i> that of Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span>
+doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with
+copious commentaries and paraphrases. Leontius of Byzantium
+had already introduced Aristotelian definitions into Christology;
+but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was
+John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early attained
+to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical
+philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this
+respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West.
+Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas.
+In the 11th century philosophical studies experienced a satisfactory
+revival, mainly owing to Michael Psellus, who brought
+Plato as well as Aristotle again into fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with
+greater ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an
+indispensable aid to instruction. It would be difficult
+to imagine anything more tedious than the numerous
+<span class="sidenote">Rhetoric.</span>
+theoretical writings on the subject and the examples of their
+practical application: mechanical school essays, which here
+count as &ldquo;literature,&rdquo; and innumerable letters, the contents of
+which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects of this were
+felt beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention
+paid to the laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its
+withered flowers were detrimental to a great part of the rest of
+Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development
+of any individuality and simplicity of style. None the less,
+among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a
+few interesting pieces, such as the <i>Philopatris</i>, in the style of
+Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of
+Nicephorus Phocas (10th century). In two other smaller works
+a journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the
+pattern of Lucian&rsquo;s <i>Nekyomanteia</i>, viz. in <i>Timarion</i> (12th century)
+and in Mazaris&rsquo; <i>Journey to the Underworld</i> (<i>c.</i> 1414). A very
+charming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael
+Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote
+numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted
+literature in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited
+sense, Byzantium was dominated to an extravagant
+and even grotesque extent by the rules of what in
+<span class="sidenote">The sciences.</span>
+modern times is termed &ldquo;classical scholarship.&rdquo;
+The numerous works which belong to this category, such as
+grammars, dictionaries, commentaries on ancient authors,
+extracts from ancient literature, and metrical and musical
+treatises, are of little general interest, although of great value
+for special branches of philological study, <i>e.g.</i> for tracing the
+influences through which the ancient works handed down to
+us have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emendation;
+for information about ancient authors now lost; for the
+history of education; and for the underlying principles of intellectual
+life in Byzantium. The most important monument of
+Byzantine philology is, perhaps, the <i>Library</i> of the patriarch
+Photius. The period from about 650 to 850 is marked by a
+general decay of culture. Photius, who in the year 850 was
+about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable
+energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most
+part dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries,
+thus contributing to its preservation. He gave an account
+of all that he read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which
+were collected in what is commonly known as the <i>Library</i>
+or <i>Myriobiblon</i>. The character of the individual sketches is
+somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or less complete
+account of the contents is followed by critical discussion, which
+is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With this
+work may be compared in importance the great <i>Lexikon</i> of
+Suidas, which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclopaedia,
+of which the main feature was its articles on the history
+of literature. A truly sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the
+famous archbishop of Thessalonica (12th century). His voluminous
+commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the attention less
+than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic action
+on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity,
+and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had
+nothing in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaintance
+with a caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is
+afforded by Johannes Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius,
+a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular,
+superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously
+coarse in his polemics. The transition to Western humanism
+was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi,
+such as Maximus Planudes, whose translations of numerous
+works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the
+West; Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and
+commentaries were, down to the 16th century, used as school
+text-books; Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual
+critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others.</p>
+
+<p>Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language
+of Roman law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his
+<i>Corpus juris</i>, the Hellenizing of the legal language
+also began. The <i>Institutes</i> and the <i>Digest</i> were translated
+<span class="sidenote">Jurisprudence.</span>
+into Greek, and the <i>Novels</i> also were issued in
+a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after
+a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian.
+The emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the
+existing law, and made preparations for the codifying of all laws.
+But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI.
+the Wise (886-912), and Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus
+(912-959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from
+the <i>Digests</i>, the <i>Codex</i>, and the <i>Novels</i>, and is commonly known
+as the <i>Basilica</i> (<span class="grk" title="Ta basilika">&#932;&#8048; &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span>). In the East it completely superseded
+the old Latin <i>Corpus juris</i> of Justinian. More that was
+new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law
+than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of
+law, the <i>Canones</i>, were blended with those of civil law, and thus
+arose the so-called <i>Nomocanon</i>, the most important edition of
+which is that of Theodorus Bestes in 1090. The alphabetical
+handbook of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about
+the year 1335 also exercised a great influence.</p>
+
+<p>In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable
+fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of
+these long-forgotten studies was primarily due to
+Perso-Arabian influence. The <i>Great Syntaxis</i> of
+<span class="sidenote">Mathematics and astronomy.</span>
+Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the <i>Almagest</i>.
+The most important direct source of this intellectual
+loan was not Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close
+of the 13th century the Greeks became acquainted with Persian
+astronomy. At the beginning of the 14th century Georgius
+Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises
+based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves,
+notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at
+last had recourse to the original Greek sources.</p>
+
+<p>The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of
+<span class="sidenote">Military science.</span>
+military science. The most valuable work of the
+period on this subject is one on tactics, which has
+come down to posterity associated with the name of
+Leo VI., the Wise.</p>
+
+<p>Of profane poetry&mdash;in complete contrast to sacred poetry&mdash;the
+general characteristic was its close imitation of the antique
+in point of form. All works belonging to this category
+<span class="sidenote">Profane poetry.</span>
+reproduce the ancient style and are framed after
+ancient models. The metre is, for the most part,
+either the Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the
+&ldquo;political&rdquo; verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic
+measures.</p>
+
+<p>Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with
+the vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the
+literary works of the period there are several which can
+be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age.
+<span class="sidenote">Epic.</span>
+Nonnus (<i>c.</i> 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the
+triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a
+Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John.
+In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy
+iambic poems the martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while
+the deacon Theodosius (10th century) immortalized in extravagant
+language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span></p>
+
+<p>From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical,
+astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed
+partly in duodecasyllables and partly in &ldquo;political&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">Didactic poems.</span>
+verse, made their appearance in large quantities.
+Didactic religious poems were composed, for example,
+by Philippus (<span class="grk" title="ho Monotropos">&#8001; &#924;&#959;&#957;&#972;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>, Solitarius, <i>c.</i> 1100), grammatico-philological
+poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by Johannes
+Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel
+Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic
+epic by Georgius Lapithes (14th century).</p>
+
+<p>To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in
+style and matter must be regarded as imitations of the ancient
+Greek romances. They all date from the 12th century,
+a fact evidently connected with the general revival of
+<span class="sidenote">Romances.</span>
+culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two
+of these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre,
+viz. the story of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus,
+and an imitation of this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles
+by Nicetas Eugenianus; one in &ldquo;political&rdquo; verse, the love story
+of Aristander and Callithea by Constantine Manasses, which has
+only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in prose, the
+story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius (or Eumathius)
+Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all.</p>
+
+<p>The objective point of view which dominated the whole
+Byzantine period was fatal to the development of a profane
+lyrical poetry. At most a few poems by Johannes
+<span class="sidenote">Lyrics.</span>
+Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others,
+in which personal experiences are recorded with some show of
+taste, may be placed in this category. The dominant form
+for all subjective poetry was the epigram, which was employed
+in all its variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and
+narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th century) treated the
+most diverse themes. In the 9th century Theodorus of Studium
+had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing
+<span class="sidenote">The epigram.</span>
+monastic life in a series of epigrams. The same
+century produced the only poetess of the Byzantine
+period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic productions
+and church hymns, all characterized by originality.
+Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the
+10th and 11th centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres,
+Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less
+happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th century) and Manuel
+Philes (14th century). From the beginning of the 10th century
+also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byzantine
+epigrammatic poems, the <i>Anthologia Palatina</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anthology</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as
+completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the
+condition precedent to its existence, namely, public
+performance. Apart from some moralizing allegorical
+<span class="sidenote">Drama.</span>
+dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and others),
+we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at
+least in external form, resembles a drama: the <i>Sufferings of
+Christ</i> (<span class="grk" title="Christos Paschôn">&#935;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#8056;&#962; &#928;&#940;&#963;&#967;&#969;&#957;</span>). This work, written probably in the
+12th century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, <i>i.e.</i> is in great
+measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, <i>e.g.</i>
+Aeschylus, Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly
+not written with a view to the dramatic production.</p>
+
+<p>The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in
+contents. We have here remarkable originality of conception
+and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval
+matter. While in the artificial literature prose is
+<span class="sidenote">Vernacular Greek literature.</span>
+pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry,
+both in quantity and quality, takes the first place, as
+was also the case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar
+tongue first invaded the field of poetry and only later that of
+prose. Though a few preliminary attempts were made (proverbs,
+acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &amp;c.), the
+Greek vernacular was employed for larger works only from the
+12th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the major
+portion were cast in &ldquo;political&rdquo; verse, but some in the trochaic
+eight-syllabled line. Towards the close of the 15th century
+rhyme came into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular
+poetry are exceedingly diverse. In the capital city a mixture
+of the learned and the popular language was first used in poems
+of admonition, praise and supplication. In this oldest class
+of &ldquo;vulgar&rdquo; works must be reckoned the <i>Spaneas</i>, an admonitory
+poem in imitation of the letter of Pseudo-Isocrates addressed
+to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in prison by the
+chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of Theodorus
+Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period
+erotic poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs
+preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner,
+Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like romances such as the <i>Story of
+Ptocholeon</i>, oracles, prayers, extracts from Holy Writ, lives of
+saints, &amp;c. Great epic poems, in which antique subjects are
+treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form a
+separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after
+the manner of the works written in the artificial classical
+language, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Callimachus and Chrysorrhoë</i>, <i>Belthandrus and
+Chrysantza</i>, <i>Lybistrus and Rhodamne</i>, also romances in verse
+after the Western pattern, such as <i>Phlorius</i> and <i>Platziaphlora</i>
+(the old French story of <i>Flore et Blanchefleur</i>). Curious are
+also sundry legends connected with animals and plants, such
+as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables
+of the <i>Physiologus</i>, a history of quadrupeds, and a book
+of birds, both written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a
+rendering of the story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar
+originality also are several legendary and historical poems, in
+which famous heroes and historical events are celebrated.
+There are, for instance, poems on the fall of Constantinople, the
+taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating campaign of
+Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &amp;c. In respect of importance
+and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas
+stands pre-eminent.</p>
+
+<p>Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least
+in a compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering
+of two works from an Indian source, the <i>Book of the
+Seven Wise Masters</i> (as <i>Syntipas the Philosopher</i> by
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Vulgar&rdquo; prose works.</span>
+Michael Andreopulus), and the <i>Hitopadera</i> or <i>Mirror
+of Princes</i> (through the Arabic <i>Kalilah and Dimnah</i>
+by Simeon Sethus as <span class="grk" title="Stephanitês kai Iknêlatês">&#931;&#964;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#957;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7992;&#954;&#957;&#951;&#955;&#940;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>), a fish book, a
+fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles).
+To these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of
+Cyprus of the 12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &amp;c. In spite
+of many individual successes, the literature written in the
+vulgar tongue succumbed, in the race for existence, to its elder
+sister, the literature written in classical and polished Greek.
+This was mainly due to the continuous employment of the
+ancient language in the state, the schools and the church.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the
+history of the world is beyond dispute. The Christians of the
+East Roman empire guarded for more than a thousand
+years the intellectual heritage of antiquity against the
+<span class="sidenote">General significance of Byzantine literature.</span>
+violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called
+into life a peculiar medieval culture and literature.
+They communicated the treasures of the old pagan
+as well as of their own Christian literature to neighbouring
+nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the Armenians,
+the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the Serbs
+and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new
+East European culture, embodied above all in the Russian
+empire, which, on its religious side, is included in the Orthodox
+Eastern Church, and from the point of view of nationality
+touches the two extremes of Greek and Slav. Finally the learned
+men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing from the barbarism
+of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old Hellenic wisdom
+to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples with
+rich germs of culture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;1. General sources: K. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte
+der byzantinischen Literatur</i> (2nd ed., 1897), supplemented in <i>Die
+byzantinische Zeitschrift</i> (1892 seq.), and the <i>Byzantinisches Archiv</i>
+(1898 seq.), which is intended for the publication of more exhaustive
+matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised in
+the <i>Vizantiisky Vremennik</i> (1894 seq.).</p>
+
+<p>2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), <i>An</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span>
+<i>Historical Greek Grammar</i> (1897); A. Dieterich, &ldquo;Untersuchungen
+zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit
+bis zum 10ten Jahrhundert,&rdquo; in <i>Byzant. Archiv</i>, i. (1898). Glossary:
+Ducange, <i>Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis</i>
+(1688), in which particular attention is paid to the &ldquo;vulgar&rdquo;
+language; E. A. Sophocles, <i>Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine
+Periods</i> (3rd ed., 1888).</p>
+
+<p>3. Theology: Chief work, A. Ehrhard in Krumbacher&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte
+der byz. Lit.</i> pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on
+Greek patrology (under article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fathers of the Church</a></span>). Collective
+edition of the Fathers (down to the 15th century); <i>Patrologia,
+series Graeca</i> (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry:
+A collection of Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ
+and M. Paranikas, entitled <i>Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum</i>
+(1871). Many unedited texts, particularly the songs of
+Romanos, were published by Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the title
+<i>Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata</i> (1876). A complete
+edition of the hymns is edited by K. Krumbacher.</p>
+
+<p>4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine
+historians and chroniclers was begun under Louis XIV., and continued
+later (1648-1819), called the <i>Paris Corpus</i>. This whole
+collection was on B. G. Niebuhr&rsquo;s advice republished with some
+additions (Bonn, 1828-1878), under the title <i>Corpus scriptorum
+historiae Byzantinae</i>. The most important authors have also
+appeared in the <i>Bibliotheca Teubneriana</i>. A few Byzantine and
+oriental historical works are also contained in the collection edited
+by J. B. Bury (1898 seq.).</p>
+
+<p>5. Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective
+editions are: W. Wagner, <i>Medieval Greek Texts</i> (1870), <i>Carmina
+Graeca Medii Aevi</i> (1874), <i>Trois Poèmes grecs du moyen âge</i> (1881);
+E. Legrand, <i>Collection de monuments pour servir à l&rsquo;étude de la langue
+néo-hellénique</i> (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), <i>Bibliothèque grecque vulgaire</i>
+(in 8 vols., 1880-1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. Kr.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Modern Greek Literature (1453-1908)</p>
+
+<p>After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek
+national life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization
+naturally involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek
+literary production in the regions subjected to the rule of a
+barbarous conqueror. Learned Greeks found a refuge away
+from their native land; they spoke the languages of foreign
+people, and when they wrote books they often used those
+languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The
+fall of Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating
+a break in the continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had
+that event so decisive an influence as has been supposed on the
+revival of learning in western Europe. The crusades had
+already brought the Greeks and Westerns together, and the rule
+of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant had rendered
+the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed the
+dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches;
+some Greeks had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured
+to reconcile the two communions, some had attained preferment
+in the Roman Church. Many had become connected by marriage
+or other ties with the Italian nobles who ruled in the Aegean
+or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to settle in Italy.
+Of the writers who thus found their way to the West before the
+taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or
+Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and
+John Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and
+Cardinal Bessarion.</p>
+
+<p>The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in
+the plains to a condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty
+continued to breathe in the mountains, where groups
+of desperate men, the Klephts and the Haiduks,
+<span class="sidenote">The Klephtic poetry.</span>
+maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The
+adventurous and romantic life of these champions
+of freedom, spent amid the noblest solitudes of nature and often
+tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally produced a poetry
+of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely indigenous. The
+Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the language
+of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine
+Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the
+forests and mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity,
+which peopled nature with a thousand forms, they lend a voice
+to the trees, the rocks, the rivers and to the mountains themselves,
+which sing the prowess of the Klepht, bewail his death and
+comfort his disconsolate wife or mother. Olympia boasts to
+Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never desecrated its
+valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs; there
+is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on its
+summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying
+Klepht bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb
+that he may stand therein and load his musket: &ldquo;Make a
+window in the side that the swallows may tell me that spring has
+come, that the nightingales may sing me the approach of flowery
+May.&rdquo; The wounded Vervos is addressed by his horse: &ldquo;Rise,
+my master, let us go and find our comrades.&rdquo; &ldquo;My bay horse,
+I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod
+hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms
+to my companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that
+she may see it and lament me.&rdquo; Another type of the popular
+poetry is presented by the folk-songs of the Aegean islanders
+and the maritime population of the Asiatic coast. In many of
+the former the influence of the Frankish conquest is apparent.
+Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be found in the
+popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who
+struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as
+a rule he triumphs in the conflict.</p>
+
+<p>In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of
+Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek
+poetry arose strongly impressed with Italian influences.
+The language employed is the dialect of the Candiotes,
+<span class="sidenote">Cretan poets.</span>
+with its large admixture of Venetian words. The
+first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was <i>Erotocritos</i>,
+an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story of Aret&#275;,
+daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son
+of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of
+Greece under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing
+to describe an episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding
+some tedious passages, it possesses considerable merit and
+contains some charming scenes. The metre is the rhymed
+alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who lived in the
+middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he probably
+belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso
+was descended. The second poem is the <i>Erophile</i> of George
+Chortakis, a Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is
+a tragic drama, the scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue
+is poor, but there are some fine choral interludes, which perhaps
+are by a different hand. Chortakis, who was brought up at
+Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th
+centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of notice is the
+<i>Shepherdess</i>, a charming and graceful idyll written by Nicolas
+Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century.
+Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos
+(1500), who wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who
+endeavoured to write Pindaric odes.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a knowledge
+of Greek in Europe after the fall of Constantinople were
+John Argyropulos, Demetrius Chalcondyles, Constantine
+and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a
+<span class="sidenote">Literary activity after the fall of Constantinople.</span>
+Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary
+language; in general, however, they were rather
+employed about literature than engaged in producing
+it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek
+grammars; they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers,
+and they collected manuscripts. Their stores enriched the
+newly founded libraries of St Mark at Venice, of the Escorial,
+of the Vatican and of the National Library in Paris. But none
+of them accomplished much in literature strictly so called. The
+question which most deeply interested them was that of the rival
+merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, over which
+a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards the
+close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality theological
+rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed
+by the advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western
+Churches, that of Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party,
+and all the fury of the old Byzantine dogmatic controversies
+was revived. The patriarch, George Kurtesios or Gennadius,
+whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the capture of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span>
+Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and excommunicated
+Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among
+the Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who
+attacked Pletho with unmeasured virulence, was compelled
+to resign his post of secretary to Pope Nicholas V. and was
+imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was not wholly extinct
+in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time after the
+Turkish conquest. Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of
+Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and
+Euripides; his father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek
+proverbs. Aemilius Portos, a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650)
+of Chios edited a number of works of the classical and
+later periods with commentaries and translations; Allatios
+also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness. Constantine
+Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote
+verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the
+time of the fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers
+who wrote poems in the spoken dialect on historical subjects;
+among these were Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas
+Limenitis (1450-1500) and Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the
+16th century); their poems have little merit, but are interesting
+as specimens of the popular language of the day and as illustrating
+the manners and ideas of contemporary Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number
+of chroniclers. At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros,
+who had been private secretary of Mahommed II.,
+wrote the history of his master, Emmanuel Melaxos
+<span class="sidenote">Historical works.</span>
+a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history
+of the Palaeologi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a
+history of Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the 17th
+century Demetrius Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a
+history of the Ottoman empire, and G. Kontares tales of ancient
+Athens. Others composed chronicles of Cyprus and Crete,
+narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most of these
+works are written in the literary language, the study of which
+was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it
+maintained at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theological
+and philosophical works, grammars and dictionaries
+were written during this period, but elegant literature practically
+disappears.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor
+of the national uprising which resulted in the independence of
+Greece. The efforts of the great Phanariote families
+at Constantinople, the educational zeal of the higher
+<span class="sidenote">The literary revival.</span>
+Greek clergy and the munificence of wealthy Greeks
+in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired
+fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of
+education among a people always eager for instruction. The
+Turks, indifferent to educational matters, failed to discern the
+significance of the movement. Schools were established in
+every important Greek town, and school-books and translations
+from Western languages issued from the presses of Venice, Triest,
+Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed colonies.
+Young men completed their studies in the Western universities
+and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization.
+For the greater part of the 18th century the literature was
+mainly theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch
+were Elias Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are
+written in the popular language, and Meletios of Iannina,
+metropolitan of Athens, whose principal works were an ecclesiastical
+history, written in ancient Greek, and a descriptive
+geography of Greece in the modern language, composed, like the
+work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works of two
+distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent
+partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731?-1800) and
+Eugenios Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the
+national and literary renaissance. They wrote much in defence
+of Greek orthodoxy against Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous
+as a preacher, wrote, besides theological and controversial works,
+treatises on mathematics, geography and physics. Bulgares
+was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous translations and
+works on theology, archaeology, philosophy, mathematics,
+physics and astronomy; he translated the <i>Aeneid</i> and <i>Georgics</i>
+of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II. His
+writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries.</p>
+
+<p>The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were
+Constantinos Rhigas (<i>q.v.</i>), the Alcman of the revolutionary
+movement, whose songs fired the spirit of his fellow-countrymen;
+Christopoulos (1772-1847), a Phanariote,
+<span class="sidenote">Poets of the Greek revival.</span>
+who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos
+Rizos Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author
+of tragedies, comedies and lyrics, and of a work in French on
+modern Greek literature. They are followed in the epoch of
+Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes and Alexander
+Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos
+Rhangab&#275;s (Rhankaves, 1810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both
+Soutzos had a rich command of musical language, were highly
+ideal in their conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an
+ardent love of liberty. Both imitated to some extent Byron,
+Lamartine and Béranger; they tried various forms of poetry,
+but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially lyrical, that of
+Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek revival,
+Alexander Rizos Rhangab&#275;, was a writer with a fine poetic
+feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of
+thought and sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns,
+ballads, narrative poems, tragedies and comedies, he wrote
+several prose works, including a history of ancient Greece, a
+history of modern Greek literature, several novels and works on
+ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous dramatic
+works of this time may be mentioned the <span class="grk" title="Maria Doxipatrê">&#924;&#945;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#916;&#959;&#958;&#953;&#960;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#8134;</span> of
+Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is laid in
+the Morea at the time of the crusades.</p>
+
+<p>In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was
+marked by an abundant output. Among the historians the
+greatest is Spiridon Trikoupis, whose <i>History of the
+Revolution</i> is a monumental work. It is distinguished
+<span class="sidenote">Prose writers of the revival.</span>
+by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an
+impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the
+author played a leading part in the events which he narrates.
+Almost all the chiefs of the revolutionary movement left their
+memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who was illiterate, dictated his
+recollections. John Philemon, of Constantinople, wrote a history
+of the revolution in six volumes. He was an ardent partisan
+of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who was
+attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the Greek Nation</i> is especially valuable in regard to the later
+periods; in regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and
+Grote. With him may be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu,
+who wrote on Greek history and literature; Sakellarios, who
+dealt with the topography and history of Cyprus; N. Dragoumes,
+whose historical memoirs treat of the period which followed
+the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature
+and history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied
+by Miniates in the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones
+is well known by his <i>History of Patristic Literature of the First
+Three Centuries</i> and his <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, and Philotheos
+Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by his elaborate edition of <i>Clemens
+Romanus</i>. Kastorches wrote well on Latin literature. Great
+literary activity in the domains of law, political economy, mathematics,
+the physical sciences and archaeology displayed itself
+in the generation after the establishment of the Greek kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>But the writer who at the time of the national revival not
+only exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries
+but even to a large extent shaped the future course
+of Greek literature was Adamantios Coraës (Korais)
+<span class="sidenote">Coraës.</span>
+of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to
+philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot,
+and in the prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span>
+writers, written In Greek or French, he strove to awake the
+interest of his countrymen in the past glories of their race or
+administered to them sage counsels, at the same time addressing
+ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their behalf. The great
+importance of Coraës, however, lies in the fact that he was
+practically the founder of the modern literary language.</p>
+
+<p>In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the
+modern language present themselves&mdash;the vernacular (<span class="grk" title="hê
+kathomiloumenê">&#7969; &#954;&#945;&#952;&#959;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;</span>) and the purified (<span class="grk" title="hê kathareuousa">&#7969; &#954;&#945;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#8016;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#945;</span>).
+The former is the oral language, spoken by the whole
+<span class="sidenote">The modern literary language.</span>
+Greek world, with local dialectic variations; the
+latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers,
+modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the
+popular speech. At the time of the War of Independence the
+enthusiasm of the Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the
+memory of an illustrious past, and at its close a classical reaction
+followed: the ancient nomenclature was introduced in every
+department of the new state, towns and districts received their
+former names, and children were christened after Greek heroes
+and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In the literary
+revival which attended the national movement, two schools
+of writers made their appearance&mdash;the purists, who, rejecting
+the spoken idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the
+restoration of the classical language, and the vulgarists, who
+regarded the vernacular or &ldquo;Romaic&rdquo; as the genuine and
+legitimate representative of the ancient tongue. A controversy
+which had existed in former times was thus revived, with the
+result that a state of confusion still prevails in the national
+literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted
+with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical
+or newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language,
+which he can read with ease side by side with poems or even
+prose in the vernacular which he will be altogether unable to
+interpret.</p>
+
+<p>The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is universally
+spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by
+a natural and regular process, similar to that which
+has produced the Romance languages from the Latin,
+<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Coraës.</span>
+or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the
+old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with
+the modern European languages, and in obedience to the same
+laws; like them, it might have grown into a literary language
+had any great writers arisen in the middle ages to do for it what
+Dante and his successors of the <i>trecento</i> did for Italian. But
+the effort to adapt it to the requirements of modern literature
+could hardly prove successful. In the first place, the national
+sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to imitate the classical
+writers, and so far as possible to appropriate their diction.
+The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses such an
+attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly to
+adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom.
+In the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has
+already been formed which cannot easily be broken down. For
+more than half a century the generally accepted written language,
+half modern half ancient, has been in use in the schools, the
+university, the parliament, the state departments and the
+pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the more educated
+classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present form&mdash;though
+a fixed standard is still lacking&mdash;to the influence and
+teaching of Coraës. As in the time of the decadence a <span class="grk" title="koinê
+dialektos">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#8052; &#948;&#953;&#940;&#955;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> stood midway between the classical language and the
+popular speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there
+existed a common literary dialect, largely influenced by the
+vernacular, but retaining the characteristics of the old Hellenistic,
+from which it was derived by an unbroken literary tradition.
+This written language Coraës took as the basis of his reforms,
+purging it of foreign elements, preserving its classical remnants
+and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from the
+ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with
+a fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing
+alike the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident
+optimism of the vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular
+speech all the material for a <i>langue savante</i>. The language
+which he thus endeavoured to shape and reconstruct is, of
+course, conventional and artificial. In course of time it will
+probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter
+will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The
+spoken and written languages, however, will always be separated
+by a wide interval.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the
+vernacular, which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous
+expression of the feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798-1857),
+the greatest of them all, employed the dialect
+<span class="sidenote">Poetical writers in the vernacular.</span>
+of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are full of
+poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his
+&ldquo;Ode to Liberty.&rdquo; Other poets, of what may be
+described as the Ionic school, such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-1869),
+Julius Typaldos (1814-1883), John Zampelios (1787-1856),
+and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his example in
+using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios
+Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and
+Gerasimos Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands,
+adopted in their lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads&mdash;in
+other words, the vernacular of the Pindus range and the
+mountainous district of Epirus. This dialect had at least the
+advantage of being generally current throughout the mainland,
+while it derived distinction from the heroic exploits of the
+champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites, which are
+characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have made
+a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely
+employed the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from
+the Klephtic songs were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George
+Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules,
+a Cretan (d. 1893). With the poems of this group may
+be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835). The popular
+language has been generally adopted by the younger generation
+of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios
+(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes
+Palamas (b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and
+Jacob Polylas (d. 1896).</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there
+existed at Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the
+accepted literary language, and whose writings serve
+as models for the later group which gathered at Athens
+<span class="sidenote">Poetical writers in the conventional language.</span>
+after the emancipation of Greece. The literary
+traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangab&#275;s
+(1810-1892) and the brothers Alexander and Panagiotis
+Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who belonged
+to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion
+Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Karasoutzas
+(1824-1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873),
+and Achilles Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling,
+has also employed the popular language. In general the practice
+of versification in the conventional literary language has declined,
+though sedulously encouraged by the university of Athens, and
+fostered by annual poetic competitions with prizes provided by
+patriotic citizens. Greek lyric poetry during the first half of
+the century was mainly inspired by the patriotic sentiment
+aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the present
+generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic
+and contemplative mood under the influence of Western models.</p>
+
+<p>There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature
+in recent years. In succession to Alexander Rhangab&#275;s, John
+Zampelios and the two Soutzos, who belong to the
+past generation, Kleon Rhangab&#275;s, Angelos Vlachos,
+<span class="sidenote">Dramatists, translators and satirists.</span>
+Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes
+are the most prominent among modern dramatic
+writers. Numerous translations of foreign masterpieces
+have appeared, among which the metrical versions of
+<i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, <i>King Lear</i>, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Macbeth</i> and <i>The
+Merchant of Venice</i>, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as
+examples of artistic excellence. Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Faust</i> has been
+rendered into verse by Probelegios, and <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Antony and
+Cleopatra</i>, <i>Coriolanus and Julius Caesar</i>, into prose by Damiroles.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span>
+Among recent satirists, George Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique
+position. He reviews social and political events in the <span class="grk" title="Rhômêos">&#8172;&#969;&#956;&#8135;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+a witty little newspaper written entirely in verse, which is read
+with delight by all classes of the population.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary
+language. In historical research the Greeks continue to display
+much activity and erudition, but no great work
+comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Recent prose writers.</span>
+<i>History of the
+Revolution</i> has appeared in the present generation.
+A history of the Greek nation from the earliest times
+to the present day, by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history
+of the 19th century by Karolides, have recently been published.
+The valuable <span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia">&#924;&#957;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span> of Sathas, the <span class="grk" title="meletai Byzantinês historias">&#956;&#949;&#955;&#941;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#914;&#965;&#950;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#957;&#8134;&#962; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>
+of Spiridion Zampelios and Mavrogiannes&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+Ionian Islands</i> deserve special mention, as well as the essays
+of Bikelas, which treat of the Byzantine and modern epochs of
+Greek history. Some of the last-named were translated into
+English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the writers on
+jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios
+Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and
+John Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have
+written philosophical works. The <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of
+Diomedes Kyriakos and the <i>Theological Treatises</i> of Archbishop
+Latas should be noted. The best-known writers of philological
+works are Constantine Kontos, a strong advocate of literary
+purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore Papademetrakopoulos
+and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen Koumanoudes,
+Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a
+recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high
+authority on numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes
+on mathematics, Anast. Christomanos on chemistry, and
+Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well known.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding
+the emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign
+influence. Modern Greece has not produced any great
+novelist. The <span class="grk" title="Krêtikoi gamoi">&#922;&#961;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#947;&#940;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span> of Spiridion Zampelios,
+<span class="sidenote">Fiction.</span>
+the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the <i>Thanos Blechas</i>
+of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of
+historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the
+mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much
+cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In
+later times the short story has come into vogue through the
+example of D. Bikelas, whose tales have acquired great popularity;
+one of them, <i>Loukis Laras</i>, has been translated into
+many languages. The example of Bikelas has been followed by
+Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many
+others.</p>
+
+<p>The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the
+vernacular in prose is John Psichari, professor of the École des
+Hautes Études in Paris. He is the recognized leader of
+the vulgarists. Among the best known of his works
+<span class="sidenote">Prose writers in the vernacular.</span>
+are <span class="grk" title="To taxeidi mou">&#932;&#8056; &#964;&#945;&#958;&#949;&#8150;&#948;&#953; &#956;&#959;&#965;</span>, a narrative of a journey in Greek
+lands, <span class="grk" title="Toneiro tou Giannirê">&#932;&#8004;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#915;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#957;&#943;&#961;&#951;</span>, <span class="grk" title="Hê Zoulea">&#7977; &#918;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#949;&#945;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="ho Magos">&#8001; &#924;&#940;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>.
+The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in
+the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari&rsquo;s followers
+is M. Palli, who has recently published a translation of the <i>Iliad</i>.
+Owing to the limited resources of the popular language, the
+writers of this school are sometimes compelled to employ strange
+and little-known words borrowed from the various dialects.
+The vernacular has never been adopted by writers on scientific
+subjects, owing to its inherent unsuitability and the incongruity
+arising from the introduction of technical terms derived from
+the ancient language. Notwithstanding the zeal of its adherents,
+it seems unlikely to maintain its place in literature outside the
+domain of poetry; nor can any other result be expected, unless
+its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public instruction
+in Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which
+may be mentioned the <i>Athena</i>, edited by Constantine Kontos,
+the <i>Ethniké Agoge</i>, a continuation of the old <i>Hestia</i>, the
+<i>Harmonia</i> and the <span class="grk" title="Diaplasis tôn paidôn">&#916;&#953;&#940;&#960;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#945;&#943;&#948;&#969;&#957;</span>, an educational
+<span class="sidenote">Periodicals and Journals.</span>
+review. The Parnassos, the Archaeological Society and other
+learned bodies issue annual or quarterly reports. The Greek
+journals are both numerous and widely read. They contain
+much clever writing, which is often marred by inaccuracy
+and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their
+tendency to exaggerated patriotic sentiment sometimes
+borders on the ludicrous. For many years the Nea
+<i>Heméra</i> of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the Greek
+world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, Anastasios
+Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and
+judgment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Constantine Sathas, <span class="grk" title="Neoellênikê philologia">&#925;&#949;&#959;&#949;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span> (Athens,
+1868); D. Bikelas, <span class="grk" title="Peri neoellênikês philologias dokimion">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#957;&#949;&#959;&#949;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#948;&#959;&#954;&#943;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span> (London, 1871),
+reprinted in <span class="grk" title="Dialexeis kai anamnêseis">&#916;&#953;&#945;&#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7936;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#957;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> (Athens, 1893); J. S. Blackie,
+<i>Horae Hellenicae</i> (London, 1874); R. Nicolai, <i>Geschichte der neugriechischen
+Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangabé, <i>Histoire littéraire
+de la Grèce moderne</i> (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, <i>Études sur la
+littérature grecque moderne</i> (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, <i>Bibliothèque
+grecque vulgaire</i> (vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, <i>Poètes grecs contemporains</i>
+(Paris, 1881); Kontos, <span class="grk" title="Glôssikai paratêrêseis">&#915;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#951;&#961;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> (Athens,
+1882); Rhangabé and Sanders, <i>Geschichte der neugriechischen
+Literatur von ihren Anfängen bis auf die neueste Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1885);
+J. Psichari, <i>Essais de grammaire historique néo-grecque</i> (2 vols.,
+Paris, 1886 and 1889); <i>Études de philologie néo-grecque</i> (Paris,
+1892); F. Blass, <i>Die Aussprache des Griechischen</i> (3rd ed., Berlin,
+1888); Papademetrakopoulos, <span class="grk" title="Basanos hellênikês prophoras">&#914;&#940;&#963;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#962; &#7953;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#8118;&#962;</span> (Athens,
+1889); M. Konstantinides, <i>Neo-hellenica</i> (<i>Dialogues in Modern Greek,
+with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect</i>) (London, 1892); Rhoïdes,
+<span class="grk" title="Ta Eidôla. Glôssikê meletê">&#932;&#7937; &#917;&#7988;&#948;&#969;&#955;&#945;. &#915;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#956;&#949;&#955;&#941;&#964;&#951;</span> (Athens, 1893); Polites, <span class="grk" title="Meletai peri tou
+biou kai tês glôssês Hellênikou laou">&#924;&#949;&#955;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#8054; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#946;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#947;&#955;&#974;&#963;&#963;&#951;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8166; &#955;&#940;&#959;&#965;</span> (2 vols., Athens, 1899).</p>
+
+<p>For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, <i>Chants
+populaires de la Grèce moderne</i> (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow, <i>Popularia
+carmina Graeciae recentioris</i> (Leipzig, 1860); von Hahn,
+<i>Griechische und albanesische Märchen</i> (Leipzig, 1864); <span class="grk" title="Tepharikês,
+Lianotragouda">&#932;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#961;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#962;, &#923;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#964;&#961;&#940;&#947;&#959;&#965;&#948;&#945;</span> (2nd ed., Athens, 1868); E. Legrand, <i>Recueil de chansons
+populaires grecques</i> (Paris, 1874); <i>Recueil de contes populaires grecs</i>
+(Paris, 1881); Paul de Lagarde, <i>Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien</i>
+(Göttingen, 1886); A. Jannaris, <span class="grk" title="Asmata Krêtika">&#7948;&#963;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#922;&#961;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span> (<i>Kreta&rsquo;s Volkslieder</i>)
+(Leipzig, 1876); A. Sakellariou, <span class="grk" title="Ta Kypriaka">&#932;&#8048; &#922;&#965;&#960;&#961;&#953;&#945;&#954;&#940;</span> (Athens,
+1891); <span class="grk" title="Zôgrapheios Hagôn">&#918;&#969;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#962; &#7945;&#947;&#974;&#957;</span>, published by the <span class="grk" title="Hellênikos philologikos
+syllogos">&#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#963;&#973;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span> (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, <i>Greek
+Folksongs from the Turkish Provinces of Greece</i> (London, 1885);
+E. M. Geldart, <i>Folklore of Modern Greece</i> (London, 1884). Lexicons:
+A. N. Jannaris, <i>A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern
+Greek Languages</i> (English-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios
+(Skarlatos D.), <span class="grk" title="Lexikon tês Hellênikês glôssês">&#923;&#949;&#958;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#947;&#955;&#974;&#963;&#963;&#951;&#962;</span> (Athens, 1895);
+A. Sakellario, <span class="grk" title="Lexikon tês Hellênikês glôssês">&#923;&#949;&#958;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#947;&#955;&#974;&#963;&#963;&#951;&#962;</span> (5th ed., Athens, 1898);
+S. Koumanoudes, <span class="grk" title="Synagôgê neôn lexeôn">&#931;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#8052; &#957;&#941;&#969;&#957; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#969;&#957;</span> (Athens, 1900). Grammars:
+Mitsotakes, <i>Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und
+Umgangssprache</i> (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, <i>A Practical Modern
+Greek Grammar</i> (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, <i>Einleitung in
+die neugriechische Grammatik</i> (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G.
+Dickson, <i>Handbook to Modern Greek</i> (London, 1893); A. Thumb,
+<i>Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache</i> (Strassburg, 1895);
+C. Wied, <i>Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch
+Selbstunterricht schnell und leicht zu lernen</i> (2nd ed., undated,
+Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, <i>Historical Greek Grammar</i> (London,
+1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Allen in <i>Classical
+Quarterly</i> (Jan. and April 1908).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Others attribute it, as well as the <i>Margites</i>, to Pigres of Halicarnassus,
+the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia,
+who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy
+quotations in the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Since the above was written, four considerable fragments
+generally assigned to Sappho have been discovered: a prayer to
+the Nereids for the safe return of her brother Charaxus; the leave-taking
+of a favourite pupil; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends,
+in Lydia; the fourth, much mutilated, addressed to another pupil,
+Gongyla. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light
+on the personality of Sappho and the language and metre of her
+poems.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Recently increased by specimens of the <i>Partheneia</i> (choral
+songs for maidens) and paeans.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> His Constitution of Athens (<i>q.v.</i>), of which a papyrus MS. was
+found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms part of a larger work
+on the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, &ldquo;Eine alexandrinische
+Weltchronik&rdquo; (1905) (<i>Denkschrift der kaiserlich. Akademie der
+Wissenschaften</i>, li.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for
+a time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made
+him many enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constantinople,
+from which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning
+the faith of Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the
+Jesuits, and his printing-press was suppressed.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEK RELIGION.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> The recent development of anthropological
+science and of the comparative study of religions has
+enabled us at last to assign to ancient Greek religion its proper
+place in the classification of creeds and to appreciate its importance
+for the history of civilization. In spite of all the diversities
+of local cults we may find a general definition of the theological
+system of the Hellenic communities, and with sufficient accuracy
+may describe it as an anthropomorphic polytheism, preserving
+many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period, unchecked by
+any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and therefore
+pliantly adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of the
+social and political history of the race, and easily able to assimilate
+alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole or
+in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more
+capable of progress than others, possibly higher, that have
+crystallized at an early period into a fixed dogmatic type; and
+as, owing to its essential character, it could not be convulsed
+by any inner revolution that might obliterate the deposits of
+its earlier life, it was likely to preserve the imprints of the successive
+ages of culture, and to reveal more clearly than any other
+testimony the evolution of the race from savagery to civilization.
+Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with incongruities,
+the highest forms of religious life being often confronted with the
+most primitive. And for this reason the student of savage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span>
+anthropology and the student of the higher religions of the
+world are equally rewarded by its study.</p>
+
+<p>Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the
+Hellenic nation, like others that have played great parts in
+history, was the product of a blend of populations, the conquering
+tribes of Aryan descent coming from the north and settling among
+and upon certain pre-Hellenic Mediterranean stocks. The conclusion
+that is naturally drawn from this is that Hellenic religion
+is also the product of a blend of early Aryan or Indo-Germanic
+beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the Mediterranean
+area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which the
+later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two component
+parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first
+problem for the history of the development of this religion, is
+by no means an easy task; we may advance further towards
+its solution, when the mysterious pre-Hellenic Mediterranean
+language or group of languages, of which traces remain in
+Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying uninterpreted
+on the brick-tablets of the palace of Cnossus, has found its
+interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language.
+But the comparative study of the Indo-European speech-group,
+great as its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre
+in its contributions to our positive knowledge of the original
+belief of the primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct
+a common Indo-European religion. The greater part of the
+separate Aryan cult-systems may have developed after the
+diffusion and may have been the result of contact in prehistoric
+days with non-Aryan peoples. And many old religious etymological
+equations, such as <span class="grk" title="Ouranos">&#927;&#8016;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span> = Sanskrit Varuna, <span class="grk" title="Hermês">&#7961;&#961;&#956;&#8134;&#962;</span> =
+Saramey&#257;s, Athena = Ahana, were uncritically made and have
+been abandoned. The chief fact that philology has revealed
+concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is that
+many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word
+derived from a root meaning &ldquo;bright,&rdquo; and which appears in
+Zeus, Jupiter, Sanskrit <i>Dyaus</i>. This is important enough,
+but we should not exaggerate its importance, nor draw the
+unwarranted inference that therefore the primitive Indo-Europeans
+worshipped one supreme God, the Sky-Father.
+Besides the word &ldquo;Zeus,&rdquo; the only other names of the Hellenic
+pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of
+Aryan formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus
+(whose name and cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the
+Thraco-Phrygians) and probably Pan. But other names, such
+as Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis, Hera, Hermes, have no
+discovered affinities with other Aryan speech-groups; and yet
+there is nothing suspiciously non-Aryan in the formation of these
+words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest Hellenic-Aryan
+vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea,
+Hephaestus and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that
+they belonged to an older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in
+Crete and other islands, and here and there on the mainland;
+while we know that Zeus derived certain unintelligible titles
+in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan speech.</p>
+
+<p>A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence justifies
+the conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes,
+pushing down from the north, already possessed certain deities
+in common such as Zeus, Poseidon and Apollo with whom they
+associated certain goddesses, and that they maintained the cult
+of Hestia or &ldquo;Holy Hearth.&rdquo; Further, a comparison of the
+developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples suggests
+that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity,
+although we have equally good reason to assert that the cult of
+goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is a genuinely
+&ldquo;Aryan&rdquo; product. But when the tribes of this family poured
+into the Greek peninsula, it is probable that they would find
+in certain centres of a very ancient civilization, such as Argolis
+and Crete, the dominant cult of a female divinity.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The recent
+excavations on the site of the Hera temple at Argos prove that a
+powerful goddess was worshipped here many centuries before it
+is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He may have
+even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with
+him and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are
+certain that the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by
+Dr Arthur Evans, is the ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek
+&ldquo;Mother of the gods&rdquo;: and it is a reasonable conjecture that
+she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis and perhaps for
+Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in assuming
+as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult,
+as that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non-Hellenic
+religious phenomenon. The very name &ldquo;Demeter&rdquo;
+and the study of other Aryan religions prove the prominence
+of the worship of the earth-goddess in our own family of the
+nations. Finally, we must reckon with the possibility that the
+other great nations which fringed the Mediterranean, Hittite,
+Semitic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress on early Greek
+religion, although former scholars may have made rash use of
+this hypothesis.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems
+concerning the ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at
+least reduce the tangle of facts to some order by
+distinguishing its lower from its higher forms, and
+<span class="sidenote">Animism.</span>
+thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We
+may collect and sift the phenomena that remain over from a
+pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past,
+the beliefs and practices that belong to the animistic or even the
+pre-animistic period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human
+sacrifice. We shall at once be struck with the contrast between
+such civilized cults as those of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal
+divinities to whom the attributes of a progressive morality could
+be attached, and practices that long survived in backward
+communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the thunder and
+the winds, the cult of Zeus <span class="grk" title="Keraunos">&#922;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#965;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span> &ldquo;the thunder&rdquo; at Mantinea
+and Zeus <span class="grk" title="Kappôtas">&#922;&#945;&#960;&#960;&#974;&#964;&#945;&#962;</span> in Laconia, who is none other than the
+mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These
+are examples of a religious view in which certain natural phenomena
+or objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred
+in their own right and a personal divinity has not yet emerged
+or been separated from them. A noteworthy product of primitive
+animistic feeling is the universally prevalent cult of Hestia,
+who is originally &ldquo;Holy Hearth&rdquo; pure and simple, and who
+even under the developed polytheism, in which she played no
+small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic
+personage.</p>
+
+<p>The animistic belief that certain material objects can be
+charged with a divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism,
+a term which properly denotes the worshipful or
+superstitious use of objects made by art and invested
+<span class="sidenote">Fetishism</span>
+with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for
+the purposes of protective magic or for higher purposes of
+communion with the divinity. From the earliest discoverable
+period down to the present day fetishism has been a powerful
+factor in the religion of the Graeco-Roman world. The importance
+of the sacred stone and pillar in the &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; period which preceded Homer has been impressively
+shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship
+continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the
+rude aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often
+by the side of the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable conjecture
+that the earliest anthropomorphic images of divinities,
+which were beginning to make their appearance by the time of
+Homer, were themselves evolved by slow transformation from
+the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may have
+arisen as another form of this; the simple heap of stones, such
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span>
+as those erected to Hermes by the way-side and called <span class="grk" title="Hermaioi
+lophoi">&#7961;&#961;&#956;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#953; &#955;&#972;&#966;&#959;&#953;</span>, may have served both as a place of worship and as an
+<i>agalma</i> that could attract and absorb a divine potency into
+itself. Hence the fetishistic power of the altar was fully
+recognized in Greek ritual, and hence also in the cult of
+Apollo Agyieus the god and the altar are called by the same
+name.</p>
+
+<p>It has been supposed that the ancestors of the historic Greeks,
+before they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as in
+human form, may have been accustomed to invest them with
+animal attributes and traits. We must not indeed suppose it
+to be a general law of religious evolution that &ldquo;theriomorphism&rdquo;
+must always precede anthropomorphism and that the latter
+transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems can
+exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can
+conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at
+another bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was
+devotedly anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its
+weakness; nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine
+his Dionysus entering temporarily into the body of the sacrificial
+bull or goat, and the men of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to
+their horse-headed Demeter, and the primitive Laconians
+possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Theriolatry in itself, <i>i.e.</i> the
+worship of certain animals as of divine power in their own right,
+apart from any association with higher divinities, can scarcely
+be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They
+are not found to have paid reverence to any species, though
+individual animals could acquire temporarily a divine character
+through communion with the altar or with the god. The wolf
+might at one time have been regarded as the incarnation of
+Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there we find faint traces of
+a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for wolves. But the
+occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of actual
+worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptuous
+funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolf&rsquo;s
+relatives, yet the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf&rsquo;s
+head. Nor did any Greek individual or state worship flies as a
+class, although a small oblation might be thrown to the flies
+before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the Leucadian rock, to
+please them and to persuade them not to worry the worshippers
+at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would be
+likely to attract them.</p>
+
+<p>Theriolatry suggests totemism; and though we now know
+that the former can arise and exist quite independently of the
+latter, recent anthropologists have interpreted the
+apparent sanctity or prestige of certain animals in
+<span class="sidenote">Totemism.</span>
+parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit
+of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation,
+originated and maintained with great acumen by Andrew Lang
+and W. Robertson Smith, appears now somewhat hazardous;
+and as a scientific hypothesis there are many flaws in it. The
+more observant study of existing totem-tribes has weakened
+our impression of the importance of totemism as a primitive
+religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a
+social than as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard
+totemism as a mere system of nomenclature, by which a tribe
+names itself after some animal or plant, then we might quote a
+few examples of Hellenic tribes totemistic in this sense. But
+totemism is a fact of importance only when it affects the tribal
+marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the tribal marriage
+laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray no clear
+mark of totemistic arrangements; nor does the totemism of
+contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such
+way as to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar
+phenomena of early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we
+have traces of a snake-tribe in Greece, the <span class="grk" title="Ophieis">&#8008;&#966;&#953;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span> in Aetolia,
+the <span class="grk" title="Ophiogeneis">&#8008;&#966;&#953;&#959;&#947;&#949;&#957;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span> in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that
+these worshipped the snake, though the latter clan were on terms
+of intimacy with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped
+in Hellenic cult&mdash;the cases are few and doubtful&mdash;it may have
+been regarded as the incarnation of the ancestor or as the <i>avatar</i>
+of the under-world divinity.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, among the primitive or savage phenomena the
+practice of human sacrifice looms large. Encouraged at one
+time by the Delphic oracle, it was becoming rare and
+<span class="sidenote">Human sacrifice.</span>
+repellent to the conscience by the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>;
+but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even
+by the time of Porphyry. The facts are very complex
+and need critical handling, and a satisfying scientific explanation
+of them all is still to be sought.</p>
+
+<p>We can now observe the higher aspects of the advanced
+polytheism. And at the outset we must distinguish between
+mythology and religion strictly understood, between the stories
+about the divinities and the private or public religious service.
+No doubt the former are often a reflection of the latter, in many
+cases being suggested by the ritual which they may have been
+invented to interpret, and often envisaging important cult-ideas.
+Such for example are the myths about the purification and trial
+of Orestes, Theseus, Ixion, the story of Demeter&rsquo;s sorrow, of the
+sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition
+of human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irresponsible,
+without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal
+prohibition; and frequently it sank below the level of the
+current religion, which was almost free from the impurities
+which shock the modern reader of Hellenic myths. Nor again
+did any one feel himself called upon to believe any particular
+myth; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in which the term
+is used in Christian theology, as the will to believe certain
+dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity,
+is a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic
+ethics or religious doctrine; only, if a man proclaimed his
+disbelief in the existence of the gods and refused to join in the
+ritual of the community, he would become &ldquo;suspect,&rdquo; and
+might at times be persecuted by his fellows. Greek religion
+was not so much an affair of doctrine as of ritual, religious
+formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities were an important
+component, and prayer; and the most illuminative
+sources of our knowledge of it are the ritual-inscriptions and
+other state-documents, the private dedications, the monuments
+of religious art and certain passages in the literature, philology
+and archaeology being equally necessary to the equipment of
+the student.</p>
+
+<p>We are tempted to turn to Homer as the earliest authority.
+And though Homer is not primitive and does not present even
+an approximately complete account of Greek religion,
+we can gather from his poems a picture of an advanced
+<span class="sidenote">Religion in Homer.</span>
+polytheism which in form and structure at least is
+that which was presented to the world of Aeschylus.
+We discern a pantheon already to some extent systematized,
+a certain hierarchy and family of divinities in which the
+supremacy of Zeus is established as incontestable. And the
+anthropomorphic impulse, the strongest trend in the Greek
+religious imagination, which filled the later world with fictitious
+personages, generating transparent shams such as an Ampidromus
+for the ritual of the Ampidromia, Amphiction for the
+Amphictiones, a hero <span class="grk" title="Keramos">&#922;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> for the gild of potters, is already
+at its height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already
+clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically
+shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could
+work upon, not vaguely conceived <i>numina</i> like the forms of the
+old Roman religion. Nor can we call them for the most part
+nature-deities like the personages of the Vedic system, thinly
+disguised &ldquo;personifications&rdquo; of natural phenomena. Athena
+is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun; they are simply Athena
+and Apollo, divine personages with certain powers and character,
+as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for Christendom.
+By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate position,
+we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may
+properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river-deities,
+forms descending probably from a remote animistic
+period, but maintaining themselves within the popular religion
+till the end of Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and
+think at times with levity and <i>banalité</i> about his deities, his
+deeper utterances impute an advanced morality to the supreme
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span>
+God. His Zeus is on the whole a power of righteousness, dealing
+with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never being himself the
+author of evil&mdash;an idea revealed in the opening passage of the
+<i>Odyssey</i>&mdash;but protecting the good and punishing the wicked.
+Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both
+for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as it is in
+Judaic and Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides
+protested strongly against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus
+is equally a god of pity and mercy, and the man who neglects
+the prayers of the sorrowful and afflicted, who violates the
+sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or oppresses the poor or
+the wanderer, may look for divine punishment. Though not
+regarded as the physical author of the universe or the Creator,
+he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though
+the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed
+in the Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men that
+they reveal are on the whole genial and social; the deity sits
+unseen at the good man&rsquo;s festal sacrifice, and there is a simple
+apprehension of the idea of divine communion. There is also
+indeed a glimmering of the dark background of the nether
+world, and the chthonian powers that might send up the Erinys
+to fulfil the curse of the wronged. Yet on the whole the religious
+atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that of
+the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition; nor is
+Homer troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely
+recognizes the cult of the dead,<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and is not oppressed by fear
+of the ghost-world.</p>
+
+<p>If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek
+public and private worship of the historic period we find much
+in it that agrees with Homeric theology. His
+&ldquo;Olympian&rdquo; system retains a certain life almost to
+<span class="sidenote">The post-Homeric period.</span>
+the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to
+suppose that it had lost its hold upon the people of
+the 5th and 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> We find it, indeed, enriched in
+the post-Homeric period with new figures of prestige and power;
+Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly heard, becomes a
+high god with a worship full of promise for the future. Demeter
+and Kore, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well
+enough but could not use for his epic purposes, attract the ardent
+affections and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the
+old poet did not recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place
+in the later shrines. But much that has been said of the Homeric
+may be said of the later classical theology. The deities remain
+anthropomorphic, and appear as clearly defined individuals.
+A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is supreme, even in
+the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities played
+many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the departmental
+system of divine functions; certain members of the
+pantheon had a preference for the life of the fields, but as the
+<i>polis</i> emerged from the village communities, Demeter, Hermes,
+Artemis and others, the gods and goddesses of the husbandmen
+and shepherds, become powers of the council-chamber and the
+market-place. The moral ideas that we find in the Homeric
+religion are amply attested by cult-records of the later period.
+The deities are regarded on the whole as beneficent, though
+revengeful if wronged or neglected; the cult-titles used in prayer,
+which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and
+wish of the worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the
+doubtful title of Demeter Erinys being possibly an exception.
+The important cults of Zeus <span class="grk" title="Hikesios">&#7993;&#954;&#941;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="Prostropaios">&#928;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#972;&#960;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, the
+suppliant&rsquo;s protecting deity, embody the ideas of pity and mercy
+that mark advanced religion; and many momentous steps in
+the development of morality and law were either suggested or
+assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity of
+the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness,
+was originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may
+have been prone to perjury, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic
+religious ethics regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of
+family duties, the sacredness of the life of the kinsman, were
+ideas fostered by early Hellenic religion before they generated
+principles of secular ethics. In the post-Homeric period, the
+development of the doctrine of purity, which was associated
+with the Apolline religion, combining with a growing dread of
+the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many important
+ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+And the beginnings of international law and morality were
+rooted in religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state-life
+was indebted in manifold ways to Greek religion, and the
+study of the Greek oracles would alone supply sufficient testimony
+of this. In many cases the very origin of the state was religious,
+the earliest <i>polis</i> sometimes having arisen under the shadow
+of the temple.</p>
+
+<p>Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state,
+and the priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic.
+Secular advance, moral progress and the march of science,
+could never long be thwarted by religious tradition; on the
+contrary, speculative thought and artistic creation were considered
+as attributes of divinity. We may say that the religion
+of Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people, but rather
+as a servant than as a master.</p>
+
+<p>Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of
+the clan and family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania
+and Samothrace, and the private services of the mystic brotherhoods.
+The latter were scattered broadcast over Hellas, and
+the influence of the former was strengthened and their significance
+intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread at first from
+the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards, and
+derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic
+brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the
+religious consciousness, and we find a strong Salvationist tendency,
+the promise of salvation relying on mystic communion with
+the deity. Also a new and vital principle is at work; Orphism
+is the only force in Greek religion of a clear apostolic purpose,
+for it broke the barriers of the old tribal and civic cults, and
+preached its message to bond and free, Hellene and barbarian.</p>
+
+<p>The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned
+with its gradual penetration by Oriental ideas and worships,
+and the results of this <span class="grk" title="theokrasia">&#952;&#949;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#945;</span> are discerned in an ever increasing
+mysticism and a tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated
+as the old Hellenic religion appeared to be by Christianity, it
+nevertheless retained a certain life, though transformed, under
+the new creed to which it lent much of its hieratic organization
+and religious terminology. The indebtedness of Christianity
+to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of comparative
+religion; and for an adequate estimate a minute
+knowledge of the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of
+the essential conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Older Authorities: A. Maury, <i>Histoire des
+religions de la Grèce antique</i> (3 vols., 1857-1859); Welcker, <i>Griechische
+Götterlehre</i> (3 vols., 1857-1863); Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>,
+2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887), all antiquated in regard to
+theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent
+Literature&mdash;(<i>a</i>) General Treatises: O. Gruppe, &ldquo;Griechische
+Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte&rdquo; in Iwan von Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch
+der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, v. 2. 2 (1902-1906); L.
+R. Farnell&rsquo;s <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, 4 vols. (1896-1906, vol. 5,
+1908); Miss Jane Harrison&rsquo;s <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
+Religion</i> (ed. 1908); Chantepie de la Saussaye&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte</i>
+(Greek section, 1904); (<i>b</i>) Special Works or Dissertations:
+articles in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und
+römischen Mythologie</i>, and Pauly-Wissowa <i>Encyklopädie</i> (1894-&emsp;&emsp;);
+Immerwahr, <i>Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens</i> (1891); Wide, <i>Lakonische
+Kulte</i> (1893); de Visser, <i>De Graecorum diis non referentibus speciem
+humanam</i> (Leiden, 1900). Greek Ritual and Festivals&mdash;A. Mommsen,
+<i>Feste der Stadt Athen</i> (1898); P. Stengel, &ldquo;Die griechischen Sacralaltertümer&rdquo;
+in Iwan von Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch</i>, v. 3 (1898);
+W. H. D. Rouse, <i>Greek Votive Offerings</i> (1902). Greek Religious
+Thought and Speculation&mdash;L. Campbell&rsquo;s <i>Religion in Greek Literature</i>
+(1898); Ducharme, <i>La Critique des traditions religieuses chez les
+Grecs des origines au temps de Plutarque</i> (Paris, 1904). See also
+articles on individual deities, and cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mysteries</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mithras</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. R. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This has often been explained as a result of <i>Mutterrecht</i>, or
+reckoning descent through the female: for reasons against this
+hypothesis see L. R. Farnell in <i>Archiv für vergleichende Religionswissenschaft</i>
+(1904); cf. A. J. Evans, &ldquo;Mycenaean Tree and Pillar
+Cult,&rdquo; in <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i> (1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> V. Bérard has recently revived the discredited theory of a
+prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical
+work, <i>L&rsquo;Origine des cultes arcadiens</i>. M. P. Foucart believes in
+very early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion
+of Demeter and Dionysus; see <i>Les Grands Mystères d&rsquo;Éleusis</i> and
+<i>Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> This became very powerful from the 7th century onward, and
+there are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric,
+or Mycenaean, period; <i>vide</i> Rohde&rsquo;s <i>Psyche</i> (new edition), Tsountas
+and Manatt, <i>The Mycenaean Age</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See L. R. Farnell, <i>Evolution of Religion</i> (Hibbert Lectures,
+1905), pp. 139-152.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREELEY, HORACE<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1811-1872), American statesman and
+man of letters, was born at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the
+3rd of February 1811. His parents were of Scottish-Irish descent,
+but the ancestors of both had been in New England for several
+generations. He was the third of seven children. His father,
+Zaccheus Greeley, owned a farm of 50 acres of stony, sterile
+land, from which a bare support was wrung. Horace was a
+feeble and precocious lad, taking little interest in the ordinary
+sports of childhood, learning to read before he was able to talk
+plainly, and the prodigy of the neighbourhood for accurate
+spelling. Before Horace was ten years old (1820), his father
+became bankrupt, his home was sold by the sheriff, and Zaccheus
+Greeley himself fled the state to escape arrest for debt. The
+family soon removed to West Haven, Vermont, where, all
+working together, they made a scanty living as day labourers.
+Horace from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely
+eleven years old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office
+at Whitehall, New York, but was rejected on account of his
+youth. After three years more with the family as a day labourer
+at West Haven, he succeeded, with his father&rsquo;s consent, in being
+apprenticed in the office of <i>The Northern Spectator</i>, at East
+Poultney, Vermont. Here he soon became a good workman,
+developed a passion for politics and especially for political
+statistics, came to be depended upon for more or less of the
+editing of the paper, and was a figure in the village debating
+society. He received only $40 a year, but he sent most of his
+money to his father. In June 1830 <i>The Northern Spectator</i> was
+suspended. Meantime his father had removed to a small tract
+of wild land in the dense forests of Western Pennsylvania,
+30 m. from Erie. The released apprentice now visited his parents,
+and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile
+seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he
+got it, giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last, with
+no further prospect of work nearer home, he started for New
+York. He travelled on foot and by canal-boat, entering New
+York in August 1831, with all his clothes in a bundle carried
+over his back with a stick, and with but $10 in his pocket.
+More than half of this sum was exhausted while he made vain
+efforts to find employment. Many refused to employ him, in
+the belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor,
+ill-fitting apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against
+him. At last he found work on a 32mo New Testament, set
+in agate, double columns, with a middle column of notes in
+pearl. It was so difficult and so poorly paid that other printers
+had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded in making enough
+to pay his board bill, but he finished the task, and thus found
+subsequent employment easier to get.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1833 Greeley formed a partnership with Francis
+V. Story, a fellow-workman. Their combined capital amounted
+to about $150. Procuring their type on credit, they opened a
+small office, and undertook the printing of the <i>Morning Post</i>, the
+first cheap paper published in New York. Its projector, Dr
+Horatio D. Shepard, meant to sell it for one cent, but under the
+arguments of Greeley he was persuaded to fix the price at two
+cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the printers
+losing only $50 or $60 by the experiment. They still had a <i>Bank
+Note Reporter</i> to print, and soon got the printing of a tri-weekly
+paper, the <i>Constitutionalist</i>, the organ of some lottery dealers.
+Within six months Story was drowned, but his brother-in-law,
+Jonas Winchester, took his place in the firm. Greeley was now
+asked by James Gordon Bennett to go into partnership with him
+in starting <i>The Herald</i>. He declined the venture, but recommended
+the partner whom Bennett subsequently took. On the 2nd of
+March 1834, Greeley and Winchester issued the first number of
+<i>The New Yorker</i>, a weekly literary and news paper, the firm then
+supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of the first number
+they sold about 100 copies; of the second, nearly 200. There
+was an average increase for the next month of about 100 copies
+per week. The second volume began with a circulation of about
+4550 copies, and with a loss on the first year&rsquo;s publication of
+$3000. The second year ended with 7000 subscribers and a
+further loss of $2000. By the end of the third year <i>The New
+Yorker</i> had reached a circulation of 9500 copies, and had sustained
+a total loss of $7000. It was published seven years (until the
+20th of September 1841), and was never profitable, but it was
+widely popular, and it gave Greeley, who was its sole editor,
+much prominence. On the 5th of July 1836 Greeley married
+Miss Mary Y. Cheney, a Connecticut school teacher, whom he had
+met in a Grahamite (vegetarian) boarding-house in New York.</p>
+
+<p>During the publication of <i>The New Yorker</i> he added to the
+scanty income which the job printing brought him by supplying
+editorials to the short-lived <i>Daily Whig</i> and various other publications.
+In 1838 he had gained such standing as a writer that he
+was selected by Thurlow Weed, William H. Seward, and other
+leaders of the Whig Party, for the editorship of a campaign paper
+entitled <i>The Jeffersonian</i>, published at Albany. He continued
+<i>The New Yorker</i>, and travelled between Albany and New York
+each week to edit the two papers. The <i>Jeffersonian</i> was a quiet and
+instructive rather than a vehement campaign sheet, and the
+Whigs believed that it had a great effect upon the elections of
+the next year. When, on the 2nd of May 1840, some time after
+the nomination by the Whig party of William Henry Harrison
+for the Presidency, Greeley began the publication of a new
+weekly campaign paper, <i>The Log Cabin</i>, it sprang at once into a
+great circulation; 40,000 copies of the first number were sold,
+and it finally rose to 80,000. It was considered a brilliant
+political success, but it was not profitable, and in September
+1841 was merged in the <i>Weekly Tribune</i>. On the 3rd of April
+1841, Greeley announced that on the following Saturday (April
+10th) he would begin the publication of a daily newspaper of the
+same general principles, to be called <i>The Tribune</i>. He was now
+entirely without money. From a personal friend, James Coggeshall,
+he borrowed $1000, on which capital and the editor&rsquo;s reputation
+<i>The Tribune</i> was founded. It began with 500 subscribers.
+The first week&rsquo;s expenses were $525 and the receipts $92. By
+the end of the fourth week it had run up a circulation of 6000, and
+by the seventh reached 11,000, which was then the full capacity
+of its press. It was alert, cheerful and aggressive, was greatly
+helped by the attacks of rival papers, and promised success
+almost from the start.</p>
+
+<p>From this time Greeley was popularly identified with <i>The
+Tribune</i>, and its share in the public discussion of the time is his
+history. It soon became moderately prosperous, and his assured
+income should have placed him beyond pecuniary worry. His
+income was long above $15,000 per year, frequently as much as
+$35,000 or more. But he lacked business thrift, inherited a
+disposition to endorse for his friends, and was often unable to
+distinguish between deserving applicants for aid and adventurers.
+He was thus frequently straitened, and, as his necessities pressed,
+he sold successive interests in his newspaper. At the outset he
+owned the whole of it. When it was already firmly established
+(in July 1841), he took in Thomas McElrath as an equal partner,
+upon the contribution of $2000 to the common fund. By the
+1st of January 1849 he had reduced his interest to 31½ shares out
+of 100; by July 2nd, 1860, to 15 shares; in 1868 he owned only
+9; and in 1872, only 6. In 1867 the stock sold for $6500 per
+share, and his last sale was for $9600. He bought wild lands,
+took stock in mining companies, desiccated egg companies,
+patent looms, photo-lithographic companies, gave away profusely,
+lent to plausible rascals, and was the ready prey of every
+new inventor who chanced to find him with money or with
+property that he could readily convert into money.</p>
+
+<p>In September 1841 Greeley merged his weekly papers, <i>The
+Log Cabin</i> and <i>The New Yorker</i>, into <i>The Weekly Tribune</i>, which
+soon attained as wide circulation as its predecessors, and was
+much more profitable. It rose in a time of great political excitement
+to a total circulation of a quarter of a million, and it sometimes
+had for successive years 140,000 to 150,000. For several
+years it was rarely much below 100,000. Its subscribers were
+found throughout all quarters of the northern half of the Union
+from Maine to Oregon, large packages going to remote districts
+beyond the Mississippi or Missouri, whose only connexion with
+the outside world was through a weekly or semi-weekly mail.
+The readers of this weekly paper acquired a personal affection for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span>
+its editor, and he was thus for many years the American writer
+most widely known and most popular among the rural classes.
+The circulation of <i>The Daily Tribune</i> was never proportionately
+great&mdash;its advocacy of a protective tariff, prohibitory liquor
+legislation and other peculiarities, repelling a large support
+which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It
+rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of
+20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and
+thereafter ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a
+semi-weekly edition was also printed, which ultimately reached
+a steady circulation of from 15,000 to 25,000.</p>
+
+<p>From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to
+hear all sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas.
+In March 1842 <i>The Tribune</i> began to give one column daily to a
+discussion of the doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed by
+Albert Brisbane. Gradually Greeley came to advocate some of
+these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he had a sharp discussion
+upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J. Raymond, then
+employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve
+articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book
+form. Greeley became personally interested in one of the
+Fourierite associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red
+Bank, N. J. (1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions
+doubtless led to or gave encouragement to other socialistic
+experiments, such as that at Brook Farm. When this was
+abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one or two other
+members, sought employment from Greeley upon <i>The Tribune</i>.
+Greeley dissented from many of Fourier&rsquo;s propositions, and in
+later years was careful to explain that the principle of association
+for the common good of working men and the elevation of labour
+was the chief feature which attracted him. Co-operation among
+working men he continued to urge throughout his life. In 1850
+the Fox Sisters, on his wife&rsquo;s invitation, spent several weeks in his
+house. His attitude towards their &ldquo;rappings&rdquo; and &ldquo;spiritual
+manifestations&rdquo; was one of observation and inquiry; and in his
+<i>Recollections</i> he wrote concerning these manifestations: &ldquo;That
+some of them are the result of juggle, collusion or trick I am
+confident; that others are <i>not</i>, I decidedly believe.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and
+throughout his active life he was its most trenchant advocate
+and propagandist. Besides constantly urging it in the columns
+of <i>The Tribune</i>, he appeared as early as 1843 in a public debate
+on &ldquo;The Grounds of Protection,&rdquo; with Samuel J. Tilden and
+Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular essays
+on the subject were published over his own signature in <i>The
+Tribune</i> in 1869, and subsequently republished in book form,
+with a title-page describing protection to home industry as a
+system of national co-operation for the elevation of labour.
+He opposed woman suffrage on the ground that the majority
+of women did not want it and never would, and declared that
+until woman should &ldquo;emancipate herself from the thraldom
+to etiquette,&rdquo; he &ldquo;could not see how the &lsquo;woman&rsquo;s rights
+theory&rsquo; is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible
+abstraction.&rdquo; He aided practical efforts, however, for extending
+the sphere of woman&rsquo;s employments. He opposed the
+theatres, and for a time refused to publish their advertisements.
+He held the most rigid views on the sanctity of marriage and
+against easy divorce, and vehemently defended them in controversies
+with Robert Dale Owen and others. He practised
+and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous
+liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise.
+He denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to
+pay interest on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once
+held a place in the &ldquo;Directory of the Friends of Ireland,&rdquo; and
+contributed liberally to its support. He used the occasion of
+Charles Dickens&rsquo;s first visit to America to urge international
+copyright, and was one of the few editors to avoid alike the
+flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and the
+ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his
+<i>American Notes</i>. On the occasion of Dickens&rsquo;s second visit to
+America, Greeley presided at the great banquet given him
+by the press of the country. He made the first elaborate reports
+of popular scientific lectures by Louis Agassiz and other authorities.
+He gave ample hearing to the advocates of phonography
+and of phonographic spelling. He was one of the most conspicuous
+advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many other internal
+improvements.</p>
+
+<p>But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief
+agency in educating the mass of the Northern people to that
+opposition through legal forms to the extension of slavery
+which culminated in the election of Abraham Lincoln and the
+Civil War, that Greeley&rsquo;s main work was done. Incidents in
+it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a scheme
+for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in Washington
+by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indictment
+in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary
+documents, perpetual denunciation of him in Southern newspapers
+and speeches, and the hostility of the Abolitionists,
+who regarded his course as too conservative. His anti-slavery
+work culminated in his appeal to President Lincoln, entitled
+&ldquo;The Prayer of Twenty Millions,&rdquo; in which he urged &ldquo;that all
+attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time uphold
+its inciting cause&rdquo; were preposterous and futile, and that
+&ldquo;every hour of deference to slavery&rdquo; was &ldquo;an hour of added
+and deepened peril to the Union.&rdquo; President Lincoln in his
+reply said: &ldquo;My paramount object is to save the Union,
+and not either to save or destroy slavery.... What I do
+about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it
+helps to save this Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because
+I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here
+stated my purpose according to my views of official duty; and
+I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish
+that all men everywhere could be free.&rdquo; Precisely one month
+after the date of this reply the Emancipation Proclamation was
+issued.</p>
+
+<p>Greeley&rsquo;s political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one
+of the founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he
+held few offices. In 1848-1849 he served a three months&rsquo; term
+in Congress, filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for
+giving small tracts of government land free to actual settlers,
+and published an exposure of abuses in the allowance of mileage
+to members, which corrected the evil, but brought him much
+personal obloquy. In the National Republican Convention in
+1860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state on
+account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate,
+he was made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to
+Seward did much to prevent the success of that statesman,
+and to bring about instead the nomination of Abraham Lincoln.
+This was attributed by his opponents to personal motives, and
+a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication of which he
+challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling days
+he had been wounded at Seward&rsquo;s failure to offer him office. In
+1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal
+opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that
+Evarts could not be elected, his supporters threw their votes
+for a third candidate, Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over
+Greeley by a small majority. At the outbreak of the war he
+favoured allowing the Southern states to secede, provided a
+majority of their people at a fair election should so decide,
+declaring &ldquo;that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof
+one section was pinned to the other by bayonets.&rdquo; When the
+war began he urged the most vigorous prosecution of it. The
+&ldquo;On to Richmond&rdquo; appeal, which appeared day after day in
+<i>The Tribune</i>, was incorrectly attributed to him, and it did not
+wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in the first battle
+of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he urged
+negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern
+Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to
+confer with them. They were found to have no sufficient
+authority. In 1864 he was one of the Lincoln Presidential
+electors for New York. At the close of the war, contrary to
+the general feeling of his party, he urged universal amnesty and
+impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction. In 1867 his
+friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the United
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span>
+States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he refused
+to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and
+with what his friends thought unnecessary candour re-stated
+his obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before
+the time for the election, with the certainty that this would prevent
+his success. Some months later he signed the bail bond of
+Jefferson Davis, and this provoked a torrent of public indignation.
+He had written a popular history of the late war, the first
+volume having an immense sale and bringing him unusually
+large profits. The second was just issued, and the subscribers,
+in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An unsuccessful
+attempt was also made to expel him from the Union
+League Club of New York.</p>
+
+<p>In 1867 he was a delegate-at-large to the convention for the
+revision of the state constitution, and in 1869 and 1870 he was
+the Republican candidate for controller of the state and member
+of Congress respectively, but in each case was defeated.</p>
+
+<p>He was dissatisfied with General Grant&rsquo;s administration, and
+became its sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to
+develop ended in the organization of the Liberal Republican
+party, which held its National Convention at Cincinnati in
+1872, and nominated Greeley for the presidency. For a time
+the tide of feeling ran strongly in his favour. It was first checked
+by the action of his life-long opponents, the Democrats, who
+also nominated him at their National Convention. He expected
+their support, on account of his attitude toward the South
+and hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him
+their formal nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many
+Republicans who had sympathized with his criticisms of the
+administration, and with the declaration of principles adopted
+at the first convention, were repelled by the coalition. This
+feeling grew stronger until the election. His old party associates
+regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a half-hearted
+support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual
+bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August,
+on representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took
+the field in person, and made a series of campaign speeches,
+beginning in New England and extending throughout Pennsylvania,
+Ohio and Indiana, which aroused great enthusiasm,
+and were regarded at the time by both friends and opponents
+as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied intellectual
+power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass.
+General Grant received in the election 3,597,070 votes, Greeley
+2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia,
+Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas.</p>
+
+<p>He had resigned his editorship of <i>The Tribune</i> immediately
+after the nomination; he now resumed it cheerfully; but it
+was soon apparent that his powers had been overstrained.
+For years he had suffered greatly from sleeplessness. During
+the intense excitement of the campaign the difficulty was
+increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went immediately
+to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had
+practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation
+of the upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He
+expired on the 29th of November 1872. His funeral was a
+simple but impressive public pageant. The body lay in state
+in the City Hall, where it was surrounded by crowds of many
+thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the President
+and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief-Justice of
+the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men
+of both parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession,
+preceded by the mayor and other civic authorities, down
+Broadway. He had been the target of constant attack during
+his life, and his personal foibles, careless dress and mental
+eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But his
+death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held
+as a leader of opinion and faithful public servant. &ldquo;Our later
+Franklin&rdquo; Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his
+countrymen remember him.</p>
+
+<p>In 1851 Greeley visited Europe for the first time, serving
+as a juryman at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before
+a committee of the House of Commons on newspaper taxes,
+and urging the repeal of the stamp duty on advertisements.
+In 1855 he made a second trip to Europe. In Paris he was
+arrested on the suit of a sculptor, whose statue had been injured
+in the New York World&rsquo;s Fair (of which he had been a director),
+and spent two days in Clichy, of which he gave an amusing
+account. In 1859 he visited California by the overland route,
+and had numerous public receptions. In 1871 he visited Texas,
+and his trip through the southern country, where he had once
+been so hated, was an ovation. About 1852 he purchased a
+farm at Chappaqua, New York, where he afterwards habitually
+spent his Saturdays, and experimented in agriculture. He
+was in constant demand as a lecturer from 1843, when he made
+his first appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences,
+and, in spite of his bad management in money matters, received
+considerable sums, sometimes $6000 or $7000 for a single
+winter&rsquo;s lecturing. He was also much sought for as a contributor,
+over his own signature, to the weekly newspapers,
+and was sometimes largely paid for these articles. In religious
+faith he was from boyhood a Universalist, and for many years
+was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalist church
+in New York.</p>
+
+<p>His published works are: <i>Hints Toward Reforms</i> (1850);
+<i>Glances at Europe</i> (1851); <i>History of the Struggle for Slavery
+Extension</i> (1856); <i>Overland Journey to San Francisco</i> (1860);
+<i>The American Conflict</i> (2 vols., 1864-1866); <i>Recollections of a
+Busy Life</i> (1868; new edition, with appendix containing an
+account of his later years, his argument with Robert Dale Owen
+on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873); <i>Essays
+on Political Economy</i> (1870); and <i>What I know of Farming</i>
+(1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland,
+in editing <i>A Political Text-book</i> (1860), and supervised for many
+years the annual issues of <i>The Whig Almanac</i> and <i>The Tribune
+Almanac</i>, comprising extensive political statistics.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Parton (New York,
+1855; new ed., Boston, 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y. 1903). Lives
+have also been written by L. U. Reavis (New York, 1872), and L.
+D. Ingersoll (Chicago, 1873); and there is a <i>Memorial of Horace
+Greeley</i> (New York, 1873).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREELEY,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Weld county,
+Colorado, U.S.A., about 50 m. N. by E. of Denver. Pop. (1890)
+2395; (1900) 3023 (286 foreign-born); (1910) 8179. It is
+served by the Union Pacific and the Colorado &amp; Southern railways.
+In 1908 a franchise was granted to the Denver &amp; Greeley Electric
+railway. The city is the seat of the State Normal School of
+Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the city. The
+county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its agricultural
+importance is due to an elaborate system of irrigation. In
+1899 Weld county had under irrigation 226,613 acres, representing
+an increase of 102.2% since 1889, and a much larger
+irrigated area than in any other county of the state. Irrigation
+ditches are supplied with water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre,
+Big Thompson and South Platte rivers, near the foothills.
+The principal crops are potatoes, sugar beets, onions, cabbages
+and peas; in 1899 Weld county raised 2,821,285 bushels of
+potatoes on 23,195 acres (53% of the potato acreage for the
+entire state). The manufacture of beet sugar is a growing
+industry, a large factory having been established at Greeley
+in 1902. Beets are also grown as food for live stock, especially
+sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages and onions are canned here.
+Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Cook Meeker (1817-1879),
+agricultural editor of the New York <i>Tribune</i>. With the
+support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named),
+he began in 1869 to advocate in <i>The Tribune</i> the founding of an
+agricultural colony in Colorado. Subsequently President Hayes
+appointed him Indian agent at White River, Colorado, and he
+was killed at what is now Meeker, Colorado, in an uprising of the
+Ute Indians. Under Meeker&rsquo;s scheme, which attracted mainly
+people from New England and New York state, most of whom
+were able to contribute at least a little capital, the Union Colony
+of Colorado was organized and chartered, and bought originally
+11,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from it
+one residence lot, one business lot, and a tract of farm land.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span>
+The funds thus acquired were, to a large extent, expended
+in making public improvements. A clause inserted in all deeds
+forbade the sale of intoxicating liquors on the land concerned,
+under pain of the reversion of such property to the colony.
+The initiation fees ($5) were used for the expenses of locating the
+colony, and the membership certificate fees ($150) were expended
+in the construction of irrigating ditches, as was the
+money received from the sale of town lots, except about $13,000
+invested in a school building (now the Meeker Building). Greeley
+was organized as a town in 1871, and was chartered as a city of the
+second class in 1886. The &ldquo;Union Colony of Colorado&rdquo; still exists
+as an incorporated body and holds reversionary rights in streets,
+alleys and public grounds, and in all places &ldquo;where intoxicating
+liquors are manufactured, sold or given away, as a beverage.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Richard T. Ely, &ldquo;A Study of a &lsquo;Decreed&rsquo; Town,&rdquo; <i>Harper&rsquo;s
+Magazine</i>, vol. 106 (1902-1903), p. 390 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1832-1896), English geologist,
+son of the Rev. Thomas Sheldon Green, master of the
+Ashby Grammar School, was born at Maidstone on the 10th of
+October 1832. He was educated partly at his father&rsquo;s school,
+Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and afterwards at Gonville and Caius
+College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixth wrangler
+in 1855 and was elected a fellow of his college. In 1861 he
+joined the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and surveyed
+large areas of the midland counties, Derbyshire and Yorkshire.
+He wrote (wholly or in part) memoirs on the Geology of Banbury
+(1864), of Stockport (1866), of North Derbyshire (1869, 2nd ed.
+1887), and of the Yorkshire Coal-field (1878). In 1874 he retired
+from the Geological Survey, having been appointed professor
+of geology in the Yorkshire College at Leeds; in 1885 he became
+also professor of mathematics, while for many years he held
+the lectureship on geology at the school of military engineering
+at Chatham. He was elected F.R.S. in 1886, and two years later
+was chosen professor of geology in the university of Oxford.
+His manual of <i>Physical Geology</i> (1876, 3rd ed. 1882) is an excellent
+book. He died at Boar&rsquo;s Hill, Oxford, on the 19th of August 1896.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A portrait of him, with brief memoir, was published in <i>Proc.
+Yorksh. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc.</i> xiii. 232.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN, DUFF<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1791-1875), American politician and journalist,
+was born in Woodford county, Kentucky, on the 15th of August
+1791. He was a school teacher in his native state, served during
+the War of 1812 in the Kentucky militia, and then settled in
+Missouri, where he worked as a schoolmaster and practised law.
+He was a member of the Missouri Constitutional Convention
+of 1820, and was elected to the state House of Representatives
+in 1820 and to the state Senate in 1822, serving one term in each
+house. Becoming interested in journalism, he purchased and
+for two years edited the St Louis <i>Enquirer</i>. In 1825 he bought
+and afterwards edited in Washington, D.C., <i>The United States
+Telegraph</i>, which soon became the principal organ of the Jackson
+men in opposition to the Adams administration. Upon Andrew
+Jackson&rsquo;s election to the presidency, the <i>Telegraph</i> became the
+principal mouthpiece of the administration, and received printing
+patronage estimated in value at $50,000 a year, while Green
+became one of the coterie of unofficial advisers of Jackson
+known as the &ldquo;Kitchen Cabinet.&rdquo; In the quarrel between
+Jackson and John C. Calhoun, Green supported the latter, and
+through the columns of the <i>Telegraph</i> violently attacked the
+administration. In consequence, his paper was deprived of the
+government printing in the spring of 1831. Green, however,
+continued to edit it in the Calhoun interest until 1835, and gave
+vigorous support to that leader&rsquo;s nullification views. From 1835
+to 1838 he edited <i>The Reformation</i>, a radically partisan publication,
+devoted to free trade and the extreme states&rsquo; rights theory.
+In 1841-1843 he was in Europe on behalf of the Tyler administration,
+and he is said to have been instrumental in causing the
+appointment of Lord Ashburton to negotiate in Washington
+concerning the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada.
+In January 1843 Green established in New York City a short-lived
+journal, <i>The Republic</i>, to combat the spoils system and to
+advocate free trade. In September 1844 Calhoun, then secretary
+of state, sent Green to Texas ostensibly as consul at Galveston,
+but actually, it appears, to report to the administration, then
+considering the question of the annexation of Texas, concerning
+the political situation in Texas and Mexico. After the close of
+the war with Mexico Green was sent to that country in 1849
+by President Taylor to negotiate concerning the moneys which,
+by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had
+agreed to pay; and he saved his country a considerable sum by
+arranging for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subsequently
+Green was engaged in railway building in Georgia and
+Alabama. On the 10th of June 1875 he died in Dalton, Georgia,
+a city which in 1848 he had helped to found.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN, JOHN RICHARD<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1837-1883), English historian,
+was born at Oxford on 12th December 1837, and educated at
+Magdalen College School and at Jesus College, where he obtained
+an open scholarship. On leaving Oxford he took orders and
+became the incumbent of St Philip&rsquo;s, Stepney. His preaching
+was eloquent and able; he worked diligently among his poor
+parishioners and won their affection by his ready sympathy.
+Meanwhile he studied history in a scholarly fashion, and wrote
+much for the <i>Saturday Review</i>. Partly because his health was
+weak and partly because he ceased to agree with the teaching
+of the Church of England, he abandoned clerical life and devoted
+himself to history; in 1868 he took the post of librarian at
+Lambeth, but his health was already breaking down and he
+was attacked by consumption. His <i>Short History of the English
+People</i> (1874) at once attained extraordinary popularity, and
+was afterwards expanded in a work of four volumes (1877-1880).
+Green is pre-eminently a picturesque historian; he had a vivid
+imagination and a keen eye for colour. His chief aim was to
+depict the progressive life of the English people rather than to
+write a political history of the English state. In accomplishing
+this aim he worked up the results of wide reading into a series
+of brilliant pictures. While generally accurate in his statement
+of facts, and showing a firm grasp of the main tendency of a
+period, he often builds more on his authorities than is warranted
+by their words, and is apt to overlook points which would have
+forced him to modify his representations and lower the tone of
+his colours. From his animated pages thousands have learned
+to take pleasure in the history of their own people, but could
+scarcely learn to appreciate the complexity inherent in all
+historical movement. His style is extremely bright, but it
+lacks sobriety and presents some affectations. His later histories,
+<i>The Making of England</i> (1882) and <i>The Conquest of England</i>
+(1883), are more soberly written than his earlier books, and are
+valuable contributions to historical knowledge. Green died at
+Mentone on the 7th of March 1883. He was a singularly attractive
+man, of wide intellectual sympathies and an enthusiastic
+temperament; his good-humour was unfailing and he was a
+brilliant talker; and his work was done with admirable courage
+in spite of ill-health. It is said that Mrs Humphry Ward&rsquo;s
+<i>Robert Elsmere</i> is largely a portrait of him. In 1877 Green
+married Miss Alice Stopford; and Mrs Green, besides writing
+a memoir of her husband, prefixed to the 1888 edition of his
+<i>Short History</i>, has herself done valuable work as an historian,
+particularly in her <i>Henry II.</i> in the &ldquo;English Statesmen&rdquo;
+series (1888), her <i>Town Life in the 15th Century</i> (1894), and <i>The
+Making of Ireland and its Undoing</i> (1908).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Letters of J. R. Green</i> (1901), edited by Leslie Stephen.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Hu.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN, MATTHEW<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1696-1737), English poet, was born of
+Nonconformist parents. He had a post in the custom house,
+and the few anecdotes that have been preserved of him show him
+to have been as witty as his poems would lead one to expect.
+He died unmarried at his lodging in Nag&rsquo;s Head Court, Gracechurch
+Street, in 1737. His <i>Grotto</i>, a poem on Queen Caroline&rsquo;s
+grotto at Richmond, was printed in 1732; and his chief poem,
+<i>The Spleen</i>, in 1737 with a preface by his friend Richard Glover.
+These and some other short poems were printed in Dodsley&rsquo;s
+collection (1748), and subsequently in various editions of the
+British poets. They were edited In 1796 with a preface by Dr
+Aikin and in 1883 by R. E. A. Willmott with the poems of Gray
+and others. <i>The Spleen</i> is an epistle to Mr Cuthbert Jackson,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span>
+advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet content as remedies.
+It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of it: &ldquo;There
+is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have formed
+his judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-notes
+often break out into strains of real poetry and music.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN, THOMAS HILL<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1836-1882), English philosopher,
+the most typical English representative of the school of thought
+called <i>Neo-Kantian</i>, or <i>Neo-Hegelian</i>, was born on the 7th of
+April 1836 at Birkin, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
+of which his father was rector. On the paternal side he was descended
+from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest, sturdy independence
+of character he seemed to have inherited. His education was
+conducted entirely at home until, at the age of fourteen, he
+entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In 1855 he
+became an undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford,
+of which society he was, in 1860, elected fellow. His life henceforth,
+was devoted to teaching (mainly philosophical) in the
+university&mdash;first as college tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his
+death (at Oxford on the 26th of March 1882) as Whyte&rsquo;s Professor
+of Moral Philosophy. The lectures he delivered as professor form
+the substance of his two most important works, viz. the <i>Prolegomena
+to Ethics</i> and the <i>Lectures on the Principles of Political
+Obligation</i>, which contain the whole of his positive constructive
+teaching. These works were not published until after his death,
+but Green&rsquo;s views were previously known indirectly through the
+<i>Introduction</i> to the standard edition of Hume&rsquo;s works by Green
+and T. H. Grose (d. 1906), fellow of Queen&rsquo;s College, in which
+the doctrine of the &ldquo;English&rdquo; or &ldquo;empirical&rdquo; philosophy
+was exhaustively examined.</p>
+
+<p>Hume&rsquo;s empiricism, combined with a belief in biological
+evolution (derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature
+in English thought during the third quarter of the 19th century.
+Green represents primarily the reaction against doctrines which,
+when carried out to their logical conclusion, not only &ldquo;rendered
+all philosophy futile,&rdquo; but were fatal to practical life. By
+reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated atomic sensations,
+this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge, and
+further, by representing man as a &ldquo;being who is simply the result
+of natural forces,&rdquo; it made conduct, or any theory of conduct,
+unmeaning; for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a
+personal self which (1) <i>knows</i> what to do, (2) has <i>power</i> to do it.
+Green was thus driven, not theoretically, but as a practical
+necessity, to raise again the whole question of man in relation
+to nature. When (he held) we have discovered what man in himself
+is, and what his relation to his environment, we shall then
+know his function&mdash;what he is fitted to do. In the light of this
+knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral code, which,
+in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and social institutions.
+These form, naturally and necessarily, the objective
+expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social whole
+that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape.</p>
+
+<p>To ask &ldquo;What is man?&rdquo; is to ask &ldquo;What is experience?&rdquo;
+for experience means that of which I am conscious. The facts
+of consciousness are the only facts which, to begin with, we are
+justified in asserting to exist. On the other hand, they are valid
+evidence for whatever is necessary to their own explanation,
+<i>i.e.</i> for whatever is logically involved in them. Now the
+most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks him
+specially, as contrasted with other animals, is <i>self</i>-consciousness.
+The simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations
+of the human mind&mdash;the act of sense-perception&mdash;is never
+merely a <i>change</i>, physical or psychical, but is the <i>consciousness</i> of
+a change. Human experience consists, not of processes in an
+animal organism, but of these processes recognized as such.
+That which we perceive is from the outset an apprehended fact&mdash;that
+is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated elements (so-called
+sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of consciousness
+at all, but exists from the first as a synthesis of relations
+in a consciousness which keeps distinct the &ldquo;self&rdquo; and the various
+elements of the &ldquo;object,&rdquo; though holding all together in the
+unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental
+structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with
+its most complex constituents, of the &ldquo;work of the mind.&rdquo; Locke
+and Hume held that the work of the mind was <i>eo ipso</i> unreal
+because it was &ldquo;made by&rdquo; man and not &ldquo;given to&rdquo; man.
+It thus represented a subjective creation, not an objective fact.
+But this consequence follows only upon the assumption that the
+work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to be unjustified
+by the results of exact science, with the distinction,
+universally recognized, which such science draws between truth
+and falsehood, between the real and &ldquo;mere ideas.&rdquo; This
+(obviously valid) distinction logically involves the consequence
+that the object, or content, of knowledge, viz. reality, is an
+intelligible ideal reality, a system of thought relations, a spiritual
+cosmos. How is the existence of this ideal whole to be accounted
+for? Only by the existence of some &ldquo;principle which renders all
+relations possible and is itself determined by none of them&rdquo;; an
+eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what we know
+in part. To God the world <i>is</i>, to man the world <i>becomes</i>. Human
+experience is God gradually made manifest.</p>
+
+<p>Carrying on the same analytical method into the special
+department of moral philosophy, Green held that ethics applies
+to the peculiar conditions of social life that investigation into
+man&rsquo;s nature which metaphysics began. The faculty employed
+in this further investigation is no &ldquo;separate moral faculty,&rdquo;
+but that same reason which is the source of all our knowledge&mdash;ethical
+and other. Self-reflection gradually reveals to us human
+capacity, human function, with, consequently, human responsibility.
+It brings out into clear consciousness certain potentialities
+in the realization of which man&rsquo;s true good must consist. As
+the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into
+the surroundings man lives in, a &ldquo;content&rdquo;&mdash;a moral code&mdash;becomes
+gradually evolved. Personal good is perceived to be
+realizable only by making actual the conceptions thus arrived at.
+So long as these remain potential or ideal, they form the motive
+of action; motive consisting always in the idea of some &ldquo;end&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;good&rdquo; which man presents to himself as an end in the attainment
+of which he would be satisfied, that is, in the realization of
+which he would find his true self. The determination to realize
+the self in some definite way constitutes an &ldquo;act of will,&rdquo; which, as
+thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally determined.
+For the motive which may be said to be its cause lies <i>in</i> the man
+himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive
+is a <i>self</i>-determination, which is at once both rational and free.
+The &ldquo;freedom of man&rdquo; is constituted, not by a supposed ability
+to do anything he may choose, but in the power to identify himself
+with that true good which reason reveals to him as <i>his</i> true
+good. This good consists in the realization of personal character;
+hence the final good, <i>i.e.</i> the moral ideal, as a whole, can be
+realized only in some society of persons who, while remaining ends
+to themselves in the sense that their individuality is not lost but
+rendered more perfect, find this <span class="correction" title="amended from prefection">perfection</span> attainable only when
+the separate individualities are integrated as part of a social
+whole. Society is as necessary to form persons as persons are
+to constitute society. Social union is the indispensable condition
+of the development of the special capacities of the individual
+members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in isolation;
+it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens
+in the social community.</p>
+
+<p>The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or
+political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less
+constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but consists
+in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which
+self-analysis has revealed to us as <i>our</i> ideal. From this fact
+arises the ground of political obligation, for the institutions of
+political or civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral
+ideas in terms of our day and generation. But, as society exists
+only for the proper development of persons, we have a criterion
+by which to test these institutions, viz. do they, or do they not,
+contribute to the development of moral character in the individual
+citizens? It is obvious that the final moral ideal is not realized
+in any body of civic institutions actually existing, but the same
+analysis which demonstrates this deficiency points out the
+direction which a true development will take. Hence arises the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span>
+conception of rights and duties which <i>should</i> be maintained by
+law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the further
+consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to
+rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is,
+in order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes
+the <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i> of the state. The state does not consist in any
+definite concrete organization formed once for all. It represents
+a &ldquo;general will&rdquo; which is a desire for a common good. Its
+basis is not a coercive authority imposed upon the citizens from
+without, but consists in the spiritual recognition, on the part of
+the citizens, of that which constitutes their true nature. &ldquo;Will,
+not force, is the basis of the state.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Green&rsquo;s teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent
+philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the
+19th century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and
+his personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of
+the effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the
+universities more into touch with the people, and to break down
+the rigour of class distinctions.</p>
+
+<p>Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking characteristic
+is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in
+thought and in reality. &ldquo;That which is&rdquo; is a <i>whole</i>, not an <i>aggregate</i>;
+an organic complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a &ldquo;whole&rdquo;
+too not material but spiritual, a &ldquo;world of thought-relations.&rdquo;
+On the critical side this teaching is now admittedly valid against
+the older empiricism, and the cogency of the reasoning by which
+his constructive theory is supported is generally recognized. Nevertheless,
+Green&rsquo;s statement of his conclusions presents important
+difficulties. Even apart from the impossibility of conceiving a
+whole of relations which are relations and nothing else (this objection
+is perhaps largely verbal), no explanation is given of the
+fact (obvious in experience) that the spiritual entities of which the
+Universe is composed <i>appear</i> material. Certain elements present
+themselves in feeling which seem stubbornly to resist any attempt
+to explain them in terms of thought. While, again, legitimately
+insisting upon personality as a fundamental constituent in any
+true theory of reality, the relation between human individualities
+and the divine Person is left vague and obscure; nor is it easy to
+see how the existence of several individualities&mdash;human or divine&mdash;in
+one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the solution of these
+two questions that philosophy in the immediate future may be
+expected to work.</p>
+
+<p>Green&rsquo;s most important treatise&mdash;the <i>Prolegomena to Ethics</i>&mdash;practically
+complete in manuscript at his death&mdash;was published
+in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley (4th ed.,
+1899). Shortly afterwards R. L. Nettleship&rsquo;s standard edition of
+his <i>Works</i> (exclusive of the <i>Prolegomena</i>) appeared in three volumes:
+vol. i. containing reprints of Green&rsquo;s criticism of Hume, Spencer,
+Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the Principles of
+Political Obligation; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded by a full <i>Memoir</i>
+by the Editor. The <i>Principles of Political Obligation</i> was afterwards
+published in separate form. A criticism of <i>Neo-Hegelianism</i> will be
+found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison), <i>Hegelianism and Personality</i>.
+See also articles in <i>Mind</i> (January and April 1884) by A. J.
+Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the <i>Academy</i> (xxviii. 242 and xxv.
+297) by S. Alexander, and in the <i>Philosophical Review</i> (vi., 1897)
+by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, <i>Philosophy of T. H. Green</i>
+(London and New York, 1896); D. G. Ritchie, <i>The Principles of
+State Interference</i> (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick, <i>Lectures on the
+Philosophy of Kant</i> (London, 1905); J. H. Muirhead, <i>The Service of
+the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of T. H. Green</i>
+(1908); A. W. Benn, <i>English Rationalism in the XIXth Century</i>
+(1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foll.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. H. F.,* X.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN, VALENTINE<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1739-1813), British engraver, was
+born at Halesowen. He was placed by his father in a solicitor&rsquo;s
+office at Evesham, where he remained for two years; but ultimately
+he decided, on his own responsibility, to abandon the
+legal profession and became a pupil of a line engraver at Worcester.
+In 1765 he migrated to London and began work as a mezzotint
+engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of this art, and
+quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of British
+engravers. He became a member of the Incorporated Society of
+Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy
+in 1775, and for some forty years he followed his profession with
+the greatest success. The exclusive right of engraving and
+publishing plates from the pictures in the Düsseldorf gallery was
+granted him by the duke of Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had
+issued more than twenty of these plates, the siege of that city by
+the French put an end to this undertaking and caused him
+serious financial loss. From this cause, and through the failure
+of certain other speculations, he was reduced to poverty; and in
+consequence he took the post of keeper of the British Institution
+in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of his
+life. During his career as an engraver he produced some
+four hundred plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney,
+and other British artists, after the compositions of Benjamin
+West, and after pictures by Van Dyck, Rubens, Murillo, and
+other old masters. It is claimed for him that he was one of the
+first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be applied
+to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as portraits,
+but at the present time it is to his portraits that most attention
+is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by
+exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious
+management of relations of light and shade; and they have,
+almost without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Valentine Green</i>, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1825-1900), American Hebrew
+scholar, was born in Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey,
+on the 27th of January 1825. He was descended in the sixth
+generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first president of the
+College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and his
+ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian
+church. He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he
+was tutor in mathematics (1840-1842) and adjunct professor
+(1843-1844). In 1846 he graduated from Princeton Theological
+Seminary, and was instructor in Hebrew there in 1846-1849. He
+was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the Central Presbyterian
+church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August 1851 until
+his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February
+1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in
+Princeton Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair
+was Oriental and Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused
+the presidency of Princeton College; as senior professor he was
+long acting head of the Theological Seminary. He was a great
+Hebrew teacher: his <i>Grammar of the Hebrew Language</i> (1861,
+revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on Gesenius,
+Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic
+languages he used in a &ldquo;conservative Higher Criticism,&rdquo; which is
+maintained in the following works: <i>The Pentateuch Vindicated
+from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso</i> (1863), <i>Moses and the
+Prophets</i> (1883), <i>The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent
+Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch</i> (1885), <i>The Unity of
+the Book of Genesis</i> (1895), <i>The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch</i>
+(1895), and <i>A General Introduction to the Old Testament</i>, vol. i.
+Canon (1898), vol. ii. <i>Text</i> (1899). He was the scholarly leader of
+the orthodox wing of the Presbyterian church in America, and was
+moderator of the General Assembly of 1891. Green was chairman
+of the Old Testament committee of the Anglo-American
+Bible revision committee.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the articles by John D. Davis in <i>The Biblical World</i>, new
+series, vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and <i>The Presbyterian
+and Reformed Review</i>, vol. xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENAWAY, KATE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1846-1901), English artist and book
+illustrator, was the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known
+draughtsman and engraver on wood, and was born in London on
+the 17th of March 1846. After a course of study at South
+Kensington, at &ldquo;Heatherley&rsquo;s&rdquo; life classes, and at the Slade
+School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour
+drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable
+early work, however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by
+reason of their quaint beauty of design and charm of draughtsmanship,
+enjoyed an extraordinary vogue. Her subjects were,
+in the main, young girls, children, flowers, and landscape; and
+the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and purity of
+these little works so appealed to public and artists alike that the
+enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be attributed
+to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had
+struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks,
+R.A., and she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to
+return to a more conventional manner. Thenceforward her
+illustrations for children (such as for <i>Little Folks</i>, 1873, <i>et seq.</i>)
+attracted much attention. In 1877 her drawings at the Dudley
+Gallery were sold for £54, and her Royal Academy picture for
+eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to draw for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span>
+<i>Illustrated London News</i>. In the year 1879 she produced <i>Under
+the Window</i>, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold,
+and of which French and German editions were also issued.
+Then followed <i>The Birthday Book</i>, <i>Mother Goose</i>, <i>Little Ann</i>, and
+other books for children which were appreciated not less by
+adults, and were to be found on sale in the bookshops of every
+capital in Europe and in the cities of America. The extraordinary
+success achieved by the young girl may be estimated by the
+amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for <i>Under the
+Window</i> she received £1130; for <i>The Birthday Book</i>, £1250;
+for <i>Mother Goose</i>, £905; and for <i>Little Ann</i>, £567. These four
+books alone produced a clear return of £8000. &ldquo;Toy-books&rdquo;
+though they were, these little works created a revolution in
+illustration, and so were of real importance; they were loudly
+applauded by John Ruskin (<i>Art of England</i> and <i>Fors Clavigera</i>),
+by Ernest Chesneau and Arsène Alexandre in France, by Dr
+Muther in Germany, and by leading art-critics throughout the
+world. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the
+Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, and in 1891, 1894 and
+1898 she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations
+for her books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a representative
+selection was exhibited in 1902), where they surprised
+the world by the infinite delicacy, tenderness, and grace which they
+displayed. A leading feature in Miss Greenaway&rsquo;s work was her
+revival of the delightfully quaint costume of the beginning of the
+19th century; this lent humour to her fancy, and so captivated
+the public taste that it has been said, with poetic exaggeration,
+that &ldquo;Kate Greenaway dressed the children of two continents.&rdquo;
+Her drawings of children have been compared with Stothard&rsquo;s
+for grace and with Reynolds&rsquo;s for naturalness, and those of flowers
+with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to
+1897, with a break only in 1896, she issued a series of <i>Kate
+Greenaway&rsquo;s Almanacs</i>. Although she illustrated <i>The Pied
+Piper of Hamelin</i> and other works, the artist preferred to provide
+her own text; the numerous verses which were found among
+her papers after her death prove that she might have added to her
+reputation with her pen. She had great charm of character, but
+was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest in private
+life. She died at Hampstead on the 6th of November 1901.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life</i>, by M. H. Spielmann and G. S. Layard (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. H. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENBACKS,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a form of paper currency in the United
+States, so named from the green colour used on the backs of
+the notes. They are treasury notes, and were first issued by
+the government in 1862, &ldquo;as a question of hard necessity,&rdquo;
+to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The government,
+following the example of the banks, had suspended specie payment.
+The new notes were therefore for the time being an
+inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal
+tender, were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing
+for the issue of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that
+of the 25th February 1862; the acts of 11th July 1862 and
+3rd March 1863 each authorized further issues of $150,000,000.
+The notes soon depreciated in value, and at the lowest were
+worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of 12th April 1866
+authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six
+months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter; this was discontinued
+by act of 4th February 1868. On 1st January 1879
+specie payment was resumed, and the nominal amount of notes
+then stood at $346,681,000, which is still outstanding.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The so-called <i>Greenback party</i> (also called the <i>Independent</i>, and the
+<i>National</i> party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in 1876,
+when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,740 votes. It advocated
+increasing the volume of greenbacks, forbidding bank issues,
+and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government
+bonds not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various
+fusions, cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen; and
+in 1880 there was fusion with labour reformers and it cast 308,578
+votes for its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver, and elected 8
+Congressmen. In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the
+candidate of the Anti-Monopoly party) received 175,370 votes.
+Subsequently the party went out of existence.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN BAY,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Brown county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at the
+mouth of the Fox river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
+9069; (1900) 18,684, of whom 4022 were foreign-born and 33
+were negroes; (1910 census) 25,236. The city is served
+by the Chicago &amp; North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee
+&amp; St Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay &amp; Western, and the
+Green Bay &amp; Western railways, by an inter-urban electric
+railway connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, and
+by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay lies on high
+level ground on both sides of the river, which is here crossed
+by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library,
+the Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business
+college, several academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum
+and the State Odd Fellows&rsquo; Home. It is the seat of a Roman
+Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being the earliest established
+in the North-west. The so-called &ldquo;Tank Cottage,&rdquo; now in
+Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in Wisconsin;
+it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by Joseph
+Roy, a French-Canadian <i>voyageur</i>, in 1766, was subsequently
+somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to
+its present site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway
+between Green Bay and De Pere (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay)
+is the state reformatory, opened in 1899-1901. Green Bay&rsquo;s
+fine harbour accommodates a considerable lake commerce, and
+the city is the most important railway and wholesale distributing
+centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber
+and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm
+implements and machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick
+and tile and dairy products; and it has lumber yards, grain
+elevators, fish warehouses and railway repair shops. The
+total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,873,027, an
+increase of 79.9% since 1900. The first recorded visit of a
+European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of
+Jean Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and
+found, probably at the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present
+city, a village of Winnebago Indians, who he thought at first
+were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658 Radisson and Groseilliers
+and other <i>coureurs des bois</i> were at Green Bay. Claude Jean
+Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission on the W.
+shore of the bay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later
+he removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter
+of 1671-1672 established it permanently 5 m. above the present
+city, at Rapides des Pères, on the E. shore of the Fox river.
+In 1673 Joliet and Marquette visited the spot. In 1683-1685
+Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with the Indians here.
+In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth of the
+river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted
+was permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin
+de Langlade established a trading post at La Baye and later
+brought his family there from Mackinac. This was the first
+permanent settlement at Green Bay and in Wisconsin. The
+British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to 1763,
+during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward
+Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac&rsquo;s rising, and the
+fort was never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short
+time during the War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye
+were, however, acknowledged subjects of Great Britain, the
+jurisdiction of the United States being practically a dead letter
+until the American fort (Fort Howard) was garrisoned in 1816.
+As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob Astor,
+were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse
+and other buildings; and for many years Green Bay consisted
+of two distinct settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were
+finally united in 1839 as Green Bay. The city was chartered
+in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was consolidated with it. The
+Green Bay <i>Intelligencer</i>, the first newspaper in Wisconsin,
+began publication here in 1833.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Neville and Martin, <i>Historic Green Bay</i> (Green Bay, 1893);
+and Martin and Beaumont, <i>Old Green Bay</i> (Green Bay, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENCASTLE,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Putnam
+county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis
+and on the Big Walnut river. Pop. (1900) 3661; (1910) 3790.
+It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St. Louis,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span>
+the Chicago, Indianapolis &amp; Louisville, the Vandalia, and the
+Terre Haute, Indianapolis &amp; Eastern (electric) railways. It has
+manufactures of some importance, including lumber, pumps,
+kitchen-cabinets, drag-saws, lightning-rods and tin-plate, is in
+the midst of a blue grass region, and is a shipping point for beef
+cattle. The city has a Carnegie library and is the seat of the
+de Pauw University (co-educational), a Methodist Episcopal
+institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837,
+and renamed in 1884 in honour of Washington Charles de Pauw
+(1822-1887), a successful capitalist, banker and glass manufacturer.
+The total gifts of Mr de Pauw and his family to the
+institution amount to about $600,000. Among the presidents
+of the university have been Bishop Matthew Simpson, Bishop
+Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes
+(b. 1866), all of the Methodist Episcopal church. The university
+comprises the Asbury College of Liberal Arts, a School of Music,
+a School of Art and an Academy, and had in 1909-1910
+43 instructors, a library of 37,000 volumes, and 1017 students.
+Greencastle was first settled about 1820, and was chartered
+as a city in 1861.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1811-1883), American
+historian, was born at East Greenwich, Rhode Island, on the
+8th of April 1811, the grandson of Major-General Nathanael
+Greene. He entered Brown University in 1824, left in his junior
+year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during the next
+twenty years, except in 1833-1834, when he was principal
+of Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States
+consul at Rome from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in
+modern languages in Brown University from 1848 to 1852;
+and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer in American history
+in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich, Rhode
+Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. His published works
+include French and Italian text-books; <i>Historical Studies</i>
+(1850); <i>Biographical Studies</i> (1860); <i>Historical View of the
+American Revolution</i> (1865); <i>Life of Nathanael Greene</i> (3 vols.,
+1867-1871); <i>The German Element in the War of American
+Independence</i> (1876); and a <i>Short History of Rhode Island</i> (1877).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENE, MAURICE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1695-1755) English musical composer,
+was born in London. He was the son of a clergyman in the
+city, and soon became a chorister of St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral, where
+he studied under Charles King, and subsequently under Richard
+Brind, organist of the cathedral from 1707 to 1718, whom, on
+his death in the last-named year, he succeeded. Nine years
+later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal,
+on the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair
+of music in the university of Cambridge, and had the degree
+of doctor of music conferred on him. Dr Greene was a
+voluminous composer of church music, and his collection of
+<i>Forty Select Anthems</i> became a standard work of its kind. He
+wrote a &ldquo;Te Deum,&rdquo; several oratorios, a masque, <i>The Judgment
+of Hercules</i>, and a pastoral opera, <i>Phoebe</i> (1748); also glees and
+catches: and a collection of <i>Catches and Canons for Three and
+Four Voices</i> is amongst his compositions. In addition he composed
+many occasional pieces for the king&rsquo;s birthday, having
+been appointed master of the king&rsquo;s band in 1735. But it is
+as a composer of church music that Greene is chiefly remembered.
+It is here that his contrapuntal skill and his sound musical
+scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was
+originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for
+Buononcini, Handel&rsquo;s rival, estranged the German master&rsquo;s
+feelings from him, and all personal intercourse between them
+ceased. Greene, in conjunction with the violinist Michael
+Christian Festing (1727-1752) and others, originated the Society
+of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and their families.
+He died on the 1st of December 1755.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENE, NATHANAEL<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1742-1786), American general, son
+of a Quaker farmer and smith, was born at Potowomut, in
+the township of Warwick, Rhode Island, on the 7th of August
+(not, as has been stated, 6th of June) 1742. Though his father&rsquo;s
+sect discouraged &ldquo;literary accomplishments,&rdquo; he acquired a
+large amount of general information, and made a special study
+of mathematics, history and law. At Coventry, R.I., whither
+he removed in 1770 to take charge of a forge built by his father
+and his uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a
+public school; and in the same year he was chosen a member
+of the legislature of Rhode Island, to which he was re-elected
+in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He sympathized strongly with the
+Whig, or Patriot, element among the colonists, and in 1774
+joined the local militia. At this time he began to study the art
+of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee appointed
+by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in attending
+to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of Friends.</p>
+
+<p>In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island,
+he joined the American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd
+of June was appointed a brigadier by Congress. To him
+Washington assigned the command of the city of Boston after
+it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene&rsquo;s letters of
+October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate
+from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a
+declaration of independence. On the 9th of August 1776 he
+was promoted to be one of the four new major-generals and was
+put in command of the Continental troops on Long Island;
+he chose the place for fortifications (practically the same as that
+picked by General Charles Lee) and built the redoubts and
+entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe
+illness prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island.
+He was prominent among those who advised a retreat from New
+York and the burning of the city, so that the British might not
+use it. Greene was placed in command of Fort Lee, and on the
+25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam in command
+of Fort Washington. He received orders from Washington to
+defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the 11th of
+October Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect; but
+later Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. Greene
+ordered Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend
+the place until he should hear from him again, and reinforced
+it to meet General Howe&rsquo;s attack. Nevertheless, the blame for
+the losses of Forts Washington and Lee was put upon Greene,
+but apparently without his losing the confidence of Washington,
+who indeed himself assumed the responsibility. At Trenton
+Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own,
+accompanied by Washington, arriving first; and after the
+victory here he urged Washington to push on immediately to
+Princeton, but was over-ruled by a council of war. At the
+Brandywine Greene commanded the reserve. At Germantown
+Greene&rsquo;s command, having a greater distance to march than the
+right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time&mdash;a failure
+which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him
+Washington&rsquo;s regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington,
+Bancroft based his unfavourable estimate of Greene&rsquo;s ability.
+But on their arrival, Greene and his troops distinguished themselves
+greatly.</p>
+
+<p>At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March
+1778, at Valley Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster-general
+(succeeding Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this
+difficult work, which Washington heartily approved, a modern
+critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington, has said that it was &ldquo;as good
+as was possible under the circumstances of that fluctuating
+uncertain force.&rdquo; He had become quartermaster-general on
+the understanding, however, that he should retain the right to
+command troops in the field; thus we find him at the head of
+the right wing at Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August
+Greene and Lafayette commanded the land forces sent to Rhode
+Island to co-operate with the French admiral d&rsquo;Estaing, in an
+expedition which proved abortive. In June 1780 Greene commanded
+in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In August
+he resigned the office of quartermaster-general, after a long and
+bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army
+administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions
+appointed by Congress. Before his resignation became effective
+it fell to his lot to preside over the court which, on the 29th of
+September, condemned Major John André to death.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of October he succeeded Gates as commander-in-chief
+of the Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span>
+on the 2nd of December. The army was weak and badly
+equipped and was opposed by a superior force under Cornwallis.
+Greene decided to divide his own troops, thus forcing the division
+of the British as well, and creating the possibility of a strategic
+interplay of forces. This strategy led to General Daniel Morgan&rsquo;s
+victory of Cowpens (just over the South Carolina line) on the
+17th of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court
+House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the
+British troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforcements
+for his own army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only
+at such cost to the victor that Tarleton called it &ldquo;the pledge of
+ultimate defeat.&rdquo; Three days after this battle Cornwallis
+withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene&rsquo;s generalship and judgment
+were again conspicuously illustrated in the next few weeks,
+in which he allowed Cornwallis to march north to Virginia and
+himself turned swiftly to the reconquest of the inner country
+of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord
+Rawdon&rsquo;s hands at Hobkirk&rsquo;s Hill (2 m. N. of Camden) on the
+25th of April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring
+to the coast. Greene then gave his forces a six weeks&rsquo; rest on
+the High Hills of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with
+2600 men, engaged the British under Lieut.-Colonel James
+Stuart (who had succeeded Lord Rawdon) at Eutaw Springs;
+the battle, although tactically drawn, so weakened the British
+that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them
+during the remaining months of the war. Greene&rsquo;s Southern
+campaign showed remarkable strategic features that remind one
+of those of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as his
+model in his studies before the war. He excelled in dividing,
+eluding and tiring his opponent by long marches, and in actual
+conflict forcing him to pay for a temporary advantage a price
+that he could not afford. He was greatly assisted by able
+subordinates, including the Polish engineer, Tadeusz Kosciusko,
+the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry (&ldquo;Light-Horse Harry&rdquo;)
+Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thomas
+Sumter and Francis Marion.</p>
+
+<p>South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberal grants of
+lands and money. The South Carolina estate, Boone&rsquo;s Barony,
+S. of Edisto in Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills for the
+rations of his Southern army. On the Georgia estate, Mulberry
+Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on the river, he settled in 1785,
+after twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the post of secretary of war,
+and there he died of sunstroke on the 19th of June 1786. Greene
+was a singularly able, and&mdash;like other prominent generals on
+the American side&mdash;a self-trained soldier, and was second
+only to Washington among the officers of the American army
+in military ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of
+using small means to the utmost advantage. His attitude
+towards the Tories was humane and even kindly, and he
+generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly intrigued
+against him, when Gates&rsquo;s conduct of the campaign in the South
+was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah
+(1829). His statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the
+state of Rhode Island in the National Hall of Statuary in the
+Capitol at Washington; in the same city there is a bronze
+equestrian statue of him by H. K. Brown.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life of Nathanael Greene</i> (3 vols., 1867-1871), by his grandson,
+George W. Greene, and the biography (New York, 1893), by
+Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in the &ldquo;Great Commanders Series.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENE, ROBERT<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1560-1592), English dramatist and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The
+identity of his father has been disputed, but there is every
+reason to believe that he belonged to the tradesmen&rsquo;s class and
+had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert Greene attended
+Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man
+(to one of whose plays, <i>Friar Bacon</i>, the Norfolk and Suffolk
+borderland owes a lasting poetic commemoration) he naturally
+found his way to Cambridge, where he entered St John&rsquo;s College
+as a sizar in 1575 and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding
+M.A. in 1583 from Clare Hall. His life at the university was,
+according to his own account, spent &ldquo;among wags as lewd as
+himself, with whom he consumed the flower of his youth.&rdquo; In
+1588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so that on some of his title-pages
+he styles himself &ldquo;utriusque Academiae in Artibus
+Magister&rdquo;; and Nashe humorously refers to him as &ldquo;utriusque
+Academiae Robertus Greene.&rdquo; Between the years 1578 and
+1583 he had travelled abroad, according to his own account
+very extensively, visiting France, Germany, Poland and Denmark,
+besides learning at first-hand to &ldquo;hate the pride of Italie&rdquo;
+and to know the taste of that poet&rsquo;s fruit, &ldquo;Spanish mirabolones.&rdquo;
+The grounds upon which it has been suggested that he took holy
+orders are quite insufficient; according to the title-page of a
+pamphlet published by him in 1585 he was then a &ldquo;student in
+phisicke.&rdquo; Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he
+had according to his own account begun his London life, and his
+earliest extant literary production was in hand as early as 1580.
+He now became &ldquo;an author of playes and a penner of love-pamphlets,
+so that I soone grew famous in that qualitie, that
+who for that trade growne so ordinary about London as Robin
+Greene?&rdquo; &ldquo;Glad was that printer,&rdquo; says Nashe, &ldquo;that might
+bee so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit.&rdquo;
+By his own account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries
+of the town, though Nashe declares that he never knew him
+guilty of notorious crime. He was not without passing impulses
+towards a more righteous and sober life, and was derided in
+consequence by his associates as a &ldquo;Puritane and Presizian.&rdquo;
+It is possible that he, as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel Harvey,
+exaggerated the looseness of his conduct. His marriage, which
+took place in 1585 or 1586, failed to steady him; if Francesco,
+in Greene&rsquo;s pamphlet <i>Never too late to mend</i> (1590), is intended
+for the author himself, it had been a runaway match; but the
+fiction and the autobiographical sketch in the <i>Repentance</i> agree
+in their account of the unfaithfulness which followed on the part
+of the husband. He lived with his wife, whose name seems to
+have been Dorothy (&ldquo;Doll&rdquo;; and cf. Dorothea in <i>James IV.</i>),
+for a while; &ldquo;but forasmuch as she would perswade me from my
+wilful wickednes, after I had a child by her, I cast her off, having
+spent up the marriage-money which I obtained by her. Then
+left I her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to
+London,&rdquo; where his reputation as a playwright and writer of
+pamphlets of &ldquo;love and vaine fantasyes&rdquo; continued to increase,
+and where his life was a feverish alternation of labour and
+debauchery. In his last years he took it upon himself to make
+war on the cutpurses and &ldquo;conny-catchers&rdquo; with whom he came
+into contact in the slums, and whose doings he fearlessly exposed
+in his writings. He tells us how at last he was friendless &ldquo;except
+it were in a fewe alehouses,&rdquo; where he was respected on account
+of the score he had run up. When the end came he was a
+dependant on the charity of the poor and the pitying love of the
+unfortunate. Henri Murger has drawn no picture more sickening
+and more pitiful than the story of Greene&rsquo;s death, as told by his
+Puritan adversary, Gabriel Harvey&mdash;a veracious though a far
+from unprejudiced narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels
+provided by the Harvey brothers on their intervention in the
+Marprelate controversy, and made an attack (immediately
+suppressed) upon Gabriel&rsquo;s father and family in the prose-tract
+<i>A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute between
+Velvet Breeches and Cloth Breeches</i> (1592). After a banquet
+where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe&mdash;an old associate
+and perhaps a college friend of Greene&rsquo;s, any great intimacy with
+whom, however, he seems to have been anxious to disclaim&mdash;Greene
+had fallen sick &ldquo;of a surfeit of pickle herringe and
+Rennish wine.&rdquo; At the house of a poor shoemaker near Dowgate,
+deserted by all except his compassionate hostess (Mrs Isam) and
+two women&mdash;one of them the sister of a notorious thief named
+&ldquo;Cutting Ball,&rdquo; and the mother of his illegitimate son, Fortunatus
+Greene&mdash;he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before
+his death he wrote under a bond for £10 which he had given to
+the good shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long-forsaken
+wife: &ldquo;Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth
+and by my soules rest, that thou wilte see this man paide; for
+if hee and his wife had not succoured me, I had died in the
+streetes.&mdash;Robert Greene.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Four Letters and Certain Sonnets</i>, Harvey&rsquo;s attack on Greene,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span>
+appeared almost immediately after his death, as to the circumstances
+of which his relentless adversary had taken care to inform
+himself personally. Nashe took up the defence of his dead friend
+and ridiculed Harvey in <i>Strange News</i> (1593); and the dispute
+continued for some years. But, before this, the dramatist Henry
+Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the unhappy
+man, entitled <i>Greene&rsquo;s Groat&rsquo;s-worth of Wit bought with a Million
+of Repentance</i> (1592), containing the story of Roberto, who may
+be regarded, for practical purposes, as representing Greene
+himself. This ill-starred production may almost be said to have
+done more to excite the resentment of posterity against Greene&rsquo;s
+name than all the errors for which he professed his repentance.
+For in it he exhorted to repentance three of his <i>quondam</i> acquaintance.
+Of these three Marlowe was one&mdash;to whom and to whose
+creation of &ldquo;that Atheist Tamberlaine&rdquo; he had repeatedly
+alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe.
+But the passage addressed to Peele contained a transparent
+allusion to a fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as
+&ldquo;an vpstart crow beautified with our feathers, that with his
+<i>Tygres heart wrapt in a player&rsquo;s hyde</i> supposes hee is as well able
+to bombast out a blanke-verse as the best of you; and being an
+absolute Iohannes-fac-totum, is in his owne conceyt the onely
+shake-scene in a countrey.&rdquo; The phrase italicized parodies
+a passage occurring in <i>The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of
+York</i>, &amp;c., and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene
+(as many eminent critics have thought) had a hand in <i>The True
+Tragedie</i>, he must here have intended a charge of plagiarism
+against Shakespeare. But while it seems more probable that
+(as the late R. Simpson suggested) the upstart crow beautified
+with the feathers of the three dramatists is a sneering description
+of the actor who declaimed their verse, the <i>animus</i> of the whole
+attack (as explained by Dr Ingleby) is revealed in its concluding
+phrases. This &ldquo;shake-scene,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> this <i>actor</i> had ventured to
+intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights&mdash;their
+monopoly was in danger!</p>
+
+<p>Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were
+issued posthumously. Of these, <i>The Repentance of Robert
+Greene, Master of Arts</i> (1592), must originally have been written
+by him on his death-bed, under the influence, as he says, of
+Father Parsons&rsquo;s <i>Booke of Resolution</i> (<i>The Christian Directorie,
+appertayning to Resolution</i>, 1582, republished in an enlarged
+form, which became very popular, in 1585); but it bears traces
+of having been improved from the original; while <i>Greene&rsquo;s
+Vision</i> was certainly not, as the title-page avers, written during
+his last illness.</p>
+
+<p>Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed
+to Greene&rsquo;s prolific pen. Nearly all of them are interspersed
+with verses; in their themes they range from the &ldquo;misticall&rdquo;
+wonders of the heavens to the familiar but &ldquo;pernitious sleights&rdquo;
+of the sharpers of London. But the most widely attractive of
+his prose publications were his &ldquo;love-pamphlets,&rdquo; which brought
+upon him the outcry of Puritan censors. The earliest of his
+novels, as they may be called, <i>Mamillia</i>, was licensed in 1583.
+This interesting story may be said to have accompanied Greene
+through life; for even part ii., of which, though probably completed
+several years earlier, the earliest extant edition bears the
+date 1593, had a sequel, <i>The Anatomie of Love&rsquo;s Flatteries</i>, which
+contains a review of suitors recalling Portia&rsquo;s in <i>The Merchant
+of Venice</i>. <i>The Myrrour of Modestie</i> (the story of Susanna)
+(1584); <i>The Historie of Arhasto, King of Denmarke</i> (1584);
+<i>Morando, the Tritameron of Love</i> (a rather tedious imitation of the
+<i>Decameron</i> (1584); <i>Planetomachia</i> (1585) (a contention in story-telling
+between Venus and Saturn); <i>Penelope&rsquo;s Web</i> (1587)
+(another string of stories); <i>Alcida</i>, <i>Greene&rsquo;s Metamorphosis</i>
+(1588), and others, followed. In these popular productions he
+appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lyly; indeed, the
+first part of <i>Mamillia</i> was entered in the Stationers&rsquo; Registers
+in the year of the appearance of <i>Euphues</i>, and two of Greene&rsquo;s
+novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the
+parent romance: <i>Euphues his Censure to Philautus</i> (1587),
+<i>Menaphon. Camilla&rsquo;s Alarum to Slumbering Euphues</i> (1589),
+named in some later editions <i>Greene&rsquo;s Arcadia</i>. This pastoral
+romance, written in direct emulation of Sidney&rsquo;s, with a heroine
+called Samila, contains St Sephestia&rsquo;s charming lullaby, with
+its refrain &ldquo;Father&rsquo;s sorowe, father&rsquo;s joy.&rdquo; But, though Greene&rsquo;s
+style copies the balanced oscillation, and his diction the ornateness
+(including the proverbial philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives
+to interest by the matter as well as to attract attention by the
+manner of his narratives. Of his highly moral intentions he
+leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are exposed on the
+title-pages. The full title of the <i>Myrrour of Modestie</i> for instance
+continues: &ldquo;wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how the
+Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and
+plagueth the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punishments,&rdquo;
+&amp;c. On his <i>Pandosto, The Triumph of Time</i> (1588)
+Shakespeare founded <i>A Winter&rsquo;s Tale</i>; in fact, the novel contains
+the entire plot of the comedy, except the device of the living
+statue; though some of the subordinate characters in the play,
+including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare, together with
+the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes.</p>
+
+<p>In Greene&rsquo;s <i>Never too Late</i> (1590), announced as a &ldquo;Powder
+of Experience: sent to all youthfull gentlemen&rdquo; for their
+benefit, the hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for
+Greene himself, the sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction.
+This episodical narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of
+manner which savour of an 18th century novel rather than of
+an Elizabethan tale concerning the days of &ldquo;Palmerin, King
+of Great Britain.&rdquo; Philador, the prodigal of <i>The Mourning
+Garment</i> (1590), is obviously also in some respects a portrait of
+the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of <i>Greene&rsquo;s Groat&rsquo;s-worth
+of Wit</i> (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of
+the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn&mdash;for a
+born rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins.
+Besides these and the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance,
+Greene left realistic pictures of the very disreputable society
+to which he finally descended, in his pamphlets on &ldquo;conny-catching&rdquo;:
+<i>A Notable Discovery of Coosnage</i> (1591), <i>The Blacke
+Bookes Messenger, Laying open the Life and Death of Ned
+Browne, one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbiters, and
+Conny-catchers that ever lived in England</i> (1592). Much in
+Greene&rsquo;s manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of
+low life, anticipated what proved the slow course of the actual
+development of the English novel; and it is probable that his
+true <i>métier</i>, and that which best suited the bright fancy, ingenuity
+and wit of which his genius was compounded, was pamphlet-spinning
+and story-telling rather than dramatic composition.
+It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his
+contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like
+his resemble Shakespeare&rsquo;s in their native freshness.</p>
+
+<p>Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out,
+Greene, except in the two pamphlets written just before his
+death, never refers to his having written plays; and before 1592
+his contemporaries are equally silent as to his labours as a
+playwright. Only four plays remain to us of which he was
+indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these seems to
+have been the <i>Comicall History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon</i>,
+of which Henslowe&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i> contains no trace. But it can hardly
+have been first acted long after the production of Marlowe&rsquo;s
+<i>Tamburlaine</i>, which had, in all probability, been brought on the
+stage in 1587. For this play, &ldquo;comical&rdquo; only in the negative
+sense of having a happy ending, was manifestly written in
+emulation as well as in direct imitation of Marlowe&rsquo;s tragedy.
+While Greene cannot have thought himself capable of surpassing
+Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably wished to outdo him
+in &ldquo;business,&rdquo; and to equal him in the rant which was sure to
+bring down at least part of the house. <i>Alphonsus</i> is a <i>history</i>
+proper&mdash;a dramatized chronicle or narrative of warlike events.
+Its fame could never equal that of Marlowe&rsquo;s tragedy; but its
+composition showed that Greene could seek to rival the most
+popular drama of the day, without falling very far short of his
+model.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i>
+(not known to have been acted before February, 1592, but
+probably written in 1589) Greene once more attempted to emulate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span>
+Marlowe; and he succeeded in producing a masterpiece of his
+own. Marlowe&rsquo;s <i>Doctor Faustus</i>, which doubtless suggested the
+composition of Greene&rsquo;s comedy, reveals the mighty tragic
+genius of its author; but Greene resolved on an altogether
+distinct treatment of a cognate theme. Interweaving with the
+popular tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming
+idyl (so far as we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince
+Edward&rsquo;s love for the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a
+comedy brimful of amusing action and genial fun. <i>Friar Bacon</i>
+remains a dramatic picture of English Elizabethan life with
+which <i>The Merry Wives</i> alone can vie; and not even the ultra-classicism
+in the similes of its diction can destroy the naturalness
+which constitutes its perennial charm. <i>The History of Orlando
+Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France</i> has on unsatisfactory
+evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have been
+acted on the 21st of February 1592. It is a free dramatic
+adaptation of Ariosto, Harington&rsquo;s translation of whom appeared
+in 1591, and who in one passage is textually quoted; and it
+contains a large variety of characters and a superabundance oí
+action. Fairly lucid in arrangement and fluent in style, the
+treatment of the madness oí Orlando lacks tragic power. Very
+few dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare have succeeded
+in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the tragic;
+and Greene is not to be included in the list.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>The Scottish Historie of James IV.</i> (acted 1592, licensed
+for publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax
+of his dramatic powers. The &ldquo;historical&rdquo; character of this play
+is pure pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi
+Cinthio&rsquo;s tales. Its theme is the illicit passion of King James for
+the chaste lady Ida, to obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the
+suggestion of a villain called Ateukin, to make away with his own
+wife. She escapes in doublet and hose, attended by her faithful
+dwarf; but, on her father&rsquo;s making war upon her husband to
+avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation between
+them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked
+out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Ateukin
+there is a touch of Iago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the
+piece, is unexceptionable; and, lest even so the play should hang
+heavy on the audience, its action is carried off by a &ldquo;pleasant
+comédie&rdquo;&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> a prelude and some dances between the acts&mdash;&ldquo;presented
+by Oboram, King of Fayeries,&rdquo; who is, however, a
+very different person from the Oberon of <i>A Midsummer Night&rsquo;s
+Dream</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>George-a-Greene the Pinner of Wakefield</i> (acted 1593, printed
+1599), a delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the
+author of <i>Friar Bungay</i>, has been attributed to him; but the
+external evidence is very slight, and the internal unconvincing.
+Of the comedy of <i>Fair Em</i>, which resembles <i>Friar Bacon</i> in more
+than one point, Greene cannot have been the author; the
+question as to the priority between the two plays is not so easily
+solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays on
+which the second and third parts of <i>Henry VI.</i> are founded has
+been already referred to. He was certainly joint author with
+Thomas Lodge of the curious drama called <i>A Looking Glasse for
+London and England</i> (acted in 1592 and printed in 1594)&mdash;a
+dramatic apologue conveying to the living generation of Englishmen
+the warning of Nineveh&rsquo;s corruption and prophesied doom.
+The lesson was frequently repeated in the streets of London by
+the &ldquo;Ninevitical motions&rdquo; of the puppets; but there are both
+fire and wealth of language in Greene and Lodge&rsquo;s oratory. The
+comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by
+Adam, the clown of the piece, who belongs to the family of
+Slipper, and of Friar Bacon&rsquo;s servant, Miles.</p>
+
+<p>Greene&rsquo;s dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of
+Marlowe&rsquo;s tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at
+his best. On the other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally
+animated with the breezy freshness which no artifice can simulate.
+He had considerable constructive skill, but he has created no
+character of commanding power&mdash;unless Ateukin be excepted;
+but his personages are living men and women, and marked out
+from one another with a vigorous but far from rude hand. His
+comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and
+graceful dialogue. His diction is overloaded with classical
+ornament, but his versification is easy and fluent, and its cadence
+is at times singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the
+simplest means; and he is indisputably one of the most attractive
+of early English dramatic authors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Greene&rsquo;s dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander
+Dyce in 1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued
+in one volume in 1858. His complete works were edited for the
+Huth Library by A. B. Grosart. This issue (1881-1886) contains a
+translation of Nicholas Storojhenko&rsquo;s monograph on Greene (Moscow,
+1878). Greene&rsquo;s plays and poems were edited with introductions
+and notes by J. Churton Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905); the
+general introduction to this edition has superseded previous accounts
+of Greene and his dramatic and lyrical writings. An account of
+his pamphlets is to be found in J. J. Jusserand&rsquo;s <i>English Novel in
+the Time of Shakespeare</i> (Eng. trans., 1890). See also W. Bernhardi,
+<i>Robert Greenes Leben und Schriften</i> (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in
+<i>Shakespeare&rsquo;s Zeitgenossen und ihre Werke</i> (1858); and an introduction
+by A. W. Ward to <i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i> (Oxford,
+1886, 4th ed., 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENFIELD,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a township and the county-seat of Franklin
+county, in N.E. Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of
+20 sq. m. of meadow and hill country, watered by the Green
+and Deerfield rivers and various small tributaries. Pop. (1890)
+5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were foreign-born; (1910
+census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same name as
+the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river,
+and on the Boston &amp; Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley
+street railway (electric). Among Greenfield&rsquo;s manufactures are
+cutlery, machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally
+part of Deerfield, was settled about 1682, was established as a
+&ldquo;district&rdquo; in 1753, and on the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a
+general Act, separated from Deerfield and incorporated as a
+separate township, although it had assumed full township rights
+in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress. In
+1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838
+part of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed
+a part of Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of
+Shays&rsquo;s Rebellion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. M. Thompson, <i>History of Greenfield</i> (2 vols., Greenfield,
+1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENFINCH<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Grünfink</i>), or <span class="sc">Green Linnet</span>, as it is very
+often called, a common European bird, the <i>Fringilla chloris</i> of
+Linnaeus, ranked by many systematists with one section of hawfinches,
+<i>Coccothraustes</i>, but apparently more nearly allied to the
+other section <i>Hesperiphona</i>, and perhaps justifiably deemed the
+type of a distinct genus, to which the name <i>Chloris</i> or <i>Ligurinus</i>
+has been applied. The cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green
+and yellow is one of the most finely coloured of common English
+birds, but he is rather heavily built, and his song is hardly commended.
+The hen is much less brightly tinted. Throughout
+Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful birds,
+and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the
+whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits
+Palestine, but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant
+in Mauritania, whence specimens are so brightly coloured that
+they have been deemed to form a distinct species, the <i>Ligurinus
+aurantiiventris</i> of Dr Cabanis, but that view is now generally
+abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its adjacent islands
+occur two allied species&mdash;the <i>Fringilla sinica</i> of Linnaeus and the
+<i>F. kawarahiba</i> of Temminck.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENHEART,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> one of the most valuable of timbers, the
+produce of <i>Nectandra Rodiaei</i>, natural order Lauraceae, a large
+tree, native of tropical South America and the West Indies. The
+Indian name of the tree is <i>sipiri</i> or <i>bibiru</i>, and from its bark and
+fruits is obtained the febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart
+wood is of a dark-green colour, sap wood and heart wood being so
+much alike that they can with difficulty be distinguished from
+each other. The heart wood is one of the most durable of all
+timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is
+proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly
+destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other
+kinds of wood available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove
+Museum, Glasgow, there are two pieces of planking from a wreck
+submerged during eighteen years on the west coast of Scotland.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span>
+The one specimen&mdash;greenheart&mdash;is merely slightly pitted on the
+surface, the body of the wood being perfectly sound and untouched,
+while the other&mdash;teak&mdash;is almost entirely eaten away. Greenheart,
+tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is one of
+the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its
+specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second
+line of Lloyd&rsquo;s Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is extensively
+used for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &amp;c.,
+as well as in the general engineering arts, but its excessive weight
+unfits it for many purposes for which its other properties would
+render it eminently suitable.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENLAND<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Danish, &amp;c., <i>Grönland</i>), a large continental
+island, the greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle,
+while the whole is arctic in character. It is not connected with
+any portion of Europe or America except by suboceanic ridges;
+but in the extreme north it is separated only by a narrow strait
+from Ellesmere Land in the archipelago of the American continent.
+It is bounded on the east by the North Atlantic, the Norwegian
+and Greenland Seas&mdash;Jan Mayen, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands
+and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and Norway.
+Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the
+northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from
+Spitsbergen. On the west Davis Strait and Baffin Bay separate
+it from Baffin Land. The so-called bay narrows northward into
+the strait successively known as Smith Sound, Kane Basin,
+Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A submarine ridge,
+about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland with
+Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A
+similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula
+of Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with
+others smaller) lie probably off the north coast, being apparently
+divided from it by very narrow channels which are not yet explored.
+If they be reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then
+the north coast, fronting the polar sea, culminates about 83° 40&prime; N.
+Cape Farewell, the most southerly point (also on a small island),
+is in 59° 45&prime; N. The extreme length of Greenland may therefore
+be set down at about 1650 m., while its extreme breadth, which
+occurs about 77° 30&prime; N., is approximately 800 m. The area
+is estimated at 827,275 sq. m. Greenland is a Danish colony,
+inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern east coast
+belong to the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of
+Europeans on the southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the
+trade is a monopoly of the Danish government.</p>
+
+<p>The southern and south-western coasts have been known,
+as will be mentioned later, since the 10th century, when Norse
+settlers appeared there, and the names of many famous arctic
+explorers have been associated with the exploration of Greenland.
+The communication between the Norse settlements in Greenland
+and the motherland Norway was broken off at the end of the 14th
+and the beginning of the 15th century, and the Norsemen&rsquo;s
+knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more or
+less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then
+re-discovered by John Davis in July 1585, though previous explorers,
+as Cortereal, Frobisher and others, had seen it, and at the
+end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century the work
+of Davis (1586-1588). Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the
+western seas afforded some knowledge of the west coast. This
+was added to by later explorers and by whalers and sealers.
+Among explorers who in the 19th century were specially connected
+with the north-west coast may be mentioned E. A.
+Inglefield (1852) who sailed into Smith&rsquo;s Sound,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Elisha Kent Kane
+(1853-1855)<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> who worked northward through Smith Sound into
+Kane Basin, and Charles Francis Hall (1871) who explored the
+strait (Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel) to the north of
+this.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The northern east coast was sighted by Hudson (1607) in about
+73° 30&prime; N. (C. Hold with Hope), and during the 17th century and
+later this northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch
+whalers. The first who gave more accurate information was the
+Scottish whaler, Captain William Scoresby, jun. (1822), who,
+with his father, explored the coast between 69° and 75° N., and
+gave the first fairly trustworthy map of it.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Captains Edward
+Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast between 72° 5&prime; and
+75° 12&prime; N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen in this part of
+Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870,
+under Carl Christian Koldewey<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (1837-1908), reached 77° N.
+(Cape Bismarck); and the duke of Orleans, in 1905, ascertained
+that this point was on an island (the Dove Bay of the German
+expedition being in reality a strait) and penetrated farther north,
+to about 78° 16&prime;. From this point the north-east coast remained
+unexplored, though a sight was reported in 1670 by a whaler
+named Lambert, and again in 1775 as far north as 79° by Daines
+Barrington, until a Danish expedition under Mylius Erichsen in
+1906-1908 explored it, discovering North-East Foreland, the
+easternmost point (see Polar Regions and map). The
+southern part of the east coast was first explored by the Dane
+Wilhelm August Graah (1829-1830) between Cape Farewell and
+65° 16&prime; N.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> In 1883-1885 the Danes G. Holm and T. V. Garde
+carefully explored and mapped the coast from Cape Farewell
+to Angmagssalik, in 66° N.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> F. Nansen and his companions
+also travelled along a part of this coast in 1888.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> A. E. Nordenskiöld,
+in the &ldquo;Sophia,&rdquo; landed near Angmagssalik, in 65° 36&prime; N.,
+in 1883.<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Captain C. Ryder, in 1891-1892, explored and mapped
+the large Scoresby Sound, or, more correctly, Scoresby Fjord.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a>
+Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899, explored the coast from Angmagssalik
+north to 67° 22&prime; N.<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> A part of this coast, about
+67° N., had also been seen by Nansen in 1882.<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> In 1899 Professor
+A. G. Nathorst explored the land between Franz Josef Fjord
+and Scoresby Fjord, where the large King Oscar Fjord, connecting
+Davy&rsquo;s Sound with Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered.<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a> In
+1900 Lieutenant Amdrup explored the still unknown east coast
+from 690 10&prime; N. south to 67° N.<a name="fa14d" id="fa14d" href="#ft14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p>
+
+<p>From the work of explorers in the north-west it had been
+possible to infer the approximate latitude of the northward
+termination of Greenland long before it was definitely known.
+Towards the close of the 19th century several explorers gave
+attention to this question. Lieutenant (afterwards Admiral)
+L. A. Beaumont (1876), of the Nares Expedition, explored the
+coast north-east of Robeson Channel to 82° 20&prime; N.<a name="fa15d" id="fa15d" href="#ft15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> In 1882
+Lieut. J. B. Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain)
+D. L. Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to Lady Franklin
+Bay,<a name="fa16d" id="fa16d" href="#ft16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a> explored the north-west coast beyond Beaumont&rsquo;s farthest
+to a promontory in 83° 24&prime; N. and 40° 46&prime; E. and they saw
+to the north-east Cape Washington, in about 83° 38&prime; N. and
+39° 30&prime; E., the most northerly point of land till then observed.
+In July 1892 R. E. Peary and E. Astrup, crossing by land from
+Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound, discovered Independence Bay on
+the north-east coast in 81° 37&prime; N. and 34° 5&prime; W.<a name="fa17d" id="fa17d" href="#ft17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a> In May 1895 it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span>
+was revisited by Peary, who supposed this bay to be a sound communicating
+with Victoria Inlet on the north-west coast. To the
+north Heilprin Land and Melville Land were seen stretching
+northwards, but the probability seemed to be that the coast soon
+trended north-west. In 1901 Peary rounded the north point, and
+penetrated as far north as 83° 50&prime; N. The scanty exploration of
+the great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted to cover the
+whole of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly
+from the west coast. In 1751 Lars Dalager, a Danish trader,
+took some steps in this direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870
+Nordenskiöld and Berggren walked 35 m. inland from the head
+of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an elevation of 2200 ft.
+The Danish captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen reached, in
+1878, the Jensen Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45 m.
+from the western margin, in 62° 50&prime; N.<a name="fa18d" id="fa18d" href="#ft18d"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Nordenskiöld penetrated
+in 1883 about 70 m. inland in 68° 20&prime; N., and two Lapps of his
+expedition went still farther on skis, to a point nearly under 45°
+W. at an elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and Maigaard reached in
+1886 about 100 m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in 69° 30&prime; N.
+Nansen with five companions in 1888 made the first complete
+crossing of the inland ice, working from the east
+coast to the west, about 64° 25&prime; N., and reached
+a height of 8922 ft. Peary and Astrup, as
+already indicated, crossed in 1892 the northern
+part of the inland ice between 78° and 82° N.,
+reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and determined
+the northern termination of the ice-covering.
+Peary made very nearly the same
+journey again in 1895. Captain T. V. Garde
+explored in 1893 the interior of the inland ice
+between 61° and 62° N. near its southern
+termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft.
+about 60 m. from the margin.<a name="fa19d" id="fa19d" href="#ft19d"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:676px; height:1118px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img543.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed pt2">
+<p><i>Coasts.</i>&mdash;The coasts of Greenland are for the
+most part deeply indented with fjords, being intensely
+glaciated. The coast-line of Melville Bay
+(the northern part of the west coast) is to some
+degree an exception, though the fjords may here
+be somewhat filled with glaciers, and, for another
+example, it may be noted that Peary observed
+a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward
+as far as Cape Morris Jesup there are precipitous
+headlands and islands, as elsewhere, with deep
+water close inshore. East of the same cape there
+is an abrupt change; the coast is unbroken, the
+mountains recede inland, and there is shoal-water
+for a considerable distance from the coast.
+Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they
+are indented; but these are in no case large,
+excepting those off the north coast, and that of
+Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel
+of 70° N. This island, which is separated by
+Waigat Strait from the Nugsuak peninsula, is
+lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Steenstrup
+in 1898 discovered in it the warmest spring known
+in Greenland, having a temperature of 66° F.</p>
+
+<p>The unusual glaciation of the east coast is
+evidently owing to the north polar current carrying
+the ice masses from the north polar basin
+south-westward along the land, and giving it
+an entirely arctic climate down to Cape Farewell.
+In some parts the interior ice-covering extends
+down to the outer coast, while in other parts
+its margin is situated more inland, and the ice-bare
+coast-land is deeply intersected by fjords extending
+far into the interior, where they are blocked
+by enormous glaciers or &ldquo;ice-currents&rdquo; from the
+interior ice-covering which discharge masses of
+icebergs into them. The east coast of Greenland
+is in this respect highly interesting. All coasts
+in the world which are much intersected by deep
+fjords have, with very few exceptions, a western
+exposure, <i>e.g.</i> Norway, Scotland, British Columbia
+and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even
+Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, whose west
+coasts are far more indented than their east ones.
+Greenland forms the most prominent exception,
+its eastern coast being quite as much indented as
+its western. The reason is to be found in its geographical
+position, a cold ice-covered polar current
+running south along the land, while not far outside
+there is an open warmer sea, a circumstance
+which, while producing a cold climate, must also
+give rise to much precipitation, the land being
+thus exposed to the alternate erosion of a rough
+atmosphere and large glaciers. On the east
+coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are
+similar conditions. The result is that the east
+coast of Greenland has the largest system of typical fjords known
+on the earth&rsquo;s surface. Scoresby Fjord has a length of about
+180 m. from the outer coast to the point where it is blocked by the
+glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an enormous
+area. Franz Josef Fjord, with its branch King Oscar Fjord, communicating
+with Davy&rsquo;s Sound, forms a system of fjords on a
+similar scale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest depth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span>
+found by Ryder in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are
+certainly still greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have,
+however, probably all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow
+water, near their mouths. A few soundings made outside this
+coast seem to indicate that the fjords continue as deep submarine
+valleys far out into the sea. On the west coast there are also
+many great fjords. One of the best known from earlier days is
+the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north of 64° N. Along
+the east coast there are many high mountains, exceeding 6000 and
+7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks hitherto measured is at
+Tiningnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 60° 35&prime; N., which is 7340 ft.
+high. At the bottom of Mogens Heinesen Fjord, 62° 30&prime; N., the
+peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of Umanak, 63° N., they even
+exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen began his journey
+across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting through the ice-covering
+was Gamel&rsquo;s Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64° 34&prime; N. In the
+region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the mountains
+rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf&rsquo;s Fjeld, in
+66° 20&prime; N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out at sea, and forms
+an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk (<i>i.e.</i> Blue
+Sark or blue shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first landmark on
+their way from Iceland to the Öster Bygd, the present Julianehaab
+district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little farther
+north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000 ft.,
+and just north of 67° 10&prime; N. only to 500 ft. or less.<a name="fa20d" id="fa20d" href="#ft20d"><span class="sp">20</span></a> The highest
+mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about
+7000 ft. The Petermann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef
+Fjord, measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto
+been considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but
+according to Nathorst it &ldquo;is probably only two-thirds as high as
+Payer supposed,&rdquo; perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally
+not quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not
+uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and
+Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there
+is no other known land of such a size so filled along its coasts on all
+sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Inland Ice.</i>&mdash;The whole interior of Greenland is completely
+covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a
+regular shield-shaped expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying
+all valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about
+715,400 sq. m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern
+hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but
+not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks are known as
+<i>nunataks</i> (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to
+a level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends
+gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coasts or the
+bottom of the fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its
+yearly drainage or surplus of precipitation in the form of icebergs
+in the fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on
+the west and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are
+gradually melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered
+by cold stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of
+these icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of Newfoundland.
+The surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the
+west to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approaching
+an arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen&rsquo;s route has its highest
+ridge somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also
+seems to be the case farther south. The curve shows, however,
+slight irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the
+slope decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where
+it may be 1° or more, towards the interior, where it is 0°. In the
+interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which
+never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the
+winds. It extends as a completely even plain of snow, with long,
+almost imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to
+10,000 ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the
+mountains and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the
+deepest valleys of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at
+least 6000 or 7000 ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from
+the interior, the snow of the surface gradually changes its structure.
+At first it becomes more coarse-grained, like the <i>Firn Schnee</i> of the
+Alps, and is moist by melting during the summer. Nearer the coast,
+where the melting on the surface is more considerable, the wet
+snow freezes hard during the winter and is more or less transformed
+into ice, on the surface of which rivers and lakes are formed, the
+water of which, however, soon finds its way through crevasses and
+holes in the ice down to its under surface, and reaches the sea as a
+sub-glacial river. Near its margin the surface of the inland ice is
+broken up by numerous large crevasses, formed by the outward
+motion of the glacier covering the underlying land. The steep ice-walls
+at the margin of the inland ice show, especially where the
+motion of the ice is slow, a distinct striation, which indicates the
+strata of annual precipitation with the intervening thin seams of
+dust (Nordenskiöld&rsquo;s kryokonite). This is partly dust blown on
+to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare coast-land and partly the
+dust of the atmosphere brought down by the falling snow and
+accumulated on the surface of the glacier&rsquo;s covering by the melting
+during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of the ice-fjords
+this striation is not distinctly visible, being evidently
+obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses.</p>
+
+<p>The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a
+viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is pressed
+outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass of
+pitch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of time
+flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the outwards-creeping
+inland ice will naturally be more independent of the configurations
+of the underlying land in the interior, where its thickness
+is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner. Here the
+ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing velocity
+in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off as icebergs.
+The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly
+given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the
+snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its western
+margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced on
+its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor
+Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great
+velocity, up to 64¾ ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the glaciers
+of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice and its
+glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. Steenstrup
+during several years, Captain Hammer in 1879-1880, Captain Ryder
+in 1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in 1891-1893,<a name="fa21d" id="fa21d" href="#ft21d"><span class="sp">21</span></a> and several American
+expeditions in later years, all examined the question closely. The
+highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by Ryder in the
+Upernivik glacier (in 73° N.), where, between the 13th and 14th of
+August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in twenty-four hours,
+and an average velocity during several days of 101 ft. (Danish).<a name="fa22d" id="fa22d" href="#ft22d"><span class="sp">22</span></a>
+It was, however, ascertained that there is a great difference between
+the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in summer. For instance,
+Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an average velocity
+of only 33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be periodical oscillations
+in the extension of the glaciers and the inland ice similar to those
+that have been observed on the glaciers of the Alps and elsewhere.
+But these interesting phenomena have not hitherto been subject to
+systematic observation, and our knowledge of them is therefore
+uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as polished
+striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &amp;c., prove that the whole
+of Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the coast,
+has once been covered by the inland ice.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine
+mollusca, &amp;c., occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate
+that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has
+sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now ice-bare
+outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these
+traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are
+very marked; but they are also very distinct in the south, although
+not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the
+upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord
+(72° 20&prime; N.) the highest terrace is 480 ft. above the sea.<a name="fa23d" id="fa23d" href="#ft23d"><span class="sp">23</span></a> On Manitsok
+(65° 30&prime; N.) the highest raised beach was 360 ft. above the sea.<a name="fa24d" id="fa24d" href="#ft24d"><span class="sp">24</span></a>
+In the Isortok Fjord (67° 11&prime; N.) the highest raised beach is 380 ft.
+above sea-level.<a name="fa25d" id="fa25d" href="#ft25d"><span class="sp">25</span></a> In the Ameralik Fjord (64° 14&prime; N.) the highest
+marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, and at Ilivertalik
+(63° 14&prime; N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest terrace is about 325 ft.
+above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the Björnesund (62° 50&prime; N.),
+a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the sea, but it is doubtful whether
+this is of marine origin.<a name="fa26d" id="fa26d" href="#ft26d"><span class="sp">26</span></a> In the Julianehaab district, between 60°
+and 61° N., the highest marine terraces are found at about 160 ft.
+above the sea.<a name="fa27d" id="fa27d" href="#ft27d"><span class="sp">27</span></a> The highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby
+Fjord, on the east coast, was 240 ft. above sea-level.<a name="fa28d" id="fa28d" href="#ft28d"><span class="sp">28</span></a> There is a
+common belief that during quite recent times the west and south-west
+coast, within the Danish possessions, has been sinking. Although
+there are many indications which may make this probable,
+none of them can be said to be quite decisive.<a name="fa29d" id="fa29d" href="#ft29d"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p>
+
+<p>[<i>Geology.</i>&mdash;So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland
+is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Laurentian gneiss</i> forms the greatest mass of the exposed
+rocks of the country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of
+Smith Sound, rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene
+and Cretaceous rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span>
+Oolites of Pendulum Island in East Greenland. Ancient schists
+occur on the east coast south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and
+schists are found in Scoresby Fjord. It is possible that some of
+these rocks are also of Huronian age, but it is doubtful whether the
+rocks so designated by the geologists of the &ldquo;Alert&rdquo; and &ldquo;Discovery&rdquo;
+expedition are really the rocks so known in Canada, or
+are a continuous portion of the fundamental or oldest gneiss of the
+north-west of Scotland and the western isles.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Silurian.</i>&mdash;Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the
+Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower
+Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North
+America, are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has
+discovered them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south
+as the Danish possessions.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Devonian</i> rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnudiorbik
+Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous
+sandstone, rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is,
+however, likely that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in
+Dana Bay, Captain Feilden found a species of <i>Spirifera</i> and <i>Productus
+mesolobus</i> or <i>costatus</i>, though it is possible that these fossils
+represent the &ldquo;Ursa stage&rdquo; (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous.
+A few Devonian forms have also been recorded from the Parry
+Archipelago, and Nathorst has shown the existence of Old Red
+Sandstone facies of Devonian in Traill Island, Geographical Society
+Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Carboniferous.</i>&mdash;In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the
+Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a <i>Sigillaria</i> and a
+species of either <i>Pecopteris</i> or <i>Gleichenia</i>, perhaps of this age; and
+probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land,
+and therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore,
+contains a clearly developed Carboniferous Limestone fauna,
+identical with that so widely distributed over the North American
+continent, and referable also to British and Spitsbergen species.
+Of the Coal Measures above these, if they occur, we know nothing
+at present. Capt. Feilden notes as suggestive that, though the
+explorers have not met with this formation on the northern shores
+of Greenland, yet it was observed that a continuation of the direction
+of the known strike of the limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried
+over the polar area, passes through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen,
+where the formation occurs, and contains certain species identical
+with those of the Grinnell Land rocks of this horizon. The facies of
+the fossils is, according to Mr Etheridge, North American and
+Canadian, though many of the species are British. The corals are
+few in number, but the <i>Molluscoida</i> (<i>Polyzoa</i>) are more numerous
+in species and individuals. No Secondary rocks have been discovered
+in the extreme northern parts of West Greenland, but they
+are present on the east and west coasts in more southerly latitudes
+than Smith Sound.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Jurassic.</i>&mdash;These do not occur on the west coast, but on the
+east coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones
+on Kuhn Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, characterized
+by the presence of the genus <i>Aucella</i>, <i>Olcostephanus Payeri</i>,
+<i>O. striolaris</i>, <i>Belemnites Panderianus</i>, <i>B. volgensis</i>, <i>B. absolutus</i>,
+and a <i>Cyprina</i> near to <i>C. syssolae</i>. On the south coast of the same
+island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured
+calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render
+it probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic
+rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire.
+There is also coal on Kuhn Island.</p>
+
+<p>The Danish expeditions of 1899-1900 have added considerably to
+our knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. Rhaetic-Lias
+plants have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Stewart
+and Vardeklöft. Dr Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond
+with those from the Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of
+England. Upper Kimmeridge and Portlandian beds also occur.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Cretaceous.</i>&mdash;Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and
+coal, are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the
+southern side of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former
+locality, &ldquo;the Kome strata&rdquo; of Nordenskiöld, being the oldest.
+They reach 1000 ft. in thickness, occupying undulating hollows in
+the underlying gneiss, and dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at
+20°, when the overlying Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these
+series contain numerous plant remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias,
+aralias, &amp;c., and seams of lignite (coal), which is burnt; but in
+neither occur the marine beds of the United States. Still, the
+presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as <i>Magnolia alternans</i>, in the
+Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close alliance with the Dakota
+series of the United States. The underlying Kome beds are not
+present in the American series. They are characterized by fine
+cycads (<i>Zamites arcticus</i> and <i>Glossozamites Hoheneggeri</i>), which also
+occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Miocene.</i>&mdash;This formation, one of the most widely spread in
+polar lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best
+known feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and
+perhaps to a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neighbouring
+country, and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone,
+shale and coal&mdash;the sideritic shale containing immense quantities
+of leaves, stems, fruit, &amp;c., as well as some insects, and the coal
+pieces of retinite. The study of these plant and insect remains
+shows that forests containing a vegetation very similar to that of
+California and the southern United States, in some instances even
+the species of trees being all but identical, flourished in 70° N.
+during geological periods comparatively recent. These beds, as
+well as the Cretaceous series, from which they are as yet only imperfectly
+distinguished, are associated with sheets of basalt, which
+penetrate them in great dikes, and in some places, owing to the
+wearing away of the softer sedimentary rocks, stand out in long
+walls running across the beds. These Miocene strata have not been
+found farther north on the Greenland shore than the region
+mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay, on the Grinnell Land side
+of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that the chances are they
+will be found on the opposite coast, though doubtless the great
+disintegration Greenland has undergone and is undergoing has
+destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous rocks. On the
+east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland, the Miocene
+beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of them
+even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at
+the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since early
+Tertiary times there has been a great change in the climate of
+Greenland.</p>
+
+<p>Nathorst has suggested that the whole of Greenland is a &ldquo;horst,&rdquo;
+in the subordinate folds of which, as well as in the deeper &ldquo;graben,&rdquo;
+the younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary
+or later lava flows.<a name="fa30d" id="fa30d" href="#ft30d"><span class="sp">30</span></a>&mdash;J. A. H.]</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;Native iron was found by Nordenskiöld at Ovifak,
+on Disco Island, in 1870, and brought to Sweden (1871) as meteorites.
+The heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has
+later been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the
+west coast enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This
+iron has very often beautiful Widmannstätten figures like those of
+iron meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin.<a name="fa31d" id="fa31d" href="#ft31d"><span class="sp">31</span></a> In 1895
+Peary found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross&rsquo;s voyage
+in 1818 it has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got
+iron for their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule
+to New York; it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This
+iron is considered by several of the first authorities on the subject
+to be of meteoric origin,<a name="fa32d" id="fa32d" href="#ft32d"><span class="sp">32</span></a> but no evidence hitherto given seems to
+prove decisively that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found
+were lying on gneissic rock, with no basaltic rocks in the neighbourhood,
+does not prove that the iron may not originate from basalt,
+for the nodules may have been transported by the glaciers, like
+other erratic blocks, and will stand erosion much longer than the
+basalt, which may long ago have disappeared. This iron seems,
+however, in several respects to be unlike the celebrated large nodules
+of iron found by Nordenskiöld at Ovifak, but appears to resemble
+much more closely the softer kind of iron nodules found by Steenstrup
+in the basalt;<a name="fa33d" id="fa33d" href="#ft33d"><span class="sp">33</span></a> it stands exposure to the air equally well, and has
+similar Widmannstätten figures very sharp, as is to be expected in
+such a large mass. It contains, however, more nickel and also
+phosphorus. A few other minerals may be noticed, and some have
+been worked to a small extent&mdash;graphite is abundant, particularly
+near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost exclusively at Ivigtut;
+copper has been observed at several places, but only in nodules and
+laminae of limited extent; and coal of poor quality is found in the
+districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord. Steatite or soapstone
+has long been used by the natives for the manufacture of lamps and
+vessels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing
+suddenly from bright sunshine (when <span class="correction" title="amended from mosquitos">mosquitoes</span> often swarm) to
+dense fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab
+in the extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that
+of Norway and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean temperature
+for the whole year probably approximates to that on the
+Norwegian coast 600 m. farther north. The climate of the interior
+has been found to be of a continental character, with large ranges
+of temperature, and with an almost permanent anti-cyclonic region
+over the interior of the inland ice, from which the prevailing winds
+radiate towards the coasts. On the 64th parallel the mean annual
+temperature at an elevation of 6560 ft. is supposed to be &minus;13° F.,
+or reduced to sea-level 5° F. The mean annual temperature in the
+interior farther north is supposed to be &minus;10° F. reduced to sea-level.
+The mean temperature of the warmest month, July, in the interior
+should be, reduced to sea-level, on the 64th parallel 32° F., and
+that of the coldest month, January, about &minus;22° F., while in North
+Greenland it is probably &minus;40° reduced to sea-level. Here we may
+probably find the lowest temperatures of the northern hemisphere.
+The interior of Greenland contains both summer and winter a pole
+of cold, situated in the opposite longitude to that of Siberia, with
+which it is well able to compete in extreme severity. On Nansen&rsquo;s
+expedition temperatures of about &minus;49° F. were experienced during
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span>
+the nights in the beginning of September, and the minimum during
+the winter may probably sink to &minus;90° F. in the interior of the inland
+ice. These low temperatures are evidently caused by the radiation
+of heat from the snow-surface in the rarefied air in the interior.
+The daily range of temperature is therefore very considerable,
+sometimes amounting to 40°. Such a range is elsewhere found only
+in deserts, but the surface of the inland ice may be considered to be
+an elevated desert of snow.<a name="fa34d" id="fa34d" href="#ft34d"><span class="sp">34</span></a> The climate of the east coast is on the
+whole considerably more arctic than that of the west coast on
+corresponding latitudes; the land is much more completely snow-covered,
+and the snow-line goes considerably lower. The probability
+also is that there is more precipitation, and that the mean temperatures
+are lower.<a name="fa35d" id="fa35d" href="#ft35d"><span class="sp">35</span></a> The well-known strangely warm and dry <i>föhn</i>-winds
+of Greenland occur both on the west and the east coast;
+they are more local than was formerly believed, and are formed by
+cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the outer
+slope of the inland ice.<a name="fa36d" id="fa36d" href="#ft36d"><span class="sp">36</span></a> Mirage and similar phenomena and the
+aurora are common.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna and Flora.</i>&mdash;It was long a common belief that the fauna
+and flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance
+which would make it probable that Greenland has been separated
+by sea from America during a longer period of time than from
+Europe. The correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be
+doubted. The land mammals of Greenland are decidedly more
+American than European; the musk-ox, the banded lemming
+(<i>Cuniculus torquatus</i>), the white polar wolf, of which there seems to
+have been a new invasion recently round the northern part of the
+country to the east coast, the Eskimo and the dog&mdash;probably also
+the reindeer&mdash;have all come from America, while the other land
+mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare, the stoat
+(<i>Mustela erminea</i>), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The species of
+seals and whales are, if anything, more American than European,
+and so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal
+(<i>Cystophora cristata</i>), for instance, may be said to be a Greenland-American
+species, while a Scandinavian species, such as the grey
+seal (<i>Halichoerus grypus</i>), appears to be very rare both in Greenland
+and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in Greenland,
+eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest
+circumpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their distribution.<a name="fa37d" id="fa37d" href="#ft37d"><span class="sp">37</span></a>
+About 310 species of vascular plants are found, of which
+about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic,
+fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe
+or Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic
+elements of the flora are nearly equivalent; and if the flora of
+Arctic North America were better known, the number of plants
+common to America might be still more enlarged.<a name="fa38d" id="fa38d" href="#ft38d"><span class="sp">38</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have been introduced.
+The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west
+coast but decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The
+white whale fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing
+is important; walruses are also caught and sometimes narwhal.
+There are also important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish
+(<i>Sebastes</i>) and <i>nepisak</i> (<i>Cyclopterus lumpus</i>); a shark (<i>Somniosus
+microcephalus</i>) is taken for the oil from its liver; and sea-trout are
+found in the streams and small lakes of the south. On land reindeer
+were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south,
+but in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg
+there are still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other
+sea-birds are in some parts valuable for food in winter, and so is
+the ptarmigan. Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down.
+Valuable fur is obtained from the white and blue fox, the skin of
+the eider-duck and the polar bear.</p>
+
+<p>At Tasiusak (73° 22&prime; N.), the most northern civilized settlement
+in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but
+several plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70° 40&prime; N.)
+is the most northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes
+grow well, turnips (but not every year), lettuce and chervil succeed
+sometimes, but parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn
+(69° 12&prime; N.), only some 15 m. from the inland ice, gardening succeeds
+very well; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly; the spinach produces
+large leaves; chervil, pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips
+grow very well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during
+the summer (June to August). In the south, in the Julianehaab
+district, even flowering plants, such as aster, nemophilia and
+mignonette, are cultivated, and broccoli, spinach, sorrel, chervil,
+parsley, rhubarb, turnips, lettuce, radishes grow well. Potatoes
+give fair results when they are taken good care of, carrots grow to
+a thickness of 1½ in., while cabbage does poorly. Strawberries
+and cucumbers have been ripened in a forcing frame. In the
+&ldquo;Kongespeil&rdquo; (King&rsquo;s mirror) of the 13th century it is stated
+that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley.</p>
+
+<p>The wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable
+situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species.
+The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied
+to those found in Lapland or on the summits of the highest British
+hills. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where
+the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground
+is covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willows, crow-berries
+and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the
+andromeda, the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &amp;c. besides the
+flowering mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in
+the shape of bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very
+sheltered places, the willows may grow higher than a man, and the
+vegetation is less arctic and more abundant.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government and Trade.</i>&mdash;The trade of Greenland is a monopoly
+of the Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in
+Copenhagen by a government board (<i>Kongelige Grönlandske
+Handel</i>) and in the country by various government officials.
+In order to meet the double purposes of government and trade
+the west coast, up to nearly 74° N., is divided into two inspectorates,
+the southern extending to 67° 40&prime; N., the northern comprising
+the rest of the country; the respective seats of government
+being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates
+are ruled by two superior officials or governors responsible to
+the director of the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspectorates
+is divided into districts, each district having, in addition
+to the chief settlement or <i>coloni</i>, several outlying posts and
+Eskimo hunting stations, each presided over by an <i>udligger</i>,
+who is responsible to the <i>coloni-bestyrer</i>, or superintendent of the
+district. These trading settlements, which dot the coast for
+a distance of 1000 m., are about sixty in number. From the
+Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is the chief article
+received, and is forwarded in casks to the <i>coloni</i>, where it is boiled
+into oil, and prepared for being despatched to Copenhagen by
+means of the government ships which arrive and leave between
+May and November. For the rest of the year navigation is
+stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing
+season. The principle upon which the government acts is to
+give the natives low prices for their produce, but to sell them
+European articles of necessity at prime cost, and other stores,
+such as bread, at prices which will scarcely pay for the purchase
+and freight, while no merchandise is charged, on an average,
+more than 20% over the cost price in Denmark. In addition
+the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from private dealers
+on paying freight for them at the rate of 2½d. per 10 &#8468;, or 1s. 6d.
+per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and native
+articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and
+Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government.
+Out of the payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-sixth
+devoted to the Greenlanders&rsquo; public fund, spent in &ldquo;public
+works,&rdquo; in charity, and on other unforeseen contingencies.
+The object of the monopoly is solely for the good of the Greenlanders&mdash;to
+prevent spirits being sold to them, and the vice,
+disease and misery which usually attend the collision between
+natives and civilization of the trader&rsquo;s type being introduced
+into the primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition
+to being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious
+crime is very rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local
+councils or <i>parsissaet</i> were organized in 1857 in every district.
+To these parish parliaments delegates are sent from every station.
+These <i>parsissoks</i>, elected at the rate of about one representative
+to 120 voters, wear a cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid
+the European members of the council in distributing the surplus
+profit apportioned to each district, and generally in advising as
+to the welfare of that part of Greenland under their partial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span>
+control. The municipal council has the disposal of 20% of the
+annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines
+of each district. It holds two sessions every year, and the
+discussions are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition
+to their functions as guardians of the poor, the parish members
+have to investigate crimes and punish misdemeanours, settle
+litigations and divide inheritances. They can impose fines for
+small offences not worth sending before the inspector, and, in
+cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of inflicting corporal
+punishment.</p>
+
+<p>A Danish <i>coloni</i> in Greenland might seem to many not to be
+a cheerful place at best; though in the long summer days they
+would certainly find some of those on the southern fjords comparatively
+pleasant. The fact is, however, that most people
+who ever lived some time in Greenland always long to go back.
+There are generally in a <i>coloni</i> three or four Danish houses,
+built of wood and pitched over, in addition to storehouses and
+a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents may
+include, besides a <i>coloni-bestyrer</i> and his assistant, a <i>missionair</i>
+or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a
+carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally
+from twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built
+of stone and turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their
+houses in the <i>colonis</i> have also to some extent been built of
+imported wood. Following the west coast northward, the
+trading centres are these: in the south inspectorate, Julianehaab,
+near which are remains of the early Norse settlements of
+Eric the Red and his companions (the <i>Öster-Bygd</i>); Frederikshaab,
+in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut; Godthaab,
+the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of
+which are also early Norse remains (the <i>Vester-Bygd</i>); Sukkertoppen,
+a most picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the
+north inspectorate the centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet
+at the mouth of Disco Bay; Christianshaab, one of the
+pleasantest settlements in the north, and Jacobshavn, on the
+inner shores of the same bay; Godhavn (or Lievely) on the
+south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of
+the whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly
+of all, Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni,
+Angmagssalik, in 65º 30&prime; N., only established in 1894. For
+ecclesiastical purposes Danish Greenland is reckoned in the
+province of the bishop of Zeeland. The Danish mission in
+Greenland has a yearly grant of £2000 from the trading revenue
+of the colony, besides a contribution of £880 from the state.
+The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a
+century and a half, retired from the country in 1900. The
+trade of Greenland has on the whole much decreased in modern
+times, and trading and missions cost the Danish state a comparatively
+large sum (about £11,000 every year), although this
+is partly covered by the income from the royalty of the cryolite
+mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of more
+than £6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was
+formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought
+about by the fall in the price of seal-oil. It might be expected
+that there should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries,
+caused by the European and American sealers catching larger
+quantities every year, especially along the coasts of Newfoundland
+and Labrador, and so actually diminishing the number of the
+animals in the Greenland seas. The statistics of South Greenland,
+however, do not seem to demonstrate any such decrease. The
+average number of seals killed annually is about 33,000.<a name="fa39d" id="fa39d" href="#ft39d"><span class="sp">39</span></a> The
+annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured goods,
+foodstuffs, &amp;c., may be taken somewhat to exceed £40,000.
+The chief articles of export (together with those that have
+lapsed) have been already indicated; but they may be summarized
+as including seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins,
+fish products and eiderdown, with some quantity of worked
+skins. Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which in the days of the
+old Norse settlements were the chief articles of export, are now
+of little importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated
+at 45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The
+Europeans number about 300. The Eskimo population of
+Danish Greenland (west coast) seems to have decreased since
+the middle of the 18th century. Hans Egede estimated the
+population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large over-estimate.
+The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious
+diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During
+the last half of the 19th century there was on the whole a slight
+increase of the native population. The population fluctuates
+a good deal, owing, to some extent, to an immigration of natives
+from the east to the west coast. The population of the east
+coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in number, several
+hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north part of
+the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef
+Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in
+1823 Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either
+completely died out or have wandered south. A little tribe of
+Eskimo living in the region of Cape York near Smith Sound&mdash;the
+so-called &ldquo;Arctic Highlanders&rdquo; or Smith Sound Eskimo&mdash;number
+about 240.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;In the beginning of the 10th century the Norwegian
+Gunnbjörn, son of Ulf Kráka, is reported to have found some
+islands to the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without
+landing upon it, the southern part of the east coast of Greenland.
+In 982 the Norwegian Eric the Red sailed from Iceland to find
+the land which Gunnbjörn had seen, and he spent three years
+on its south-western coasts exploring the country. On his return
+to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in order to make
+people more willing to go there, and reported so favourably on
+its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining followers.
+In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only
+14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on
+the south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric
+built his house at Brattalid, near the inner end oí the fjord
+Tunugdliarfik, just north of the present Julianehaab. Other
+settlers followed and in a few years two colonies had been formed,
+one called Österbygd in the present district of Julianehaab
+comprising later about 190 farms, and another called Vesterbygd
+farther north on the west coast in the present district
+of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins
+in the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where
+these colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped
+in coarse hairy cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones
+with runic inscriptions have been found. On a voyage from
+Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red) discovered
+America in the year 1000, and a few years later Torfinn
+Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from Greenland
+to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years
+later (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vinland</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various
+remains indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been
+people of a similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in
+America, whom they called <i>Skraeling</i> (the meaning of the word
+is uncertain, it means possibly weak people); but the sagas
+do not report that they actually met the natives then. But
+somewhat later they have probably met with the Eskimo
+farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco
+Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &amp;c.
+The Norse colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at
+least to 73º N., where a small runic stone from the 14th century
+has been found. On a voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still
+farther north into the Melville Bay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span></p>
+
+<p>Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance
+of Olaf Trygvasson, king of Norway, in 1000 and following years.
+In the beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own
+bishop, who resided at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station
+Igoliko, on an isthmus between two fjords, Igaliksfjord (the old
+Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik (the old Eriksfjord), inside the
+present colony Julianehaab. The Norse colonies had twelve
+churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the Österbygd,
+and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland,
+had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261,
+when the Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the
+king of Norway. Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown
+till 1814, when, at the dissolution of the union between Denmark
+and Norway, neither it nor Iceland and the Faeroes were mentioned,
+and they, therefore, were kept by the Danish king and
+thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called respectively
+<i>Öster Bygd</i> (or eastern settlement) and <i>Vester</i> (western) <i>Bygd</i>,
+both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the
+districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though
+for long the view was persistently held that the first was on the
+east coast, and numerous expeditions have been sent in search
+of these &ldquo;lost colonies&rdquo; and their imaginary survivors. These
+settlements at the height of their prosperity are estimated to have
+had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however, is an over-estimate, the
+number having probably been nearer one-half or one-third of
+that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in
+1540, but long before that date those appointed had never
+reached their sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland
+died there in 1377. After the middle of the 14th century very
+little is heard of the settlements, and their communication with
+the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually ceased. This
+may have been due in great part to the fact that the shipping
+and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of
+Norway, who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of
+years) to Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade
+of Norway came more and more in the hands of the Hanseatic
+League, which took no interest in Greenland. The last ship that
+is known to have visited the Norse colony in Greenland returned
+to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the settlements
+seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they
+were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period
+seem to have become more numerous and to have extended
+southwards along the coast from the north. This seems a less
+feasible explanation; it is more probable that the Norse settlers
+intermarried with the Eskimo and were gradually absorbed.
+About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century
+it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically
+disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no
+sign of any people save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a
+few directly relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of
+Norse influence.<a name="fa40d" id="fa40d" href="#ft40d"><span class="sp">40</span></a> For more than two hundred years Greenland
+seems to have been neglected, almost forgotten. It was visited
+by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing in the form of permanent
+European settlements was established until the year 1721, when
+the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans Egede,
+landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid
+many hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at
+the present day the native race is civilized and Christianized.
+Many of the colonists of the 18th century were convicts and
+other offenders; and in 1750 the trade became a monopoly in
+the hands of a private company. In 1733-1734 there was a
+dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number
+of the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a
+private monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the
+government took it over. Julianehaab was founded in the
+following year. In 1807-1814, owing to the war, communication
+was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but subsequently the
+colony prospered in a languid fashion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Authorities.</i>&mdash;As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen
+and its early history see Konrad Maurer&rsquo;s excellent paper, &ldquo;Geschichte
+der Entdeckung Ostgrönlands&rdquo; in the report of <i>Die zweite
+deutsche Nordpolarfahrt 1869-1870</i> (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i.; G. Storm,
+<i>Studies on the &ldquo;Vineland&rdquo; Voyages</i> (Copenhagen, 1889); <i>Extraits
+des Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord</i> (1888);
+K. J. V. Steenstrup, &ldquo;Om Österbygden,&rdquo; <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>,
+part ix. (1882), pp. 1-51; Finnur Jônsson, &ldquo;Grönlands gamle
+Topografi efter Kilderne&rdquo; in <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part xx.
+(1899), pp. 265-329; Joseph Fischer, <i>The Discoveries of the Norsemen
+in America</i>, translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London,
+1903). As to the general literature on Greenland, a number of the
+more important modern works have been noticed in footnotes.
+The often-quoted <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i> is of especial value; it
+is published in parts (Copenhagen) since 1879, and is chiefly written
+in Danish, but each part has a summary in French. In part xiii.
+there is a most valuable list of literature about Greenland up to
+1880. See also <i>Geographical Journal</i>, passim.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned:
+Hans Egede, <i>Description of Greenland</i> (London, 1745); Crantz,
+<i>History of Greenland</i> (2 vols., London, 1820); <i>Grönlands historiske
+Mindesmerker</i> (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1838-1845); H. Rink, <i>Danish
+Greenland</i> (London, 1877); H. Rink, <i>Tales of the Eskimo</i> (London,
+1875); (see also same, &ldquo;Eskimo Tribes&rdquo; in <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>,
+part xi.); Johnstrup, <i>Giesecke&rsquo;s Mineralogiske Reise i Grönland</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Inglefield, <i>Summer Search for Franklin</i> (London, 1853).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Second Grinnell Expedition</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Davis, Polaris (<i>Hall&rsquo;s</i>) <i>North Polar Expedition</i> (Washington,
+1876). See also Bessels, <i>Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition</i>
+(Leipzig, 1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery</i> (1823).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt</i> (1873-1875).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Reise til Östkysten af Grönland</i> (1832; trans. by G. Gordon
+Macdougall, 1837).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>The First Crossing of Greenland</i>, vol. i. (London, 1890), H. Mohn
+and F. Nansen; &ldquo;Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen
+Durchquerung von Grönland&rdquo; (1888). Ergänzungsheft No. 105 zu
+<i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (Gotha, 1892).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> A. F. Nordenskiöld, <i>Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til
+Grönland</i> (Stockholm, 1885).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, pts. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen, 1895-1896).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Geografisk Tidskrift</i>, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>The Geographical Journal</i>, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901);
+<i>Två Somrar i Norra Ishafvet</i> (Stockholm, 1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14d" id="ft14d" href="#fa14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, parts xxvi.-xxvii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15d" id="ft15d" href="#fa15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Nares, <i>Voyage to the Polar Sea</i> (2 vols. London, 1877). See
+also Blue Book, journals, &amp;c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London,
+1877).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16d" id="ft16d" href="#fa16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> A. W. Greely, <i>Report on the Proceedings of the United States
+Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land</i>, vols. i. and ii.
+(Washington, 1885); <i>Three Years of Arctic Service</i> (2 vols. London,
+1886).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17d" id="ft17d" href="#fa17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> R. E. Peary, <i>Northward over the &ldquo;Great Ice&rdquo;</i> (2 vols. New York,
+1898); E. Astrup, <i>Blandt Nordpolen&rsquo;s Naboer</i> (Christiania, 1895).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18d" id="ft18d" href="#fa18d"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19d" id="ft19d" href="#fa19d"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20d" id="ft20d" href="#fa20d"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See C. Kruuse in <i>Geografisk Tidskrift</i>, xv. 64 (Copenhagen,
+1899). See also F. Nansen, &ldquo;Die Ostküste Grönlands,&rdquo; Ergänzungsheft
+No. 105 zu <i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and
+pl. iv., sketch No. 11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21d" id="ft21d" href="#fa21d"><span class="fn">21</span></a> E. v. Drygalski, <i>Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde
+zu Berlin, 1891-1893</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22d" id="ft22d" href="#fa22d"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen,
+1889).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23d" id="ft23d" href="#fa23d"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv. pp.
+317 et seq., 323.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24d" id="ft24d" href="#fa24d"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25d" id="ft25d" href="#fa25d"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26d" id="ft26d" href="#fa26d"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27d" id="ft27d" href="#fa27d"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp.
+150-154 (1896).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28d" id="ft28d" href="#fa28d"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, part xix. p. 175 (1896).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29d" id="ft29d" href="#fa29d"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347;
+part iv. p. 237; part viii. p. 26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30d" id="ft30d" href="#fa30d"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See A. G. Nathorst, &ldquo;Bidrag till nordöstra Grönlands geologi,&rdquo;
+with map <i>Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar</i>,
+No. 257, Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, <i>Flora fossilis Arctica</i>
+(7 vols., 1868-1883), and especially <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i> for
+numerous papers on the geology and palaeontology.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31d" id="ft31d" href="#fa31d"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>Medd. om Grönl.</i>, part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32d" id="ft32d" href="#fa32d"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See Peary, <i>Northward over the &ldquo;Great Ice,&rdquo;</i> ii. 604 et seq.
+(New York, 1898).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33d" id="ft33d" href="#fa33d"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See <i>loc. cit.</i> pp. 127-128.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34d" id="ft34d" href="#fa34d"><span class="fn">34</span></a> H. Mohn, &ldquo;The Climate of the Interior of Greenland,&rdquo; <i>The
+Scott. Geogr. Magazine</i>, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199;
+H. Mohn and F. Nansen, &ldquo;Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,&rdquo; &amp;c.
+Ergänzungsheft No. 105 <i>zu Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (1892), p. 51.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35d" id="ft35d" href="#fa35d"><span class="fn">35</span></a> On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V. Willaume-Jantzen,
+<i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part ix. (1889), pp. 285-310,
+part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36d" id="ft36d" href="#fa36d"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See A. Paulsen, <i>Meteorolog. Zeitschrift</i> (1889), p. 241; F. Nansen,
+<i>The First Crossing of Greenland</i> (London, 1890), vol. ii. pp. 496-497;
+H. Mohn and F. Nansen, &ldquo;Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,&rdquo; &amp;c.
+Ergänzungsheft No. 105 <i>zu Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (1892), p. 51.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft37d" id="ft37d" href="#fa37d"><span class="fn">37</span></a> H. Winge, &ldquo;Grönlands Fugle,&rdquo; <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>,
+part xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft38d" id="ft38d" href="#fa38d"><span class="fn">38</span></a> See J. Lange, &ldquo;Conspectus florae Groenlandicae,&rdquo; <i>Meddelelser
+om Grönland</i>, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming,
+&ldquo;Om Grönlands Vegetation,&rdquo; <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part xii.
+(Copenhagen, 1888); and in <i>Botanische Jahrbücher</i>, vol. x. (1888-1889).
+See also A. Blytt, <i>Englers Jahrbücher</i>, ii. (1882), pp. 1-50;
+A. G. Nathorst, <i>Ötversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl.</i> (Stockholm,
+1884); &ldquo;Kritische Bemerkungen über die Geschichte der
+Vegetation Grönlands,&rdquo; <i>Botanische Jahrbücher</i>, vol. xiv. (1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft39d" id="ft39d" href="#fa39d"><span class="fn">39</span></a> Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874
+as to the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Greenland,
+and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation,
+the Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for
+the establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in
+question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to
+put its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships
+or subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned
+in the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar provisions
+with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in council
+under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of April in
+each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February 15,
+1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still operative.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft40d" id="ft40d" href="#fa40d"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Cf. F. Nansen, <i>Eskimo Life</i> (London, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENLAW<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (a &ldquo;grassy hill&rdquo;), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62¼ m.
+S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway company&rsquo;s branch
+line from Reston Junction to St Boswells. The town was built
+towards the end of the 17th century, to take the place of an older
+one, which stood about a mile to the S.E. It was the county town
+from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it shared this dignity
+with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital. The chief
+manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About
+3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the 13th
+century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English
+in 1547, in spite of Lady Home&rsquo;s gallant defence, it was retaken
+two years afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its
+surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards
+the close of the 18th century the 3rd earl of Marchmont had the
+walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle, though a mere
+shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque ruin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENLEAF, SIMON<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1783-1853), American jurist, was
+born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, on the 5th of December
+1783. When a child he was taken by his father to Maine, where
+he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise at Standish. He
+soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve years, and
+in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme
+court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of
+<i>Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine</i> (1822-1835).
+In 1833 he became Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded
+Judge Joseph Story as Dane professor of law in Harvard University;
+in 1848 he retired from his active duties, and became
+professor emeritus. After being for many years president of the
+Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge, Mass., on
+the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf&rsquo;s principal work is a <i>Treatise
+on the Law of Evidence</i> (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also published
+<i>A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or Limited
+in their Application, taken from American and English Reports</i>
+(1821), and <i>Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists
+by the Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice,
+with an account of the Trial of Jesus</i> (1846; London, 1847). He
+revised for the American courts William Cruise&rsquo;s <i>Digest of Laws
+respecting Real Property</i> (3 vols., 1849-1850).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN MONKEY,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a west African representative of the typical
+group of the guenon monkeys technically known as <i>Cercopithecus
+callitrichus</i>, taking its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur
+of the back, which forms a marked contrast to the white whiskers
+and belly.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENOCK,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh and seaport of
+Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of
+Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of Glasgow by the Caledonian and the
+Glasgow &amp; South-Western railways, 21 m. by the river and
+firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water frontage of
+nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town in
+which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch
+Gryfe, from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic
+use, and for driving several mills and factories. The streets are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span>
+laid out on the comparatively level tract behind the firth, the
+older thoroughfares and buildings lying in the centre. The west
+end contains numerous handsome villas and a fine esplanade, 1½ m.
+long, running from Prince&rsquo;s Pier to Fort Matilda, which is supplied
+with submarine mines for the defence of the river. The capacious
+bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence from a religious
+house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank that ends
+here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway
+between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and
+the southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper
+firth. There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting
+with Port Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total
+distance of 7½ m. The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and
+Greenock thus has the reputation of being the wettest town in
+Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The municipal
+buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with
+a tower 244 ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on
+the old steamboat quay, in classic style with a Doric portico,
+dates from 1818. The county buildings (1867) have a tower and
+spire 112 ft. high. The Watt Institution, founded in 1837 by a
+son of the famous engineer, James Watt, contains the public
+library (established in 1783), the Watt scientific library (presented
+in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble statue of James
+Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the museum and
+lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other
+buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library,
+founded by the widow of William Spence the mathematician.
+In addition to numerous board schools there are the Greenock
+academy for secondary education, the technical college (1900),
+the school of art, and a school of navigation and engineering.
+The charitable institutions include the infirmary; the cholera
+hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception house; Sir
+Gabriel Wood&rsquo;s mariners&rsquo; asylum, an Elizabethan building
+erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant seamen;
+and the Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built
+beyond the southern boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour
+stands the old west now the north parish church (a Gothic
+edifice dating from 1591) containing some stained-glass windows
+by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns&rsquo;s &ldquo;Highland Mary&rdquo;
+was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson Street
+(1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile.
+The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the
+Classic style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the
+infirmary and attached to a few of the older churches, a beautiful
+cemetery, 90 acres in extent, has been laid out in the south-western
+district. The parks and open spaces include Wellington
+Park, Well Park in the heart of the town (these were the gift of
+Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle Road&mdash;a broad drive
+winding over the heights towards Gourock, constructed as a
+&ldquo;relief work&rdquo; in the severe winter of 1879-1880.</p>
+
+<p>Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with
+provost and bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by
+one member. The corporation owns the supplies of water (the
+equipment of works and reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas,
+electric light and power, and the tramways (leased to a company).
+The staple industries are shipbuilding (established in 1760) and
+sugar refining (1765). Greenock-built vessels have always been
+esteemed, and many Cunard, P. &amp; O. and Allan liners have been
+constructed in the yards. The town has been one of the chief
+centres of the sugar industry. Other important industries
+include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives,
+anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and
+worsted goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium
+factory, a flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The
+seal and whale fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct,
+but the fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland
+grounds are considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first
+harbour (finished in 1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but
+acquired it in that and the following year, and a graving dock
+was opened in 1786. Since then additions and improvements
+have been periodically in progress, and there are now several
+tidal harbours&mdash;among them Victoria harbour, Albert harbour,
+the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour,
+the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt
+dock (completed in 1886 at a cost of £650,000 with an area of
+2000 ft. by 400 ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel
+graving dock and other dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100
+acres in area and the quay walls are over 3 m. in length. Both
+the Caledonian and the Glasgow &amp; South-Western railways
+(in Prince&rsquo;s Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage
+nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last
+the outlay on the harbour has exceeded £1,500,000.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing
+village, consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century
+later there were only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it
+was erected by Charles I. into a burgh of barony under a charter
+granted to John Shaw, the government being administered by a
+baron-bailie, or magistrate, appointed by the superior. Its
+commercial prosperity received an enormous impetus from the
+Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with America and the
+West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of Independence
+suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in
+in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in
+amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw&mdash;to whom and to whose
+descendants, the Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been
+indebted&mdash;by charter (dated 1741 and 1751) had empowered the
+householders to elect a council of nine members, which proved to
+be the most liberal constitution of any Scots burgh prior to the
+Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the status of
+a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to
+parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt,
+William Spence (1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898),
+principal of Glasgow University, who died in the town and was
+buried in Greenock cemetery. John Galt, the novelist, was
+educated in Greenock, where he also served some time in the
+custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided the
+town in 1715.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENOCKITE,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a rare mineral composed of cadmium
+sulphide, CdS, occurring as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals
+or as a canary-yellow powder. Crystals are hexagonal with
+hemimorphic development, being differently terminated at the
+two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the numerous
+hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The crystals
+are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine
+to resinous lustre; hardness 3-3½; specific gravity 4.9. Crystals
+have been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the
+neighbourhood of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite
+in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic igneous rocks&mdash;a rather
+unusual mode of occurrence for a metallic sulphide. The first,
+and largest crystal (about ½ in. across) was found, about the
+year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at Bowling in Dumbartonshire,
+but this was thought to be blende. A larger number of crystals,
+but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the cutting of the
+Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow &amp; Greenock railway; they
+were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of
+Cathcart, after whom the mineral was named. A third locality
+is the Boyleston quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities&mdash;Przibram
+in Bohemia, Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &amp;c.&mdash;the
+mineral is represented only as a powder dusted over the
+surface of zinc minerals, especially blende and calamine, which
+contain a small amount of cadmium replacing zinc.</p>
+
+<p>Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide
+(ZnS) known as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared
+artificially, and are not uncommon as furnace products. Previous
+to the recent discovery in Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small
+octahedral crystals, greenockite was the only known mineral
+containing cadmium as an essential constituent.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENORE,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place of county Louth,
+Ireland, beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on
+its western shore. It was brought to importance by the action
+of the London &amp; North-Western railway company of England,
+which owns the pier and railways joining the Great Northern
+system at Dundalk (12½ m.) and Newry (14 m.). A regular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span>
+service of passenger steamers controlled by the company runs
+to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses the Lough
+to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places of
+county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out
+the golf links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach,
+some 10 ft. above present sea-level, is to be seen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1778-1855), English geologist,
+was born in London on the 18th of January 1778. He
+was educated at Eton, and afterwards (1795) entered Pembroke
+College, Oxford, but never graduated. In 1798 he proceeded
+to Göttingen to prosecute legal studies, but having
+attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the
+study of natural history, and, coming into the possession of a
+fortune, he abandoned law and devoted his attention to science.
+He studied mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in
+various parts of Europe and the British Isles, and worked at
+chemistry at the Royal Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused
+deep interest in political questions, and he was in 1807 elected
+member of parliament for the borough of Gatton, continuing to
+hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his interest in geology
+increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was the chief
+founder with others of the Geological Society of London in 1807.
+He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it
+was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and
+in this capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and
+did much to promote the advancement of geology. In 1819
+he published <i>A Critical Examination of the First Principles of
+Geology</i>, a work which was useful mainly in refuting erroneous
+theories. In the same year was published his famous <i>Geological
+Map of England and Wales</i>, in six sheets; of which a second
+edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based
+on the original map of William Smith; but much new information
+was embodied. In 1843 he commenced to prepare a geological
+map of India, which was published in 1854. He died at
+Naples on the 2nd of April 1855.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENOUGH, HORATIO<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1805-1852), American sculptor,
+son of a merchant, was born at Boston, on the 6th of September
+1805. At the age of sixteen he entered Harvard, but he devoted
+his principal attention to art, and in the autumn of 1825 he went
+to Rome, where he studied under Thorwaldsen. After a short
+visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed busts of John Quincy
+Adams and other people of distinction, he returned to Italy and
+took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first commissions
+was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chanting
+Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government
+to execute the colossal statue of Washington for the national
+capital. It was unveiled in 1843, and was really a fine piece of
+work for its day; but in modern times it has been sharply
+criticized as unworthy and incongruous. Shortly afterwards
+he received a second government commission for a colossal
+group, the &ldquo;Rescue,&rdquo; intended to represent the conflict between
+the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to
+Washington to superintend its erection, and in the autumn of
+1852 he was attacked by brain fever, of which he died in Somerville
+near Boston on the 18th of December. Among other works
+of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of Lafayette, the Medora
+and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston Athenaeum.
+Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in
+prose and verse.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. T. Tuckerman, <i>Memoir of Horatio Greenough</i> (New York,
+1853).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1833-1901), American
+classical scholar, was born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May
+1833. He graduated at Harvard in 1856, studied one year at
+the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the Michigan bar,
+and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he was
+appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became
+assistant professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which
+he resigned hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, on the 11th of October 1901. Following the
+lead of Goodwin&rsquo;s <i>Moods and Tenses</i> (1860), he set himself to
+study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870 published <i>Analysis
+of the Latin Subjunctive</i>, a brief treatise, privately printed, of
+much originality and value, and in many ways coinciding with
+Berthold Delbrück&rsquo;s <i>Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und Optativs in
+Sanskrit und Griechischen</i> (1871), which, however, quite overshadowed
+the Analysis. In 1872 appeared <i>A Latin Grammar
+for Schools and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar</i>,
+by Joseph A. Allen and James B. Greenough, a work of great
+critical carefulness. His theory of <i>cum</i>-constructions is that
+adopted and developed by William Gardner Hale. In 1872-1880
+Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and comparative
+philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced
+scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen
+and Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occasionally
+contributed to <i>Harvard Studies in Classical Philology</i>
+(founded in 1889 and endowed at his instance by his own class)
+papers on Latin syntax, prosody and etymology&mdash;a subject
+on which he planned a long work&mdash;on Roman archaeology and
+on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy. He assisted
+largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able English
+scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with
+Professor George L. Kittredge on <i>Words and their Ways in
+English Speech</i> (1901), one of the best books on the subject in
+the language. He wrote clever light verse, including <i>The Blackbirds</i>,
+a comedietta, first published in <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i>
+(vol. xxxix. 1877); <i>The Rose and the Ring</i> (1880), a pantomime
+adapted from Thackeray; <i>The Queen of Hearts</i> (1885), a dramatic
+fantasia; and <i>Old King Cole</i> (1889), an operetta.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in <i>Harvard Studies in
+Classical Philology</i>, vol. xiv. (1903). pp. 1-17 (also printed in <i>Harvard
+Graduates&rsquo; Magazine</i>, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEN RIBBON CLUB,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> one of the earliest of the loosely
+combined associations which met from time to time in London
+taverns or coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century.
+It had its meeting-place at the King&rsquo;s Head tavern at Chancery
+Lane End, and was therefore known as the &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Head Club.&rdquo;
+It seems to have been founded about the year 1675 as a resort
+for members of the political party hostile to the court, and as
+these associates were in the habit of wearing in their hats a bow,
+or &ldquo;bob,&rdquo; of green ribbon, as a distinguishing badge useful
+for the purpose of mutual recognition in street brawls, the name
+of the club became changed, about 1679, to the Green Ribbon
+Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction of the
+country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who
+were concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth&rsquo;s rebellion.
+Roger North tells us that &ldquo;they admitted all strangers that were
+confidingly introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions
+to make proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly
+come to town.&rdquo; According to Dryden (<i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>)
+drinking was the chief attraction, and the members talked and
+organized sedition over their cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied
+the court with a list of forty-eight members of the Green Ribbon
+Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield&rsquo;s numerous perjuries
+make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives confirmation
+as regards several names from a list given to James II. by
+Nathan Wade in 1885 (<i>Harleian MSS.</i> 6845), while a number
+of more eminent personages are mentioned in <i>The Cabal</i>, a satire
+published in 1680, as also frequenting the club. From these
+sources it would appear that the duke of Monmouth himself,
+and statesmen like Halifax, Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Macclesfield,
+Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of Warke, Herbert of Cherbury,
+were among those who fraternized at the King&rsquo;s Head Tavern
+with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and Shadwell,
+with remnants of the Cromwellian régime like Falconbridge,
+Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard
+of Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the
+type of Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield,
+notorious among his other crimes and treacheries for a seditious
+paper found in a meal-tub, is found in connexion with the club
+in <i>The Loyal Subjects&rsquo; Litany</i>, one of the innumerable satires
+of the period, in which occur the lines:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club</p>
+<p class="i05">From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub,</p>
+          <p class="i5"><i>Libera nos, Domine</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span></p>
+
+<p>The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the
+court, and its members were active promoters of conspiracy and
+sedition. The president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir
+Robert Peyton, M.P. for Middlesex, who afterwards turned
+informer. The Green Ribbon Club served both as a debating
+society and an intelligence department for the Whig faction.
+Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed
+out by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news
+from Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, &ldquo;for
+some or others were continually coming and going,&rdquo; says Roger
+North, &ldquo;to import or export news and stories.&rdquo; Slander of the
+court or the Tories was invented in the club and sedulously
+spread over the town, and measures were there concerted for
+pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting the pretensions
+of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to Catholic
+outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the
+scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk
+armour, supposed to be bullet proof, &ldquo;in which any man dressed
+up was as safe as a house,&rdquo; says North, &ldquo;for it was impossible
+to strike him for laughing&rdquo;; while in their pockets, &ldquo;for street
+and crowd-work,&rdquo; they carried the weapon of offence invented
+by Stephen College and known as the &ldquo;Protestant Flail.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club
+the means of constructing the first systematized political organization
+in England. North relates that &ldquo;every post conveyed
+the news and tales legitimated there, as also the malign constructions
+of all the good actions of the government, especially to
+places where elections were depending, to shape men&rsquo;s characters
+into fit qualifications to be chosen or rejected.&rdquo; In the general
+election of January and February 1679 the Whig interest
+throughout the country was managed and controlled by a
+committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club&rsquo;s
+organizing activity was also notably effective in the agitation
+of the Petitioners in 1679. This celebrated movement was
+engineered from the Green Ribbon Club with all the skill and
+energy of a modern caucus. The petitions were prepared in
+London and sent down to every part of the country, where paid
+canvassers took them from house to house collecting signatures
+with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The great
+&ldquo;pope-burning&rdquo; processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary
+of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s accession, were also organized by the club.
+They ended by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club
+windows; and as they proved an effective means of inflaming
+the religious passions of the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon
+Club that the <i>mobile vulgus</i> first received the nickname of &ldquo;the
+mob.&rdquo; The activity of the club was, however, short-lived.
+The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of the favourite
+projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence, which declined
+rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation of the
+city of London&rsquo;s charter, and the discovery of the Rye House
+Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685
+John Ayloffe, who was found to have been &ldquo;a clubber at the
+King&rsquo;s Head Tavern and a green-ribon man,&rdquo; was executed
+in front of the premises on the spot where the &ldquo;pope-burning&rdquo;
+bon-fires had been kindled; and although the tavern was still
+in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green Ribbon Club
+which made it famous did not survive the accession of James II.
+The precise situation of the King&rsquo;s Head Tavern, described by
+North as &ldquo;over against the Inner Temple Gate,&rdquo; was at the
+corner of Fleet Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the
+latter thoroughfare.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir George Sitwell, <i>The First Whig</i> (Scarborough, 1894),
+containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-burning
+procession; Roger North, <i>Examen</i> (London, 1740);
+Anchitell Grey, <i>Debates of the House of Commons</i>, 1667-1684, vol.
+viii. (10 vols., London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, <i>Autobiography</i>
+(Camden Soc., London, 1845).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENSAND,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in geology, the name that has been applied to
+no fewer than three distinct members of the Cretaceous System,
+viz. the Upper Greensand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gault</a></span>), the Lower Greensand
+and the so-called Cambridge Greensand, a local phase of the base
+of the Chalk (<i>q.v.</i>). The term was introduced by the early
+English geologists for certain sandy rocks which frequently
+exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of minute
+grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of these
+rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion
+between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian)
+and the Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention
+to the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H.
+Fitton (<i>Q.J.G.S.</i> iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name
+&ldquo;Vectine&rdquo; for the formation. The name was revived under the
+form &ldquo;Vectian&rdquo; in 1885 by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because,
+although sands and sandstones prevail, the green colour has
+often changed by oxidation of the iron to various shades of red
+and brown, and other lithological types, clays and limestones
+represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand
+is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of
+Wight, in Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again
+beneath the northern outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxfordshire
+and Bedfordshire, and thence it is traceable through
+Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east Yorkshire. It rests conformably
+upon the Wealden formation in the south of England, but
+it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the occurrence
+of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked overlap
+of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived
+pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft.
+thick at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly
+westward. It is usually clearly marked off from the overlying
+Gault.</p>
+
+<p>In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been subdivided
+as follows, although the several members are not everywhere
+recognizable:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Isle of Wight.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Carstone and Sand rock series.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Atherfield Clay.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The
+basal portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the &ldquo;Perna bed&rdquo; from the
+abundance of <i>Perna Mulleti</i>; other fossils are <i>Hoplites Deshayesii</i>,
+<i>Exogyra sinuata</i>, <i>Ancyloceras Mathesonianum</i>. The Hythe beds
+are interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former
+are bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain
+amount of quartz and glauconite. The limestone is known
+locally as &ldquo;rag&rdquo;; the Kentish Rag has been largely employed
+as a building stone and roadstone; it frequently contains layers
+of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that town). The sandy
+portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey and calcareous
+and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone;
+locally it is called &ldquo;hassock&rdquo; (or Calkstone). The two stones
+are well exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so
+called from the discovery of the bones of that reptile). Southwest
+of Dorking sandstone and grit become more prevalent, and
+it is known there as &ldquo;Bargate stone,&rdquo; much used around Godalming.
+Pulborough stone is another local sandstone of the Hythe
+beds. Fuller&rsquo;s earth occurs in parts of this formation in
+Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand and
+clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst,
+Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller&rsquo;s
+earth deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near
+Maidstone, at Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds
+are light-coloured, rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous
+limestone (Folkestone stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found
+near the top. These beds are well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone
+and near Reigate. At Ightham there is a fine, hard, white sandstone
+along with a green, quartzitic variety (Ightham stone). In
+Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking, but a ferruginous
+grit, &ldquo;carstone,&rdquo; occurs in lenticular masses and layers,
+which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy
+country, as about Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at
+Woburn, or at Shanklin and Sandown in the Isle of Wight.
+Outside the southern area the Lower Greensand is represented by
+the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in Berkshire, the Sandy and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span>
+Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron sands of Oxfordshire,
+the sands and fuller&rsquo;s earth of Woburn, the Leighton
+Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the
+Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county
+and Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the
+Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along
+with the upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands
+of the Lower Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture
+of glass, for which purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone,
+near Reigate, Hartshill, near Aylesbury and other places; the
+ferruginous sand is worked as an iron ore at Seend.</p>
+
+<p>This formation is continuous across the channel into France,
+where it is well developed in Boulonnais. According to the
+continental classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the
+Urgonian or Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to
+the Aptian (<i>q.v.</i>); while the upper part of the Folkestone beds
+would fall within the lower Albian (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Memoirs of the Geological Survey</i>, &ldquo;Geology of the Weald&rdquo;
+(1875), &ldquo;Geology of the Isle of Wight&rdquo; (2nd ed., 1889), &ldquo;Geology
+of the Isle of Purbeck&rdquo; (1898); and the <i>Record of Excursions</i>,
+Geologists&rsquo; Association (London, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENSBORO,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Guilford county,
+North Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop.
+(1890) 3317, (1900) 10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes;
+(1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is served by several lines
+of the Southern railway. It is situated in the Piedmont region
+of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is the seat of
+the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of the
+Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South;
+chartered in 1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles
+F. Deems was president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the
+burning of its buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of
+two institutions for negroes&mdash;a State Agricultural and Mechanical
+College, and Bennett College (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational,
+1873). Another school for negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College
+(Evangelical Lutheran, co-educational), was opened at Concord,
+N.C., in 1903, was removed to Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907
+was established at Lutherville, E. of Greensboro. About 6 m. W.
+of Greensboro is Guilford College (co-educational; Friends),
+founded as &ldquo;New Garden Boarding School&rdquo; in 1837 and rechartered
+under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a
+Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is
+the shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking
+region, among whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton
+are especially important; is an important insurance centre; has
+a large wholesale trade; and has various manufactures, including
+cotton goods<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (especially blue denim), tobacco and cigars,
+lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds, machinery, foundry
+products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory products
+increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or 97.6%.
+The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro
+was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the
+15th of March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford
+Court House, about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a
+Battle-Ground Park of 100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this
+park contains a Revolutionary museum, and twenty-nine monuments,
+including a Colonial Column, an arch (1906) in memory
+of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North Carolina,
+who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and
+Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-1781),
+a brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed
+at Catawba and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson,
+N.C., was named. Greensboro was founded and became the
+county-seat in 1808, was organized as a town in 1829, and was
+first chartered as a city in 1870.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the
+first in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed
+about 20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three
+very large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill
+villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these
+three mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population
+was estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools
+for the children of operatives and carry on &ldquo;welfare work&rdquo; in these
+villages.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENSBURG,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a borough and the county-seat of Westmoreland
+county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg.
+Pop. (1890) 4202; (1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420.
+It is served by two lines of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an
+important coal centre, and manufactures engines, iron and brass
+goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In addition to its public school
+system, it has several private schools, including St Mary&rsquo;s
+Academy and St Joseph&rsquo;s Academy, both Roman Catholic. About
+3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of Hanna&rsquo;s
+Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed
+by the Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to
+have been the first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on
+the 6th of April 1773, and the county courts continued to be held
+here until 1787. Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, immediately
+after the opening of the state road, not far from the trail
+followed by General John Forbes on his march to Fort Duquesne
+in 1758; it was made the county-seat in 1787, and was incorporated
+in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick (pop. in 1900,
+901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg (620)
+were merged with Greensburg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John N. Boucher&rsquo;s <i>History of Westmoreland County, Pa.</i>
+(3 vols., New York, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENSHANK,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> one of the largest of the birds commonly
+known as sandpipers, the <i>Totanus glottis</i> of most ornithological
+writers. Some exercise of the imagination is however needed to
+see in the dingy olive-coloured legs of this species a justification
+of the English name by which it goes, and the application of that
+name, which seems to be due to Pennant, was probably by way
+of distinguishing it from two allied but perfectly distinct species
+of <i>Totanus</i> (<i>T. calidris</i> and <i>T. fuscus</i>) having red legs and usually
+called redshanks. The greenshank is a native of the northern
+parts of the Old World, but in winter it wanders far to the south,
+and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope, in India and
+thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia.
+It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance
+there must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a
+woodcock, it is of a much more slender build, and its long legs
+and neck give it a graceful appearance, which is enhanced by
+the activity of its actions. Disturbed from the moor or marsh,
+where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the air, conspicuous
+by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries flies round
+the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree,
+if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits
+all the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many
+other <i>Limicolae</i> indulge during the breeding-season&mdash;with
+certain variations, however, that are peculiarly its own. It
+breeds in no small numbers in the Hebrides, and parts of the
+Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to Sutherland, as well as
+in the more elevated or more northern districts of Norway,
+Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kamchatka.
+In North America it is represented by two species,
+<i>Totanus semipalmatus</i> and <i>T. melanoleucus</i>, there called willets,
+telltales or tattlers, which in general habits resemble the greenshank
+of the Old World.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Washington
+county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi
+river, about 75 m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900)
+7642 (4987 negroes); (1910) 9610. Greenville is served by the
+Southern and the Yazoo &amp; Mississippi Valley railways, and by
+various passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Mississippi
+river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta, a rich
+cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost exclusively
+connected with that staple. There are large warehouses, compresses
+and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills.
+Old Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county
+seat of Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it),
+and later became the county-seat of Washington county. Much
+of the old town caved into the river, and during the Civil War it
+was burned by the Federal forces soon after the capture of
+Memphis. The present site was then adopted. The town of
+Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was chartered
+as a city.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Darke county,
+Ohio, U.S.A., on Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton.
+Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237. It is served by the Pittsburg,
+Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis and the Cincinnati Northern
+railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is situated
+about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a large
+and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco.
+It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and
+creamery products and has grain elevators and tobacco warehouses.
+In the city is a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there
+is a county Children&rsquo;s Home and Infirmary. The municipality
+owns and operates its water-works. Greenville occupies the site
+of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville (built by General
+Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on the
+3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory
+over the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the
+treaty of Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of
+hostilities and ceding to the United States a considerable portion
+of Ohio and a number of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and
+Michigan (including the sites of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance,
+Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and Chicago), and the
+United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000 worth of
+goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500,
+for ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Delawares,
+the Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawatomies,
+the Miamis, the Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas,
+the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river tribe. Tecumseh lived at
+Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second Indian treaty was
+negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H. Harrison and
+Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the Shawnees,
+the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United
+States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white
+settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town
+was laid out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of
+the newly erected county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in
+1838 and chartered as a city in 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Greenville
+county, South Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m.
+N.W. of Columbia, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890)
+8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom 5414 were negroes; (1910, census)
+15,741. It is served by the Southern, the Greenville &amp;
+Knoxville and the Charleston &amp; Western Carolina railways.
+It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue Ridge
+Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors.
+It is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing
+district. Greenville&rsquo;s chief interest is in cotton, but it has
+various other manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron
+and fertilizers. The total value of the factory products of the
+city in 1905 was $1,676,774, an increase of 73.5% since 1900.
+The city is the seat of Furman University, Chicora College for
+girls (1893; Presbyterian), and Greenville Female College (1854;
+Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379 students, and which,
+besides the usual departments, has a conservatory of music,
+a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture and
+a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University
+(Baptist; opened in 1852) grew out of the &ldquo;Furman Academy
+and Theological Institution,&rdquo; opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827,
+and named in honour of Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-known
+Baptist clergyman of South Carolina, whose son, James
+C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of the University.
+In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250 students,
+of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville
+was laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and
+was first chartered as a city in 1868.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hunt county,
+Texas, U.S.A., near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m.
+N.E. of Dallas. Pop. (1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-born
+and 1751 were negroes; (1910) 8850. It is served by the
+Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas, the St Louis South-Western and the
+Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton market,
+has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery,
+and other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agricultural
+district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting
+plant. It is the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in
+1893, and 1 m. from the city limits, in the village of Peniel
+(pop. 1908, about 500), a community of &ldquo;Holiness&rdquo; people, are
+the Texas Holiness University (1898), a Holiness orphan asylum
+and a Holiness press. Greenville was settled in 1844, and was
+chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas legislature
+granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission
+government similar to that of Galveston.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENWICH,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut,
+U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the
+state, about 28 m. N.E. of New York City. It contains a borough
+of the same name and the villages of Cos Cob, Riverside and
+Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford
+Railway; the township has steamboat and electric railway
+connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900)
+12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of
+the borough (1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort,
+principally for New Yorkers. Among the residents have been
+Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman, the landscape
+painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder
+of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches
+in the township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H.
+Murray (1840-1904), called &ldquo;Adirondack Murray,&rdquo; from his
+<i>Camp Life in the Adirondack Mountains</i> (1868), was once pastor.
+In the borough are a public library, Greenwich Academy (1827;
+co-educational), the Brunswick School for boys (1901), with
+which Betts Academy of Stamford was united in 1908, and a
+hospital. The principal manufactures are belting, woollens,
+tinners&rsquo; hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are shipped
+from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven
+Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the exploration
+of Long Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid
+claim to Greenwich, and as New Haven did nothing to assist
+the settlers, they consented to union with New Netherland in
+1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty
+of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and
+the New Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to
+Greenwich, but the inhabitants of the town refused to submit
+to the New Haven Colony until October 1656. Six years later
+Greenwich was one of the first towns of the New Haven Colony
+to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered severely
+during the War of Independence on account of the frequent
+quartering of American troops within its borders, the depredations
+of bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York
+by the British in 1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779
+(February 25) and 1781 (December 5). There was also a strong
+loyalist sentiment. On the old post-road in Greenwich is the
+inn, built about 1729, at which Israel Putnam was surprised in
+February 1779 by a force under General Tryon; according to
+tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone steps.
+The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American
+Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial.
+The township government of Greenwich was instituted in the
+colonial period. The borough of Greenwich was incorporated in
+1858.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D. M. Mead, <i>History of the Town of Greenwich</i> (New York, 1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENWICH,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a south-eastern metropolitan borough of
+London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by
+Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Deptford. Pop. (1901)
+95,770. Area, 3851.7 acres. It has a river-frontage of 4½ m.,
+the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing the Isle of Dogs
+on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich side.
+Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the
+Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs
+(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street
+traffic, crossing to a point between the East and West India
+Docks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poplar</a></span>). The main thoroughfares from W. to E.
+are Woolwich and Shooter&rsquo;s Hill Roads, the second representing
+the old high road through Kent, the Roman Watling Street.
+Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, when it was
+a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span></p>
+
+<p>The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the
+observatory. Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became
+in 1873 a Royal Naval College. Upon it or its site centre nearly
+all the historical associations of the place. The noble buildings,
+contrasting strangely with the wharves adjacent and opposite
+to it, make a striking picture, standing on the low river-bank with
+a background formed by the wooded elevation of Greenwich
+Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal palace called
+Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as
+early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort,
+duke of Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of
+Gloucester, who largely improved the property and named it
+<i>Placentia</i>. It did not revert to the crown till his death in 1447.
+It was the birthplace of Henry VIII., Queen Mary and Queen
+Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building was enlarged
+by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief
+residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the
+&ldquo;Queen&rsquo;s House&rdquo; for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land
+from the crown &ldquo;as of the manor of East Greenwich&rdquo; became at
+this time a recognized formula, and occurs in a succession of
+American colonial charters from those of Virginia in 1606, 1609
+and 1612 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along with other royal
+palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by the
+Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of
+Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of
+the present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design
+which was not further carried out. In its unfinished state it
+was assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain of
+the great officers of state, as commissioners for its conversion
+into a hospital for seamen; and it was opened as such in 1705.
+The building consists of four blocks. Behind a terrace 860 ft.
+in length, stretching along the river side, are the buildings
+erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones&rsquo;s designs, and
+in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren;
+and behind these buildings are on the west those of King William
+and on the east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren&rsquo;s designs.
+In the King William range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the
+remains of Nelson lay in state before their burial in St Paul&rsquo;s
+Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling were painted by Sir James
+Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and it is hung with
+portraits of the most distinguished admirals and paintings of
+the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range is
+the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson
+and of Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal
+quadrangle of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by
+Rysbrack, sculptured out of a single block of marble taken from
+the French by Admiral Sir George Rooke. In the upper quadrangle
+is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey, and there are various
+other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the building was
+in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was
+erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endowments
+of the hospital were increased at various periods from
+bequests and forfeited estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen
+were boarded within it, and 5000 or 6000 others, called out-pensioners,
+received stipends at various rates out of its funds;
+but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the Admiralty to
+grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such of the
+inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another
+act was passed making their leaving on these conditions compulsory.
+It was then devoted to the accommodation of the
+students of the Royal Naval College, the Infirmary being granted
+to the Seamen&rsquo;s Hospital Society. Behind the College is the
+Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons of petty officers
+and seamen, are boarded.</p>
+
+<p>To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres),
+lying high, and commanding extensive views over London, the
+Thames and the plain of Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey,
+duke of Gloucester, and laid out by Charles II., and contains
+a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in his time. In it is
+situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the advancement
+of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact
+time is conveyed each day at one o&rsquo;clock by electric signal to
+the chief towns throughout the country; British and the majority
+of foreign geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A
+standard clock and measures are seen at the entrance. A new
+building was completed in 1899, the magnetic pavilion lying
+some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to avoid the disturbance
+of instruments which would be occasioned by the iron used in
+the principal building. South of the park lies the open common
+of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in
+the east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich
+Common.</p>
+
+<p>At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known
+as the whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony
+arose out of a dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex
+shore of the Thames, by the commissioners for engineering
+works carried out there in 1705-1720&mdash;a remarkable achievement
+for this period&mdash;to save the lowlands from flooding. To one of
+these dinners Pitt was invited, and was subsequently accompanied
+by some of his colleagues. Early in the 19th century the
+venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial function,
+was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always
+held here, was later celebrated regularly at the &ldquo;Ship,&rdquo; an
+hotel of ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet
+continued till 1868, was revived in 1874-1880, and was held for
+the last time in 1894.</p>
+
+<p>The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated
+to St Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the
+Danes in 1012. In the church Wolfe, who died at Quebec
+(1759), and Tallis, the musician, are buried. A modern stained-glass
+window commemorates Wolfe.</p>
+
+<p>The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member.
+Two burgesses were returned in 1577, but it was not again represented
+till the same privilege was conferred on it in 1832.
+The borough council consists of a mayor, five aldermen and
+thirty councillors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENWOOD, FREDERICK<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1830-1909), English journalist
+and man of letters, was born in April 1830. He was one of three
+brothers&mdash;the others being James and Charles&mdash;who all gained
+reputation as journalists. Frederick started life in a printing
+house, but at an early age began to write in periodicals. In
+1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a volume
+called <i>The Napoleon Dynasty</i> (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote
+several novels: <i>The Loves of an Apothecary</i> (1854), <i>The Path
+of Roses</i> (1859) and (with his brother James) <i>Under a Cloud</i>
+(1860). To the second number of the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> he
+contributed &ldquo;An Essay without End,&rdquo; and this led to an introduction
+to Thackeray. In 1862, when Thackeray resigned the
+editorship of the <i>Cornhill</i>, Greenwood became joint editor with
+G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole editor, a post
+which he held until 1868. While at the <i>Cornhill</i> he wrote an
+article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray
+might have intended to conclude his unfinished work <i>Denis
+Duval</i>, and in its pages appeared <i>Margaret Denzil&rsquo;s History</i>,
+Greenwood&rsquo;s most ambitious work of fiction, published in
+volume form in 1864. At that time Greenwood had conceived
+the idea of an evening newspaper, which, while containing &ldquo;all
+the news proper to an evening journal,&rdquo; should, for the most
+part, be made up &ldquo;of original articles upon the many things
+which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse
+the leisure of mankind.&rdquo; Public affairs, literature and art,
+&ldquo;and all the influences which strengthen or dissipate society&rdquo;
+were to be discussed by men whose independence and authority
+were equally unquestionable. Canning&rsquo;s <i>Anti-Jacobin</i> and the
+<i>Saturday Review</i> of 1864 were the joint models Greenwood had
+before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and
+the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i> (so named after Thackeray&rsquo;s imaginary
+paper in <i>Pendennis</i>) was launched in February 1865, with
+Greenwood as editor. Within a few years he had come to
+exercise a great influence on public affairs. His views somewhat
+rapidly ripened from what was described as philosophic Liberalism
+into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain, Mr
+Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a
+more effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span>
+had in Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood
+that Beaconsfield purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the
+Khedive Ismail; the British government being ignorant, until
+informed by Greenwood, that the shares were for sale and likely
+to be bought by France. It was characteristic of Greenwood
+that he declined to publish the news of the purchase of the shares
+in the <i>Pall Mall</i> before the official announcement was made.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1880 the <i>Pall Mall</i> changed owners, and the new
+proprietor required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood
+at once resigned his editorship, but in May a new paper, the
+<i>St James&rsquo;s Gazette</i>, was started for him by Mr Henry Hucks
+Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and Greenwood proceeded
+to carry on in it the tradition which he had established in the
+<i>Pall Mall</i>. At the <i>St James&rsquo;s</i> Greenwood remained for over
+eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon
+political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone
+administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of
+Lord Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August
+1888, owing to disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E.
+Steinkopff, who had bought the <i>St James&rsquo;s</i> at Greenwood&rsquo;s
+own suggestion. In January 1891 Greenwood brought out a
+weekly review which he named the <i>Anti-Jacobin</i>. It failed,
+however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in
+January 1892. In 1893 he published <i>The Lover&rsquo;s Lexicon</i> and
+in 1894 <i>Imagination in Dreams</i>. He continued to express his
+views on political and social questions in contributions to
+newspapers and magazines, writing frequently in the <i>Westminster
+Gazette</i>, the <i>Pall Mall</i>, <i>Blackwood</i>, the <i>Cornhill</i>, &amp;c. Towards
+the end of his life his political views reverted in some respects
+to the Liberalism of his early days.</p>
+
+<p>In the words of George Meredith &ldquo;Greenwood was not only a
+great journalist, he had a statesman&rsquo;s head. The national
+interests were always urgent at his heart.&rdquo; He was remarkable
+for securing for his papers the services of the ablest writers of
+the day, and for the gift of recognizing merit in new writers,
+such, for instance, as Richard Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His
+instinct for capacity in others was as sure as was his journalistic
+judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, a
+dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, journalists,
+and men of letters (with John Morley&mdash;who had succeeded him
+as editor of the <i>Pall Mall</i>&mdash;in the chair). In May 1907 he
+contributed to <i>Blackwood</i> an article on &ldquo;The New Journalism,&rdquo;
+in which he drew a sharp contrast between the old and the new
+conditions under which the work of a newspaper writer is conducted.
+He died at Sydenham on the 14th of December 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Honouring Frederick Greenwood</i>, being a report of the speeches
+at the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed,
+1905); &ldquo;Birth and Infancy of the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>,&rdquo; an article
+contributed by Greenwood to the <i>Pall Mall</i> of the 14th of April
+1897; &ldquo;The Blowing of the Trumpet&rdquo; in the introduction to the
+<i>St James&rsquo;s</i> (May 31, 1880); obituary notices in the <i>Athenaeum</i>
+(Dec. 25, 1909) and <i>The Times</i> (Dec. 17, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREENWOOD, JOHN<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (d. 1593), English Puritan and
+Separatist (the date and place of his birth are unknown), entered
+as a sizar at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, on the 18th of
+March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A. 1581. Whether he was
+directly influenced by the teaching of Robert Browne (<i>q.v.</i>),
+a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case he held
+strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism
+of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich,
+at Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been
+made deacon by John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest
+by Thomas Cooper, bishop of Lincoln; but ere long he renounced
+this ordination as &ldquo;wholly unlawful.&rdquo; Details of the
+next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the recognized
+leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable number
+had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood
+was arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was
+committed to the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default
+of bail for conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some
+controversial tracts in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner
+Henry Barrowe (<i>q.v.</i>). He is understood to have been at liberty
+in the autumn of 1588; but this may have been merely &ldquo;the
+liberty of the prison.&rdquo; However, he was certainly at large in
+September 1592, when he was elected &ldquo;teacher&rdquo; of the
+Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) &ldquo;An
+Answer to George Gifford&rsquo;s pretended Defence of Read Prayers.&rdquo;
+On the 5th of December he was again arrested; and the following
+March was tried, together with Barrowe, and condemned to
+death on a charge of &ldquo;devising and circulating seditious books.&rdquo;
+After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he was hanged
+on the 6th of April 1593.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;H. M. Dexter, <i>Congregationalism during the last
+three hundred years</i>; <i>The England and Holland of the Pilgrims</i>;
+F. J. Powicke, <i>Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam</i>;
+B. Brook, <i>Lives of the Puritans</i>; C. H. Cooper, <i>Athenae Cantabrigienses</i>,
+vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1809-1881), English essayist,
+the son of a merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was
+educated at the university of Edinburgh and for a time managed
+a mill of his father&rsquo;s at Bury, and in 1832 began business on his
+own account. He entered with ardour into the struggle for
+free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize offered by the Anti-Corn
+Law League for the best essay on &ldquo;Agriculture and the
+Corn Laws.&rdquo; He was too much occupied with political, economical
+and theological speculations to give undivided attention to
+his business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing.
+His <i>Creed of Christendom</i> was published in 1851, and in 1852 he
+contributed no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies.
+Disraeli praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed
+a Commissionership of Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864
+he was made Comptroller of the Stationery Office. Besides
+contributions to periodicals he produced several volumes of
+essays on political and social philosophy. The general spirit
+of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best known,
+<i>The Enigmas of Life</i> (1872) and <i>Rocks Ahead</i> (1874). They
+represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author&rsquo;s youth,
+when wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every
+public ill. Greg was a man of deep moral earnestness of character
+and was interested in many philanthropic works. He died at
+Wimbledon on the 15th of November 1881. His brother,
+<span class="sc">Robert Hyde Greg</span> (1795-1875), was an economist and
+antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, <span class="sc">Samuel Greg</span>
+(1804-1876), became well known in Lancashire by his philanthropic
+efforts on behalf of the working-people. <span class="sc">Percy Greg</span>
+(1836-1889), son of William Rathbone Greg, also wrote, like his
+father, on politics, but his views were violently reactionary.
+His <i>History of the United States to the Reconstruction of the Union</i>
+(1887) is a polemic rather than a history.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGARINES<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (mod. Lat. <i>Gregarina</i>, from <i>gregarius</i>, collecting
+in a flock or herd, <i>grex</i>) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa
+Ectospora, in which a very high degree of morphological specialization
+and cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently
+found. On the other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly
+simple. Other principal characters which distinguish Gregarines
+from allied Sporozoan parasites are as follows:&mdash;The fully-grown
+adult (trophozoite) is always &ldquo;free&rdquo; in some internal
+cavity, <i>i.e.</i> it is extracellular; in nearly all cases prior to sporulation
+two Gregarines (associates) become attached to one another,
+forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a common
+cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes
+segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes,
+primary sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the
+resulting copula (zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually
+a spore by the secretion of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its
+protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up to form the germs (sporozoites).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:590px" src="images/img556a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewswi&rsquo;s <i>Sporozoenkunde</i>, after Pfeiffer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;<i>a</i>, Transverse Section of Intestine of
+Mealworm, infected with <i>Gregarina</i> (<i>Clepsydrina</i>)
+<i>polymorpha</i>;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>b</i>, Part of <i>a</i> highly magnified.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a
+Gregarine parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no
+means certain. Much later (1787) Cavolini described
+and figured an indubitable Gregarine (probably the
+<span class="sidenote">Historical.</span>
+form now known as <i>Aggregata conformis</i>) from a Crustacean
+(<i>Pachygrapsus</i>), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm.
+Leon Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came
+across several species of these parasites, also considered them as
+allied to the worms and proposed the generic name of <i>Gregarina</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span>
+The unicellular nature of Gregarines was first realized by A. von
+Kölliker, who from 1845-1848 added considerably to our knowledge
+of the frequent occurrence and wide distribution of these
+organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein who demonstrated
+about this
+time the relation
+of the &ldquo;pseudo-navicellae&rdquo;
+(spores) to the reproduction
+of the
+parasites.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the
+continually increasing
+number
+of known species,
+matters remained
+at about this
+stage for many
+years. It is, in
+fact, only since
+the closing years
+of the 19th
+century that the
+complete life-history
+has been
+fully worked out;
+this has now been
+done in many
+cases, thanks to
+the researches of
+M. Siedlecki, L.
+Cuénot, L. Léger,
+O. Duboscq, A.
+Laveran, M.
+Caullery, F.
+Mesnil and
+others, to whom
+also we owe most
+of our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the
+cells of their host during their early development.</p>
+
+<p>Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are
+not known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in
+Ascidians. By far the greatest number of hosts is
+furnished by the Arthropods. Many members of the
+<span class="sidenote">Occurrence; mode of infection.</span>
+various groups of worms (especially the Annelids)
+also harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting
+forms are found in Echinoderms; in the other classes, they
+either occur only sporadically or else are absent. Infection
+is invariably of the accidental (casual) type, by way of the alimentary
+canal, the spores being usually swallowed by the host
+when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been
+described by Woodcock (<b>31</b>) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic
+in Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca
+into the respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:135px" src="images/img556b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a
+larva of <i>Tipula</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its
+diverticula (<i>e.g.</i> the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity.
+In the latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated
+germs at once traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may
+<span class="sidenote">Habitat and effects on host.</span>
+come to rest in the connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remaining,
+however, extracellular), grow considerably in that situation,
+and ultimately fall into the body-cavity (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplocystis</i>); or
+they may pass straightway into the body-cavity and
+there come into relation with some organ or tissue (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Monocystis</i>) of the earthworm, which is for a time intracellular
+in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, <i>c</i>). In the case
+of intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite
+with respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly.
+The parasite may remain only attached to the host-cell, never
+becoming actually intracellular (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pterocephalus</i>); more
+usually it penetrates partially into it, the extracellular portion
+of the Gregarine, however, giving rise subsequently to most of
+the adult (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Gregarina</i>); or lastly, in a few forms, the early
+development is entirely intracellular (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Lankesteria</i>, <i>Stenophora</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:151px; height:658px" src="images/img556c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:264px; height:738px" src="images/img556d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Lankester.</td>
+<td class="tcl f80">From Lankester, after various authors.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;<i>Porospora gigantea f</i>,
+(E. van Ben.), from the intestine
+of the lobster. <i>a</i>, Nucleus.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.</p>
+
+<p><i>a-c</i>, Trophozoites of <i>Monocystis agilis</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, Young individuals showing
+changes of body-form.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, Older individual, still enveloped
+in a coat of spermatozoa.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, Trophozoites of <i>M. magna</i> attached
+to seminal funnel of
+<i>Lumbricus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in
+which the extremity of the
+parasite is inserted.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells.
+These generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and alteration
+in character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy,
+when the substance of the cell becomes in one way or another
+practically absorbed by the
+growing parasite (cf. also
+<span class="sc">Coccidia</span>). Since, however,
+the Gregarines never overrun
+their hosts in the way
+that many other Sporozoa
+do (because of their lack, in
+general, of the power of endogenous
+multiplication), the
+number of cells of any tissue
+attacked, even in the case of
+a strong infection, is only a
+very small percentage of the whole. In short the hosts do not,
+as a rule, suffer any appreciable inconvenience from the presence
+of the parasites.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:302px; height:303px" src="images/img557a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Siedlecki, from Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Part of a section through the
+apparatus of fixation of a <i>Pterocephalus</i>,
+showing root-like processes extending
+from the Gregarine between the epithelial
+cells. <i>g</i>, Head of Gregarine; <i>r</i>, Root-like
+processes; <i>ep</i>, Epithelial cells.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:329px" src="images/img557b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Corycella armata</i>,
+Léger. <i>a</i>, Cephalont; <i>b</i>, Epimerite
+in host-cell; <i>c</i>, Sporont.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span>
+or elongated; in one or two instances (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina</i>) it is spherical,
+and, on the other hand, in <i>Porospora</i> (fig. 3) it is greatly
+drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines,
+<span class="sidenote">Morphology.</span>
+the body is divided into two distinct but unequal regions
+or halves, the anterior part being known as the <i>protomerite</i>, the
+hinder, generally the larger, as the <i>deutomerite</i>. This feature is
+closely associated with another important morphological character,
+one which is observable, however, only during the earlier stages of
+growth and development,
+namely, the presence of
+a definite organ, the <i>epimerite</i>,
+which serves for
+the attachment of the
+parasite to the host-cell
+(fig. 6).</p>
+
+<p>In those Gregarines
+(most intestinal forms)
+which become attached to
+an epithelial cell, the
+attachment occurs by
+means of a minute projection
+or beak (rostrum)
+at the anterior end of the
+sporozoite, which pushes
+its way into the cell,
+followed by the first part
+of the growing germ. This
+portion of the body increases
+in size much
+quicker at first than the
+rest (the extracellular
+part), more or less fills up
+the host-cell, and forms
+the well-developed epimerite
+or secondary
+attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next
+grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short
+distance away from (outside) the point where the body penetrates
+into the cell (fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite
+posteriorly (distally). Léger thinks that this partition most likely
+owes its origin to trophic considerations, <i>i.e.</i> to the slightly different
+manner in which the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal,
+largely intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be
+supposed to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the
+host-cell supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal
+liquid; and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting
+limit between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer
+does not think that mechanical considerations should be altogether
+left out of account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an
+adaption for strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against
+lateral thrusts or strains, due to
+the impact of foreign bodies (food,
+&amp;c.) in the intestine.</p>
+
+<p>At the point where the body
+becomes actually intracellular, it is
+constricted, and this constriction
+marks off the epimerite (internally)
+from the middle portion (between
+this point and the septum), which
+is the protomerite. Further
+growth is restricted, practically,
+to the extracellular regions, and the
+epimerite often comes to appear
+ultimately as a small appendage
+at the anterior end of the protomerite.
+A Gregarine at this stage
+is known as a cephalont. Later
+on, the parasite breaks loose from
+the host-cell and becomes free in
+the lumen, the separation taking
+place at the constriction between
+the protomerite and the epimerite;
+the latter is left behind in the
+remains of the host-cell, the former
+becomes the anterior part of the
+free trophozoite.</p>
+
+<p>In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards,
+ultimately becoming &ldquo;coelomic,&rdquo; as well as those which become
+entirely intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further,
+the body remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include,
+for instance, <i>Monocystis</i> (fig. 4), <i>Lankesteria</i>, <i>Diplocystis</i>, are distinguished,
+as <i>Acephalina</i> or <i>Aseptata</i> (<i>Haplocyta</i>, <i>Monocystida</i>), according
+to which character is referred to, from the others, termed
+<i>Cephalina</i> or <i>Septata</i> (<i>Polycystida</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or
+interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite,
+but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and
+are hence known as <i>Pseudomonocystida</i>; this condition may be
+primitive (<i>Doliocystis</i>) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having
+in course of time disappeared. Again, <i>Stenophora</i> is a septate form
+which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the
+young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of
+an epimerite.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:517px; height:211px" src="images/img557c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Forms of Epimerites.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1, <i>Gregarina longa</i>.</p>
+<p>2, <i>Sycia inopinata</i>.</p>
+<p>3, <i>Pileocephalus heerii</i>.</p>
+<p>4, <i>Stylorhynchus longicollis</i>.</p>
+<p>5, <i>Beloides firmus</i>.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>6, <i>Cometoides crinitus</i>.</p>
+<p>7, <i>Geneiorhynchus monnieri</i>.</p>
+<p>8, <i>Echinomera hispida</i>.</p>
+<p>9, <i>Pterocephalus nobilis</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety
+of form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In
+one or two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is
+met with. Thus in <i>Pterocephalus</i>, only the rostrum of the sporozoite
+penetrates into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a
+number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the
+anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus
+anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious <i>Schizogregarinae</i>,
+the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a number of stiff,
+irregular processes, which perform the same function (fig. 8). It is
+to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and not in any way
+comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly likened.</p>
+
+<p>A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has
+been recently described by Léger (<b>18</b>) in the case of a new Gregarine,
+<i>Taeniocystis</i>. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically
+segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozoites
+possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding
+to the septum between the proto- and deuto-merite in an ordinary
+Polycystid), which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal
+compartments. Léger thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus
+segmented, the protomerite remaining small and undivided. The
+nucleus remains single, so that there is no question as to the unicellular
+or individual nature of the entire animal.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:292px; height:247px" src="images/img557d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Léger and Hagenmüller, from Lankester&rsquo;s
+<i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Three Individuals (G) of
+<i>Ophryocystis schneideri</i>, attached to
+wall of Malpighian tubule of <i>Blaps</i> sp.
+<i>p</i>, Syncytial protoplasm of the tubule;
+<i>c</i>, Cilia lining the lumen.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and
+endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte),
+secreted by the former. The cuticle varies considerably
+in thickness, being well developed in active, intestinal
+<span class="sidenote">Minute structure.</span>
+forms, but very thin and delicate in non-motile coelomic
+forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina</i>). In the former case it may show longitudinal
+striations. The cuticle also forms the hooks or spines
+of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. 9A) a differentiation
+into two layers,
+an outer, firmer layer, clear
+and hyaline, the sarcocyte,
+and an inner layer, the
+myocyte, which is formed
+of a network of muscle-fibrillae
+(mainly longitudinal
+and transverse, fig.
+9<span class="scs">B</span>). The sarcocyte alone
+constitutes the septum,
+traversing the endoplasm,
+in septate Gregarines. The
+myonemes are undoubtedly
+the agents responsible for
+the active &ldquo;gregarinoid&rdquo;
+movements (of flexion and
+contraction) to be observed
+in many forms. The
+peculiar gliding movements
+were formerly thought to
+be produced by the extrusion
+of a gelatinous thread
+posteriorly, but Crawley (<b>8</b>)
+has recently ascribed them
+to a complicated succession of wave-like contractions of the
+myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact that certain
+coelomic forms, like <i>Diplodina</i> and others, which either lack
+muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at all,
+are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a
+semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains
+and spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an
+accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to
+reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are of a substance
+termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span>
+lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and
+highly-refringent
+granules often occur.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:225px; height:256px" src="images/img558a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:126px; height:237px" src="images/img558b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f80">After Schewiakoff, from Lankester&rsquo;s
+<i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 9a.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal
+section of a Gregarine in the
+region of the septum between
+protomerite and deutomerite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pr</i>, Protomerite.</p>
+<p><i>De</i>, Deutomerite.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>,  Septum.</p>
+<p><i>en</i>, Endoplasm.</p>
+<p><i>sc</i>, Sarcocyte.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,  Cuticle.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, <i>f</i>, Myocyte fibrils (cut across).</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Gelatinous layer.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig. 9b.</span>&mdash;<i>Gregarina munieri</i>, showing
+the network of myocyte fibrillae.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate
+forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical
+and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often
+contains chromatin. The most characteristic
+feature of the nucleus is
+the deeply-staining, more or less
+vacuolated spherical karyosome
+(consisting of chromatin intimately
+bound up with a plastinoid basis)
+which is invariably present. In one
+or two instances (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplocystis
+schneideri</i>) the nucleus has more
+than one karyosome. All the chromatin
+of the nucleus is not, however,
+confined to the karyosome,
+some being in the form of grains
+in the nuclear sap; and in some
+cases at any rate (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina,
+Lankesteria</i>) there is a well-marked
+nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and dots of
+chromatin.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:326px; height:413px" src="images/img558c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after A. Schneider.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Schizogony in <i>Ophryocystis
+francisci</i>. <i>a</i>, Rosette of small individuals,
+produced from a schizont which has just
+divided; <i>b</i>, A later stage, the daughter-individuals
+about to separate and assuming
+the characters of the adult.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:312px; height:408px" src="images/img558d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;<i>Eirmocystis spp. a</i>, <i>b</i>, Associations
+of two and three Gregarines; <i>c</i>,
+Chain of five parasites; <i>p</i>, Primite; <i>s</i>,
+Satellites.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to
+occur in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of
+<i>Gonospora</i>, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery
+and Mesnil [<b>4</b>]), the rest among the <i>Schizogregarinae</i>, so
+<span class="sidenote">Life-history.</span>
+named for this reason, in which schizogonous fission takes
+place regularly during the free, trophic condition. Usually, the body
+divides up, by a process of multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to
+eight) daughter-individuals;
+but in a new
+genus (<i>Eleutheroschizon</i>),
+Brasil (<b>3</b>) finds
+that a great number
+of little merozoites are
+formed, and a large
+amount of vacuolated
+cytoplasm is left over
+unused.</p>
+
+<p>In the vast majority
+of Gregarines, however,
+the life-cycle is limited
+to gametogony and
+sporogony. A very
+general, if not indeed
+universal, prelude to
+gametogony is the
+characteristic and important
+feature of the
+order, known as association,
+the biological significance
+of which has
+only lately been fully
+brought out (see H. M.
+Woodcock [<b>31</b>]). In
+normal association, two
+individuals which are
+to be regarded as of
+opposite sex, come into
+close contact with each
+other and remain thus
+attached. The manner
+in which the parasites
+join varies in different
+forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by
+like or by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral)
+(fig. 12). The couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith
+to encystment and sporoblast-formation (<i>Lankesteria, Monocystis</i>),
+or may continue in the trophic phase for some time longer (<i>Gregarina</i>).
+In one or two instances (<i>Zygocystis</i>), association occurs as soon as the
+trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting phenomenon
+of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile,
+coelomic Gregarines (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Cystobia</i>, <i>Diplodina</i> and <i>Diplocystis</i>), in
+which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (<i>loc. cit.</i>) has described
+and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a
+permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these
+forms. Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition
+(seen, for instance, in <i>Diplodina minchinii</i>) the union takes place very
+early in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than
+sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm
+of the two associates joining.
+In such cases, there
+is absolutely nothing to
+indicate the &ldquo;double&rdquo;
+nature of the growing trophozoite,
+but the presence
+of the two nuclei which
+remain quite distinct.</p>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt
+that, in the great majority,
+if not in all Gregarines,
+association is necessary
+for subsequent sporulation
+to take place; <i>i.e.</i>
+that the cytotactic attraction
+imparts a developmental
+stimulus to both
+partners, which is requisite
+for the formation of primary
+sporoblasts (gametes).
+This association is usually
+permanent; but in one or
+two cases (perhaps <i>Gonospora
+sp.</i>) temporary association
+may suffice.
+While association has
+fundamentally a reproductive
+(sexual) significance,
+in some cases, this
+function may be delayed
+or, as it were, temporarily
+suspended, the cytotactic
+attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life.
+Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations
+and long chains of Gregarines (fig. 11) sometimes met with (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Eirmocystis</i>, <i>Clepsydrina</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Encystment is nearly always double, <i>i.e.</i> of an associated couple.
+Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful
+independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the encystment
+in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior (temporary)
+association. In the case of free parasites, a well-developed cyst is
+secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and gradually becomes
+spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer cyst-membrane
+(<i>ectocyst</i>) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm internal one (endocyst).
+The cyst once formed, further development is quite independent
+of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside it. In
+certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in very
+close relation with the host&rsquo;s tissues, little
+or nothing of an encystment-process on
+the part of the parasites is recognizable,
+the cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing
+layer of the host (<i>Diplodina</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:182px; height:211px" src="images/img558e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after
+Léger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Associations
+of <i>Gonospora sparsa</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The nuclear changes and multiplication
+which precede sporoblast-formation vary
+greatly in different Gregarines and can
+only be outlined here. In the formation of
+both sets of sexual elements (gametes) there
+is always a comprehensive nuclear purification
+or maturation. This elimination of a
+part of the nuclear material (to be distinguished
+as trophic or somatic, from the
+functional or germinal portion, which forms
+the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely-different
+periods. In some cases (<i>Lankesteria</i>,
+<i>Monocystis</i>), a large part of the
+original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate
+is at once got rid of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus,
+which is highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other
+cases, again, the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and
+the distinction between somatic and germinal portions does not
+become manifest until after nuclear multiplication has continued
+for some little time, when certain of the daughter-nuclei become
+altered in character, and ultimately degenerate, the remainder
+giving rise to the sporoblast-nuclei (<i>Diplodina</i>, <i>Stylorhynchus</i>).
+Even after the actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are constituted,
+their nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Clepsydrina ovata</i>); and in <i>Monocystis</i>, indeed, Brasil (<b>2</b>) finds
+that what is apparently a similar process is delayed until after
+conjugation and formation of the zygote (definitive sporoblast).</p>
+
+<p>Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span>
+rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The
+attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes
+consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without centrosomic
+granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a few
+astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and
+the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest
+nuclear divisions are direct; the daughter-nuclei being formed either
+by a process of simple constriction (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina</i>), or by a kind of
+multiple fission or fragmentation (<i>Gregarina</i> and <i>Selenidium spp.</i>).
+Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in <i>Diplodina</i>, are indirect.</p>
+
+<p>By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed,
+the bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually
+become very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes
+and processes. While in some forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Monocystis</i>, <i>Urospora</i>,
+<i>Stylorhynchus</i>) the two individuals remain fairly separate and independent
+of each other, in others (<i>Lankesteria</i>) they become intertwined
+and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent (<i>Diplodina</i>).
+The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the processes and
+segments, where they take up a position of uniform distribution.
+Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes segregated, the
+whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from the general
+surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut off as the
+sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the general
+protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused, constituting
+two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in <i>Diplodina</i>,
+however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in the formation
+of the gametes.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:428px; height:450px" src="images/img559a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Léger, from Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in
+<i>Stylorhynchus longicollis</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Undifferentiated gamete,
+attached to body of parent-individual.</p>
+
+<p><i>b-d</i>, Stages in development of
+motile male gamete.</p>
+
+<p><i>e</i>, Mature female gamete.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, Stages in conjugation and
+nuclear union of the two
+elements.</p>
+
+<p><i>h</i>, Zygote (copula).</p>
+
+<p><i>i</i>, Spore, still with single
+nucleus and undivided
+sporoplasm.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition
+of marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one
+of complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed
+in <i>Pterocephalus</i>. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are
+minute, elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum
+anteriorly and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the
+female elements (megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid,
+and quite passive. In <i>Stylorhynchus</i> the difference between the
+conjugating gametes is not quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male
+elements being of about the same bulk as the females, but pyriform
+instead of round, and possessing a distinct flagellum; a most interesting
+point about this parasite is that certain highly motile and
+spermatozoon-like male gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are,
+however, quite sterile and have acquired a subsidiary function. In
+other cases, again, the two kinds of element exhibit either very slight
+differences (<i>Monocystis</i>) or none (<i>Urospora</i>, <i>Gonospora</i>), in size and
+appearance, the chief distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male
+elements being smaller and chromatically denser than those of the
+females.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, in <i>Lankesteria</i>, <i>Gregarina</i>, <i>Clepsydrina</i>, <i>Diplocystis</i> and
+<i>Diplodina</i> complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent
+difference whatever between the conjugating elements. Nevertheless,
+these forms are also to be regarded as instances of binary
+sexuality and not merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain
+that this condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical anisogamy,
+through a stage such as is seen in <i>Gonospora</i>, &amp;c. And,
+similarly, just as in all instances where the formation of differentiated
+gametes has been observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from
+different associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising
+from the same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case
+here.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:465px" src="images/img559b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Cyst of <i>Monocystis agilis</i>, the common Gregarine of the
+Earthworm, showing ripe spores and absence of any residual protoplasm
+in the cyst. (From Lankester.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known
+phenomenon termed the <i>danse des sporoblastes</i>, which is due to various
+causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes (<i>Pterocephalus</i>),
+the actively motile microgametes rush about here and there, and seek
+out the female elements. In <i>Stylorhynchus</i>, Léger has shown that
+the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring about, by their
+vigorous movements, the <i>mêlée sexuelle</i>. In the forms where the
+gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and (probably)
+not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing the necessary
+commingling. Thus in <i>Gregarina sp.</i> from the mealworm, the
+unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out
+processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the
+cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied
+(<i>Urospora</i>) the movements of the host are considered to be sufficient;
+and lastly, in <i>Diplodina</i>, owing to the extent to which the intertwining
+process is carried, if each gamete is not actually contiguous
+to a suitable fellow-conjugant, a very slight movement or mutual
+attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact.</p>
+
+<p>An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation
+and conjugation, which occurs in <i>Ophryocystis</i>, must be mentioned.
+Here encystment of two associates takes place as usual; the sporont-nucleus
+of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-nuclei
+resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one
+sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original nuclear-material,
+persists in each half. Around this some of the cytoplasm
+condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or gamete
+thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates with
+the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote results
+which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the ordinary
+manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves
+of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis
+occurs, each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore.</p>
+
+<p>The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with
+cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast
+or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that
+of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the ectospore.
+This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced into rims,
+spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic appearance of the
+Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another, thinner membrane,
+the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes form
+the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore have
+been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually mitotic,
+the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each of which
+becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm becomes
+split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight sickle-shaped
+(falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span>
+certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the
+spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that
+in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporozoites
+in the spore is eight; the exception is <i>Selenidium</i>, in many
+ways far from typical, where the number is half, viz. four.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:252px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Ripe Cyst of <i>Gregarina blattarum</i>,
+partially emptied. (From Lankester.)
+<i>a</i>, Channels leading to the
+sporoducts; <i>b</i>, Mass of spores still left in
+the cyst; <i>c</i>, Endocyst; <i>d</i>, The everted
+sporoducts; <i>e</i>, Gelatinous ectocyst.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation
+has been considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the
+<i>Aggregatidae</i> and the <i>Porosporidae</i>.
+The spores of
+these forms have been
+regarded as gymnospores
+(naked), lacking the enveloping
+membranes
+(sporocyst) of the ordinary
+spores, and the sporozoites,
+consequently, as
+developed freely in the
+cyst. In the case of the
+first-named parasites,
+however, what was taken
+for sporogony has been
+proved to be really schizogony,
+and on other
+grounds these forms are,
+in the present writer&rsquo;s
+opinion, preferably associated
+with the Coccidia
+(<i>q.v.</i>). With regard to the
+<i>Porosporidae</i>, also, it is
+quite likely that the
+gymnosporous cysts considered
+to belong to the
+Gregarine <i>Porospora</i> (as known in the trophic condition) have really
+no connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of
+some other form, similar to <i>Aggregata</i>; in which case the true spores
+of <i>Porospora</i> have yet to be identified.</p>
+
+<p>In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are
+liberated. This is usually largely brought about by the swelling of
+the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Gregarina</i>) long tubular
+outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the
+residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior.</p>
+
+<p>The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several
+<span class="sidenote">Classification.</span>
+families, characterized, for the most part, by the form
+of the spores (fig. 16). The specialized <i>Schizogregarinae</i> are
+usually separated off from the rest as a distinct sub-order.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center" style="clear: both;"><span class="sc">Sub-order I.</span>&mdash;<i>Schizogregarinae.</i></p>
+
+<p>Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence
+during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera, <i>Ophryocystis</i>,
+<i>Schizocystis</i> and <i>Eleutheroschizon</i>, different peculiarities of
+which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic in the intestine
+or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of parasite, as exemplified
+by <i>Ophryocystis</i>, the body was formerly wrongly considered
+as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a special order, the
+<i>Amoebosporidia</i>.)</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:521px; height:208px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Spores of various Gregarines.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, <i>Eirmocystis, Sphaerocystis</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, <i>Echinomera, Pterocephalus</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, <i>Gregarina</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, <i>Beloides</i>.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, <i>Ancyrophora</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>f</i>, <i>Stylorhynchidae</i> (type of).</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, <i>Menosporidae</i>.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, <i>Gonospora terebellae</i>.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, <i>Ceratospora</i>.</p>
+<p><i>k</i>, <i>Urospora synaptae</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Sub-order II.</span>&mdash;<i>Eugregarinae.</i></p>
+
+<p>Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular
+phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described
+as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic),
+respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these
+two sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is
+adopted, the other must be taken into account in estimating the
+proper position of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephalont
+condition is regarded as the more primary and fundamental.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Tribe A.&mdash;<i>Cephalina</i> (practically equivalent to <i>Septata</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate
+during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly
+intestinal parasites of Arthropods.</p>
+
+<p>The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows:
+<i>Porosporidae</i>, with <i>Porospora gigantea</i>, at present thought to be
+gymnosporous; <i>Gregarinidae</i> (<i>Clepsydrinidae</i>), with <i>Gregarina</i>,
+<i>Clepsydrina</i>, <i>Eirmocystis</i>, <i>Hyalospora</i>, <i>Cmenidospora</i>, <i>Stenophora</i>;
+<i>Didymophyidae</i>, with <i>Didymophyes</i>; <i>Dactylophoridae</i>, with <i>Dactylophorus</i>,
+<i>Pterocephalus</i>, <i>Echinomera</i>, <i>Rhopalonia</i>; <i>Actinocephalidae</i>
+with <i>Actinocephalus</i>, <i>Pyxinia</i>, <i>Coleorhynchus</i>, <i>Stephanophora</i>, <i>Legeria</i>,
+<i>Stictospora</i>, <i>Pileocephalus</i>, <i>Sciadophora</i>; <i>Acanthosporidae</i> with <i>Acanthospora</i>,
+<i>Corycella</i>, <i>Cometoides</i>; <i>Menosporidae</i> with <i>Menospora</i>,
+<i>Hoplorhynchus</i>; <i>Stylorhynchidae</i>, with <i>Stylorhynchus</i>, <i>Lophocephalus</i>;
+<i>Doliocystidae</i> with <i>Doliocystis</i>; and <i>Taeniocystidae</i>, with <i>Taeniocystis</i>.
+The curious genus <i>Selenidium</i> is somewhat apart.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Tribe B.&mdash;<i>Acephalina</i> (practically equivalent to <i>Aseptata</i>, <i>Haplocyta</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly
+coelomic parasites of &ldquo;worms,&rdquo; Holothurians and insects.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Aseptata</i> have not been so completely arranged in families
+as the <i>Septata</i>. Léger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but
+the remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam.
+<i>Gonosporidae</i>, with <i>Gonospora</i>, <i>Diplodina</i>; and <i>Urosporidae</i>, with
+<i>Urosopora</i>, <i>Cystobia</i>, <i>Lithocystis</i>, <i>Ceratospora</i>; the genera <i>Monocystis</i>,
+<i>Diplocystis Lankesteria</i> and <i>Zygocystis</i> probably constitute another;
+<i>Pterospora</i> and, again, <i>Syncystis</i> are distinct; lastly, certain forms,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>Zygosoma</i>, <i>Anchora</i> (<i>Anchorina</i>), are incompletely known.</p>
+
+<p>There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently
+described by J. Nusbaum (<b>24</b>) under the appropriate name of
+<i>Schaudinnella henleae</i>, which inhabits the intestine of <i>Henlea leptodera</i>.
+Briefly enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as
+follows. The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the intestinal
+cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is
+very primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place
+indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of
+the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary; at other times
+it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a
+gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encystment
+occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The
+female gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and
+sickle-like, but with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While
+many of the zygotes (&ldquo;amphionts&rdquo;) resulting from copulation pass
+out to the exterior, to infect a new host, others, possessing a more
+delicate investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal
+cells, producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous
+sporozoites are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that <i>Schaudinnella</i>
+is a practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it
+recalls the Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs
+widely from them in several characteristic features, being primitive
+in some respects, but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot
+be properly included in the order. <i>Schaudinnella</i> rather represents
+a primitive Ectosporan parasite, which has proceeded upon a line
+of its own, intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Among the important papers relating to Gregarines
+are the following: <b>1.</b> A. Berndt, &ldquo;Beitrag zur Kenntnis
+der ... Gregarinen,&rdquo; <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> I, p. 375, 3 pls. (1902);
+<b>2.</b> L. Brasil, &ldquo;Recherches sur la reproduction des Grégarines
+monocystidées,&rdquo; <i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> (4) 3, p. 17, pl. 2 (1905), and <i>op. cit.</i>
+4, p. 69, 2 pls. (1905); <b>3.</b> L. Brazil, &ldquo;<i>Eleutheroschizon duboscqi</i>,
+parasite nouveau, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> (N. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs. (1906);
+<b>4.</b> M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, &ldquo;Sur une Grégarine ... présentant ... une
+phase de multiplication asporulée,&rdquo; <i>C.R. Ac. Sci.</i> 126,
+p. 262 (1898); <b>5.</b> M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, &ldquo;Le Parasitisme intracellulaire
+des Grégarines,&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> 132, p. 220 (1901); <b>6.</b> M. Caullery
+and F. Mesnil, &ldquo;Sur une mode particulière de division nucléaire
+chez les Grégarines,&rdquo; <i>Arch. anat. microsc.</i> 3, p. 146, 1 pl. (1900); <b>7.</b>
+M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, &ldquo;Sur quelques parasites internes des
+Annélides,&rdquo; <i>Misc. biol.</i> (<i>Trav. Stat. Wimereux</i>), 9, p. 80, 1 pl. (1899);
+<b>7a.</b> J. Cecconi, &ldquo;Sur l&rsquo;<i>Anchorina sagittata</i>, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i>
+6, p. 230, 2 pls. (1905); <b>8.</b> H. Crawley, &ldquo;Progressive Movement of
+Gregarines,&rdquo; <i>P. Ac. Philad.</i> 54, p. 4, 2 pls. (1902), also <i>op. cit.</i> 57,
+p. 89 (1905); <b>9.</b> H. Crawley, &ldquo;List of the Polycystid Gregarines of
+the U.S.,&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> 55, pp. 41, 632, 4 pls. (1903); <b>10.</b> L. Cuénot,
+&ldquo;Recherches sur l&rsquo;évolution et la conjugaison des Grégarines,&rdquo; <i>Arch.
+biol.</i> 17, p. 581, 4 pls. (1901); <b>11.</b> A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, &ldquo;Sur
+quelques particularités de l&rsquo;évolution d&rsquo;une Grégarine et la réaction
+de la cellule-hôte,&rdquo; <i>C.R. Soc. Biol.</i> 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); <b>12.</b> L.
+Léger, &ldquo;Recherches sur les Grégarines,&rdquo; <i>Tabl. zool.</i> 3, p. i., 22 pls.
+(1892); <b>13.</b> L. Léger, &ldquo;Contribution à la connaissance des Sporozoaires,
+&amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Sci. France</i>, 30, p. 240, 3 pls. (1897); <b>14.</b> L. Léger,
+&ldquo;Sur un nouveau Sporozoaire (<i>Schizocystis</i>), &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>C.R. Ac. Sci.</i> 131,
+p. 722 (1900); <b>15.</b> L. Léger, &ldquo;La Reproduction sexuée chez les
+Ophryocystis,&rdquo; <i>t. c.</i> p. 761 (1900); <b>16.</b> L. Léger, &ldquo;Sur une nouvelle
+Grégarine (<i>Aggregata coelomica</i>,), &amp;c.&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> 132, p. 1343 (1901);
+<b>17.</b> L. Léger, &ldquo;La Reproduction sexuée chez les Stylorhynchus,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 3, p. 304, 2 pls. (1904); <b>18.</b> L. Léger, &ldquo;Etude sur
+<i>Taeniocystis mira</i> (Léger), &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> 7, p. 307, 2 pls. (1906); <b>19.</b>
+L. Léger and O. Duboscq, &ldquo;La Reproduction sexuée chez <i>Pterocephalus</i>,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, 11 figs. (1903);
+<b>20.</b> L. Léger and O. Duboscq, &ldquo;<i>Aggregata vagans</i>, n. sp., &amp;c.&rdquo; <i>t. c.</i>
+p. 147, 6 figs. (1903); <b>21.</b> L. Léger and O. Duboscq, &ldquo;Les Grégarines
+et l&rsquo;épithélium intestinal, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Arch. parasitol.</i> 6, p. 377, 4 pls.
+(1902); <b>22.</b> L. Léger and O. Duboscq, &ldquo;Nouvelles Recherches sur
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span>
+les Grégarines, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 4, p. 335, 2 pls. (1904); <b>23.</b>
+M. Lühe, &ldquo;Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen,&rdquo; <i>t. c.</i> p. 88,
+several figs. (1904);  <b>24.</b> J. Nusbaum, &ldquo;Über die ... Fortpflanzung
+einer ... Gregarine, <i>Schaudinnella henleae</i>,&rdquo; <i>Zeit. wiss. Zool.</i> 75,
+p. 281, pl. 22 (1903); <b>25.</b> F. Paehler, &ldquo;Über die Morphologie,
+Fortpflanzung ... von <i>Gregarina ovata</i>,&rdquo; <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 4,
+p. 64, 2 pls. (1904); <b>26.</b> S. Prowazek, &ldquo;Zur Entwickelung der Gregarinen,&rdquo;
+<i>op. cit.</i>, 1, p. 297, pl. 9 (1902); <b>27.</b> A. Schneider (Various
+memoirs on Gregarines), <i>Tabl. zool.</i> 1 and 2 (1886-1892); <b>28.</b>
+H. Schnitzler, &ldquo;Über die Fortpflanzung von <i>Clepsydrina ovata</i>,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 6, p. 309, 2 pls. (1905); <b>29.</b> M. Siedlecki, &ldquo;Über
+die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der <i>Monocystis ascidiae</i>,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Ac.
+Cracovie</i>, p. 515, 2 pls. (1900); <b>30.</b> M. Siedlecki, &ldquo;Contribution à
+l&rsquo;étude des changements cellulaires provoquées par les Grégarines,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. anat. microsc.</i> 4, p. 87, 9 figs. (1901); <b>31.</b> H. M. Woodcock,
+&ldquo;The Life-Cycle of <i>Cystobia irregularis</i>, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Q.J.M. Sci.</i> 50, p. 1.
+6 pls. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. M. Wo.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Figures 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 16 are redrawn from
+Wasielewski&rsquo;s <i>Sporozoenkunde</i>, by permission of the author and of
+the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÉGOIRE, HENRI<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1750-1831), French revolutionist and
+constitutional bishop of Blois, was born at Vého near Lunéville,
+on the 4th of December 1750, the son of a peasant. Educated
+at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he became curé of Emberménil
+and a teacher at the Jesuit school at Pont-à-Mousson. In 1783
+he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his <i>Éloge de la
+poésie</i>, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an <i>Essai sur la régénération
+physique et morale des Juifs</i>. He was elected in 1789 by the
+clergy of the <i>bailliage</i> of Nancy to the states-general, where he
+soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies
+of Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolution.
+He was among the first of the clergy to join the third
+estate, and contributed largely to the union of the three orders;
+he presided at the permanent sitting of sixty-two hours while
+the Bastille was being attacked by the people, and made a
+vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He subsequently
+took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges
+of the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution
+of the clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath
+(December 27, 1790), he was elected bishop by two departments.
+He selected that of Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop
+of Blois, and for ten years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with
+exemplary zeal. An ardent republican, it was he who in the
+first session of the National Convention (September 21, 1792)
+proposed the motion for the abolition of the kingship, in a speech
+in which occurred the memorable phrase that &ldquo;kings are in the
+moral order what monsters are in the natural.&rdquo; On the 15th of
+November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the
+king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards
+was elected president of the Convention, over which he presided
+in his episcopal dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being
+absent with other three colleagues on a mission for the union of
+Savoy to France, he along with them wrote a letter urging the
+condemnation of the king, but omitting the words <i>à mort</i>; and
+he endeavoured to save the life of the king by proposing in the
+Convention that the penalty of death should be suspended.</p>
+
+<p>When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris,
+was intimidated into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of
+the Convention, Grégoire, who was temporarily absent from the
+sitting, hearing what had happened, hurried to the hall, and in
+the face of a howling mob of deputies refused to abjure either his
+religion or his office. He was prepared to face the death which
+he expected; but his courage, a rare quality at that time, won
+the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of &ldquo;Let Grégoire
+have his way!&rdquo; Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks
+in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the
+street corners, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress
+and daily read mass in his house. After Robespierre&rsquo;s fall he
+was the first to advocate the reopening of the churches (speech
+of December 21, 1794). He also exerted himself to get measures
+put in execution for restraining the vandalistic fury against the
+monuments of art, extended his protection to artists and men
+of letters, and devoted much of his attention to the reorganization
+of the public libraries, the establishment of botanic gardens,
+and the improvement of technical education. He had taken
+during the Constituent Assembly a great interest in Negro
+emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour in
+the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites.
+On the establishment of the new constitution, Grégoire was
+elected to the Council of 500, and after the 18th Brumaire he
+became a member of the Corps Législatif, then of the Senate
+(1801). He took the lead in the national church councils of
+1797 and 1801; but he was strenuously opposed to Napoleon&rsquo;s
+policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and after the signature
+of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October 8, 1801).
+He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted
+against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the
+creation of the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from
+Josephine; but notwithstanding this he was subsequently
+created a count of the empire and officer of the Legion of Honour.
+During the later years of Napoleon&rsquo;s reign he travelled in England
+and Germany, but in 1814 he had returned to France and was
+one of the chief instigators of the action that was taken against
+the empire.</p>
+
+<p>To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme
+in the Lower Chamber and in the circles of the court after the
+second Restoration, Grégoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic
+bishop, was an object of double loathing. He was expelled from
+the Institute and forced into retirement. But even in this period
+of headlong reaction his influence was felt and feared. In 1814
+he had published a work, <i>De la constitution française de l&rsquo;an 1814</i>,
+in which he commented on the Charter from a Liberal point of
+view, and this reached its fourth edition in 1819. In this latter
+year he was elected to the Lower Chamber by the department
+of Isère. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this event
+was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was
+even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the
+terms of the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. To prevent such
+a catastrophe Louis XVIII. decided on a modification of the
+franchise; the Dessolle ministry resigned; and the first act of
+Decazes, the new premier, was to carry a vote in the chamber
+annulling the election of Grégoire. From this time onward the
+ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in literary pursuits
+and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants of
+Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator
+he was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support.
+He died on the 20th of May 1831.</p>
+
+<p>To the last Grégoire remained a devout Catholic, exactly
+fulfilling all his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but he
+refused to budge an inch from his revolutionary principles.
+During his last illness he confessed to his parish <i>curé</i>, a priest
+of Jansenist sympathies, and expressed his desire for the last
+sacraments of the Church. These the archbishop of Paris would
+only concede on condition that he would retract his oath to the
+civil constitution of the clergy, which he peremptorily refused
+to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop, the abbé
+Baradère gave him the <i>viaticum</i>, while the rite of extreme unction
+was administered by the abbé Guillon, an opponent of the civil
+constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish
+curé. The attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement
+in Paris, and the government had to take precautions to avoid
+a repetition of the riots which in the preceding February had
+led to the sacking of the church of St Germain l&rsquo;Auxerrois and
+the archiepiscopal palace. On the day after his death Grégoire&rsquo;s
+funeral was celebrated at the church of the Abbaye-aux-Bois;
+the clergy of the church had absented themselves in obedience
+to the archbishop&rsquo;s orders, but mass was sung by the abbé
+Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated
+with the episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the
+church the horses were unyoked, and it was dragged by students
+to the cemetery of Montparnasse, the cortège being followed by a
+sympathetic crowd of some 20,000 people.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist,
+Grégoire&rsquo;s name lives in history mainly by reason of his wholehearted
+effort to prove that Catholic Christianity is not irreconcilable
+with modern conceptions of political liberty. In this
+effort he was defeated, mainly because the Revolution, for lack
+of experience in the right use of liberty, changed into a military
+despotism which allied itself with the spiritual despotism of
+Rome; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span>
+the parties of reaction sought salvation in the &ldquo;union of altar
+and throne.&rdquo; Possibly Grégoire&rsquo;s Gallicanism was fundamentally
+irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it
+made their traditional religion possible for those many French
+Catholics who clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution
+had brought them; and had it prevailed, it might have spared
+France and the world that fatal gulf between Liberalism and
+Catholicism which Pius IX.&rsquo;s Syllabus of 1864 sought to make
+impassable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides several political pamphlets, Grégoire was the author of
+<i>Histoire des sectes religieuses, depuis le commencement du siècle dernier
+jusqu&rsquo;à l&rsquo;époque actuelle</i> (2 vols., 1810); <i>Essai historique sur les
+libertés de l&rsquo;église gallicane</i> (1818); <i>De l&rsquo;influence du Christianisme sur
+la condition des femmes</i> (1821); <i>Histoire des confesseurs des empereurs,
+des rois, et d&rsquo;autres princes</i> (1824); <i>Histoire du mariage des prêtres en
+France</i> (1826). <i>Grégoireana, ou résumé général de la conduite, des
+actions, et des écrits de M. le comte Henri Grégoire</i>, preceded by a
+biographical notice by Cousin d&rsquo;Avalon, was published in 1821; and
+the <i>Mémoires ... de Grégoire</i>, with a biographical notice by H.
+Carnot, appeared in 1837 (2 vols.). See also A. Debidour, <i>L&rsquo;Abbé
+Grégoire</i> (1881); A. Gazier, Études sur l&rsquo;histoire religieuse de la
+Révolution Française (1883); L. Maggiolo, La Vie et les &oelig;uvres de
+l&rsquo;abbé Grégoire (Nancy, 1884), and numerous articles in <i>La Révolution
+Française</i>; E. Meaume, <i>Étude hist. et biog. sur les Lorrains révolutionnaires</i>
+(Nancy, 1882); and A. Gazier, <i>Études sur l&rsquo;histoire religieuse
+de la Révolution Française</i> (1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1295-1360), Byzantine
+historian, man of learning and religious controversialist, was
+born at Heraclea in Pontus. At an early age he settled at
+Constantinople, where his reputation for learning brought him
+under the notice of Andronicus II., by whom he was appointed
+Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 1326 Gregoras proposed
+(in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar,
+which the emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances;
+nearly two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory
+XIII. on almost the same lines. When Andronicus was dethroned
+(1328) by his grandson Andronicus III., Gregoras
+shared his downfall and retired into private life. Attacked by
+Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with difficulty
+persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in
+which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputation
+and brought him a large number of pupils. Gregoras
+remained loyal to the elder Andronicus to the last, but after
+his death he succeeded in gaining the favour of his grandson, by
+whom he was appointed to conduct the unsuccessful negotiations
+(for a union of the Greek and Latin churches) with the ambassadors
+of Pope John XXII. (1333). Gregoras subsequently took
+an important part in the Hesychast controversy, in which
+he violently opposed Gregorius Palamas, the chief supporter
+of the sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized
+at the synod of 1351, Gregoras, who refused to acquiesce, was
+practically imprisoned in a monastery for two years. Nothing
+is known of the end of his life. His chief work is his <i>Roman
+History</i>, in 37 books, of the years 1204 to 1359. It thus partly
+supplements and partly continues the work of George Pachymeres.
+Gregoras shows considerable industry, but his style is
+pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to
+religious matters and dogmatic quarrels. This work and that
+of John Cantacuzene supplement and correct each other, and
+should be read together. The other writings of Gregoras, which
+(with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished, attest his great
+versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of
+the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early
+instructor John, metropolitan of Heraclea, and of the martyr
+Codratus of Antioch; funeral orations for Theodore Metochita,
+and the two emperors Andronicus; commentaries on the wanderings
+of Odysseus and on Synesius&rsquo;s treatise on dreams;
+tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful meaning; a
+philosophical dialogue called <i>Florentius or Concerning Wisdom</i>;
+astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the preparation
+of the astrolabe; and an extensive correspondence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Editions</i>: in Bonn <i>Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz.</i>, by L. Schopen
+and I. Bekker, with life and list of works by J. Boivin (1829-1855);
+J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologia graeca</i>, cxlviii., cxlix.; see also C. Krumbacher,
+<i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1821-1891), German historian,
+was born at Neidenburg on the 19th of January 1821, and
+studied at the university of Königsberg. After spending some
+years in teaching he took up his residence in Italy in 1852,
+remaining in that country for over twenty years. He was made
+a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the 1st of May 1891.
+Gregorovius&rsquo;s interest in and acquaintance with Italy and
+Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, <i>Geschichte
+der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter</i> (Stuttgart, 1859-1872, and other
+editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been
+translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1894-1900),
+and also into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice,
+1874-1876). It deals with the history of Rome from about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 to the death of Pope Clement VII. in 1534, and in the
+words of its author it describes &ldquo;how, from the time of Charles
+the Great to that of Charles V., the historic system of the papacy
+remained inseparable from that of the Empire.&rdquo; The other
+works of Gregorovius include: <i>Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian
+und seiner Zeit</i> (Königsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E.
+Robinson (1898); <i>Corsica</i> (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation
+by R. Martineau (1855); <i>Lucrezia Borgia</i> (Stuttgart, 1874),
+English translation by J. L. Garner (1904); <i>Die Grabdenkmäler
+der Päpste</i> (Leipzig, 1881), English translation by R. W. Seton-Watson
+(1903); <i>Wanderjahre in Italien</i> (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1892);
+<i>Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter</i> (1889); <i>Kleine
+Schriften zur Geschichte der Kultur</i> (Leipzig, 1887-1892); and
+<i>Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien und dem Kaiser</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian
+by the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also
+something of a poet; he wrote a drama, <i>Der Tod des Tiberius</i>
+(1851), and some <i>Gedichte</i> (Leipzig, 1891).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Römische Tagebücher</i> were edited by F. Althaus (Stuttgart,
+1892), and were translated into English as the <i>Roman Journals of
+F. Gregorovius</i>, by A. Hamilton (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 213-<i>c</i>. 270), surnamed in later ecclesiastical
+tradition Thaumaturgus (the miracle-worker), was born of
+noble and wealthy pagan parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus,
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 213. His original name was Theodorus. He took
+up the study of civil law, and, with his brother Athenodorus,
+was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at
+Caesarea he met Origen, and became his pupil and then his
+convert (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years
+after his conversion, it had been his original intention to live
+a retired ascetic life (Eus. <i>H.E.</i> vi. 30), but, urged by Origen,
+and at last almost compelled by Phaedimus of Amasia, his
+metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to see so much
+learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the
+church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity,
+was consecrated bishop of his native town (about 240). His
+episcopate, which lasted some thirty years, was characterized by
+great missionary zeal, and by so much success that, according
+to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement of Gregory
+of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were only
+seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only
+seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity.
+This result he achieved in spite of the Decian persecution (250-251),
+during which he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself
+from his diocese, and notwithstanding the demoralizing effects
+of an irruption of barbarians (Goths and Boranians) who laid
+waste the diocese in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 253-254. Gregory, although he has
+not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism, now holds an
+undisputed place among the fathers of the church; and although
+the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he
+is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal
+controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of
+Antioch (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 264-265), which investigated and condemned the
+heresies of Paul of Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of
+a Trinitarianism approaching the Nicene type is attributed in large
+measure to the weight of his influence. Gregory is believed to have
+died in the reign of Aurelian, about the year 270, though perhaps
+an earlier date is more probable. His festival (semiduplex) is observed
+by the Roman Catholic Church on the 17th of November.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the facts of his biography we have an outline of his early
+years in his eulogy on Origen, and incidental notices in the writings
+of Eusebius, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa&rsquo;s
+untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles
+of a very startling description; but nothing related by him comes
+near the astounding narratives given in the <i>Martyrologies</i>, or even in
+the <i>Breviarium Romanum</i>, in connexion with his name.</p>
+
+<p>The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the <i>Panegyricus
+in Origenem</i> (<span class="grk" title="Eis Ôrigenên panêgyrikos logos">&#917;&#7984;&#962; &#8040;&#961;&#953;&#947;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#957; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#951;&#947;&#965;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>), which he wrote when
+on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it contains
+a valuable minute description of Origen&rsquo;s mode of instruction), a
+<i>Metaphrasis in Ecclesiasten</i>, characterized by Jerome as &ldquo;short but
+useful&rdquo;; and an <i>Epistola canonica</i>, which treats of the discipline
+to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of persecution
+had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to the
+privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the conditions of
+the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf. art <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Penance</a></span>).
+The <span class="grk" title="Ekthesis pisteôs">&#7964;&#954;&#952;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#960;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> (<i>Expositio fidei</i>), a short creed usually attributed
+to Gregory, and traditionally alleged to have been received by
+him immediately in vision from the apostle John himself, is probably
+authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of doubtful authenticity &ldquo;on
+the impassivity and the passivity of God&rdquo; in Syriac is in the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Editions</i>: Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1604), Fronto Ducäus (Paris,
+1622), Migne, Patr. Graec. x. 963.</p>
+
+<p><i>Translations</i>: S. D. F. Salmond in <i>Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>, vi.; <i>Lives</i>,
+by Pallavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. R.
+Reynolds (<i>Dict. Chr. Biog.</i> ii.); G. Krüger, <i>Early Chr. Lit.</i>
+226; Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk.</i> vii. (where full bibliographies are
+given).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (329-389), surnamed
+Theologus, one of the four great fathers of the Eastern Church,
+was born about the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 329, at or near Nazianzus,
+Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had lately become
+bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a
+powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father
+and son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas,
+Alexandria and Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics,
+rhetoric and philosophy; at Athens he had for fellow-students
+Basil (<i>q.v.</i>), who afterwards became bishop of Caesarea, and
+Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his return to his
+father&rsquo;s house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory
+received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of
+religion; but for some time, and indeed more or less throughout
+his whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which
+that service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and
+education to a contemplative life spent among books and in the
+society of congenial friends, he was continually urged by outward
+circumstances, as well as by an inward call, to active pastoral
+labour. The spirit of refined intellectual monasticism, which
+clung to him through life and never ceased to struggle for the
+ascendancy, was about this time strongly encouraged by his
+intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the exalted
+pleasures of his retirement in Pontus. To this period belongs
+the preparation of the <span class="grk" title="Philokalia">&#934;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>, a sort of chrestomathy compiled
+by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the
+events which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of
+Cappadocia, and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career
+of learned leisure difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory&rsquo;s
+position and temperament. The emperor Constantius, having
+by intrigue and intimidation succeeded in thrusting a semi-Arian
+formula upon the Western bishops assembled at Ariminum
+in Italy, had next attempted to follow the same course with the
+Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of Nazianzus having
+yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose among the
+monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence
+of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was
+ordained to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his
+new duties and responsibilities by flight, he appears to have
+continued to act as a presbyter in his father&rsquo;s diocese without interruption
+for some considerable time; and it is probable that
+his two <i>Invectives</i> against Julian are to be assigned to this period.
+Subsequently (about 372), under a pressure which he somewhat
+resented, he allowed himself to be nominated by Basil as bishop
+of Sasima, a miserable little village some 32 m. from Tyana;
+but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the duties of this
+diocese, for after another interval of &ldquo;flight&rdquo; we find him once
+more (about 372-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father,
+on whose death (374) he retired to Seleucia in Isauria for a period
+of some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities
+was opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed
+remnant of the orthodox party in Constantinople sent him
+an urgent summons to undertake the task of resuscitating their
+cause, so long persecuted and borne down by the Arians of the
+capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the imperial
+throne, the prospect of success to the Nicene doctrine had dawned,
+if only it could find some courageous and devoted champion.
+The fame of Gregory as a learned and eloquent disciple of Origen,
+and still more of Athanasius, pointed him out as such a defender;
+nor could he resist the appeal made to him, although he took the
+step reluctantly. Once arrived in Constantinople, he laboured
+so zealously and well that the orthodox party speedily gathered
+strength; and the small apartment in which they had been
+accustomed to meet was soon exchanged for a vast and celebrated
+church which received the significant name of Anastasia, the
+Church of the Resurrection. Among the hearers of Gregory
+were to be found, not only churchmen like Jerome and Evagrius,
+but also heretics and pagans; and it says much for the sound
+wisdom and practical tact of the preacher that he set himself
+less to build up and defend a doctrinal position than to urge
+his flock to the cultivation of the loving Christian spirit which
+cherishes higher aims than mere heresy hunting or endless disputation.
+Doctrinal, nevertheless, he was, as is abundantly
+shown by the famous five discourses on the Trinity, which earned
+for him the distinctive appellation of <span class="grk" title="theologos">&#952;&#949;&#959;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>. These orations
+are the finest exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity
+as conceived by the orthodox teachers of the East, and they
+were directed especially against the Eunomians and Macedonians.
+&ldquo;There is perhaps no single book in Greek patristic literature
+to which the student who desires to gain an exact and comprehensive
+view of Greek theology can be more confidently
+referred.&rdquo; With the arrival of Theodosius in 380 came the
+visible triumph of the orthodox cause; the metropolitan see
+was then conferred upon Gregory, and after the assembling
+of the second ecumenical council in 381 he received consecration
+from Meletius. In consequence, however, of a spirit of discord
+and envy which had manifested itself in connexion with this
+promotion, he soon afterwards resigned his dignity and withdrew
+into comparative retirement. The rest of his days were spent
+partly at Nazianzus in ecclesiastical affairs, and partly on his
+neighbouring patrimonial estate at Arianzus, where he followed
+his favourite literary pursuits, especially poetical composition,
+until his death, which occurred in 389 or 390. His festival is
+celebrated in the Eastern Church on the 25th and 30th of January,
+in the Western on the 9th of May (duplex).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His extant works consist of poems, epistles and orations. The
+poems, which include epigrams, elegies and an autobiographical
+sketch, have been frequently printed, the <i>editio princeps</i> being the
+Aldine (1504). Other editions are those of Tollius (1696) and
+Muratori (1709); a volume of <i>Carmina selecta</i> also has been edited
+by Dronke (1840). The tragedy entitled <span class="grk" title="Christos paschôn">&#935;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#8056;&#962; &#960;&#7936;&#963;&#967;&#969;&#957;</span> usually
+included is certainly not genuine. Gregory&rsquo;s poetry did not absorb
+his best energies; it was adopted in his later years as a recreation
+rather than as a serious pursuit; thus it is occasionally delicate,
+graphic, beautiful, but it is not sustained. Of the hymns none
+have passed into ecclesiastical use. The letters are entitled
+to a higher place in literature. They are always easy and natural;
+and there is nothing forced in the manner in which their acute, witty
+and profound sayings are introduced. Those to Basil introduce us
+to the story of a most romantic friendship, those to Cledonius have
+theological value for their bearing on the Apollinarian controversy.
+As an orator he was so facile, vigorous and persuasive, that men
+forgot his small stature and emaciated countenance. Forty-five
+orations are extant. Gregory was less an independent theologian
+than an interpreter. He was influenced by Athanasius in his Christology,
+by Origen in his anthropology, for, though teaching original
+sin and deriving human mortality from the Fall, he insists on the
+ability of the human will to choose the good and to co-operate in the
+work of salvation with the will of God. Though possessed neither of
+Basil&rsquo;s gift of government nor of Gregory of Nyssa&rsquo;s power of speculative
+thought, he worthily takes a place in that triumvirate of
+Cappadocians whom the Catholic Church gratefully recognizes as
+having been, during the critical struggles in the latter half of the
+4th century, the best defenders of its faith. The <i>Opera omnia</i> were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span>
+first published by Hervagius (Basel, 1550); the subsequent editions
+have been those of Billius (Paris, 1609, 1611; aucta ex interpretatione
+Morelli, 1630), of the Benedictines (begun in 1778, but
+interrupted by the French Revolution and not completed until
+1840, Caillau being the final editor) and of Migne. The <i>Theological
+Orations</i> (edited by A. J. Mason) were published separately at
+Cambridge in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Scattered notices of the life of Gregory Nazianzen are to be found
+in the writings of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Rufinus, as well
+as in his own letters and poems. The data derived from these sources
+do not always harmonize with the account of Suidas. The earlier
+modern authorities, such as Tillemont (<i>Mem. Eccl.</i> t. ix.) and
+Leclerc (<i>Bib. Univ.</i> t. xviii.), were used by Gibbon. See also C.
+Ullmann, <i>Gregorius von Nazianz, der Theologe</i> (1825; Eng. trans. by
+G. F. Coxe, M.A., 1857); A. Bénoit, <i>St Grégoire de Nazianze; sa vie,
+ses &oelig;uvres, et son époque</i> (1877); Montaut, <i>Revue critique de quelques
+questions historiques se rapportant à St Grégoire de Nazianze</i> (1879);
+F. W. Farrar, <i>Lives of the Fathers</i>, i. 491-582, and F. Loofs in
+Hauck-Herzog&rsquo;s <i>Realencyk. für prot. Theologie</i>, vii. 138.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 331-<i>c.</i> 396), one of the four
+great fathers of the Eastern Church, designated by one of the
+later ecumenical councils as &ldquo;a father of fathers,&rdquo; was a younger
+brother of Basil (the Great), bishop of Caesarea, and was born
+(probably) at Neocaesarea about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 331. For his education
+he was chiefly indebted to his elder brother. At a comparatively
+early age he entered the church, and held for some time the office
+of anagnost or reader; subsequently he manifested a desire to
+devote himself to the secular life as a rhetorician, an impulse
+which was checked by the earnest remonstrances of Gregory of
+Nazianzus. Finally, in 371 or 372 he was ordained by his brother
+Basil to the bishopric of Nyssa, a small town in Cappadocia.
+Here he is usually said (but on inadequate data) to have adopted
+the opinion then gaining ground in favour of the celibacy of the
+clergy, and to have separated from his wife Theosebia, who
+became a deaconess in the church. His strict orthodoxy on the
+subject of the Trinity and the Incarnation, together with his
+vigorous eloquence, combined to make him peculiarly obnoxious
+to the Arian faction, which was at that time in the ascendant
+through the protection of the emperor Valens; and in 375,
+the synod of Ancyra, convened by Demetrius the Arian governor
+of Pontus, condemned him for alleged irregularities in his
+election and in the administration of the finances of his diocese.
+In 376 he was deprived of his see, and Valens sent him into exile,
+whence he did not return till the publication of the edict of
+Gratian in 378. Shortly afterwards he took part in the proceedings
+of the synod which met at Antioch in Caria, principally in
+connexion with the Meletian schism. At the great ecumenical
+council held at Constantinople in 381, he was a conspicuous
+champion of the orthodox faith; according to Nicephorus,
+indeed, the additions made to the Nicene creed were entirely due
+to his suggestion, but this statement is of doubtful authority.
+That his eloquence was highly appreciated is shown by the facts
+that he pronounced the discourse at the consecration of Gregory
+of Nazianzus, and that he was chosen to deliver the funeral
+oration on the death of Meletius the first president of the council.
+In the following year, moreover (382), he was commissioned
+by the council to inspect and set in order the churches of Arabia,
+in connexion with which mission he also visited Jerusalem.
+The impressions he gathered from this journey may, in part at
+least, be gathered from his famous letter <i>De euntibus Hierosolyma</i>,
+in which an opinion strongly unfavourable to pilgrimages
+is expressed. In 383 he was probably again in Constantinople;
+where in 385 he pronounced the funeral orations of the princess
+Pulcheria and afterwards of the empress Placilla. Once more
+we read of him in 394 as having been present in that metropolis
+at the synod held under the presidency of Nectarius to settle
+a controversy which had arisen among the bishops of Arabia;
+in the same year he assisted at the consecration of the new church
+of the apostles at Chalcedon, on which occasion there is reason to
+believe that his discourse commonly but wrongly known as that
+<span class="grk" title="Eis tên heautou cheirotonian">&#917;&#7984;&#962; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#7953;&#945;&#965;&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#964;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#945;&#957;</span> was delivered. The exact date of his
+death is unknown; some authorities refer it to <span class="correction" title="amended from 376">396</span>, others to 400.
+His festival is observed by the Greek Church on the 10th of
+January; in the Western martyrologies he is commemorated
+on the 9th of March.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory of Nyssa was not so firm and able an administrator
+as his brother Basil, nor so magnificent an orator as Gregory of
+Nazianzus, but he excelled them both, alike as a speculative
+and constructive theologian, and in the wide extent of his
+acquirements. His teaching, though strictly trinitarian, shows
+considerable freedom and originality of thought; in many
+points his mental and spiritual affinities with Origen show
+themselves with advantage, as in his doctrine of <span class="grk" title="apokatastasis">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#954;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>
+or final restoration. There are marked pantheistic tendencies,
+<i>e.g.</i> the inclusion of sin as a necessary part of the cosmical process,
+which make him akin to the pantheistic monophysites and to
+some modern thinkers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His style has been frequently praised by competent authorities for
+sweetness, richness and elegance. His numerous works may be
+classified under five heads: (1) Treatises in doctrinal and polemical
+theology. Of these the most important is that <i>Against Eunomius</i>
+in twelve books. Its doctrinal thesis (which is supported with
+great philosophic acumen and rhetorical power) is the divinity and
+consubstantiality of the Word; incidentally the character of
+Basil, which Eunomius had aspersed, is vindicated, and the heretic
+himself is held up to scorn and contempt. This is the work which,
+most probably in a shorter draft, was read by its author when
+at Constantinople before Gregory Nazianzen and Jerome in 381
+(Jerome, <i>De vir. ill.</i> 128). To the same class belong the treatise
+<i>To Ablavius</i>, against the tritheists; <i>On Faith</i>, against the Arians;
+<i>On Common Notions</i>, in explanation of the terms in current employment
+with regard to the Trinity; <i>Ten Syllogisms</i>, against the
+Manichaeans; <i>To Theophilus</i>, against the Apollinarians; an <i>Antirrhetic</i>
+against the same; <i>Against Fate</i>, a disputation with a heathen
+philosopher; <i>De anima et resurrectione</i>, a dialogue with his dying
+sister Macrina; and the <i>Oratio catechetica magna</i>, an argument for the
+incarnation as the best possible form of redemption, intended to
+convince educated pagans and Jews. (2) Practical treatises. To
+this category belong the tracts <i>On Virginity</i> and <i>On Pilgrimages</i>; as
+also the <i>Canonical Epistle</i> upon the rules of penance. (3) Expository
+and homiletical works, including the <i>Hexaëmeron</i>, and several series
+of discourses <i>On the Workmanship of Man</i>, <i>On the Inscriptions of the
+Psalms</i>, <i>On the Sixth Psalm</i>, <i>On the first three Chapters of Ecclesiastes</i>,
+<i>On Canticles</i>, <i>On the Lord&rsquo;s Prayer</i> and <i>On the Eight Beatitudes</i>.
+(4) Biographical, consisting chiefly of funeral orations. (5) Letters.</p>
+
+<p>The only complete editions of the whole works are those by
+Fronton le Duc (Fronto Ducäus, Paris, 1615; with additions, 1618
+and 1638) and by Migne. G. H. Forbes began an excellent critical
+edition, but only two parts of the first volume appeared (Burntisland,
+1855 and 1861) containing the <i>Explicatio apologetica in hexaëmeron</i>
+and the <i>De opificio hominis</i>. Of the new edition projected by F.
+Oehler only the first volume, containing the <i>Opera dogmatica</i>, has
+appeared (1865). There have been numerous editions of several
+single treatises, as for example of the <i>Oratio catechetica</i> (J. G.
+Krabinger, Munich, 1838; J. H. Crawley, Cambridge, 1903), <i>De
+precatione</i> and <i>De anima et resurrectione</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See F. W. Farrar, <i>Lives of the Fathers</i>, ii. 56-83, the monograph by
+J. Rupp (<i>Gregors, des Bischofs von Nyssa, Leben und Meinungen</i>,
+Leipzig, 1834), and compare P. Heyns (<i>Disputatio historico-theologica
+de Greg. Nyss.</i>, 1835), C. W. Möller (<i>Gregorii Nyss. doctrinam de
+hominis natura et illustravit et cum Origeniana comparavit</i>, 1854) and
+J. N. Stigler, <i>Die Psychologie des h. Gregors von Nyssa</i> (Regensburg,
+1857), and many smaller monographs cited in Hauck-Herzog&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyk. für prot. Theol.</i> vii. 149.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (538-594), historian of the Franks,
+was born in the chief city of the Arverni (the modern Clermont-Ferrand)
+on the 30th of November 538. His real name was
+Georgius Florentius, Georgius being his grandfather&rsquo;s name and
+Florentius his father&rsquo;s. He was called Gregory after his maternal
+great-grandfather, the bishop of Langres. Gregory belonged to
+an illustrious senatorial family, many of whose members held
+high office in the church and bear honoured names in the history
+of Christianity. He was descended, it is said, from Vettius
+Epagathus, who was martyred at Lyons in 177 with St Pothinus;
+his paternal uncle, Gallus, was bishop of Clermont; his maternal
+grand-uncle, Nicetius (St Nizier), occupied the see of Lyons;
+and he was a kinsman of Euphronius, bishop of Tours.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory lost his father early, and his mother Armentaria
+settled in the kingdom of Burgundy on an estate belonging to
+her near Cavaillon, where her son often visited her. Gregory was
+brought up at Clermont-Ferrand by his uncle Gallus and by his
+successor, Avitus, and there he received his education. Among
+profane authors he read the first six books of the <i>Aeneid</i> and
+Sallust&rsquo;s history of the Catiline conspiracy, but his education
+was mainly religious. The principles of religion he learnt from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span>
+the Bible, Sulpicius Severus and some lives of saints, but to
+patristic literature and the subtleties of theology he remained
+a stranger. In 563, at the age of twenty-five, he was ordained
+deacon. Falling seriously ill, he went to Tours to seek a cure at
+the tomb of St Martin. At Tours he lived with Euphronius,
+and so great was the young man&rsquo;s popularity that, on the death
+of Euphronius in 573, the people unanimously designated him
+bishop.</p>
+
+<p>At that time Tours belonged to Austrasia, and King Sigebert
+hastened to confirm Gregory&rsquo;s election. After the assassination
+of Sigebert (575), the province was ruled by Chilperic for nine
+years, during which period Gregory displayed the greatest energy
+in protecting his town and church from the Frankish king. He
+had to contend with Count Leudast, the governor of Tours;
+despite all the king&rsquo;s threats, he refused to give up Chilperic&rsquo;s
+son Meroving, who had sought refuge from his father&rsquo;s wrath
+at the sanctuary of St Martin; and he defended Bishop Pretextatus
+against Chilperic, by whom he had been condemned
+for celebrating the marriage of Merovech and Queen Brunhilda.
+In 580 Gregory was himself accused before a council at Berny of
+using abusive language against Queen Fredegond, but he cleared
+himself of the charge by an oath and was acquitted. On the
+death of Chilperic, Tours remained for two years (584-585) in
+the hands of Guntram, but when Guntram adopted his nephew
+Childebert, Sigebert&rsquo;s son, it again became Austrasian. This
+change was welcome to Gregory, who often visited the court.
+In 586 he was at Coblenz, and on his return to Yvois (the
+modern Carignan) visited the stylite Wulfilaic; in 588 we hear
+of him at Metz and also at Chalon-sur-Saône, whither he was sent
+to obtain from King Guntram the ratification of the pact of
+Andelot; in 593 he was at Orleans, where Childebert had just
+succeeded his uncle Guntram. In the intervals of these journeys
+he governed Tours with great firmness, repressing disorders
+and reducing the monks and nuns to obedience. He died on
+the 17th of November 594.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory left many writings, of which he himself gives an
+enumeration at the end of his <i>Historia Francorum</i>: &ldquo;Decem
+libros Historiarum, septem Miraculorum, unum de Vita Patrum
+scripsi; in Psalterii tractatu librum unum commentatus sum;
+de Cursibus etiam ecclesiasticis unum librum condidi.&rdquo; The
+ten books of history are discussed below. The seven books of
+miracles are divided into the <i>De gloria martyrum</i>, the <i>De
+virtutibus sancti Juliani</i>, four books of <i>Miracula sancti Martini</i>,
+and the <i>De gloria confessorum</i>, the last dealing mainly with
+confessors who had dwelt in the cities of Tours and Clermont.
+The <i>Vitae patrum</i> consists of twenty biographies of bishops,
+abbots and hermits belonging to Gaul. The commentary on the
+Psalms is lost, the preface and the titles of the chapters alone
+being extant. The treatise <i>De cursibus ecclesiasticis</i>, discovered
+in 1853, is a liturgical manual for determining the hour of divers
+nocturnal offices by the position of the stars. Gregory also left
+a life of St Andrew, translated from the Greek, and a history of
+the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, translated from Syriac.</p>
+
+<p>His most important work, however, is the <i>Historia Francorum</i>,
+which is divided into three parts. The first four books, which
+were composed at one time, cover the period from the creation
+of the world to the death of Sigebert in 575. The first book,
+which is a mere compilation from the chronicles of St Jerome
+and Orosius, is of no value. The second book, from 397 to
+511, deals with the invasions of the Franks, and is based on
+the histories of Sulpicius Alexander and Renatus Profuturus
+Frigeridus, now lost; on the catalogues of the bishops of Clermont
+and Tours; on some lives of saints, <i>e.g.</i> Remigius and
+Maxentius, now lost; on the annals of Arles and Angers, now
+lost; and on legends, either collected by Gregory himself from
+oral tradition, or cantilenes or epics written in the Latin and
+Germanic languages. In the third and fourth books the earlier
+part is based on materials collected from men older than himself;
+of the later events he was himself an eye-witness. The fifth and
+sixth books, up to the death of Chilperic (584), deal with matters
+within his own experience. The first six books are often separate
+in the MSS., and it was these alone that were used by the
+chronicler Fredegarius in his abridgment of Gregory&rsquo;s history.
+To the first six books Gregory subsequently added chapters on
+the bishops Salonius and Sagittarius, and on his quarrels with
+Felix of Nantes. The authenticity of these chapters has been
+undeservedly attacked by Catholic writers. Books vii. to x.,
+from 584 to 591, were written in the form of a diary; of each
+important event, as it occurred, he inserted an account in his
+book. The last six books are of great historical value.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory had an intimate knowledge of contemporary events.
+He was frequently at court, and he found Tours an excellent
+place for collecting information. The shrine of St Martin
+attracted the sick from all quarters, and the basilica of the saint
+was a favourite sanctuary for political refugees. Moreover,
+Tours was on the high road between the north and south of
+France, and was a convenient stage for travellers, the ambassadors
+going to and from Spain frequently halting there.
+Gregory plied every one with questions, and in this way gathered
+a great mass of detailed information. He was, besides, at great
+pains to be an impartial writer, but was not always successful.
+His devotion to Austrasia made him very bitter against, and
+perhaps unjust to, the sovereigns of Neustria, Chilperic and
+Fredegond. As an orthodox Christian, he had no good word
+for the Arians. He excuses the crimes of kings who protected
+the church, such as Clovis, Clotaire I. and Guntram, but had
+no mercy for those who violated ecclesiastical privileges. This
+attitude, no doubt, explains his hatred for Chilperic. But if
+Gregory&rsquo;s historical judgments are suspect, he at least concealed
+nothing and invented nothing; and we can correct his judgments
+by his own narrative. His history is a curious compound of
+artlessness and shrewdness. He was ignorant of the rules of
+grammar, confused genders and cases, and wrote in the vernacular
+Latin of his time, apart from certain passages which are especially
+elaborated and filled with poetical and elegant expressions.
+But in spite of his shortcomings he is an exceedingly attractive
+writer, and his mastery of the art of narrative has earned for him
+the name of the Herodotus of the barbarians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>T. Ruinart brought out a complete edition of Gregory&rsquo;s works at
+Paris in 1699. The best modern complete edition is that of W.
+Arndt and B. Krusch in <i>Mon. Germ. hist. script. rer. Merov.</i> (vol. i.,
+1885). Of the many editions of the <i>Historia Francorum</i> may be
+mentioned those of Guadet and Taranne in the <i>Soc. de l&rsquo;hist. de
+France</i> (4 vols., with French translation, 1836-1838), of Omont (the
+first six books; a reproduction of the Corvey MS.) and of G. Collon
+(the last four books; a reproduction of the Brussels MS. No. 9, 403).
+Gregory&rsquo;s hagiographic works were published by H. Bordier in the
+<i>Soc. de l&rsquo;hist. de France</i> (4 vols., with French translation, 1857-1864).
+Cf. J. W. Löbell, <i>Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig,
+1868); G. Monod, &ldquo;Études critiques sur les sources de l&rsquo;histoire
+mérovingienne&rdquo; in the <i>Bibl. de l&rsquo;École des Hautes Études</i> (1872);
+G. Kurth, &ldquo;Grégoire de Tours et les études classiques au VI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle&rdquo;
+in the <i>Revue des questions historiques</i> (xxiv. 586 seq., 1878); Max
+Bonnet, <i>Le Latin de Grégoire de Tours</i> (Paris, 1890). For details, see
+Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Biobibliographie</i> (2nd ed.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the reputed founder of the
+Armenian Church. His legend is briefly as follows. His father
+Anak, head of the Parthian clan of Suren, was bribed about
+the time of his birth (<i>c.</i> 257) by the Sassanid king of Persia to
+assassinate the Armenian king, Chosroes, who was of the old
+Arsacid dynasty, and father of Tiridates or Trdat, first Christian
+king of Armenia. Anak was slain by his victim&rsquo;s soldiers;
+Gregory was rescued by his Christian nurse, carried to Caesarea
+in Cappadocia, and brought up a Christian. Grown to manhood
+he took service under Tiridates, now king of Armenia, in order
+by his own fidelity to atone for his father&rsquo;s treachery. Presently
+at a feast of Anahite Gregory refused to assist his sovereign in
+offering pagan sacrifice, and his parentage being now revealed,
+was thrown into a deep pit at Artashat, where he languished
+for fourteen years, during which persecution raged in Armenia.</p>
+
+<p>The scene of the legend now shifts to Rome, where Diocletian
+falls in love with a lovely nun named Ripsimé; she, rather than
+gratify his passion, flees with her abbess Gaiana and several
+priests to Armenia. Diocletian asks her back of Tiridates, who
+meanwhile has fallen in love with her himself. He too is flouted,
+and in his rage tortures and slays her and her companions.
+The traditional date of this massacre is the 5th of October,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span>
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 301. Providence, incensed at such cruelty, turns Tiridates
+into a wild boar, and afflicts his subjects with madness; but his
+sister, Chosrowidukht, has a revelation to bring Gregory back
+out of his pit. The king consents, the saint is acclaimed, the
+bodies of the thirty-seven martyrs solemnly interred, and the
+king, after fasting five, and listening to Gregory&rsquo;s homilies for
+sixty days, is healed. This all took place at Valarshapat, where
+Gregory, anxious to fix a site on which to build shrines for the
+relics of Ripsimé and Gaiana, saw the Son of God come down in
+a sheen of light, the stars of heaven attending, and smite the
+earth with a golden hammer till the nether world resounded
+to his blows. Three chapels were built on the spot, and Gregory
+raised his cross there and elsewhere for the people to worship,
+just as St Nino was doing about the same time in Georgia. There
+followed a campaign against the idols whose temples and books
+were destroyed. The time had now come for Gregory, who was
+still a layman and father of two sons, to receive ordination;
+so he went to Caesarea, where Leontius ordained and consecrated
+him catholicos or vicar-general of Armenia. This was sometime
+about 290, when Leontius may have acceded, though we first
+hear of him as bishop in 314.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory&rsquo;s ordination at Caesarea is historical. The vision
+at Valarshapat was invented later by the Armenians when they
+broke with the Greeks, in order to give to their church the
+semblance, if not of apostolic, at least of divine origin.</p>
+
+<p>According to Agathangelus, Tiridates went to Rome with
+Gregory, Aristaces, son of Gregory, and Albianos, head of the
+other priestly family, to make a pact with Constantine, newly
+converted to the faith, and receive a pallium from Silvester.
+The better sources make Sardica the scene of meeting and name
+Eusebius (of Nicomedia) as the prelate who attended Constantine.
+There is no reason to doubt that some such visit was made about
+the year 315, when the death of Maximin Daza left Constantine
+supreme. Eusebius testifies (<i>H.E.</i> ix. 8) that the Armenians
+were ardent Christians, and ancient friends and allies of the
+Roman empire when Maximin attacked them about the year
+308. The conversion of Tiridates was probably a matter of
+policy. His kingdom was honeycombed with Christianity, and
+he wished to draw closer to the West, where he foresaw the
+victory of the new faith, in order to fortify his realm against
+the Sassanids of Persia. Following the same policy he sent
+Aristaces in 325 to the council of Nice. Gregory is related to
+have added a clause to the creed which Aristaces brought back;
+he became a hermit on Mount Sebuh about the year 332, and
+died there.</p>
+
+<p>Is the Ripsimé episode mere legend? The story of the
+conversion of Georgia by St Nino in the same age is so full of
+local colour, and coheres so closely with the story of Ripsimé
+and Gaiana, that it seems over-sceptical to explain the latter
+away as a mere doublet of the legend of Prisca and Valeria.
+The historians Faustus of Byzant and Lazar of Pharp in the 5th
+century already attest the reverence with which their memory
+was invested. We know from many sources the prominence
+assigned to women prophets in the Phrygian church. Nino&rsquo;s
+story reads like that of such a female missionary, and something
+similar must underlie the story of her Armenian companions.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Gregory by Agathangelus is a compilation of
+about 450, which was rendered into Greek 550. Professor Marr
+has lately published an Arabic text from a MS. in Sinai which
+seems to contain an older tradition. A letter of Bishop George
+of Arabia to Jeshu, a priest of the town Anab, dated 714 (edited
+by Dashian, Vienna, 1891), contains an independent tradition of
+Gregory, and styles him a Roman by birth.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of legendary accretions we can still discern the true
+outlines and significance of his life. He did not really illumine
+or convert great Armenia, for the people were in the main already
+converted by Syrian missionaries to the Adoptionist or Ebionite
+type of faith which was dominant in the far East, and was
+afterwards known as Nestorianism. Marcionites and Montanists
+had also worked in the field. Gregory persuaded Tiridates
+to destroy the last relics of the old paganism, and carried out
+in the religious sphere his sovereign&rsquo;s policy of detaching Great
+Armenia from the Sassanid realm and allying it with the Graeco-Roman
+empire and civilization. He set himself to Hellenize
+or Catholicize Armenian Christianity, and in furtherance of this
+aim set up a hierarchy officially dependent on the Cappadocian.
+He in effect turned his country into a province of the Greek see
+of Cappadocia. This hierarchical tie was soon snapped, but the
+Hellenizing influence continued to work, and bore its most
+abundant fruit in the 5th century. His career was thus analogous
+to that of St Patrick in Ireland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;S. Weber, <i>Die Catholische Kirche in Armenien</i>
+(Freiburg, 1903, with bibliography); Bollandii, <i>Acta sanctorum sept.</i>
+tom. 8; A. Carrière, <i>Les Huit Sanctuaires de l&rsquo;Arménie</i> (Paris, 1899);
+&ldquo;Chrysostom&rdquo; in Migne, <i>P. Gr.</i> tom. 63, col. 943 foll.; C. Fortescue,
+<i>The Armenian Church</i> (London, 1872); H. Gelzer, <i>Die Anfänge der
+armenischen Kirche</i> (Leipzig, 1895) (<i>Sächs. Gesells. der Wissensch.</i>);
+and s.v. &ldquo;Armenien&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck (Leipzig, 1897); v. Gutschmid,
+<i>Kleine Schriften</i> (Leipzig, 1892); Himpel, <i>Gregor der
+Erleuchter</i>, Kl. v.; Issaverdenz, <i>Hist. of Arm. Church</i> (Venice,
+1875); de Lagarde, <i>Agathangelos</i> (Göttingen, 1888); Arshak Ter
+Mikelian, <i>Die arm. Kirche</i> (Leipzig, 1892); Palmieri, &ldquo;La Conversione
+ufficiale degli Iberi,&rdquo; <i>Oriens Christ.</i> (Rome, 1902); Ryssel,
+<i>Ein Brief Gregors, übersetzt, Studien und Kritiken</i>, 56, Bd. (1883);
+Samuelian, <i>Bekehrung Armeniens</i> (Vienna, 1844); Vetter, &ldquo;Die arm.
+Väter,&rdquo; in Nischl&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der Patrol.</i> iii. 215-262, (Mainz, 1881-1885);
+Malan, <i>S. Gregory the Illuminator</i> (Rivingtons, 1868).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (<i>Gregorius</i>), the name of sixteen popes and one
+anti-pope.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Saint Gregory</span>, surnamed the Great (<i>c.</i> 540-604), the first
+pope of that name, and the last of the four doctors of the Latin
+Church, was born in Rome about the year 540. His father was
+Gordianus &ldquo;the regionary,&rdquo; a wealthy man of senatorial rank,
+owner of large estates in Sicily and of a palace on the Caelian
+Hill in Rome; his mother was Silvia, who is commemorated as
+a saint on the 3rd of November. Of Gregory&rsquo;s early period we
+know few details, and almost all the dates are conjectural. He
+received the best education to be had at the time, and was noted
+for his proficiency in the arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic.
+Entering on a public career he held, about 573, the high office of
+prefect of the city of Rome; but about 574, feeling irresistibly
+attracted to the &ldquo;religious&rdquo; life, he resigned his post, founded
+six monasteries in Sicily and one in Rome, and in the last&mdash;the
+famous monastery of St Andrew&mdash;became himself a monk.
+This grateful seclusion, however, he was not permitted long to
+enjoy. About 578 he was ordained &ldquo;seventh deacon&rdquo; (or
+possibly archdeacon) of the Roman Church, and in the following
+spring Pope Pelagius II. appointed him &ldquo;apocrisiarius,&rdquo; or
+resident ambassador, at the imperial court in Constantinople.
+Here he represented the interests of his church till about 586,
+when he returned to Rome and was made abbot of St Andrew&rsquo;s
+monastery. His rule, though popular, was characterized by
+great severity, as may be inferred from the story of the monk
+Justus, who was denied Christian burial because he had secreted
+a small sum of money. About this time Gregory completed and
+published his well-known exposition of the book of Job, commenced
+in Constantinople: he also delivered lectures on the
+Heptateuch, the books of Kings, the Prophets, the book of
+Proverbs and the Song of Songs. To this period, moreover,
+Bede&rsquo;s incident of the English slave-boys (if indeed it be accepted
+as historical) ought to be assigned. Passing one day through
+the Forum, Gregory saw some handsome slaves offered for sale,
+and inquired their nation. &ldquo;Angles,&rdquo; was the reply. &ldquo;Good,&rdquo;
+said the abbot, &ldquo;they have the faces of angels, and should be
+coheirs with the angels in heaven. From what province do they
+come?&rdquo; &ldquo;From Deira.&rdquo; &ldquo;Deira. Yea, verily, they shall be
+saved from God&rsquo;s ire (<i>de ira</i>) and called to the mercy of Christ.
+How is the king of that country named?&rdquo; &ldquo;Ælla.&rdquo; &ldquo;Then
+must Allelulia be sung in Ælla&rsquo;s land.&rdquo; Gregory determined
+personally to undertake the conversion of Britain, and with the
+pope&rsquo;s consent actually set out upon the mission, but on the
+third day of his journey he was overtaken by messengers recalling
+him to Rome. In the year 590 Pelagius II. died of the plague
+that was raging in the city; whereupon the clergy and people
+unanimously chose Gregory as his successor. The abbot did his
+best to avoid the dignity, petitioned the emperor Maurice not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span>
+to ratify his election, and even meditated going into hiding;
+but, &ldquo;while he was preparing for flight and concealment, he was
+seized and carried off and dragged to the basilica of St Peter,&rdquo;
+and there consecrated bishop, on the 3rd of September 590.</p>
+
+<p>The fourteen years of Gregory&rsquo;s pontificate were marked
+by extraordinary vigour and activity. &ldquo;He never rested,&rdquo;
+writes a biographer, &ldquo;he was always engaged in providing for
+the interests of his people, or in writing some composition
+worthy of the church, or in searching out the secrets of heaven
+by the grace of contemplation.&rdquo; His mode of life was simple
+and ascetic in the extreme. Having banished all lay attendants
+from his palace, he surrounded himself with clerics and monks,
+with whom he lived as though he were still in a monastery. To
+the spiritual needs of his people he ministered with pastoral
+zeal, frequently appointing &ldquo;stations&rdquo; and delivering sermons;
+nor was he less solicitous in providing for their physical necessities.
+Deaconries (offices of alms) and guest-houses were
+liberally endowed, and free distributions of food were made to
+the poor in the convents and basilicas. The funds for these
+and similar purposes were supplied from the Patrimony of
+St Peter&mdash;the papal estates in Italy, the adjacent islands, Gaul,
+Dalmatia and Africa. These extensive domains were usually
+administered by specially appointed agents,&mdash;rectors and
+defensors,&mdash;who resided on the spot; but the general superintendence
+devolved upon the pope. In this sphere Gregory
+manifested rare capacity. He was one of the best of the papal
+landlords. During his pontificate the estates increased in
+value, while at the same time the real grievances of the tenants
+were redressed and their general position was materially improved.
+Gregory&rsquo;s principal fault as a man of business was that he was
+inclined to be too lavish of his revenues. It is said that he even
+impoverished the treasury of the Roman Church by his unlimited
+charities.</p>
+
+<p>Within the strict bounds of his patriarchate, <i>i.e.</i> the churches
+of the suburbicarian provinces and the islands, it was Gregory&rsquo;s
+policy to watch with particular care over the election and
+discipline of the bishops. With wise toleration he was willing
+to recognize local deviations from Roman usage (<i>e.g.</i> in the
+ritual of baptism and confirmation), yet he was resolute to
+withstand any unauthorized usurpation of rights and privileges.
+The following rules he took pains to enforce: that clerics
+in holy orders should not cohabit with their wives or permit any
+women, except those allowed by the canons, to live in their
+houses; that clerics accused on ecclesiastical or lesser criminal
+charges should be tried only in the ecclesiastical courts; that
+clerics in holy orders who had lapsed should &ldquo;utterly forfeit
+their orders and never again approach the ministry of the altar&rdquo;;
+that the revenues of each church should be divided by its bishop
+into four equal parts, to be assigned to the bishop, the clergy,
+the poor and the repair of the fabric of the church.</p>
+
+<p>In his relations with the churches which lay outside the strict
+limits of his patriarchate, in northern Italy, Spain, Gaul, Africa
+and Illyricum and also in the East, Gregory consistently used
+his influence to increase the prestige and authority of the Roman
+See. In his view Rome, as the see of the Prince of the Apostles,
+was by divine right &ldquo;the head of all the churches.&rdquo; The decrees
+of councils would have no binding force &ldquo;without the authority
+and consent of the apostolic see&rdquo;: appeals might be made to
+Rome against the decisions even of the patriarch of Constantinople:
+all bishops, including the patriarchs, if guilty of heresy
+or uncanonical proceedings, were subject to correction by the
+pope. &ldquo;If any fault is discovered in a bishop,&rdquo; Gregory wrote,
+&ldquo;I know of no one who is not subject to the apostolic see.&rdquo;
+It is true that Gregory respected the rights of metropolitans and
+disapproved of unnecessary interference within the sphere of
+their jurisdiction canonically exercised; also that in his relations
+with certain churches (<i>e.g.</i> those in Africa) he found it expedient
+to abstain from any obtrusive assertion of Roman claims. But
+of his general principle there can be no doubt. His sincere belief
+in the apostolic authority of the see of St Peter, his outspoken
+assertion of it, the consistency and firmness with which in
+practice he maintained it (<i>e.g.</i> in his controversies with the
+bishops of Ravenna concerning the use of the pallium, with
+Maximus the &ldquo;usurping&rdquo; bishop of Salona, and with the
+patriarchs of Constantinople in respect of the title &ldquo;ecumenical
+bishops&rdquo;), contributed greatly to build up the system of papal
+absolutism. Moreover this consolidation of spiritual authority
+coincided with a remarkable development of the temporal
+power of the papacy. In Italy Gregory occupied an almost
+regal position. Taking advantage of the opportunity which
+circumstances offered, he boldly stepped into the place which
+the emperors had left vacant and the Lombard kings had not the
+strength to seize. For the first time in history the pope appeared
+as a political power, a temporal prince. He appointed governors
+to cities, issued orders to generals, provided munitions of war,
+sent his ambassadors to negotiate with the Lombard king and
+actually dared to conclude a private peace. In this direction
+Gregory went farther than any of his predecessors: he laid
+the foundation of a political influence which endured for centuries.
+&ldquo;Of the medieval papacy,&rdquo; says Milman, &ldquo;the real father is
+Gregory the Great.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The first monk to become pope, Gregory was naturally a
+strong supporter of monasticism. He laid himself out to diffuse
+the system, and also to carry out a reform of its abuses by enforcing
+a strict observance of the Rule of St Benedict (of whom,
+it may be noted, he was the earliest biographer). Two slight
+innovations were introduced: the minimum age of an abbess
+was fixed at sixty, and the period of novitiate was prolonged
+from one year to two. Gregory sought to protect the monks
+from episcopal oppression by issuing <i>privilegia</i>, or charters
+in restraint of abuses, in accordance with which the jurisdiction
+of the bishops over the monasteries was confined to spiritual
+matters, all illegal aggressions being strictly prohibited. The
+documents are interesting as marking the beginning of a revolution
+which eventually emancipated the monks altogether from
+the control of their diocesans and brought them under the direct
+authority of the Holy See. Moreover Gregory strictly forbade
+monks to minister in parish churches, ordaining that any monk
+who was promoted to such ecclesiastical cure should lose all
+rights in his monastery and should no longer reside there.
+&ldquo;The duties of each office separately are so weighty that no one
+can rightly discharge them. It is therefore very improper that
+one man should be considered fit to discharge the duties of
+both, and that by this means the ecclesiastical order should
+interfere with the monastic life, and the rule of the monastic
+life in turn interfere with the interests of the churches.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Once more, Gregory is remembered as a great organizer of
+missionary enterprise for the conversion of heathens and heretics.
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Mose">Most</span> important was the two-fold mission to Britain&mdash;of St
+Augustine in 596, of Mellitus, Paulinus and others in 601; but
+Gregory also made strenuous efforts to uproot paganism in Gaul,
+Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Arianism in Spain, Donatism
+in Africa, Manichaeism in Sicily, the heresy of the Three Chapters
+in Istria and northern Italy. In respect of the methods of
+conversion which he advocated he was not less intolerant than
+his contemporaries. Towards the Jews, however, he acted with
+exceptional lenity, protecting them from persecution and
+securing them the enjoyment of their legal privileges. The
+so-called &ldquo;simoniacal heresy,&rdquo; particularly prevalent in Gaul,
+Illyricum and the East, be repeatedly attacked; and against the
+Gallican abuse of promoting laymen to bishoprics he protested
+with vigour.</p>
+
+<p>The extent and character of Gregory&rsquo;s works in connexion
+with the liturgy and the music of the church is a subject of
+dispute. If we are to credit a 9th century biographer, Gregory
+abbreviated and otherwise simplified the Sacramentary of
+Gelasius, producing a revised edition with which his own name
+has become associated, and which represents the groundwork
+of the modern Roman Missal. But though it is certain that he
+introduced three changes in the liturgy itself (viz. the addition
+of some words in the prayer <i>Hanc igitur</i>, the recitation of the
+Pater Noster at the end of the Canon immediately before the
+fraction of the bread, and the chanting of the Allelulia after the
+Gradual at other times besides the season of Easter) and two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span>
+others in the ceremonial connected therewith (forbidding
+deacons to perform any musical portion of the service except
+the chanting of the gospel, and subdeacons to wear chasubles),
+neither the external nor the internal evidence appears to warrant
+belief that the Gregorian Sacramentary is his work. Ecclesiastical
+tradition further ascribes to Gregory the compilation of an
+Antiphonary, the revision and rearrangement of the system of
+church music, and the foundation of the Roman <i>schola cantorum</i>.
+It is highly doubtful, however, whether he had anything to do
+either with the Antiphonary or with the invention or revival
+of the <i>cantus planus</i>; it is certain that he was not the founder
+of the Roman singing-school, though he may have interested
+himself in its endowment and extension.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, as Fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, Gregory
+claims the attention of theologians. He is the link between
+two epochs. The last of the great Latin Fathers and the first
+representative of medieval Catholicism he brings the dogmatic
+theology of Tertullian, Ambrose and Augustine into relation
+with the Scholastic speculation of later ages. &ldquo;He connects the
+Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of Christianity.&rdquo;
+His teaching, indeed, is neither philosophical, systematic nor
+truly original. Its importance lies mainly in its simple, popular
+summarization of the doctrine of Augustine (whose works Gregory
+had studied with infinite care, but not always with insight),
+and in its detailed exposition of various religious conceptions
+which were current in the Western Church, but had not hitherto
+been defined with precision (<i>e.g.</i> the views on angelology and
+demonology, on purgatory, the Eucharistic Sacrifice, and the
+efficacy of relics). In his exposition of such ideas Gregory made
+a distinct advance upon the older theology and influenced
+profoundly the dogmatic development of the future. He imparted
+a life and impulse to prevailing tendencies, helping on the
+construction of the system hereafter to be completed in Scholasticism.
+He gave to theology a tone and emphasis which could not
+be disregarded. From his time to that of Anselm no teacher
+of equal eminence arose in the Church.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory died on the 12th of March 604, and was buried the
+same day in the portico of the basilica of St Peter, in front of
+the sacristy. Translations took place in the 9th, 15th and 17th
+centuries, and the remains now rest beneath the altar in the
+chapel of Clement VIII. In respect of his character, while most
+historians agree that he was a really great man, some deny that
+he was also a great saint. The worst blot on his fair fame is his
+adulatory congratulation of the murderous usurper Phocas;
+though his correspondence with the Frankish queen Brunhilda,
+and the series of letters to and concerning the renegade monk
+Venantius also present problems which his admirers find difficult
+of solution. But while it may be admitted that Gregory was
+inclined to be unduly subservient to the great, so that at times
+he was willing to shut his eyes to the vices and even the crimes of
+persons of rank; yet it cannot fairly be denied that his character
+as a whole was singularly noble and unselfish. His life was
+entirely dominated by the religious motive. His sole desire was
+to promote the glory of God and of his church. At all times he
+strove honestly to live up to the light that was in him. &ldquo;His
+goal,&rdquo; says Lau, &ldquo;was always that which he acknowledged as the
+best.&rdquo; Physically, Gregory was of medium height and good
+figure. His head was large and bald, surrounded with a fringe
+of dark hair. His face was well-proportioned, with brown eyes,
+aquiline nose, thick and red lips, high-coloured cheeks, and
+prominent chin sparsely covered with a tawny beard. His hands,
+with tapering fingers, were remarkable for their beauty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Gregory&rsquo;s Works</i>.&mdash;The following are now universally admitted
+to be genuine:&mdash;<i>Epistolarum libri xiv.</i>, <i>Moralium libri xxxv.</i>,
+<i>Regulae pastoralis liber</i>, <i>Dialogorum libri iv.</i>, <i>Homiliarum in
+Ezechielem prophetam libri ii.</i>, <i>Homiliarum in Evangelia libri ii.</i>
+These are all printed in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologia Latina</i>. The <i>Epistolae</i>,
+however, have been published separately by P. Ewald and L. M.
+Hartmann in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i> (Berlin, 1887-1899),
+and this splendid edition has superseded all others. The
+question of the chronological reconstruction of the <i>Register</i> is dealt
+with by Ewald in his celebrated article in the <i>Neues Archiv der
+Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i>, iii. pp. 433-625; and
+briefly by T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, v. 333-343. For
+information about these writings of Gregory, consult especially
+G. J. T. Lau, <i>Gregor I. der Grosse</i>, pt. ii. chap. i. <i>Die Schriften Gregors</i>
+and F. Homes Dudden, <i>Gregory the Great</i> (see Index II. B.). In
+addition to the above-mentioned works there are printed under
+Gregory&rsquo;s name in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, vol. lxxix., the following:&mdash;<i>Super
+Cantico Canticorum expositio</i>, <i>In librum primum Regum
+variarum expositionum libri vi.</i>, <i>In septem psalmos poenitentiales
+expositio</i> and <i>Concordia quorundam teslimoniorum s. scripturae</i>.
+But (with the possible exception of the first) none of these treatises
+are of Gregorian authorship. See the discussions in Migne, Lau
+and Dudden.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;(<i>a</i>) The principal ancient authorities for the life
+and works of Gregory are given in their chronological order. They
+are: Gregory of Tours, <i>Historia Francorum</i>, x. 1; <i>Liber pontificalis</i>,
+&ldquo;Vita Gregorii Magni&rdquo;; Isidore of Seville, <i>De vir. illustr.</i> 40, and
+Ildefonsus of Toledo, <i>De vir. illustr.</i> i.; an anonymous <i>Vita Gregorii</i>
+(of English authorship) belonging to the monastery of St Gall,
+discovered by Ewald and published by F. A. Gasquet, <i>A Life of
+Pope St Gregory the Great</i> (1904); Bede, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i>, ii. c. 1;
+Paul the Deacon, <i>Vita Gregorii Magni</i> (770-780); John the Deacon,
+<i>Vita Gregorii</i> (872-882). (<i>b</i>) Recent Literature: J. Barmby,
+<i>Gregory the Great</i> (1892); T. Bonsmann, <i>Gregor I. der Grosse, ein
+Lebensbild</i> (1890); F. Homes Dudden, <i>Gregory the Great: his place
+in History and Thought</i> (2 vols., 1905); G. J. T. Lau, <i>Gregor I. der
+Grosse nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert</i> (1845); C.
+Wolfsgruber, <i>Gregor der Grosse</i> (1897). See also F. Gregorovius,
+<i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i> (Eng. trans.) ii. 16-103; T. Hodgkin,
+<i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, v. cc. 7-10; H. K. Mann, <i>The Lives of the
+Popes</i>, i. 1-250; F. W. Kellett, <i>Pope Gregory the Great and his Relations
+with Gaul</i>; L. Pingaud, <i>La Politique de Saint Grégoire le
+Grand</i>; W. Wisbaum, <i>Die wichtigsten Richtungen und Ziele der
+Tätigkeit des Papstes Gregors des Grossen</i>; W. Hohaus, <i>Die Bedeutung
+Gregors des Grossen als liturgischer Schriftsteller</i>; E. G. P. Wyatt,
+<i>St Gregory and the Gregorian Music</i>; and the bibliographies of Gregory
+in Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen âge</i>, and
+A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca historica medii aevi</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. H. D.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Gregory II.</span>, pope from 715 to 731, succeeded Constantine I.,
+whom he accompanied from Constantinople in 710. Gregory did
+all in his power to promote the spread of Christianity in Germany,
+and gave special encouragement to the mission of St Boniface,
+whom he consecrated bishop in 722. He was a staunch adherent
+of the East Roman empire, which still exercised sovereignty over
+Rome, Ravenna and some other parts of Italy, and he impeded
+as far as possible the progress of the Lombards. About 726,
+however, he became involved in a conflict with the emperor
+Leo the Isaurian on account of the excessive taxation of the
+Italians, and, later, on the question of image worship, which
+had been proscribed by the government of Constantinople. Leo
+endeavoured to rid himself of the pope by violence, but Gregory,
+supported by the people of Rome and also by the Lombards,
+succeeded in eluding the emperor&rsquo;s attacks, and died peacefully
+on the 11th of February 731.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory III.</span>, pope from 731 to 741. He condemned the
+iconoclasts at a council convened at Rome in November 731,
+and, like his predecessor Gregory II., stimulated the missionary
+labours of St Boniface, on whom he conferred the pallium.
+Towards the Lombards he took up an imprudent attitude, in
+support of which he in vain invoked the aid of the Frankish
+prince Charles Martel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory IV.</span>, pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed
+Valentinus in December 827, on which occasion he recognized
+the supremacy of the Frankish emperor in the most unequivocal
+manner. His name is chiefly associated with the quarrels
+between Lothair and Louis the Pious, in which he espoused
+the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus Mendacii
+(<i>Lügenfeld</i>, field of lies), as it is usually called (833), he secured
+by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the
+feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died
+on the 25th of January 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory V.</span> (Bruno), pope from 996 to 999, a great-grandson
+of the emperor Otto the Great, succeeded John XV. when only
+twenty-four years of age, and until the council of Pavia (997)
+had a rival in the person of the anti-pope John XVI., whom the
+people of Rome, in revolt against the will of the youthful emperor
+Otto III., had chosen after having expelled Gregory. The most
+memorable acts of his pontificate were those arising out of the
+contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was ultimately
+brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a sentence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span>
+of excommunication. Gregory died suddenly, and not without
+suspicion of foul play, on the 18th of February 999. His successor
+was Silvester II.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory VI.</span>, pope from 1045 to 1046. As Johannes Gratianus
+he had earned a high reputation for learning and probity, and in
+1045 he bought the Roman pontificate from his godson Benedict
+IX. At a council held by the emperor Henry III. at Sutri in
+1046, he was accused of simony and deposed. He was banished
+into Germany, where he died in 1047. He was accompanied into
+exile by his young protégé Hildebrand (afterwards pope as
+Gregory VII.), and was succeeded by Clement II.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory VII.</span>, pope from 1073 to 1085. Hildebrand (the
+future pope) would seem to have been born in Tuscany&mdash;perhaps
+Raovacum&mdash;early in the third decade of the 11th century. The
+son of a plain citizen, Bunicus or Bonizo, he came to Rome at an
+early age for his education; an uncle of his being abbot of the
+convent of St Mary on the Aventine. His instructors appear
+to have included the archpriest Johannes Gratianus, who, by
+disbursing a considerable sum to Benedict IX., smoothed his
+way to the papal throne and actually ascended it as Gregory VI.
+But when the emperor Henry III., on his expedition to Rome
+(1046), terminated the scandalous <i>impasse</i> in which three popes
+laid claim to the chair of Peter by deposing all three, Gregory VI.
+was banished to Germany, and Hildebrand found himself
+obliged to accompany him. As he himself afterwards admitted,
+it was with extreme reluctance that he crossed the Alps. But
+his residence in Germany was of great educative value, and full
+of significance for his later official activity. In Cologne he was
+enabled to pursue his studies; he came into touch with the circles
+of Lorraine where interest in the elevation of the Church and her
+life was highest, and gained acquaintance with the political
+and ecclesiastical circumstances of that country which was
+destined to figure so largely in his career. Whether, on the
+death of Gregory VI. in the beginning of 1048, Hildebrand
+proceeded to Cluny is doubtful. His brief residence there, if it
+actually occurred, is to be regarded as no more than a visit; for
+he was never a monk of Cluny. His contemporaries indeed
+describe him as a monk; but his entry into the convent must be
+assigned to the period preceding or following his German travels
+and presumably took place in Rome. He returned to that city
+with Bishop Bruno of Toul, who was nominated pope under the
+title of Leo IX. (1048-1054). Under him Hildebrand found his
+first employment in the ecclesiastical service, becoming a sub-deacon
+and steward in the Roman Church. He acted, moreover,
+as a legate in France, where he was occupied <i>inter alia</i> with the
+question of Berengarius of Tours, whose views on the Lord&rsquo;s
+Supper had excited opposition. On the death of Leo IX. he
+was commissioned by the Romans as their envoy to the German
+court, to conduct the negotiations with regard to his successor.
+The emperor pronounced in favour of Bishop Gebhard of Eichstädt,
+who, in the course of his short reign as Victor II. (1055-1057),
+again employed Hildebrand as his legate to France.
+When Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine) was raised to the
+papacy, without previous consultation with the German court,
+Hildebrand and Bishop Anselm of Lucca were despatched to
+Germany to secure a belated recognition, and he succeeded in
+gaining the consent of the empress Agnes. Stephen, however,
+died before his return, and, by the hasty elevation of Bishop
+Johannes of Velletri, the Roman aristocracy made a last attempt
+to recover their lost influence on the appointment to the papal
+throne&mdash;a proceeding which was charged with peril to the Church
+as it implied a renewal of the disastrous patrician régime. That
+the crisis was surmounted was essentially the work of Hildebrand.
+To Benedict X., the aristocratic nominee, he opposed a rival
+pope in the person of Bishop Gerhard of Florence, with whom
+the victory rested. The reign of Nicholas II. (1059-1061) was
+distinguished by events which exercised a potent influence on
+the policy of the Curia during the next two decades&mdash;the
+<i>rapprochement</i> with the Normans in the south of Italy, and the
+alliance with the democratic and, subsequently, anti-German
+movement of the Patarenes in the north. It was also under his
+pontificate (1059) that the law was enacted which transferred the
+papal election to the College of Cardinals, thus withdrawing it
+from the nobility and populace of Rome and thrusting the
+German influence on one side. It would be too much to maintain
+that these measures were due to Hildebrand alone, but it is
+obvious that he was already a dominant personality on the Curia,
+through he still held no more exalted office than that of archdeacon,
+which was indeed only conferred on him in 1059. Again,
+when Nicholas II. died and a new schism broke out, the discomfiture
+of Honorius II. (Bishop Cadalus of Parma) and the
+success of his rival (Anselm of Lucca) must be ascribed principally,
+if not entirely, to Hildebrand&rsquo;s opposition to the former.
+Under the sway of Alexander II. (1061-1073) this man loomed
+larger and larger in the eye of his contemporaries as the soul of
+the Curial policy. It must be confessed the general political
+conditions, especially in Germany, were at that period exceptionally
+favourable to the Curia, but to utilize them with the sagacity
+actually shown was nevertheless no slight achievement, and the
+position of Alexander at the end of his pontificate was a brilliant
+justification of the Hildebrandine statecraft.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Alexander II. (April 21, 1073), Hildebrand
+became pope and took the style of Gregory VII. The mode of
+his election was bitterly assailed by his opponents. True, many
+of the charges preferred are obviously the emanations of scandal
+and personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that
+they were not raised to impugn his promotion till several years
+had elapsed (<i>c.</i> 1076); still it is plain from his own account of
+the circumstances of his elevation that it was conducted in
+extremely irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed by the
+law of 1059 were not observed. But the sequel justified his
+election&mdash;of which the worst that can be said is that there was
+no general suffrage. And this sequel again owed none of its
+success to chance, but was the fruit of his own exertions. In his
+character were united wide experience and great energy tested
+in difficult situations. It is proof of the popular faith in his
+qualifications that, although the circumstances of his election
+invited assault in 1073, no sort of attempt was then made to set
+up a rival pontiff. When, however, the opposition which took
+head against him had gone so far as to produce a pretender to the
+chair, his long and undisputed possession tended to prove the
+original legality of his papacy; and the appeal to irregularities
+at its beginning not only lost all cogency but assumed the
+appearance of a mere biased attack. On the 22nd of May he
+received sacerdotal ordination, and on the 30th of June episcopal
+consecration; the empress Agnes and the duchess Beatrice of
+Tuscany being present at the ceremony, in addition to Bishop
+Gregory of Vercelli, the chancellor of the German king, to whom
+Gregory would thus seem to have communicated the result of
+the election.</p>
+
+<p>The focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII.
+is to be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death
+of Henry III. the strength of the monarchy in that country had
+been seriously impaired, and his son Henry IV. had to contend
+with great internal difficulties. This state of affairs was of
+material assistance to the pope. His advantage was still further
+accentuated by the fact that in 1073 Henry was but twenty-three
+years of age and by temperament inclined to precipitate action.
+Many sharp lessons were needful before he learned to bridle his
+impetuosity, and he lacked the support and advice of a disinterested
+and experienced statesman. Such being the conditions,
+a conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. could have only
+one issue&mdash;the victory of the former.</p>
+
+<p>In the two following years Henry was compelled by the Saxon
+rebellion to come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost.
+Consequently in May 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in
+presence of the legates to expiate his continued intimacy with
+the members of his council banned by Gregory, took an oath of
+obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming
+the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him the
+confidence of the pope, he abandoned so soon as he gained the
+upper hand of the Saxons: this he achieved by his victory at
+Hohenburg on the Unstrut (June 9, 1075). He now attempted
+to reassert his rights of suzerain in upper Italy without delay.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span>
+He sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes;
+nominated the cleric Tedaldo to the archbishopric of Milan,
+thus settling a prolonged and contentious question; and finally
+endeavoured to establish relations with the Norman duke,
+Robert Guiscard. Gregory VII. answered with a rough letter,
+dated December 8, in which&mdash;among other charges&mdash;he reproached
+the German king with breach of his word and with
+his further countenance of the excommunicated councillors;
+while at the same time he sent by word of mouth a brusque
+message intimating that the enormous crimes which would be
+laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the
+church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory ventured
+on these audacious measures at a time when he himself was
+confronted by a reckless opponent in the person of Cencius, who
+on Christmas-night did not scruple to surprise him in church
+and carry him off as a prisoner, though on the following day
+he was obliged to surrender his captive. The reprimands of
+the pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented form,
+infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily
+convened national council in Worms, which met on the 24th
+of January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy
+Gregory had many enemies, and a Roman cardinal, Hugo
+Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but now at variance,
+had made a hurried expedition to Germany for the occasion and
+appeared at Worms with the rest. All the gross scandals with
+regard to the pontiff that this prelate could utter were greedily
+received by the assembly, which committed itself to the ill-considered
+and disastrous resolution that Gregory had forfeited
+his papal dignity. In a document full of accusations the bishops
+renounced their allegiance. In another King Henry pronounced
+him deposed, and the Romans were required to choose a new
+occupant for the vacant chair of St Peter. With the utmost
+haste two bishops were despatched to Italy in company with
+Count Eberhard under commission of the council, and they succeeded
+in procuring a similar act of deposition from the Lombard
+bishops in the synod of Piacenza. The communication of these
+decisions to the pope was undertaken by the priest Roland of
+Parma, and he was fortunate enough to gain an opportunity
+for speech in the synod, which had barely assembled in the
+Lateran church, and there to deliver his message announcing
+the dethronement of the pontiff. For the moment the members
+were petrified with horror, but soon such a storm of indignation
+was aroused that it was only due to the moderation of Gregory
+himself that the envoy was not cut down on the spot. On the
+following day the pope pronounced the sentence of excommunication
+against the German king with all formal solemnity, divested
+him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects from the oaths
+they had sworn to him. This sentence purported to eject the
+king from the church and to strip him of his crown. Whether
+it would produce this effect, or whether it would remain an idle
+threat, depended not on the author of the verdict, but on the
+subjects of Henry&mdash;before all, on the German princes. We
+know from contemporary evidence that the excommunication
+of the king made a profound impression both in Germany and
+Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III. had deposed three popes,
+and thereby rendered a great and acknowledged service to the
+church. When Henry IV. attempted to copy this summary
+procedure he came to grief, for he lacked the support of the
+people. In Germany there was a speedy and general revulsion
+of sentiment in favour of Gregory, and the particularism of the
+princes utilized the auspicious moment for prosecuting their
+anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the papal decision.
+When at Whitsuntide the king proposed to discuss the measures
+to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles at Mainz,
+only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the
+golden opportunity for renewing their insurrection and the
+anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month. The
+situation now became extremely critical for Henry. As a result
+of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate
+Bishop Altmann of Passau, the princes met in October at Tribur
+to elect a new German king, and Henry, who was stationed at
+Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only saved from
+the loss of his sceptre by the failure of the assembled princes
+to agree on the question of his successor. Their dissension,
+however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry,
+they declared, must make reparation to the pope and pledge
+himself to obedience; and they settled that, if, on the anniversary
+of his excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the
+throne should be considered vacant. At the same time they
+determined to invite Gregory to Augsburg, there to decide the
+conflict. These arrangements showed Henry the course to be
+pursued. It was imperative, under any circumstances and at
+any price, to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period
+named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their
+intention to pursue their attack against himself and justify their
+measures by an appeal to his excommunication. At first he
+attempted to attain his ends by an embassy, but when Gregory
+rejected his overtures he took the celebrated step of going to
+Italy in person. The pope had already left Rome, and had
+intimated to the German princes that he would expect their
+escort for his journey on January 8 in Mantua. But this escort
+had not appeared when he received the news of the king&rsquo;s
+arrival. Henry, who travelled through Burgundy, had been
+greeted with wild enthusiasm by the Lombards, but resisted the
+temptation to employ force against Gregory. He chose instead
+the unexpected and unusual, but, as events proved, the safest
+course, and determined to compel the pope to grant him absolution
+by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken
+refuge. This occurrence was quickly embellished and inwoven
+by legend, and great uncertainty still prevails with regard to
+several important points. The reconciliation was only effected
+after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part
+of the king, and it was with reluctance that Gregory at length
+gave way, for, if he conferred his absolution, the diet of princes
+in Augsburg, in which he might reasonably hope to act as
+arbitrator, would either be rendered purposeless, or, if it met at
+all, would wear an entirely different character. It was impossible,
+however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the church, and
+the politician had in this case to be subordinated to the priest.
+Still the removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation,
+and no basis was gained for a settlement of the great questions
+at issue&mdash;notably that of investiture. A new conflict was
+indeed inevitable from the very fact that Henry IV. naturally
+considered the sentence of deposition repealed with that of
+excommunication; while Gregory on the other hand, intent on
+reserving his freedom of action, gave no hint on the subject at
+Canossa.</p>
+
+<p>That the excommunication of Henry IV. was simply a pretext&mdash;not
+a motive&mdash;for the opposition of the rebellious German
+nobles is manifest. For not only did they persist in their policy
+after his absolution, but they took the more decided step of
+setting up a rival king in the person of Duke Rudolph of Swabia
+(Forchheim, March 1077). At the election the papal legates
+present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory
+himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following
+years. His task was the easier in that the two parties were of
+fairly equal strength, each endeavouring to gain the upper hand
+by the accession of the pope to their side. But his hopes and
+labours, with the object of receiving an appeal to act as arbitrator
+in the dynastic strife, were fruitless, and the result of his non-committal
+policy was that he forfeited in large measure the
+confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolph of
+Swabia in consequence of his victory at Flarchheim (January 27,
+1080). Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as
+to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting
+policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition
+of King Henry (March 7, 1080), unloosing at the same time
+all oaths sworn to him in the past or the future. But the papal
+censure now proved a very different thing from the papal censure
+four years previously. In wide circles it was felt to be an injustice,
+and men began to put the question&mdash;so dangerous to the
+prestige of the pope&mdash;whether an excommunication pronounced
+on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect. To make matters
+worse, Rudolph of Swabia died on the 16th of October of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span>
+same year. True, a new claimant&mdash;Hermann of Luxemburg&mdash;was
+put forward in August 1081, but his personality was ill
+adapted for a leader of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the
+power of Henry IV. was in the ascendant. The king, who had
+now been schooled by experience, took up the struggle thus
+forced upon him with great vigour. He refused to acknowledge
+the ban on the ground of illegality. A council had been summoned
+at Brixen, and on the 25th of June 1080 it pronounced
+Gregory deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of
+Ravenna as his successor&mdash;a policy of anti-king, anti-pope. In
+1081 Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The
+latter had now fallen on evil days, and he lived to see thirteen
+cardinals desert him, Rome surrendered by the Romans to the
+German king, Guibert of Ravenna enthroned as Clement III.
+(March 24, 1084), and Henry crowned emperor by his rival,
+while he himself was constrained to flee from Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The relations of Gregory to the remaining European states
+were powerfully influenced by his German policy; for Germany,
+by engrossing the bulk of his powers, not infrequently compelled
+him to show to other rulers that moderation and forbearance
+which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the
+Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions
+made to them under Nicholas II. were not only powerless to
+stem their advance into central Italy but failed to secure even
+the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was
+hard pressed by Henry IV., Robert Guiscard left him to his fate,
+and only interfered when he himself was menaced with the
+German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned
+the city to the tender mercies of his warriors, and by the popular
+indignation evoked by his act brought about the banishment of
+Gregory.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of several countries, Gregory attempted to establish
+a claim of suzerainty on the part of the see of St Peter, and to
+secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession.
+On the ground of &ldquo;immemorial usage&rdquo; Corsica and Sardinia
+were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain and
+Hungary were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was
+made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief
+from the pope. Philip I. of France, by his simony and the
+violence of his proceedings against the church, provoked a
+threat of summary measures; and excommunication, deposition
+and the interdict, appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory,
+however, refrained from translating his menaces into actions,
+although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he
+wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon
+to break out in Germany. In England, again, William the
+Conqueror derived no less benefit from this state of affairs.
+He felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the
+management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome,
+filled bishoprics and abbeys, and evinced little anxiety when the
+pope expatiated to him on the different principles which he
+entertained as to the relationship of church and state, or when
+he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to
+acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory
+had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his
+ecclesiastical policy, so chose to ignore what he could not approve,
+and even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular
+affection.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory, in fact, established relations&mdash;if no more&mdash;with
+every land in Christendom; though these relations did not
+invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected
+with them. His correspondence extended to Poland, Russia and
+Bohemia. He wrote in friendly terms to the Saracen king of
+Mauretania in north Africa, and attempted, though without
+success, to bring the Armenians into closer contact with Rome.
+The East, especially, claimed his interest. The ecclesiastical
+rupture between the bishops of Rome and Byzantium was a
+severe blow to him, and he laboured hard to restore the former
+amicable relationship. At that period it was impossible to
+suspect that the schism implied a definite separation, for prolonged
+schisms had existed in past centuries, but had always
+been surmounted in the end. Both sides, moreover, had an
+interest in repairing the breach between the churches. Thus,
+immediately on his accession to the pontificate, Gregory sought
+to come into touch with the emperor Michael VII. and succeeded.
+When the news of the Saracenic outrages on the Christians in the
+East filtered to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the
+Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived the project of a
+great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participation
+in the task of recovering the sepulchre of the Lord (1074).
+Thus the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land already floated
+before Gregory&rsquo;s vision, and his intention was to place himself
+at the head. But the hour for such a gigantic enterprise was
+not yet come, and the impending struggle with Henry IV. turned
+his energies into another channel.</p>
+
+<p>In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical
+reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but on the contrary found
+powerful support. Since the middle of the 11th century the
+tendency&mdash;mainly represented by Cluny&mdash;towards a stricter
+morality and a more earnest attitude to life, especially on the
+part of the clergy, had converted the papacy; and, from Leo IX.
+onward, the popes had taken the lead in the movement. Even
+before his election, Gregory had gained the confidence of these
+circles, and, when he assumed the guidance of the church, they
+laboured for him with extreme devotion. From his letters we see
+how he fostered his connexion with them and stimulated their
+zeal, how he strove to awake the consciousness that his cause
+was the cause of God and that to further it was to render service
+to God. By this means he created a personal party, unconditionally
+attached to himself, and he had his confidants in every
+country. In Italy Bishop Anselm of Lucca, to take an example,
+belonged to their number. Again, the duchess Beatrice of
+Tuscany and her daughter the Margravine Matilda, who put her
+great wealth at his disposal, were of inestimable service. The
+empress Agnes also adhered to his cause. In upper Italy the
+Patarenes had worked for him in many ways, and all who stood
+for their objects stood for the pope. In Germany at the beginning
+of his reign the higher ranks of the clergy stood aloof from
+him and were confirmed in their attitude by some of his regulations.
+But Bishop Altmann of Passau, who has already been
+mentioned, and Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg, were among
+his most zealous followers. That the convent of Hirschau in
+Swabia was held by Gregory was a fact of much significance,
+for its monks spread over the land as itinerant agitators and
+accomplished much for him in southern Germany. In England
+Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury probably stood closest to
+him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugo of Dié, who
+afterwards ascended the archiepiscopal chair of Lyons.</p>
+
+<p>The whole life-work of Gregory VII. was based on his conviction
+that the church has been founded by God and entrusted
+with the task of embracing all mankind in a single society in
+which His will is the only law; that, in her capacity as a divine
+institution, she outtops all human structures; and that the pope,
+<i>qua</i> head of the church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so
+that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God&mdash;or, in
+other words, a defection from Christianity. Elaborating an
+idea discoverable in St Augustine, he looked on the worldly
+state&mdash;a purely human creation&mdash;as an unhallowed edifice whose
+character is sufficiently manifest from the fact that it abolishes
+the equality of man, and that it is built up by violence and
+injustice. He developed these views in a famous series of letters
+to Bishop Hermann of Metz. But it is clear from the outset
+that we are only dealing with reflections of strictly theoretical
+importance; for any attempt to interpret them in terms of
+action would have bound the church to annihilate not merely
+a single definite state, but all states. Thus Gregory, as a
+politician desirous of achieving some result, was driven in
+practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged
+the existence of the state as a dispensation of Providence,
+described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance,
+and emphasized the necessity of union between the <i>sacerdotium</i>
+and the <i>imperium</i>. But at no period would he have
+dreamed of putting the two powers on an equality; the
+superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span>
+of no discussion and which he had never doubted. Again, this
+very superiority of the church implied in his eyes a superiority
+of the papacy, and he did not shrink from drawing the extreme
+conclusions from these premises. In other words, he claimed
+the right of excommunicating and deposing incapable monarchs,
+and of confirming the choice of their successors. This habit of
+thought needs to be appreciated in order to understand his
+efforts to bring individual states into feudal subjection to the
+chair of St Peter. It was no mere question of formality, but the
+first step to the realization of his ideal theocracy comprising each
+and every state.</p>
+
+<p>Since this papal conception of the state involved the exclusion
+of independence and autonomy, the history of the relationship
+between church and state is the history of one continued struggle.
+In the time of Gregory it was the question of appointment to
+spiritual offices&mdash;the so-called <i>investiture</i>&mdash;which brought the
+theoretical controversy to a head. The preparatory steps had
+already been taken by Leo IX., and the subsequent popes had
+advanced still further on the path he indicated; but it was
+reserved for Gregory and his enactments to provoke the outbreak
+of the great conflict which dominated the following decades.
+By the first law (1075) the right of investiture for churches was
+in general terms denied to the laity. In 1078 neglect of this
+prohibition was made punishable by excommunication, and, by
+a further decree of the same year, every investiture conferred
+by a layman was declared invalid and its acceptance pronounced
+liable to penalty. It was, moreover, enacted that every layman
+should restore, under pain of excommunication, all lands of the
+church, held by him as fiefs from princes or clerics; and that,
+henceforward, the assent of the pope, the archbishop, &amp;c., was
+requisite for any investiture of ecclesiastical property. Finally
+in 1080 the forms regulating the canonical appointment to a
+bishopric were promulgated. In case of a vacancy the election
+was to be conducted by the people and clergy under the auspices
+of a bishop nominated by the pope or metropolitan; after
+which the consent of the pope or archbishop was to be procured;
+if any violation of these injunctions occurred, the election should
+be null and void and the right of choice pass to the pope or
+metropolitan. In so legislating, Gregory had two objects: in
+the first place, to withdraw the appointment to episcopal offices
+from the influence of the king; in the second, to replace that
+influence by his own. The intention was not to increase the power
+of the metropolitan: he simply desired that the nomination of
+bishops by the pope should be substituted for the prevalent
+nomination of bishops by the king. But in this course of action
+Gregory had a still more ambitious goal before his eyes. If
+he could once succeed in abolishing the lay investiture the king
+would, <i>ipso facto</i>, be deprived of his control over the great
+possessions assigned to the church by himself and his predecessors,
+and he could have no security that the duties and services
+attached to those possessions would continue to be discharged
+for the benefit of the Empire. The bishops in fact were to
+retain their position as princes of the Empire, with all the lands
+and rights of supremacy pertaining to them in that capacity,
+but the bond between them and the Empire was to be dissolved:
+they were to owe allegiance not to the king, but to the pope&mdash;a
+non-German sovereign who, in consequence of the Italian
+policy of the German monarchy, found himself in perpetual
+opposition to Germany. Thus, by his ecclesiastical legislation,
+Gregory attempted to shake the very foundations on which the
+constitution of the German empire rested, while completely
+ignoring the historical development of that constitution (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Investiture</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>That energy which Gregory threw into the expansion of the
+papal authority, and which brought him into collision with the
+secular powers, was manifested no less in the internal government
+of the church. He wished to see all important matters of dispute
+referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself, and
+he arrogated the right of legislation. The fact that his laws were
+usually promulgated by Roman synods which he convened during
+Lent does not imply that these possessed an independent position;
+on the contrary, they were entirely dominated by his influence,
+and were no more than the instruments of his will. The centralization
+of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved
+a curtailment of the powers of the bishops and metropolitans.
+Since these in part refused to submit voluntarily and attempted
+to assert their traditional independence, the pontificate of
+Gregory is crowded with struggles against the higher ranks of
+the prelacy. Among the methods he employed to break their
+power of resistance, the despatch of legates proved peculiarly
+effective. The regulation, again, that the metropolitans should
+apply at Rome in person for the pallium&mdash;pronounced essential
+to their qualifications for office&mdash;served to school them in
+humility.</p>
+
+<p>This battle for the foundation of papal omnipotence within the
+church is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy
+among the clergy and his attack on simony. Gregory VII. did
+not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the church,
+for even in antiquity it was enjoined by numerous laws.
+He was not even the first pope to renew the injunction in the
+11th century, for legislation on the question begins as early as
+in the reign of Leo IX. But he took up the struggle with greater
+energy and persistence than his predecessors. In 1074 he
+published an encyclical, requiring all to renounce their obedience
+to those bishops who showed indulgence to their clergy in the
+matter of celibacy. In the following year he commanded the
+laity to accept no official ministrations from married priests and
+to rise against all such. He further deprived these clerics of
+their revenues. Wherever these enactments were proclaimed
+they encountered tenacious opposition, and violent scenes were
+not infrequent, as the custom of marriage was widely diffused
+throughout the contemporary priesthood. Other decrees were
+issued by Gregory in subsequent years, but were now couched in
+milder terms, since it was no part of his interest to increase the
+numbers of the German faction. As to the objectionable nature
+of simony&mdash;the transference or acquisition of a spiritual office
+for monetary considerations&mdash;no doubt could exist in the mind
+of an earnest Christian, and no theoretical justification was
+ever attempted. The practice, however, had attained great
+dimensions both among the clergy and the laity, and the sharp
+campaign, which had been waged since the days of Leo IX., had
+done little to limit its scope. The reason was that in many
+cases it had assumed an extremely subtle form, and detection
+was difficult when the simony took the character of a tax or an
+honorarium. The fact, again, that lay investiture was described
+as simony, inevitably brought with it an element of confusion,
+and, in the case of a charge of simoniacal practices, enormously
+accentuates the difficulty of determining the actual state of
+affairs. The war against simony in its original form was undoubtedly
+necessary, but it led to highly complicated and problematic
+issues. Was the priest or bishop, whose ordination was
+due to simony, actually in the possession of the sacerdotal or
+episcopal power or not? If the answer was in the affirmative,
+it would seem possible to buy the Holy Ghost; if in the negative,
+then obviously all the official acts of the respective priest or
+bishop&mdash;which, according to the doctrine of the church, presupposed
+the possession of a spiritual quality&mdash;were invalid.
+And, since the number of simoniacal bishops was at that period
+extremely large, incalculable consequences resulted. The difficulty
+of the problem accounts for the diversity of solutions
+propounded. The perplexity of the situation was aggravated
+by the fact that, if the stricter view was adopted, it followed that
+the sacrament of ordination must be pronounced invalid, even
+in the cases where it had been unconsciously sought at the hands
+of a simoniac, for the dispenser was in point of fact no bishop,
+although he exercised the episcopal functions and his transgressions
+were unknown, and consequently it was impossible for
+him to ordain others. In the time of Gregory the conflict was
+still swaying to and fro, and he himself in 1078 declared consecration
+by a simoniac null and void.</p>
+
+<p>The pontificate of Gregory VII. came to a melancholy close,
+for he died an exile in Salerno; the Romans and a number of his
+most trusted coadjutors had renounced him, and the faithful
+band in Germany had shrunk to scant proportions. Too much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span>
+the politician, too rough in his methods, too exclusively the
+representative of the Roman see and its interests, he had gained
+more enemies than friends. He was of course a master of statecraft;
+he had pursued political ends with consummate skill,
+causing them to masquerade as requirements of religion; but
+he forgot that incitement to civil war, the preaching of rebellion,
+and the release of subjects from their oaths, were methods which
+must infallibly lead to moral anarchy, and tend, with justice, to
+stifle the confidence once felt in him. The more he accustomed
+his contemporaries to the belief that any and every measure&mdash;so
+long as it opened up some prospect of success&mdash;was good in his
+sight, no matter how dangerous the fruits it might mature, the
+fainter grew their perception of the fact that he was not only a
+statesman but primarily the head of the Christian Church. That
+the frail bonds of piety and religious veneration for the chair of
+St Peter had given way in the struggle for power was obvious
+to all, when he himself lost that power and the star of his opponent
+was in the ascendant. He had given the rein to his splendid
+gifts as a ruler, and in his capacity of pope he omitted to provide
+an equivalent counterpoise. We are told that he was once an
+impressive preacher, and he could write to his faithful countesses
+in terms which prove that he was not wanting in religious feeling;
+but in the whirlpool of secular politics this phase of his character
+was never sufficiently developed to allow the vice-gerent of
+Christ to be heard instead of the hierarch in his official acts.</p>
+
+<p>But to estimate the pontificate of Gregory by the disasters
+of its closing years would be to misconceive its significance for
+the history of the papacy entirely. On the contrary, his reign
+forms an important chapter in the history of the popedom as an
+institution; it contains the germs of far-reaching modifications
+of the church, and it gave new impulses to both theory and
+practice, the value of which may indeed be differently estimated,
+but of which the effects are indubitable. It was he who conceived
+and formulated the ideal of the papacy as a structure embracing
+all peoples and lands. He took the first step towards the codification
+of ecclesiastical law and the definite ratification of the claims
+of the apostolic chair as corner-stones in the church&rsquo;s foundation.
+He educated the clergy and the lay world in obedience to Rome;
+and, finally, it was due to his efforts that the duty of the priest
+with regard to sexual abstinence was never afterwards a matter
+of doubt in the Catholic Christianity of the West.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes
+of his last years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. <i>Dilexi
+justitiam et odivi iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio</i>&mdash;are said
+to have been his last words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him
+into the <i>Martyrologium Romanum</i>; in 1606 he was canonized
+by Paul V. The words dedicated to him in the <i>Breviarium
+Romanum</i>, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of his pontificate
+that in the 18th and 19th centuries they were prohibited
+by the governments of several countries with Roman Catholic
+populations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A comprehensive survey of the sources and
+literature for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.v.
+&ldquo;Gregor VII.&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd ed. vol. vii.
+pp. 96 sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of
+his letters and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the
+<i>Registrum</i> (ed. P. Jaffé, <i>Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum</i>, ii., Berlin,
+1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official collection
+are also reprinted by Jaffé under the title of <i>Epistolae collectae</i>.
+The <i>Dictatus Papae</i>&mdash;a list of twenty-seven short sentences on the
+rights of the pope,&mdash;which is given in the <i>Registrum</i>, is not the work
+of Gregory VII., but should probably be ascribed to Cardinal Deusdedit.
+Further: A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca historica medii aevi</i>, i.
+(2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii. 1351; P. Jaffé, <i>Regesta pontificum</i>
+(2nd ed., 1865), tome i. pp. 594-649, Nr. 4771-5313, tome ii.
+p. 751. The most important letters and decrees of Gregory VII.
+are reprinted by C. Mirbt, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums</i>
+(2nd ed., Tübingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp. 100 sqq. The oldest
+life of Gregory is that by Paul von Bermried, reprinted, <i>e.g.</i> by
+Watterich, <i>Vitae pontificum</i>, i. 474-546. Among the historians the
+following are of especial importance: Berthold, Bernold, Lambert
+von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia, Peter of Marte
+Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny, Arnulph and
+Landulf of Milan, Donizo&mdash;their works being reprinted in the section
+&ldquo;Scriptores&rdquo; in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, vols. v., vi.,
+vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory VII.
+and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise to
+a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their
+internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent,
+and display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view.
+Most of them are printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, under the
+title, <i>Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI. et XII.
+conscripti</i>, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome iii. (1897).
+The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received enormous
+benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the <i>Monumenta
+Germaniae</i>, so that the old literature is for the most part
+antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope&mdash;A.
+F. Gfrörer, <i>Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter</i> (7 vols.,
+Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution.
+The present state of criticism is represented by the following works:
+G. Meyer von Knonau, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich
+IV. und Heinrich V.</i>, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1894), iii. (1900), iv.
+(1903); W. Martens, <i>Gregor VII., sein Leben und Werken</i> (2 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1904); C. Mirbt, <i>Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII.</i>
+(Leipzig, 1894); A. Hauck, <i>Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands</i> (3 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during
+the Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here.
+On Gregory&rsquo;s elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, <i>Die Wahl Gregors
+VII.</i> (Marburg, 1892). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., <i>Life and
+Times of Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII.</i> (1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. M.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory VIII.</span> (<i>Mauritius Burdinus</i>), antipope from 1118
+to 1121, was a native of southern France, who had crossed the
+Pyrenees while young and had later been made archbishop of
+Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in 1114 on account of a dispute
+with the Spanish primate and papal legate, the archbishop of
+Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an extent
+that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He
+opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal
+of Gelasius II. to concede the emperor&rsquo;s claim to investiture,
+he was proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V. on the 8th of
+March 1118. He was not universally recognized, however, and
+never fully enjoyed the papal office. He was excommunicated
+by Gelasius II. in April 1118, and by Calixtus II. at the synod
+of Reims (October 1119). He was driven from Rome by the
+latter in June 1121, and, having been surrendered by the citizens
+of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the
+triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled
+to the convent of La Cava, where he died.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in <i>Baluzii miscellanea</i>,
+vol. i, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of
+an antipope. The chief sources are in <i>Monumenta Germaniae
+historica</i>, <i>Scriptores</i>, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, <i>Pontif.
+Roman. vitae</i>, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, <i>Die Publizistik im Zeitalter
+Gregors VII</i>. (Leipzig, 1894); J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen
+Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III</i>. (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé,
+<i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i>, 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele,
+<i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the
+Middle Ages</i>, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
+1900-1902); P. B. Gams, <i>Kirchengeschichte von Spanien</i>, vol. 3
+(Regensburg, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory VIII.</span> (<i>Alberto de Mora</i>), pope from the 21st of
+October to the 17th of December 1187, a native of Benevento
+and Praemonstratensian monk, successively abbot of St Martin
+at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San&rsquo; Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest
+of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and chancellor of the Roman Church,
+was elected to succeed Urban III. Of amiable disposition, he
+hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and promised not to
+oppose the latter&rsquo;s claim to Sicily. He addressed general letters
+both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to the
+Roman Church, especially of their required visits <i>ad limina</i>,
+and to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to
+recover Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making
+peace between the Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the
+help of both cities in the crusade. His successor was Clement III.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His letters are in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> vol. 202. Consult also
+J. M. Watterich, <i>Pontif. Roman. vitae</i>, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and
+Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> (1885-1888). See J.
+Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz
+III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, <i>Gregors VIII. 57 tägiges Pontifikat</i>
+(Basel, 1890); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, <i>Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit
+der Kurie</i> (Berlin, 1866); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>,
+vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory IX.</span> (<i>Ugolino Conti de Segni</i>), pope from the 19th of
+March 1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of
+Anagni and probably a nephew of Innocent III. He studied
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span>
+at Paris and Bologna, and, having been successively archpriest
+of St Peter&rsquo;s, papal chaplain, cardinal-deacon of Sant&rsquo; Eustachio,
+cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first protector of the Franciscan
+order, and papal legate in Germany under Innocent III., and
+Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy. He had long
+been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but now
+excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued
+neglect of his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When
+Frederick finally set out the following June without making
+submission to the pope, Gregory raised an insurrection against
+him in Germany, and forced him in 1230 to beg for absolution.
+The Romans, however, soon began a very bitter war against the
+temporal power and exiled the pope (1st of June 1231). Hardly
+had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the papacy
+(May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick
+II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his
+subjects from their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick,
+on his side, invaded the Papal States and prevented the assembling
+of a general council convoked for Easter 1241. The work
+of Gregory, however, was by no means limited to his relations
+with emperor and Romans. He systematized the Inquisition
+and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against heretics
+remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported
+Henry III. against the English barons, and protested against
+the Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent
+monks to Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church
+unity, but without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of
+Thuringia, Dominic, Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi.
+He permitted free study of the Aristotelian writings, and issued
+(1234), through his chaplain, Raymond of Pennaforte, an
+important new compilation of decretals which he prescribed in
+the bull <i>Rex pacificus</i> should be the standard text-book in canon
+law at the universities of Bologna and Paris. Gregory was
+famed for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his
+great strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August
+1241, while Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was
+succeeded by Celestine IV.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters in <i>Monumenta
+Germaniae historica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Roman.
+selectae</i> (Berlin, 1883); &ldquo;Les Registres de Grégoire IX,&rdquo; ed. L.
+Auvray in <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d&rsquo;Athènes et de Rome</i>
+(Paris, 1890-1905); A. Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> (Berlin,
+1875) and &ldquo;Registri dei Cardinali Ugolino d&rsquo; Ostia et Ottaviano
+degli Ubaldini,&rdquo; ed. G. Levi in <i>Fonti per la storia d&rsquo; Italia</i> (1890).
+See J. Felten, <i>Papst Gregor IX.</i> (Freiburg i. B., 1886); J. Marx,
+<i>Die Vita Gregorii IX. quellenkritisch untersucht</i> (1889); P. Balan,
+<i>Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi</i> (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873);
+F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W.
+Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, <i>Latin Christianity</i>,
+vol. 5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, <i>Rapporti tra Federico II e
+Gregorio IX rispetto alla spedizione in Palestina</i> (1896); P. T.
+Masetti, <i>I Pontefici Onorio III, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a
+fronte dell&rsquo; Imperatore Federico II nel secolo XIII</i> (1884); T.
+Frantz, <i>Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit
+des Hohenstaufen Friedrich II.</i> (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, <i>Das
+Papsttum u. Byzanz</i> (Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography
+and an excellent article on Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in
+Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory X.</span> (<i>Tebaldo Visconti</i>), pope from the 1st of September
+1271, to the 10th of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208,
+studied for the church, and became archdeacon of Liége. The
+eighteen cardinals who met to elect a successor to Clement IV.
+were divided into French and Italian factions, which wrangled
+over the election for nearly three years in the midst of great
+popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the eloquence of St
+Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the choice
+to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying
+Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and
+was ordained priest on the 19th of March 1272, and consecrated
+on the 27th. He at once summoned the fourteenth general
+council of the Catholic Church, which met at Lyons in 1274,
+with an attendance of some 1600 prelates, for the purpose of
+considering the eastern schism, the condition of the Holy Land,
+and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded,
+thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for
+the time being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the
+council all imperial rights in the States of the Church. The
+most celebrated among the many reform decrees issued by
+Gregory was the constitution determining for the first time the
+form of conclave at papal elections, which in large measure has
+remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on his
+way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great
+crusade in company with the kings of England, France, Aragon
+and Sicily, when he died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276.
+He was a nobleman, fond of peace and actuated by the consciousness
+of a great mission. He has been honoured as a saint by the
+inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His successor in the
+papacy was Innocent V.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud
+in the <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d&rsquo;Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris,
+1892-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. 5, 2nd
+edition (1873-1890); H. Finke, <i>Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des
+13ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Münster, 1891); P. Piacenza, <i>Compendia della
+storia del b. Gregorio X, papa</i> (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius,
+<i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton
+(London, 1900-1902); H. Otto, <i>Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von
+Habsburgs zu Papst Gregor X.</i> (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Zisterer,
+<i>Gregor X. u. Rudolf von Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen</i>
+(Freiburg i. B., 1891); F. Walter, <i>Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor
+X.</i> (Berlin, 1894); A. Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> vol. 2
+(Berlin, 1875); W. Norden, <i>Das Papsttum und Byzanz</i> (Berlin, 1903);
+J. Loserth, &ldquo;Akten über die Wahl Gregors X.&rdquo; in <i>Neues Archiv</i>,
+xxi. (1895); A. von Hirsch-Gereuth, &ldquo;Die Kreuzzugspolitik
+Gregors X.&rdquo; in <i>Studien z. Gesch. d. Kreuzzugsidee nach den Kreuzzügen</i>
+(Munich, 1896). There is an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Hauck&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory XI.</span> (<i>Pierre Roger de Beaufort</i>), pope from the 30th
+of December 1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin
+in 1330, created cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his
+uncle, Clement VI., was the successor of Urban V. His efforts
+to establish peace between France and England and to aid the
+Eastern Christians against the Turks were fruitless, but he
+prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further encroachments
+on the States of the Church. He introduced many
+reforms in the various monastic orders and took vigorous
+measures against the heresies of the time. His energy was
+stimulated by the stirring words of Catherine of Siena, to whom
+in particular the transference of the papal see back to Italy
+(17th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst at
+Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury,
+the king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding
+an investigation of Wycliffe&rsquo;s doctrines. Gregory was meditating
+a return to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French
+popes who for some seventy years had made Avignon their see,
+a man learned and full of zeal for the church, but irresolute and
+guilty of nepotism. The great schism, which was to endure fifty
+years, broke out soon after the election of his successor, Urban VI.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. J. Tomaseth, &ldquo;Die Register u. Secretäre Urbans V. u.
+Gregors XI.&rdquo; in <i>Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung</i>
+(1898); Baluzius, <i>Vitae pap. Avenion.</i> vol. I (Paris,
+1693); L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. I, trans. by F. I. Antrobus
+(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 6,
+trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J. P. Kirsch,
+<i>Die Rückkehr der Päpste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. <span class="correction" title="amended from con">von</span> Avignon nach
+Rom</i> (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, <i>Histoire de la papauté
+pendant le XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good article
+by J. N. Brischar in the <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, 2nd edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory XII.</span> (<i>Angelo Coriaro</i>, or <i>Correr</i>), pope from the
+30th of November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a
+noble family at Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of
+Castello, Latin patriarch of Constantinople, cardinal-priest of
+San Marco, and papal secretary, he was elected to succeed
+Innocent VII., after an interregnum of twenty-four days, under
+the express condition that, should the antipope Benedict XIII.
+at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also would
+renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated.
+As pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by
+which a general council was to be held at Savona in September,
+1408, but King Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from
+policy, seized Rome and brought the negotiations to nought.
+Gregory had promised not to create any more cardinals, and
+when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals deserted him and,
+together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the council of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span>
+Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in June 1409
+the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V.
+Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by
+Rupert, king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus,
+and in a synod at Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and
+Alexander as schismatical, perjured and scandalous. John
+XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of Alexander in 1410,
+concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by which Gregory was
+banished from Naples on the 31st of October 1411. The pope
+then took refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through
+whom he presented his resignation to the council of Constance
+on the 4th of July 1415. A weak and easily-influenced old man,
+his resignation was the noblest act of his pontificate. The
+rest of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity as cardinal-bishop
+of Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at Recanati
+on the 18th of October 1417. Some writers reckon Alexander V.
+and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accordingly
+count Gregory&rsquo;s pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman
+Catholic authorities, however, incline to the other reckoning.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. i., trans. by F. I. Antrobus
+(London, 1899); M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i>, vol. 1
+(London, 1899); N. Valois, <i>La France et le grand schisme d&rsquo;occident</i>
+(Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, <i>Le Grand Schisme d&rsquo;occident</i>
+(Paris, 1898); J. von Haller, <i>Papsttum u. Kirchenreform</i> (Berlin,
+1903); J. Loserth, <i>Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters</i> (1903);
+<i>Theoderici de Nyem de schismate libri tres</i>, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig,
+1890). There is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>
+2nd ed., vol. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory XIII.</span> (<i>Ugo Buoncompagno</i>), pope from 1572 to 1585,
+was born on the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he
+received his education, and subsequently taught, until called
+to Rome (1539) by Paul III., who employed him in various
+offices. He bore a prominent part in the council of Trent, 1562-1563.
+In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in the
+following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the 13th of May
+1572 he was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life
+had been rather worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but
+as pope he gave no occasion of offence. He submitted to the
+influence of the rigorists, and carried forward the war upon
+heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his predecessor.
+However, he received the news of the massacre of St Bartholomew
+(23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the
+event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists,
+that France had been miraculously delivered, and that the
+Huguenots had suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse
+Spain and Venice against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form
+a general coalition against the Protestants. He subsidized
+Philip II. in his wars in the Netherlands; aided the Catholic
+League in France; incited attacks upon Elizabeth by way of
+Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose privileges he multiplied,
+he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He established
+or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the Collegium
+Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the
+Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy
+achievements are the reform of the calendar on the 24th of
+February 1582 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>); the improved edition of the
+<i>Corpus juris canonici</i>, 1582; the splendid Gregorian Chapel
+in St Peter&rsquo;s; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the Quirinal
+Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses
+entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted
+to confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing
+arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace:
+nobles armed in their defence; old feuds revived; the country
+became infested with bandits; not even in Rome could order be
+maintained. Amid these disturbances Gregory died, on the 10th
+of April 1585, leaving to his successor, Sixtus V., the task of
+pacifying the state.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina,
+<i>De vitis pontiff. Rom.</i>; Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum
+pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1601-1602); and Ciappi, <i>Comp. dell&rsquo; attioni
+e santa vita di Gregorio XIII</i> (Rome, 1591). See also Bompiano,
+<i>Hist. pontificatus Gregorii XIII.</i> (Rome, 1655); Ranke, <i>Popes</i>
+(Eng. trans., Austin), i. 428 seq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom.</i>
+iii. 2, 566 seq.; and for numerous references upon Gregory&rsquo;s relation
+to the massacre of St Bartholomew, <i>Cambridge Mod. Hist.</i> iii. 771 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory XIV.</span> (<i>Nicoló Sfondrato</i>), pope 1590-1591, was born
+in Cremona, on the 11th of February 1535, studied in Perugia,
+and Padua, became bishop of his native place in 1560, and took
+part in the council of Trent, 1562-1563. Gregory XIII. made
+him a cardinal, 1583, but ill-health forbade his active participation
+in affairs. His election to the papacy, to succeed Urban VII.,
+on the 5th of December 1590, was due to Spanish influence.
+Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly ignorant of politics.
+During his short pontificate the States of the Church suffered
+dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak of brigandage.
+Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he
+aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and
+threatened his adherents with the ban; but the effect of his
+intervention was only to rally the moderate Catholics to the
+support of Henry, and to hasten his conversion. Gregory died
+on the 15th of October 1591, and was succeeded by Innocent IX.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome,
+1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, <i>De vitis pontiff. Rom.</i>
+(both contemporary); Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i> (1880). i. 300;
+Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory XV.</span> (<i>Alessandro Ludovisi</i>) was born on the 9th of
+January 1554, in Bologna, where he also studied and taught.
+He was made archbishop of his native place and cardinal by
+Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on the 9th of February 1621.
+Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory displayed remarkable
+energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and
+the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims
+of Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was
+rewarded with the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was
+carried off to Rome. Gregory founded the Congregation of the
+Propaganda, encouraged missions, fixed the order to be observed
+in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier,
+Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the 8th of July
+1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius,
+<i>Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom.</i>; Ranke&rsquo;s excellent
+account, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch.
+der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. 2, 609 seq.; Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i>
+(1880), i. 370 seq.; and the extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Gregor XV.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gregory XVI.</span> (<i>Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari</i>), pope from
+1831 to 1846, was born at Belluno on the 18th of September 1765,
+and at an early age entered the order of the Camaldoli, among
+whom he rapidly gained distinction for his theological and
+linguistic acquirements. His first appearance before a wider
+public was in 1799, when he published against the Italian
+Jansenists a controversial work entitled <i>Il Trionfo della Santa
+Sede</i>, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy,
+has been translated into several European languages. In 1800
+he became a member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion,
+founded by Pius VII., to which he contributed a number of
+memoirs on theological and philosophical questions and in 1805
+was made abbot of San Gregorio on the Caelian Hill. When
+Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809, Cappellari withdrew
+to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other members
+of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the restoration
+of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received successive
+appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of the
+Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops.
+In March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII., and shortly
+afterwards was entrusted with an important mission to adjust
+a concordat regarding the interests of the Catholics of Belgium
+and the Protestants of Holland. On the 2nd of February 1831
+he was, after sixty-four days&rsquo; conclave, unexpectedly chosen to
+succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair. The revolution of 1830
+had just inflicted a severe blow on the ecclesiastical party in
+France, and almost the first act of the new government there
+was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and particularly
+the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to
+demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the
+struggle which ensued it was more than once necessary to call
+in the Austrian bayonets. The reactionaries in power put
+off their promised reforms so persistently as to anger even
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span>
+Metternich; nor did the replacement of Bernetti by Lambruschini
+in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal secretary of state
+objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and was liberal
+chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The embarrassed
+financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the
+Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in
+architectural and engineering works, and his magnificent patronage
+of learning in the hands of Mai, Mezzofanti, Gaetano, Moroni
+and others, were for the real benefit of his subjects. The years
+of his pontificate were marked by the steady development and
+diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were ultimately
+formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX., by
+the council of the Vatican. He died on the 1st of June 1846.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. M. Bernasconi, <i>Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet constitutiones,
+bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae</i>, vols. i-4 (Rome, 1901 ff.);
+Cardinal Wiseman, <i>Recollections of the Last Four Popes</i> (London,
+1858); Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. vii. (Leipzig, 1899), 127
+ff. (gives literature); Frederik Nielsen, <i>History of the Papacy in the
+19th Century</i>, ii. (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the name of a Scottish family, many members
+of which attained high eminence in various departments of science,
+fourteen having held professorships in mathematics or medicine.
+Of the most distinguished of their number a notice is given
+below.</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="sc">David Gregory</span> (1627-1720), eldest son of the Rev. John
+Gregory of Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, who married Janet
+Anderson in 1621. He was for some time connected with a
+mercantile house in Holland, but on succeeding to the family
+estate of Kinardie returned to Scotland, and occupied most of his
+time in scientific pursuits, freely giving his poorer neighbours the
+benefit of his medical skill. He is said to have been the first
+possessor of a barometer in the north of Scotland; and on
+account of his success by means of it in predicting changes in
+the weather, he was accused of witchcraft before the presbytery
+of Aberdeen, but he succeeded in convincing that body of his
+innocence.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">James Gregory</span> (1638-1675), Scottish mathematician,
+younger brother of the preceding, was educated at the grammar
+school of Aberdeen and at Marischal College of that city. At an
+early period he manifested a strong inclination and capacity for
+mathematics and kindred sciences; and in 1663 he published his
+famous treatise <i>Optica promota</i>, in which he made known his
+great invention, the Gregorian reflecting telescope. About 1665
+he went to the university of Padua, where he studied for some
+years, and in 1667 published <i>Vera circuli et hyperbolae quadratura</i>,
+in which he discussed infinite convergent series for the areas
+of the circle and hyperbola. In the following year he published
+also at Padua <i>Geometriae pars universalis</i>, in which he gave
+a series of rules for the rectification of curves and the mensuration
+of their solids of revolution. On his return to England in this
+year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1669 he
+became professor of mathematics in the university of St Andrews;
+and in 1674 he was transferred to the chair of mathematics in
+Edinburgh. In October 1675, while showing the satellites of
+the planet Jupiter to some of his students through one of his
+telescopes, he was suddenly struck with blindness, and he died
+a few days afterwards.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He was also the author of <i>Exercitationes geometricae</i> (1668), and,
+it is alleged, of a satirical tract entitled <i>The Great and New Art of
+Weighing Vanity</i>, intended to ridicule certain fallacies of a contemporary
+writer on hydraulics, and published at Glasgow in 1672,
+professedly by &ldquo;Patrick Mathers, archbeadle of the university of
+St Andrews.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>III. <span class="sc">David Gregory</span> (1661-1708), son of David Gregory
+(1627-1720), was born in Aberdeen and educated partly in his
+native city and partly in Edinburgh, where he became professor
+of mathematics in 1683. From 1691 till his death he was Savilian
+professor of astronomy at Oxford. His principal works are
+<i>Exercitatio geometrica de dimensione figurarum</i> (1684), <i>Catoptricae
+et dioptricae sphaericae elementa</i> (1695), and <i>Astronomiae
+physicae et geometricae elementa</i> (1702)&mdash;the last a work
+highly esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton, of whose system it is an
+illustration and a defence. <i>A Treatise on Practical Geometry</i>
+which he left in manuscript was translated from the Latin
+and published in 1745. He was succeeded in the chair of mathematics
+in Edinburgh by bis brother James; another brother,
+Charles, was in 1707 appointed professor of mathematics in the
+university of St Andrews; and his eldest son, David (1696-1767),
+became professor of modern history at Oxford, and canon
+and subsequently dean of Christ Church.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <span class="sc">John Gregory</span> (1724-1773), Scottish physician, grandson
+of James Gregory (1638-1675) and youngest son of Dr James
+Gregory (d. 1731), professor of medicine in King&rsquo;s College,
+Aberdeen, was born at Aberdeen on the 3rd of June 1724. He
+received his early education at the grammar school of Aberdeen
+and at King&rsquo;s College in that city, and in 1741 he attended the
+medical classes at Edinburgh university. In 1745 he went to
+Leiden to complete his medical studies, and during his stay
+there he received without solicitation the degree of doctor of
+medicine from King&rsquo;s College, Aberdeen. On his return from
+Holland he was elected professor of philosophy at King&rsquo;s College,
+but in 1749 he resigned his professorship on account of its duties
+interfering too much with his private practice. In 1754 he proceeded
+to London, where he made the acquaintance of many
+persons of distinction, and the same year was chosen fellow of
+the Royal Society. On the death in November 1755 of his
+brother Dr James Gregory, who had succeeded his father as
+professor of medicine in King&rsquo;s College, Aberdeen, he was
+appointed to that office. In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh in
+the hope of obtaining a more extended field of practice as a
+physician, and in 1766 he was appointed professor of the practice
+of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, to whose eminence
+as a medical school he largely contributed. He died of gout on
+the 10th of February 1773.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He is the author of <i>A Comparative View of the State and Faculties
+of Man with those of the Animal World</i> (1765); <i>Observations on the
+Duties, Offices and Qualifications of a Physician</i> (1772); <i>Elements
+of the Practice of Physic</i> (1772); and <i>A Father&rsquo;s Legacy to his
+Daughters</i> (1774). <i>His Whole Works</i>, with a life by Mr Tytler (afterwards
+Lord Woodhouselee), were published at Edinburgh in 1788.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>V. <span class="sc">James Gregory</span> (1753-1821), Scottish physician, eldest
+son of the preceding, was born at Aberdeen in January 1753.
+He accompanied his father to Edinburgh in 1764, and after
+going through the usual course of literary studies at that university,
+he was for a short time a student at Christchurch,
+Oxford. It was there probably that he acquired that taste for
+classical learning which afterwards distinguished him. He
+studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, after graduating doctor of
+medicine in 1774, spent the greater part of the next two years
+in Holland, France and Italy. Shortly after his return to
+Scotland he was appointed in 1776 to the chair his father had
+formerly held, and in the following year he also entered on the
+duties of teacher of clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary.
+On the illness of Dr William Cullen in 1790 he was appointed
+joint-professor of the practice of medicine, and he became the
+head of the Edinburgh Medical School on the death of Dr Cullen
+in the same year. He died on the 2nd of April 1821. As a medical
+practitioner Gregory was for the last ten years of his life at the
+head of the profession in Scotland. He was at one time president
+of the Edinburgh College of Physicians, but his indiscretion in
+publishing certain private proceedings of the college led to his
+suspension on the 13th of May 1809 from all rights and privileges
+which pertained to the fellowship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides his <i>Conspectus medicinae theoreticae</i>, published in 1788 as
+a text-book for his lectures on the institutes, Dr Gregory was the
+author of &ldquo;A Theory of the Moods of Verbs,&rdquo; published in the
+<i>Edin. Phil. Trans.</i> (1787), and of <i>Literary and Philosophical Essays</i>,
+published in two volumes in 1792.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>VI. <span class="sc">William Gregory</span> (1803-1858), son of James Gregory
+(1753-1821), was born on the 25th of December 1803. In 1837
+he became professor of chemistry at the Andersonian Institution,
+Glasgow, in 1839 at King&rsquo;s College, Aberdeen, and in 1844 at
+Edinburgh University. He died on the 24th of April 1858.
+Gregory was one of the first in England to advocate the theories
+of Justus von Liebig, and translated several of his works. He
+is also the author of <i>Outlines of Chemistry</i> (1845), and an <i>Elementary
+Treatise on Chemistry</i> (1853).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span></p>
+
+<p>VII. <span class="sc">Duncan Farquharson Gregory</span> (1813-1844), brother
+of the preceding, was born on the 13th of April 1813. After
+studying at the university of Edinburgh he in 1833 entered
+Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was for a time assistant
+professor of chemistry, but he devoted his attention chiefly
+to mathematics. He died on the 23rd of February 1844.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Cambridge Mathematical Journal</i> was originated, and for some
+time edited, by him; and he also published a <i>Collection of Examples
+of Processes in the Differential and Integral Calculus</i> (1841). A
+<i>Treatise on the Application of Analysis to Solid Geometry</i>, which he
+left unfinished, was completed by W. Walton, and published posthumously
+in 1846. His <i>Mathematical Writings</i>, edited by W. Walton,
+with a biographical memoir by Robert Leslie Ellis, appeared in 1865.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See A. G. Stewart, <i>The Academic Gregories</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1850-1909), British painter,
+born at Southampton, began work at the age of fifteen in the
+engineer&rsquo;s drawing office of the Peninsular and Oriental Company.
+Afterwards he studied at South Kensington, and about 1871
+entered on a successful career as an illustrator and as an admirable
+painter in oil and water colour. He was elected associate of
+the Royal Academy in 1883, academician in 1898, and president
+of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1898.
+His work is distinguished by remarkable technical qualities,
+by exceptional firmness and decision of draughtsmanship and
+by unusual certainty of handling. His &ldquo;Marooned,&rdquo; a water
+colour, is in the National Gallery of British Art. Many of his
+pictures were shown at Burlington House at the winter exhibition
+of 1909-1910 after his death in June 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1774-1841), English
+mathematician, was born on the 29th of January 1774 at Yaxley
+in Huntingdonshire. Having been educated by Richard Weston,
+a Leicester botanist, he published in 1793 a treatise, Lessons
+<i>Astronomical and Philosophical</i>. Having settled at Cambridge
+in 1796, Gregory first acted as sub-editor on the <i>Cambridge
+Intelligencer</i>, and then opened a bookseller&rsquo;s shop. In 1802 he
+obtained an appointment as mathematical master at Woolwich
+through the influence of Charles Hutton, to whose notice he had
+been brought by a manuscript on the &ldquo;Use of the Sliding
+Rule&rdquo;; and when Hutton resigned in 1807 Gregory succeeded
+him in the professorship. Failing health obliged him to retire
+in 1838, and he died at Woolwich on the 2nd of February 1841.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gregory wrote <i>Hints for the Use of Teachers of Elementary Mathematics</i>
+(1840, new edition 1853), and <i>Mathematics for Practical
+Men</i> (1825), which was revised and enlarged by Henry Law in 1848,
+and again by J. R. Young in 1862. His <i>Letters on the Evidences of
+Christianity</i> (1815) have been several times reprinted, and an abridgment
+was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1853. He
+will probably be longest remembered for his <i>Biography of Robert Hall</i>,
+which first appeared in the collected edition of Hall&rsquo;s works, was
+published separately in 1833, and has since passed through several
+editions. The minor importance of his <i>Memoir of John Mason Good</i>
+(1828) is due to the narrower fame of the subject. Gregory was one
+of the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1802 he was
+appointed editor of the <i>Gentlemen&rsquo;s Diary</i>, and in 1818 editor of the
+<i>Ladies&rsquo; Diary</i> and superintendent of the almanacs of the Stationers&rsquo;
+Company.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREIFENBERG,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Pomerania, on the Rega, 45 m. N.E. of Stettin on the railway
+to Kolberg. Pop. (1905) 7208. It has two Evangelical churches
+(among them that of St Mary, dating from 13th century), two
+ancient gateways, a powder tower and a gymnasium. The
+manufacture of machines, stoves and bricks are the principal
+industries. Greifenberg possessed municipal rights as early as
+1262, and in the 14th and 15th centuries had a considerable
+shipping trade, but it lost much of its prosperity during the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Riemann, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Greifenberg</i> (1862).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREIFENHAGEN,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Pomerania, on the Reglitz, 12 m. S.S.W. of Stettin
+by rail. Pop. (1905) 6473. Its prosperity depends chiefly on
+agriculture and it has a considerable trade in cattle. There are
+also felt manufactures and saw mills. Greifenhagen was built
+in 1230, and was raised to the rank of a town and fortified about
+1250. In the Thirty Years&rsquo; War it was taken both by the
+imperialists and the Swedes, and in 1675 it was captured by the
+Brandenburgers, into whose possession it came finally in 1679.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREIFSWALD,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Pomerania, on the navigable Ryk, 3 m. from its mouth on
+the Baltic at the little port of Wyk, and 20 m. S.E. from Stralsund
+by rail. Pop. (1875) 18,022, (1905) 23,750. It has wide and
+regular streets, flanked by numerous gabled houses, and is
+surrounded by pleasant promenades on the site of its old ramparts.
+The three Gothic Protestant churches, the Marienkirche,
+the Nikolaikirche and the Jakobikirche, and the town-hall
+(Rathaus) are the principal edifices, and these with their lofty
+spires are very picturesque. There is a statue of the emperor
+Frederick III. and a war memorial in the town. The industries
+mainly consist in shipbuilding, fish-curing, and the manufacture
+of machinery (particularly for agriculture), and the commerce in
+the export of corn, wood and fish. There is a theatre, an
+orphanage and a municipal library. Greifswald is, however,
+best known to fame by reason of its university. This, founded
+in 1456, is well endowed and is largely frequented by students
+of medicine. Connected with it are a library of 150,000 volumes
+and 800 MSS., a chemical laboratory, a zoological museum, a
+gynaecological institute, an ophthalmological school, a botanical
+garden and at Eldena (a seaside resort on the Baltic) an agricultural
+school. In front of the university, which had 775
+students and about 100 teachers in 1904, stands a monument
+commemorating its four hundredth anniversary.</p>
+
+<p>Greifswald was founded about 1240 by traders from the
+Netherlands. In 1250 it received a town constitution and
+Lübeck rights from Duke Wratislaw of Pomerania. In 1270 it
+joined the Hanse towns, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar and
+Lübeck, and took part in the wars which they carried on against
+the kings of Denmark and Norway. During the Thirty Years&rsquo;
+War it was formed into a fortress by the imperialists, but they
+vacated it in 1631 to the Swedes, in whose possession it remained
+after the peace of Westphalia. In 1678 it was captured by the
+elector of Brandenburg, but was restored to the Swedes in the
+following year; in 1713 it was desolated by the Russians; in
+1715 it came into the possession of Denmark; and in 1721 it
+was again restored to Sweden, under whose protection it remained
+till 1815, when, along with the whole of Swedish Pomerania,
+it came into the possession of Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. G. L. Kosegarten, <i>Geschichte der Universität Greifswald</i>
+(1856); C. Gesterding, <i>Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald</i>
+(3 vols., 1827-1829); and I. Ziegler, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald</i>
+(Greifswald, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREISEN<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (in French, <i>hyalomicte</i>), a modification of granite,
+consisting essentially of quartz and white mica, and distinguished
+from granite by the absence of felspar and biotite. In the hand
+specimen the rock has a silvery glittering appearance from the
+abundance of lamellar crystals of muscovite, but many greisens
+have much of the appearance of granite, except that they are
+paler in colour. The commonest accessory minerals are tourmaline,
+topaz, apatite, fluorspar and iron oxides; a little felspar
+more or less altered may also be present and a brown mica which
+is biotite or lithionite. The tourmaline in section is brown,
+green, blue or colourless, and often the same crystal shows many
+different tints. The white mica forms mostly large plates with
+imperfect crystalline outlines. The quartz is rich in fluid
+enclosures. Apatite and topaz are both colourless and of
+irregular form. Felspar if present may be orthoclase and
+oligoclase.</p>
+
+<p>Greisen occurs typically in belts or veins intersecting granite.
+At the centre of each vein there is usually a fissure which may
+be open or filled with quartz. The greisen bands are from 1 in.
+up to 2 ft. or more in thickness. At their outer edges they pass
+gradually into the granite, for they contain felspar crystals more
+or less completely altered into aggregates of white mica and
+quartz. The transition between the two rocks is perfectly
+gradual, a fact which shows that the greisen has been produced
+by alteration of the granite. Vapours or fluids rising through
+the fissure have been the agents which effected the transmutation.
+They must have contained fluorine, boron and probably also
+lithium, for topaz, mica and tourmaline, the new minerals of the
+granite, contain these elements. The change is a post-volcanic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span>
+or pneumatolytic one induced by the vapours set free by the
+granite magma when it cools. Probably the rock was at a
+relatively high temperature at the time. A similar type of
+alteration, the development of white mica, quartz and tourmaline,
+is found sometimes in sedimentary rocks around granite masses.
+Greisen is closely connected with schorl rock both in its mineralogical
+composition and in its mode of origin. The latter is a
+pneumatolytic product consisting of quartz and tourmaline;
+it often contains white mica and thus passes by all stages into
+greisen. Both of these rocks carry frequently small percentages
+of tin oxide (cassiterite) and may be worked as ores of tin. They
+are common in Cornwall, Saxony, Tasmania and other districts
+which are centres of tin-mining. Many other greisens occur
+in which no tin is found. The analyses show the composition
+of Cornish granite and greisen. They make it clear that there
+has been an introduction of fluorine and boron and a diminution
+in the alkalies during the transformation of the granitic rock
+into the greisen.</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fl.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Granite</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.79</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.69</td> <td class="tcr rb">.15</td> <td class="tcr rb">tr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Greisen</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">69.42</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15.65</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.25</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.30</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.63</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.02</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.06</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.27</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.36</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.59</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREIZ,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Reuss-Greiz (Reuss the Elder), in a pleasant valley on the right
+bank of the White Elster, near the borders of Saxony, and 66 m.
+by rail S. from Leipzig. Pop. (1875) 12,657; (1905) 23,114.
+It consists of two parts, the old town on the right bank and the
+new town on the left bank of the river; it is rapidly growing
+and is regularly laid out. The principal buildings are the
+palace of the prince of Reuss-Greiz, surrounded by a fine park,
+the old château on a rocky hill overlooking the town, the summer
+palace with a fine garden, the old town church dating from 1225
+and possessing a beautiful tower, the town hall, the governmental
+buildings and statues of the emperor William I. and
+of Bismarck. There are classical and modern schools and a
+school of textile industry. The industries are considerable,
+and include dyeing, tanning and the manufacture of woollen,
+cotton, shawls, coverlets and paper. Greiz (formerly <i>Grewcz</i>) is
+apparently a town of Slav origin. From the 12th century it
+was governed by <i>advocati</i> (<i>Vögte</i>), but in 1236 it came into the
+possession of Gera, and in 1550 of the younger line of the house
+of Plauen. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1494, and almost
+totally in 1802.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wilke, <i>Greiz und seine Umgebung</i> (1875), and <i>Jahresberichte
+des Vereins für Greizer Geschichte</i> (1894, seq.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENADA,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the southernmost of the Windward Islands,
+British West Indies. It lies between 11º 58&prime; and 12º 15&prime; N.
+and between 61º 35&prime; and 61º 50&prime; W., being 140 m. S.W. of
+Barbados and 85 m. N. by W. of Trinidad. In shape oval, it is
+21 m. long, 12 m. broad at its maximum and has an area of 133
+sq. m. It owes much of its beauty to a well-wooded range of
+mountains traversing the island from N. to S. and throwing off
+from the centre spurs which form picturesque and fertile valleys.
+These mountains attain their highest elevation in Mount Catharine
+(2750 ft.). In the S.E. and N.W. there are stretches of low or
+undulating ground, devoted to fruit growing and cattle raising.
+The island is of volcanic origin; the only signs of upheaval are
+raised limestone beaches in the extreme N. Red and grey
+sandstones, hornblende and argillaceous schist are found in the
+mountains, porphyry and basaltic rocks also occur; sulphur
+and fuller&rsquo;s earth are worked. In the centre, at the height of
+1740 ft. above the sea, is the chief natural curiosity of Grenada,
+the Grand Etang, a circular lake, 13 acres in extent, occupying
+the site of an ancient crater. Near it is a large sanatorium,
+much frequented as a health resort. In the north-east is a larger
+lake, Lake Antoine, also occupying a crater, but it lies almost at
+the sea level. The island is watered by several short rivers, mainly
+on the east and south; there are numerous fresh water springs,
+as well as hot chalybeate and sulphurous springs. The south-eastern
+coast is much indented with bays. The climate is good,
+the temperature equable and epidemic diseases are rare. In the
+low country the average yearly temperature is 82° F., but it is
+cooler in the heights. The rainfall is very heavy, amounting in
+some parts to as much as 200 in., a year. The rainy season lasts
+from May to December, but refreshing showers frequently occur
+during other parts of the year. The average annual rainfall
+at St Georges is 79.07 in., and at Grand Etang 164 in. The
+excellent climate and good sea-bathing have made Grenada the
+health resort of the neighbouring islands, especially of Trinidad.
+Good roads and byeways intersect it in every direction. The soil
+is extraordinarily fertile, the chief products being cocoa and
+spices, especially nutmegs. The exports, sent chiefly to Great
+Britain, are cocoa, spices, wool, cotton, coffee, live stock, hides,
+turtles, turtle shell, kola nuts, vanilla and timber. Barbados
+is dependent on Grenada for the majority of
+its firewood. Sugar is still grown, and rum
+and molasses are made, but the consumption
+of these is confined to the island.</p>
+
+<p>Elementary education is chiefly in the
+hands of the various denominations, whose
+schools are assisted by government grants-in-aid. There are,
+however, a few secular schools conducted by the government,
+and government-aided secondary schools for girls and a
+grammar school for boys. The schools are controlled by a
+board of education, the members of which are nominated
+by the government, and small fees are charged in all schools.
+The governor of the Windward Islands resides in Grenada and
+is administrator of it. The Legislative Council consists of 14
+members; 7 including the governor are <i>ex-officio</i> members and
+the rest are nominated by the Crown. English is universally
+spoken, but the negroes use a French <i>patois</i>, which, however,
+is gradually dying out. Only 2% of the inhabitants are white,
+the rest being negroes and mulattoes with a few East Indians.
+The capital, St George, in the south-west, is built upon a lava
+peninsula jutting into the sea and forming one side of its land-locked
+harbour. It is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills,
+up the sides of which climb the red-brick houses of the town.
+At the extremity of the peninsula is Fort St George, with a
+saluting battery. The ridge connecting Fort St George with
+Hospital Hill is tunnelled to give access to the two parts of the
+town lying on either side. The population in 1901 was 5198.
+There are four other towns&mdash;on the west coast Gouyave, or
+Charlotte Town, and 4 m. N. of it Victoria; on the north coast
+Sauteurs; and Grenville at the head of a wide bay on the east.
+They are all in frequent communication with the capital by
+steamer. The population of the entire colony in 1901 was 63,438.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Grenada was discovered in 1498 by Columbus,
+who named it Conception. Neither the Spanish nor the British,
+to whom it was granted in 1627, settled on the island. The
+governor of Martinique, du Parquet, purchased it in 1650,
+and the French were well received by the Caribs, whom they
+afterwards extirpated with the greatest cruelty. In 1665
+Grenada passed into the hands of the French West India Company,
+and was administered by it until its dissolution in 1674,
+when the island passed to the French Crown. Cocoa, coffee and
+cotton were introduced in 1714. During the wars between Great
+Britain and France, Grenada capitulated to the British forces in
+1762, and was formally ceded next year by the Treaty of Paris.
+The French, under Count d&rsquo;Estaing, re-captured the island in
+1779, but it was restored to Great Britain by the Treaty of
+Versailles in 1783. A rebellion against the British rule, instigated
+and assisted by the French, occurred in 1795, but was quelled by
+Sir Ralph Abercromby in the following year. The emancipation
+of the slaves took place in 1837, and by 1877 it was found necessary
+to introduce East Indian labour. Grenada, with cocoa as its
+staple, has not experienced similar depression to that which
+overtook the sugar-growing islands of the West Indies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Grenada Handbook</i> (London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENADE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (from the French word for a pomegranate, from a
+resemblance in shape to that fruit), a small spherical explosive
+vessel thrown by hand. Hand-grenades were used in war in
+the 16th century, but the word &ldquo;grenade&rdquo; was also from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span>
+first used to imply an explosive shell fired from a gun; this
+survives to the present day in the German <i>Granate</i>. These
+weapons were employed after about 1660, by special troops
+called &ldquo;grenadiers&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the wars of the 17th and 18th
+centuries they are continually met with. They became obsolete
+in the 19th century, but were given a new lease of life in the 20th,
+owing to their employment in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904,
+where hand-grenades of a modern type, and containing powerful
+modern explosives, proved very effective (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ammunition</a></span>, <i>Shell	</i>).
+Hand-grenades filled with chemicals and made of glass are used
+as a method of fire-extinction, and similar vessels containing a
+liquid with a very strong smell are used to discover defects in a
+drain or sewer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENADIER,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> originally a soldier whose special duty it was
+to throw hand-grenades. The latter were in use for a considerable
+time before any special organization was given to the troops
+who were to use them. In 1667 four men per company in the
+French <i>Régiment du Roi</i> were trained with grenades (siege of
+Lille), and in 1668-1670 grenadier companies were formed in
+this regiment and in about thirty others of the French line.
+Evelyn, in his <i>Diary</i>, tells us that on the 29th of June 1678 he
+saw at Hounslow &ldquo;a new sort of soldiers called granadiers, who
+were dexterous in flinging hand-granades.&rdquo; As in the case of
+the fusiliers, the French practice was therefore quickly copied
+in England. Eventually each English battalion had a grenadier
+company (see for illustrations <i>Archaeological Journal</i>, xxiii. 222,
+and xlvii. 321-324). Besides their grenades and the firelock,
+grenadiers carried axes which, with the grenades, were employed
+in the assault of fortresses, as we are told in the celebrated song,
+&ldquo;The British Grenadiers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The grenadier companies were formed always of the most
+powerful men in the regiment and, when the grenade ceased
+to be used, they maintained their existence as the &ldquo;crack&rdquo;
+companies of their battalions, taking the right of the line on
+parade and wearing the distinctive grenadier headdress. This
+system was almost universal, and the typical infantry regiment
+of the 18th and early 19th century had a grenadier and a light
+company besides its &ldquo;line&rdquo; companies. In the British and other
+armies these <i>élite</i> companies were frequently taken from their
+regiments and combined in grenadier and light infantry battalions
+for special service, and Napoleon carried this practice still further
+in the French army by organizing brigades and divisions of
+grenadiers (and correspondingly of <i>voltigeurs</i>). Indeed the
+companies thus detached from the line practically never returned
+to it, and this was attended with serious evils, for the battalion
+at the outbreak of war lost perhaps a quarter of its best men,
+the average men only remaining with the line. This special organization
+of grenadiers and light companies lasted in the British
+army until about 1858. In the Prussian service the grenadiers
+became permanent and independent battalions about 1740, and
+the gradual adoption of the four-company battalion by Prussia
+and other nations tended still further to place the grenadiers by
+themselves and apart from the line. Thus at the present day
+in Germany, Russia and other countries, the title of &ldquo;grenadiers&rdquo;
+is borne by line regiments, indistinguishable, except for details
+of uniform and often the <i>esprit de corps</i> inherited from the old
+<i>élite</i> companies, from the rest. In the British service the only
+grenadiers remaining are the Grenadier Guards, originally the
+1st regiment of Foot Guards, which was formed in 1660 on the
+nucleus of a regiment of English royalists which followed the
+fortunes of Charles II. in exile. In Russia a whole army corps
+(headquarters Moscow), inclusive of its artillery units, bears the
+title.</p>
+
+<p>The special headdress of the grenadier was a pointed cap, with
+peak and flaps, of embroidered cloth, or a loose fur cap of similar
+shape; both these were light field service caps. The fur cap
+has in the course of time developed into the tall &ldquo;bearskin&rdquo;
+worn by British guards and various corps of other armies; the
+embroidered field cap survives, transformed, however, into a
+heavy brass headdress, in the uniform of the 1st Prussian Foot
+Guards, the 1st Prussian Guard Grenadiers and the Russian
+Paul (Pavlovsky) Grenadier Guards.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENADINES,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a chain of islets in the Windward Islands,
+West Indies. They stretch for 60 m. between St Vincent and
+Grenada, following a N.E. to S.W. direction, and consist of some
+600 islets and rocks. Some are a few square miles in extent,
+others are merely rocky cones projecting from the deep. For
+purposes of administration they are divided between St Vincent
+and Grenada. Bequia, the chief island in the St Vincent group,
+is long and narrow, with an area 6 sq. m. Owing to a lack of
+water it is only slightly cultivated, but game is plentiful.
+Admiralty Bay, on the W. side, is a safe and commodious
+harbour. Carriacou, belonging to Grenada, is the largest of the
+group, being 7 m. long, 2 m. wide and 13 sq. m. in extent. A ridge
+of hills, rising to an altitude of 700 ft., traverses the centre from
+N.E. to S.W.; here admirable building stone is found. There
+are two good harbours on the west coast, Hillsborough Bay on
+which stands Hillsborough, the chief town, and Tyrell Bay,
+farther south. The island is thickly populated, the negro
+peasantry occupying small lots and working on the <i>metayer</i>
+system. Excellent oysters are found along the coast, and cotton
+and cattle are the chief exports. Pop. of the group, mostly on
+Carriacou (1901) 6497.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENOBLE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> the ancient capital of the Dauphiné in S.E.
+France, and now the chief town of the Isère department, 75 m.
+by rail from Lyons, 38½ m. from Chambéry and 85½ m. from
+Gap. Pop. (1906), town, 58,641; commune, 73,022. It is one
+of the most beautifully situated, and also one of the most strongly
+fortified, cities in Europe. Built at a height of 702 ft. on both
+banks of the river Isère just above its junction with the Drac,
+the town occupies a considerable plain at the south-western end
+of the fertile Graisivaudan valley. To the north rise the mountains
+of the Grande Chartreuse, to the east the range of Belledonne,
+and to the south those of Taillefer and the Moucherotte,
+the higher summits of these ranges being partly covered with
+snow. From the Jardin de Ville and the quays of the banks of
+the Isère the summit of Mont Blanc itself is visible. The greater
+part of the town rises on the left bank of the Isère, which is
+bordered by broad quays. The older portion has the tortuous
+and narrow streets usual in towns that have been confined within
+fortifications, but in modern times these hindrances have been
+demolished. The newer portion of the town has wide thoroughfares
+and buildings of the modern French type, solid but not
+picturesque. The original town (of but small extent) was built
+on the right bank of the Isère at the southern foot of the Mont
+Rachais, now covered by a succession of fortresses that rise
+picturesquely on the slope of that hill to a very considerable
+height (885 ft. above the town).</p>
+
+<p>Grenoble is the seat of a bishopric which was founded in the
+4th century, and now comprises the department of the Isère&mdash;formerly
+a suffragan of Vienne it now forms part of the ecclesiastical
+province of Lyons. The most remarkable building in the
+town is the Palais de Justice, erected (late 15th century to 16th
+century) on the site of the old palace of the Parlement of the
+Dauphiné. Opposite is the most noteworthy church of the city,
+that of St André (13th century), formerly the chapel of the
+dauphins of the Viennois: in it is the 17th century monument
+of Bayard (1476-1524), the <i>chevalier sans peur et sans reproche</i>,
+which was removed hither in 1822; but it is uncertain whose
+bones are therein. The cathedral church of Notre Dame is a
+heavy building, dating in part from the 11th century. The
+church of St Laurent, on the right bank of the Isère, is the oldest
+in the city (11th century) and has a remarkable crypt, dating
+from Merovingian times. The town hall is a mainly modern
+building, constructed on the site of the palace of the dauphins,
+while the prefecture is entirely modern. The town library
+contains a considerable collection of paintings, mainly of the
+modern French school, but is more remarkable for its very rich
+collection of MSS. (7000) and printed books (250,000 vols.)
+which in great part belonged till 1793 to the monastery of the
+Grande Chartreuse. The natural history museum houses rich
+collections of various kinds, which contain (<i>inter alia</i>) numerous
+geological specimens from the neighbouring districts of the
+Dauphiné and Savoy. The university, revived in modern times
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span>
+after a long abeyance, occupies a modern building, as does also
+the hospital, though founded as far back as the 15th century.
+There are numerous societies in the town, including the Académie
+Delphinale (founded in 1772), and many charitable institutions.</p>
+
+<p>The staple industry of Grenoble is the manufacture of kid
+gloves, most of the so-called <i>gants Jouvin</i> being made here&mdash;they
+are named after the reviver of the art, X. Jouvin (1800-1844).
+There are about 80 glove factories, which employ 18,500 persons
+(of whom 15,000 are women), the annual output being about
+800,000 dozen pairs of gloves. Among other articles produced
+at Grenoble are artificial cements, liqueurs, straw hats and
+carved furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Grenoble occupies the site of Cularo, a village of the Allobroges,
+which only became of importance when fortified by Diocletian
+and Maximian at the end of the 3rd century. Its present name
+is a corruption of Gratianopolis, a title assumed probably in
+honour of Gratian (4th century), who raised it to the rank of a
+<i>civitas</i>. After passing under the power of the Burgundians
+(<i>c.</i> 440) and the Franks (532) it became part of the kingdom
+of Provence (879-1032). On the break-up of that kingdom a
+long struggle for supremacy ensued between the bishops of
+the city and the counts of Albon, the latter finally winning the
+day in the 12th century, and taking the title of Dauphins of the
+Viennois in the 13th century. In 1349 Grenoble was ceded with
+the rest of the Dauphiné to France, but retained various municipal
+privileges which had been granted by the dauphins to the town,
+originally by a charter of 1242. In 1562 it was sacked by the
+Protestants under the baron des Adrets, but in 1572 the firmness
+of its governor, Bertrand de Gordes, saved it from a repetition
+of the Massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1590 Lesdiguières
+(1543-1626) took the town in the name of Henry IV., then still
+a Protestant, and during his long governorship (which lasted
+to his death) did much for it by the construction of fortifications,
+quays, &amp;c. In 1788 the attempt of the king to weaken the power
+of the parlement of Grenoble (which, though strictly a judicial
+authority, had preserved traditions of independence, since the
+suspension of the states-general of the Dauphiné in 1628) roused
+the people to arms, and the &ldquo;day of the tiles&rdquo; (7th of June 1788)
+is memorable for the defeat of the royal forces. In 1790, on the
+formation of the department of the Isère, Grenoble became its
+capital. Grenoble was the first important town to open its gates
+to Napoleon on his return from Elba (7th of March 1815), but
+a few months later (July) it was obliged to surrender to the
+Austrian army. Owing to its situation Grenoble was formerly
+much subject to floods, particularly in the case of the wild Drac.
+One of the worst took place in 1219, while that of 1778 was known
+as the <i>déluge de la Saint Crépin</i>. Among the celebrities who
+have been born at Grenoble are Vaucanson (1709-1782), Mably
+(1709-1785), Condillac (1715-1780), Beyle, best known as
+Stendhal, his <i>nom de guerre</i> (1783-1842), Barnave (1761-1793)
+and Casimir Perier (1777-1832).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Prudhomme, <i>Histoire de Grenoble</i> (1888); X. Roux, <i>La
+Corporation des gantiers de Grenoble</i> (1887); H. Duhamel, <i>Grenoble
+considéré comme centre d&rsquo;excursions</i> (1902); J. Marion, <i>Cartulaires
+de l&rsquo;église cathédrale de Grenoble</i> (Paris, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1596-1643), Royalist soldier in the
+English Civil War (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>), was educated at
+Exeter College, Oxford. As member of Parliament, first for
+Cornwall, then for Launceston, Grenville supported Sir John
+Eliot and the opposition, and his intimacy with Eliot was life-long.
+In 1639, however, he appears as a royalist going to the Scottish
+War in the train of Charles I. The reasons of this change of
+front are unknown, but Grenville&rsquo;s honour was above suspicion,
+and he must have entirely convinced himself that he was doing
+right. At any rate he was a very valuable recruit to the royalist
+cause, being &ldquo;the most generally loved man in Cornwall.&rdquo; At
+the outbreak of the Civil War he and others of the gentry not
+only proclaimed the king&rsquo;s Commission of Array at Launceston
+assizes, but also persuaded the grand jury of the county to
+declare their opponents guilty of riot and unlawful assembly,
+whereupon the <i>Posse comitatus</i> was called out to expel them.
+Under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton, Sir Bevil took a
+distinguished part in the action of Bradock Down, and at
+Stratton (16 May 1643), where the parliamentary earl of Stamford
+was completely routed by the Cornishmen, led one of the storming
+parties which captured Chudleigh&rsquo;s lines (<i>Clarendon</i>, vii. 89). A
+month later, the endeavour of Hopton to unite with Maurice and
+Hertford from Oxford brought on the battle of Lansdown, near
+Bath. Here Grenville was killed at the head of the Cornish
+infantry as it reached the top of the hill. His death was a blow
+from which the king&rsquo;s cause in the West never recovered, for
+he alone knew how to handle the Cornishmen. Hopton they
+revered and respected, but Grenville they loved as peculiarly their
+own commander, and after his death there is little more heard
+of the reckless valour which had won Stratton and Lansdown.
+Grenville is the type of all that was best in English royalism.
+He was neither rapacious, drunken nor dissolute, but his loyalty
+was unselfish, his life pure and his skill no less than his bravery
+unquestionable. A monument to him has been erected on the
+field of Lansdown.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lloyd, <i>Memoirs of Excellent Personages</i> (1668); S. R. Gardiner,
+<i>History of the English Civil War</i> (vol. i. <i>passim</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE, GEORGE<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1712-1770), English statesman,
+second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple, afterwards
+Countess Temple, was born on the 14th of October 1712. He
+was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, and was
+called to the bar in 1735. He entered parliament in 1741 as
+member for Buckingham, and continued to represent that
+borough till his death. In parliament he was a member of
+the &ldquo;Boy Patriot&rdquo; party which opposed Sir Robert Walpole.
+In December 1744 he became a lord of the admiralty in the
+Pelham administration. He allied himself with his brother
+Richard and with William Pitt in forcing their feeble chief to give
+them promotion by rebelling against his authority and obstructing
+business. In June 1747 he became a lord of the treasury, and
+in 1754 treasurer of the navy and privy councillor. As treasurer
+of the navy in 1758 he introduced and carried a bill which
+established a less unfair system of paying the wages of the
+seamen than had existed before. He remained in office in 1761,
+when his brother Lord Temple and his brother-in-law Pitt
+resigned upon the question of the war with Spain, and in the
+administration of Lord Bute he was entrusted with the leadership
+of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he was appointed
+secretary of state, and in October first lord of the admiralty;
+and in April 1763 he became first lord of the treasury and
+chancellor of the exchequer. The most prominent measures
+of his administration were the prosecution of Wilkes and the
+passing of the American Stamp Act, which led to the first
+symptoms of alienation between America and the mother
+country. During the latter period of his term of office he was
+on a very unsatisfactory footing with the young king George III.,
+who gradually came to feel a kind of horror of the interminable
+persistency of his conversation, and whom he endeavoured to
+make use of as the mere puppet of the ministry. The king made
+various attempts to induce Pitt to come to his rescue by forming
+a ministry, but without success, and at last had recourse to the
+marquis of Rockingham, on whose agreeing to accept office
+Grenville was dismissed July 1765. He never again held office,
+and died on the 13th of November 1770.</p>
+
+<p>The nickname of &ldquo;gentle shepherd&rdquo; was given him because
+he bored the House by asking over and over again, during the
+debate on the Cider Bill of 1763, that somebody should tell him
+&ldquo;where&rdquo; to lay the new tax if it was not to be put on cider.
+Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune &ldquo;Gentle Shepherd, tell
+me where,&rdquo; and the House laughed. Though few excelled him
+in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of
+administrative details, his tact in dealing with men and with
+affairs was so defective that there is perhaps no one who has
+been at the head of an English administration to whom a lower
+place can be assigned as a statesman.</p>
+
+<p>In 1749 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Wyndham,
+by whom he had a large family. His son, the second Earl
+Temple, was created marquess, and his grandson duke, of
+Buckingham. Another son was William, afterwards Lord
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span>
+Grenville. Another, Thomas Grenville (1755-1846), who was,
+with one interval, a member of parliament from 1780 to 1818,
+and for a few months during 1806 and 1807 president of the
+board of control and first lord of the admiralty, is perhaps more
+famous as a book-collector than as a statesman; he bequeathed
+his large and valuable library to the British Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Grenville Papers, being the Correspondence of Richard Grenville,
+Earl Temple, K.G., and the Right Hon. George Grenville, their Friends
+and Contemporaries</i>, were published at London in 1852, and afford
+the chief authority for his life. But see also H. Walpole&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs
+of the Reign of George II.</i> (London, 1845); Lord Stanhope&rsquo;s <i>History
+of England</i> (London, 1858); Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History of England</i> (1885); and
+E. D. Adams, <i>The Influence of Grenville on Pitt&rsquo;s Foreign Policy</i>
+(Washington, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Greynvile</span>), <b>SIR RICHARD</b> (<i>c.</i> 1541-1591),
+British naval commander, was born of an old Cornish family
+about 1541. His grandfather, Sir Richard, had been marshal of
+Calais in the time of Henry VIII., and his father commanded
+and was lost in the &ldquo;Mary Rose&rdquo; in 1545. At an early age
+Grenville is supposed to have served in Hungary under the
+emperor Maximilian against the Turks. In the years 1571 and
+1584 he sat in parliament for Cornwall, and in 1583 and 1584
+he was commissioner of the works at Dover harbour. He appears
+to have been a man of much pride and ambition. Of his bravery
+there can be no doubt. In 1585 he commanded the fleet of seven
+vessels by which the colonists sent out by his cousin, Sir Walter
+Raleigh, were carried to Roanoke Island in the present North
+Carolina. Grenville himself soon returned with the fleet to
+England, capturing a Spanish vessel on his way, but in 1586 he
+carried provisions to Roanoke, and finding the colony deserted,
+left a few men to maintain possession. He then held an important
+post in charge of the defences of the western counties of
+England. When a squadron was despatched in 1591, under Lord
+Thomas Howard, to intercept the homeward-bound treasure-fleet
+of Spain, Grenville was appointed as second in command on board
+the &ldquo;Revenge,&rdquo; a ship of 500 tons which had been commanded
+by Drake against the Armada in 1588. At the end of August
+Howard with 16 ships lay at anchor to the north of Flores in the
+Azores. On the last day of the month he received news from a
+pinnace, sent by the earl of Cumberland, who was then off the
+Portugal coast, that a Spanish fleet of 53 vessels was then
+bearing up to the Azores to meet the treasure-ships. Not being in
+a position to fight a fleet more than three times the size of his
+own, Howard gave orders to weigh anchor and stand out to
+sea. But, either from some misunderstanding of the order, or
+from some idea of Grenville&rsquo;s that the Spanish vessels rapidly
+approaching were the ships for which they had been waiting,
+the &ldquo;Revenge&rdquo; was delayed and cut off from her consorts by
+the Spaniards. Grenville resolved to try to break through the
+middle of the Spanish line. His ship was becalmed under the lee
+of a huge galleon, and after a hand-to-hand fight lasting through
+fifteen hours against fifteen Spanish ships and a force of five
+thousand men, the &ldquo;Revenge&rdquo; with her hundred and fifty men
+was captured. Grenville himself was carried on board the Spanish
+flag-ship &ldquo;San Pablo,&rdquo; and died a few days later. The incident
+is commemorated in Tennyson&rsquo;s ballad of &ldquo;The Revenge.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The spelling of Sir Richard&rsquo;s name has led to much controversy.
+Four different families, each of which claim to be descended from
+him, spell it Granville, Grenville, Grenfell and Greenfield. The
+spelling usually accepted is Grenville, but his own signature,
+in a bold clear handwriting, among the Tanner MSS. in the
+Bodleian library at Oxford, is Greynvile.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Granville</span>), <b>SIR RICHARD</b> (1600-1658),
+English royalist, was the third son of Sir Bernard Grenville
+(1559-1636), and a grandson of the famous seaman, Sir Richard
+Grenville. Having served in France, Germany and the Netherlands,
+Grenville gained the favour of the duke of Buckingham,
+took part in the expeditions to Cadiz, to the island of Rhé and
+to La Rochelle, was knighted, and in 1628 was chosen member
+of parliament for Fowey. Having married Mary Fitz (1596-1671),
+widow of Sir Charles Howard (d. 1622) and a lady of fortune,
+Grenville was made a baronet in 1630; his violent temper,
+however, made the marriage an unhappy one, and he was ruined
+and imprisoned as the result of two lawsuits, one with his wife,
+and the other with her kinsman, the earl of Suffolk. In 1633 he
+escaped from prison and went to Germany, returning to England
+six years later to join the army which Charles I. was collecting
+to march against the Scots. Early in 1641, just after the outbreak
+of the Irish rebellion, Sir Richard led some troops to Ireland,
+where he won some fame and became governor of Trim; then
+returning to England in 1643 he was arrested at Liverpool
+by an officer of the parliament, but was soon released and sent
+to join the parliamentary army. Having, however, secured men
+and money, he hurried to Charles I. at Oxford and was despatched
+to take part in the siege of Plymouth, quickly becoming the leader
+of the forces engaged in this enterprise. Compelled to raise
+the siege he retired into Cornwall, where he helped to resist the
+advancing Parliamentarians; but he quickly showed signs of
+insubordination, and, whilst sharing in the siege of Taunton,
+he was wounded and obliged to resign his command. About
+this time loud complaints were brought against Grenville. He
+had behaved, it was said, in a very arbitrary fashion; he had
+hanged some men and imprisoned others; he had extorted
+money and had used the contributions towards the cost of the
+war for his own ends. Many of these charges were undoubtedly
+true, but upon his recovery the councillors of the prince of Wales
+gave him a position under Lord Goring, whom, however, he
+refused to obey. Equally recalcitrant was his attitude towards
+Goring&rsquo;s successor, Sir Ralph Hopton, and in January 1646 he was
+arrested. But he was soon released; he went to France and Italy,
+and after visiting England in disguise passed some time in
+Holland. He was excepted by parliament from pardon in 1648,
+and after the king&rsquo;s execution he was with Charles II. in France
+and elsewhere until some unfounded accusation which he brought
+against Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, led to his
+removal from court. He died in 1658, and was buried at Ghent.
+In 1644, when Grenville deserted the parliamentary party, a
+proclamation was put out against him; in this there were attached
+to his name several offensive epithets, among them being
+<i>skellum</i>, a word probably derived from the German <i>Schelm</i>,
+a scoundrel. Hence he is often called &ldquo;skellum Grenville.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Grenville wrote an account of affairs in the west of England, which
+was printed in T. Carte&rsquo;s <i>Original Letters</i> (1739). To this partisan
+account Clarendon drew up an answer, the bulk of which he afterwards
+incorporated in his <i>History</i>. In 1654 Grenville wrote his <i>Single
+defence against all aspersions of all malignant persons</i>. This is
+printed in the <i>Works</i> of George Granville, Lord Lansdowne (London,
+1736), where Lansdowne&rsquo;s <i>Vindication</i> of his kinsman, Sir Richard,
+against Clarendon&rsquo;s charges is also found. See also Clarendon,
+<i>History of the Rebellion</i>, edited by W. D. Macray (Oxford, 1888);
+and R. Granville, <i>The King&rsquo;s General in the West</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span>
+(1759-1834), English statesman, youngest son of George Grenville,
+was born on the 25th of October 1759. He was educated
+at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining the chancellor&rsquo;s
+prize for Latin verse in 1779. In February 1782 Grenville was
+returned to parliament as member for the borough of Buckingham,
+and in the following September he became secretary to the
+lord lieutenant of Ireland, who at this time was his brother,
+Earl Temple, afterwards marquess of Buckingham. He left
+office in June 1783, but in the following December he became
+paymaster-general of the forces under his cousin, William Pitt,
+and in 1786 vice-president of the committee of trade. In 1787
+he was sent on an important mission to the Hague and Versailles
+with reference to the affairs of Holland. In January 1789 he
+was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, but he vacated the
+chair in the same year on being appointed secretary of state for
+the home department; about the same time he resigned his other
+offices, but he became president of the board of control, and in
+November 1790 was created a peer as Baron Grenville. In the
+House of Lords he was very active in directing the business of the
+government, and in 1791 he was transferred to the foreign office,
+retaining his post at the board of control until 1793. He was
+doubtless regarded by Pitt as the man best fitted to carry out
+his policy with reference to France, but in the succeeding years
+he and his chief were frequently at variance on important
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span>
+questions of foreign policy. In spite of his multifarious duties
+at the foreign office Grenville continued to take a lively interest
+in domestic matters, which he showed by introducing various
+bills into the House of Lords. In February 1801 he resigned
+office with Pitt because George III. would not consent to the
+introduction of any measure of Roman Catholic relief, and in
+opposition he gradually separated himself from his former leader.
+When Pitt returned to power in 1804 Grenville refused to join
+the ministry unless his political ally, Fox, was also admitted
+thereto; this was impossible and he remained out of office until
+February 1806, when just after Pitt&rsquo;s death he became the
+nominal head of a coalition government. This ministry was very
+unfortunate in its conduct of foreign affairs, but it deserves to
+be remembered with honour on account of the act passed in 1807
+for the abolition of the slave trade. Its influence, however,
+was weakened by the death of Fox, and in consequence of a
+minute drawn up by Grenville and some of his colleagues the
+king demanded from his ministers an assurance that in future
+they would not urge upon him any measures for the relief of
+Roman Catholics. They refused to give this assurance and in
+March 1807 they resigned. Grenville&rsquo;s attitude in this matter
+was somewhat aggressive; his colleagues were not unanimous
+in supporting him, and Sheridan, one of them, said &ldquo;he had
+known many men knock their heads against a wall, but he had
+never before heard of any man who collected the bricks and built
+the very wall with an intention to knock out his own brains
+against it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lord Grenville never held office again, although he was
+requested to do so on several occasions. He continued, however,
+to take part in public life, being one of the chief supporters of
+Roman Catholic emancipation, and during the remaining years of
+his active political career, which ended in 1823, he generally voted
+with the Whigs, although in 1815 he separated himself from his
+colleague, Charles Grey, and supported the warlike policy of
+Lord Liverpool. In 1819, when the marquess of Lansdowne
+brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of the
+distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville
+delivered an alarmist speech advocating repressive measures.
+His concluding years were spent at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire,
+where he died on the 12th of January 1834. His wife, whom he
+married in 1792, was Anne (1772-1864), daughter of Thomas Pitt,
+1st Baron Camelford, but he had no issue and his title became
+extinct. In 1809 he was elected chancellor of Oxford university.</p>
+
+<p>Though Grenville&rsquo;s talents were not of the highest order his
+straightforwardness and industry, together with his knowledge
+of politics and the moderation of his opinions, secured for him
+considerable political influence. He may be enrolled among the
+band of English statesmen who have distinguished themselves
+in literature. He edited Lord Chatham&rsquo;s letters to his nephew,
+Thomas Pitt, afterwards Lord Camelford (London, 1804, and
+other editions); he wrote a small volume, <i>Nugae Metricae</i> (1824),
+being translations into Latin from English, Greek and Italian, and
+an <i>Essay on the Supposed Advantages of a Sinking Fund</i> (1828).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Dropmore MSS. contain much of Grenville&rsquo;s correspondence,
+and on this the Historical Manuscripts Commission has published a
+report.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1519-1579), London merchant,
+the founder of the Royal Exchange and of Gresham College,
+London, was descended from an old Norfolk family; he was the
+only son of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading London merchant,
+who for some time held the office of lord mayor, and for his
+services as agent of Henry VIII. in negotiating loans with foreign
+merchants received the honour of knighthood. Though his father
+intended him to follow his own profession, he nevertheless sent
+him for some time to Caius College, Cambridge, but there is no
+information as to the duration of his residence. It is uncertain
+also whether it was before or after this that he was apprenticed
+to his uncle Sir John Gresham, who was also a merchant, but
+we have his own testimony that he served an apprenticeship of
+eight years. In 1543, at the age of twenty-four, he was admitted
+a member of the Mercers&rsquo; Company, and in the same year he
+went to the Low Countries, where, either on his own account or
+on that of his father or uncle, he both carried on business as a
+merchant and acted in various matters as an agent for Henry
+VIII. In 1544 he married the widow of William Read, a London
+merchant, but he still continued to reside principally in the Low
+Countries, having his headquarters at Antwerp. When in 1551
+the mismanagement of Sir William Dansell, &ldquo;king&rsquo;s merchant&rdquo;
+in the Low Countries, had brought the English government into
+great financial embarrassment, Gresham was called in to give
+his advice, and chosen to carry out his own proposals. Their
+leading feature was the adoption of various methods&mdash;highly
+ingenious, but quite arbitrary and unfair&mdash;for raising the value
+of the pound sterling on the &ldquo;bourse&rdquo; of Antwerp, and it was
+so successful that in a few years nearly all King Edward&rsquo;s debts
+were discharged. The advice of Gresham was likewise sought
+by the government in all their money difficulties, and he was
+also frequently employed in various diplomatic missions. He
+had no stated salary, but in reward of his services received from
+Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which at that
+time was ultimately about £400 a year. On the accession of
+Mary he was for a short time in disfavour, and was displaced
+in his post by Alderman William Dauntsey. But Dauntsey&rsquo;s
+financial operations were not very successful and Gresham was
+soon reinstated; and as he professed his zealous desire to serve
+the queen, and manifested great adroitness both in negotiating
+loans and in smuggling money, arms and foreign goods, not only
+were his services retained throughout her reign, but besides his
+salary of twenty shillings <i>per diem</i> he received grants of church
+lands to the yearly value of £200. Under Queen Elizabeth,
+besides continuing in his post as financial agent of the crown,
+he acted temporarily as ambassador at the court of the duchess of
+Parma, being knighted in 1559 previous to his departure. By
+the outbreak of the war in the Low Countries he was compelled
+to leave Antwerp on the 19th of March 1567; but, though he
+spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued his
+business as merchant and financial agent of the government
+in much the same way as formerly. Elizabeth also found him
+useful in a great variety of other ways, among which was that
+of acting as jailer, to Lady Mary Grey, who, as a punishment for
+marrying Thomas Keys the sergeant porter, remained a prisoner
+in his house from June 1569 to the end of 1572. In 1565 Gresham
+made a proposal to the court of aldermen of London to build
+at his own expense a bourse or exchange, on condition that they
+purchased for this purpose a piece of suitable ground. In this
+proposal he seems to have had an eye to his own interest as well
+as to the general good of the merchants, for by a yearly rental
+of £700 obtained for the shops in the upper part of the building
+he received a sufficient return for his trouble and expense.
+Gresham died suddenly, apparently of apoplexy, on the 21st
+of November 1579. His only son predeceased him, and his
+illegitimate daughter Anne he married to Sir Nathaniel Bacon,
+brother of the great Lord Bacon. With the exception of a
+number of small sums bequeathed to the support of various
+charities, the bulk of his property, consisting of estates in various
+parts of England of the annual value of more than £2300, was
+bequeathed to his widow and her heirs with the stipulation that
+after her decease his residence in Bishopsgate Street, as well as
+the rents arising from the Royal Exchange, should be vested
+in the hands of the corporation of London and the Mercers&rsquo;
+Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which seven
+professors should read lectures&mdash;one each day of the week&mdash;on
+astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music.
+The lectures were begun in 1597, and were delivered in the original
+building until 1768, when, on the ground that the trustees were
+losers by the gift, it was made over to the crown for a yearly rent
+of £500, and converted into an excise office. From that time
+a room in the Royal Exchange was used for the lectures until in
+1843 the present building was erected at a cost of £7000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A notice of Gresham is contained in Fuller&rsquo;s <i>Worthies</i> and Ward&rsquo;s
+<i>Gresham Professors</i>; but the fullest account of him, as well as of the
+history of the Exchange and Gresham College is that by J. M. Burgon
+in his <i>Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham</i> (2 vols., 1839). See
+also a <i>Brief Memoir of Sir Thomas Gresham</i> (1833); and <i>The Life of
+Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange</i> (1845).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1832-1895), American
+statesman and jurist, was born near Lanesville, Harrison county,
+Indiana, on the 17th of March 1832. He spent two years in an
+academy at Corydon, Indiana, and one year at the Indiana State
+University at Bloomington, then studied law, and in 1854 was
+admitted to the bar. He was active as a campaign speaker for
+the Republican ticket in 1856, and in 1860 was elected to the
+State House of Representatives as a Republican in a strong
+Democratic district. In the House, as chairman of the committee
+on military affairs, he did much to prepare the Indiana troops
+for service in the Federal army; in 1861 he became colonel
+of the 53rd Indiana Volunteer Infantry, and subsequently took
+part in Grant&rsquo;s Tennessee campaign of 1862, and in the operations
+against Corinth and Vicksburg, where he commanded a brigade.
+In August 1863 he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers,
+and was placed in command of the Federal forces at Natchez.
+In 1864 he commanded a division of the 17th Army Corps
+in Sherman&rsquo;s Atlanta campaign, and before Atlanta, on the
+20th of July, he received a wound which forced him to retire
+from active service, and left him lame for life. In 1865 he was
+brevetted major-general of volunteers. After the war he practised
+law at New Albany, Indiana, and in 1869 was appointed by
+President Grant United States District Judge for Indiana.
+In April 1883 he succeeded Timothy O. Howe (1816-1883) as
+postmaster-general in President Arthur&rsquo;s cabinet, taking an
+active part in the suppression of the Louisiana Lottery, and in
+September 1884 succeeded Charles J. Folger as secretary of the
+treasury. In the following month he resigned to accept an
+appointment as United States Judge for the Seventh Judicial
+Circuit. Gresham was a candidate for the Republican presidential
+nomination in 1884 and 1888, in the latter year leading
+for some time in the balloting. Gradually, however, he grew
+out of sympathy with the Republican leaders and policy, and in
+1892 advocated the election of the Democratic candidate, Grover
+Cleveland, for the presidency. From the 7th of March 1893
+until his death at Washington on the 28th of May 1895, he was
+secretary of state in President Cleveland&rsquo;s cabinet.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRESHAM&rsquo;S LAW,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in economics, the name suggested in 1857
+by H. D. Macleod for the principle of currency which may be
+briefly summarized&mdash;&ldquo;bad money drives out good.&rdquo; Macleod
+gave it this name, which has been universally adopted, under the
+impression that the principle was first explained by Sir Thomas
+Gresham in 1558. In reality it had been well set forth by earlier
+economic writers, notably Oresme and Copernicus. Macleod
+states the law in these terms: the worst form of currency in
+circulation regulates the value of the whole currency and drives
+all other forms of currency out of circulation. Gresham&rsquo;s law
+applies where there is under-weight or debased coin in circulation
+with full-weight coin of the same metal; where there are two
+metals in circulation, and one is undervalued as compared with
+the other, and where inconvertible paper money is put into
+circulation side by side with a metallic currency. See further
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bimetallism</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Money</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1709-1777), French
+poet and dramatist, was born at Amiens on the 29th of August
+1709. His poem <i>Vert Vert</i> is his main title to fame. He spent,
+however, the last twenty-five years of his life in regretting the
+frivolity which enabled him to produce this most charming of
+poems. He was brought up by the Jesuits of Amiens. He was
+accepted as a novice at the age of sixteen, and sent to pursue his
+studies at the Collège Louis le Grand in Paris. After completing
+his course he was appointed, being then under twenty years of
+age, to a post as assistant master in a college at Rouen. He published
+<i>Vert Vert</i> at Rouen in 1734. It is a story, in itself exceedingly
+humorous, showing how a parrot, the delight of a convent,
+whose talk was all of prayers and pious ejaculations, was
+conveyed to another convent as a visitor to please the nuns. On
+the way he falls among bad companions, forgets his convent
+language, and shocks the sisters on arrival by profane swearing.
+He is sent back in disgrace, punished by solitude and plain
+bread, presently repents, reforms and is killed by kindness. The
+story, however, is nothing. The treatment of the subject, the
+atmosphere which surrounds it, the delicacy in which the little
+prattling ways of the nuns, their jealousies, their tiny trifles, are
+presented, takes the reader entirely by surprise. The poem stands
+absolutely unrivalled, even among French <i>contes en vers</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Gresset found himself famous. He left Rouen, went up to
+Paris, where he found refuge in the same garret which had
+sheltered him when a boy at the Collège Louis le Grand, and
+there wrote his second poem, <i>La Chartreuse</i>. It was followed
+by the <i>Carême impromptu</i>, the <i>Lutrin vivant</i> and <i>Les Ombres</i>.
+Then trouble came upon him; complaints were made to the
+fathers of the alleged licentiousness of his verses, the real cause
+of complaint being the ridicule which <i>Vert Vert</i> seemed to throw
+upon the whole race of nuns and the anti-clerical tendency of
+the other poems. An example, it was urged, must be made;
+Gresset was expelled the order. Men of robust mind would have
+been glad to get rid of such a yoke. Gresset, who had never been
+taught to stand alone, went forth weeping. He went to Paris
+in 1740 and there produced <i>Édouard III</i>, a tragedy (1740)
+and <i>Sidnei</i> (1745), a comedy. These were followed by <i>Le Méchant</i>
+which still keeps the stage, and is qualified by Brunetière
+as the best verse comedy of the French 18th century theatre,
+not excepting even the <i>Métromanie</i> of Alexis Piron. Gresset
+was admitted to the Academy in 1748. And then, still young,
+he retired to Amiens, where his relapse from the discipline of the
+church became the subject of the deepest remorse. He died
+at Amiens on the 16th of June 1777.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of his poems is A. A. Rénouard&rsquo;s (1811). See Jules
+Wogue, <i>J. B. L. Gresset</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRETNA GREEN,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Graitney Green</span>, a village in the south-east
+of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, about 8 m. E. of Annan, 9 m.
+N.N.W. of Carlisle, and ¾ m. from the river Sark, here the
+dividing-line between England and Scotland, with a station on
+the Glasgow &amp; South-Western railway. The Caledonian and
+North British railways have a station at Gretna on the English
+side of the Border. As the nearest village on the Scottish side,
+Gretna Green was notorious as the resort of eloping couples,
+who had failed to obtain the consent of parents or guardians to
+their union. Up till 1754, when Lord Hardwicke&rsquo;s act abolishing
+clandestine marriages came into force, the ceremony had commonly
+been performed in the Fleet prison in London. After
+that date runaway couples were compelled to seek the hospitality
+of a country where it sufficed for them to declare their wish
+to marry in the presence of witnesses. At Gretna Green the
+ceremony was usually performed by the blacksmith, but the toll-keeper,
+ferryman or in fact any person might officiate, and the
+toll-house, the inn, or, after 1826, Gretna Hall was the scene of
+many such weddings, the fees varying from half a guinea to a
+sum as large as impudence could extort or extravagance bestow.
+As many as two hundred couples were married at the toll-house
+in a year. The romantic traffic was practically, though not
+necessarily, put an end to in 1856, when the law required one of
+the contracting parties to reside in Scotland three weeks previous
+to the event.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÉTRY, ANDRÉ ERNEST MODESTE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1741-1813), French
+composer, was born at Liége on the 8th of February 1741, his
+father being a poor musician. He was a choir boy at the church
+of St Denis. In 1753 he became a pupil of Leclerc and later of
+Renekin and Moreau. But of greater importance was the
+practical tuition he received by attending the performance of
+an Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Galuppi,
+Pergolesi and other masters; and the desire of completing his
+own studies in Italy was the immediate result. To find the
+necessary means he composed in 1759 a mass which he dedicated
+to the canons of the Liége cathedral, and it was at the cost of
+Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in the March of 1759. In
+Rome he went to the Collège de Liége. Here Grétry resided for
+five years, studiously employed in completing his musical
+education under Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counterpoint
+was, however, according to his own confession, at all times
+very moderate. His first great success was achieved by <i>La
+Vendemmiatrice</i>, an Italian intermezzo or operetta, composed for
+the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with universal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span>
+applause. It is said that the study of the score of one of Monsigny&rsquo;s
+operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy
+in Rome, decided Grétry to devote himself to French comic
+opera. On New Year&rsquo;s day 1767 he accordingly left Rome,
+and after a short stay at Geneva (where he made the acquaintance
+of Voltaire, and produced another operetta) went to Paris.
+There for two years he had to contend with the difficulties
+incident to poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not without
+friends, and by the intercession of Count Creutz, the Swedish
+ambassador, Grétry obtained a libretto from Marmontel, which
+he set to music in less than six weeks, and which, on its performance
+in August 1768, met with unparalleled success. The name
+of the opera was <i>Le Huron</i>. Two others, <i>Lucile</i> and <i>Le Tableau
+parlant</i>, soon followed, and thenceforth Grétry&rsquo;s position as the
+leading composer of comic opera was safely established. Altogether
+he composed some fifty operas. His masterpieces are
+<i>Zémire et Azor</i> and <i>Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion</i>,&mdash;the first produced in
+1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect way became
+connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the celebrated
+romance, <i>O Richard, ô mon roi, l&rsquo;univers t&rsquo;abandonne</i>, which was
+sung at the banquet&mdash;&ldquo;fatal as that of Thyestes,&rdquo; remarks
+Carlyle&mdash;given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles
+garrison on October 3, 1789. The <i>Marseillaise</i> not long afterwards
+became the reply of the people to the expression of loyalty
+borrowed from Grétry&rsquo;s opera. The composer himself was not
+uninfluenced by the great events he witnessed, and the titles of
+some of his operas, such as <i>La Rosière républicaine</i> and <i>La Fête
+de la raison</i>, sufficiently indicate the epoch to which they belong;
+but they are mere <i>pièces de circonstance</i>, and the republican
+enthusiasm displayed is not genuine. Little more successful
+was Grétry in his dealings with classical subjects. His genuine
+power lay in the delineation of character and in the expression
+of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure of his
+concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his
+instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his
+works had to be rewritten by other composers, in order to make
+them acceptable to modern audiences. During the revolution
+Grétry lost much of his property, but the successive governments
+of France vied in favouring the composer, regardless of political
+differences. From the old court he received distinctions and
+rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an inspector of the
+conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the legion of
+honour and a pension. Grétry died on the 24th of September
+1813, at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house
+of Rousseau. Fifteen years after his death Grétry&rsquo;s heart was
+transferred to his birthplace, permission having been obtained
+after a tedious lawsuit. In 1842 a colossal bronze statue of the
+composer was set up at Liége.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Michael Brenet, <i>Vie de Grétry</i> (Paris, 1884); Joach. le Breton,
+<i>Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de Grétry</i> (Paris, 1814);
+A. Grétry (his nephew), <i>Grétry en famille</i> (Paris, 1814); Felix van
+Hulst, <i>Grétry</i> (Liége, 1842); L. D. S. <i>Notice biographique sur Grétry</i>
+(Bruxelles, 1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1725-1805), French painter, was
+born at Tournus, in Burgundy, on the 21st of August 1725, and
+is generally said to have formed his own talent; this is, however,
+true only in the most limited sense, for at an early age his inclinations,
+though thwarted by his father, were encouraged by a
+Lyonnese artist named Grandon, or Grondom, who enjoyed
+during his lifetime considerable reputation as a portrait-painter.
+Grandon not only persuaded the father of Greuze to give way
+to his son&rsquo;s wishes, and permit the lad to accompany him as his
+pupil to Lyons, but, when at a later date he himself left Lyons
+for Paris&mdash;where his son-in-law Grétry the celebrated composer
+enjoyed the height of favour&mdash;Grandon carried young Greuze with
+him. Settled in Paris, Greuze worked from the living model in
+the school of the Royal Academy, but did not attract the attention
+of his teachers; and when he produced his first picture, &ldquo;Le Père
+de famille expliquant la Bible à ses enfants,&rdquo; considerable doubt
+was felt and shown as to his share in its production. By other
+and more remarkable works of the same class Greuze soon
+established his claims beyond contest, and won for himself the
+notice and support of the well-known connoisseur La Live de
+Jully, the brother-in-law of Madame d&rsquo;Épinay. In 1755 Greuze
+exhibited his &ldquo;Aveugle trompé,&rdquo; upon which, presented by
+Pigalle the sculptor, he was immediately <i>agréé</i> by the Academy.
+Towards the close of the same year he left France for Italy, in
+company with the Abbé Louis Gougenot, who had deserted from
+the magistrature&mdash;although he had obtained the post of &ldquo;conseillier
+au Châtelet&rdquo;&mdash;in order to take the &ldquo;petit collet.&rdquo;
+Gougenot had some acquaintance with the arts, and was highly
+valued by the Academicians, who, during his journey with
+Greuze, elected him an honorary member of their body on
+account of his studies in mythology and allegory; his acquirements
+in these respects are said to have been largely utilized by
+them, but to Greuze they were of doubtful advantage, and he
+lost rather than gained by this visit to Italy in Gougenot&rsquo;s
+company. He had undertaken it probably in order to silence
+those who taxed him with ignorance of &ldquo;great models of style,&rdquo;
+but the Italian subjects which formed the entirety of his contributions
+to the Salon of 1757 showed that he had been put on a
+false track, and he speedily returned to the source of his first
+inspiration. In 1759, 1761 (&ldquo;L&rsquo;Accordée de village&rdquo;&mdash;Louvre),
+and 1763 Greuze exhibited with ever-increasing success; in 1765
+he reached the zenith of his powers and reputation. In that year
+he was represented with no less than thirteen works, amongst
+which may be cited &ldquo;La Jeune Fille qui pleure son oiseau mort,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;La Bonne Mère,&rdquo; &ldquo;Le Mauvais fils puni&rdquo; (Louvre) and &ldquo;La
+Malédiction paternelle&rdquo; (Louvre). The Academy took occasion to
+press Greuze for his diploma picture, the execution of which had
+been long delayed, and forbade him to exhibit on their walls
+until he had complied with their regulations. &ldquo;J&rsquo;ai vu la lettre,&rdquo;
+says Diderot, &ldquo;qui est un modèle d&rsquo;honnêteté et d&rsquo;estime;
+j&rsquo;ai vu la réponse de Greuze, qui est un modèle de vanité
+et d&rsquo;impertinence: il fallait appuyer cela d&rsquo;un chef-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre,
+et c&rsquo;est ce que Greuze n&rsquo;a pas fait.&rdquo; Greuze wished to be
+received as a historical painter, and produced a work which he
+intended to vindicate his right to despise his qualifications as a
+<i>peintre de genre</i>. This unfortunate canvas&mdash;&ldquo;Sevère et Caracalla&rdquo;
+(Louvre)&mdash;was exhibited in 1769 side by side with Greuze&rsquo;s
+portrait of Jeaurat (Louvre) and his admirable &ldquo;Petite Fille au
+chien noir.&rdquo; The Academicians received their new member with
+all due honours, but at the close of the ceremonies the Director
+addressed Greuze in these words&mdash;&ldquo;Monsieur, l&rsquo;Académie vous
+a reçu, mais c&rsquo;est comme peintre de genre; elle a eu égard à vos
+anciennes productions, qui sont excellentes, et elle a fermé les
+yeux sur celle-ci, qui n&rsquo;est digne ni d&rsquo;elle ni de vous.&rdquo; Greuze,
+greatly incensed, quarrelled with his <i>confrères</i>, and ceased to
+exhibit until, in 1804, the Revolution had thrown open the doors
+of the Academy to all the world. In the following year, on the
+4th of March 1805, he died in the Louvre in great poverty. He
+had been in receipt of considerable wealth, which he had dissipated
+by extravagance and bad management, so that during
+his closing years he was forced even to solicit commissions which
+his enfeebled powers no longer enabled him to carry out with
+success. The brilliant reputation which Greuze acquired seems
+to have been due, not to his acquirements as a painter&mdash;for
+his practice is evidently that current in his own day&mdash;but to the
+character of the subjects which he treated. That return to
+nature which inspired Rousseau&rsquo;s attacks upon an artificial
+civilization demanded expression in art. Diderot, in <i>Le Fils
+naturel et le père de famille</i>, tried to turn the vein of domestic
+drama to account on the stage; that which he tried and failed
+to do Greuze, in painting, achieved with extraordinary success,
+although his works, like the plays of Diderot, were affected by
+that very artificiality against which they protested. The touch
+of melodramatic exaggeration, however, which runs through
+them finds an apology in the firm and brilliant play of line, in the
+freshness and vigour of the flesh tints, in the enticing softness of
+expression (often obtained by almost an abuse of <i>méplats</i>), by the
+alluring air of health and youth, by the sensuous attractions, in
+short, with which Greuze invests his lessons of bourgeois morality.
+As Diderot said of &ldquo;La Bonne Mère,&rdquo; &ldquo;ça prêche la population;&rdquo;
+and a certain piquancy of contrast is the result which never
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span>
+fails to obtain admirers. &ldquo;La Jeune Fille à l&rsquo;agneau&rdquo; fetched,
+indeed, at the Pourtalès sale in 1865, no less than 1,000,200 francs.
+One of Greuze&rsquo;s pupils, Madame Le Doux, imitated with success
+the manner of her master; his daughter and granddaughter,
+Madame de Valory, also inherited some traditions of his talent.
+Madame de Valory published in 1813 a comédie-vaudeville,
+<i>Greuze, ou l&rsquo;accordée de village</i>, to which she prefixed a notice
+of her grandfather&rsquo;s life and works, and the <i>Salons</i> of Diderot also
+contain, besides many other particulars, the story at full length
+of Greuze&rsquo;s quarrel with the Academy. Four of the most
+distinguished engravers of that date, Massard père, Flipart,
+Gaillard and Levasseur, were specially entrusted by Greuze
+with the reproduction of his subjects, but there are also excellent
+prints by other engravers, notably by Cars and Le Bas.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Normand, <i>J. B. Greuze</i> (1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. F. S. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1794-1865),
+English diarist, a great-grandson by his father of the 5th earl of
+Warwick, and son of Lady Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the
+duke of Portland, formerly a leader of the Whig party, and
+first minister of the crown, was born on the 2nd of April 1794.
+Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather&rsquo;s house
+at Bulstrode. He was one of the pages of George III., and was
+educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the
+university early, having been appointed private secretary to
+Earl Bathurst before he was twenty. The interest of the duke
+of Portland had secured for him the secretaryship of the island
+of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office, the duties being performed
+by a deputy, and the reversion of the clerkship of the
+council. Greville entered upon the discharge of the duties of
+clerk of the council in ordinary in 1821, and continued to perform
+them for nearly forty years. He therefore served under three
+successive sovereigns,&mdash;George IV., William IV. and Victoria,&mdash;and
+although no political or confidential functions are attached
+to that office, it is one which brings a man into habitual intercourse
+with the chiefs of all the parties in the state. Well-born,
+well-bred, handsome and accomplished, Greville led the easy
+life of a man of fashion, taking an occasional part in the transactions
+of his day and much consulted in the affairs of private life.
+Until 1855 when he sold his stud he was an active member of
+the turf, and he trained successively with Lord George Bentinck,
+and with the duke of Portland. But the celebrity which now
+attaches to his name is entirely due to the posthumous publication
+of a portion of a Journal or Diary which it was his practice to
+keep during the greater part of his life. These papers were
+given by him to his friend Mr Henry Reeve a short time before
+his death (which took place on the 18th of January 1865), with
+an injunction that they should be published, as far as was
+feasible, at not too remote a period after the writer&rsquo;s death. The
+journals of the reigns of George IV. and William IV. (extending
+from 1820 to 1837) were accordingly so published in obedience
+to his directions about ten years after that event. Few publications
+have been received with greater interest by the public;
+five large editions were sold in little more than a year, and the
+demand in America was as great as in England. These journals
+were regarded as a faithful record of the impressions made on
+the mind of a competent observer, at the time, by the events he
+witnessed and the persons with whom he associated. Greville
+did not stoop to collect or record private scandal. His object
+appears to have been to leave behind him some of the materials
+of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would
+be judged. He records not so much public events as the private
+causes which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir-writer
+has left behind him a more valuable contribution to the
+history of the 19th century. Greville published anonymously, in
+1845, a volume on the <i>Past and Present Policy of England to
+Ireland</i>, in which he advocated the payment of the Roman
+Catholic clergy; and he was also the author of several pamphlets
+on the events of his day.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Henry Greville</span> (1801-1872), attaché to the
+British embassy in Paris from 1834 to 1844, also kept a diary,
+of which part was published by Viscountess Enfield, <i>Leaves from
+the Diary of Henry Greville</i> (London, 1883-1884).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the preface and notes to the <i>Greville Memoirs</i> by Henry Reeve.
+The memoirs appeared in three sets&mdash;one from 1817 to 1837 (London,
+1875, 3 vols.), and two for the period from 1837 to 1860, three volumes
+in 1885 and two in 1887. When the first series appeared in 1875 some
+passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as far as
+possible recalled and passages suppressed.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÉVIN, JACQUES<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1539-1570), French dramatist, was born
+at Clermont about 1539. He studied medicine at the university
+of Paris. He became a disciple of Ronsard, and was one of the
+band of dramatists who sought to introduce the classical drama
+in France. As Sainte-Beuve points out, the comedies of Grévin
+show considerable affinity with the farces and <i>soties</i> that preceded
+them. His first play, <i>La Maubertine</i>, was lost, and formed the
+basis of a new comedy, <i>La Trésorière</i>, first performed at the
+college of Beauvais in 1558, though it had been originally composed
+at the desire of Henry II. to celebrate the marriage of
+Claude, duchess of Lorraine. In 1560 followed the tragedy of
+<i>Jules César</i>, imitated from the Latin of Muret, and a comedy,
+<i>Les Ébahis</i>, the most important but also the most indecent of
+his works. Grévin was also the author of some medical works
+and of miscellaneous poems, which were praised by Ronsard
+until the friends were separated by religious differences. Grévin
+became in 1561 physician and counsellor to Margaret of Savoy,
+and died at her court in Turin in 1570.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Théâtre</i> of Jacques Grévin was printed in 1562, and in the
+<i>Ancien Théâtre français</i>, vol. iv. (1855-1856). See L. Pinvert,
+<i>Jacques Grévin</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRÈVY, FRANÇOIS PAUL JULES<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1813-1891). President
+of the French Republic, was born at Mont-sous-Vaudrey in the
+Jura, on the 15th of August 1813. He became an advocate in
+1837, and, having steadily maintained republican principles
+under the Orleans monarchy, was elected by his native department
+to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Foreseeing that
+Louis Bonaparte would be elected president by the people, he
+proposed to vest the chief authority in a president of the Council
+elected and removable by the Assembly, or in other words, to
+suppress the Presidency of the Republic. After the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>
+this proposition gained Grévy a reputation for sagacity, and upon
+his return to public life in 1868 he took a prominent place in
+the republican party. After the fall of the Empire he was
+chosen president of the Assembly on the 16th of February 1871,
+and occupied this position till the 2nd of April 1876, when he
+resigned on account of the opposition of the Right, which
+blamed him for having called one of its members to order in the
+session of the previous day. On the 8th of March 1876 he was
+elected president of the Chamber of Deputies, a post which he
+filled with such efficiency that upon the resignation of Marshal
+MacMahon he seemed to step naturally into the Presidency of
+the Republic (30th January 1879), and was elected without
+opposition by the republican parties (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+Quiet, shrewd, attentive to the public interest and his own,
+but without any particular distinction, he would have left an
+unblemished reputation if he had not unfortunately accepted
+a second term (18th December 1885). Shortly afterwards the
+traffic of his son-in-law (Daniel Wilson) in the decorations of the
+Legion of Honour came to light. Grévy was not accused of
+personal participation in these scandals, but he was somewhat
+obstinate in refusing to realize that he was responsible indirectly
+for the use which his relative had made of the Élysée, and it had
+to be unpleasantly impressed upon him that his resignation was
+inevitable (2nd December 1887). He died at Mont-sous-Vaudrey
+on the 9th of September 1891. He owed both his success and
+his failure to the completeness with which he represented the
+particular type of the thrifty, generally sensible and patriotic,
+but narrow-minded and frequently egoistic <i>bourgeois</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Discours politiques et judiciaires, rapports et messages
+... accompagnés de notices historiques et précédés d&rsquo;une introduction
+par L. Delabrousse</i> (2 vols., 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREW, NEHEMIAH<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1641-1712), English vegetable anatomist
+and physiologist, was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607-1688),
+Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Michael&rsquo;s, Coventry, and
+was born in Warwickshire in 1641. He graduated at Cambridge
+in 1661, and ten years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span>
+his thesis being <i>Disputatio medico-physica ... de liquore nervoso</i>.
+He began observations on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in
+1670 his essay, <i>The Anatomy of Vegetables begun</i>, was communicated
+to the Royal Society by Bishop Wilkins, on whose recommendation
+he was in the following year elected a fellow. In
+1672, when the essay was published, he settled in London, and
+soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. In 1673
+he published his <i>Idea of a Phytological History</i>, which consisted
+of papers he had communicated to the Royal Society in the
+preceding year, and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as
+secretary of the society. He edited the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>
+in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he published &ldquo;by request&rdquo; a
+descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved at Gresham
+College, with which were printed some papers he had read to
+the Royal Society on the <i>Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and
+Guts</i>. In 1682 appeared his great work on the <i>Anatomy of
+Plants</i>, which also was largely a collection of previous publications.
+It was divided into four books, <i>Anatomy of Vegetables begun</i>,
+<i>Anatomy of Roots</i>, <i>Anatomy of Trunks</i> and <i>Anatomy of Leaves,
+Flowers, Fruits and Seeds</i>, and was illustrated with eighty-two
+plates, while appended to it were seven papers mostly of a
+chemical character. Among his other publications were <i>Sea-water
+made Fresh</i> (1684), the <i>Nature and Use of the Salt contained
+in Epsom and such other Waters</i> (1697), which was a rendering
+of his <i>Tractatus de salis ... usu</i> (1695), and <i>Cosmologia sacra</i>
+(1701). He died suddenly on the 25th of March 1712. Linnaeus
+named a genus of trees <i>Grewia</i> (nat. ord. Tiliaceae) in his
+honour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREY, CHARLES GREY,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Earl</span> (1764-1845), English
+statesman, was the eldest surviving son of General Sir Charles
+Grey, afterwards 1st Earl Grey. He was born at his father&rsquo;s
+residence, Fallodon, near Alnwick, on the 13th of March 1764.
+General Grey (1729-1807), who was a younger son of the house
+of Grey of Howick, one of the most considerable territorial
+families in Northumberland, had already begun a career of active
+service which, like the political career of his son, covered nearly
+half a century. Before the latter was born, General Grey had
+served on the staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War and had been wounded at Minden. While the son
+was making verses at Eton, the father was serving against the
+revolted colonists in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and while
+the young member for Northumberland was denouncing Pitt&rsquo;s
+war against the Convention, the veteran soldier was destroying
+the remnant of the French colonial empire by the capture of
+Martinique and Guadeloupe. When Napoleon threatened an
+invasion, General Grey took the command of the southern district,
+and at the peace of Amiens he was rewarded with a peerage,
+as Baron Grey of Alnwick, being created in 1806 Earl Grey and
+Viscount Howick. His elder brother, Sir Henry Grey of Howick,
+the head of the family, had supported the government in parliament.
+But the political career of young Grey, who was heir-presumptive
+to the family estates, took a different complexion.</p>
+
+<p>Young Grey expected to reoccupy the seat which had been
+his uncle&rsquo;s; and his early years were spent in preparation for
+a parliamentary career. He was sent to Eton, and proceeded
+thence to Cambridge. William Pitt, a youth five years older,
+was then in residence as a master of arts, studiously paying court
+to the Whigs of the university; and at the general election of
+1780 he came forward as a candidate for the academical seat.
+His name stood last on the poll, but he was brought in elsewhere,
+and his first speech proved him a man of the first mark. The
+unparalleled successes which followed portended grave changes.
+Pitt&rsquo;s elevation to the premiership, his brilliant and hard-fought
+battle in the house, and his complete rout of the Whig party at
+the general election of 1784, when he came in for Cambridge
+at the head of the poll, threatened the great territorial interest
+with nothing less than extinction. It was to this interest that
+Grey belonged; and hence, when at length returned for Northumberland
+in 1786, he at once came forward as a vigorous assailant
+of the government of Pitt. He was hailed by the opposition,
+and associated with Fox, Burke and Sheridan as a manager in the
+Hastings impeachment. During the nineteen years which
+remained of the career of Fox, he followed the great Whig
+statesman with absolute fidelity, and succeeded him as leader
+of the party. The shortcomings of Fox&rsquo;s statesmanship were
+inherited by Grey. Both were equally devoid of political
+originality, shunned the severer labours of the politician, and
+instinctively feared any deviation from the traditions of their
+party. Such men cannot save a party in its decadence, and the
+history of Fox and Grey has been aptly termed the history of
+the decline and fall of Whiggism.</p>
+
+<p>The stunning blow of 1784 was the first incident in this history.
+Its full significance was not at once perceived. An opposition,
+however weak in the beginning, generally has a tendency to
+revive, and Grey&rsquo;s early successes in the house helped to revive
+the Foxites. The European situation became favourable to this
+revival. The struggle in France for popular rights, culminating
+in the great Revolution, was watched by Fox with interested
+sympathy. He affected to regard the domination of Pitt as the
+domination of the crown, and as leading logically to absolutism,
+and saw in that popular sympathy for the French Revolution
+which naturally arose in England an instrument which might
+be employed to overthrow this domination.</p>
+
+<p>But Pitt gathered the fruits of the windfall. The spread of
+&ldquo;Jacobinism,&rdquo; or &ldquo;French principles,&rdquo; became the pretext
+on which the stronger half of the opposition went over to the
+government. Burke led the movement in the Commons, the duke
+of Portland and Lord Fitzwilliam in the Lords, and with this
+second incident in the Whig decline began the difficulties of
+Grey&rsquo;s career. The domination of the premier had already
+stirred the keenest resentment in the younger and more ambitious
+members of the Whig party. Freed from the restraint of the
+steadier politicians under Burke and Portland, the residuum
+under Fox fell into a series of grave mistakes. Of this residuum
+Grey became the moving spirit, for though Fox did not check
+their activity, he disclaimed the responsibility of their policy.
+Fox had refused to condemn &ldquo;French principles,&rdquo; and denounced
+the war with France; but he would take no part in exciting
+agitation in England. It was otherwise with the restless spirits
+among whom Grey was found. Enraged by the attitude of Pitt,
+which was grounded on the support of the constituencies as they
+then stood, the residuum plotted an ill-timed agitation for
+parliamentary reform.</p>
+
+<p>The demand for parliamentary reform was as yet in a rudimentary
+stage. Forty years later it had become the demand of
+an unenfranchised nation, disabused by a sudden spread of
+political and economical knowledge. It was as yet but the
+occasional instrument of the scheming politician. Chatham
+had employed the cry in this sense. The Middlesex agitators
+had done the same; even the premier of the time, after his
+accession to power, had sought to strengthen his hands in the
+same way. But Pitt&rsquo;s hands were now strengthened abundantly;
+whereas the opposition had nothing to lose and much to gain by
+such a measure. The cry for reform thus became their natural
+expedient. Powerless to carry reform in the House, they sought
+to overawe parliament by external agitation, and formed the
+Society of the Friends of the People, destined to unite the forces
+of all the &ldquo;patriotic&rdquo; societies which already existed in the
+country, and to pour their violence irresistibly on a terrified
+parliament. Grey and his friends were enrolled in this portentous
+association, and presented in parliament its menacing petitions.
+Such petitions, which were in fact violent impeachments of
+parliament itself, proceeding from voluntary associations having
+no corporate existence, had been hitherto unknown in the English
+parliament. They had been well known in the French assembly.
+They had heralded and furthered the victory of the Jacobins,
+the dissolution of the constitution, the calling of the Convention
+and the fall of the monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>The Society of the Friends of the People was originally an
+after-dinner folly, extemporized at the house of a man who afterwards
+gained an earldom by denouncing it as seditious. Fox
+discountenanced it, though he did not directly condemn it; but
+Grey was overborne by the fierce Jacobinism of Lauderdale, and
+avowed himself the parliamentary mouthpiece of this dangerous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span>
+agitation. But Pitt, strong in his position, cut the ground
+from under Grey&rsquo;s feet by suppressing the agitation with a strong
+hand. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the Gagging
+Acts and the state prosecutions form a painful historical episode.
+But the discredit belongs as much to Grey and Lauderdale as to
+Pitt. Grey always spoke regretfully of his share in the movement.
+&ldquo;One word from Fox,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;would have kept me out of
+all the mess of the Friends of the People. But he never spoke it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was Grey who moved the impeachment of Pitt, and he next
+promoted the equally foolish &ldquo;Secession.&rdquo; Since the parliament
+did not properly represent the nation, and refused to reform itself
+or to impeach the minister, nothing remained but to disown it;
+and the opposition announced their intention of &ldquo;seceding,&rdquo;
+or systematically absenting themselves from their places in
+parliament. This futile movement was originated by Grey,
+Lauderdale and the duke of Bedford. It obtained a somewhat
+wider support. It suited the languor of some dispirited
+politicians like Fox, and the avarice of some lawyers in large
+practice like Erskine; but sensible politicians at once condemned
+it. It directly ignored parliamentary government, and amounted
+to nothing but a pettish threat of revolution. &ldquo;Secession,&rdquo;
+said Lord Lansdowne, with characteristic shrewdness, &ldquo;either
+means rebellion, or it is nonsense.&rdquo; Pitt easily dashed this feeble
+weapon from the hands of his opponents. He roused jealousy
+in the absent by praising the parts and the patriotism of the rest,
+and thus gradually brought them back. Grey himself reappeared
+to protest against the union with Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>When Pitt died in 1806 nothing could prevent the reunited
+opposition from coming into power, and thus the Broad-bottom
+ministry was formed under Fox. On his death Grenville became
+premier, and Grey, now Lord Howick, foreign secretary, and
+leader of the House of Commons. Disunion, always the bane of
+English Liberalism, lurked in the coalition, and the Foxites
+and Grenvillites were only ostensibly at one. Grey opposed the
+war policy of Grenville; and this policy was not more successful
+than it had been in the hands of Pitt. And the change from the
+leadership of Fox to that of Grenville was only too perceptible.
+Both in court and country Grenville affected the role of Pitt, and
+assumed a stiff and peremptory attitude which ill became him.
+An ill-advised dissolution weakened their majority; they lost
+ground by the &ldquo;delicate investigation&rdquo; into the conduct of the
+princess of Wales; Lord Henry Petty&rsquo;s budget was too specious
+to command confidence; and the king, fully aware of their
+weak situation, resolved to get rid of them. When they proposed
+to concede a portion of the Catholic claims, George refused
+and demanded of them an undertaking never to propose such
+a measure again. This was refused, and the Grenville-Grey
+cabinet retired in March 1807. In the same year Grey&rsquo;s father
+died, and Grey went to the Upper House. Opposition united
+Grey and Grenville for a time, but the parties finally split on
+the old war question. When Napoleon returned from Elba
+in 1815, and once more seized the government of France, the
+same question arose which had arisen in 1792, Was England to go
+to war for the restoration of the Bourbons? Grenville followed
+the traditions of Pitt, and supported the ministry in at once
+renewing hostilities. Grey followed those of Fox, and maintained
+the right of France to choose her own governors, and the impossibility
+of checking the reaction in the emperor&rsquo;s favour.
+The victory of Waterloo put an end to the dispute, but the
+disruption became permanent. The termination of the war, and
+the cessation of all action in common, reduced the power of the
+opposition to nothing. Grenville retired from public life, and his
+adherents reinforced the ministry. Little remained for the Whigs
+to do. But the persecution of the queen afforded an opportunity
+of showing that the ministry were not omnipotent; and the part
+taken on that occasion by Grey won him at once the increased
+respect of the nation and the undying aversion of George IV.
+It sealed the exclusion of himself and his few friends from office
+during the king&rsquo;s life; and when in 1827 Grey came forth to
+denounce the ministry of Canning, he declared that he stood
+alone in the political world. His words were soon justified, for
+when Lord Goderich resigned, the remnant which had hitherto
+supported Grey, hastened to support the ministry of the duke of
+Wellington.</p>
+
+<p>We now reach the principal episode in Grey&rsquo;s career. In 1827
+he seemed to stand forth the solitary and powerless relic of an
+extinct party. In 1832 we find that party restored to its old
+numbers and activity, supreme in parliament, popular in the
+nation, and Lord Grey at its head. The duke of Wellington&rsquo;s
+foolish declaration against parliamentary reform, made in a
+season of great popular excitement, suddenly deprived him of
+the confidence of the country, and a coalition of the Whigs and
+Canningites became inevitable. The Whigs had in 1827 supported
+the Canningites; the latter now supported the Whigs,
+of whom Grey remained the traditional head. George IV. was
+dead, and no obstacle existed to Grey&rsquo;s elevation. Grey was
+sent for by William IV. in November 1830, and formed a coalition
+cabinet, pledged to carry on the work in which the duke of
+Wellington had faltered. But Grey himself was the mere instrument
+of the times. An old-fashioned Whig, he had little personal
+sympathy with the popular cause, though he had sometimes
+indicated a certain measure of reform as necessary. When he
+took office, he guessed neither the extent to which the Reform
+Act would go, nor the means by which it would be carried. That
+he procured for the country a measure of constitutional reform
+for which he had agitated in his youth was little more than a
+coincidence. In his youth he had put himself at the head of a
+frantic agitation against parliament, because he there found
+himself powerless. In his old age the case was reversed.
+Suddenly raised to a position of authority in the country, he
+boldly stood between parliament, as then constituted, and the
+formidable agitation which now threatened it and by a forced
+reform saved it from revolution. In his youth he had assailed
+Pitt&rsquo;s administration because Pitt&rsquo;s administration threatened
+with extinction the political monopoly of that landed interest
+to which he belonged. In his old age, on the contrary, unable
+to check the progress of the wave, he swam with it, and headed
+the movement which compelled that landed interest to surrender
+its monopoly.</p>
+
+<p>The second reading of the first Reform Bill was carried in the
+Commons by a majority of one. This was equivalent to a defeat,
+and further failures precipitated a dissolution. The confidence
+which the bold action of the ministry had won was soon plainly
+proved, for the second reading was carried in the new parliament
+by a majority of 136. When the bill had at length passed the
+Commons after months of debate, it was Grey&rsquo;s task to introduce
+it to the Lords. It was rejected by a majority of 41. The safety
+of the country now depended on the prudence and courage of
+the ministry. The resignation of Grey and his colleagues was
+dreaded even by the opposition, and they remained in office
+with the intention of introducing a third Reform Bill in the next
+session. The last months of 1831 were the beginning of a political
+crisis such as England had not seen since 1688. The two extreme
+parties, the Ultra-Radicals and the Ultra-Tories, were ready for
+civil war. Between them stood the ministry and the majority of
+intelligent peace-loving Englishmen; and their course of action
+was soon decided. The bill must be passed, and there were but
+two ways of passing it. One was to declare the consent of the
+House of Lords unnecessary to the measure, the other to create,
+if necessary, new peers in sufficient number to outvote the
+opposition. These two expedients did not in reality differ. To
+swamp the house in the way proposed would have been to destroy
+it. The question whether the ministry should demand the king&rsquo;s
+consent to such a creation, if necessary, was debated in the
+cabinet in September. Brougham proposed it, and gradually a
+majority of the cabinet were won over. Grey had at first refused
+to employ even the threat of so unconstitutional a device as a
+means to the proposed end. But his continued refusal would
+have broken up the ministry, and the breaking up of the ministry
+must now have been the signal for revolution. The second
+reading in the Commons was passed in December by a majority
+of 162, and on New-Year&rsquo;s day 1832 the majority of the cabinet
+resolved on demanding power to carry it in the Lords by a
+creation of peers. Grey carried the resolution to the king.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span>
+Some time still remained before the bill could be committed and
+read a third time. It was not until the 9th of April that Grey
+moved the second reading in the Lords. A sufficient number of
+the opposition temporized; and the second reading was allowed
+to pass by a majority of nine. Their intention was to mutilate
+the bill in committee. The Ultra-Tories, headed by the duke of
+Wellington, had entered a protest against the second reading,
+but they were now politically powerless. The struggle had
+become a struggle on the one hand for the whole bill, to be
+carried by a creation of peers, and on the other for some mutilated
+measure. Grey&rsquo;s instinct divined that the crisis was approaching.
+Either the king must consent to swamp the House, or the ministry
+must cease to stand in the breach between the peers and the
+country. The king, a weak and inexperienced politician, had
+in the meantime been wrought upon by the temporizing leaders
+in the Lords. He was induced to believe that if the Commons
+should reject the mutilated bill when it was returned to them,
+and the ministry should consequently retire, the mutilated bill
+might be reintroduced and passed by a Tory ministry. He was
+deaf to all representations of the state of public opinion; and to
+the surprise of the ministry, and the terror and indignation of
+every man of sense in the country, he rejected their proposal
+and accepted their resignation, May 9, 1832. The duke of
+Wellington undertook the hopeless task of constructing a
+ministry which should pass a restricted or sham Reform Bill.
+The only man who could have made the success of such a ministry
+even probable was Peel, and Peel&rsquo;s conscience and good sense
+forbade the attempt. He refused, and after a week of the profoundest
+agitation throughout the country, the king, beaten
+and mortified, was forced to send for Grey and Brougham. On
+being told that his consent to the creation of peers was the only
+condition on which they could undertake the government,
+he angrily and reluctantly yielded. The chancellor, with cool
+forethought, demanded this consent in writing. Grey thought
+such a demand harsh and unnecessary. &ldquo;I wonder,&rdquo; he said
+to Brougham, when the interview was over, &ldquo;you could have had
+the heart to press it.&rdquo; But Brougham was inexorable, and the
+king signed the following paper: &ldquo;The king grants permission
+to Earl Grey, and to his chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create
+such a number of peers as will be sufficient to ensure the passing
+of the Reform Bill, first calling up peers&rsquo; eldest sons.&mdash;<span class="sc">William</span>
+R., Windsor, May 17, 1832.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Grey had now won the game. There was no danger that he
+would have to resort to the expedient which he was authorized
+to employ. The introduction of sixty new peers would have
+destroyed the opposition, but it would have been equivalent
+to the abolition of the House. The king&rsquo;s consent made known,
+a sufficient number of peers were sure to withdraw to enable the
+bill to pass, and thus the dignity of both king and peerage would
+be saved. The duke of Wellington headed this movement on
+the part of the opposition; and the third reading of the bill was
+carried in the Lords by a majority of 84.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that in after years both Grey and Brougham
+disclaimed any intention of executing their threat. If this were
+so, they must have merely pretended to brave a danger which
+they secretly feared to face, and intended to avoid; and the
+credit of rescuing the country would belong to the duke of
+Wellington and the peers who seceded with him. To argue such
+cowardice in them from statements made when the crisis was
+long past, and when they were naturally willing to palliate the
+rough policy which they were forced to adopt, would be to set up
+a needless and unjustifiable paradox. Nothing else in the career
+of either Grey or Brougham leads us to suppose them capable
+of the moral baseness of yielding up the helm of state, in an hour
+of darkness and peril, to reckless and unskilled hands. Such
+would have been the result if they had lacked the determination
+to carry out their programme to the end. The influence of every
+statesman in the country would then have been extinguished,
+and the United Kingdom would have been absolutely in the
+hands of O&rsquo;Connell and Orator Hunt.</p>
+
+<p>Grey took but little part in directing the legislation of the
+reformed parliament. Never anxious for power, he had executed
+the arduous task of 1831-1832 rather as a matter of duty than of
+inclination, and wished for an opportunity of retiring. Such an
+opportunity very shortly presented itself. The Irish policy of
+the ministry had not conciliated the Irish people, and O&rsquo;Connell
+denounced them with the greatest bitterness. On the renewal
+of the customary Coercion Bill, the ministry was divided on the
+question whether to continue to the lord-lieutenant the power
+of suppressing public meetings. Littleton, the Irish secretary,
+was for abolishing it; and with the view of conciliating O&rsquo;Connell,
+he informed him that the ministry intended to abandon it. But
+the result proved him to have been mistaken, and O&rsquo;Connell,
+with some reason supposing himself to have been duped, called
+on Littleton to resign his secretaryship. It had also transpired
+in the discussion that Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of
+Commons, was privately opposed to retaining those clauses
+which it was his duty to push through the house. Lord Althorp
+therefore resigned, and Grey, who had lately passed his seventieth
+year, took the opportunity of resigning also. It was his opinion,
+it appeared, which had overborne the cabinet in favour of the
+public meeting clauses; and his voluntary withdrawal enabled
+Lord Althorp to return to his post and to proceed with the bill
+in its milder form. Grey was succeeded by Lord Melbourne;
+but no other change was made in the cabinet. Grey took no
+further part in politics. During most of his remaining years he
+continued to live in retirement at Howick, where he died on the
+17th of July 1845, in his eighty-second year. By his wife Mary
+Elizabeth, only daughter of the first Lord Ponsonby, whom he
+married on the 18th of November 1794, he became the father of
+ten sons and five daughters. Grey&rsquo;s eldest son Henry (<i>q.v.</i>) became
+the 3rd earl, and among his other sons were General Charles
+Grey (1804-1870) and Admiral Frederick Grey (1805-1878).</p>
+
+<p>In public life, Grey could always be upon occasion bold,
+strenuous and self-sacrificing; but he was little disposed for the
+active work of the politician. He was not one of those who took
+the statesman&rsquo;s duty &ldquo;as a pleasure he was to enjoy.&rdquo; A certain
+stiffness and reserve ever seemed in the popular eye to hedge him
+in; nor was his oratory of the kind which stirs enthusiasm and
+delight. A tall, stately figure, fine voice and calm aristocratic
+bearing reminded the listener of Pitt rather than of Fox, and his
+speeches were constructed on the Attic rather than the Asiatic
+model. Though simple and straightforward, they never lacked
+either point or dignity; and they were admirably adapted to the
+audience to which they were addressed. The scrupulous uprightness
+of Grey&rsquo;s political and private character completed the
+ascendancy which he gained; and no politician could be named
+who, without being a statesman of the highest class, has left a
+name more enviably placed in English history.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. J. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREY, SIR EDWARD,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> 3rd Bart. (1862-&emsp;&emsp;), English
+statesman, was educated at Winchester and at Balliol College,
+Oxford, and succeeded his grandfather, the 2nd baronet, at the
+age of twenty. He entered the House of Commons as Liberal
+member for Berwick-on-Tweed in 1885, but he was best known
+as a country gentleman with a taste for sport, and as amateur
+champion tennis-player. His interest in politics was rather
+languid, but he was a disciple of Lord Rosebery, and in the
+1892-1895 Liberal ministry he was under-secretary for foreign
+affairs. In this position he earned a reputation as a politician
+of thorough straightforwardness and grit, and as one who would
+maintain British interests independently of party; and he shared
+with Mr Asquith the reputation of being the ablest of the
+Imperialists who followed Lord Rosebery. Though outside
+foreign affairs he played but a small part in the period of Liberal
+opposition between 1895 and 1905, he retained public confidence
+as one who was indispensable to a Liberal administration.
+When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s cabinet was formed
+in December 1905 he became foreign minister, and he retained
+this office when in April 1908 Mr Asquith became prime
+minister.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREY, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1812-1898), British colonial governor
+and statesman, only son of Lieutenant-Colonel Grey of the
+30th Foot, was born in Lisbon on the 14th of April 1812, eight
+days after the death of his father at the storming of Badajoz.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span>
+He passed through Sandhurst with credit, and received his commission
+in 1829. His lieutenancy was dated 1833, and his
+captaincy 1839, in which year he sold out and left the army.
+In the early &rsquo;thirties he was quartered in Ireland, where the
+wretchedness of the poorer classes left a deep impression on his
+mind. In 1836 the Royal Geographical Society accepted his
+offer to explore the north-west region of West Australia, and
+accordingly he landed at Hanover Bay at the end of 1837.
+The surrounding country he found broken and difficult, and his
+hardships were aggravated by the tropical heat and his ignorance
+of the continent. In a skirmish with the natives, in which he
+was speared near the hip, he showed great courage, and put the
+assailants to flight, shooting the chief, who had wounded him.
+After a brave endeavour to continue his journey his wound
+forced him to retreat to the coast, whence he sailed to Mauritius
+to recruit. Next year he again essayed exploration, this time
+on the coast to the north and south of Shark&rsquo;s Bay. He had
+three whale-boats and an ample supply of provisions, but by a
+series of disasters his stores were spoilt by storms, his boats
+wrecked in the surf, and the party had to tramp on foot from
+Gantheaume Bay to Perth, where Grey, in the end, walked in
+alone, so changed by suffering that friends did not know him.
+In 1839 he was appointed governor-resident at Albany, and
+during his stay there married Harriett, daughter of Admiral
+Spencer, and also prepared for publication an account, in two
+volumes, of his expeditions. In 1840 he returned to England, to
+be immediately appointed by Lord John Russell to succeed
+Colonel Gawler as governor of South Australia. Reaching the
+colony in May 1841, he found it in the depths of a depression
+caused by mismanagement and insane land speculation. By
+rigorously reducing public expenditure, and forcing the settlers
+to quit the town and betake themselves to tilling their lands,
+and with the opportune help of valuable copper discoveries,
+Grey was able to aid the infant colony to emerge from the slough.
+So striking were his energy and determination that when, in
+1845, the little settlements in New Zealand were found to be
+involved in a native war, and on the verge of ruin, he was sent
+to save them. The Maori chiefs in open rebellion were defeated,
+and made their submission. Another powerful leader suspected
+of fomenting discontent was arrested, and friendly chieftains
+were subsidized and honoured. Bands of the natives were
+employed in making government roads, and were paid good
+wages. The governor gained the veneration of the Maori tribes,
+in whose welfare he took a close personal interest, and of whose
+legends and myths he made a valuable and scholarly collection,
+published in New Zealand in 1855 and reprinted thirty years
+afterwards. With peace prosperity came to New Zealand, and
+the colonial office desired to give the growing settlements full
+self-government. Grey, arguing that this would renew war
+with the Maori, returned the constitution to Downing Street.
+But though the colonial office sustained him, he became involved
+in harassing disputes with the colonists, who organized an active
+agitation for autonomy. In the end a second constitution,
+partly framed by Grey himself, was granted them, and Grey,
+after eight years of despotic but successful rule, was transferred
+to Cape Colony. He had been knighted for his services, and had
+undoubtedly shown strength, dexterity and humanity in dealing
+with the whites and natives. In South Africa his success continued.
+He thwarted a formidable Kaffir rebellion in the Eastern
+Provinces, and pushed on the work of settlement by bringing out
+men from the German Legion and providing them with homes.
+He gained the respect of the British, the confidence of the Boers,
+the admiration and the trust of the natives. The Dutch of the
+Free State and the Basuto chose him as arbitrator of their
+quarrels. When the news of the Indian Mutiny reached Cape
+Town he strained every nerve to help Lord Canning, despatching
+men, horses, stores and £60,000 in specie to Bombay. He persuaded
+a detachment, then on its way round the Cape as a reinforcement
+for Lord Elgin in China, to divert its voyage to Calcutta.
+Finally, in 1859, Grey almost reached what would have been the
+culminating point of his career by federating South Africa.
+Persuaded by him, the Orange Free State passed resolutions in
+favour of this great step, and their action was welcomed by Cape
+Town. But the colonial office disapproved of the change, and
+when Grey attempted to persevere with it Sir Edward Bulwer
+Lytton recalled him. A change of ministry during his voyage to
+England displaced Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton. But though the
+duke of Newcastle reinstated Grey, it was with instructions to
+let federation drop. In 1861 the colonial office sent him, for the
+fourth time in succession, to take up a post of exceptional difficulty
+by again entrusting him with the governorship of New
+Zealand, where an inglorious native war in Taranaki had just
+been succeeded by an armed truce. Grey did his best to make
+terms with the rebels and to re-establish friendship with the
+Maori king and the land league of tribes formed to stop further
+sales of land to the whites. But the Maori had got guns and
+powder, and were suspicious and truculent. In vain Grey,
+supported by Bishop Selwyn and by Fox and the peace party
+among the settlers, strove to avert war. It came in 1863, and
+spread from province to province. Ten thousand regulars and
+as many colonial riflemen were employed to put it down. The
+imperial troops were badly handled, and Grey, losing patience,
+became involved in bitter disputes with their commanders.
+As an example to the former he himself attacked and captured
+Weraroa, the strongest of the Maori stockades, with a handful
+of militia, a feat which delighted the colonists, but made him as
+much disliked at the war office as he now was at Downing Street.
+Moreover, Grey had no longer real control over the islands.
+New Zealand had become a self-governing colony, and though
+he vindicated the colonists generally when libellous imputations
+of cruelty and land-grabbing were freely made against them in
+London, he crossed swords with his ministers when the latter
+confiscated three million acres of tribal land belonging to the
+insurgent Maori. Yet through all these troubles progress was
+made; many successes were gained in 1866, chiefly by the
+colonial militia, and a condition of something like tranquillity
+had been reached in 1867, when he received a curt intimation
+from the duke of Buckingham that he was about to be superseded.
+The colonists, who believed he was sacrificed for upholding their
+interests and good name, bade farewell to him in 1868 in an outburst
+of gratitude and sympathy; but his career as a colonial
+governor was at an end. Returning to England, he tried to enter
+public life, delivered many able speeches advocating what later
+came to be termed Imperialism, and stood for Newark. Discouraged,
+however, by the official Liberals, he withdrew and
+turned again to New Zealand. In 1872 he was given a pension
+of £1000 a year, and settled down on the island of Kawau, not
+far from Auckland, which he bought, and where he passed his
+leisure in planting, gardening and collecting books. In 1875,
+on the invitation of the Auckland settlers, he became superintendent
+of their province, and entered the New Zealand House
+of Representatives to resist the abolition of the provincial
+councils of the colony, a change then being urged on by Sir Julius
+Vogel in alliance with the Centralist Party. In this he failed,
+but his eloquence and courage drew round him a strong Radical
+following, and gave him the premiership in 1877. Manhood
+suffrage, triennial parliaments, a land-tax, the purchase of large
+estates and the popular election of the governor, were leading
+points of his policy. All these reforms, except the last, he lived
+to see carried; none of them were passed by him. A commercial
+depression in 1879 shook his popularity, and on the fall of his
+ministry in 1879 he was deposed, and for the next fifteen years
+remained a solitary and pathetic figure in the New Zealand
+parliament, respectfully treated, courteously listened to, but never
+again invited to lead. In 1891 he came before Australia as one of
+the New Zealand delegates to the federal convention at Sydney,
+and characteristically made his mark by standing out almost
+alone for &ldquo;one man one vote&rdquo; as the federal franchise. This
+point he carried, and the Australians thronged to hear him, so
+that his visits to Victoria and South Australia were personal
+triumphs. When, too, in 1894, he quitted New Zealand for
+London, some reparation was at last made him by the imperial
+government; he was called to the privy council, and graciously
+received by Queen Victoria on his visit to Windsor. Thereafter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span>
+he lived in London, and died on the 20th of September 1898. He
+was given a public funeral at St Paul&rsquo;s. Grey was all his life
+a collector of books and manuscripts. After leaving Cape
+Colony, he gave his library to Cape Town in 1862; his subsequent
+collection, which numbered 12,000 volumes, he presented to the
+citizens of Auckland in 1887. In gratitude the people of Cape
+Town erected a statue of him opposite their library building.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Lives</i> of Sir George Grey have been written by W. L. and L. Rees
+(1892), Professor G. C. Henderson (1907) and J. Collier (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. P. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREY, HENRY GREY,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Earl</span> (1802-1894), English
+statesman, was born on the 28th of December 1802, the son of
+the 2nd Earl Grey, prime minister at the time of the Reform
+Bill of 1832. He entered parliament in 1826, under the title of
+Viscount Howick, as member for Winchelsea, which constituency
+he left in 1831 for Northumberland. On the accession of the
+Whigs to power in 1830 he was made under-secretary for the
+colonies, and laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance
+with colonial questions. He belonged at the time to the more
+advanced party of colonial reformers, sharing the views of
+Edward Gibbon Wakefield on questions of land and emigration,
+and resigned in 1834 from dissatisfaction that slave emancipation
+was made gradual instead of immediate. In 1835 he entered
+Lord Melbourne&rsquo;s cabinet as secretary at war, and effected
+some valuable administrative reforms, especially by suppressing
+malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the partial
+reconstruction of the ministry in 1839 he again resigned, disapproving
+of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues.
+These repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotchetiness,
+which he did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his
+old colleagues by his action on free trade questions in the session
+of 1841. During the exile of the Liberals from power he went
+still farther on the path of free trade, and anticipated Lord
+John Russell&rsquo;s declaration against the corn laws. When, on
+Sir Robert Peel&rsquo;s resignation in December 1845, Lord John
+Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had
+become Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding
+July, refused to enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were
+foreign secretary (see J. R. Thursfield in vol. i. and Hon. F. H.
+Baring in vol. xxiii. of the <i>English Historical Review</i>). He was
+greatly censured for perverseness, and particularly when in the
+following July he accepted Lord Palmerston as a colleague
+without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded Lord
+John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation. Becoming
+colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere
+confronted with arduous problems, which in the main he encountered
+with success. His administration formed an epoch.
+He was the first minister to proclaim that the colonies were to
+be governed for their own benefit and not for the mother-country&rsquo;s;
+the first systematically to accord them self-government
+so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce free
+trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The
+concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from
+the mother-country <i>ad libitum</i> was not his; he protested against
+it, but was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he
+could not overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion;
+in New Zealand he suspended the constitution he had himself
+accorded, and yielded everything into the masterful hands of
+Sir George Grey. The least successful part of his administration
+was his treatment of the convict question at the Cape of Good
+Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule that the colonies
+were to be governed for their own benefit and in accordance with
+their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating defeat.
+After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his colonial
+policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell, a dry but
+instructive book (<i>Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell&rsquo;s Administration</i>,
+1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No
+room was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and
+although during the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed
+to him as the fittest man as minister for war, he never again
+held office. During the remainder of his long life he exercised
+a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In 1858 he wrote a work
+(republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in 1888 he wrote
+another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the United
+States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor
+of weighty letters to <i>The Times</i> on land, tithes, currency and
+other public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances
+were when he moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866,
+and when in 1878 he passionately opposed the policy of the
+Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He nevertheless supported Lord
+Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s accession
+to power with much greater alarm. He was a determined
+opponent of Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s Home Rule policy. He died on the
+9th of October 1894. None ever doubted his capacity or his
+conscientiousness, but he was generally deemed impracticable
+and disagreeable. Prince Albert, however, who expressed
+himself as ready to subscribe to all Grey&rsquo;s principles, and
+applauded him for having principles, told Stockmar that, although
+dogmatic, he was amenable to argument; and Sir Henry
+Taylor credits him with &ldquo;more freedom from littlenesses of
+feeling than I have met before in any public man.&rdquo; His chief
+defect was perceived and expressed by his original tutor and
+subsequent adversary in colonial affairs, Edward Gibbon Wakefield,
+who wrote, &ldquo;With more than a common talent for understanding
+principles, he has no originality of thought, which
+compels him to take all his ideas from somebody; and no power
+of working out theory in practice, which compels him to be
+always in somebody&rsquo;s hands as respects decision and action.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The earl had no sons, and he was followed as 4th earl by his
+nephew Albert Henry George (b. 1851), who in 1904 became
+governor-general of Canada.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREY, LADY JANE<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1537-1554), a lady remarkable no
+less for her accomplishments than for her misfortunes, was the
+great-granddaughter of Henry VII. of England. Her descent
+from that king was traced through a line of females. His
+second daughter Mary, after being left a widow by Louis XII.
+of France, married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, who was
+a favourite with her brother King Henry VIII. Of this marriage
+came two daughters, the elder of whom, Lady Frances Brandon,
+was married to Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset; and their
+issue, again, consisted of daughters only. Lady Jane, the
+subject of this article, was the eldest of three whom the marquess
+had by Lady Frances. Thus it will appear that even if the crown
+of England had ever fallen into the female line of descent from
+Henry VII., she could not have put in a rightful claim unless the
+issue of his elder daughter, Margaret, had become extinct.
+But Margaret had married James IV. of Scotland; and, though
+her descendant, James VI., was ultimately called to the English
+throne, Henry VIII. had placed her family after that of his second
+sister in the succession; so that, failing the lawful issue of Henry
+himself, Lady Jane would, according to this arrangement,
+have succeeded. It was to these circumstances that she owed
+her exceptional position in history, and became the victim of an
+ambition which was not her own.</p>
+
+<p>She was born at her father&rsquo;s seat named Bradgate in Leicestershire
+about the year 1537. Her parents, though severe disciplinarians,
+bestowed more than ordinary care upon her education,
+and she herself was so teachable and delighted so much in study
+that she became the marvel of the age for her acquirements.
+She not only excelled in needlework and in music, both vocal
+and instrumental, but while still very young she had thoroughly
+mastered Latin, Greek, French and Italian. She was able to
+speak and write both Greek and Latin with an accuracy that
+satisfied even such critics as Ascham and her tutor Dr Aylmer,
+afterwards bishop of London. She also acquired some knowledge
+of at least three Oriental tongues, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic.
+In Ascham&rsquo;s <i>Schoolmaster</i> is given a touching account of the
+devotion with which she pursued her studies and the harshness
+she experienced from her parents. The love of learning was her
+solace; in reading Demosthenes and Plato she found a refuge
+from domestic unhappiness. When about ten years old she
+was placed for a time in the household of Thomas, Lord Seymour,
+who, having obtained her wardship, induced her parents to let
+her stay with him, even after the death of his wife, Queen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span>
+Catherine Parr, by promising to marry her to his nephew, King
+Edward VI. Lord Seymour, however, was attainted of high
+treason and beheaded in 1549, and his brother, the duke of
+Somerset, made some overtures to the marquess of Dorset to
+marry her to his son the earl of Hertford. These projects,
+however, came to nothing. The duke of Somerset in his turn
+fell a victim to the ambition of Dudley, duke of Northumberland,
+and was beheaded three years after his brother. Meanwhile,
+the dukedom of Suffolk having become extinct by the deaths
+of Charles Brandon and his two sons, the title was conferred
+upon the marquess of Dorset, Lady Jane&rsquo;s father. Northumberland,
+who was now all-powerful, fearing a great reverse of fortune
+in case of the king&rsquo;s death, as his health began visibly to decline,
+endeavoured to strengthen himself by marriages between his
+family and those of other powerful noblemen, especially of the
+new-made duke of Suffolk. His three eldest sons being already
+married, the fourth, who was named Lord Guilford Dudley,
+was accordingly wedded to Lady Jane Grey about the end of
+May 1553. The match received the full approval of the king,
+who furnished the wedding apparel of the parties by royal
+warrant. But Edward&rsquo;s state of health warned Northumberland
+that he must lose no time in putting the rest of his project into
+execution. He persuaded the king that if the crown should
+descend to his sister Mary the work of the Reformation would
+be undone and the liberties of the kingdom would be in danger.
+Besides, both Mary and her sister Elizabeth had been declared
+illegitimate by separate acts of parliament, and the objections
+to Mary queen of Scots did not require to be pointed out.
+Edward was easily persuaded to break through his father&rsquo;s will
+and make a new settlement of the crown by deed. The document
+was witnessed by the signatures of all the council and of all but
+one of the judges; but those of the latter body were obtained
+only with difficulty by threats and intimidation.</p>
+
+<p>Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553, and it was announced
+to Lady Jane that she was queen. She was then but sixteen
+years of age. The news came upon her as a most unwelcome
+surprise, and for some time she resisted all persuasions to accept
+the fatal dignity; but at length she yielded to the entreaties
+of her father, her father-in-law and her husband. The better
+to mature their plans the cabal had kept the king&rsquo;s death secret
+for some days, but they proclaimed Queen Jane in the city on
+the 10th. The people received the announcement with manifest
+coldness, and a vintner&rsquo;s boy was even so bold as to raise a cry
+for Queen Mary, for which he next day had his ears nailed to the
+pillory and afterwards cut off. Mary, however, had received
+early intimation of her brother&rsquo;s death, and, retiring from
+Hunsdon into Norfolk, gathered round her the nobility and
+commons of those parts. Northumberland was despatched
+thither with an army to oppose her; but after reaching Newmarket
+he complained that the council had not sent him forces
+in sufficient numbers and his followers began to desert. News
+also came that the earl of Oxford had declared for Queen Mary;
+and as most of the council themselves were only seeking an
+opportunity to wash their hands of rebellion, they procured a
+meeting at Baynard&rsquo;s Castle, revoked their former acts as done
+under coercion, and caused the lord mayor to proclaim Queen
+Mary, which he did amid the shouts of the citizens. The duke of
+Suffolk was obliged to tell his daughter that she must lay aside
+her royal dignity and become a private person once more. She
+replied that she relinquished most willingly a crown that she
+had only accepted out of obedience to him and her mother,
+and her nine days&rsquo; reign was over.</p>
+
+<p>The leading actors in the conspiracy were now called to
+answer for their deeds. Northumberland was brought up
+to London a prisoner, tried and sent to the block, along with
+some of his partisans. The duke of Suffolk and Lady Jane were
+also committed to the Tower; but the former, by the influence
+of his duchess, procured a pardon. Lady Jane and her husband
+Lord Guilford Dudley were also tried, and received sentence
+of death for treason. This, however, was not immediately
+carried out; on the contrary, the queen seems to have wished
+to spare their lives and mitigated the rigour of their confinement.
+Unfortunately, owing to the general dislike of the queen&rsquo;s
+marriage with Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas Wyat soon after
+raised a rebellion in which the duke of Suffolk and his brothers
+took part, and on its suppression the queen was persuaded that
+it was unsafe to spare the lives of Lady Jane and her husband
+any longer. On hearing that they were to die, Lady Jane
+declined a parting interview with her husband lest it should
+increase their pain, and prepared to meet her fate with Christian
+fortitude. She and her husband were executed on the same day,
+on the 12th of February 1554, her husband on Tower Hill, and
+herself within the Tower an hour afterwards, amidst universal
+sympathy and compassion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ascham&rsquo;s <i>Schoolmaster</i>; Burnet&rsquo;s <i>History of the Reformation</i>;
+Howard&rsquo;s <i>Lady Jane Grey</i>; Nicolas&rsquo;s Literary <i>Remains of Lady Jane
+Grey</i>; Tytler&rsquo;s <i>England under Edward VI. and Mary</i>; <i>The Chronicles
+of Queen Jane</i>, ed. J. G. Nichols; <i>The Accession of Queen Mary</i>
+(Guaras&rsquo;s narrative), ed. R. Garnett (1892); Foxe&rsquo;s <i>Acts and
+Monuments</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREY DE WILTON<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> and <span class="sc">Grey de Ruthyn</span>. The first Baron
+Grey de Wilton was Reginald de Grey, who was summoned to
+parliament as a baron in 1295 and who died in 1308. Reginald&rsquo;s
+son John, the 2nd baron (1268-1323), was one of the lords
+ordainers in 1310 and was a prominent figure in English politics
+during the reign of Edward II. The later barons Grey de Wilton
+were descended from John&rsquo;s eldest son Henry (d. 1342), while a
+younger son Roger (d. 1353) was the ancestor of the barons
+Grey de Ruthyn.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">William, 13th Lord Grey de Wilton</span> (d. 1562), who succeeded
+to the title on the death of his brother Richard, about
+1520, won great fame as a soldier by his conduct in France
+during the concluding years of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign, and was one
+of the leaders of the victorious English army at the battle of
+Pinkie in 1547. He was then employed on the Scottish marches
+and in Scotland, and in 1549 he rendered good service in suppressing
+the rebellion in Oxfordshire and in the west of England;
+in 1551 he was imprisoned as a friend of the fallen protector,
+the duke of Somerset, and he was concerned in the attempt made
+by John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, to place Lady Jane
+Grey on the English throne In 1553. However, he was pardoned
+by Queen Mary and was entrusted with the defence of Guînes.
+Although indifferently supported he defended the town with
+great gallantry, but in January 1558 he was forced to surrender
+and for some time he remained a prisoner in France. Under
+Elizabeth, Grey was again employed on the Scottish border,
+and he was responsible for the pertinacious but unavailing
+attempt to capture Leith in May 1560. He died at Cheshunt
+in Hertfordshire on the 14th/25th of December 1562.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He was described by William Cecil as &ldquo;a noble, valiant, painful
+and careful gentleman,&rdquo; and his son and successor, Arthur, wrote
+<i>A Commentary of the Services and Charges of William, Lord Grey of
+Wilton, K.G.</i> This has been edited by Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton
+for the Camden Society (1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Grey&rsquo;s elder son <span class="sc">Arthur, 14th Lord Grey de Wilton</span> (1536-1593),
+was during early life with his father in France and in
+Scotland; he fought at the battle of St Quentin and helped to
+defend Guînes and to assault Leith. In July 1580 he was
+appointed lord deputy of Ireland, and after an initial defeat in
+Wicklow was successful in reducing many of the rebels to a
+temporary submission. Perhaps the most noteworthy event
+during his tenure of this office was the massacre of 600 Italians
+and Spaniards at Smerwick in November 1580, an action for
+which he was responsible. Having incurred a heavy burden of
+debt Grey frequently implored the queen to recall him, and in
+August 1582 he was allowed to return to England (see E.
+Spenser, <i>View of the State of Ireland</i>, edited by H. Morley, 1890,
+and R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland under the Tudors</i>, vol. iii., 1890). While
+in Ireland Grey was served as secretary by Edmund Spenser,
+and in book v. of the <i>Faerie Queene</i> the poet represents his
+patron as a knight of very noble qualities named Artegall. As
+one of the commissioners who tried Mary queen of Scots, Grey
+defended the action of Elizabeth&rsquo;s secretary, William Davison,
+with regard to this matter, and he took part in the preparations
+for the defence of England against the Spaniards in 1588. His
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span>
+account of the defence of Guînes was used by Holinshed in his
+<i>Chronicles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When he died on the 14th of October 1593 he was succeeded
+as 15th baron by his son <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (d. 1614), who while serving in
+Ireland incurred the enmity of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex,
+and of Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton; and after
+fighting against Spain in the Netherlands he was a member of
+the court which sentenced these two noblemen to death in 1601.
+On the accession of James I. he was arrested for his share in the
+&ldquo;Bye&rdquo; plot, an attempt made by William Watson and others
+to seize the king. He was tried and sentenced to death, but the
+sentence was not carried out and he remained in prison until his
+death on the 9th of July 1614. He displayed both ability and
+courage at his trial, remarking after sentence had been passed,
+&ldquo;the house of Wilton hath spent many lives in their prince&rsquo;s
+service and Grey cannot beg his.&rdquo; Like his father Grey was a
+strong Puritan. He left no children and his barony became
+extinct.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1784 Sir Thomas Egerton, Bart., a descendant in the female
+line of the 14th baron, was created Baron Grey de Wilton. He died
+without sons in September 1814, when his barony became extinct;
+but the titles of Viscount Grey de Wilton and earl of Wilton, which
+had been conferred upon him in 1801, passed to Thomas Grosvenor
+(1799-1882), the second son of his daughter Eleanor (d. 1846); and
+her husband Robert Grosvenor, 1st marquess of Westminster.
+Thomas took the name of Egerton and his descendants still hold the
+titles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Roger Grey, 1st Baron Grey de Ruthyn</span>, who was summoned
+to parliament as a baron in 1324, saw much service as a
+soldier before his death on the 6th of March 1353. The second
+baron was his son Reginald, whose son <span class="sc">Reginald</span> (<i>c.</i> 1362-1440)
+succeeded to the title on his father&rsquo;s death in July 1388. In
+1410 after a long dispute the younger Reginald won the right to
+bear the arms of the Hastings family. He enjoyed the favour
+both of Richard II. and Henry IV., and his chief military exploits
+were against the Welsh, who took him prisoner in 1402 and only
+released him upon payment of a heavy ransom. Grey was a
+member of the council which governed England during the
+absence of Henry V. in France in 1415; he fought in the French
+wars in 1420 and 1421 and died on the 30th of September 1440.
+His eldest son, Sir John Grey, K.G. (d. 1439), who predeceased
+his father, fought at Agincourt and was deputy of Ireland in 1427.
+He was the father of <span class="sc">Edmund Grey</span> (d. 1489), who succeeded
+his grandfather as Lord Grey de Ruthyn in 1440 and was created
+earl of Kent in 1465.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>One of Reginald Grey&rsquo;s younger sons, Edward (1415-1457),
+succeeded his maternal grandfather as Baron Ferrers of Groby in
+1445. He was the ancestor of the earls of Stamford and also of the
+Greys, marquesses of Dorset and dukes of Suffolk.</p>
+
+<p>The barony of Grey de Ruthyn was merged in the earldom of
+Kent until the death of Henry, the 8th earl, in November 1639.
+It then devolved upon Kent&rsquo;s nephew Charles Longueville (1612-1643),
+through whose daughter Susan (d. 1676) it came to the family
+of Yelverton, who were earls of Sussex from 1717 to 1799. The next
+holder was Henry Edward Gould (1780-1810), a grandson of Henry
+Yelverton, earl of Sussex; and through Gould&rsquo;s daughter Barbara,
+marchioness of Hastings (d. 1858), it passed to the last marquess of
+Hastings, on whose death in 1868 the barony fell into abeyance, this
+being terminated in 1885 in favour of Hastings&rsquo;s sister Bertha
+(d. 1887), the wife of Augustus Wykeham Clifton. Their son,
+Rawdon George Grey Clifton (b. 1858), succeeded his mother as 24th
+holder of the barony.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREYMOUTH,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a seaport of New Zealand, the principal port
+on the west coast of South Island, in Grey county. Pop. (1906)
+4569. It stands on the small estuary of the Grey or Mawhera
+river, has a good harbour, and railway communication with
+Hokitika, Reefton, &amp;c., while the construction of a line to connect
+with Christchurch and Nelson was begun in 1887. The district
+is both auriferous and coal-bearing. Gold-dredging is a rich
+industry, and the coal-mines have attendant industries in coke,
+bricks and fire-clay. The timber trade is also well developed.
+The neighbouring scenery is picturesque, especially among the
+hills surrounding Lake Brunner (15 m. S.E.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREYTOWN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (<span class="sc">San Juan del Norte</span>), the principal seaport on
+the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, in the extreme south-eastern
+corner of the republic, and at the mouth of the northern channel
+of the San Juan river delta. Pop. (1905) about 2500. The town
+occupies the seaward side of a narrow peninsula, formed by the
+windings of the river. Most of its houses are raised on piles
+2 or 3 ft. above the ground. The neighbourhood is unhealthy
+and unsuited for agriculture, so that almost all food-stuffs must
+be imported, and the cost of living is high. Greytown has
+suffered severely from the accumulation of sand in its once fine
+harbour. Between 1832 and 1848 Point Arenas, the seaward
+end of the peninsula, was enlarged by a sandbank more than
+1 m. long; between 1850 and 1875 the depth of water over the
+bar decreased from about 25 ft. to 5 ft., and the entrance channel,
+which had been nearly ½ m. wide, was almost closed. Subsequent
+attempts to improve the harbour by dredging and building
+jetties have only had partial success; but Greytown remains
+the headquarters of Nicaraguan commerce with Europe and
+eastern America. The village called America, 1 m. N., was
+built as the eastern terminus of a proposed interoceanic canal.</p>
+
+<p>The harbour of San Juan, discovered by Columbus, was
+brought into further notice by Captain Diego Machuca, who in
+1529 sailed down the river from Lake Nicaragua. The date of
+the first Spanish settlement on the spot is not known, but in the
+17th century there were fortifications at the mouth of the river.
+In 1796 San Juan was made a port of entry by royal charter,
+and new defences were erected in 1821. In virtue of the protectorate
+claimed by Great Britain over the Mosquito Coast
+(<i>q.v.</i>), the Mosquito Indians, aided by a British force, seized the
+town in 1848 and occupied it until 1860, when Great Britain
+ceded its protectorate to Nicaragua by the treaty of Managua.
+This treaty secured religious liberty and trial by jury for all
+civil and criminal charges in Greytown; its seventh article
+declared the port free, but was never enforced.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREYWACKE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Grauwacke</span> (a German word signifying
+a grey earthy rock), the designation, formerly more generally
+used by English geologists than at the present day, for impure,
+highly composite, gritty rocks belonging to the Palaeozoic
+systems. They correspond to the sandstones, grits and fine
+conglomerates of the later periods. Greywackes are mostly
+grey, brown, yellow or black, dull-coloured, sandy rocks which
+may occur in thick or thin beds along with slates, limestones, &amp;c.,
+and are abundant in Wales, the south of Scotland and the Lake
+district of England. They contain a very great variety of
+minerals, of which the principal are quartz, orthoclase and
+plagioclase, calcite, iron oxides and graphitic carbonaceous
+matters, together with (in the coarser kinds) fragments of such
+rocks as felsite, chert, slate, gneiss, various schists, quartzite.
+Among other minerals found in them are biotite and chlorite,
+tourmaline, epidote, apatite, garnet, hornblende and augite,
+sphene, pyrites. The cementing material may be siliceous or
+argillaceous, and is sometimes calcareous. As a rule greywackes
+are not fossiliferous, but organic remains may be common in
+the finer beds associated with them. Their component particles
+are usually not much rounded by attrition, and the rocks have
+often been considerably indurated by pressure and mineral
+changes, such as the introduction of interstitial silica. In some
+districts the greywackes are cleaved, but they show phenomena
+of this kind much less perfectly than the slates. Although the
+group is so diverse that it is difficult to characterize mineralogically,
+it has a well-established place in petrographical
+classifications, because these peculiar composite arenaceous
+deposits are very frequent among Silurian and Cambrian rocks,
+and rarely occur in Secondary or Tertiary systems. Their
+essential features are their gritty character and their complex
+composition. By increasing metamorphism greywackes frequently
+pass into mica-schists, chloride schists and sedimentary
+gneisses.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1715-1789), French
+artillery general, was the son of a magistrate of Amiens and was
+born there on the 15th of September 1715. He entered the
+French royal artillery in 1732 as a volunteer, and became an
+officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years regimental duty and
+scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became captain of a
+company of miners. A few years later he was employed in a
+military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being then a lieutenant-colonel,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span>
+he was lent to the Austrian army on the outbreak of the
+Seven Years&rsquo; War, and served as a general officer of artillery.
+The siege of Glatz and the defence of Schweidnitz were his
+principal exploits. The empress Maria Theresa rewarded him
+for his work with the rank of lieutenant field-marshal and the
+cross of the Maria Theresa order. On his return to France he
+was made <i>maréchal de camp</i>, in 1764 inspector of artillery, and
+in 1765 lieutenant-general and commander of the order of St
+Louis. For some years after this he was in disfavour at court,
+and he became first inspector of artillery only in 1776, in which
+year also he received the grand cross of the St Louis order. He
+was now able to carry out the reforms in the artillery arm which
+are his chief title to fame. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>; and for full details
+Gribeauval&rsquo;s own <i>Table des constructions des principaux attirails
+de l&rsquo;artillerie ... de M. de Gribeauval</i>, and the <i>règlement</i> for the
+French artillery issued in 1776. He died in 1789.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Puységur in <i>Journal de Paris</i>, supplement of the 8th of July
+1789; Chevalier de Passac, <i>Précis sur M. de Gribeauval</i> (Paris, 1816);
+Veyrines, <i>Gribeauval</i> (Paris, 1889), and Hennébert, <i>Gribeauval,
+lieutenant-général des armées du roy</i> (Paris, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1795-1829),
+Russian dramatic author, was born in 1795 at Moscow, where
+he studied at the university from 1810 to 1812. He then obtained
+a commission in a hussar regiment, but resigned it in 1816.
+Next year he entered the civil service, and in 1818 was appointed
+secretary of the Russian legation in Persia, whence he was
+transferred to Georgia. He had commenced writing early, and
+had produced on the stage at St Petersburg in 1816 a comedy
+in verse, translated from the French, called <i>The Young Spouses</i>,
+which was followed by other pieces of the same kind. But
+neither these nor the essays and verses which he wrote would
+have been long remembered but for the immense success gained
+by his comedy in verse, <i>Goré ot uma</i>, or &ldquo;Misfortune from
+Intelligence&rdquo; (Eng. trans. by N. Benardaky, 1857). A satire
+upon Russian society, or, as a high official styled it, &ldquo;A pasquinade
+on Moscow,&rdquo; its plot is slight, its merits consisting in its
+accurate representation of certain social and official types&mdash;such
+as Famousoff, the lover of old abuses, the hater of reforms;
+his secretary, Molchanin, servile fawner upon all in office; the
+aristocratic young liberal and Anglomaniac, Repetiloff; contrasted
+with whom is the hero of the piece, Tchatsky, the ironical
+satirist, just returned from the west of Europe, who exposes and
+ridicules the weaknesses of the rest, his words echoing that outcry
+of the young generation of 1820 which reached its climax in the
+military insurrection of 1825, and was then sternly silenced by
+Nicholas. Griboyedov spent the summer of 1823 in Russia,
+completed his play and took it to St Petersburg. There it was
+rejected by the censorship. Many copies were made and privately
+circulated, but Griboyedov never saw it published. The first
+edition was printed in 1833, four years after his death. Only
+once did he see it on the stage, when it was acted by the officers
+of the garrison at Erivan. Soured by disappointment he returned
+to Georgia, made himself useful by his linguistic knowledge to
+his relative Count Paskievitch-Erivansky during a campaign
+against Persia, and was sent to St Petersburg with the treaty
+of 1828. Brilliantly received there, he thought of devoting
+himself to literature, and commenced a romantic drama, <i>A
+Georgian Night</i>. But he was suddenly sent to Persia as minister-plenipotentiary.
+Soon after his arrival at Teheran a tumult
+arose, caused by the anger of the populace against some Georgian
+and Armenian captives&mdash;Russian subjects&mdash;who had taken
+refuge in the Russian embassy. It was stormed, Griboyedov was
+killed (February 11, 1829), and his body was for three days so
+ill-treated by the mob that it was at last recognized only by an
+old scar on the hand, due to a wound received in a duel. It was
+taken to Tiflis, and buried in the monastery of St David. There
+a <span class="correction" title="amended from momument">monument</span> was erected to his memory by his widow, to whom
+he had been but a few months married.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1843-1907), Norwegian musical
+composer, was born on the 15th of June 1843 in Bergen, where
+his father, Alexander Grieg (<i>sic</i>), was English consul. The Grieg
+family were of Scottish origin, but the composer&rsquo;s grandfather,
+a supporter of the Pretender, left his home at Aberdeen after
+Charles Edward&rsquo;s defeat at Culloden, and went to Bergen, where
+he carried on business. The composer&rsquo;s mother, Gesine Hagerup,
+belonged to a pure Norwegian peasant family; and it is from
+the mother rather than from the father that Edvard Grieg
+derived his musical talent. She had been educated as a pianist
+and began to give her son lessons on the pianoforte when he was
+six years of age. His first composition, &ldquo;Variations on a German
+melody,&rdquo; was written at the age of nine. A summer holiday in
+Norway with his father in 1858 seems to have exercised a powerful
+influence on the child&rsquo;s musical imagination, which was easily
+kindled at the sight of mountain and fjord. In the autumn of
+the same year, at the recommendation of Ole Bull, young Grieg
+entered the Leipzig Conservatorium, where he passed, like all
+his contemporaries, under the influence of the Mendelssohn and
+Schumann school of romantics. But the curriculum of academic
+study was too narrow for him. He dreamed half his time away
+and overworked during the other half. In 1862 he completed
+his Leipzig studies, and appeared as pianist and composer
+before his fellow-citizens of Bergen. In 1863 he studied in
+Copenhagen for a short time with Gade and Emil Hartmann,
+both composers representing a sentimental strain of Scandinavian
+temperament, from which Grieg emancipated himself in favour
+of the harder inspiration of Richard Nordraak. &ldquo;The scales
+fell from my eyes,&rdquo; says Grieg of his acquaintance with Nordraak.
+&ldquo;For the first time I learned through him to know the northern
+folk tunes and my own nature. We made a pact to combat the
+effeminate Gade-Mendelssohn mixture of Scandinavism, and
+boldly entered upon the new path along which the northern
+school at present pursues its course.&rdquo; Grieg now made a kind of
+crusade in favour of national music. In the winter of 1864-1865
+he founded the Copenhagen concert-society Euterpe,
+which was intended to produce the works of young Norwegian
+composers. During the winters of 1865-1866 and 1869-1870
+Grieg was in Rome. In the autumn of 1866 he settled in
+Christiania, where from 1867 till 1880 he conducted a musical
+union. From 1880 to 1882 he directed the concerts of the
+Harmonic Society in Bergen. In 1872 the Royal Musical
+Academy of Sweden made Grieg a member; in 1874 the
+Norwegian Storthing granted him an annual stipend of 1600
+kronen. He had already been decorated with the Olaf order in
+1873. In 1888 he played his pianoforte concerto and conducted
+his &ldquo;two melodies for strings&rdquo; at a Philharmonic concert in
+London, and visited England again in 1891, 1894 and 1896,
+receiving the degree of Mus.D. from the university of Cambridge
+in 1894. He died at Bergen on the 4th of September 1907.</p>
+
+<p>As a composer Grieg&rsquo;s distinguishing quality is lyrical.
+Whether his orchestral works or his songs or his best pianoforte
+works are submitted to examination, it is almost always the note
+of song that tells. Sometimes, as in the music to Ibsen&rsquo;s <i>Peer
+Gynt</i>, or in the suite for stringed orchestra, <i>Aus Holbergs Zeit</i>,
+this characteristic is combined with a strong power for raising
+pictures in the listener&rsquo;s mind, and the romantic &ldquo;programme&rdquo;
+tendency in Grieg&rsquo;s music becomes clearer the farther writers
+like Richard Strauss carry this movement. Grieg&rsquo;s songs may
+be said to be generally the more spontaneous the more closely
+they conform to the simple model of the <i>Volkslied</i>; yet the
+much sung &ldquo;Ich liebe dich&rdquo; is a song of a different kind, which
+has hardly ever been surpassed for the perfection with which it
+depicts a strong momentary emotion, and it is difficult to ascribe
+greater merits to songs of Grieg even so characteristic as &ldquo;Solvejg&rsquo;s
+Lied&rdquo; and &ldquo;Ein Schwan.&rdquo; The pianoforte concerto is
+brilliant and spontaneous; it has been performed by most
+pianists of the first rank, but its essential qualities and the pure
+nationality of its themes have been brought out to their perfection
+by one player only&mdash;the Norwegian pianist Knudsen. The
+first and second of Grieg&rsquo;s violin sonatas are agreeable, so free
+and artless is the flow of their melody. In his numerous piano
+pieces and in those of his songs which are devoid of a definitely
+national inspiration the impression made is less permanent.
+Bülow called Grieg the &ldquo;Chopin of the North.&rdquo; The phrase
+is an exaggeration rather than an expression of the truth, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span>
+the range of the appeal in Chopin is far wider, nor has the national
+movement inaugurated by Grieg shown promise of great development.
+He is rather to be regarded as the pioneer of a musical
+mission which has been perfectly carried out by himself alone.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See La Mara, <i>Edvard Grieg</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1745-1812), German biblical
+critic, was born at Butzbach, a small town of Hesse-Darmstadt,
+where his father, Konrad Kaspar (1705-1777), was pastor, on
+the 4th of January 1745. He was educated at Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+and at the universities of Tübingen, Leipzig and Halle,
+where he became one of J. S. Semler&rsquo;s most ardent disciples.
+It was Semler who induced him to turn his attention to the
+textual criticism of the New Testament. At the close of his
+undergraduate career he undertook a literary tour through
+Germany, Holland, France and England. On his return to
+Halle, he acted for some time as <i>Privatdozent</i>, but in 1773 was
+appointed to a professorial chair; in 1775 he was translated to
+Jena, where the rest of his life was spent (though he received calls
+to other universities). He died on the 24th of March 1812.
+Griesbach&rsquo;s fame rests upon his work in New Testament criticism,
+in which he inaugurated a new epoch.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His critical edition of the New Testament first appeared at Halle,
+in three volumes, in 1774-1775. The first volume contained the first
+three Gospels, synoptically arranged; the second, the Epistles and
+the book of Revelation. All the historical books were reprinted
+in one volume in 1777, the synoptical arrangement of the Gospels
+having been abandoned as inconvenient. Of the second edition,
+considerably enlarged and improved, the first volume appeared in
+1796 and the second in 1806 (Halle and London). Of a third edition,
+edited by David Schulz, only the first volume, containing the four
+Gospels, appeared (1827).</p>
+
+<p>For the construction of his critical text Griesbach took as his basis
+the Elzevir edition. Where he differed from it he placed the Elzevir
+reading on the inner margin along with other readings he thought
+worthy of special consideration (these last, however, being printed
+in smaller type). To all the readings on this margin he attached
+special marks indicating the precise degree of probability in his
+opinion attaching to each. In weighing these probabilities he proceeded
+upon a particular theory which in its leading features he had
+derived from J. A. Bengel and J. S. Semler, dividing all the MSS.
+into three main groups&mdash;the Alexandrian, the Western and the
+Byzantine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: <i>New Testament</i>, &ldquo;Textual Criticism&rdquo;).
+A reading supported by only one recension he considered as having
+only one witness in its favour; those readings which were supported
+by all the three recensions, or even by two of them, especially if
+these two were the Alexandrian and the Western, he unhesitatingly
+accepted as genuine. Only when each of the three recensions gives
+a different reading does he proceed to discuss the question on other
+grounds. See his <i>Symbolae criticae ad supplendas et corrigendas
+variarum N.T. lectionum collectiones</i> (Halle, 1785, 1793), and his
+<i>Commentarius criticus in textum Graecum N.T.</i>, which extends to
+the end of Mark, and discusses the more important various readings
+with great care and thoroughness (Jena, 1794 ff.). Among the other
+works of Griesbach (which are comparatively unimportant) may be
+mentioned his university thesis <i>De codicibus quatuor evangelistarum
+Origenianis</i> (Halle, 1771) and a work upon systematic theology
+(<i>Anleitung zur Kenntniss der populären Dogmatik</i>, Jena, 1779).
+His <i>Opuscula</i>, consisting chiefly of university &ldquo;Programs&rdquo; and
+addresses, were edited by Gabler (2 vols., Jena, 1824).</p>
+
+<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, and the
+<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIESBACH,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a watering-place in the grand duchy of Baden,
+in the valley of the Rench, 1550 ft. above the sea, 6 m. W. from
+Freudenstadt in Württemberg. It is celebrated for its saline
+chalybeate waters (twelve springs), which are specific in cases
+of anaemia, feminine disorders and diseases of the nervous
+system, and were used in the 16th century. The annual number
+of visitors is nearly 2000. Pop. (1900) 800. From 1665 to 1805
+Griesbach was part of the bishopric of Strassburg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Haberer, <i>Die Renchbäder Petersthal und Griesbach</i> (Würzburg,
+1866).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIFFE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (French for &ldquo;claw&rdquo;), an architectural term for the
+spur, an ornament carved at the angle of the square base of
+columns.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (<i>Peder Schumacher</i>) (1635-1699),
+Danish statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th
+of August 1635, of a wealthy trading family connected with the
+leading civic, clerical and learned circles in the Danish capital.
+His tutor, Jens Vorde, who prepared him in his eleventh year
+for the university, praises his extraordinary gifts, his mastery
+of the classical languages and his almost disquieting diligence.
+The brilliant way in which he sustained his preliminary examination
+won him the friendship of the examiner, Bishop Jasper
+Brokman, at whose palace he first met Frederick III. The king
+was struck with the lad&rsquo;s bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous
+face; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a
+chapter from a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into
+Danish, for the entertainment of the scholarly monarch. In 1654
+young Schumacher went abroad for eight years, to complete
+his education. From Germany he proceeded to the Netherlands,
+staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam, and passing in 1657
+to Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford, where he lived three years. The
+epoch-making events which occurred in England, while he was
+at Oxford, profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the
+Revolution in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle
+classes, convinced him that his proper sphere was politics. In
+the autumn of 1660 Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after
+Mazarin&rsquo;s death, when the young Louis XIV. first seized the
+reins of power. Schumacher seems to have been profoundly
+impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong centralised
+monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew
+his own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever
+afterwards was his model. The last year of his travels was
+spent in Spain, where he obtained a thorough knowledge of the
+Castilian language and literature. His travels, however, if they
+enriched his mind, relaxed his character, and he brought home
+easy morals as well as exquisite manners.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the
+monarchy established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager
+to buy the services of every man of the middle classes who had
+superior talents to offer. Determined to make his way in this
+&ldquo;new Promised Land,&rdquo; the young adventurer contrived to
+secure the protection of Kristoffer Gabel, the king&rsquo;s confidant,
+and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A romantic
+friendship with the king&rsquo;s bastard, Count Ulric Frederick
+Gyldenlöve, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher
+obtained his first political post as the king&rsquo;s secretary, and the
+same year composed the memorable <i>Kongelov</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>). He was now a personage at court, where he won all
+hearts by his amiability and gaiety; and in political matters
+also his influence was beginning to be felt.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Frederick III. (February 9th, 1670)
+Schumacher was the most trusted of all the royal counsellors.
+He alone was aware of the existence of the new throne of walrus
+ivory embellished with three silver life-size lions, and of the new
+regalia, both of which treasures he had, by the king&rsquo;s command,
+concealed in a vault beneath the royal castle. Frederick III.
+had also confided to him a sealed packet containing the <i>Kongelov</i>,
+which was to be delivered to his successor alone. Schumacher
+had been recommended to his son by Frederick III. on his death-bed.
+&ldquo;Make him a great man, but do it slowly!&rdquo; said Frederick,
+who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his
+minister. Christian V. was, moreover, deeply impressed by the
+confidence which his father had ever shown to Schumacher.
+When, on the 9th of February 1670, Schumacher delivered
+the <i>Kongelov</i> to Christian V., the king bade all those about him
+withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with Schumacher,
+appointed him his &ldquo;Obergeheimesekreter.&rdquo; His promotion
+was now almost disquietingly rapid. In May 1670 he received
+the titles of excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same
+year he was ennobled under the name of Griffenfeldt, deriving
+his title from the gold griffin with outspread wings which surmounted
+his escutcheon; in November 1673 he was created a
+count, a knight of the Elephant and, finally, imperial chancellor.
+In the course of the next few months he gathered into his hands
+every branch of the government: he had reached the apogee
+of his short-lived greatness.</p>
+
+<p>But if his offices were manifold, so also were his talents.
+Seldom has any man united so many and such various gifts in
+his own person and carried them so easily&mdash;a playful wit, a
+vivid imagination, oratorical and literary eloquence and, above
+all, a profound knowledge of human nature both male and female,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span>
+of every class and rank, from the king to the meanest citizen.
+He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III. by his
+literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse
+and ignorant Christian V. by saving him trouble, by acting and
+thinking for him, and at the same time making him believe
+that he was thinking and acting for himself. Moreover, his
+commanding qualities were coupled with an organizing talent
+which made itself felt in every department of the state, and
+with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal
+diplomatist.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of May 1671 the dignities of count and baron
+were introduced into Denmark &ldquo;to give lustre to the court&rdquo;;
+a few months later the order of the Danebrog was instituted as a
+fresh means of winning adherents by marks of favour. Griffenfeldt
+was the originator of these new institutions. To him
+monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he had also
+a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its reverses,
+still remained the élite of society; and Griffenfeldt, the son of
+a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most
+determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing
+their existence entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent
+into aristocratic circles. Griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the
+first at court would be the first everywhere. Much was also done
+to promote trade and industry, notably by the revival of the
+<i>Kammer Kollegium</i>, or board of trade, and the abolition of some
+of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher and the
+provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the
+view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the
+positions and duties of the various magistrates, who now also
+received fixed salaries, were for the first time exactly defined.
+But what Griffenfeldt could create, Griffenfeldt could dispense
+with, and it was not long before he began to encroach upon the
+jurisdiction of the new departments of state by private conferences
+with their chiefs. Nevertheless it is indisputable that,
+under the single direction of this master-mind, the Danish state
+was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as it had
+never done before.</p>
+
+<p>In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeldt gave
+himself entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark.
+It is difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence
+was perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second
+place, because the force of circumstances compelled him,
+again and again, to shift his standpoint; and finally because
+personal considerations largely intermingled with his foreign
+policy, and made it more elusive and ambiguous than it need have
+been. Briefly, Griffenfeldt aimed at restoring Denmark to the
+rank of a great power. He proposed to accomplish this by
+carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime securing
+and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large subsidies
+while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a conditional
+and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power,
+in a period of universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult;
+but Griffenfeldt did not regard it as impossible. The first
+postulate of such a policy was peace, especially peace with
+Denmark&rsquo;s most dangerous neighbour, Sweden. The second
+postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the
+wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent
+on armaments. Above all things Denmark was to beware of
+making enemies of France and Sweden at the same time. An
+alliance, on fairly equal terms, between the three powers, would,
+in these circumstances, be the consummation of Griffenfeldt&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;system&rdquo;; an alliance with France to the exclusion of Sweden
+would be the next best policy; but an alliance between France
+and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be
+avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeldt&rsquo;s policy succeeded,
+Denmark might have recovered her ancient possessions to the
+south and east comparatively cheaply. But again and again he
+was overruled. Despite his open protests and subterraneous
+counter-mining, war was actually declared against Sweden in
+1675, and his subsequent policy seemed so obscure and hazardous
+to those who did not possess the clue to the perhaps purposely
+tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his arrogance
+and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to
+destroy him.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of March 1676, while on his way to the royal
+apartments, Griffenfeldt was arrested in the king&rsquo;s name and
+conducted to the citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny
+of his papers, lasting nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treasonable;
+but it provided the enemies of the fallen statesman with
+a deadly weapon against him in the shape of an entry in his
+private diary, in which he had imprudently noted that on one
+occasion Christian V. in a conversation with a foreign ambassador
+had &ldquo;spoken like a child.&rdquo; On the 3rd of May Griffenfeldt was
+tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the <i>Höjesteret</i>, or
+supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries,
+none of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused.
+Griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony, bribery, oath-breaking,
+malversation and <i>lèse-majesté</i>, conducted his own defence under
+every imaginable difficulty. For forty-six days before his
+trial he had been closely confined in a dungeon without lights,
+books or writing materials. Every legal assistance was illegally
+denied him. Nevertheless he proved more than a match for the
+forensic ability arrayed against him, and his first plea in defence
+is in a high degree dignified and manly. Finally, he was condemned
+to degradation and decapitation; though one of the ten
+judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but remonstrated
+in private with the king against its injustice. And indeed its
+injustice was flagrant. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor
+was the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could
+convert into a capital offence, while the charge of treason had not
+been substantiated. Griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold,
+at the very moment when the axe was about to descend. On
+hearing that the sentence was commuted to life-long imprisonment,
+he declared that the pardon was harder than the punishment,
+and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the rest
+of his life as a common soldier. For the next two and twenty
+years Denmark&rsquo;s greatest statesman lingered out his life in a
+lonely state-prison, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, and
+finally at Munkholm on Trondhjem fiord. He died at Trondhjem
+on the 12th of March 1699. Griffenfeldt married Kitty Nansen,
+the granddaughter of the great Burgomaster Hans Nansen,
+who brought him half a million rix-dollars. She died in 1672,
+after bearing him a daughter.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Danmark&rsquo;s Riges Histoire</i>, vol. v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905);
+Jörgenson, <i>Peter Schumacher-Griffenfeldt</i> (Copenhagen, 1893-1894);
+O. Vaupell, <i>Rigskansler Grev Griffenfeldt</i> (Copenhagen, 1880-1882);
+Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>, cap. x. (Cambridge, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIFFIN<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> [<span class="sc">O&rsquo;Griobta</span>, <span class="sc">O&rsquo;Greeva</span>], <b>GERALD</b> (1803-1840),
+Irish novelist and dramatic writer, was born at Limerick of good
+family, on the 12th of December 1803. His parents emigrated in
+1820 to America, but he was left with an elder brother, who was
+a medical practitioner at Adare. As early as his eighteenth
+year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a newspaper
+in Limerick. Having written a tragedy, <i>Aguire</i>, which was highly
+praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for London with the
+purpose of &ldquo;revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by
+writing for the stage.&rdquo; In spite of the recommendations of
+John Banim, he had a hard struggle with poverty. It was only
+by degrees that his literary work obtained any favour. <i>The
+Noyades</i>, an opera entirely in recitative, was produced at the
+English Opera House in 1826; and the success of <i>Holland Tide
+Tales</i> (1827) led to <i>Tales of the Munster Festivals</i> (3 vols., 1827),
+which were still more popular. In 1829 appeared his fine novel,
+<i>The Collegians</i>, afterwards successfully adapted for the stage
+by Dion Boucicault under the title of <i>The Colleen Bawn</i>. He
+followed up this success with <i>The Invasion</i> (1832), <i>Tales of my
+Neighbourhood</i> (1835), <i>The Duke of Monmouth</i> (1836), and
+<i>Talis Qualis, or Tales of the Jury-room</i> (1842). He also wrote a
+number of lyrics touched with his native melancholy. But he
+became doubtful as to the moral influence of his writings, and
+ultimately he came to the conclusion that his true sphere of duty
+was to be found within the Church. He was admitted into a
+society of the Christian Brothers at Dublin, in September 1838,
+under the name of Brother Joseph, and in the following summer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span>
+he removed to Cork, where he died of typhus fever on the 12th
+of June 1840. Before adopting the monastic habit he burned
+all his manuscripts; but <i>Gisippus</i>, a tragedy which he had
+composed before he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction,
+and in 1842 was put on the Drury Lane stage by Macready with
+great success.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The collected works of Gerald Griffin were published in 1842-1843
+in eight volumes, with a <i>Life</i> by his brother William Griffin,
+M.D.; an edition of his <i>Poetical and Dramatic Works</i> (Dublin, 1895)
+by C. G. Duffy; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by George
+Sigerson, is included in the <i>Treasury of Irish Poetry</i>, edited by
+Stopford A. Brooke and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIFFIN,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Spalding county,
+Georgia, U.S.A., 43 m. S. of Atlanta, and about 970 ft. above
+the sea. Pop. (1890) 4503; (1900) 6857 (3258 negroes); (1910)
+7478. It is served by the Southern and the Central of Georgia
+railways, and is the southern terminus of the Griffin &amp; Chattanooga
+Division of the latter. The city is situated in a rich
+agricultural region, and just outside the corporate limits is an
+agricultural experiment station, established by the state but
+maintained by the Federal government. Griffin has a large
+trade in cotton and fruit. The principal industry is the manufacture
+of cotton and cotton-seed oil. Buggies, wagons, chairs
+and harness are among the other manufactures. The municipality
+owns and operates the water and electric-lighting systems.
+Griffin was founded in 1840 and was chartered as a city in 1846.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIFFIN,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> <span class="sc">Griffon</span> or <span class="sc">Gryphon</span> (from Fr. <i>griffon</i>, Lat.
+<i>gryphus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="gryps">&#947;&#961;&#973;&#968;</span>), in the natural history of the ancients, the
+name of an imaginary rapacious creature of the eagle species,
+represented with four legs, wings and a beak,&mdash;the fore part
+resembling an eagle and the hinder a lion. In addition, some
+writers describe the tail as a serpent. This animal, which was
+supposed to watch over gold mines and hidden treasures, and to
+be the enemy of the horse, was consecrated to the Sun; and the
+ancient painters represented the chariot of the Sun as drawn
+by griffins. According to Spanheim, those of Jupiter and
+Nemesis were similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is
+probably the osprey, and the name is now given to a species of
+vulture. The griffin was said to inhabit Asiatic Scythia, where
+gold and precious stones were abundant; and when strangers
+approached to gather these the creatures leapt upon them and
+tore them in pieces, thus chastising human avarice and greed.
+The one-eyed Arimaspi waged constant war with them, according
+to Herodotus (iii. 16). Sir John de Mandeville, in his <i>Travels</i>,
+described a griffin as eight times larger than a lion.</p>
+
+<p>The griffin is frequently seen as a charge in heraldry (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>, fig. 163); and in architectural decoration is usually
+represented as a four-footed beast with wings and the head of a
+leopard or tiger with horns, or with the head and beak of an
+eagle; in the latter case, but very rarely, with two legs. To
+what extent it owes its origin to Persian sculpture is not known,
+the capitals at Persepolis have sometimes leopard or lion heads
+with horns, and four-footed beasts with the beaks of eagles are
+represented in bas-reliefs. In the temple of Apollo Branchidae
+near Miletus in Asia Minor, the winged griffin of the capitals has
+leopards&rsquo; heads with horns. In the capitals of the so-called
+lesser propylaea at Eleusis conventional eagles with two feet
+support the angles of the abacus. The greater number of those
+in Rome have eagles&rsquo; beaks, as in the frieze of the temple
+of Antoninus and Faustina, and their tails develop into
+conventional foliage. A similar device was found in the Forum
+of Trajan. The best decorative employment of the griffin is
+found in the vertical supports of tables, of which there are
+two or three examples in Pompeii and others in the Vatican
+and the museums in Rome. In some of these cases the head
+is that of a lion at one end of the support and an eagle at the
+other end, and there is only one strongly developed paw; the
+wings circling round at the top form conspicuous features on
+the sides of these supports, the surfaces below being filled with
+conventional Greek foliage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1784-1878), Irish geologist,
+was born in Dublin on the 20th of September 1784. He obtained
+in 1799 a commission in the Royal Irish Artillery, but a year
+later, when the corps was incorporated with that of England,
+he retired, and devoted his attention to civil engineering and
+mining. He studied chemistry, mineralogy and mining for two
+years in London under William Nicholson (editor of the <i>Journal
+of Nat. Phil.</i>), and afterwards examined the mining districts
+in various parts of England, Wales and Scotland. While in
+Cornwall he discovered ores of nickel and cobalt in material that
+had been rejected as worthless. He completed his studies under
+Robert Jameson and others at Edinburgh, was elected a Fellow
+of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1807, a member of the
+newly established Geological Society of London in 1808, and in
+the same year he returned to Ireland. In 1809 he was appointed
+by the commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of
+the bogs in Ireland, and the means of improving them. In 1812
+he was elected professor of geology and mining engineer to the
+Royal Dublin Society. During subsequent years he made many
+surveys and issued many reports on mineral districts in Ireland,
+and these formed the foundation of his first geological map of the
+country (1815). In 1822 Griffith became engineer of public
+works in Cork, Kerry and Limerick, and was occupied until 1830
+in repairing old roads and in laying out many miles of new roads.
+Meanwhile in 1825 he was appointed to carry out the perambulation
+or boundary survey of Ireland, the object of which was to
+ascertain and mark the boundaries of every county, barony,
+parish and townland in preparation for the ordnance survey.
+This work was finished in 1844. He was also called upon to assist
+in preparing a bill for the general valuation of Ireland; the act
+was passed in 1826, and he was appointed commissioner of
+valuation, in which capacity he continued to act until 1868.
+On &ldquo;Griffith&rsquo;s valuation&rdquo; the various local and public assessments
+were made. His extensive investigations furnished him
+with ample material for improving his geological map, and the
+second edition was published in 1835. A third edition on a
+larger scale (1 in. to 4 m.) was issued under the Board of Ordnance
+in 1839, and it was further revised in 1855. For this great work
+and his other services to science he was awarded the Wollaston
+medal by the Geological Society in 1854. In 1850 he was made
+chairman of the Irish Board of Works, and in 1858 he was created
+a baronet. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of September 1878.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his many geological works the following may be mentioned:
+<i>Outline of the Geology of Ireland</i> (1838); <i>Notice respecting the Fossils
+of the Mountain Limestone of Ireland, as compared with those of Great
+Britain, and also with the Devonian System</i> (1842); <i>A Synopsis of the
+Characters of the Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of Ireland</i> (1844)
+(with F. McCoy); <i>A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils of Ireland</i> (1846)
+(with F. McCoy). See memoirs in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> xxxv.
+39; and <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, 1878, p. 524, with bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRILLE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a French term for an enclosure in either iron or
+bronze; there is no equivalent in English, &ldquo;grating&rdquo; applying
+more to a horizontal frame of bars over a sunk area, and &ldquo;grate&rdquo;
+to the iron bars of an open fireplace. The finest examples of
+the grille are those known as the <i>rejas</i>, which in Spanish churches
+form the enclosures of the chapels, such as the <i>reja</i> in the Capilla
+Real at Granada in wrought iron partly gilt (1522). Similar
+grilles are employed to protect the ground-floor windows of
+mansions not only in Spain but in Italy and Germany. In
+England the most beautiful example is that in front of Queen
+Eleanor&rsquo;s tomb in Westminster Abbey, in wrought iron. The
+finest grilles in Italy are the enclosures of the tombs of the
+Della Scalas at Verona (end of 13th century), in Germany the
+grille of the cenotaph of Maximilian at Innsbruck (early 16th
+century) and in France those which enclose the Place Stanislaus,
+the Place de la Carrière and the churches of Nancy, which were
+wrought by Jean Lamour in the middle of the 18th century.
+Generally, however, throughout Germany the wrought iron
+grilles are fine examples of forging, and they are employed for
+the enclosures of the numerous fountains, in the tympana of
+gateways, and for the protection of windows. At Danzig in the
+Marienkirche are some fine examples in brass.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRILLPARZER, FRANZ<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1791-1872), the greatest dramatic
+poet of Austria, was born in Vienna, on the 15th of January
+1791. His father, severe, pedantic, a staunch upholder of the
+liberal traditions of the reign of Joseph II., was an advocate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span>
+of some standing; his mother, a nervous, finely-strung woman,
+belonged to the well-known musical family of Sonnleithner.
+After a desultory education, Grillparzer entered in 1807 the
+university of Vienna as a student of jurisprudence; but two
+years later his father died, leaving the family in straitened
+circumstances, and Franz, the eldest son, was obliged to turn
+to private tutoring. In 1813 he received an appointment in the
+court library, but as this was unpaid, he accepted after some
+months a clerkship that offered more solid prospects, in the
+Lower Austrian revenue administration. Through the influence
+of Graf Stadion, the minister of finance, he was in 1818 appointed
+poet to the Hofburgtheater, and promoted to the <i>Hofkammer</i>
+(exchequer); in 1832 he became director of the archives of that
+department, and in 1856 retired from the civil service with the
+title of <i>Hofrat</i>. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official
+career and regarded his office merely as a means of independence.</p>
+
+<p>In 1817 the first representation of his tragedy <i>Die Ahnfrau</i>
+made him famous, but before this he had written a long tragedy
+in iambics, <i>Bianca von Castilien</i> (1807-1809), which was obviously
+modelled on Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Don Carlos</i>; and even more promising
+were the dramatic fragments <i>Spartacus</i> and <i>Alfred der Grosse</i>
+(1809). <i>Die Ahnfrau</i> is a gruesome &ldquo;fate-tragedy&rdquo; in the
+trochaic measure of the Spanish drama, already made popular
+by Adolf Müllner in his <i>Schuld</i>; but Grillparzer&rsquo;s work is a play
+of real poetic beauties, and reveals an instinct for dramatic
+as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it
+from other &ldquo;fate-dramas&rdquo; of the day. Unfortunately its
+success led to the poet&rsquo;s being classed for the best part of his
+life with playwrights like Müllner and Houwald. <i>Die Ahnfrau</i>
+was followed by <i>Sappho</i> (1818), a drama of a very different type;
+in the classic spirit of Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Tasso</i>, Grillparzer unrolled the
+tragedy of poetic genius, the renunciation of earthly happiness
+imposed upon the poet by his higher mission. In 1821 appeared
+<i>Das goldene Vliess</i>, a trilogy which had been interrupted in 1819
+by the death of the poet&rsquo;s mother&mdash;in a fit of depression she had
+taken her own life&mdash;and a subsequent visit to Italy. Opening
+with a powerful dramatic prelude in one act, <i>Der Gastfreund</i>,
+Grillparzer depicts in <i>Die Argonauten</i> Jason&rsquo;s adventures in his
+quest for the Fleece; while <i>Medea</i>, a tragedy of noble classic
+proportions, contains the culminating events of the story which
+had been so often dramatized before. The theme is similar
+to that of <i>Sappho</i>, but the scale on which it is represented is
+larger; it is again the tragedy of the heart&rsquo;s desire, the conflict
+of the simple happy life with that sinister power&mdash;be it genius,
+or ambition&mdash;which upsets the equilibrium of life. The end is
+bitter disillusionment, the only consolation renunciation.
+Medea, her revenge stilled, her children dead, bears the fatal
+Fleece back to Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the nothingness
+of human striving and earthly happiness.</p>
+
+<p>For his historical tragedy <i>König Ottokars Glück und Ende</i>
+(1823, but owing to difficulties with the censor, not performed
+until 1825), Grillparzer chose one of the most picturesque
+events in Austrian domestic history, the conflict of Ottokar
+of Bohemia with Rudolph von Habsburg. With an almost
+modern realism he reproduced the motley world of the old
+chronicler, at the same time not losing sight of the needs of the
+theatre; the fall of Ottokar is but another text from which the
+poet preached the futility of endeavour and the vanity of
+worldly greatness. A second historical tragedy, <i>Ein treuer
+Diener seines Herrn</i> (1826, performed 1828), attempts to embody
+a more heroic gospel; but the subject&mdash;the superhuman self-effacement
+of Bankbanus before Duke Otto of Meran&mdash;proved
+too uncompromising an illustration of Kant&rsquo;s categorical imperative
+of duty to be palatable in the theatre. With these historical
+tragedies began the darkest ten years in the poet&rsquo;s life. They
+brought him into conflict with the Austrian censor&mdash;a conflict
+which grated on Grillparzer&rsquo;s sensitive soul, and was aggravated
+by his own position as a servant of the state; in 1826 he paid a
+visit to Goethe in Weimar, and was able to compare the enlightened
+conditions which prevailed in the little Saxon duchy
+with the intellectual thraldom of Vienna. To these troubles
+were added more serious personal worries. In the winter of
+1820-1821 he had met for the first time Katharina Fröhlich
+(1801-1879), and the acquaintance rapidly ripened into love
+on both sides; but whether owing to a presentiment of mutual
+incompatibility, or merely owing to Grillparzer&rsquo;s conviction that
+life had no happiness in store for him, he shrank from marriage.
+Whatever the cause may have been, the poet was plunged into
+an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary bears heart-rending
+witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in the
+fine cycle of poems bearing the significant title <i>Tristia ex Ponto</i>
+(1835).</p>
+
+<p>Yet to these years we owe the completion of two of Grillparzer&rsquo;s
+greatest dramas, <i>Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen</i> (1831) and <i>Der
+Traum, ein Leben</i> (1834). In the former tragedy, a dramatization
+of the story of Hero and Leander, he returned to the Hellenic
+world of <i>Sappho</i>, and produced what is perhaps the finest of all
+German love-tragedies. His mastery of dramatic technique
+is here combined with a ripeness of poetic expression and with
+an insight into motive which suggests the modern psychological
+drama of Hebbel and Ibsen; the old Greek love-story of Musaeus
+is, moreover, endowed with something of that ineffable poetic
+grace which the poet had borrowed from the great Spanish
+poets, Lope de Vega and Calderon. <i>Der Traum, ein Leben</i>,
+Grillparzer&rsquo;s technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more
+Spanish; it is also more of what Goethe called a &ldquo;confession.&rdquo;
+The aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are
+shadowed forth in the hero&rsquo;s dream, which takes up nearly three
+acts of the play; ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare
+to realize the truth of Grillparzer&rsquo;s own pessimistic doctrine
+that all earthly ambitions and aspirations are vanity; the only
+true happiness is contentment with one&rsquo;s lot, &ldquo;des Innern stiller
+Frieden und die schuldbefreite Brust.&rdquo; <i>Der Traum, ein Leben</i>
+was the first of Grillparzer&rsquo;s dramas which did not end tragically,
+and in 1838 he produced his only comedy, <i>Weh&rsquo; dem, der lügt</i>.
+But <i>Weh&rsquo; dem, der lügt</i>, in spite of its humour of situation, its
+sparkling dialogue and the originality of its idea&mdash;namely, that
+the hero gains his end by invariably telling the truth, where his
+enemies as invariably expect him to be lying&mdash;was too strange
+to meet with approval in its day. Its failure was a blow to the
+poet, who turned his back for ever on the German theatre. In
+1836 Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris and London, in 1843 to
+Athens and Constantinople. Then came the Revolution which
+struck off the intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and
+his contemporaries had groaned in Austria, but the liberation
+came too late for him. Honours were heaped upon him; he
+was made a member of the Academy of Sciences; Heinrich
+Laube, as director of the Burgtheater, reinstated his plays on
+the repertory; he was in 1861 elected to the Austrian <i>Herrenhaus</i>;
+his eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died
+in Vienna, on the 21st of January 1872, the mourning of the
+Austrian people was universal. With the exception of a beautiful
+fragment, <i>Esther</i> (1861), Grillparzer published no more dramatic
+poetry after the fiasco of <i>Weh&rsquo; dem, der lügt</i>, but at his death three
+completed tragedies were found among his papers. Of these,
+<i>Die Jüdin von Toledo</i>, an admirable adaptation from the Spanish,
+has won a permanent place in the German classical repertory;
+<i>Ein Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg</i> is a powerful historical
+tragedy and <i>Libussa</i> is perhaps the ripest, as it is certainly the
+deepest, of all Grillparzer&rsquo;s dramas; the latter two plays prove
+how much was lost by the poet&rsquo;s divorce from the theatre.</p>
+
+<p>Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, his lyric
+poetry is in the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior
+to Lenau&rsquo;s; and the bitterness of his later years found vent in
+biting and stinging epigrams that spared few of his greater contemporaries.
+As a prose writer, he has left one powerful short
+story, <i>Der arme Spielmann</i> (1848), and a volume of critical
+studies on the Spanish drama, which shows how completely
+he had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point
+of view.</p>
+
+<p>Grillparzer&rsquo;s brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of
+will-power, his pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which
+his self-imposed martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly
+adapted to express the mood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span>
+thraldom that lay between the Napoleonic wars and the Revolution
+of 1848; his poetry reflects exactly the spirit of his people
+under the Metternich régime, and there is a deep truth behind
+the description of <i>Der Traum, ein Leben</i> as the Austrian <i>Faust</i>.
+His fame was in accordance with the general tenor of his life;
+even in Austria a true understanding for his genius was late in
+coming, and not until the centenary of 1891 did the German-speaking
+world realize that it possessed in him a dramatic poet
+of the first rank; in other words, that Grillparzer was no mere
+&ldquo;Epigone&rdquo; of the classic period, but a poet who, by a rare
+assimilation of the strength of the Greeks, the imaginative
+depth of German classicism and the delicacy and grace of the
+Spaniards, had opened up new paths for the higher dramatic
+poetry of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Grillparzer&rsquo;s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> are edited by A. Sauer, in 20 vols.,
+5th edition (Stuttgart, 1892-1894); also, since the expiry of the
+copyright in 1901, innumerable cheap reprints. <i>Briefe und Tagebücher</i>,
+edited by C. Glossy and A. Sauer (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1903).
+<i>Jahrbuch der Grillparzer-Gesellschaft</i>, edited by K. Glossy (the publication
+of the Grillparzer Society) (Vienna, 1891 ff.). See also H.
+Laube, <i>Franz Grillparzers Lebensgeschichte</i> (Stuttgart, 1884);
+J. Volkelt, <i>Franz Grillparzer als Dichter des Tragischen</i> (Nördlingen,
+1888); E. Reich, <i>Franz Grillparzers Dramen</i> (Dresden, 1894);
+A. Ehrhard, <i>Franz Grillparzer</i> (Paris, 1900) (German translation by
+M. Necker, Munich, 1902); H. Sittenberger, <i>Grillparzer, sein Leben
+und Wirken</i> (Berlin, 1904); Gustav Pollak, <i>F. Grillparzer and the
+Austrian Drama</i> (New York, 1907). Of Grillparzer&rsquo;s works, translations
+have appeared in English of <i>Sappho</i> (1820, by J. Bramsen;
+1846, by E. B. Lee; 1855, by L. C. Cumming; 1876, by E. Frothingham);
+and of <i>Medea</i> (1879, by F. W. Thurstan and J. A. Wittmann).
+Byron&rsquo;s warm admiration of <i>Sappho</i> (<i>Letters and Journals</i>,
+v. 171) is well known, while Carlyle&rsquo;s criticism, in his essay on
+<i>German Playwrights</i> (1829), is interesting as expressing the generally
+accepted estimate of Grillparzer in the first half of the 19th century.
+See the bibliography in K. Goedeke&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der
+deutschen Dichtung</i>, 2nd ed., vol. viii. (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMALD<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Grimoald</span>), <b>NICHOLAS</b> (1519-1562), English
+poet, was born in Huntingdonshire, the son probably of Giovanni
+Baptista Grimaldi, who had been a clerk in the service of Empson
+and Dudley in the reign of Henry VII. He was educated at
+Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in
+1540. He then removed to Oxford, becoming a probationer-fellow
+of Merton College in 1541. In 1547 he was lecturing on
+rhetoric at Christ Church, and shortly afterwards became
+chaplain to Bishop Ridley, who, when he was in prison, desired
+Grimald to translate Laurentius Valla&rsquo;s book against the alleged
+<i>Donation of Constantine</i>, and the <i>De gestis Basiliensis Concilii</i>
+of Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.). His connexion with Ridley brought
+him under suspicion, and he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea.
+It is said that he escaped the penalties of heresy by recanting
+his errors, and was despised accordingly by his Protestant contemporaries.
+Grimald contributed to the original edition
+(June 1557) of <i>Songes and Sonettes</i> (commonly known as <i>Tottel&rsquo;s
+Miscellany</i>), forty poems, only ten of which are retained in the
+second edition published in the next month. He translated
+(1553) Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De officiis as Marcus Tullius Ciceroes thre bokes
+of duties</i> (2nd ed., 1556); a Latin paraphrase of Virgil&rsquo;s <i>Georgics</i>
+(printed 1591) is attributed to him, but most of the works assigned
+to him by Bale are lost. Two Latin tragedies are extant;
+<i>Archipropheta sive Johannes Baptista</i>, printed at Cologne in 1548,
+probably performed at Oxford the year before, and <i>Christus redivivus</i>
+(Cologne, 1543), edited by Prof. J. M. Hart (for the Modern
+Language Association of America, 1886, separately issued 1899).
+It cannot be determined whether Grimald was familiar with
+Buchanan&rsquo;s <i>Baptistes</i> (1543), or with J. Schoeppe&rsquo;s <i>Johannes
+decollatus vel Ectrachelistes</i> (1546). Grimald provides a purely
+romantic motive for the catastrophe in the passionate attachment
+of Herodias to Herod, and constantly resorts to lyrical
+methods. As a poet Grimald is memorable as the earliest
+follower of Surrey in the production of blank verse. He writes
+sometimes simply enough, as in the lines on his own childhood
+addressed to his mother, but in general his style is more artificial,
+and his metaphors more studied than is the case with the other
+contributors to the <i>Miscellany</i>. His classical reading shows itself
+in the comparative terseness and smartness of his verses. His
+epitaph was written by Barnabe Googe in May 1562.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. H. Herford, <i>Studies in the Literary Relations of England and
+Germany</i> (pp. 113-119, 1886). <i>A Catalogue of printed books ... by
+writers bearing the name of Grimaldi</i> (ed. A. B. Grimaldi), printed
+1883; and Arber&rsquo;s reprint oí <i>Tottel&rsquo;s Miscellany</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1606-1680), Italian
+architect and painter, named Il Bolognese from the place of his
+birth, was a relative of the Caracci family, under whom it is
+presumed he studied first. He was afterwards a pupil of Albani.
+He went to Rome, and was appointed architect to Pope Paul V.,
+and was also patronized by succeeding popes. Towards 1648
+he was invited to France by Cardinal Mazarin, and for about
+two years was employed in buildings for that minister and for
+Louis XIV., and in fresco-painting in the Louvre. His colour
+was strong, somewhat excessive in the use of green; his touch
+light. He painted history, portraits and landscapes&mdash;the last
+with predilection, especially in his advanced years&mdash;and executed
+engravings and etchings from his own landscapes and from
+those of Titian and the Caracci. Returning to Rome, he was
+made president of the Academy of St Luke; and in that city he
+died on the 28th of November 1680, in high repute not only
+for his artistic skill but for his upright and charitable deeds.
+His son Alessandro assisted him both in painting and in engraving.
+Paintings by Grimaldi are preserved in the Quirinal and Vatican
+palaces, and in the church of S. Martino a&rsquo;Monti; there is also
+a series of his landscapes in the Colonna Gallery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMALDI, JOSEPH<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1779-1837), the most celebrated of
+English clowns, was born in London on the 18th of December
+1779, the son of an Italian actor. When less than two years
+old he was brought upon the stage at Drury Lane; at the age
+of three he began to appear at Sadler&rsquo;s Wells; and he did not
+finally retire until 1828. As the clown of pantomime he was
+considered without an equal, his greatest success being in
+<i>Mother Goose</i>, at Covent Garden (1806 and often revived).
+Grimaldi died on the 31st of May 1837.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Memoirs</i> in two volumes (1838) were edited by Charles
+Dickens.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMKÉ, SARAH MOORE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1792-1873) and <b>ANGELINA
+EMILY</b> (1805-1879), American reformers, born in Charleston,
+South Carolina&mdash;Sarah on the 6th of November 1792, and
+Angelina on the 20th of February 1805&mdash;were daughters of
+John Fachereau Grimké (1752-1819), an artillery officer in the
+Continental army, a jurist of some distinction, a man of wealth
+and culture and a slave-holder.</p>
+
+<p>Their older brother, <span class="sc">Thomas Smith Grimké</span> (1786-1834),
+was born in Charleston; graduated at Yale in 1807; was a
+successful lawyer, and in 1826-1830 was a member of the state
+Senate, in which he, almost alone of the prominent lawyers of
+the state, opposed nullification; he strongly advocated spelling-reform,
+temperance and absolute non-resistance, and published
+<i>Addresses on Science, Education and Literature</i> (1831). His early
+intellectual influence on Sarah was strong.</p>
+
+<p>In her thirteenth year Sarah was godmother to her sister
+Angelina. Sarah in 1821 revisited Philadelphia, whither she
+had accompanied her father on his last illness, and there, having
+been already dissatisfied with the Episcopal Church and with
+the Presbyterian, she became a Quaker; so, too, did Angelina,
+who joined her in 1829. Both sisters (Angelina first) soon grew
+into a belief in immediate abolition, strongly censured by many
+Quakers, who were even more shocked by a sympathetic letter
+dated &ldquo;8th Month, 30th, 1835&rdquo; written by Angelina to W. L.
+Garrison, followed in 1836 by her <i>Appeal to the Christian Women
+of the South</i>, and at the end of that year, by an <i>Epistle to the
+Clergy of the Southern States</i>, written by Sarah, who now
+thoroughly agreed with her younger sister. In the same year,
+at the invitation of Elizur Wright (1804-1885), corresponding
+secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Angelina,
+accompanied by Sarah, began giving talks on slavery, first in
+private and then in public, so that in 1837, when they set to
+work in Massachusetts, they had to secure the use of large halls.
+Their speaking from public platforms resulted in a letter issued
+by some members of the General Association of Congregational
+Ministers of Massachusetts, calling on the clergy to close their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span>
+churches to women exhorters; Garrison denounced the attack
+on the Grimké sisters and Whittier ridiculed it in his poem
+&ldquo;The Pastoral Letter.&rdquo; Angelina pointedly answered <i>Miss
+Beecher on the Slave Question</i> (1837) in letters in the <i>Liberator</i>.
+Sarah, who had never forgotten that her studies had been
+curtailed because she was a girl, contributed to the Boston
+<i>Spectator</i> papers on &ldquo;The Province of Woman&rdquo; and published
+<i>Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes</i>
+(1838)&mdash;the real beginning of the &ldquo;woman&rsquo;s rights&rdquo; movement
+in America, and at the time a cause of anxiety to Whittier and
+others, who urged upon the sisters the prior importance of the
+anti-slavery cause. In 1838 Angelina married Theodore Dwight
+Weld (1803-1895), a reformer and abolition orator and pamphleteer,
+who had taken part in the famous Lane Seminary
+debates in 1834, had left the Seminary for the lecture platform
+when the anti-slavery society was broken up by the Lane trustees,
+but had lost his voice in 1836 and had become editor of the
+publications of the American Anti-Slavery Society.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They
+lived, with Sarah, at Fort Lee, New Jersey, in 1838-1840, then
+on a farm at Belleville, New Jersey, and then conducted a school
+for black and white alike at Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy,
+New Jersey, from 1854 to 1864. Removing to Hyde Park,
+Massachusetts, the three were employed in Dr Lewis&rsquo;s school.
+There Sarah died on the 23rd of December 1873, and Angelina
+on the 26th of October 1879. Both sisters indulged in various
+&ldquo;fads&rdquo;&mdash;Graham&rsquo;s diet, bloomer-wearing, absolute non-resistance.
+Angelina did no public speaking after her marriage,
+save at Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia), destroyed by a mob
+immediately after her address there; but besides her domestic
+and school duties she was full of tender charity. Sarah at the
+age of 62 was still eager to study law or medicine, or to do something
+to aid her sex; at 75 she translated and abridged Lamartine&rsquo;s
+life of Joan of Arc.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Catherine H. Birney, <i>The Grimké Sisters</i> (Boston, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Weld was the author of several anti-slavery books which had
+considerable influence at the time. Among them are <i>The Bible
+against Slavery</i> (1837), <i>American Slavery as It Is</i> (1839), a collection
+of extracts from Southern papers, and <i>Slavery and the Internal Slave
+Trade in the U.S.</i> (1841).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1723-1807),
+French author, the son of a German pastor, was born at Ratisbon
+on the 26th of December 1723. He studied at the University
+of Leipzig, where he came under the influence of Gottsched and
+of J. A. Ernesti, to whom he was largely indebted for his critical
+appreciation of classical literature. When nineteen he produced
+a tragedy, <i>Banise</i>, which met with some success. After two years
+of study he returned to Ratisbon, where he was attached to the
+household of Count Schönberg. In 1748 he accompanied August
+Heinrich, Count Friesen, to Paris as secretary, and he is said
+by Rousseau to have acted for some time as reader to Frederick,
+the young hereditary prince of Saxe-Gotha. His acquaintance
+with Rousseau, through a mutual sympathy in regard to musical
+matters, soon ripened into intimate friendship, and led to a close
+association with the encyclopaedists. He rapidly obtained a
+thorough knowledge of the French language, and acquired so
+perfectly the tone and sentiments of the society in which he
+moved that all marks of his foreign origin and training seemed
+effaced. A witty pamphlet entitled <i>Le Petit Prophète de Boehmischbroda</i>
+(1753), written by him in defence of Italian as against
+French opera, established his literary reputation. It is possible
+that the origin of the pamphlet is partly to be accounted for by
+his vehement passion<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> for Mlle Fel, the <i>prima donna</i> of the
+Italian company. In 1753 Grimm, following the example of the
+abbé Raynal, began a literary correspondence with various
+German sovereigns. Raynal&rsquo;s letters, <i>Nouvelles littéraires</i>, ceased
+early in 1755. With the aid of friends, especially of Diderot
+and Mme d&rsquo;Épinay, during his temporary absences from France,
+Grimm himself carried on the correspondence, which consisted
+of two letters a month, until 1773, and eventually counted among
+his subscribers Catherine II. of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski,
+king of Poland, and many princes of the smaller German States.
+It was probably in 1754 that Grimm was introduced by Rousseau
+to Madame d&rsquo;Épinay, with whom he soon formed a <i>liaison</i>
+which led to an irreconcilable rupture between him and Rousseau.
+Rousseau was induced by his resentment to give in his <i>Confessions</i>
+a wholly mendacious portrait of Grimm&rsquo;s character. In 1755,
+after the death of Count Friesen, who was a nephew of Marshal
+Saxe and an officer in the French army, Grimm became <i>secrétaire
+des commandements</i> to the duke of Orleans, and in this capacity
+he accompanied Marshal d&rsquo;Estrées on the campaign of Westphalia
+in 1756-57. He was named envoy of the town of Frankfort
+at the court of France in 1759, but was deprived of his office for
+criticizing the comte de Broglie in a despatch intercepted by
+Louis XV. He was made a baron of the Holy Roman Empire
+in 1775. His introduction to Catherine II. of Russia took place
+at St Petersburg in 1773, when he was in the suite of Wilhelmine
+of Hesse-Darmstadt on the occasion of her marriage to the
+czarevitch Paul. He became minister of Saxe-Gotha at the
+court of France in 1776, but in 1777 he again left Paris on a visit
+to St Petersburg, where he remained for nearly a year in daily
+intercourse with Catherine. He acted as Paris agent for the
+empress in the purchase of works of art, and executed many
+confidential commissions for her. In 1783 and the following
+years he lost his two most intimate friends, Mme d&rsquo;Épinay and
+Diderot. In 1792 he emigrated, and in the next year settled
+in Gotha, where his poverty was relieved by Catherine, who in
+1796 appointed him minister of Russia at Hamburg. On the
+death of the empress Catherine he took refuge with Mme
+d&rsquo;Épinay&rsquo;s granddaughter, Émilie de Belsunce, comtesse de
+Bueil. Grimm had always interested himself in her, and had
+procured her dowry from the empress Catherine. She now
+received him with the utmost kindness. He died at Gotha on
+the 19th of December 1807.</p>
+
+<p>The correspondence of Grimm was strictly confidential, and
+was not divulged during his lifetime. It embraces nearly the
+whole period from 1750 to 1790, but the later volumes, 1773 to
+1790, were chiefly the work of his secretary, Jakob Heinrich
+Meister. At first he contented himself with enumerating the
+chief current views in literature and art and indicating very
+slightly the contents of the principal new books, but gradually
+his criticisms became more extended and trenchant, and he
+touched on nearly every subject&mdash;political, literary, artistic,
+social and religious&mdash;which interested the Parisian society of
+the time. His notices of contemporaries are somewhat severe,
+and he exhibits the foibles and selfishness of the society in which
+he moved; but he was unbiassed in his literary judgments, and
+time has only served to confirm his criticisms. In style and
+manner of expression he is thoroughly French. He is generally
+somewhat cold in his appreciation, but his literary taste is delicate
+and subtle; and it was the opinion of Sainte-Beuve that the
+quality of his thought in his best moments will compare not
+unfavourably even with that of Voltaire. His religious and
+philosophical opinions were entirely negative.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique ...,
+depuis 1753 jusqu&rsquo;en 1769</i>, was edited, with many excisions, by
+J. B. A. Suard and published at Paris in 1812, in 6 vols. 8vo;
+<i>deuxième partie, de 1771 à 1782</i>, in 1812 in 5 vols. 8vo; and <i>troisième
+partie, pendant une partie des années 1775 et 1776, et pendant les années
+1782 à 1790 inclusivement</i>, in 1813 in 5 vols. 8vo. A supplementary
+volume appeared in 1814; the whole correspondence was collected
+and published by M. Jules Taschereau, with the assistance of A.
+Chaudé, in a <i>Nouvelle Edition, revue et mise dans un meilleur ordre, avec
+des notes et des éclaircissements, et où se trouvent rétablies pour la
+première fois les phrases supprimées par la censure impériale</i> (Paris,
+1829, 15 vols. 8vo); and the <i>Correspondance inédite, et recueil de
+lettres, poésies, morceaux, et fragments retranchés par la censure
+impériale en 1812 et 1813</i> was published in 1829. The standard
+edition is that of M. Tourneux (16 vols., 1877-1882). Grimm&rsquo;s
+<i>Mémoire historique sur l&rsquo;origine et les suites de mon attachement pour
+l&rsquo;impératrice Catherine II jusqu&rsquo;au décès de sa majesté impériale</i>,
+and Catherine&rsquo;s correspondence with Grimm (1774-1796) were published
+by J. Grot in 1880, in the <i>Collection</i> of the Russian Imperial
+Historical Society. She treats him very familiarly, and calls him
+Héraclite, Georges Dandin, &amp;c. At the time of the Revolution she
+begged him to destroy her letters, but he refused, and after his death
+they were returned to St Petersburg. Grimm&rsquo;s side of the correspondence,
+however, is only partially preserved. He signs himself
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span>
+&ldquo;Pleureur.&rdquo; Some of Grimm&rsquo;s letters, besides the official correspondence,
+are included in the edition of M. Tourneux; others are
+contained in the <i>Erinnerungen einer Urgrossmutter</i> of K. von Bechtolsheim,
+edited (Berlin, 1902) by Count C. Oberndorff. See also Mme
+d&rsquo;Épinay&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i>; Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Confessions</i>; the notices contained
+in the editions quoted; E. Scherer, <i>Melchior Grimm</i> (1887);
+Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. vii. For further works bearing
+on the subject, see K. A. Georges, <i>Friedrich Melchior Grimm</i> (Hanover
+and Leipzig, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Rousseau&rsquo;s account of this affair (<i>Confessions</i>, 2nd part, 8th
+book) must be received with caution.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1785-1863), German
+philologist and mythologist, was born on the 4th of January
+1785 at Hanau, in Hesse-Cassel. His father, who was a lawyer,
+died while he was a child, and the mother was left with very
+small means; but her sister, who was lady of the chamber to
+the landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and educate her
+numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm
+(born on the 24th of February 1786), was sent in 1798 to the
+public school at Cassel. In 1802 he proceeded to the university
+of Marburg, where he studied law, a profession for which he had
+been destined by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg
+a year later, having just recovered from a long and severe illness,
+and likewise began the study of law. Up to this time Jacob
+Grimm had been actuated only by a general thirst for knowledge
+and his energies had not found any aim beyond the practical one
+of making himself a position in life. The first definite impulse
+came from the lectures of Savigny, the celebrated investigator
+of Roman law, who, as Grimm himself says (in the preface to
+the <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>), first taught him to realize what it
+meant to study any science. Savigny&rsquo;s lectures also awakened
+in him that love for historical and antiquarian investigation
+which forms the basis of all his work. Then followed personal
+acquaintance, and it was in Savigny&rsquo;s well-provided library that
+Grimm first turned over the leaves of Bodmer&rsquo;s edition of the
+Old German minnesingers and other early texts, and felt an eager
+desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and half-revealed
+mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 1805 he received
+an invitation from Savigny, who had removed to Paris,
+to help him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very happy
+time in Paris, strengthening his taste for the literatures of the
+middle ages by his studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the
+close of the year he returned to Cassel, where his mother and
+Wilhelm had settled, the latter having finished his studies.
+The next year he obtained a situation in the war office with
+the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his grievances was
+that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform
+and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution of his
+studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was
+appointed superintendent of the private library of Jerome
+Buonaparte, king of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Cassel had
+been incorporated by Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an
+auditor to the state council, while he retained his other post.
+His salary was increased in a short interval from 2000 to 4000
+francs, and his official duties were hardly more than nominal.
+After the expulsion of Jerome and the reinstalment of an elector,
+Grimm was appointed in 1813 secretary of legation, to accompany
+the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army.
+In 1814 he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books
+carried off by the French, and in 1814-1815 he attended the
+congress of Vienna as secretary of legation. On his return he
+was again sent to Paris on the same errand as before. Meanwhile
+Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Cassel library, and
+in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Völkel. On the
+death of Völkel in 1828 the brothers expected to be advanced
+to the first and second librarianships respectively, and were
+much dissatisfied when the first place was given to Rommel,
+keeper of the archives. So they removed next year to Göttingen,
+where Jacob received the appointment of professor and librarian,
+Wilhelm that of under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on
+legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and
+diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on
+the <i>Germania</i> of Tacitus. At this period he is described as small
+and lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian
+dialect. His powerful memory enabled him to dispense with the
+manuscript which most German professors rely on, and he spoke
+extempore, referring only occasionally to a few names and dates
+written on a slip of paper. He himself regretted that he had begun
+the work of teaching so late in life; and as a lecturer he was not
+successful: he had no idea of digesting his facts and suiting
+them to the comprehension of his hearers; and even the brilliant,
+terse and eloquent passages which abound in his writings lost much
+of their effect when jerked out in the midst of a long array of dry
+facts. In 1837, being one of the seven professors who signed a
+protest against the king of Hanover&rsquo;s abrogation of the constitution
+established some years before, he was dismissed from his
+professorship, and banished from the kingdom of Hanover.
+He returned to Cassel together with his brother, who had also
+signed the protest, and remained there till, in 1840, they accepted
+an invitation from the king of Prussia to remove to Berlin,
+where they both received professorships, and were elected
+members of the Academy of Sciences. Not being under any
+obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together with his
+brother worked at the great dictionary. During their stay at
+Cassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy,
+where he read papers on the most varied subjects. The best
+known of these are those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother
+Wilhelm (who died in 1859), on old age, and on the origin of
+language. He also described his impressions of Italian and
+Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more general observations
+with linguistic details, as is the case in all his works.</p>
+
+<p>Grimm died in 1863, working up to the last. He was never ill,
+and worked on all day, without haste and without pause. He was
+not at all impatient of interruption, but seemed rather to be
+refreshed by it, returning to his work without effort. He wrote
+for the press with great rapidity, and hardly ever made corrections.
+He never revised what he had written, remarking with
+a certain wonder of his brother, &ldquo;Wilhelm reads his manuscripts
+over again before sending them to press!&rdquo; His temperament
+was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused. Outside his
+own special work he had a marked taste for botany. The
+spirit which animated his work is best described by himself at the
+end of his autobiography. &ldquo;Nearly all my labours have been
+devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our
+earlier language, poetry and laws. These studies may have
+appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they
+have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and
+inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated
+to foster the love of it. My principle has always been in
+these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the
+small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for
+the elucidation of the written monuments.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The purely scientific side of Grimm&rsquo;s character developed
+slowly. He seems to have felt the want of definite principles of
+etymology without being able to discover them, and indeed even
+in the first edition of his grammar (1819) he seems to be often
+groping in the dark. As early as 1815 we find A. W. Schlegel
+reviewing the <i>Altdeutsche Wälder</i> (a periodical published by the
+two brothers) very severely, condemning the lawless etymological
+combinations it contained, and insisting on the necessity of strict
+philological method and a fundamental investigation of the laws
+of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds. This
+criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the direction
+of Grimm&rsquo;s studies.</p>
+
+<p>The first work he published, <i>Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang</i>
+(1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in
+this essay Grimm showed that <i>Minnesang</i> and <i>Meistersang</i>
+were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented
+different stages of development, and also announced his important
+discovery of the invariable division of the <i>Lied</i> into three strophic
+parts.</p>
+
+<p>His text-editions were mostly prepared in common with
+his brother. In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments
+of the <i>Hildebrandslied</i> and the <i>Weissenbrunner Gebet</i>, Jacob
+having discovered what till then had never been suspected&mdash;the
+alliteration in these poems. However, Jacob had little taste for
+text-editing, and, as he himself confessed, the evolving of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span>
+critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore left this
+department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned
+his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical
+philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre.
+Both brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national
+poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales.
+They published in 1816-1818 an analysis and critical sifting of
+the oldest epic traditions of the Germanic races under the title of
+<i>Deutsche Sagen</i>. At the same time they collected all the popular
+tales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people,
+partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812-1815
+the first edition of those <i>Kinder- und Hausmärchen</i> which have
+carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household
+of the civilized world, and founded the science of folk-lore. The
+closely allied subject of the satirical beast epic of the middle ages
+also had a great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an
+edition of the <i>Reinhart Fuchs</i> in 1834. His first contribution to
+mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs,
+undertaken conjointly with his brother, published in 1815, which,
+however, was not followed by any more. The first edition of his
+<i>Deutsche Mythologie</i> appeared in 1835. This great work covers
+the whole range of the subject, tracing the mythology and
+superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct
+evidence, and following their decay and loss down to the popular
+traditions, tales and expressions in which they still linger.</p>
+
+<p>Although by the introduction of the Code Napoléon into
+Westphalia Grimm&rsquo;s legal studies were made practically barren,
+he never lost his interest in the scientific study of law and
+national institutions, as the truest exponents of the life and
+character of a people. By the publication (in 1828) of his
+<i>Rechtsalterthümer</i> he laid the foundations of that historical study
+of the old Teutonic laws and constitutions which was continued
+with brilliant success by Georg L. Maurer and others. In this
+work Grimm showed the importance of a linguistic study of the
+old laws, and the light that can be thrown on many a dark
+passage in them by a comparison of the corresponding words and
+expressions in the other old cognate dialects. He also knew
+how&mdash;and this is perhaps the most original and valuable part of
+his work&mdash;to trace the spirit of the laws in countless allusions
+and sayings which occur in the old poems and sagas, or even
+survive in modern colloquialisms.</p>
+
+<p>Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching
+is his <i>Geschichte der deutschen Sprache</i>, where at the same time
+the linguistic element is most distinctly brought forward. The
+subject of the work is, indeed, nothing less than the history which
+lies hidden in the words of the German language&mdash;the oldest
+national history of the Teutonic tribes determined by means of
+language. For this purpose he laboriously collects the scattered
+words and allusions to be found in classical writers, and endeavours
+to determine the relations in which the German language stood
+to those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, and many other
+nations whose languages are known only by doubtfully identified,
+often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and
+Latin authors. Grimm&rsquo;s results have been greatly modified
+by the wider range of comparison and improved methods of
+investigation which now characterize linguistic science, and
+many of the questions raised by him will probably for ever
+remain obscure; but his book will always be one of the most
+fruitful and suggestive that have ever been written.</p>
+
+<p>Grimm&rsquo;s famous <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> was the outcome of his
+purely philological work. The labours of past generations&mdash;from
+the humanists onwards&mdash;had collected an enormous
+mass of materials in the shape of text-editions, dictionaries
+and grammars, although most of it was uncritical and often
+untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the way
+of comparison and the determination of general laws, and the
+conception of a comparative Teutonic grammar had been clearly
+grasped by the illustrious Englishman George Hickes, at the
+beginning of the 18th century, and partly carried out by him
+in his <i>Thesaurus</i>. Ten Kate in Holland had afterwards made
+valuable contributions to the history and comparison of the
+Teutonic languages. Even Grimm himself did not at first intend
+to include all the languages in his grammar; but he soon found
+that Old High German postulated Gothic, that the later stages
+of German could not be understood without the help of the Low
+German dialects, including English, and that the rich literature
+of Scandinavia could as little be ignored. The first edition of the
+first part of the <i>Grammar</i>, which appeared in 1819, and is now
+extremely rare, treated of the inflections of all these languages,
+together with a general introduction, in which he vindicated the
+importance of an historical study of the German language against
+the a priori, quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue.</p>
+
+<p>In 1822 this volume appeared in a second edition&mdash;really a
+new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, it cost him
+little reflection to mow down the first crop to the ground. The
+wide distance between the two stages of Grimm&rsquo;s development
+in these two editions is significantly shown by the fact that while
+the first edition gives only the inflections, in the second volume
+phonology takes up no fewer than 600 pages, more than half of the
+whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened to the full
+conviction that all sound philology must be based on rigorous
+adhesion to the laws of sound-change, and he never afterwards
+swerved from this principle, which gave to all his investigations,
+even in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and
+that force of conviction which distinguish science from dilettanteism;
+up to Grimm&rsquo;s time philology was nothing but a more or
+less laborious and conscientious dilettanteism, with occasional
+flashes of scientific inspiration; he made it into a science. His
+advance must be attributed mainly to the influence of his
+contemporary R. Rask. Rask was born two years later than
+Grimm, but his remarkable precocity gave him somewhat the
+start. Even in Grimm&rsquo;s first editions his Icelandic paradigms are
+based entirely on Rask&rsquo;s grammar, and in his second edition he
+relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to
+Rask can only be estimated at its true value by comparing his
+treatment of Old English in the two editions; the difference
+is very great. Thus in the first edition he declines <i>dæg</i>, <i>dæges</i>,
+plural <i>dægas</i>, not having observed the law of vowel-change
+pointed out by Rask. There can be little doubt that the appearance
+of Rask&rsquo;s Old English grammar was a main inducement
+for him to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask also
+belongs the merit of having first distinctly formulated the laws
+of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially
+in the vowels, those more fleeting elements of speech which had
+hitherto been ignored by etymologists.</p>
+
+<p>This leads to a question which has been the subject of much
+controversy,&mdash;Who discovered what is known as <i>Grimm&rsquo;s law</i>?
+This law of the correspondence of consonants in the older Indo-germanic,
+Low and High German languages respectively was
+first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first
+part of his grammar. The correspondence of single consonants
+had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his predecessors;
+but the one who came nearest to the discovery of the
+complete law was the Swede J. Ihre, who established a considerable
+number of &ldquo;literarum permutationes,&rdquo; such as <i>b</i> for <i>f</i>,
+with the examples <i>bæra = ferre</i>, <i>befwer = fiber</i>. Rask, in his essay
+on the origin of the Icelandic language, gives the same comparisons,
+with a few additions and corrections, and even the very
+same examples in most cases. As Grimm in the preface to his
+first edition expressly mentions this essay of Rask, there is every
+probability that it gave the first impulse to his own investigations.
+But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations
+of his predecessors and the comprehensive generalizations under
+which he himself ranged them. The extension of the law to
+High German is also entirely his own. The only fact that
+can be adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished
+to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is that he does not
+expressly mention Rask&rsquo;s results in his second edition. But
+this is part of the plan of his work, viz. to refrain from all
+controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first
+edition he expressly calls attention to Rask&rsquo;s essay, and praises
+it most ungrudgingly. Rask himself refers as little to Ihre,
+merely alluding in a general way to Ihre&rsquo;s permutations, although
+his own debt to Ihre is infinitely greater than that of Grimm to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span>
+Rask or any one else. It is true that a certain bitterness of
+feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but this
+was the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and
+irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of
+Grimm&rsquo;s views when they involved modification of his own.
+The importance of Grimm&rsquo;s generalization in the history of
+philology cannot be overestimated, and even the mystic completeness
+and symmetry of its formulation, although it has proved
+a hindrance to the correct explanation of the causes of the
+changes, was well calculated to strike the popular mind, and
+give it a vivid idea of the paramount importance of law, and the
+necessity of disregarding mere superficial resemblance. The
+most lawless etymologist bows down to the authority of Grimm&rsquo;s
+law, even if he honours it almost as much in the breach as in the
+observance.</p>
+
+<p>The grammar was continued in three volumes, treating
+principally of derivation, composition and syntax, which last
+was left unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which
+only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his
+time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary. The
+grammar stands alone in the annals of science for comprehensiveness,
+method and fullness of detail. Every law, every letter,
+every syllable of inflection in the different languages is illustrated
+by an almost exhaustive mass of material. It has served as a
+model for all succeeding investigators. Diez&rsquo;s grammar of the
+Romance languages is founded entirely on its methods, which
+have also exerted a profound influence on the wider study of the
+Indo-Germanic languages in general.</p>
+
+<p>In the great German dictionary Grimm undertook a task for
+which he was hardly suited. His exclusively historical tendencies
+made it impossible for him to do justice to the individuality of a
+living language; and the disconnected statement of the facts
+of language in an ordinary alphabetical dictionary fatally
+mars its scientific character. It was also undertaken on so large
+a scale as to make it impossible for him and his brother to complete
+it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was worked out
+by Grimm himself, may be described as a collection of disconnected
+antiquarian essays of high value.</p>
+
+<p>Grimm&rsquo;s scientific character is notable for its combination
+of breadth and unity. He was as far removed from the narrowness
+of the specialist who has no ideas, no sympathies beyond
+some one author, period or corner of science, as from the shallow
+dabbler who feverishly attempts to master the details of half-a-dozen
+discordant pursuits. Even within his own special studies
+there is the same wise concentration; no Mezzofanti-like parrot
+display of useless polyglottism. The very foundations of his
+nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of historical
+investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the study of the
+language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his own
+countrymen and their nearest kindred. But from this centre
+his investigations were pursued in every direction as far as his
+unerring instinct of healthy limitation would allow. He was
+equally fortunate in the harmony that subsisted between his
+intellectual and moral nature. He made cheerfully the heavy
+sacrifices that science demands from its disciples, without feeling
+any of that envy and bitterness which often torment weaker
+natures; and although he lived apart from his fellow men, he
+was full of human sympathies, and no man has ever exercised
+a profounder influence on the destinies of mankind. His was
+the very ideal of the noblest type of German character.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following is a complete list of his separately published works,
+those which he published in common with his brother being marked
+with a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, &amp;c., see vol. v. of
+his <i>Kleinere Schriften</i>, from which the present list is taken. His life is
+best studied in his own &ldquo;Selbstbiographie,&rdquo; in vol. i. of the <i>Kleinere
+Schriften</i>. There is also a brief memoir by K. Gödeke in <i>Göttinger
+Professoren</i> (Gotha (Perthes), 1872): <i>Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang</i>
+(Göttingen, 1811); *<i>Kinder- und Hausmärchen</i> (Berlin,
+1812-1815) (many editions); *<i>Das Lied von Hildebrand und das
+Weissenbrunner Gebet</i> (Cassel, 1812); <i>Altdeutsche Wälder</i> (Cassel,
+Frankfort, 1813-1816, 3 vols.); *<i>Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann
+von der Aue</i> (Berlin, 1815); *<i>Irmenstrasse und Irmensäule</i> (Vienna,
+1815); *<i>Die Lieder der allen Edda</i> (Berlin, 1815), <i>Silva de romances
+viejos</i> (Vienna, 1815); *<i>Deutsche Sagen</i> (Berlin, 1816-1818, 2nd ed.,
+Berlin, 1865-1866); <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> (Göttingen, 1819, 2nd ed.,
+Göttingen, 1822-1840) (reprinted 1870 by W. Scherer, Berlin); <i>Wuk
+Stephanovitsch&rsquo;s kleine serbische Grammatik, verdeutscht mit einer
+Vorrede</i> (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824); <i>Zur Recension der deutschen
+Grammatik</i> (Cassel, 1826); *<i>Irische Elfenmärchen, aus dem Englischen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1826); <i>Deutsche Rechtsaltertümer</i> (Göttingen, 1828, 2nd
+ed., 1854); <i>Hymnorum veteris ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio theodisca</i>
+(Göttingen, 1830); <i>Reinhart Fuchs</i> (Berlin, 1834); <i>Deutsche
+Mythologie</i> (Göttingen, 1835, 3rd ed., 1854, 2 vols.); <i>Taciti Germania
+edidit</i> (Göttingen, 1835); <i>Über meine Entlassung</i> (Basel, 1838);
+(together with Schmeller) <i>Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI.
+Jahrhunderts</i> (Göttingen, 1838); <i>Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann
+über Reinhart Fuchs</i> (Berlin, 1840); <i>Weistümer</i>, Th. i. (Göttingen,
+1840) (continued, partly by others, in 5 parts, 1840-1869); <i>Andreas
+und Elene</i> (Cassel, 1840); <i>Frau Aventure</i> (Berlin, 1842); <i>Geschichte
+der deutschen Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.); <i>Das
+Wort des Besitzes</i> (Berlin, 1850); *<i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>, Bd. i.
+(Leipzig, 1854); <i>Rede auf Wilhelm Grimm und Rede über das Alter</i>
+(Berlin, 1868, 3rd ed., 1865); <i>Kleinere Schriften</i> (Berlin, 1864-1870,
+5 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Sw.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMM, WILHELM CARL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1786-1859). For the chief events
+in the life of Wilhelm Grimm see article on Jacob Grimm above.
+As Jacob himself said in his celebrated address to the Berlin
+Academy on the death of his brother, the whole of their lives
+were passed together. In their schooldays they had one bed
+and one table in common, as students they had two beds and
+two tables in the same room, and they always lived under one
+roof, and had their books and property in common. Nor did
+Wilhelm&rsquo;s marriage in any way disturb their harmony. As
+Cleasby said (&ldquo;Life of Cleasby,&rdquo; prefixed to his <i>Icelandic
+Dictionary</i>, p. lxix.), &ldquo;they both live in the same house, and in
+such harmony and community that one might almost imagine
+the children were common property.&rdquo; Wilhelm&rsquo;s character
+was a complete contrast to that of his brother. As a boy he was
+strong and healthy, but as he grew up he was attacked by a long
+and severe illness, which left him weak all his life. His was a less
+comprehensive and energetic mind than that of his brother, and
+he had less of the spirit of investigation, preferring to confine
+himself to some limited and definitely bounded field of work;
+he utilized everything that bore directly on his own studies, and
+ignored the rest. These studies were almost always of a literary
+nature. It is characteristic of his more aesthetic nature that he
+took great delight in music, for which his brother had but a
+moderate liking, and had a remarkable gift of story-telling.
+Cleasby, in the account of his visit to the brothers, quoted above,
+tells that &ldquo;Wilhelm read a sort of farce written in the Frankfort
+dialect, depicting the &lsquo;malheurs&rsquo; of a rich Frankfort tradesman
+on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and he read
+it admirably.&rdquo; Cleasby describes him as &ldquo;an uncommonly
+animated, jovial fellow.&rdquo; He was, accordingly, much sought in
+society, which he frequented much more than his brother.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His first work was a spirited translation of the Danish <i>Kæmpeviser,
+Altdänische Heldenlieder</i>, published in 1811-1813, which made his
+name at first more widely known than that of his brother. The
+most important of his text editions are&mdash;<i>Ruolandslied</i> (Göttingen,
+1838); <i>Konrad von Würzburg&rsquo;s Goldene Schmiede</i> (Berlin, 1840);
+<i>Grave Ruodolf</i> (Göttingen, 1844, 2nd ed.); <i>Athis und Prophilias</i>
+(Berlin, 1846); <i>Altdeutsche Gespräche</i> (Berlin, 1851); <i>Freidank</i>
+(Göttingen, 1860, 2nd ed.). Of his other works the most important is
+<i>Deutsche Heldensage</i> (Berlin, 1868, 2nd ed.). His <i>Deutsche Runen</i>
+(Göttingen, 1821) has now only an historical interest.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Sw.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMMA,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank
+of the Mulde, 19 m. S.E. of Leipzig on the railway Döbeln-Dresden.
+Pop. (1905) 11,182. It has a Roman Catholic and
+three Evangelical churches, and among other principal buildings
+are the Schloss built in the 12th century, and long a residence of
+the margraves of Meissen and the electors of Saxony; the town-hall,
+dating from 1442, and the famous school Fürstenschule
+(<i>Illustre Moldanum</i>), erected by the elector Maurice on the site
+of the former Augustinian monastery in 1550, having provision
+for 104 free scholars and a library numbering 10,000 volumes.
+There are also a modern school, a teachers&rsquo; seminary, a commercial
+school and a school of brewing. Among the industries of
+the town are ironfounding, machine building and dyeworks,
+while paper and gloves are manufactured there. Gardening
+and agriculture generally are also important branches of industry.
+In the immediate neighbourhood are the ruins of the Cistercian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span>
+nunnery from which Catherine von Bora fled in 1523, and the
+village of Döben, with an old castle. Grimma is of Sorbian
+origin, and is first mentioned in 1203. It passed then into
+possession of Saxony and has remained since part of that
+country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lorenz, <i>Die Stadt Grimma, historisch beschrieben</i> (Leipzig, 1871);
+Rössler, <i>Geschichte der königlich sächsischen Fürsten- und Landesschule
+Grimma</i> (Leipzig, 1891); L. Schmidt, <i>Urkundenbuch der
+Stadt Grimma</i> (Leipzig, 1895); and Fraustadt, <i>Grimmenser Stammbuch</i>
+(Grimma, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span>
+(<i>c.</i> 1625-1676), German author, was born at Gelnhausen in or
+about 1625. At the age of ten he was kidnapped by Hessian
+soldiery, and in their midst tasted the adventures of military
+life in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. At its close, Grimmelshausen
+entered the service of Franz Egon von Fürstenberg, bishop
+of Strassburg and in 1665 was made <i>Schultheiss</i> (magistrate)
+at Renchen in Baden. On obtaining this appointment, he
+devoted himself to literary pursuits, and in 1669 published
+<i>Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus, Teutsch, d.h. die Beschreibung
+des Lebens eines seltsamen Vaganten, genannt Melchior Sternfels
+von Fuchsheim</i>, the greatest German novel of the 17th century.
+For this work he took as his model the picaresque romances of
+Spain, already to some extent known in Germany. <i>Simplicissimus</i>
+is in great measure its author&rsquo;s autobiography; he begins
+with the childhood of his hero, and describes the latter&rsquo;s adventures
+amid the stirring scenes of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. The
+realistic detail with which these pictures are presented makes the
+book one of the most valuable documents of its time. In the
+later parts Grimmelshausen, however, over-indulges in allegory,
+and finally loses himself in a Robinson Crusoe story. Among
+his other works the most important are the so-called <i>Simplicianische
+Schriften: Die Erzbetrügerin und Landstörtzerin Courasche</i>
+(<i>c.</i> 1669); <i>Der seltsame Springinsfeld</i> (1670) and <i>Das wunderbarliche
+Vogelnest</i> (1672). His satires, such as <i>Der teutsche Michel</i>
+(1670), and &ldquo;gallant&rdquo; novels, like <i>Dietwald und Amelinde</i>
+(1670) are of inferior interest. He died at Renchen on the
+17th of August 1676, where a monument was erected to him in
+1879.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions of <i>Simplicissimus</i> and the <i>Simplicianische Schriften</i> have
+been published by A. von Keller (1854), H. Kurz (1863-1864),
+J. Tittmann (1877) and F. Bobertag (1882). A reprint of the first
+edition of the novel was edited by R. Kögel for the series of <i>Neudrucke
+des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts</i> (1880). See the introductions to these
+editions; also F. Antoine, <i>Étude sur le Simplicissimus de Grimmelshausen</i>
+(1882) and E. Schmidt in his <i>Charakteristiken</i>, vol. i. (1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1753-1815),
+French soldier and military writer, entered the royal army at
+the age of sixteen, and in 1775 published his <i>Essai théorique et
+practique sur les batailles</i>. Shortly afterwards Louis XVI.
+placed him in his own military cabinet and employed him
+especially in connexion with schemes of army reform. By the
+year of the Revolution he had become one of Louis&rsquo;s most
+valued counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and
+was marked out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of
+War. In 1791 Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation
+of the scheme of defence for France, which proved two years
+later of great assistance to the Committee of Public Safety.
+The events of 1792 put an end to his military career, and the
+remainder of his life was spent in writing military books.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained
+some importance: <i>Histoire des dernières campagnes de Turenne</i>
+(Paris, 1780), <i>Lettres et mémoires de Turenne</i> (Paris, 1780), <i>Troupes
+légères et leur emploi</i> (Paris, 1782), <i>Conquêtes de Gustave-Adolphe</i>
+(Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1782-1791); <i>Mémoires de Gustave
+Adolphe</i> (Paris, 1790), Correspondence of Marshal Richelieu (Paris,
+1789), St Germain (1789), and Bernis (1790), <i>Vie et règne de Frédéric
+le Grand</i> (London, 1788), <i>Lettres et mémoires du maréchal de Saxe</i>
+(Paris, 1794), <i>L&rsquo;Expédition de Minorque en 1756</i> (Paris, 1798),
+<i>Recherches sur la force de l&rsquo;armée française depuis Henri IV jusqu&rsquo;en
+1805</i> (Paris, 1806), <i>Mémoires du maréchal de Tessé</i> (Paris, 1806),
+<i>Lettres de Bolingbroke</i> (Paris, 1808), <i>Traité, sur le service d&rsquo;état-major</i>
+(Paris, 1809), and (with Servan) <i>Tableau historique de la guerre de
+la Révolution 1792-1794</i> (Paris, 1808).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMSBY,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Great Grimsby</span>, a municipal, county and
+parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire, England; an important
+seaport near the mouth of the Humber on the south shore.
+Pop. (1901) 63,138. It is 155 m. N. by E. from London by the
+Great Northern railway, and is also served by the Great Central
+railway. The church of St James, situated in the older part of the
+town, is a cruciform Early English building, retaining, in spite
+of injudicious restoration, many beautiful details. The chief
+buildings are that containing the town hall and the grammar
+school (a foundation of 1547), the exchange, a theatre, and the
+customs house and dock offices. A sailors&rsquo; and fishermen&rsquo;s
+Harbour of Refuge, free library, constitutional club and technical
+school are maintained. The duke of York public gardens were
+opened in 1894. Adjacent to Grimsby on the east is the coastal
+watering-place of Cleethorpes.</p>
+
+<p>The dock railway station lies a mile from the town station.
+In 1849 the Great Central (then the Manchester, Sheffield
+and Lincolnshire) railway initiated a scheme of reclamation
+and dock-construction. This was completed in 1854, and subsequent
+extensions were made. There are two large fish-docks,
+and, for general traffic, the Royal dock, communicating with the
+Humber through a tidal basin, the small Union dock, and the
+extensive Alexandra dock, together with graving docks, timber
+yards, a patent slip, &amp;c. These docks have an area of about
+104 acres, but were found insufficient for the growing traffic of
+the port, and in 1906 the construction of a large new dock, of
+about 40 acres&rsquo; area and 30 to 35 ft. depth, was undertaken by
+the Great Central Company at Immingham, 5 m. above Grimsby
+on the Humber. The principal imports are butter, woollens,
+timber, cereals, eggs, glass, cottons, preserved meat, wool,
+sugar and bacon. The exports consist chiefly of woollen yarn,
+woollens, cotton goods, cotton yarn, machinery, &amp;c. and coal.
+It is as a fishing port, however, that Grimsby is chiefly famous.
+Two of the docks are for the accommodation of the fishing fleet,
+which, consisting principally of steam trawlers, numbers upwards
+of 500 vessels. Regular passenger steamers run from
+Grimsby to Dutch and south Swedish ports, and to Esbjerg
+(Denmark), chiefly those of the Wilson line and the Great Central
+railway. The chief industries of Grimsby are shipbuilding,
+brewing, tanning, manufactures of ship tackle, ropes, ice for
+preserving fish, turnery, flour, linseed cake, artificial manure;
+and there are saw mills, bone and corn mills, and creosote works.
+The municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36
+councillors. Area, 2852 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Grimsby (<i>Grimesbi</i>) is supposed to have been the landing-place
+of the Danes on their first invasion of Britain towards the close
+of the 8th century. It was a borough by prescription as early
+as 1201, in which year King John granted the burgesses a charter
+of liberties according to the custom of the burgesses of Northampton.
+Henry III. in 1227 granted to &ldquo;the mayor and good
+men&rdquo; of Grimsby, that they should hold the town for a yearly
+rent of £111, and confirmed the same in 1271. These charters
+were confirmed by later sovereigns. A governing charter,
+under the title of mayor and burgesses, was given by James II.
+in 1688, and under this the appointment of officers and other of
+the corporation, arrangements are to a great extent regulated.
+In 1201 King John granted the burgesses an annual fair for
+fifteen days, beginning on the 25th of May. Two annual fairs
+are now held, namely on the first Monday in April and the second
+Monday in October. No early grant of a market can be found,
+but in 1792 the market-day was Wednesday. In 1888 it had
+ceased to exist. Grimsby returned two members to the parliament
+of 1298, but in 1833 the number was reduced to one.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was an important seaport,
+but the haven became obstructed by sand and mud deposited
+by the Humber, and so the access of large vessels was prevented.
+At the beginning of the 19th century a subscription was raised
+by the proprietors of land in the neighbourhood for improving
+the harbour, and an act was obtained by which they were
+incorporated under the title &ldquo;The Grimsby Haven Co.&rdquo; The
+fishing trade had become so important by 1800 that it was
+necessary to construct a new dock.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1603-1685), English politician,
+second son of Sir Harbottle Grimston, Bart. (d. 1648), was born
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span>
+at Bradfield Hall, near Manningtree, on the 27th of January
+1603. Educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he became
+a barrister of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, then recorder of Harwich and
+recorder of Colchester. As member for Colchester, Grimston
+sat in the Short Parliament of 1640, and he represented the same
+borough during the Long Parliament, speedily becoming a
+leading member of the popular party. He attacked Archbishop
+Laud with great vigour; was a member of the important
+committees of the parliament, including the one appointed
+in consequence of the attempted seizure of the five members;
+and became deputy-lieutenant of Essex after the passing of the
+militia ordinance in January 1642. He disliked taking up arms
+against the king, but remained nominally an adherent of the
+parliamentary party during the Civil War. In the words of
+Clarendon, he &ldquo;continued rather than concurred with them.&rdquo;
+Grimston does not appear to have taken the Solemn League
+and Covenant, but after the conclusion of the first period of the
+war he again became more active. He was president of the
+committee which investigated the escape of the king from
+Hampton Court in 1647, and was one of those who negotiated
+with Charles at Newport in 1648, when, according to Burnet,
+he fell upon his knees and urged the king to come to terms.
+From this time Grimston&rsquo;s sympathies appear to have been with
+the Royalists. Turned out of the House of Commons when the
+assembly was &ldquo;purged&rdquo; by colonel Pride, he was imprisoned;
+but was released after promising to do nothing detrimental to
+the parliament or the army, and spent the next few years in
+retirement. Before this time, his elder brother having already
+died, he had succeeded his father as 2nd baronet. In 1656
+Sir Harbottle was returned to Cromwell&rsquo;s second parliament
+as member for Essex; but he was not allowed to take his seat;
+and with 97 others who were similarly treated he issued a
+remonstrance to the public. He was among the secluded members
+who re-entered the Long Parliament in February 1660, was then
+a member of the council of state, and was chosen Speaker of
+the House of Commons in the Convention Parliament of 1660.
+As Speaker he visited Charles II. at Breda, and addressed him
+in very flattering terms on his return to London; but he refused
+to accede to the king&rsquo;s demand that he should dismiss Burnet
+from his position as chaplain to the Master of the Rolls, and in
+parliament he strongly denounced any relaxation of the laws
+against papists. Grimston did not retain the office of Speaker
+after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament, but he was
+a member of the commission which tried the regicides, and in
+November 1660 he was appointed Master of the Rolls. Report
+says he paid Clarendon £8000 for the office, while Burnet declares
+he obtained it &ldquo;without any application of his own.&rdquo; He died
+on the 2nd of January 1685. His friend and chaplain, Burnet,
+speaks very highly of his piety and impartiality, while not
+omitting the undoubted fact that he was &ldquo;much sharpened
+against popery.&rdquo; He translated the law reports of his father-in-law,
+the judge, Sir George Croke (1560-1642), which were written
+in Norman-French, and five editions of this work have appeared.
+Seven of his parliamentary speeches were published, and he
+also wrote <i>Strena Christiana</i> (London, 1644, and other editions).
+Grimston&rsquo;s first wife, Croke&rsquo;s daughter Mary, bore him six sons
+and two daughters; and by his second wife, Anne, daughter
+and heiress of Sir Nathaniel Bacon, K.B., a grandson of Sir
+Nicholas Bacon, he had one daughter.</p>
+
+<p>Of his sons one only, Samuel (1643-1700), survived his father,
+and when he died in October 1700 the baronetcy became extinct.
+Sir Harbottle&rsquo;s eldest daughter, Mary, married Sir Capel Luckyn,
+Bart., and their grandson, William Luckyn, succeeded to the
+estates of his great-uncle, Sir Samuel Grimston, and took the
+name of Grimston in 1700. This William Luckyn Grimston
+(1683-1756) was created Baron Dunboyne and Viscount Grimston
+in the peerage of Ireland in 1719. He was succeeded as 2nd
+viscount by his son James (1711-1773), whose son James Bucknall
+(1747-1808) was made an English peer as baron Verulam of
+Gorhambury in 1790. Then in 1815 his son James Walter (1775-1845),
+2nd baron Verulam, was created earl of Verulam, and the
+present peer is his direct descendant. Sir Harbottle Grimston
+bought Sir Nicholas Bacon&rsquo;s estate at Gorhambury, which is
+still the residence of his descendants.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Burnet, <i>History of My Own Time</i>, edited by O. Airy (Oxford,
+1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1816-1905),
+son of Sir Edmund Beckett Denison, was born on the 12th of
+May 1816. He was educated at Doncaster and Eton, whence he
+proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated thirtieth
+wrangler in 1838. He was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
+in 1841. Upon succeeding to the baronetcy in 1874 he dropped
+the name of Denison, which his father had assumed in 1816.
+From 1877 to 1900 he was chancellor and vicar-general of York,
+and he was raised to the peerage in 1886. He was made a Q.C.
+in 1854, and was for many years a leader of the Parliamentary
+Bar. He devoted himself to the study of astronomy, horology
+and architecture, more especially Gothic ecclesiastical architecture.
+As early as 1850 he had become a recognized authority
+on clocks, watches and bells, and in particular on the construction
+of turret clocks, for he had designed Dent&rsquo;s Great Exhibition
+clock, and his <i>Rudimentary Treatise</i> had gone through many
+editions. In 1851 he was called upon, in conjunction with the
+astronomer royal (Mr, afterwards Sir, G. B. Airy) and Mr Dent,
+to design a suitable clock for the new Houses of Parliament.
+The present tower clock, popularly known as &ldquo;Big Ben,&rdquo; was
+constructed after Lord Grimthorpe&rsquo;s designs. In a number
+of burning questions during his time Lord Grimthorpe took
+a prominent part. It is, however, in connexion with the restoration
+of St Albans Abbey that he is most widely known. The
+St Albans Abbey Reparation Committee, which had been in
+existence since 1871, and for which Sir Gilbert Scott had carried
+out some admirable repairs, obtained a faculty from the Diocesan
+Court in 1877 to repair and restore the church and fit it for
+cathedral and parochial services. Very soon, however, the
+committee found itself unable to raise the necessary funds,
+and it was at this juncture that a new faculty was granted to
+Lord Grimthorpe (then Sir Edmund Beckett) to &ldquo;restore, repair
+and refit&rdquo; the abbey at his own expense. Lord Grimthorpe
+made it an express stipulation that the work should be done
+according to his own designs and under his own supervision.
+His public spirit in undertaking the task was undeniable, but
+his treatment of the roof, the new west front, and the windows
+inserted in the terminations of the transepts, excited a storm of
+adverse criticism, and was the subject of vigorous protests from
+the professional world of architecture. He died on the 29th
+of April 1905, being succeeded as 2nd baron by his nephew,
+E. W. Beckett (b. 1856), who had sat in parliament as conservative
+member for the Whitby division of Yorkshire from 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRINDAL, EDMUND<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1519-1583), successively bishop of
+London, archbishop of York and archbishop of Canterbury,
+born about 1519, was son of William Grindal, a farmer of Hensingham,
+in the parish of St Bees, Cumberland. He was educated at
+Magdalene and Christ&rsquo;s Colleges and then at Pembroke Hall,
+Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was elected fellow in
+1538. He proceeded M.A. in 1541, was ordained deacon in 1544
+and was proctor and Lady Margaret preacher in 1548-1549.
+Probably through the influence of Ridley, who had been master
+of Pembroke Hall, Grindal was selected as one of the Protestant
+disputants during the visitation of 1549. He had a considerable
+talent for this work and was often employed on similar occasions.
+When Ridley became bishop of London, he made Grindal one
+of his chaplains and gave him the precentorship of St Paul&rsquo;s.
+He was soon promoted to be one of Edward VI.&rsquo;s chaplains
+and prebendary of Westminster, and in October 1552 was one
+of the six divines to whom the Forty-two articles were submitted
+for examination before being sanctioned by the Privy Council.
+According to Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of
+the court preachers in 1553 by denouncing the worldliness of
+the courtiers and foretelling the evils to follow on the king&rsquo;s
+death.</p>
+
+<p>That event frustrated Grindal&rsquo;s proposed elevation to the
+episcopal bench and he did not consider himself bound to await
+the evils which he had foretold. He abandoned his preferments
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span>
+on Mary&rsquo;s accession and made his way to Strassburg. Thence,
+like so many of the Marian exiles, he proceeded to Frankfurt,
+where he endeavoured to compose the disputes between the
+&ldquo;Coxians&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cox, Richard</a></span>), who regarded the 1552 Prayer
+Book as the perfection of reform, and the Knoxians, who wanted
+further simplification. He returned to England in January 1559,
+was appointed one of the committee to revise the liturgy, and
+one of the Protestant representatives at the Westminster conference.
+In July he was also elected Master of Pembroke Hall
+in succession to the recusant Dr Thomas Young (1514-1580)
+and Bishop of London in succession to Bonner.</p>
+
+<p>Grindal himself was, however, inclined to be recalcitrant from
+different motives. He had qualms about vestments and other
+traces of &ldquo;popery&rdquo; as well as about the Erastianism of Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+ecclesiastical government. His Protestantism was robust
+enough; he did not mind recommending that a priest &ldquo;might
+be put to some torment&rdquo; (<i>Hatfield MSS.</i> i. 269); and in October
+1562 he wrote to Cecil begging to know &ldquo;if that second Julian,
+the king of Navarre, is killed; as he intended to preach at St
+Paul&rsquo;s Cross, and might take occasion to mention God&rsquo;s judgements
+on him&rdquo; (<i>Domestic Cal.</i>, 1547-1580, p. 209). But he was
+loth to execute judgments upon English Puritans, and modern
+high churchmen complain of his infirmity of purpose, his opportunism
+and his failure to give Parker adequate assistance in
+rebuilding the shattered fabric of the English Church. Grindal
+lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of uniformity
+and autocracy which enabled Whitgift to persecute with a clear
+conscience nonconformists whose theology was indistinguishable
+from his own. Perhaps he was as wise as his critics; at any
+rate the rigour which he repudiated hardly brought peace or
+strength to the Church when practised by his successors, and
+London, which was always a difficult see, involved Bishop Sandys
+in similar <span class="correction" title="amended from tronbles">troubles</span> when Grindal had gone to York. As it was,
+although Parker said that Grindal &ldquo;was not resolute and severe
+enough for the government of London,&rdquo; his attempts to enforce
+the use of the surplice evoked angry protests, especially in 1565,
+when considerable numbers of the nonconformists were suspended;
+and Grindal of his own motion denounced Cartwright
+to the Council in 1570. Other anxieties were brought upon him
+by the burning of his cathedral in 1561, for although Grindal
+himself is said to have contributed £1200 towards its rebuilding,
+the laity of his diocese were niggardly with their subscriptions
+and even his clergy were not liberal.</p>
+
+<p>In 1570 Grindal was translated to the archbishopric of York,
+where Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly
+for Roman Catholics. His first letter from Cawood to Cecil
+told that he had not been well received, that the gentry were not
+&ldquo;well-affected to godly religion and among the common people
+many superstitious practices remained.&rdquo; It is admitted by his
+Anglican critics that he did the work of enforcing uniformity
+against the Roman Catholics with good-will and considerable
+tact. He must have given general satisfaction, for even before
+Parker&rsquo;s death two persons so different as Burghley and Dean
+Nowell independently recommended Grindal&rsquo;s appointment as
+his successor, and Spenser speaks warmly of him in the <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s
+Calendar</i> as the &ldquo;gentle shepherd Algrind.&rdquo; Burghley wished
+to conciliate the moderate Puritans and advised Grindal to
+mitigate the severity which had characterized Parker&rsquo;s treatment
+of the nonconformists. Grindal indeed attempted a reform of
+the ecclesiastical courts, but his metropolitical activity was cut
+short by a conflict with the arbitrary temper of the queen.
+Elizabeth required Grindal to suppress the &ldquo;prophesyings&rdquo;
+or meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the
+Puritan clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching;
+she would have no doctrine that was not inspired by her authority.
+Grindal remonstrated, claiming some voice for the Church, and
+in June 1577 was suspended from his jurisdictional, though not
+his spiritual, functions for disobedience. He stood firm, and
+in January 1578 Secretary Wilson informed Burghley that the
+queen wished to have the archbishop deprived. She was dissuaded
+from this extreme course, but Grindal&rsquo;s sequestration
+was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 1581
+for his reinstatement. Elizabeth then suggested that he should
+resign; this he declined to do, and after making an apology to the
+queen he was reinstated towards the end of 1582. But his
+infirmities were increasing, and while making preparations for
+his resignation, he died on the 6th of July 1583 and was buried in
+Croydon parish church. He left considerable benefactions to
+Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford, and
+Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge; he also endowed a free school at
+St Bees, and left money for the poor of St Bees, Canterbury,
+Lambeth and Croydon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Strype&rsquo;s <i>Life of Grindal</i> is the principal authority; see also <i>Dict.
+Nat. Biogr.</i> and, besides the authorities there cited, Gough&rsquo;s General
+Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. of
+Hatfield MSS.; Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the Church of England</i>; Frere&rsquo;s
+volume in Stephens&rsquo; and Hunt&rsquo;s series; <i>Cambridge Mod. Hist.</i>
+vol. iii.; Gee&rsquo;s <i>Elizabethan Clergy</i>; Birt&rsquo;s <i>Elizabethan Religious
+Settlement</i>; and Pierce&rsquo;s <i>Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRINDELWALD,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a valley in the Bernese Oberland, and one
+of the chief resorts of tourists in Switzerland. It is shut in on
+the south by the precipices of the Wetterhorn, Mettenberg
+and Eiger, between which two famous glaciers flow down. On
+the north it is sheltered by the Faulhorn range, while on the
+east the Great Scheidegg Pass leads over to Meiringen; and on
+the south-west the Little Scheidegg or Wengern Alp (railway
+11½ m. across) divides it from Lauterbrunnen. The main village
+is connected with Interlaken by a rack railway (13 m.). The
+valley is very green, and possesses excellent pastures, as well as
+fruit trees, though little corn is grown. It is watered by the
+Black Lütschine, a tributary of the Aar. The height of the
+parish church above the sea-level is 3468 ft. The population
+in 1900 was 3346, practically all Protestant and German-speaking,
+and living in 558 houses. The glacier guides are among the best
+in the Alps. The valley was originally inhabited by the serfs
+of various great lords in summer for the sake of pasturage. A
+chapel in a cave was superseded about 1146 by a wooden church,
+replaced about 1180 by a stone church, which was pulled down
+in 1793 to erect the present building. Gradually the Austin
+canons of Interlaken bought out all the other owners in the
+valley, but when that house was suppressed in 1528 by the town
+of Bern the inhabitants gained their freedom. The houses near
+the hotel Adler bear the name of Gydisdorf, but there is no
+village of Grindelwald properly speaking, though that name is
+usually given to the assemblage of hotels and shops between
+Gydisdorf and the railway station. Grindelwald is now very
+much frequented by visitors in winter.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. A. B. Coolidge, <i>Walks and Excursions in the Valley of
+Grindelwald</i> (also in French and German) (Grindelwald, 1900);
+Emmanuel Friedli, <i>Bärndütsch als Spiegel bernischen Volkstums</i>,
+vol. ii. (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); E. F. von Mülinen, <i>Beiträge zur
+Heimatkunde des Kantons Bern, deutschen Teils</i>, vol. i. (Bern, 1879),
+pp. 24-26; G. Strasser, <i>Der Gletschermann</i> (Grindelwald, 1888-1890).
+Scattered notices may be found in the edition (London, 1899) of the
+&ldquo;General Introduction&rdquo; (entitled &ldquo;Hints and Notes for Travellers
+in the Alps&rdquo;) to John Ball&rsquo;s <i>Alpine Guide</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRINGOIRE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gringore</span>), <b>PIERRE</b> (<i>c.</i> 1480-1539), French
+poet and dramatist, was born about the year 1480, probably at
+Caen. In his first work, <i>Le Chasteau de labour</i> (1499), a didactic
+poem in praise of diligence, he narrates the troubles following
+on marriage. A young couple are visited by Care, Need, Discomfort,
+&amp;c.; and other personages common to medieval allegories
+take part in the action. In November 1501 Gringoire
+was in Paris directing the production of a mystery play in honour
+of the archduke Philip of Austria, and in subsequent years
+he received many similar commissions. The fraternity of the
+<i>Enfans sans Souci</i> advanced him to the dignity of <i>Mère Sotte</i>
+and afterwards to the highest honour of the gild, that of
+<i>Prince des Sots</i>. For twenty years Gringoire seems to have been
+at the head of this illustrious confrérie. As <i>Prince des Sots</i> he
+exercised an extraordinary influence. At no time was the stage,
+rude and coarse as it was, more popular as a true exponent of
+the popular mind. Gringoire&rsquo;s success lay in the fact that he
+followed, but did not attempt to lead; on his stage the people
+saw exhibited their passions, their judgments of the moment,
+their jealousies, their hatreds and their ambitions. Brotherhoods
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span>
+of the kind existed all over France. In Paris there were the
+<i>Enfans sans Souci</i>, the <i>Basochiens</i>, the <i>Confrérie de la Passion</i>
+and the <i>Souverain Empire de Galilée</i>; at Dijon there were the
+<i>Mère Folle</i> and her family; in Flanders the <i>Société des Arbalétriers</i>
+played comedies; at Rouen the <i>Cornards</i> or <i>Conards</i> yielded
+to none in vigour and fearlessness of satire. On Shrove Tuesday
+1512 Gringoire, who was the accredited defender of the policy
+of Louis XII., and had already written many political poems,
+represented the <i>Jeu du Prince des Sots et Mère Sotte</i>. It was at
+the moment when the French dispute with Julius II. was at its
+height. <i>Mère Sotte</i> was disguised as the Church, and disputed
+the question of the temporal power with the prince. The political
+meaning was even more thinly veiled in the second part of the
+entertainment, a morality named <i>L&rsquo;Homme obstiné</i>, the principal
+personage representing the pope. The performance concluded
+with a farce. Gringoire adopted for his device on the frontispiece
+of this trilogy, <i>Tout par Raison</i>, <i>Raison par Tout</i>, <i>Par tout
+Raison</i>. He has been called the <i>Aristophane des Halles</i>. In one
+respect at least he resembles Aristophanes. He is serious in his
+merriment; there is purpose behind his extravagances. The
+Church was further attacked in a poem printed about 1510,
+<i>La Chasse du cerf des cerfs</i> (<i>serf des serfs</i>, i.e. <i>servus servorum</i>),
+under which title that of the pope is thinly veiled. About 1514
+he wrote his mystery of the <i>Vie de Monseigneur Saint-Louis
+par personnages</i> in nine books for the <i>confrérie</i> of the masons and
+carpenters. He became in 1518 herald at the court of Lorraine,
+with the title of Vaudemont, and married Catherine Roger,
+a lady of gentle birth. During the last twenty years of a long
+life he became orthodox, and dedicated a <i>Blason des hérétiques</i>
+to the duke of Lorraine. There is no record of the payment
+of his salary as a herald after Christmas 1538, so that he died
+probably in 1539.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works were edited by C. d&rsquo;Héricault and A. de Montaiglon
+for the <i>Bibliothèque elzévirienne</i> in 1858. This edition was incomplete,
+and was supplemented by a second volume in 1877 by Montaiglon
+and M. James de Rothschild. These volumes include the
+works already mentioned, except <i>Le Chasteau de labour</i>, and in
+addition, <i>Les Folles Entreprises</i> (1505), a collection of didactic and
+satirical poems, chiefly ballades and rondeaux, one section of which
+is devoted to the exposition of the tyranny of the nobles, and another
+to the vices of the clergy; <i>L&rsquo;Entreprise de Venise</i> (<i>c.</i> 1509), a poem
+in seven-lined stanzas, giving a list of the Venetian fortresses which
+belonged, according to Gringoire, to other powers; <i>L&rsquo;Espoir de paix</i>
+(1st ed. not dated; another, 1510), a verse treatise on the deeds of
+&ldquo;certain popes of Rome,&rdquo; dedicated to Louis XII.; and <i>La Coqueluche</i>
+(1510), a verse description of an epidemic, apparently influenza.
+For details of his other satires, <i>Les Abus du monde</i> (1509), <i>Complainte
+de trop tard marié, Les Fantasies du monde qui règne</i>; of his religious
+verse, <i>Chants royaux</i> (on the Passion, 1527), <i>Heures de Notre Dame</i>
+(1525); and a collection of tales in prose and verse, taken from
+the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i>, entitled <i>Les Fantasies de Mère Sotte</i> (1516),
+see G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire</i> (<i>s.v.</i> Gringore). Most of Gringoire&rsquo;s
+works conclude with an acrostic giving the name of the author.
+The <i>Chasteau de labour</i> was translated into English by Alexander
+Barclay and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1506. Barclay&rsquo;s
+translation was edited (1905) with his original for the Roxburghe
+Club by Mr A. W. Pollard, who provided an account of Gringoire, and
+a bibliography of the book. See also, for the <i>Jeu du Prince des Sots</i>,
+Petit de Julleville, <i>La Comédie et les m&oelig;urs en France au moyen âge</i>,
+pp. 151-168 (Paris, 1886); for <i>Saint Louis</i>, the same author&rsquo;s
+<i>Les Mystères</i>, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further bibliographical
+references; and E. Picot, <i>Gringore et les comédiens
+italiens</i> (1877). The real Gringoire cannot be said to have many
+points of resemblance with the poet described in Victor Hugo&rsquo;s
+<i>Notre-Dame de Paris</i>, nor is there more foundation in fact for the one-act
+prose comedy of Théodore de Banville.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRINNELL,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a city in Poweshiek county, Iowa, U.S.A., 55 m.
+E. by N. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 3860, of whom 274 were
+foreign-born; (1905) 4634; (1910) 5036. Grinnell is served by
+the Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific, and the Iowa Central railways.
+It is the seat of Iowa College (co-educational), founded
+in 1847 by the Iowa Band (Congregationalists and graduates
+of New England colleges and Andover Theological Seminary,
+who had devoted themselves to home missionary educational
+work in Iowa, and who came to Iowa in 1843), and by a few
+earlier pioneers from New England. The college opened in 1848
+at Davenport, and in 1859 removed to Grinnell, where there was
+a school called Grinnell University, which it absorbed. Closely
+affiliated with the college are the Grinnell Academy and the
+Grinnell School of Music. In 1907-1908 the College had 463
+students, the Academy had 129 students, and the School of
+Music had 141 students. Among the manufactures are carriages
+and gloves. The city was named in honour of one of its founders,
+Josiah Bushnell Grinnell (1821-1891), a Congregational clergyman,
+friend of and sympathizer with John Brown, and from
+1863 to 1867 a member of the National House of Representatives.
+Grinnell was settled in 1854, was incorporated as a town in 1865,
+and in 1882 was chartered as a city of the second class. In 1882
+it suffered severely from a cyclone.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIQUALAND EAST<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> and <b>GRIQUALAND WEST,</b> territorial
+divisions of the Cape Province of the Union of South Africa.
+Griqualand East, which lies south of Basutoland and west of
+Natal, is so named from the settlement there in 1862 of Griquas
+under Adam Kok. It forms part of the Transkeian Territories
+of the Cape, and is described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffraria</a></span>. Griqualand
+West, formerly Griqualand simply, also named after its Griqua
+inhabitants, is part of the great tableland of South Africa.
+It is bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by Bechuanaland,
+E. by the Transvaal and Orange Free State Province, and has
+an area of 15,197 sq. m. It has a general elevation of 3000 to
+4000 ft. above the sea, low ranges of rocky hills, the Kaap,
+Asbestos, Vansittart and Langeberg mountains, traversing its
+western portion in a general N.E.-S.W. direction. The only
+perennial rivers are in the eastern district, through which the
+Vaal flows from a point a little above Fourteen Streams to its
+junction with the Orange (160 m.). In this part of its course the
+Vaal receives the Harts river from the north and the Riet from
+the east. The Riet, 4 m. within the Griqualand frontier, is
+joined by the Modder. The banks of the rivers are shaded by
+willows; elsewhere the only tree is the mimosa. The greater
+part of the country is barren, merging N.W. into absolute
+desert. The soil is, however, wherever irrigated, extremely
+fertile. The day climate is hot and dry, but the nights are frequently
+cold. Rain rarely falls, though thunderstorms of great
+severity occasionally sweep over the land, and sandstorms are
+prevalent in the summer. A portion of the country is adapted
+for sheep-farming and the growing of crops, horse-breeding is
+carried on at Kimberley, and asbestos is worked in the south-western
+districts, but the wealth of Griqualand West lies in its
+diamonds, which are found along the banks of the Vaal and in the
+district between that river and the Riet. From the first discovery
+of diamonds in 1867 up to the end of 1905 the total
+yield of diamonds was estimated at 13½ tons, worth £95,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The chief town is Kimberley (<i>q.v.</i>), the centre of the diamond
+mining industry. It is situated on the railway from Cape Town
+to the Zambezi, which crosses the country near its eastern
+border. Three miles south of Kimberley is Beaconsfield (<i>q.v.</i>).
+On the banks of the Vaal are Barkly West (<i>q.v.</i>), Windsorton
+(pop. 800) and Warrenton (pop. 1500); at all these places are
+river diggings, diamonds being found along the river from
+Fourteen Streams to the Harts confluence. Warrenton is 44 m.
+N. by rail from Kimberley. Douglas (pop. 300), on the south
+bank of the Vaal, 12 m. above its confluence with the Orange,
+is the centre of an agricultural district, a canal 9½ m. long serving
+to irrigate a considerable area. Thirty-five miles N.W. of
+Douglas is Griquatown (pop. 401), the headquarters of the
+first Griqua settlers. Campbell (pop. 250) is 30 m. E. of Griquatown,
+and Postmasburg 42 m. N. by W. A census taken in 1877
+showed the population of Griqualand West to be 45,277, of whom
+12,347 were whites. At the census of 1891 the population was
+83,215, of whom 29,602 were whites, and in 1904 the population
+was 108,498, of whom 32,570 were whites.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Before the settlement in it of Griqua clans the
+district was thinly inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots.
+At the end of the 18th century a horde known as Bastaards,
+descendants of Dutch farmers and Hottentot women, led a
+nomadic life on the plains south of the Orange river. In 1803
+a missionary named Anderson induced a number of the Bastaards
+with their chief Barend Barends to settle north of the river, and
+a mission station was formed at a place where there was a strong
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span>
+flowing fountain, which has now disappeared, which gave the
+name of Klaarwater to what is now known as Griquatown or
+Griquastad. Klaarwater became a retreat for other Bastaards,
+Hottentot refugees, Kaffirs and Bechuanas. From Little
+Namaqualand came a few half-breeds and others under the
+leadership of Adam Kok, son of Cornelius Kok and grandson
+of Adam Kok (<i>c.</i> 1710-1795), a man of mixed white and Hottentot
+blood who is regarded as the founder of the modern Griquas.
+The settlement prospered, and in 1813, at the instance of the
+Rev. John Campbell, who had been sent by the London Missionary
+Society to inspect the country, the tribesmen abandoned
+the name of Bastaards in favour of that of Griquas,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> some
+of them professing descent from a Hottentot tribe, originally
+settled near Saldanha Bay, called by the early Dutch settlers
+at the Cape Chariguriqua or Grigriqua. Under the guidance
+of missionaries the Griquas made some progress in civilization,
+and many professed Christianity. Adam Kok and Barends
+having moved eastward in 1820, those who remained behind
+elected as their head man a teacher in the mission school named
+Andries Waterboer, who successfully administered the settlement,
+and by defeating the Makololo raiders greatly increased
+the prestige of the tribe. Meanwhile Adam Kok and his companions
+had occupied part of the country between the Modder
+and Orange rivers. In 1825 Kok settled at the mission station
+of Philippolis (founded two years previously), and in a short time
+had exterminated the Bushmen inhabiting that region. He
+died about 1835, and after a period of civil strife was succeeded
+by his younger son, Adam Kok III. This chief in November
+1843 signed a treaty placing himself under British protection.
+Many Dutch farmers were settled on the land he claimed. In
+1845 he received British military aid in a contest with the white
+settlers, and in 1848 helped the British under Sir Harry Smith
+against the Boers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange Free State</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Eventually
+finding himself straitened by the Boers of the newly established
+Orange Free State, he removed in 1861-1863 with his
+people, some 3000 in number, to the region (then depopulated
+by Kaffir wars) now known as Griqualand East. His sovereign
+rights to all territory north of the Orange he sold to the Free
+State for £4000. He founded Kokstad (<i>q.v.</i>) and died in 1876.
+Waterboer, the principal Griqua chief, had entered into treaty
+relations with the British government as early as 1834, and he
+received a subsidy of £150 a year. He proved a stanch ally of
+the British, and kept the peace on the Cape frontier to the day
+of his death in 1852. He was succeeded by his son Nicholas
+Waterboer, under whom the condition of the Griquas declined&mdash;a
+decline induced by the indolence of the people and intensified
+by the drying up of the water supplies, cattle plague and brandy
+drinking. During this period white settlers acquired farms in
+the country, and the loss of their independence by the Griquas
+became inevitable. The discovery of diamonds along the banks
+of the Vaal in 1867 entirely altered the fortunes of the country,
+and by the end of 1869 the rush to the alluvial diggings had begun.
+At the diggers&rsquo; camps the Griquas exercised no authority, but
+over part of the district the South African Republic and the
+Orange Free State claimed sovereignty. At Klip Drift (now
+Barkly West) the diggers formed a regular government and
+elected Theodore Parker as their president. Most of the diggers
+being British subjects, the high commissioner of South Africa
+interfered, and a Cape official was appointed magistrate at
+Klip Drift, President Parker resigning office in February 1871.
+At this time the &ldquo;dry diggings,&rdquo; of which Kimberley is the
+centre, had been discovered,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and over the miners there the
+Orange Free State asserted jurisdiction. The land was, however,
+claimed by Nicholas Waterboer, who, on the advice of his agent,
+David Arnot, petitioned the British to take over his country.
+This Great Britain consented to do, and on the 27th of October
+1871 proclamations were issued by the high commissioner
+receiving Waterboer and his Griquas as British subjects and
+defining the limits of his territory. In addition to the Kimberley
+district this territory included that part of the diamondiferous
+area which had been claimed by the Transvaal, but which had
+been declared, as the result of the arbitration of R. W. Keate,
+lieutenant-governor of Natal, part of Waterboer&rsquo;s land. On the
+4th of November a small party of Cape Mounted Police took
+possession of the dry diggings and hoisted the British flag.
+Shortly afterwards the representative of the Orange Free State
+withdrew. The Free State was greatly incensed by the action
+of the British government, but the dispute as to the sovereignty
+was settled in 1876 by the payment of £90,000 by the British
+to the Free State as compensation for any injury inflicted on the
+state.</p>
+
+<p>The diggers, who under the nominal rule of the Transvaal and
+Free State had enjoyed practical independence, found the
+new government did little for their benefit, and a period of disorder
+ensued, which was not put an end to by the appointment
+in January 1873 of Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard Southey<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> as
+sole administrator, in place of the three commissioners who
+had previously exercised authority. In the July following the
+territory was made a crown colony and Southey&rsquo;s title changed
+to that of lieutenant-governor. The government remained
+unpopular, the diggers complaining of its unrepresentative
+character, the heavy taxation exacted, and the inadequate
+protection of property. They formed a society for mutual
+protection, and the discontent was so great that an armed force
+was sent (early in 1875) from the Cape to overawe the agitators.
+At the same time measures were taken to render the government
+more popular. The settlement of the dispute with the Free
+State paved the way for the annexation of Griqualand to the Cape
+Colony on the 15th of October 1880.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kimberley</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange Free
+State</a></span>. For the early history of the country and an account of life
+at the diggings, 1871-1875, consult G. M&lsquo;Call Theal&rsquo;s <i>Compendium
+of the History and Geography of South Africa</i> (London, 1878), chapters
+xl. and xli.; Gardner F. Williams, <i>The Diamond Mines of South
+Africa</i> (New York and London, 1902); and the works bearing on the
+subject quoted in that book. See also Theal&rsquo;s <i>History of South
+Africa ... 1834-1854</i> (London, 1893); J. Campbell, <i>Travels in
+South Africa</i> (London, 1815), <i>Travels ... A Second journey ...</i>
+(2 vols., London, 1822); the Blue Books C. 459 of 1871 and C. 508 of
+1872 (the last-named containing the Keate award, &amp;c.); the Griqualand
+West report in <i>Papers relating to Her Majesty&rsquo;s Colonial
+Possessions</i>, part ii. (1875), and the Life of <i>Sir Richard Southey,
+K.C.M.G.</i>, by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the Griqua people
+consult G. W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i>, chapters xvii.-xx.
+(London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of
+1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and
+Bechuana tribes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The order of discovery of the chief mines was:&mdash;Dutoitspan,
+Sept. 1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Colesberg
+Kop (Kimberley), July 1871.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Sir Richard Southey (1809-1901) was the son of one of the
+emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He
+organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of
+1834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smith at Boomplaats (1848). From
+1864 to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Cape. He gave up his
+appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in
+retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRISAILLE,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a French term, derived from <i>gris</i>, grey, for
+painting in monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly
+used in decoration to represent objects in relief. The frescoes
+of the roof of the Sistine chapel have portions of the design in
+<i>grisaille</i>. At Hampton Court the lower part of the decoration
+of the great staircase by Verrio is in <i>grisaille</i>. The term is also
+applied to monochrome painting in enamels, and also to stained
+glass; a fine example of <i>grisaille</i> glass is in the window known
+as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in York
+cathedral.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRISELDA,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a heroine of romance. She is said to have been
+the wife of Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the 11th
+century, and her misfortunes were considered to belong to
+history when they were handled by Boccaccio and Petrarch,
+although the probability is that Boccaccio borrowed his narrative
+from a Provençal <i>fabliau</i>. He included it in the recitations
+of the tenth day (<i>Decamerone</i>), and must have written it about
+1350. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his
+translation formed the basis of much of the later literature.
+The letter was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often
+subsequently. It was translated into French as <i>La Patience de</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span>
+<i>Griselidis</i> and printed at Bréhan-Loudéac in 1484, and its
+popularity is shown by the number of early editions quoted by
+Brunet (<i>Manuel du libraire, s.v.</i> Petrarca). The story was
+dramatized in 1395, and a <i>Mystère de Griselidis, marquise de
+Saluses par personnaiges</i> was printed by Jehan Bonfons (no date).
+Chaucer followed Petrarch&rsquo;s version in the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>.
+Ralph Radcliffe, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to
+have written a play on the subject, and the story was dramatized
+by Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. Deloney&rsquo;s
+<i>Garland of Good Will</i> (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, <i>The
+History of Patient Grisel</i> (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885)
+for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary introduction.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRISI, GIULIA<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter
+of one of Napoleon&rsquo;s Italian officers, was born in Milan. She
+came of a family of musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephina
+Grassini (1773-1850) being a favourite opera-singer both on the
+continent and in London; her mother had also been a singer,
+and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin Carlotta were both
+exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical career,
+and made her stage début in 1828. Rossini and Bellini both
+took an interest in her, and at Milan she was the first Adalgisa
+in Bellini&rsquo;s <i>Norma</i>, in which Pasta took the title-part. Grisi
+appeared in Paris in 1832, as Semiramide in Rossini&rsquo;s opera,
+and had a great success; and in 1834 she appeared in London.
+Her voice was a brilliant dramatic soprano, and her established
+position as a prima donna continued for thirty years. She
+was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her association
+with such singers as Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini and Mario
+was long remembered as the palmy days of Italian opera. In
+1854 she toured with Mario In America. She had married Count
+de Melcy in 1836, but this ended in a divorce; and in 1856 she
+married Mario (<i>q.v.</i>). She died in Berlin on the 29th of November
+1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRISON<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (<i>Galictis vittata</i>), a carnivorous mammal, of the
+family <i>Mustelidae</i>, common in Central and South America and
+Mexico. It is about the size of a marten, and has the upper
+surface of a bluish-grey tint, and the under surface is dark
+brown. The grison lives on small mammals and birds, and in
+settled districts is destructive to poultry. Allamand&rsquo;s grison
+(<i>G. allamandi</i>), with the same range, is somewhat larger. Another
+member of the genus is the tayra or taira (<i>G. barbara</i>), about as
+large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to Argentina. This
+species hunts in companies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRISONS<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Graubünden</i>), the most easterly of the Swiss
+cantons and also the largest in extent, though relatively the
+most sparsely populated. Its total area is 2753.2 sq. m., of
+which 1634.4 sq. m. are classed as &ldquo;productive&rdquo; (forests
+covering 503.1 sq. m. and vineyards 1.3 sq. m.), but it has also
+138.6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this respect next after the
+Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is mountainous, the
+principal glacier groups being those of the Tödi, N. (11,887 ft.),
+of Medels, S.W. (Piz Medel, 10,509 ft.), of the Rheinwald or the
+Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorn, 11,149 ft.), with the chief
+source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.),
+the most extensive, of the Albula, E. (Piz Kesch, 11,228 ft.),
+and of the Silvretta, N.E. (Piz Linard, 11,201 ft.). The principal
+valleys are those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or
+Engadine, <i>q.v.</i>). The three main sources of the Rhine are in
+the canton. The valley of the Vorder Rhine is called the Bündner
+Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhine the Val Medels, and that of
+the Hinter Rhine (the principal), in different parts of its course,
+the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the Domleschg valley,
+while the upper valley of the Julia is named the Oberhalbstein.
+The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canton are the Glenner
+(flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the
+Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur
+(Schanfigg valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prättigau).
+The Rhine and the Inn flow respectively into the North
+and the Black Seas. Of other streams that of Val Mesocco joins
+the Ticino and so the Po, while the Maira or Mera (Val Bregaglia)
+and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the Rambach (Münster
+valley) the Adige, all four thus ultimately reaching the Adriatic
+Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe, and
+among the loftiest villages are Juf, 6998 ft. (the highest permanently
+inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers
+glen, and St Moritz, 6037 ft., in the Upper Engadine. The
+lower courses of the various streams are rent by remarkable
+gorges, such as the Via Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those
+in the Avers, Medels and Lugnetz glens, as well as that of the
+Züge in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire, near Malans, good
+wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, &amp;c., maize and chestnuts
+flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are
+the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine
+breed of cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Bergamasque
+shepherds. There are many mineral springs, such as
+those of St Moritz, Schuls, Alvaneu, Fideris, Le Prese and San
+Bernardino. The climate and vegetation, save on the southern
+slope of the Alps, are alpine and severe. But yearly vast numbers
+of strangers visit different spots in the canton, especially Davos
+(<i>q.v.</i>), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet there are comparatively
+few railways. There is one from Maienfeld (continued north
+to Constance and north-west to Zürich) to Coire (11 m.), which
+sends off a branch line from Landquart, E., past Klosters to
+Davos (31 m.). From Coire the line bears west to Reichenau
+(6 m.), whence one branch runs S.S.E. beneath the Albula Pass
+to St Moritz (50 m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine
+valley to Ilanz (20½ m.). There are, however, a number of fine
+carriage roads across the passes leading to or towards Italy.
+Besides those leading to the Engadine may be noted the roads
+from Ilanz past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719 ft.) to
+Andermatt, from Disentis over the Lukmanier Pass (6289 ft.) to
+Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Reichenau past
+Thusis and Splügen over the San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.) to
+Bellinzona on the same railway line, and from Splügen over the
+Splügen Pass (6946 ft.) to Chiavenna. The Septimer Pass (7582 ft.)
+from the Julier route to the Maloja route has now only a mule
+path, but was probably known in Roman times (as was possibly
+the Splügen), and was much frequented in the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. Of this
+number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prättigau
+and in the Schanfigg valley) were Protestants, while 49,142
+(mainly in the Bündner Oberland, the <span class="correction" title="amended from Vall">Val</span> Mesocco and the
+Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were also 114 Jews
+(81 of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762
+(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prättigau and in the
+Schanfigg valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (mostly
+in the Val Mesocco, the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo,
+but including a number of Italian labourers engaged on the
+construction of the Albula railway) were Italian-speaking.
+But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a survival of an
+ancient Romance language (the <i>lingua rustica</i> of the Roman
+Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty
+printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the
+38,651 persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer
+than 36,472 are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two
+dialects: the Romonsch (sometimes wrongly called Romansch),
+which prevails in the Bündner Oberland and in the Hinter Rhine
+valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the Ladin (closely related
+to the tongue spoken in parts of the South Tyrol), that survives
+in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of Bergün,
+Oberhalbstein and Münster. (See F. Rausch&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der
+Literatur des rhaeto-romanischen Volkes</i>, Frankfort, 1870,
+and Mr Coolidge&rsquo;s bibliography of this language, given on
+pp. 22-23 of Lorria and Martel&rsquo;s <i>Le Massif de la Bernina</i>, Zürich,
+1894.) Yet in the midst of this Romance-speaking population
+are islets (mostly, if not entirely, due to immigration in the
+13th century from the German-speaking Upper Valais) of
+German-speaking inhabitants, so in the Vals and Safien glens,
+and at Obersaxen (all in the Bündner Oberland), in the Rheinwald
+(the highest part of the Hinter Rhine valley), and in the
+Avers glen (middle reach of the Hinter Rhine valley), as well as
+in and around Davos itself.</p>
+
+<p>There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span>
+considerable portion of the population is engaged in attending
+to the wants of the foreign visitors, but there is a considerable
+trade with Italy, particularly in the wines of the Valtellina,
+while many young men seek their fortunes abroad (returning
+home after having accumulated a small stock of money) as
+confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers. A certain
+number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are
+now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and
+includes 224 communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a
+popular vote) to the Federal <i>Ständerath</i>, and 5 members (also
+elected by a popular vote) to the Federal <i>Nationalrath</i>. The
+existing cantonal constitution was accepted by the people in 1892,
+and came into force on 1st January 1894. The legislature
+(<i>Grossrath</i>&mdash;no numbers fixed by the constitution) is elected
+for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the
+executive (<i>Kleinrath</i>) for 3 years. The &ldquo;obligatory referendum&rdquo;
+obtains in the case of all laws and important matters of expenditure,
+while 3000 citizens can demand (&ldquo;facultative referendum&rdquo;)
+a popular vote as to resolutions and ordinances made by the
+legislature. Three thousand citizens also have the right of
+&ldquo;initiative&rdquo; as to legislative projects, but 5000 signatures are
+required for a proposed revision of the cantonal constitution.
+In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are never
+counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to
+the capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the
+constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount
+of the land tax varies annually according to the amount that
+<i>must</i> be provided. In the pre-1799 constitution of the three
+Raetian Leagues the system of the &ldquo;referendum&rdquo; was in
+working as early as the 16th century, not merely as between
+the three Leagues themselves, but as between the bailiwicks
+(<i>Hochgerichte</i>), the sovereign units within each League, and
+sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages
+composing each bailiwick.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the
+inhabitants speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Grisons
+formed the southern part of the province of Raetia (probably the
+aboriginal inhabitants, the Raeti, were Celts rather than, as
+was formerly believed, Etruscans), set up by the Romans after
+their conquest of the region in 15 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Romanized inhabitants
+were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin tongue
+is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the
+Ostrogoths (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537
+onwards). Governors called <i>Praesides</i> are mentioned in the
+7th and 8th centuries, while members of the same family occupied
+the episcopal see of Coire (founded 4th-5th centuries). About
+806 Charles the Great made this region into a county, but in
+831 the bishop procured for his dominions exemption (&ldquo;immunity&rdquo;)
+from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before 847
+his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the
+German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from
+Italy to be joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united
+with the duchy of Alamannia, but the bishop still retained
+practical independence, and his wide-spread dominions placed
+him even above the abbots of Disentis and Pfäfers, who likewise
+enjoyed &ldquo;immunity.&rdquo; In the 10th century the bishop obtained
+fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia in
+960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who
+struggled for power in the region. He became a prince of the
+empire in 1170 and later allied himself with the rising power
+(in the region) of the Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the
+foundation of the League of God&rsquo;s House or the <i>Gotteshausbund</i>
+(composed of the city and chapter of Coire, and of the bishop&rsquo;s
+subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val Bregaglia, Domleschg
+and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising power, the bishop
+entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis, the men of
+the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Räzuns and
+Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another
+League, called the <i>Ober Bund</i> (as comprising the highlands in
+the Vorder Rhine valley) and also wrongly the &ldquo;Grey League&rdquo;
+(as the word interpreted &ldquo;grey&rdquo; is simply a misreading of
+<i>graven</i> or counts, though the false view has given rise to the name
+of Grisons or Graubünden for the whole canton), their alliance
+being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free men of the
+Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco
+also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded,
+that of the <i>Zehngerichtenbund</i> or League of the Ten Jurisdictions,
+by the former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose
+dynasty then became extinct; they include the inhabitants of
+the Prättigau, Davos, Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Churwalden,
+and the lordship of Belfort (<i>i.e.</i> the region round Alvaneu),
+and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the name of the League. In
+1450 the <i>Zehngerichtenbund</i> concluded an alliance with the
+<i>Gotteshausbund</i> and in 1471 with the <i>Ober Bund</i>; but of the
+so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels,
+there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though
+diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496)
+nearly all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of
+Toggenburg in the Prättigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese
+line of the Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they
+passed to the elder line, the head of which, Maximilian, was
+already emperor-elect and desired to maintain the rights of his
+family there and in the Lower Engadine. Hence in 1497 the
+Ober Bund and in 1498 the <i>Gotteshausbund</i> became allies of the
+Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was ended by
+the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the
+Calven gorge (above Mals) which, added to another Swiss victory
+at Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize
+the <i>practical</i> independence of the Swiss and their allies of the
+Empire. The religious Reformation brought disunion into the
+three Leagues, as the <i>Ober Bund</i> clung in the main to the old
+faith, and for this reason their connexion with the Swiss Confederation
+was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles of
+Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction
+of the bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1486 Poschiavo had at
+last been secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was
+bought in 1509, while in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the
+<i>Ober Bund</i> since 1480) purchased its freedom of its lords, the
+Trivulzió family of Milan. In 1512 the three Leagues conquered
+from Milan the rich and fertile Valtellina, with Bormio and
+Chiavenna, and held these districts as subject lands till in 1797
+they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. The struggle
+for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the long
+rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis
+(Val Bregaglia), while in the 17th century this rivalry was
+complicated by political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the
+Spanish side and the Salis that of France during the long struggle
+(1620-1639) for the Valtellina (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jenatsch</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valtellina</a></span>).
+Troubles arose (1622) also in the Prättigau through the attempts
+of the Habsburgers to force the inhabitants to give up Protestantism.
+Finally, after the emperor had <i>formally</i> recognized,
+by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the independence of the
+Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers in the
+Prättigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 and
+1652). But the Austrian <i>enclaves</i> of Tarasp (Lower Engadine)
+and of Räzuns (near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Grisons
+in 1809 and 1815 respectively, in each case France holding the
+lordship for a short time after its cession by Austria. In 1748
+(finally in 1762) the three Leagues secured the upper portion
+of the valley of Münster. In 1799 the French invaded the
+canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict (1799-1800)
+between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in the
+course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent
+of Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the
+provisional government agreed to the incorporation of the three
+Leagues in the Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June
+1801 that the canton of Raetia became formally part of the
+Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by Napoleon&rsquo;s Act of Mediation,
+it entered, under the name of Canton of the Grisons or Graubünden,
+the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which it
+then first became a full member.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901);
+<i>Bündnergeschichte in 11 Vorträgen</i>, by various writers (Coire, 1902);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span>
+<i>Codex diplomaticus Raetiae</i> (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe,
+<i>Travels in Switzerland</i>, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition; E. Dunant,
+<i>La Réunion des Grisons à la Suisse</i> (1798-1799) (Basel, 1899);
+G. Fient, <i>Das Prättigau</i> (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa, <i>Das
+bündnerische Münsterthal</i> (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, <i>Codice diplomatico
+della Rezia</i> (originally published in the <i>Periodico</i> of the
+<i>Società storica a Comense</i> at Como; separate reprint, Como, 1901);
+R. A. Ganzoni, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis d. bündnerischen Referendums</i>
+(Zürich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, <i>A Summer Tour in the
+Grisons</i> (London, 1862); C. and F. Jecklin, <i>Der Anteil Graubündens
+am Schwabenkrieg</i> (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor, <i>Geschichte
+von Curraetien</i> (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874), and <i>Wegweiser</i> (Coire,
+1873); E. Lechner, <i>Das Thal Bergell</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1874);
+G. Leonhardi, <i>Das Poschiavinothal</i> (Leipzig, 1859); A. Lorria and
+E. A. Martel, <i>Le Massif de la Bernina</i> (Upper Engadine and Val
+Bregaglia) (Zürich, 1894); P. C. von Planta, <i>Das alte Raetien</i> (Berlin,
+1872); <i>Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d. Feudalzeit</i> (Bern, 1881);
+<i>Geschichte von Graubünden</i> (Bern, 1892); and <i>Chronik d. Familie von
+Planta</i> (Zürich, 1892); W. Plattner, <i>Die Entstehung d. Freistaates
+der 3 Bünde</i> (Davos, 1895), R. von Reding-Biberegg, <i>Der Zug
+Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799</i> (Stans, 1895); N. Salis-Soglio,
+<i>Die Familie von Salis</i> (Lindau, 1891); G. Theobald, <i>Das Bündner
+Oberland</i> (Coire, 1861), and <i>Naturbilder aus den rhätischen Alpen</i>
+(3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, <i>Johannes von Planta</i> (d. 1572)
+(Zürich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis, <i>Rechtsquellen d.
+Cant. Graubünden</i> (Basel, 1877-1892); F. Jecklin, <i>Materialen zur
+Standes- und Landesgeschichte Gem. iii. Bünde</i> (Graubünden),
+<i>1464-1803</i> (pt. i., <i>Regesten</i>, was published at Basel in 1907). See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coire</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Engadine</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jenatsch</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valtellina</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1815-1857), American editor
+and compiler, was born in Benson, Vermont, on the 15th of
+February 1815. He travelled extensively, worked in newspaper
+offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a time, and finally became
+a journalist in New York City, where he was successively a
+member of the staffs of <i>The Brother Jonathan</i>, <i>The New World</i>
+(1839-1840) and <i>The New Yorker</i> (1840). From 1841 to 1843
+he edited <i>Graham&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (Philadelphia), and added to
+its list of contributors many leading American writers. From
+1850 to 1852 he edited the <i>International Magazine</i> (New York),
+which in 1852 was merged into <i>Harper&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. He died in
+New York City on the 27th of August 1857. He is best known
+as the compiler and editor of various anthologies (with brief
+biographies and critiques), such as <i>Poets and Poetry of America</i>
+(1842), his most popular and valuable book; <i>Prose Writers of
+America</i> (1846); <i>Female Poets of America</i> (1848); and <i>Sacred
+Poets of England and America</i> (1849). Of his own writings his
+<i>Republican Court: or American Society in the Days of Washington</i>
+(1854) is the only one of permanent value. He edited the first
+American edition of Milton&rsquo;s prose works (1845), and, as literary
+executor, edited, with James R. Lowell and N. P. Willis, the
+works (1850) of Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold&rsquo;s great contemporary
+reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but he
+rendered a valuable service in making Americans better acquainted
+with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Passages from the Correspondence and Other Papers of Rufus
+W. Griswold</i> (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William
+McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRIVET,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> a monkey, <i>Cercopithecus sabaeus</i>, of the guenon
+group, nearly allied to the green monkey. It is common throughout
+equatorial Africa. The chin, whiskers and a broad band
+across the forehead, as well as the under-parts, are white, and
+the head and back olive-green. These monkeys are very
+commonly seen in menageries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROAT<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (adapted from the Dutch <i>groot</i>, great, thick; cf.
+Ger. <i>Groschen</i>; the Med. Lat. <i>grossus</i> gives Ital. <i>grosso</i>,
+Fr. <i>gros</i>, as names for the coin), a name applied as early as the
+13th century on the continent of Europe to any large or thick
+coin. The groat was almost universally a silver coin, but its
+value varied considerably, as well at different times as in different
+countries. The English groat was first coined in 1351, of a value
+somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous debasement
+of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth four
+pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662,
+but a coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although
+frequently referred to as a groat, it had no other official designation
+than a &ldquo;fourpenny piece.&rdquo; Its issue was again discontinued
+in 1856. The groat was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck
+by David II. in 1358. In Ireland it was first struck by Edward
+IV. in 1460.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROCER,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale
+dealer; the word is derived through the O. Fr. form, <i>grossia</i>,
+from the Med. Lat. <i>grossarius</i>, defined by du Cange,
+<i>Glossarium</i>, s.v. <i>Grossares</i>, as <i>solidae mercis propola</i>. The name,
+as a general one for dealers by wholesale, &ldquo;engrossers&rdquo; as
+opposed to &ldquo;regrators,&rdquo; the retail dealers, is found with the
+commodity attached; thus in the <i>Munimenta Gildhallae</i> (&ldquo;Rolls&rdquo;
+series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>) is found
+an allusion to <i>grossours de vin</i>, cf. <i>groser of fysshe</i>, <i>Surtees Misc.</i>
+(1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted <i>ib.</i>). The specific
+application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale
+or retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all
+kinds of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected
+with the history of the Grocers&rsquo; Company of London, one of the
+twelve &ldquo;great&rdquo; livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and
+the spicers amalgamated and were known as the Fraternity
+of St Anthony. The name &ldquo;grocers&rdquo; first appears in 1373 in
+the records of the company. In 1386 the association was
+granted a right of search over all &ldquo;spicers&rdquo; in London, and in
+1394 they obtained the right to inspect or &ldquo;garble&rdquo; spices and
+other &ldquo;subtil wares.&rdquo; Their first charter was obtained in 1428;
+letters patent in 1447 granted an extension of the right of search
+over the whole county, but removed the &ldquo;liberties&rdquo; of the
+city of London. They sold all kinds of drugs, medicines, ointments,
+plasters, and medicated and other waters. For the
+separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 1617 see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apothecary</a></span>. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Livery Companies</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Grocery Trade</i>, by J. Aubrey Rees (1910).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROCYN, WILLIAM<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1446?-1519), English scholar, was born
+at Colerne, Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents
+for the church, he was sent to Winchester College, and in 1465
+was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. In 1467
+he became a fellow, and had among his pupils William Warham,
+afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 he accepted the
+rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but continued
+to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College
+in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of
+divinity, in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknowledged
+his skill as a debater by the present of a buck and five
+marks. In 1485 he became prebendary of Lincoln cathedral.
+About 1488 Grocyn left England for Italy, and before his return
+in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and Padua, and studied
+Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and Politian.
+As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of indoctrinating
+his countrymen in the new Greek learning.</p>
+
+<p>Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek
+at Oxford before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College,
+Thomas Chaundler, invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to
+Oxford, to act as praelector. This was about 1475, and as
+Vitelli was certainly familiar with Greek literature, Grocyn
+may have learnt Greek from him. He seems to have lived in
+Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became dean of
+St Paul&rsquo;s in 1504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by
+his friend to deliver lectures in St Paul&rsquo;s; and in this connexion
+he gave a singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced
+all who impugned the authenticity of the <i>Hierarchia ecclesiastica</i>
+ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify
+his views by further investigation, he openly declared that he
+had been completely mistaken. He also counted Linacre,
+William Lily, William Latimer and More among his friends,
+and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by
+Grocyn in London, and calls him &ldquo;the friend and preceptor of
+us all.&rdquo; He held several preferments, but his generosity to his
+friends involved him in continual difficulties, and though in
+1506 he was appointed on Archbishop Warham&rsquo;s recommendation
+master or warden of All Hallows College at Maidstone
+in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his friends, and
+even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519, and was
+buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted
+as his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span>
+to the poor and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With
+the exception of a few lines of Latin verse on a lady who snowballed
+him, and a letter to Aldus Manutius at the head of Linacre&rsquo;s
+translation of Proclus&rsquo;s <i>Sphaera</i> (Venice, 1499), Grocyn has
+left no literary proof of his scholarship or abilities. His proposal
+to execute a translation of Aristotle in company with Linacre
+and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin
+works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus
+he has been described as &ldquo;vir severissimae castissimae vitae,
+ecclesiasticarum constitutionum observantissimus pene usque
+ad superstitionem, scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus
+ac natura etiam acerrimi judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum
+genere exacte versatus&rdquo; (<i>Declarationes ad censuras facultatis
+theologiae Parisianae</i>, 1522).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the
+Oxford Historical Society&rsquo;s <i>Collectanea</i> (1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRODNO,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> one of the Lithuanian governments of western
+Russia, lying between 51° 40&prime; and 52° N. and between 22° 12&prime; and
+26° E., and bounded N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk,
+S. by Volhynia, and W. by the Polish governments of Lomza
+and Siedlce. Area, 14,926 sq. m. Except for some hills (not
+exceeding 925 ft.) in the N., it is a uniform plain, and is drained
+chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev and Bobr, all navigable.
+There are also several canals, the most important being the
+Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop out along
+the Bug, Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits elsewhere.
+The soil is mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and along
+the rivers is often drift-sand. Forests, principally of <i>Coniferae</i>,
+cover more than one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are some
+of vast extent, <i>e.g.</i> those of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa
+(Bialowice) (376 sq. m.), embracing wide areas of marshy ground.
+In the last mentioned forest the wild ox survives, having been
+jealously preserved since 1803. Peat bogs, sometimes as much
+as 4 to 7 ft. thick, cover extensive districts. The climate is wet and
+cold; the annual mean temperature being 44.5° F., the January
+mean 22.5° and the July mean 64.5°. The rainfall amounts to
+21½ in.; hail is frequent. Agriculture is the predominant
+industry. The peasants own 42½% of the land, that is, about
+4,000,000 acres, and of these over 2¼ million acres are arable.
+The crops principally grown are potatoes, rye, oats, wheat, flax,
+hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle and sheep are bred in
+fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain amount of
+manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and
+tobacco. In woollens this government ranks second (after
+Moscow) in the empire, the centre of the industry being Byelostok.
+Other factories produce silk, shoddy and leather. The government
+is crossed by the main lines of railway from Warsaw to
+St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow. The population
+numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of these
+last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906
+it was estimated at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate
+(54%), then follow Jews (17.4%), Poles (10%), Lithuanians
+and Germans. The government is divided into nine districts,
+the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, being Grodno
+(<i>q.v.</i>), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1901), Byelsk (7461),
+Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1901), Kobrin (10,365),
+Pruzhany (7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk
+(10,584). In 1795 Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was
+annexed by Russia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRODNO,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
+same name in 53° 40&prime; N. and 23° 50&prime; E., on the right bank of the
+Niemen, 160 m. by rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna
+on the main line to St Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly
+two-thirds Jews. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek
+church and the headquarters of the II. Army Corps. It has two
+old castles, now converted to other uses, and two churches
+(16th and 17th centuries). Tobacco factories and distilleries
+are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and firearms
+are also made. Built in the 12th century, Grodno was almost
+entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights
+(1284 and 1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his
+capital, and died there in 1586. The Polish Estates frequently
+met at Grodno after 1673, and there in 1793 they signed the
+second partition of Poland. It was at Grodno that Stanislaus
+Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1801-1876),
+Dutch politician and historian, was born at Voorburg, near
+the Hague, on the 21st of August 1801. He studied at Leiden
+university, and graduated in 1823 both as doctor of literature
+and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary to King
+William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in
+Dutch home politics, and gradually became the leader of the
+so-called anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber,
+of which he was for many years a member, and outside. In Groen
+the doctrines of Guizot and Stahl found an eloquent exponent.
+They permeate his controversial and political writings and
+historical studies, of which his <i>Handbook of Dutch History</i> (in
+Dutch) and <i>Maurice et Barnevelt</i> (in French, 1875, a criticism
+of Motley&rsquo;s <i>Life of Van Olden-Barnevelt</i>) are the principal.
+Groen was violently opposed to Thorbecke, whose principles
+he denounced as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived
+to see these principles triumph, he never ceased to oppose them
+until his death, which occurred at the Hague on the 19th of May
+1876. He is best known as the editor of the <i>Archives et correspondance
+de la maison d&rsquo;Orange</i> (12 vols., 1835-1845), a great
+work of patient erudition, which procured for him the title of
+the &ldquo;Dutch <i>Gachard</i>.&rdquo; J. L. Motley acknowledges his indebtedness
+to Groen&rsquo;s Archives in the preface to his <i>Rise of the Dutch
+Republic</i>, at a time when the American historian had not yet
+made the acquaintance of King William&rsquo;s archivist, and also
+bore emphatic testimony to Groen&rsquo;s worth as a writer of history
+in the correspondence published after his death. At the first
+reception, in 1858, of Motley at the royal palace at the Hague,
+the king presented him with a copy of Groen&rsquo;s <i>Archives</i> as a token
+of appreciation and admiration of the work done by the &ldquo;worthy
+vindicator of William I., prince of Orange.&rdquo; This copy, bearing
+the king&rsquo;s autograph inscription, afterwards came into the possession
+of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley&rsquo;s son-in-law.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROIN.<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine,
+from Lat. <i>grunnire</i>, and so applied to the snout of a pig; it
+is probably the origin of the word, more commonly spelled
+&ldquo;groyne,&rdquo; for a small timber framework or wall of masonry used
+on sea coasts as a breakwater to prevent the encroachment of
+sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin; from an older form
+<i>grynde</i> or <i>grinde</i>; the derivation from &ldquo;grain,&rdquo; an obsolete word
+meaning &ldquo;fork,&rdquo; cannot, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>,
+be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed between
+the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the
+inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle
+or &ldquo;arris&rdquo; formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one
+another, occasionally called by workmen &ldquo;groin point.&rdquo; If the
+vaults are both of the same radius and height, their intersections
+lie in a vertical plane, in other cases they form winding curves
+for which it is difficult to provide centering. In early medieval
+vaulting this was sometimes arranged by a slight alteration in the
+geometrical curve of the vault, but the problem was not satisfactorily
+solved until the introduction of the rib which henceforth
+ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span>).
+The name &ldquo;Welsh groin&rdquo; or &ldquo;underpitch&rdquo; is generally given
+to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal
+vault is higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the transverse
+rib (of much greater radius than that of the wall rib),
+projected diagonally in front of the latter, the filling-in or web
+has to be carried back from the transverse to the wall rib.
+The term &ldquo;groin centering&rdquo; is used where, in groining without
+ribs, the whole surface is supported by centering during the erection
+of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone ribs only are
+supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work, any
+light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1777-1843),
+Prussian soldier, was born in Berlin on the 30th of July 1777.
+He entered an infantry regiment when scarcely thirteen, became
+an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797, first lieutenant 1804
+and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had become one of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span>
+Scharnhorst&rsquo;s intimates, and he was distinguished for his
+energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which
+he served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a
+staff officer, and won the rank of major for distinguished service
+in action. After the peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was
+one of the most active of Scharnhorst&rsquo;s assistants in the work
+of reorganization (1809), joined the <i>Tugendbund</i> and endeavoured
+to take part in Schill&rsquo;s abortive expedition, after which he
+entered the Austrian service as a major on the general staff.
+Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards against
+Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that
+port against Marshal Victor in 1810. He was present at the
+battle of Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a
+prisoner of war at the surrender of the last-named place. Soon,
+however, he escaped to Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he
+returned to Prussia as a major on the general staff. He served successively
+under Colonel von Dolffs and General von Kleist, and as
+commissioner at the headquarters of the Russian general Barclay
+de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory of Kulm, and
+recovered from a severe wound received at that action in time
+to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous
+part in the campaign of 1814 in France, after which he was made
+a major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster-general
+to Field Marshal Prince Blücher, and, after his chief and
+Gneisenau, Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the
+Prussian operations of 1815. In the decision, on the 18th of
+June 1815, to press forward to Wellington&rsquo;s assistance (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>), Grolmann actively concurred, and as
+the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to have overcome
+the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and
+the chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After
+the peace of 1815, Grolmann occupied important positions in
+the ministry of war and the general staff. His last public
+services were rendered in Poland as commander-in-chief, and
+practically as civil administrator of the province of Posen. He
+was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died on the 1st of
+June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the
+Prussian army. The Prussian 18th infantry regiment bears his
+name.</p>
+
+<p>General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the
+material for von Damitz&rsquo;s <i>Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815</i> (Berlin,
+1837-1838), and <i>Gesch. des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankreich</i> (Berlin,
+1842-1843).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See v. Conrady, <i>Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann</i>
+(Berlin, 1894-1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROMATICI<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (from <i>groma</i> or <i>gruma</i>, a surveyor&rsquo;s pole), or
+<i>Agrimensores</i>, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans.
+The art of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the
+augurs, by whom it was exercised in all cases where the demarcation
+of a <i>templum</i> (any consecrated space) was necessary. Thus,
+the boundaries of Rome itself, of colonies and camps, were all
+marked out in accordance with the rules of augural procedure.
+The first professional surveyor mentioned is L. Decidius Saxa,
+who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps
+(Cicero, <i>Philippics</i>, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their
+number and reputation increased. The distribution of land
+amongst the veterans, the increase in the number of military
+colonies, the settlement of Italian peasants in the provinces,
+the general survey of the empire under Augustus, the separation
+of private and state domains, led to the establishment of a
+recognized professional corporation of surveyors. During later
+times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some cases
+were even honoured with the title <i>clarissimus</i>. Their duties
+were not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal
+knowledge for consultations or the settlement of disputes. This
+led to the institution of special schools for the training of surveyors
+and a special literature, which lasted from the 1st to
+the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The earliest of the gromatic writers was
+Frontinus (<i>q.v.</i>), whose <i>De agrorum qualitate</i>, dealing with the
+legal aspect of the art, was the subject of a commentary by
+Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan
+a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his
+Dacian campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for
+land surveyors (<i>Expositio et ratio omnium formarum</i> or <i>mensurarum</i>,
+probably after a Greek original by Hero), dedicated
+to a certain Celsus who had invented an improvement in a
+gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling the
+modern theodolite); for the treatises of Hyginus see that name.
+Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus (<i>De condicionibus
+agrorum</i>, extant), while the most curious treatise on
+the subject, written in barbarous Latin and entitled <i>Casae
+litterarum</i> (long a school text-book) is the work of a certain
+Innocentius (4th-5th century). It is doubtful whether Boëtius
+is the author of the treatises attributed to him. The <i>Gromatici
+veteres</i> also contains extracts from official registers (probably
+belonging to the 5th century) of colonial and other land surveys,
+lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and extracts from the
+Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection had
+its origin during the 5th century in the office of a vicarius (diocesan
+governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under
+him. The surveyors were known by various names: <i>decempedator</i>
+(with reference to the instrument used); <i>finitor</i>, <i>metator</i>
+or <i>mensor castrorum</i> in republican times; <i>togati Augustorum</i>
+as imperial civil officials; <i>professor</i>, <i>auctor</i> as professional
+instructors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others
+(1848) with supplementary volume, <i>Die Schriften der römischen
+Feldmesser</i> (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, <i>Roman History</i>, ii.,
+appendix (Eng. trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M.
+Cantor, <i>Die römischen Agrimensoren</i> (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot,
+<i>La Condition des Agrimensores dans l&rsquo;ancienne Rome</i> (1879); G.
+Rossi, <i>Groma e squadro</i> (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Hultsch in
+Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgem. Encyklopädie</i>, and by G. Humbert in
+Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; Teuffel-Schwabe,
+<i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i>, 58.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRONINGEN,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> the most northerly province of Holland,
+bounded S. by Drente, W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee,
+N. and N.E. by the North Sea and the mouth of the Ems with
+the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover.
+It includes the islands of Boschplaat and Rottumeroog, belonging
+to the group of Frisian islands (<i>q.v.</i>). Area, 887 sq. m.; pop.
+(1900) 299,602. Groningen is connected with the Drente plateau
+by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to
+the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is
+flat and consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except
+where patches of low and high fen occur on the Frisian borders.
+Low fen predominates to the east of the capital, between the
+Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or lakes. The south-eastern
+portion of the province consists of high fen resting on diluvial
+sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and the sandy soil
+laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas of fen
+still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian
+border was long considered as the natural protection of the
+eastern frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable
+condition neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised
+here until 1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of
+houses was sanctioned and the work of reclamation begun. The
+gradual extension of the seaward boundaries of the province
+owing to the process of littoral deposits may be easily traced, a
+triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the successive stages
+in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending from the
+Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued
+by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through
+a lock), and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south-eastern
+corner of the province is traversed by the Westerwolde
+Aa, which discharges into the Dollart. The railway system
+belongs to the northern section of the State railways, and affords
+communication with Germany via Winschoten. Steam-tramways
+also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the
+main industry. The proportion of landowners is a very large one,
+and the prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested
+by the style of his home, his dress and his gig. As a result,
+however, partly of the usual want of work on the grasslands
+in certain seasons, there has been a considerable emigration
+to America. The ancient custom called the <i>beklem-recht</i>, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span>
+lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended ownership of the
+land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath his
+farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity.</p>
+
+<p>The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and
+in the north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South
+Holland and Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing
+and horse-breeding are also practised, together with butter and
+cheese making. The cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds
+in the south and the fen colonies along the Stads-Canal invite
+general comparison with the industries of Drente (<i>q.v.</i>). Hoogezand
+and Sappemeer, Veendam and Wildervank, New and Old
+Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of villages which
+have extended until they overlap one another and are similar
+in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in
+North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen
+(<i>q.v.</i>) is the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl,
+which was formerly an important fortress for the protection of
+the ancient sluices on the little river Delf (hence its name), has
+greatly benefited by the construction of the Ems (Eems) ship-canal
+connecting it with Groningen, and has a good harbour
+with a considerable import trade in wood. Appingedam and
+Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle and
+horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out
+by the Society for Public Welfare (<i>Tot Nut van het Algemeen</i>)
+in 1826.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRONINGEN,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a town of Holland, capital of the province of
+the same name, at the confluence of the two canalized rivers
+the Drentsche Aa and the Hunse (which are continued to the
+Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m. N. of Assen and 33 m. E.
+of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (1900) 67,563. Groningen is the
+centre from which several important canals radiate. Besides
+the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and the Damster Diep,
+connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the Kolonel&rsquo;s Diep
+with Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem&rsquo;s Canal with Assen and the
+south and the Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence
+steamers ply in all directions, and there is a regular service to
+Emden and the island of Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the
+Lauwers Zee to the island of Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is
+the most important town in the north of Holland, with its fine
+shops and houses and wide clean streets, while brick houses of
+the 16th and 17th centuries help it to retain a certain old-world
+air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the
+former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of
+which the Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares
+in Holland. Pleasant gardens and promenades extend on the
+north side of the town, together with a botanical garden. The
+chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a high tower (432 ft.)
+dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the famous
+scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near
+Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was
+founded in 1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt
+at the end of the 19th century) contains some remarkable
+pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx (1865). There is also a
+Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in classical style),
+one of the finest public buildings, was built at the beginning of the
+19th century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial government
+offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid
+front in 1871. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial
+museum of antiquities, containing interesting Germanic antiquities,
+as well as medieval and modern collections of porcelain,
+pictures, &amp;c.; the courts of justice (transformed in the middle
+of the 18th century); the old Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted
+to the administration of the surrounding district, built in 1509
+and restored in 1899; the weigh-house (1874); the civil and
+military prison; the arsenal; the military hospital; and the
+concert hall.</p>
+
+<p>The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its
+present fine buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its
+auxiliary establishments are a good natural history museum,
+an observatory, a laboratory, and a library which contains a
+copy of Erasmus&rsquo; New Testament with marginal annotations
+by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and
+dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in
+1790, a gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music.
+There are learned societies for the study of law (1761) and
+natural science (1830); an academy of fine arts (1830); an
+archaeological society; and a central bureau for collecting
+information concerning the province.</p>
+
+<p>As capital of the province, and on account of the advantages
+of its natural position, Groningen maintains a very considerable
+trade, chiefly in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle,
+with Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia and Russia. The
+chief industries are flax-spinning, rope-making, sugar refining,
+book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and it also manufactures
+beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen stuffs, furniture,
+organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil and grain
+mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and silversmiths.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The town of Groningen belonged originally to the
+<i>pagus</i>, or <i>gouw</i>, of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which
+was bestowed by the emperor Henry II. on the bishop and
+chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040 Henry III. gave the church
+of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and in the deed of
+gift the &ldquo;villa Cruoninga&rdquo; is mentioned. Upon this charter
+the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of
+the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the
+time of the donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to
+have existed, but the royal &ldquo;villa&rdquo; rapidly developed into a
+community which strove to assert the rights of a free imperial
+city. At first the bishops were too strong for the townsmen;
+the defences built in 1110 were pulled down by the bishop&rsquo;s
+order two years later; and during the 12th and 13th centuries
+the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in
+maintaining its authority. Down to the 15th century an episcopal
+prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority
+extending over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht.
+In 1143 Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the
+office into an hereditary fief in favour of his brother Liffert,
+on the extinction of whose male line it was partitioned between
+the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden) and van den Hove.
+Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the neighbouring
+Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the episcopal
+yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had
+become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of
+the 14th century it was practically a powerful independent
+republic, which exercised an effective control over the Frisian
+Ommelande between the Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the
+close of the 14th century the heirs of the Koevorden and van den
+Hove families sold their rights, first to the town, and then to the
+bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was temporarily
+worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the city
+the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht.</p>
+
+<p>The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of
+Utrecht, was aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none;
+and the craft gilds were without direct influence on the city
+government, which held them in subjection. Membership
+of the governing council, which selected from its own body the
+four <i>rationales</i> or burgomasters, was confined to men of approved
+&ldquo;wisdom,&rdquo; and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This
+<i>Raad</i> of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power.
+The bishop&rsquo;s bailiff (<i>schout</i>), with his nominated assessors
+(<i>scabini</i>), continued to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the
+Raad sat on the bench with him, and an appeal lay from his
+court to the Raad itself. The council was, in fact, supreme
+in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 it decreed that no
+one might trade in all the district between the Ems and the
+Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the
+<i>burwal</i> (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the
+gilds. Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony,
+hereditary podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred
+to accept the protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when
+Albert&rsquo;s son George attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they
+recognized the lordship of Edzart of East Frisia. On George&rsquo;s
+renewal of hostilities they transferred their allegiance to Duke
+Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In 1536 the city passed into the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span>
+hands of Charles V., and in the great wars of the 16th century
+suffered all the miseries of siege and military occupation. From
+1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards, was constantly
+at war with the &ldquo;Ommelanden&rdquo; which had declared
+against the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the
+capture of the city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree
+of the States in 1597 which was intended to set them at rest.
+In 1672 the town was besieged by the bishop of Münster, but
+it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its fortifications were
+improved under Coehoorn&rsquo;s direction. The French Republicans
+planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the 14th of
+February 1795, and they continued in authority till the 16th
+of November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed
+to destruction by the law of the 18th of April 1874.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden</i> (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, <i>Manuel
+d&rsquo;histoire</i>, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.v. in Chevalier,
+<i>Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge</i> (<i>Topo-bibliographie</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRONLUND, LAURENCE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1846-1899), American socialist,
+was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on the 13th of July 1846.
+He graduated from the university of Copenhagen in 1865, began
+the study of law, removed to the United States in 1867, taught
+German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the bar in 1869, and
+practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer on
+socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist
+Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost exclusively
+to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the
+bureau of labour statistics. He again returned to the lecture
+field, and was an editorial writer for the New York and Chicago
+<i>American</i> from 1898 until his death in New York City on the
+15th of October 1899. His principal works are: <i>The Coming
+Revolution</i> (1880); <i>The Co-operative Commonwealth in its Outlines,
+An Exposition of Modern Socialism</i> (1884); <i>Ça Ira, or Danton
+in the French Revolution</i> (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton;
+<i>Our Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion</i>
+(1890); and <i>The New Economy</i> (1898).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRONOVIUS<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (the latinized form of <span class="sc">Gronov</span>), <b>JOHANN
+FRIEDRICH</b> (1611-1671), German classical scholar and critic,
+was born at Hamburg on the 8th of September 1611. Having
+studied at several universities, he travelled in England, France
+and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and
+history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at Leiden,
+where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fabretti,
+Raphael</a></span>.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy,
+Tacitus, Aulus Gellius and Seneca&rsquo;s tragedies, Gronovius was
+the author, amongst numerous other works, of <i>Commentarius
+de sestertiis</i> (1643) and of an edition of Hugo Grotius&rsquo; De jure
+belli et pacis (1660). His <i>Observationes</i> contain a number of
+brilliant emendations. His son, <span class="sc">Jakob Gronovius</span> (1645-1716),
+is chiefly known as the editor of the <i>Thesaurus antiquitatum
+Graecarum</i> (1697-1702, in 13 volumes).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> ii. (1908); F. A. Eckstein in
+Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROOM,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> in modern usage a male servant attached to the
+stables, whose duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding,
+currying and care generally of horses. The earliest meaning
+of the word appears to be that of a boy, and in 16th and 17th
+century literature it frequently occurs, in pastorals, for a shepherd
+lover. Later it is used for any male attendant, and thus survives
+in the name for several officials in the royal household, such as the
+grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the great chamber. The
+groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George III., saw
+to the preparation of the sovereign&rsquo;s apartment, and, during the
+16th and 17th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and
+was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of
+gaming within the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The
+O. Fr. <i>gromet</i>, shop boy, is taken by French etymologists to
+be derived from the English. From the application of this
+word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant&rsquo;s shop, is derived
+<i>gourmet</i>, an epicure. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>,
+though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic
+languages, the word may be ultimately connected with the
+root of &ldquo;to grow.&rdquo; In &ldquo;bridegroom,&rdquo; a newly married man,
+&ldquo;grom&rdquo; in the 16th century took the place of an older <i>gome</i>,
+a common old Teutonic word meaning &ldquo;man,&rdquo; and connected
+with the Latin <i>homo</i>. The Old English word was <i>brydguma</i>,
+later <i>bridegome</i>. The word survives in the German <i>Bräutigam</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROOT, GERHARD<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert
+Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of
+the society of Brothers of Common Life (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in 1340
+at Deventer in the diocese of Utrecht, where his father held a
+good civic position. He went to the university of Paris when
+only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic philosophy and theology
+under a pupil of Occam&rsquo;s, from whom he imbibed the nominalist
+conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon law,
+medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some
+Hebrew. After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and
+possibly became master in 1363. He pursued his studies still
+further in Cologne, and perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited
+the papal court at Avignon. About this time he was appointed
+to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in Aix-la-Chapelle, and
+the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly becoming
+luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change
+passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every
+worldly enjoyment. This conversion, which took place In 1374,
+appears to have been due partly to the effects of a dangerous
+illness and partly to the influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned
+and pious prior of the Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen
+near Arnhem, who had remonstrated with him on the vanity
+of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this monastery and
+there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study, without,
+however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received
+ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher throughout
+the diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his
+labours not only in the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle,
+Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden,
+Delft, Zütphen and elsewhere, was immense; according to
+Thomas à Kempis the people left their business and their meals
+to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the
+crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop
+of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against
+concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod.
+The impartiality of his censures, which he directed not only
+against the prevailing sins of the laity, but also against heresy,
+simony, avarice, and impurity among the secular and regular
+clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and accusations of
+heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that
+Groot emitted a <i>Publica Protestatio</i>, in which he declared that
+Jesus Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all
+of them he believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic
+doctrine, and that he willingly subjected them to the candid
+judgment of the Roman Church. The bishop was induced to
+issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not
+in priest&rsquo;s orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without effect.
+There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either it
+was only a few months before Groot&rsquo;s death, or else it must have
+been removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached
+in public in the last year of his life. At some period (perhaps
+1381, perhaps earlier) he paid a visit of some days&rsquo; duration
+to the famous mystic Johann Ruysbroeck, prior of the
+Augustinian canons at Groenendael near Brussels; at this visit
+was formed Groot&rsquo;s attraction for the rule and life of the Augustinian
+canons which was destined to bear such notable fruit.
+At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who
+attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order,
+and Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St
+Augustine. No time was lost in the effort to carry out the project,
+but Groot died before a foundation could be made. In 1387,
+however, a site was secured at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of
+Deventer, and here was established the monastery that became
+the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of canons regular,
+embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses, and
+leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the
+15th century by all the religious orders in Germany. The
+initiation of this movement was the great achievement of Groot&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span>
+life; he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his
+other creation, the society of Brothers of Common Life. He
+died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at the age of 44.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authority for Groot&rsquo;s life is Thomas à Kempis, <i>Vita
+Gerardi Magni</i> (translated into English by J. P. Arthur, <i>The Founders
+of the New Devotion</i>, 1905); also the <i>Chronicon Windeshemense</i>
+of Johann Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these
+sources, will be found in S. Kettlewell, <i>Thomas à Kempis and the
+Brothers of Common Life</i> (1882). i. c. 5; and a shorter account in
+F. R. Cruise, <i>Thomas à Kempis</i>, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch,
+with an account of Groot&rsquo;s writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot&rsquo;s
+theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in
+his day, and that the attempts to make him &ldquo;a reformer before the
+Reformation&rdquo; are unhistorical.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a large and brilliantly
+coloured Bornean squirrel, <i>Rhithrosciurus macrotis</i>, representing
+a genus by itself distinguished from all other members of the
+family <i>Sciuridae</i> by having numerous longitudinal grooves on
+the front surface of the incisor teeth; the molars being of a
+simpler type than in other members of the family. The tail is
+large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks marked
+by black and white bands.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROS, ANTOINE JEAN,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1771-1835), French painter,
+was born at Paris in 1771. His father, who was a miniature
+painter, began to teach him to draw at the age of six, and showed
+himself from the first an exacting master. Towards the close
+of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the studio of David,
+which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same time
+to follow the classes of the Collège Mazarin. The death of his
+father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolution,
+threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now
+devoted himself wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792
+for the <i>grand prix</i>, but unsuccessfully. About this time, however,
+on the recommendation of the École des Beaux Arts, he
+was employed on the execution of portraits of the members of
+the Convention, and when&mdash;disturbed by the development of
+the Revolution&mdash;Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported
+himself at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity
+of miniatures and <i>fixés</i>. He visited Florence, but returning to
+Genoa made the acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to
+Milan, where he was well received by her husband. On November
+15, 1796, Gros was present with the army near Arcola when
+Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros seized on
+this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had found
+his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of &ldquo;inspecteur
+aux revues,&rdquo; which enabled him to follow the army,
+and in 1797 nominated him on the commission charged to select
+the spoils which should enrich the Louvre. In 1799, having
+escaped from the besieged city of Genoa, Gros made his way to
+Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his quarters in the
+Capucins. His &ldquo;esquisse&rdquo; (Musée de Nantes) of the &ldquo;Battle of
+Nazareth&rdquo; gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls, but
+was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt
+by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him
+to paint his own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. &ldquo;Les Pestiférés
+de Jaffa&rdquo; (Louvre) was followed by the &ldquo;Battle of Aboukir&rdquo;
+1806 (Versailles), and the &ldquo;Battle of Eylau,&rdquo; 1808 (Louvre).
+These three subjects&mdash;the popular leader facing the pestilence
+unmoved, challenging the splendid instant of victory, heart-sick
+with the bitter cost of a hard-won field&mdash;gave to Gros his chief
+title to fame. As long as the military element remained bound
+up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and
+energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the
+events which he depicted; but as the army and its general
+separated from the people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes
+representative only of the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased
+to find the nourishment necessary to his genius, and the defect
+of his artistic position became evident. Trained in the sect of
+the Classicists, he was shackled by their rules, even when&mdash;by his
+naturalistic treatment of types, and appeal to picturesque effect
+in colour and tone&mdash;he seemed to run counter to them. In 1810
+his &ldquo;Madrid&rdquo; and &ldquo;Napoleon at the Pyramids&rdquo; (Versailles) show
+that his star had deserted him. His &ldquo;Francis I.&rdquo; and &ldquo;Charles
+V.,&rdquo; 1812 (Louvre), had considerable success; but the decoration
+of the dome of St Geneviève (begun in 1811 and completed in
+1824) is the only work of Gros&rsquo;s later years which shows his
+early force and vigour, as well as his skill. The &ldquo;Departure of
+Louis XVIII.&rdquo; (Versailles), the &ldquo;Embarkation of Madame
+d&rsquo;Angoulême&rdquo; (Bordeaux), the plafond of the Egyptian room in
+the Louvre, and finally his &ldquo;Hercules and Diomedes,&rdquo; exhibited
+in 1835, testify only that Gros&rsquo;s efforts&mdash;in accordance with the
+frequent counsels of his old master David&mdash;to stem the rising tide
+of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant reputation.
+Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure,
+Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 25th of
+June 1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near
+Sèvres. From a paper which he had placed in his hat it became
+known that &ldquo;las de la vie, et trahi par les dernières facultés qui
+la lui rendaient supportable, il avait résolu de s&rsquo;en défaire.&rdquo;
+The number of Gros&rsquo;s pupils was very great, and was considerably
+augmented when, in 1815, David quitted Paris and made over
+his own classes to him. Gros was decorated and named baron
+of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of 1808, at which
+he had exhibited the &ldquo;Battle of Eylau.&rdquo; Under the Restoration
+he became a member of the Institute, professor at the
+École des Beaux Arts, and was named chevalier of the order
+of St Michel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>M. Delécluze gives a brief notice of his life in <i>Louis David et son
+temps</i>, and Julius Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der modernen französischen
+Malerei</i> contains an excellent criticism on his works.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1827-1899), Scottish
+divine and literary editor, the son of a building contractor, was
+born at Stirling on the 18th of June 1827. He was educated
+at Edinburgh University, and in 1856 became a Presbyterian
+minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool, and three
+years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in
+1892, and died at Dublin on the 16th of March 1899. Dr Grosart
+is chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare
+Elizabethan literature, a work which he undertook in the first
+instance from his strong interest in Puritan theology. Among
+the first writers whose works he edited were the Puritan divines,
+Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and Herbert Palmer. Editions
+of Michael Bruce&rsquo;s <i>Poems</i> (1865) and Richard Gilpin&rsquo;s <i>Demonologia
+sacra</i> (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a bibliography
+of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year
+until 1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers
+the &ldquo;Fuller Worthies Library,&rdquo; a series of thirty-nine volumes
+which included the works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies,
+Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert,
+Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir Philip Sidney. The last
+four volumes of the series were devoted to the works of many
+little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His <i>Occasional
+Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books</i> (1875-1881) is of the
+utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other
+things the <i>Annalia Dubrensia</i> of Robert Dover. In 1876 still
+another series, known as the &ldquo;Chertsey Worthies Library,&rdquo; was
+begun. It included editions of the works of Nicholas Breton,
+Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont, Abraham Cowley,
+Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was untiring
+in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two
+last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881,
+and no sooner had they been completed than Grosart began
+the &ldquo;Huth Library,&rdquo; so called from the bibliophile Henry Huth,
+who possessed the originals of many of the reprints. It included
+the works of Robert Greene, Thomas Nash, Gabriel Harvey,
+and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also edited the
+complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From
+the Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and
+edited Sir John Eliot&rsquo;s works, Sir Richard Boyle&rsquo;s <i>Lismore
+Papers</i>, and various publications for the Chetham Society, the
+Camden Society and the Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart&rsquo;s faults
+of style and occasional inaccuracy do not seriously detract from
+the immense value of his work. He was unwearied in searching
+for rare books, and he brought to light much interesting literature,
+formerly almost inaccessible.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GROSBEAK<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Grosbec</i>), a name very indefinitely applied
+to many birds belonging to the families <i>Fringillidae</i> and <i>Ploceidae</i>
+of modern ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the
+<i>Emberizidae</i> and <i>Tanagridae</i>, but always to birds distinguished
+by the great size of their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a
+synonym of hawfinch (<i>q.v.</i>), but a prefix is usually added to
+indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak, cardinal-grosbeak and
+the like. By early writers the word was generally given as an
+equivalent of the Linnaean <i>Loxia</i>, but that genus has been
+found to include many forms not now placed in the same family.</p>
+
+<p>The Pine-grosbeak (<i>Pinicola enucleator</i>) inhabits the conifer-zone
+of both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe
+and probably elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches&mdash;often
+journeying in large flocks; stragglers have occasionally
+reached the British Islands (Yarrell, <i>Br. Birds</i>, ed. 4, ii. 177-179).
+In structure and some of its habits much resembling
+a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in size, it has the
+plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same changes
+as do the members of the restricted genus <i>Loxia</i>&mdash;the young
+being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black,
+the adult hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing
+with crimson-red on nearly all the body-feathers, this last
+colour being replaced after moulting in confinement by bright
+yellow. Nests of this species were found in 1821 by Johana
+Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjärwi in Swedish Lapland,
+but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855, when
+John Wolley, after two years&rsquo; ineffectual search, succeeded in
+obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish
+frontier, well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of
+which are like exaggerated bullfinches&rsquo;. The food of this species
+seems to consist of the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees,
+though the staple may very possibly be those of some kind of
+pine.</p>
+
+<p>Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller
+size, but its equals in beauty of plumage.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They have been
+referred to several genera, such as <i>Carpodacus</i>, <i>Propasser</i>,
+<i>Bycanetes</i>, <i>Uragus</i> and others; but possibly <i>Carpodacus</i> is
+sufficient to contain all. Most of them are natives of the Old
+World, and chiefly of its eastern division, but several inhabit
+the western portion of North America, and one, <i>C. githagineus</i>
+(of which there seem to be at least two local races), is an especial
+native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North
+Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands&mdash;a singular
+modification in the <i>habitat</i> of a form which one would be apt to
+associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers.</p>
+
+<p>The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, <i>Cardinalis
+virginianus</i>, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained
+as to the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable
+for its bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same
+colour, than for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confinement
+has made it a popular cage-bird on both sides of the
+Atlantic. The hen is not so good a songster as the cock bird.
+Her plumage, with exception of the wings and tail, which are
+of a dull red, is light-olive above and brownish-yellow beneath.
+This species inhabits the eastern parts of the United States
+southward of 40° N. lat., and also occurs in the Bermudas.
+It is represented in the south-west of North America by other
+forms that by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern
+parts of South America by the <i>C. phoeniceus</i>, which would
+really seem entitled to distinction. Another kindred bird
+placed from its short and broad bill in a different genus, and
+known as <i>Pyrrhuloxia sinuata</i> or the Texan cardinal, is found on
+the southern borders of the United States and in Mexico; while
+among North American &ldquo;grosbeaks&rdquo; must also be named the
+birds belonging to the genera <i>Guiraca</i> and <i>Hedymeles</i>&mdash;the
+former especially exemplified by the beautiful blue <i>G. caerulea</i>,
+and the latter by the brilliant rose-breasted <i>H. ludovicianus</i>,
+which last extends its range into Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The species of the Old World which, though commonly called
+&ldquo;grosbeaks,&rdquo; certainly belong to the family <i>Ploceidae</i>, are
+treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weaver-bird</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Many of them are described and illustrated in the <i>Monographie
+des loxiens</i> of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850),
+though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call
+&ldquo;grosbeaks.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSE, FRANCIS<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1730-1791), English antiquary, was
+born at Greenford in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His
+father was a wealthy Swiss jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey.
+Grose early showed an interest in heraldry and antiquities, and
+his father procured him a position in the Heralds&rsquo; College. In
+1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his tabard, and
+shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the
+Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed,
+the only account-books he kept were his right and left pockets,
+into the one of which he received, and from the other of which
+he paid. This carelessness exposed him to serious financial
+difficulties; and after a vain attempt to repair them by accepting
+a captaincy in the Surrey militia, the fortune left him by his
+father being squandered, he began to turn to account his excellent
+education and his powers as a draughtsman. In 1757 he had
+been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1773 he
+began to publish his <i>Antiquities of England and Wales</i>, a work
+which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its
+supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not
+completed till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour
+through Scotland, and in the course of this journey met Burns,
+who composed in his honour the famous song beginning &ldquo;Ken
+ye aught o&rsquo; Captain Grose,&rdquo; and in that other poem, still more
+famous, &ldquo;Hear, land o&rsquo; cakes, and brither Scots,&rdquo; warned all
+Scotsmen of this &ldquo;chield amang them taking notes.&rdquo; In 1790
+he began to publish the results of what Burns called &ldquo;his
+peregrinations through Scotland;&rdquo; but he had not finished
+the work when he bethought himself of going over to Ireland
+and doing for that country what he had already done for Great
+Britain. About a month after his arrival, while in Dublin,
+he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend, on the
+12th of June 1791.</p>
+
+<p>Grose was a sort of antiquarian Falstaff&mdash;at least he possessed
+in a striking degree the knight&rsquo;s physical peculiarities; but
+he was a man of true honour and charity, a valuable friend,
+&ldquo;overlooking little faults and seeking out greater virtues,&rdquo;
+and an inimitable boon companion. His humour, his varied
+knowledge and his good nature were all eminently calculated
+to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;But wad ye see him in his glee,</p>
+<p class="i05">For meikle glee and fun has he,</p>
+<p class="i05">Then set him down, and twa or three</p>
+        <p class="i3">Gude fellows wi&rsquo; him;</p>
+<p class="i05">And <i>port, O port!</i> shine thou a wee,</p>
+        <p class="i3">And <span class="sc">then</span> ye&rsquo;ll see him!&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Grose&rsquo;s works include <i>The Antiquities of England and Wales</i>
+(6 vols., 1773-1787); <i>Advice to the Officers of the British Army</i> (1782),
+a satire in the manner of Swift&rsquo;s <i>Directions to Servants; A Guide
+to Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour</i> (1783), a collection of advertisements
+of the period, with characteristic satiric preface; <i>A Classical
+Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue</i> (1785); <i>A Treatise on Ancient
+Armour and Weapons</i> (1785-1789); Darrell&rsquo;s <i>History of Dover</i> (1786);
+<i>Military Antiquities</i> (2 vols., 1786-1788); <i>A Provincial Glossary</i>
+(1787); <i>Rules for Drawing Caricatures</i> (1788); <i>The Antiquities
+of Scotland</i> (2 vols., 1789-1791); <i>Antiquities of Ireland</i> (2 vols., 1791),
+edited and partly written by Ledwich. <i>The Grumbler</i>, sixteen
+humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death; and in 1793
+<i>The Olio</i>, a collection of essays, jests and small pieces of poetry,
+highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by him,
+was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also his
+executor.</p>
+
+<p>A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first
+volume of the <i>Antiquities of England and Wales</i>, and another is among
+Kay&rsquo;s <i>Portraits</i>. A versified sketch of him appeared in the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s
+Magazine</i>, lxi. 660. See <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, lxi. 498, 582; Noble&rsquo;s
+<i>Hist. of the College of Arms</i>, p. 434; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 1st ser., ix.
+350; 3rd ser., i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser., xii. 148; 6th ser., ii. 47,
+257, 291; Hone, <i>Every-day Book</i>, i. 655.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat.
+<i>grossus</i>. The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate
+with <i>crassus</i>, thick, but this is now doubted. It also appears
+not to be connected with the Ger. <i>gross</i>, a Teutonic word represented
+in English by &ldquo;great.&rdquo; Apart from its direct meaning,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span>
+and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar or flagrant, the chief
+uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as opposed to &ldquo;net,&rdquo;
+or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed to &ldquo;retail&rdquo;
+(cf. &ldquo;grocer&rdquo; and &ldquo;engrossing&rdquo;). As a unit of tale, &ldquo;gross&rdquo;
+equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as &ldquo;small gross,&rdquo; in
+contrast with &ldquo;great gross,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a
+technical expression in English common law, &ldquo;in gross&rdquo; is
+applied to an incorporeal hereditament attached to the person
+of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is appendant
+or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commons</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1828-1902), German poet,
+the son of a military chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 25th of
+April 1828. He received his early education at the gymnasium
+in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and showing disinclination
+for the ministry, entered an architect&rsquo;s office. But his mind was
+bent upon literature, and in 1849 he entered the university
+of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he devoted
+himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay
+was with the tragedy <i>Cola di Rienzi</i> (1851), followed in the same
+year by a comedy, <i>Eine Nachtpartie Shakespeares</i>, which was
+at once produced on the stage. The success of these first two
+pieces encouraged him to follow literature as a profession,
+and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he joined the circle of young
+poets of whom Paul Heyse (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hermann Lingg (1820-1905)
+were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was dramatic
+critic of the <i>Neue Münchener Zeitung</i>, and was then for a while
+on the staff of the <i>Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung</i>, but in 1862 he
+returned to Munich as editor of the <i>Bayrische Zeitung</i>, a post he
+retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse
+was appointed secretary of the <i>Schiller-Stiftung</i>, and lived for
+the next few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich,
+until, in 1890, he took up his permanent residence in Weimar.
+He was made grand-ducal <i>Hofrat</i> and had the title of &ldquo;professor.&rdquo;
+He died at Torbole on the Lago di Garda on the 9th of May 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems.
+As a lyric poet, especially in <i>Gedichte</i> (1857) and <i>Aus bewegten
+Tagen</i>, a volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to
+advantage than in his novels, of which latter, however, <i>Untreu
+aus Mitleid</i> (2 vols., 1868); <i>Vox populi, vox dei</i> (1869); <i>Maria
+Mancini</i> (1871); <i>Neue Erzählungen</i> (1875); <i>Sophie Monnier</i>
+(1876), and <i>Ein Frauenlos</i> (1888) are remarkable for a certain
+elegance of style. His tragedies, <i>Die Ynglinger</i> (1858); <i>Tiberius</i>
+(1876); <i>Johann von Schwaben</i>; and the comedy <i>Die steinerne
+Braut</i>, had considerable success on the stage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Grosse&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte dramatische Werke</i> appeared in 7 vols. in
+Leipzig (1870), while his <i>Erzählende Dichtungen</i> were published at
+Berlin (6 vols., 1871-1873). An edition of his selected works by
+A. Bartels is in preparation. See also his autobiography, <i>Literarische
+Ursachen und Wirkungen</i> (1896); R. Prutz, <i>Die Literatur der
+Gegenwart</i> (1859); J. Ethé, <i>J. Grosse als epischer Dichter</i> (1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSSENHAIN,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a town In the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N.
+from Dresden, on the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda)
+to Berlin and at the junction of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort-on-Oder.
+Pop. (1905) 12,015. It has an Evangelical church,
+a modern and a commercial school, a library and an extensive
+public park. The industries are very important, and embrace
+manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather,
+glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settlement.
+It was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom
+it was strongly fortified. It afterwards came into the possession
+of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it was taken in 1312
+by the margraves of Brandenburg. It suffered considerably in
+all the great German wars, and in 1744 was nearly destroyed
+by fire. On the 16th of May 1813, a battle took place here
+between the French and the Russians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. W. Schuberth, <i>Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain</i> (Grossenhain,
+1887-1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSSETESTE, ROBERT<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1175-1253), English statesman,
+theologian and bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents
+at Stradbrook in Suffolk. He received his education at Oxford
+where he became proficient in law, medicine and the natural
+sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose acquaintance he had
+made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de Vere, bishop
+of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop&rsquo;s household,
+but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself
+to the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris
+for this purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher.
+His first preferment of importance was the chancellorship of
+the university. He gained considerable distinction as a lecturer,
+and was the first rector of the school which the Franciscans
+established in Oxford about 1224. Grosseteste&rsquo;s learning is
+highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a severe critic. According
+to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or Hebrew and paid
+slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was pre-eminent
+among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural
+sciences. Between 1214 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession
+the archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester.
+In 1232, after a severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and
+preferments except one prebend which he held at Lincoln.
+His intention was to spend the rest of his life in contemplative
+piety. But he retained the office of chancellor, and in 1235
+accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook without delay
+the reformation of morals and clerical discipline throughout
+his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with
+more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his
+own chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the
+right of visitation over their community. The dispute raged
+hotly from 1239 to 1245. It was conducted on both sides with
+unseemly violence, and those who most approved of Grosseteste&rsquo;s
+main purpose thought it needful to warn him against the mistake
+of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal visit to the papal court
+at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In ecclesiastical
+politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His zeal
+for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian,
+pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should
+admit. He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry III.
+upon this subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle
+the question of principle in favour of the state. The devotion of
+Grosseteste to the hierarchical theories of his age is attested by
+his correspondence with his chapter and the king. Against the
+former he upheld the prerogative of the bishops; against the
+latter he asserted that it was impossible for a bishop to disregard
+the commands of the Holy See. Where the liberties of the
+national church came into conflict with the pretensions of Rome
+he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded
+that the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had
+assaulted the legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1247 he
+submitted patiently to papal encroachments, contenting himself
+with the protection (by a special papal privilege) of his own
+diocese from alien clerks. Of royal exactions he was more
+impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop Saint
+Edmund (<i>q.v.</i>) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical
+estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee
+which was empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy.
+The committee rejected the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an
+attempt on the king&rsquo;s part to separate the clergy from the
+baronage. &ldquo;It is written,&rdquo; the bishop said, &ldquo;that united we
+stand and divided we fall.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope
+were in alliance to crush the independence of the English clergy;
+and from 1250 onwards Grosseteste openly criticized the new
+financial expedients to which Innocent IV. had been driven by
+his desperate conflict with the Empire. In the course of a visit
+which he made to Innocent in this year, the bishop laid before
+the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he ascribed
+all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the Curia.
+It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that Grosseteste
+was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much
+discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In
+the end, however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle.
+In 1251 he protested against a papal mandate enjoining the
+English clergy to pay Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for
+a crusade; and called attention to the fact that, under the
+system of provisions, a sum of 70,000 marks was annually drawn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span>
+from England by the alien nominees of Rome. In 1253, upon
+being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a papal
+nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to
+the pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent,
+through whom he received the mandate. The text of the
+remonstrance, as given in the <i>Burton Annals</i> and in Matthew
+Paris, has possibly been altered by a forger who had less respect
+than Grosseteste for the papacy. The language is more violent
+than that which the bishop elsewhere employs. But the general
+argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so far
+as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and
+the apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical
+reformer of Grosseteste&rsquo;s time. There is much more
+reason for suspecting the letter addressed &ldquo;to the nobles of
+England, the citizens of London, and the community of the
+whole realm,&rdquo; in which Grosseteste is represented as denouncing
+in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its branches. But even
+in this case allowance must be made for the difference between
+modern and medieval standards of decorum.</p>
+
+<p>Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the
+Franciscan teacher, Adam Marsh (<i>q.v.</i>). Through Adam he
+came into close relations with Simon de Montfort. From the
+Franciscan&rsquo;s letters it appears that the earl had studied a political
+tract by Grosseteste on the difference between a monarchy and
+a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm the bishop&rsquo;s
+projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as early
+as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a
+reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no
+reason to suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured
+before the death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy himself
+overmuch with secular politics, except in so far as they
+touched the interest of the Church. Grosseteste realized that
+the misrule of Henry III. and his unprincipled compact with the
+papacy largely accounted for the degeneracy of the English
+hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical discipline. But he can
+hardly be termed a constitutionalist.</p>
+
+<p>Grosseteste died on the 9th of October 1253. He must then
+have been between seventy and eighty years of age. He was
+already an elderly man, with a firmly established reputation,
+when he became a bishop. As an ecclesiastical statesman he
+showed the same fiery zeal and versatility of which he had given
+proof in his academical career; but the general tendency of
+modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and ecclesiastical
+services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist and
+scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew
+Paris and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries,
+while admitting the excellence of his intentions as a statesman,
+lay stress upon his defects of temper and discretion. But they
+see in him the pioneer of a literary and scientific movement;
+not merely a great ecclesiastic who patronized learning in his
+leisure hours, but the first mathematician and physicist of his
+age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in these fields of
+thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger Bacon
+subsequently gave a wider currency.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste</i> (Rolls Series, 1861) edited with
+a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste&rsquo;s famous
+memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown&rsquo;s
+<i>Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum</i> (1690). A tract
+<i>De phisicis, lineis, angulis et figuris</i> was printed at Nuremberg in
+1503, A French poem, <i>Le Chastel d&rsquo;amour</i>, sometimes attributed
+to him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts,
+the &ldquo;De moribus pueri ad mensam&rdquo; (printed by Wynkyn de Worde)
+and the &ldquo;Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste&rdquo; (printed by J. S.
+Brewer in <i>Monumenta Franciscana</i>, i. 582), may be from his pen;
+but the editor of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh.
+There is less doubt respecting the <i>Reules Seynt Robert</i>, a tract giving
+advice for the management of the household of the countess of
+Lincoln. For Grosseteste&rsquo;s life and work see Roger Bacon&rsquo;s <i>Opus
+majus</i> (ed. J. H. Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and <i>Opera quaedam inedita</i>
+(ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris&rsquo;s <i>Chronica majora</i>
+(ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the <i>Lives</i>
+by S. Pegge (1793) and F. S. Stevenson (1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSSETO,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of
+the province of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop.
+(1901) 5856 (town), 8843 (commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level,
+and is almost circular in shape; it is surrounded by fortifications,
+constructed by Francis I. (1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587-1609),
+which form a hexagonal enceinte with projecting bastions,
+with two gates only. The small cathedral, begun in 1294, is
+built of red and white marble alternating, in the Italian Gothic
+style; it was restored in 1855. The citadel was built in 1311 by
+the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to Rome,
+and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is the
+exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and
+Siena.</p>
+
+<p>The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal
+see was transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the
+rest of the Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the
+dominion of Siena. By the peace of 1559, however, it passed
+to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In 1745 the malaria had grown to such
+an extent, owing to the neglect of the drainage works, that
+Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in 1224 it had 3000
+men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage operations,
+and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is
+not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters
+of the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.),
+20 m. to the S.E. by road.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (?-1699), one of the
+greatest Italian singers of the age of <i>bel canto</i>, better known as
+Siface, was born at Pescia in Tuscany about the middle of the
+17th century. He entered the papal chapel in 1675, and later
+sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of Siface from his
+impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli. It has
+generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro
+Scarlatti&rsquo;s <i>Mitridate</i>, but the confusion is due to his having sung
+the part of Mitridate in Scarlatti&rsquo;s <i>Pompeo</i> at Naples in 1683.
+In 1687 he was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become
+a member of the chapel of James II. He probably did much
+for the introduction of Italian music into England, but soon
+left the country on account of the climate. Among Purcell&rsquo;s
+harpsichord music is an air entitled &ldquo;Sefauchi&rsquo;s Farewell.&rdquo;
+He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and
+Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife
+he had a <i>liaison</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Corrado Ricci&rsquo;s <i>Vita Barocca</i> (Milan, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSSI, TOMMASO<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist,
+was born at Bellano, on the Lake of Como, on the 20th of January
+1791. He took his degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded
+thence to Milan to exercise his profession; but the Austrian
+government, suspecting his loyalty, interfered with his prospects,
+and in consequence Grossi was a simple notary all his life. That
+the suspicion was well grounded he soon showed by writing in the
+Milanese dialect the battle poem <i>La Prineide</i>, in which he
+described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina, chief
+treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated
+by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through
+the streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous,
+was first attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of
+his own accord acknowledged himself the author. In 1816 he
+published other two poems, written likewise in Milanese&mdash;<i>The
+Golden Rain</i> (La Pioggia d&rsquo;oro) and <i>The Fugitive</i> (La Fuggitiva).
+These compositions secured him the friendship of Porta and
+Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort of romantic
+literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the popularity
+of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he sought
+to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction
+in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful
+with his poem <i>Ildegonda</i> (1814). He next wrote an epic poem,
+entitled <i>The Lombards in the First Crusade</i>, a work of which
+Manzoni makes honourable mention in <i>I Promessi Sposi</i>. This
+composition, which was published by subscription (1826), attained
+a success unequalled by that of any other Italian poem
+within the century. The example of Manzoni induced Grossi
+to write an historical novel entitled <i>Marco Visconti</i> (1834)&mdash;a
+work which contains passages of fine description and deep
+pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, <i>Ulrico and
+Lida</i>, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span>
+After his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as
+a notary in Milan till his death on the 10th of December 1853.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life</i> by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROSSMITH, GEORGE<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), English comedian, was
+born on the 9th of December 1847, the son of a law reporter and
+entertainer of the same name. After some years of journalistic
+work he started about 1870 as a public entertainer, with songs
+and recitations; but in 1877 he began a long connexion with the
+Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy Theatre, London, in
+<i>The Sorcerer</i>. For twelve years he had the leading part, his
+capacity for &ldquo;patter-songs,&rdquo; and his humorous acting, dancing
+and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the
+Gilbert and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original
+individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an
+entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United
+States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote <i>The
+Reminiscences of a Society Clown</i> (1888); and, with his brother
+Weedon, <i>The Diary of a Nobody</i> (1894). His humorous songs
+and sketches numbered over six hundred. His younger brother,
+Weedon Grossmith, who was educated as a painter and exhibited
+at the Academy, also took to the stage, his first notable success
+being in the <i>Pantomime Rehearsal</i>; in 1894 he went into management
+on his own account, and had much success as a comedian.
+George Grossmith&rsquo;s two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George
+Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well-known
+figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre,
+London.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROS VENTRES<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;Great Bellies&rdquo;), or Atsina, a
+tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. The
+name is said to have reference to the greediness of the people,
+but more probably originated from their prominent tattooing.
+They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana. The name
+has also been given to other tribes, <i>e.g.</i> the Hidatsa or Minitari,
+now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROTE, GEORGE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1794-1871), English historian of Greece,
+was born on the 17th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near
+Beckenham in Kent. His grandfather, Andreas, originally a
+Bremen merchant, was one of the founders (1st of January 1766)
+of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott &amp; Company in Threadneedle
+Street, London (the name of Grote did not disappear
+from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married (1793)
+Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747-1787), minister of the
+countess of Huntingdon&rsquo;s chapel in Westminster (descended
+from a Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine
+on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter
+and ten sons, of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated
+at first by his mother, George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks
+grammar school (1800-1804) and afterwards to Charterhouse
+(1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine in company
+with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and
+Henry Havelock. In spite of Grote&rsquo;s school successes, his
+father refused to send him to the university and put him in the
+bank in 1810. He spent all his spare time in the study of classics,
+history, metaphysics and political economy, and in learning
+German, French and Italian. Driven by his mother&rsquo;s Puritanism
+and his father&rsquo;s contempt for academic learning to outside
+society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who
+strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W.
+Norman, through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin
+(see below). After various difficulties the marriage took place
+on the 5th of March 1820, and was in all respects a happy union.</p>
+
+<p>In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic
+and political attitude. In 1817 he came under the influence
+of David Ricardo, and through him of James Mill and Jeremy
+Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a house attached to the bank
+in Threadneedle Street, where his only child died a week after
+its birth. During Mrs Grote&rsquo;s slow convalescence at Hampstead,
+he wrote his first published work, the <i>Statement of the Question
+of Parliamentary Reform</i> (1821), in reply to Sir James
+Mackintosh&rsquo;s article in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, advocating
+popular representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments.
+In 1822 he published in the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> (April) a letter
+against Canning&rsquo;s attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or
+rather re-wrote, some discursive papers of Bentham, which he
+published under the title <i>Analysis of the Influence of Natural
+Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind by Philip
+Beauchamp</i> (1822). The book was published in the name of
+Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a
+member of J. S. Mill&rsquo;s Utilitarian Society (1822-1823). he took
+a great interest in a society for reading and discussion, which
+met (from 1823) in a room at the bank before business hours
+twice a week. From the <i>Posthumous Papers</i> (pp. 22, 24) it is
+clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in asserting that she first in
+1823 (autumn) suggested the <i>History of Greece</i>; the book was
+already in preparation in 1822, though what was then written
+was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in
+the <i>Westminster Review</i> (April) a criticism of Mitford&rsquo;s <i>History
+of Greece</i>, which shows that his ideas were already in order.
+From 1826 to 1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and
+Henry Brougham in the organization of the new &ldquo;university&rdquo;
+in Gower Street. He was a member of the council which organized
+the faculties and the curriculum; but in 1830, owing to a
+difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the philosophical
+chairs, he resigned his position.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis,
+spent some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders.
+Recalled by his father&rsquo;s death (6th of July), he not only became
+manager of the bank, but took a leading position among the city
+Radicals. In 1831 he published his important <i>Essentials of
+Parliamentary Reform</i> (an elaboration of his previous <i>Statement</i>),
+and, after refusing to stand as parliamentary candidate for the
+city in 1831, changed his mind and was elected head of the poll,
+with three other Liberals, in December 1832. After serving in
+three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which time his party
+(&ldquo;the philosophic Radicals&rdquo;) had dwindled away. During these
+years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and
+philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he
+severed his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to
+literature. In 1846 the first two volumes of the <i>History</i> appeared,
+and the remaining ten between 1847 and the spring of 1856.
+In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes Currie he gave monetary
+assistance to Auguste Comte (<i>q.v.</i>), then in financial difficulties.
+The formation of the Sonderbund (20th of July 1847) led him to
+visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of things
+in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states.
+This visit resulted in the publication in the <i>Spectator</i> of seven
+weekly letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a
+letter to de Tocqueville in Mrs Grote&rsquo;s reprint of the <i>Seven
+Letters</i>, 1876).</p>
+
+<p>In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and
+Aristotle. <i>Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates</i> (3 vols.)
+appeared in 1865, but the work on Aristotle he was not destined
+to complete. He had finished the <i>Organon</i> and was about to
+deal with the metaphysical and physical treatises when he died
+on the 18th of June 1871, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+He was a man of strong character and self-control, unfailing
+courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the
+best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates
+alike, he was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming,
+trustworthy in the smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive
+in thought, energetic and conscientious in action. Yet, hidden
+under his calm exterior there was a burning enthusiasm and a
+depth of passion of which only his intimate friends were aware.</p>
+
+<p>His work may best be considered under the following heads:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Grote&rsquo;s Services to Education.</i>&mdash;He took, as already stated,
+an important part in the foundation and organization of the
+original university of London, which began its public work in
+Gower Street on the 28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the
+incorporation of the university of London proper, became known
+as University College. In 1849 he was re-elected to the council,
+in 1860 he became treasurer, and on the death of Brougham
+(1868) president. He took a keen interest in all the work of the
+college, presented to it the <i>Marmor Homericum</i>, and finally
+bequeathed the reversion of £6000 for the endowment of a chair
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span>
+of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum
+were, however, to be held over and added to the principal if at
+any time the holder of the chair should be &ldquo;a minister of the
+Church of England or of any other religious persuasion.&rdquo; In
+1850 the senate of the university was reconstituted, and Grote
+was one of seven eminent men who were added to it. Eventually
+he became the strongest advocate for open examinations, for the
+claims not only of philosophy and classics but also of natural
+science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the admission of
+women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in 1868.
+He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British
+Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the
+departments of antiquities and natural science.</p>
+
+<p>The honours which he received in recognition of these services
+were as follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge
+(1861); F.R.S. (1857); honorary professor of ancient history
+in the Royal Academy (1859). By the French Academy of
+Moral and Political Sciences he was made correspondent (1857)
+and foreign associate (the first Englishman since Macaulay)
+(1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone&rsquo;s offer of a peerage.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Political Career.</i>&mdash;In politics Grote belonged to the &ldquo;philosophic
+Radicals&rdquo; of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose
+chief principles were representative government, vote by ballot,
+the abolition of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered
+to these principles throughout, and refused to countenance any
+reforms which were incompatible with them. By this uncompromising
+attitude, he gradually lost all his supporters save a
+few men of like rigidity. As a speaker, he was clear, logical
+and impressive, and on select committees his common sense
+was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the <i>Minor
+Works</i>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ballot</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The History of Greece.</i>&mdash;It is on this work that Grote&rsquo;s
+reputation mainly rests. Though half a century has passed
+since its production, it is still in some sense the text-book.
+It consists of two parts, the &ldquo;Legendary&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Historical&rdquo;
+Greece. The former, owing to the development of comparative
+mythology, is now of little authority, and portions of part ii.
+are obsolete owing partly to the immense accumulations of epigraphic
+and archaeological research, partly to the subsequent
+discovery of the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, and partly
+also to the more careful weighing of evidence which Grote himself
+misinterpreted. The interest of the work is twofold. In the
+first place it contains a wonderful mass of information carefully
+collected from all sources, arranged on a simple plan, and expressed
+in direct forcible language. It is in this respect one of
+the few great comprehensive histories in our possession, great in
+scope, conception and accomplishment. But more than this it is
+interesting as among the first works in which Greek history
+became a separate study, based on real evidence and governed
+by the criteria of modern historical science. Further Grote,
+a practical man, a rationalist and an enthusiast for democracy,
+was the first to consider Greek political development with a
+sympathetic interest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History, Ancient</i>, section
+&ldquo;Authorities&rdquo;), in opposition to the Tory attitude of John
+Gillies and Mitford, who had written under the influence of horror
+at the French Revolution. On the whole his work was done with
+impartiality, and more recent study has only confirmed his
+general conclusions. Much has been made of his defective
+accounts of the tyrants and the Macedonian empire, and his
+opinion that Greek history ceased to be interesting or instructive
+after Chaeronea. It is true that he confined his interest to the
+fortunes of the city state and neglected the wider diffusion of the
+Greek culture, but this is after all merely a criticism of the title
+of the book. The value of the <i>History</i> consists to-day primarily
+in its examination of the Athenian democracy, its growth and
+decline, an examination which is still the most inspiring, and in
+general the most instructive, in any language. In the description
+of battles and military operations generally Grote was handicapped
+by the lack of personal knowledge of the country. In this
+respect he is inferior to men like Ernst Curtius and G. B. Grundy.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>In Philosophy</i> Grote was a follower of the Mills and
+Bentham. J. S. Mill paid a tribute to him in the preface to the
+third edition of his <i>Examination of Sir Wm. Hamilton&rsquo;s Philosophy</i>,
+and there is no doubt that the empirical school owed a great deal
+to his sound, accurate thinking, untrammelled by any reverence
+for authority, technique and convention. In dealing with Plato
+he was handicapped by this very common sense, which prevented
+him from appreciating the theory of ideas in its widest relations.
+His <i>Plato</i> is important in that it emphasizes the generally
+neglected passages of Plato in which he seems to indulge in mere
+Socratic dialectic rather than to seek knowledge; it is, therefore,
+to be read as a corrective to the ordinary criticism of Plato.
+The more congenial study of Aristotle, though incomplete, is
+more valuable in the positive sense, and has not received the
+attention it deserves. Perhaps Grote&rsquo;s most distinctive contribution
+to the study of Greek philosophy is his chapter in the
+<i>History of Greece</i> on the Sophists, of whom he took a view somewhat
+more favourable than has been accepted before or since.</p>
+
+<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Harriet Lewin</span> (1792-1878), was the daughter of
+Thomas Lewin, a retired Indian civilian, settled in Southampton.
+After her marriage with Grote in 1820 she devoted herself to the
+subjects in which he was interested and was a prominent figure in
+the literary, political and philosophical circle in which he lived.
+She carefully read the proofs of his work and relieved him of
+anxiety in connexion with his property. Among her writings are:
+<i>Memoir of Ary Scheffer</i> (1860); <i>Collected Papers</i> (1862); and
+her biography of her husband (1873). Another publication,
+<i>The Philosophical Radicals of 1832</i> (privately circulated in 1866),
+is interesting for the light it throws on the Reform movement of
+1832 to 1842, especially on Molesworth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>The History of Greece</i> passed through five editions
+the fifth (10 vols., 1888) being final. An edition covering the period
+from Solon to 403, with new notes and excursuses, was published by
+J. M. Mitchell and M. O. B. Caspari in 1907. The <i>Plato</i> was finally
+edited by Alexander Bain in 4 vols. See Mrs Grote&rsquo;s <i>Personal
+Life of George Grote</i>, and article in <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> by G. Croom
+Robertson.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1775-1853), German
+epigraphist, was born at Münden in Hanover on the 9th of June
+1775. He was educated partly in his native town, partly at
+Ilfeld, where he remained till 1795, when he entered the university
+of Göttingen, and there became the friend of Heyne, Tychsen
+and Heeren. Heyne&rsquo;s recommendation procured for him an
+assistant mastership in the Göttingen gymnasium in 1797.
+While there he published his work <i>De pasigraphia sive scriptura
+universali</i> (1799), which led to his appointment in 1803 as
+prorector of the gymnasium of Frankfort-on-Main, and shortly
+afterwards as conrector. Grotefend was best known during his
+lifetime as a Latin and Italian philologist, though the attention
+he paid to his own language is shown by his <i>Anfangsgründe der
+deutschen Poesie</i>, published in 1815, and his foundation of a
+society for investigating the German tongue in 1817. In 1821
+he became director of the gymnasium at Hanover, a post which
+he retained till his retirement in 1849. In 1823-1824 appeared
+his revised edition of Wenck&rsquo;s Latin grammar, in two volumes,
+followed by a smaller grammar for the use of schools in 1826;
+in 1835-1838 a systematic attempt to explain the fragmentary
+remains of the Umbrian dialect, entitled <i>Rudimenta linguae
+Umbricae ex inscriptionibus antiquis enodata</i> (in eight parts); and
+in 1839 a work of similar character upon Oscan (<i>Rudimenta
+linguae Oscae</i>). In the same year he published an important
+memoir on the coins of Bactria, under the name of <i>Die Münzen der
+griechischen, parthischen, und indoskythischen Könige von Bactrien
+und den Ländern am Indus</i>. He soon, however, returned to his
+favourite subject, and brought out a work in five parts, <i>Zur
+Geographie und Geschichte von Altitalien</i> (1840-1842). Previously,
+in 1836, he had written a preface to Wagenfeld&rsquo;s translation of the
+spurious <i>Sanchoniathon</i> of Philo Byblius, which was alleged to
+have been discovered in the preceding year in the Portuguese
+convent of Santa Maria de Merinhao. But it was in the East
+rather than in the West that Grotefend did his greatest work.
+The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia had for some time been
+attracting attention in Europe; exact copies of them had been
+published by the elder Niebuhr, who lost his eyesight over the
+work; and Grotefend&rsquo;s friend, Tychsen of Rostock, believed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span>
+that he had ascertained the characters in the column, now known
+to be Persian, to be alphabetic. At this point Grotefend took
+the matter up. His first discovery was communicated to the
+Royal Society of Göttingen in 1800, and reviewed by Tychsen
+two years afterwards. In 1815 he gave an account of it in
+Heeren&rsquo;s great work on ancient history, and in 1837 published
+his <i>Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der persepolitanischen Keilschrift</i>.
+Three years later appeared his <i>Neue Beiträge zur
+Erläuterung der babylonischen Keilschrift</i>. His discovery may
+be summed up as follows: (1) that the Persian inscriptions
+contain three different forms of cuneiform writing, so that the
+decipherment of the one would give the key to the decipherment
+of the others; (2) that the characters of the Persian column are
+alphabetic and not syllabic; (3) that they must be read from
+left to right; (4) that the alphabet consists of forty letters,
+including signs for long and short vowels; and (5) that the
+Persepolitan inscriptions are written in Zend (which, however,
+is not the case), and must be ascribed to the age of the Achaemenian
+princes. The process whereby Grotefend arrived at
+these conclusions is a prominent illustration of persevering
+genius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cuneiform</a></span>). A solid basis had thus been laid for
+the interpretation of the Persian inscriptions, and all that
+remained was to work out the results of Grotefend&rsquo;s brilliant
+discovery, a task ably performed by Burnouf, Lassen and
+Rawlinson. Grotefend died on the 15th of December 1853.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROTESQUE,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> strictly a form of decorative art, in painting
+or sculpture, consisting of fantastic shapes of human beings,
+animals and the like, joined together by wreaths of flowers,
+garlands or arabesques. The word is also applied to any whimsical
+design or decorative style, if characterized by unnatural
+distortion, and, generally, to anything ludicrous or extravagantly
+fanciful. &ldquo;Grotesque&rdquo; comes through the French from the
+Ital. <i>grottesco</i>, an adjective formed from <i>grotta</i>, which has been
+corrupted in English to &ldquo;grotto.&rdquo; The commonly accepted
+explanation of the special use of the term &ldquo;grotesque&rdquo; is that
+this particular form of decorative art was most frequently found
+in the excavated ancient Roman and Greek dwellings found in
+Italy, to which was applied the name <i>grotte</i>. The derivation of
+<i>grotta</i> is through popular Lat. <i>crupta</i> or <i>grupta</i> (cf. &ldquo;crypt&rdquo;),
+from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyptê">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#951;</span>, a vault, <span class="grk" title="kryptein">&#954;&#961;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to hide. Such a term would
+be applicable both to the buried dwellings of ancient Italy, and
+to a cavern, artificial or natural, the ordinary sense of the word.
+An interesting parallel with this origin of the word is found in
+that of &ldquo;antic,&rdquo; now meaning a freak, a jest, absurd fancy, &amp;c.
+This word is the same as &ldquo;antique,&rdquo; and was, like &ldquo;grotesque,&rdquo;
+first applied to the fanciful decorations of ancient art.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROTH, KLAUS<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1819-1899), Low German poet, was born
+at Heide in Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After
+studying at the seminary in Tondern (1838-1841), he became a
+teacher at the girls&rsquo; school in his native village, but in 1847 went
+to Kiel to qualify for a higher educational post. Ill-health
+interrupted his studies and it was not until 1853 that he was able
+to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took the degree of doctor
+of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as <i>privatdocent</i> in
+German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in 1866, he was
+made professor, and where he lived until his death on the 1st
+of June 1899. In his Low German (<i>Plattdeutsch</i>) lyric and epic
+poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (<i>q.v.</i>),
+Groth gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern
+home; and though his descriptions may not always reflect the
+peculiar characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully
+as those of F. Reuter (<i>q.v.</i>), yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine
+inspiration. His chief works are <i>Quickborn, Volksleben in
+plattdeutschen Gedichten Ditmarscher Mundart</i> (1852; 25th ed.
+1900; and in High German translations, notably by M. J.
+Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes of stories, <i>Vertelln</i>
+(1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also <i>Voer de Goern</i> (1858) and <i>Ut
+min Jungsparadies</i> (1875).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Groth&rsquo;s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> appeared in 4 vols. (1893). His <i>Lebenserinnerungen</i>
+were edited by E. Wolff in 1891; see also K. Eggers,
+<i>K. Groth und die plattdeutsche Dichtung</i> (1885); and biographies by
+A. Bartels (1899) and H. Siercks (1899.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;), German
+mineralogist, was born at Magdeburg on the 23rd of June 1843.
+He was educated at Freiberg, Dresden and Berlin, and took
+the degree of Ph.D. in 1868. After holding from 1872 the chair
+of mineralogy at Strasburg, he was in 1883 appointed professor
+of mineralogy and curator of minerals in the state museum
+at Munich. He carried on extensive researches on crystals and
+minerals, and also on rocks; and published <i>Tabellarische
+Übersicht der einfachen Mineralien</i> (1874-1898), and <i>Physikalische
+Krystallographie</i> (1876-1895, ed. 4, 1905). He edited for
+some years the <i>Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROTIUS, HUGO<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1583-1645), in his native country Huig van
+Groot, but known to the rest of Europe by the latinized form
+of the name, Dutch publicist and statesman, was born at Delft
+on Easter day, the 10th of April 1583. The Groots were a branch
+of a family of distinction, which had been noble in France, but
+had removed to the Low Countries more than a century before.
+Their French name was de Cornets, and this cadet branch had
+taken the name of Groot on the marriage of Hugo&rsquo;s great-grandfather
+with a Dutch heiress. The father of Hugo was a lawyer
+in considerable practice, who had four times served the office
+of burgomaster of Leiden, and was one of the three curators
+of the university of that place.</p>
+
+<p>In the annals of precocious genius there is no greater prodigy
+on record than Hugo Grotius, who was able to make good Latin
+verses at nine, was ripe for the university at twelve, and at
+fifteen edited the encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella.
+At Leiden he was much noticed by J. J. Scaliger, whose habit
+it was to engage his young friends in the editing of some classical
+text. At fifteen Grotius accompanied Count Justin of Nassau,
+and the grand pensionary J. van Olden Barneveldt on their
+special embassy to the court of France. After a year spent in
+acquiring the language and making acquaintance with the
+leading men of France, Grotius returned home. He took the
+degree of doctor of law at Leiden, and entered on practice as an
+advocate.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding his successes in his profession, his inclination
+was to literature. In 1600 he edited the remains of Aratus,
+with the versions of Cicero, Germanicus and Avienus. Of the
+<i>Germanicus</i> Scaliger says&mdash;&ldquo;A better text than that which
+Grotius has given, it is impossible to give&rdquo;; but it is probable
+that Scaliger had himself been the reviser. Grotius vied with
+the Latinists of his day in the composition of Latin verses.
+Some lines on the siege of Ostend spread his fame beyond the
+circle of the learned. He wrote three dramas in Latin:&mdash;<i>Christus
+patiens; Sophomphaneas</i>, on the story of Joseph and
+his brethren; and <i>Adamus exul</i>, a production still remembered
+as having given hints to Milton. The <i>Sophomphaneas</i> was
+translated into Dutch by Vondel, and into English by Francis
+Goldsmith (1652); the <i>Christus patiens</i> into English by George
+Sandys (1640).</p>
+
+<p>In 1603 the United Provinces, desiring to transmit to posterity
+some account of their struggle with Spain, determined to appoint
+a historiographer. The choice of the states fell upon Grotius,
+though he was but twenty years of age, and had not offered
+himself for the post. There was some talk at this time in Paris
+of calling Grotius to be librarian of the royal library. But it was
+a ruse of the Jesuit party, who wished to persuade the public
+that the opposition to the appointment of Isaac Casaubon did
+not proceed from theological motives, since they were ready
+to appoint a Protestant in the person of Grotius.</p>
+
+<p>His next preferment was that of advocate-general of the
+fisc for the provinces of Holland and Zeeland. This was followed
+by his marriage, in 1608, to Marie Reigersberg, a lady of family
+in Zeeland, a woman of great capacity and noble disposition.</p>
+
+<p>Grotius had already passed from occupation with the classics
+to studies more immediately connected with his profession.
+In the winter of 1604 he composed (but did not publish) a treatise
+entitled <i>De jure praedae</i>. The MS. remained unknown till 1868,
+when it was brought to light, and printed at the Hague under the
+auspices of Professor Fruin. It shows that the principles and the
+plan of the celebrated <i>De jure belli</i>, which was not composed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span>
+till 1625, more than twenty years after, had already been conceived
+by a youth of twenty-one. It has always been a question
+what it was that determined Grotius, when an exile in Paris in
+1625, to that particular subject, and various explanations have
+been offered; among others a casual suggestion of Peiresc in a
+letter of early date. The discovery of the MS. of the <i>De jure
+praedae</i> discloses the whole history of Grotius&rsquo;s ideas, and shows
+that from youth upwards he had steadily read and meditated
+in one direction, that, namely, of which the famous <i>De jure belli</i>
+was the mature product. In the <i>De jure praedae</i> of 1604 there is
+much more than the germ of the later treatise <i>De jure belli</i>.
+Its main principles, and the whole system of thought implied
+in the later, are anticipated in the earlier work. The arrangement
+even is the same. The chief difference between the two treatises
+is one which twenty years&rsquo; experience in affairs could not but
+bring&mdash;the substitution of more cautious and guarded language,
+less dogmatic affirmation, more allowance for exceptions and
+deviations. The <i>Jus pacis</i> was an addition introduced first
+in the later work, an insertion which is the cause of not a little
+of the confused arrangement which has been found fault with
+in the <i>De jure belli</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>De jure praedae</i> further demonstrates that Grotius was
+originally determined to this subject, not by any speculative
+intellectual interest, but by a special occasion presented by his
+professional engagements. He was retained by the Dutch
+East India Company as their advocate. One of their captains,
+Heemskirk, had captured a rich Portuguese galleon in the Straits
+of Malacca. The right of a private company to make prizes
+was hotly contested in Holland, and denied by the stricter
+religionists, especially the Mennonites, who considered all war
+unlawful. Grotius undertook to prove that Heemskirk&rsquo;s prize
+had been lawfully captured. In doing this he was led to investigate
+the grounds of the lawfulness of war in general. Such
+was the casual origin of a book which long enjoyed such celebrity
+that it used to be said, with some exaggeration indeed, that it
+had founded a new science.</p>
+
+<p>A short treatise which was printed in 1609, Grotius says
+without his permission, under the title of <i>Mare liberum</i>, is
+nothing more than a chapter&mdash;the 12th&mdash;of the <i>De jure praedae</i>.
+It was necessary to Grotius&rsquo;s defence of Heemskirk that he
+should show that the Portuguese pretence that Eastern waters
+were their private property was untenable. Grotius maintains
+that the ocean is free to all nations. The occasional character
+of this piece explains the fact that at the time of its appearance
+it made no sensation. It was not till many years afterwards
+that the jealousies between England and Holland gave importance
+to the novel doctrine broached in the tract by Grotius,
+a doctrine which Selden set himself to refute in his <i>Mare clausum</i>
+(1632).</p>
+
+<p>Equally due to the circumstances of the time was his small
+contribution to constitutional history entitled <i>De antiquitate
+reipublicae Batavae</i> (1610). In this he vindicates, on grounds
+of right, prescriptive and natural, the revolt of the United
+Provinces against the sovereignty of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Grotius, when he was only thirty, was made pensionary of the
+city of Rotterdam. In 1613 he formed one of a deputation
+to England, in an attempt to adjust those differences which
+gave rise afterwards to a naval struggle disastrous to Holland.
+He was received by James with every mark of distinction.
+He also cultivated the acquaintance of the Anglican ecclesiastics
+John Overall and L. Andrewes, and was much in the society
+of the celebrated scholar Isaac Casaubon, with whom he had
+been in correspondence by letter for many years. Though the
+mediating views in the great religious conflict between Catholic
+and Protestant, by which Grotius was afterwards known, had
+been arrived at by him by independent reflection, yet it could
+not but be that he would be confirmed in them by finding in
+England a developed school of thought of the same character
+already in existence. How highly Casaubon esteemed Grotius
+appears from a letter of his to Daniel Heinsius, dated London,
+13th of April 1613. &ldquo;I cannot say how happy I esteem myself
+in having seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius. A
+wonderful man! This I knew him to be before I had seen him;
+but the rare excellence of that divine genius no one can sufficiently
+feel who does not see his face, and hear him speak. Probity
+is stamped on his features; his conversation savours of true
+piety and profound learning. It is not only upon me that he
+has made this impression; all the pious and learned to whom
+he has been here introduced have felt the same towards him;
+the king especially so!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After Grotius&rsquo;s return from England the exasperation of
+theological parties in Holland rose to such a pitch that it became
+clear that an appeal to force would be made. Grotius sought
+to find some mean term in which the two hostile parties of
+Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, or as they were subsequently
+called Arminians and Gomarists (see Remonstrants),
+might agree. A form of edict drawn by Grotius was published
+by the states, recommending mutual toleration, and forbidding
+ministers in the pulpit from handling the disputed dogmas.
+To the orthodox Calvinists the word toleration was insupportable.
+They had the populace on their side. This fact determined the
+stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau, to support the orthodox party&mdash;a
+party to which he inclined the more readily that Olden
+Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the man whose uprightness
+and abilities he most dreaded, sided with the Remonstrants.</p>
+
+<p>In 1618 Prince Maurice set out on a sort of pacific campaign,
+disbanding the civic guards in the various cities of Guelders,
+Holland and Zeeland, and occupying the places with troops
+on whom he could rely. The states of Holland sent a commission,
+of which Grotius was chairman, to Utrecht, with the view of
+strengthening the hands of their friends, the Remonstrant
+party, in that city. Feeble plans were formed, but not carried
+into effect, for shutting the gates upon the stadtholder, who
+entered the city with troops on the night of the 26th of July
+1618. There were conferences in which Grotius met Prince
+Maurice, and taught him that Olden Barneveldt was not the only
+man of capacity in the ranks of the Remonstrants whom he had
+to fear. On the early morning of the 31st of July the prince&rsquo;s
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> against the liberties of Utrecht and of Holland was
+carried out; the civic guard was disarmed&mdash;Grotius and his
+colleagues saving themselves by a precipitate flight. But it
+was only a reprieve. The grand pensionary, Olden Barneveldt,
+the leader of the Remonstrant party, Grotius and Hoogerbeets
+were arrested, brought to trial, and condemned&mdash;Olden
+Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to imprisonment for life and
+confiscation of his property. In June 1619 he was immured
+in the fortress of Louvestein near Gorcum. His confinement
+was rigorous, but after a time his wife obtained permission to
+share his captivity, on the condition that if she came out, she
+should not be suffered to return.</p>
+
+<p>Grotius had now before him, at thirty-six, no prospect but
+that of a life-long captivity. He did not abandon himself to
+despair, but sought refuge in returning to the classical pursuits
+of his youth. Several of his translations (into Latin) from the
+Greek tragedians and other writers, made at this time, have
+been printed. &ldquo;The Muses,&rdquo; he writes to Voss, &ldquo;were now his
+consolation, and appeared more amiable than ever.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The ingenuity of Madame Grotius at length devised a mode of
+escape. It had grown into a custom to send the books which
+he had done with in a chest along with his linen to be washed at
+Gorcum. After a time the warders began to let the chest pass
+without opening it. Madame Grotius, perceiving this, prevailed
+on her husband to allow himself to be shut up in it at the usual
+time. The two soldiers who carried the chest out complained
+that it was so heavy &ldquo;there must be an Arminian in it.&rdquo; &ldquo;There
+are indeed,&rdquo; said Madame Grotius, &ldquo;Arminian books in it.&rdquo;
+The chest was carried to the house of a friend, where Grotius was
+released. He was then dressed like a mason with hod and trowel,
+and so conveyed over the frontier. His first place of refuge was
+Antwerp, from which he proceeded to Paris, where he arrived
+in April 1621. In October he was joined by his wife. There
+he was presented to the king, Louis XIII., and a pension of 3000
+livres conferred upon him. French pensions were easily granted,
+all the more so as they were never paid. Grotius was now
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
+reduced to great straits. He looked about for any opening
+through which he might earn a living. There was talk of something
+in Denmark; or he would settle in Spires, and practise
+in the court there. Some little relief he got through the intervention
+of Étienne d&rsquo;Aligre, the chancellor, who procured a royal
+mandate which enabled Grotius to draw, not all, but a large
+part of his pension. In 1623 the president Henri de Même lent
+him his château of Balagni near Senlis (dep. Oise), and there
+Grotius passed the spring and summer of that year. De Thou
+gave him facilities to borrow books from the superb library
+formed by his father.</p>
+
+<p>In these circumstances the <i>De jure belli et pacis</i> was composed.
+That a work of such immense reading, consisting in great part of
+quotation, should have been written in little more than a year
+was a source of astonishment to his biographers. The achievement
+would have been impossible, but for the fact that Grotius
+had with him the first draft of the work made in 1604. He had
+also got his brother William, when reading his classics, to mark
+down all the passages which touched upon law, public or private.
+In March 1625 the printing of the <i>De jure belli</i>, which had
+taken four months, was completed, and the edition despatched to
+the fair at Frankfort. His own honorarium as author consisted
+of 200 copies, of which, however, he had to give away many to
+friends, to the king, the principal courtiers, the papal nuncio, &amp;c.
+What remained he sold for his own profit at the price of a crown
+each, but the sale did not recoup him his outlay. But though
+his book brought him no profit it brought him reputation, so
+widely spread, and of such long endurance, as no other legal
+treatise has ever enjoyed.</p>
+
+<p>Grotius hoped that his fame would soften the hostility of his
+foes, and that his country would recall him to her service. Theological
+rancour, however, prevailed over all other sentiments,
+and, after fruitless attempts to re-establish himself in Holland,
+Grotius accepted service under Sweden, in the capacity of
+ambassador to France. He was not very successful in negotiating
+the treaty on behalf of the Protestant interest in Germany,
+Richelieu having a special dislike to him. He never enjoyed the
+confidence of the court to which he was accredited, and frittered
+away his influence in disputes about precedence. In 1645 he
+demanded and obtained his recall. He was honourably received
+at Stockholm, but neither the climate nor the tone of the court
+suited him, and he asked permission to leave. He was driven
+by a storm on the coast near Dantzig. He got as far as Rostock,
+where he found himself very ill. Stockman, a Scottish physician
+who was sent for, thought it was only weakness, and that rest
+would restore the patient. But Grotius sank rapidly, and died
+on the 29th of August 1645.</p>
+
+<p>Grotius combined a wide circle of general knowledge with a
+profound study of one branch of law. History, theology,
+jurisprudence, politics, classics, poetry,&mdash;all these fields he
+cultivated. His commentaries on the Scriptures were the first
+application on an extensive scale of the principle affirmed by
+Scaliger, that, namely, of interpretation by the rules of grammar
+without dogmatic assumptions. Grotius&rsquo;s philological skill,
+however, was not sufficient to enable him to work up to this ideal.</p>
+
+<p>As in many other points Grotius inevitably recalls Erasmus,
+so he does in his attitude towards the great schism. Grotius
+was, however, animated by an ardent desire for peace and concord.
+He thought that a basis for reconciliation of Protestant
+and Catholic might be found in a common piety, combined with
+reticence upon discrepancies of doctrinal statement. His <i>De
+veritate religionis Christianae</i> (1627), a presentment of the
+evidences, is so written as to form a code of common Christianity,
+irrespective of sect. The little treatise became widely popular,
+gaining rather than losing popularity in the 18th century. It
+became the classical manual of apologetics in Protestant colleges,
+and was translated for missionary purposes into Arabic (by
+Pococke, 1660), Persian, Chinese, &amp;c. His <i>Via et votum ad
+pacem ecclesiasticam</i> (1642) was a detailed proposal of a scheme
+of accommodation. Like all men of moderate and mediating
+views, he was charged by both sides with vacillation. An
+Amsterdam minister, James Laurent, published his <i>Grotius
+papizans</i> (1642), and it was continually being announced from
+Paris that Grotius had &ldquo;gone over.&rdquo; Hallam, who has collected
+all the passages from Grotius&rsquo;s letters in which the prejudices
+and narrow tenets of the Reformed clergy are condemned, thought
+he had a &ldquo;bias towards popery&rdquo; (<i>Lit. of Europe</i>, ii. 312). The
+true interpretation of Grotius&rsquo;s mind appears to be an indifference
+to dogmatic propositions, produced by a profound sentiment of
+piety. He approached parties as a statesman approaches them,
+as facts which have to be dealt with, and governed, not suppressed
+in the interests of some one of their number.</p>
+
+<p>His editions and translations of the classics were either juvenile
+exercises prescribed by Scaliger, or &ldquo;lusus poetici,&rdquo; the amusement
+of vacant hours. Grotius read the classics as a humanist,
+for the sake of their contents, not as a professional scholar.</p>
+
+<p>His <i>Annals of the Low Countries</i> was begun as an official duty
+while he held the appointment of historiographer, and was being
+continued and retouched by him to the last. It was not published
+till 1657, by his sons Peter and Cornelius.</p>
+
+<p>Grotius was a great jurist, and his <i>De jure belli et pacis</i> (Paris,
+1625), though not the first attempt in modern times to ascertain
+the principles of jurisprudence, went far more fundamentally
+into the discussion than any one had done before him. The
+title of the work was so far misleading that the <i>jus belli</i> was a
+very small part of his comprehensive scheme. In his treatment
+of this narrower question he had the works of Alberico Gentili
+and Ayala before him, and has acknowledged his obligations to
+them. But it is in the larger questions to which he opened the
+way that the merit of Grotius consists. His was the first attempt
+to obtain a principle of right, and a basis for society and government,
+outside the church or the Bible. The distinction between
+religion on the one hand and law and morality on the other is not
+indeed clearly conceived by Grotius, but he wrestles with it in
+such a way as to make it easy for those who followed him to seize
+it. The law of nature is unalterable; God Himself cannot alter
+it any more than He can alter a mathematical axiom. This law
+has its source in the nature of man as a social being; it would
+be valid even were there no God, or if God did not interfere in
+the government of the world. These positions, though Grotius&rsquo;s
+religious temper did not allow him to rely unreservedly upon
+them, yet, even in the partial application they find in his book,
+entitle him to the honour of being held the founder of the modern
+science of the law of nature and nations. The <i>De jure</i> exerted
+little influence on the practice of belligerents, yet its publication
+was an epoch in the science. De Quincey has said that the book
+is equally divided between &ldquo;empty truisms and time-serving
+Dutch falsehoods.&rdquo; For a saner judgment and a brief abstract
+of the contents of the <i>De jure</i>, consult J. K. Bluntschli, <i>Geschichte
+des allgemeinen Staatsrechts</i> (Munich, 1864). A fuller analysis,
+and some notice of the predecessors of Grotius, will be found in
+Hély, <i>Étude sur le droit de la guerre de Grotius</i> (Paris, 1875).
+The writer, however, had never heard of the <i>De jure praedae</i>,
+published in 1868. Hallam, <i>Lit. of Europe</i>, ii. p. 543, has an
+abstract done with his usual conscientious pains. Dugald
+Stewart (<i>Collected Works</i>, i. 370) has dwelt upon the confusion
+and defects of Grotius&rsquo;s theory. Sir James Mackintosh (<i>Miscell.
+Works</i>, p. 166) has defended Grotius, affirming that his work
+&ldquo;is perhaps the most complete that the world has yet owed, at
+so early a stage in the progress of any science, to the genius and
+learning of one man.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief writings of Grotius have been named. For a complete
+bibliography of his works, see Lehmann, <i>Hugonis Grotii manes
+vindicati</i> (Delft, 1727), which also contains a full biography. Of
+this Latin life De Burigny published a réchauffée in French (2 vols.,
+8vo, Paris, 1752). Other lives are: Van Brandt, <i>Historie van het
+Leven H. de Groot</i> (2 vols., 8vo, Dordrecht, 1727); Von Luden,
+<i>Hugo Grotius nach seinen Schicksalen und Schriften dargestellt</i> (8vo,
+Berlin, 1806); <i>Life of Hugo Grotius</i>, by Charles Butler of Lincoln&rsquo;s
+Inn (8vo, London, 1826). The work of the Abbé Hély contains a
+life of Grotius. See also <i>Hugo Grotius</i>, by L. Neumann (Berlin, 1884);
+<i>Opinions of Grotius</i>, by D. P. de Bruyn (London, 1894).</p>
+
+<p>Grotius&rsquo;s theological works were collected in 3 vols. fol. at Amsterdam
+(1644-1646; reprinted London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1679;
+and again Amsterdam, 1698). His letters were printed first in a
+selection, <i>Epistolae ad Gallos</i> (12mo, Leiden, 1648), abounding,
+though an Elzevir, in errors of the press. They were collected in <i>H.</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span>
+<i>Grotii epistolae quotquot reperiri poluerunt</i> (fol., Amsterdam, 1687).
+A few may be found scattered in other collections of <i>Epistolae</i>.
+Supplements to the large collection of 1687 were published at
+Haarlem, 1806; Leiden, 1809; and Haarlem, 1829. The <i>De jure
+belli</i> was translated into English by Whewell (3 vols., 8vo, Cambridge,
+1853); into French by Barbeyrac (2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1724);
+into German in Kirchmann&rsquo;s <i>Philosophische Bibliothek</i> (3 vols. 12mo,
+Leipzig, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROTTAFERRATA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a village of Italy, in the province of Rome,
+from which it is 13 m. S.E. by electric tramway, and 2½ m. S.
+of Frascati, 1080 ft. above sea-level, in the Alban Hills. Pop.
+(1901) 2645. It is noticeable for the Greek monastery of Basilians
+founded by S. Nilus in 1002 under the Emperor Otho III., and
+which occupies the site of a large Roman villa, possibly that of
+Cicero. It was fortified at the end of the 15th century by Cardinal
+Giuliano della Rovere (afterwards Pope Julius II.), whose arms
+may be seen about it. The massive towers added by him give
+it a picturesque appearance. The church belongs to the 12th
+century, and the original portal, with a mosaic over it, is still
+preserved; the interior was restored in 1574 and in 1754, but
+there are some remains of frescoes of the 13th century. The
+chapel of S. Nilus contains frescoes by Domenico Zampieri
+(Domenichino) of 1610, illustrating the life of the saint, which
+are among his most important works. The abbot&rsquo;s palace has
+a fine Renaissance portico, and contains an interesting museum
+of local antiquities. The library contains valuable MSS., among
+them one from the hand of S. Nilus (965); and a palaeographical
+school, for the copying of MSS. in the ancient style, is maintained.
+An <i>omophorion</i> of the 11th or 12th century, with scenes from the
+Gospel in needlework, and a chalice of the 15th century with
+enamels, given by Cardinal Bessarion, the predecessor of Giuliano
+della Rovere as commendatory of the abbey, are among its
+treasures. An important exhibition of Italo-Byzantine art was
+held here in 1905-1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Rocchi, <i>La Badia di Grottaferrata</i> (Rome, 1884); A.
+Muñoz, <i>L&rsquo;Art byzantin à l&rsquo;exposition de Grottaferrata</i> (Rome, 1905);
+T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iv. (1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUCHY, EMMANUEL,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1766-1847), marshal
+of France, was born in Paris on the 23rd of October 1766. He
+entered the French artillery in 1779, transferred to the cavalry
+in 1782, and to the <i>Gardes du corps</i> in 1786. In spite of his
+aristocratic birth and his connexions with the court, he was a
+convinced supporter of the principles of the Revolution, and had
+in consequence to leave the Guards. About the time of the
+outbreak of war in 1792 he became colonel of a cavalry regiment,
+and soon afterwards, as a <i>maréchal de camp</i>, he was sent to serve
+on the south-eastern frontier. In 1793 he distinguished himself
+in La Vendée, and was promoted general of division. Grouchy
+was shortly afterwards deprived of his rank as being of noble
+birth, but in 1795 he was again placed on the active list. He
+served on the staff of the Army of Ireland (1796-1797), and took
+a conspicuous part in the Irish expedition. In 1798 he
+administered the civil and military government of Piedmont at
+the time of the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and in 1799 he
+distinguished himself greatly as a divisional commander in the
+campaign against the Austrians and Russians. In covering
+the retreat of the French after the defeat of Novi, Grouchy received
+fourteen wounds and was taken prisoner. On his release
+he returned to France. In spite of his having protested against the
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 18th of Brumaire he was at once re-employed by
+the First Consul, and distinguished himself again at Hohenlinden.
+It was not long before he accepted the new régime in France,
+and from 1801 onwards he was employed by Napoleon in military
+and political positions of importance. He served in Austria in
+1805, in Prussia in 1806, Poland in 1807, Spain in 1808, and commanded
+the cavalry of the Army of Italy in 1809 in the Viceroy
+Eugène&rsquo;s advance to Vienna. In 1812 he was made commander
+of one of the four cavalry corps of the Grand Army, and during
+the retreat from Moscow Napoleon appointed him to command
+the escort squadron, which was composed entirely of picked
+officers. His almost continuous service with the cavalry led
+Napoleon to decline in 1813 to place Grouchy at the head of an
+army corps, and Grouchy thereupon retired to France. In
+1814, however, he hastened to take part in the defensive campaign
+in France, and he was severely wounded at Craonne. At the
+Restoration he was deprived of the post of colonel-general of
+<i>chasseurs à cheval</i> and retired. He joined Napoleon on his
+return from Elba, and was made marshal and peer of France.
+In the campaign of Waterloo he commanded the reserve cavalry
+of the army, and after Ligny he was appointed to command
+the right wing to pursue the Prussians. The march on Wavre,
+its influence on the result of the campaign, and the controversy
+to which Grouchy&rsquo;s conduct on the day of Waterloo has given
+rise, are dealt with briefly in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>,
+and at length in nearly every work on the campaign of 1815.
+Here it is only necessary to say that on the 17th Grouchy was
+unable to close with the Prussians, and on the 18th, though
+urged to march towards the sound of the guns of Waterloo,
+he permitted himself, from whatever cause, to be held up by a
+Prussian rearguard while the Prussians and English united
+to crush Napoleon. On the 19th Grouchy won a smart victory
+over the Prussians at Wavre, but it was then too late. So far
+as resistance was possible after the great disaster, Grouchy
+made it. He gathered up the wrecks of Napoleon&rsquo;s army, and
+retired, swiftly and unbroken, to Paris, where, after interposing
+his reorganized forces between the enemy and the capital, he
+resigned his command into the hands of Marshal Davout. The
+rest of his life was spent in defending himself. An attempt to
+have him condemned to death by a court-martial failed, but
+he was exiled and lived in America till amnestied in 1821. On
+his return to France he was reinstated as general, but not as
+marshal nor as peer of France. For many years thereafter
+he was equally an object of aversion to the court party, as a
+member of their own caste who had followed the Revolution
+and Napoleon, and to his comrades of the Grand Army as the
+supposed betrayer of Napoleon. In 1830 Louis Philippe gave
+him back the marshal&rsquo;s bâton and restored him to the Chamber
+of Peers. He died at St-Étienne on the 29th of May 1847.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Marquis de Grouchy, <i>Mémoires du maréchal Marquis de
+Grouchy</i> (Paris, 1873-1874); General Marquis de Grouchy, <i>Le
+Général Grouchy en Irlande</i> (Paris, 1866), and <i>Le Maréchal Grouchy
+du 16 au 18 juin, 1815</i> (Paris, 1864); <i>Appel à l&rsquo;histoire sur les faites
+de l&rsquo;aile droite de l&rsquo;armée française</i> (Paris, n.d.); <i>Sévère Justice sur
+les faits ... du 28 juin au 3 juillet, 1815</i> (Paris, 1866); and the
+literature of the Waterloo campaign. Marshal Grouchy himself
+wrote the following: <i>Observations sur la relation de la campagne de
+1815 par le général de Gourgaud</i> (Philadelphia and Paris, 1818);
+<i>Réfutation de quelques articles des mémoires de M. le Duc de Rovigo</i>
+(Paris, 1829); <i>Fragments historiques relatifs à la campagne et à la
+bataille de Waterloo</i> (Paris, 1829-1830, in reply to Barthélemy and
+Méry, and to Marshal Gérard); <i>Réclamation du maréchal de Grouchy</i>
+(Paris, 1834); <i>Plainte contre le général Baron Berthezène</i> (Berthezène,
+formerly a divisional commander under Gérard, stated in reply to
+this defence that he had no intention of accusing Grouchy of ill faith).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUND-ICE,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span><a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> ice formed at the bottom of streams while
+the temperature of the water is above freezing-point. Everything
+points to radiation as the prime cause of the formation of
+ground-ice. It is formed only under a clear sky, never in cloudy
+weather; it is most readily formed on dark rocks, and never
+under any covering such as a bridge, and rarely under surface-ice.
+Professor Howard T. Barnes of McGill University concludes
+that the radiation from a river bed in cold and clear nights goes
+through the water in long rays that penetrate much more easily
+from below upwards than the sun&rsquo;s heat rays from above downwards,
+which are mostly absorbed by the first few feet of water.
+On a cold clear night, therefore, the radiation from the bottom
+is excessive, and loosely-grown spongy masses of anchor-ice
+form on the bottom, which on the following bright sunny day
+receive just sufficient heat from the sun to detach the mass of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span>
+ice, which rises to the surface with considerable force. It is probable
+that owing to surface tension a thin film of stationary water
+rests upon the boulders and sand over which a stream flows,
+and that this, becoming frozen owing to radiation, forms the
+foundation for the anchor-ice and produces a surface upon which
+the descending frazil-ice (see below) can lodge. The theory
+of radiation from the boulders is supported by the fact that as
+the ice is formed upon them in response to a sudden fall in the
+air temperature, it is only released under the influence of a strong
+rise of temperature during the morning. It may not rise for
+several days, but the advent of bright sunlight is followed by
+the appearance on the surface of masses of ground-ice. This
+ice has a spongy texture and frequently carries gravel with it
+when it rises. It is said that the bottom of Lake Erie is strewn
+with gravel that has been floated down in this way. This
+&ldquo;anchor-ice,&rdquo; as it was called by Canadian trappers, frequently
+forms dams across narrow portions of the river where the
+floating masses are caught. Dr H. Landor pointed out that the
+Mackenzie and Mississippi rivers, which rise in the same region
+and flow in opposite directions, carry ground-ice from their
+head-waters for a considerable distance down stream, and
+suggested that here and in Siberia many forms of vegetable and
+animal life may be distributed from a centre by this agency,
+since the material carried by the floating ice would contain the
+seeds and eggs or larvae of many forms.</p>
+
+<p>Besides ground-ice and anchor-ice this formation is called
+also bottom-ice, ground-gru and lappered ice, the two last names
+being Scottish. In France it is called <i>glace du fond</i>, in Germany
+<i>Grundeis</i>, and in French Canada <i>moutonne</i> from the appearance
+of sheep at rest, since the ice formed at the bottom grows in
+woolly, spongy masses upon boulders or other projections.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Frazil-ice&rdquo; is a Canadian term from the French for &ldquo;forge-cinders.&rdquo;
+It is surface ice formed in spicules and carried downwards
+in water agitated by winds or rapids. The frazil-ice may
+render swiftly moving water turbid with ice crystals, it may be
+swirled downwards and accumulated upon the ground ice, or
+it may be swept under the sheet of surface-ice, coating the under
+surface of the sheet to a thickness as great as 80 ft. of loose
+spicular ice.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. G. Thompson, in <i>Nature</i>, i. 555 (1870); H. Landor, in
+<i>Geological Magazine</i>, decade II., vol. iii., p. 459 (1876); H. T.
+Barnes, <i>Ice Formation with special Reference to Anchor-ice and Frazil</i>
+(1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The O. Eng. word <i>grund</i>, ground, is common to Teutonic languages,
+cf. Du. <i>grond</i>, Ger. <i>Grund</i>, but has no cognates outside Teutonic.
+The suggestion that the origin is to be found in &ldquo;grind,&rdquo; to crush
+small, reduce to powder, is plausible, but the primary meaning
+seems to be the lowest part or bottom of anything rather than grit,
+sand or gravel. The main branches in sense appear to be, first,
+bottom, as of the sea or a river, cf. the use, in the plural, for dregs;
+second, base or foundation, actual, as of the first or main surface of a
+painting, fabric, &amp;c., or figurative, as of a principle or reason; third,
+the surface of the earth, or a particular part of that surface.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUND NUT<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (Earth Nut, Pistache de Terre, Monkey Nut,
+Pea Nut, Manilla Nut), in botany, the fruit or pod of <i>Arachis
+hypogaea</i> (nat. ord. Leguminosae). The plant is an annual of
+diffuse habit, with hairy stem, and two-paired, abruptly pinnate
+leaflets. The pods or legumes are stalked, oblong, cylindrical,
+about 1 in. in length, the thin reticulated shell containing one or
+two irregularly ovoid seeds. After the flower withers, the stalk
+of the ovary has the peculiarity of elongating and bending down,
+forcing the young pod underground, and thus the seeds become
+matured at some distance below the surface. Hence the specific
+and vernacular names of the plant. Originally a native of
+South America, it is extensively cultivated in all tropical and
+subtropical countries. The plant affects a light sandy soil, and
+is very prolific, yielding in some instances 30 to 38 bushels of nuts
+per acre. The pods when ripe are dug up and dried. The seeds
+when fresh are largely eaten in tropical countries, and in taste
+are almost equal to almonds; when roasted they are used as a
+substitute for chocolate. In America they are consumed in
+large quantities as the &ldquo;pea-nut&rdquo;; but are not much appreciated
+in England except by the poorer children, who know them as
+&ldquo;monkey-nuts.&rdquo; By expression the seeds yield a large quantity
+of oil, which is used by natives for lamps, as a fish or curry oil
+and for medicinal purposes. The leaves form an excellent food
+for cattle, being very like clover.</p>
+
+<p>Large quantities of seeds are imported to Europe, chiefly to
+Marseilles, London and Hamburg, for the sake of their contained
+oil. The seeds yield from 42 to 50% of oil by cold expression,
+but a larger quantity is obtained by heat, although of an inferior
+quality. The seeds being soft facilitate mechanical expression,
+and where bisulphide of carbon or other solvent is used, a very
+pure oil is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The expressed oil is limpid, of a light yellowish or straw colour,
+having a faint smell and bland taste; it forms an excellent
+substitute for olive oil, although in a slight degree more prone
+to rancidity than the latter. Its specific gravity is 0.916 to
+0.918; it becomes turbid at 3° C., concretes at +3° to &minus;4° C.,
+and hardens at +7° C. It is a non-drying oil. Ground nut oil
+consists of (1) oleic acid (C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">34</span>O<span class="su">2</span>); (2) hypogaeic acid
+(C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">30</span>O<span class="su">2</span>), by some supposed to be identical with a fatty acid
+found in whale oil; (3) palmitic acid (C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O<span class="su">2</span>); and (4)
+arachic acid (C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">40</span>O<span class="su">2</span>). The oil is used in the adulteration of
+gingelly oil.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUND-PEARL,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> the glassy secretion forming the pupacase
+of coccid insects of the genus <i>Margarodes</i>, belonging to the
+homopterous division of the Hemiptera.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUND RENT.<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> In Roman law, ground rent (<i>solarium</i>)
+was an annual rent payable by the lessee of a <i>superficies</i> or
+perpetual lease of building land. In English law, it appears that
+the term was at one time popularly used for the houses and lands
+out of which ground rents issue as well as for the rents themselves
+(cf. <i>Maundy</i> v. <i>Maundy</i>, 2 Strange, 1020); and Lord Eldon
+observed in 1815 that the context in which the term occurred
+may materially vary its meaning (<i>Stewart</i> v. <i>Alliston</i>, 1 Mer. 26).
+But at the present time the accepted meaning of ground rent is
+the rent at which land is let for the purpose of improvement by
+building, <i>i.e.</i> a rent charged in respect of the land only and not in
+respect of the buildings to be placed thereon. It thus conveys
+the idea of something lower than a rack rent (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>); and
+accordingly if a vendor described property as property for which
+he paid a &ldquo;ground rent,&rdquo; without any further explanation of the
+term, a purchaser would not be obliged to accept the property
+if it turned out to be held at a rack rent. But while a rack rent
+is generally higher in amount than a ground rent, the latter is
+usually better secured, as it carries with it the reversionary
+interest in buildings and improvements put on the ground <i>after</i>
+the date at which the ground rent was fixed, and accordingly
+ground rents have been regarded as a good investment. Trustees
+empowered to invest money on the security of freehold or
+copyhold hereditaments, may invest upon freehold ground rents
+reserved out of house property. In estimating the amount that
+may be so invested, account may be taken of the value of the
+houses, as, if the ground rents are not paid, the landlord can
+re-enter. Again, where a settlement authorizes trustees to
+purchase lands or hereditaments in fee-simple or possession, a
+purchase of freehold ground rents has been held to be proper.
+A devise of &ldquo;ground rent&rdquo; carries not only the rent but the
+reversion. Where a tenant is compelled, in order to protect
+himself in the enjoyment of the land in respect of which his rent
+is payable, to pay ground rent to a superior landlord (who is
+of course in a position to distrain on him for it), he is considered
+as having been authorized by his immediate landlord to apply
+his rent, due or accruing due, in this manner, and the payment
+of the ground rent will be held to be payment of the rent itself
+or part of it. A lodger should make any payment of this character
+under the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1908 (s. 3;
+and see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>). Ground rents are apportionable (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apportionment</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In Scots law, the term &ldquo;ground rent&rdquo; is not employed, but its
+place is taken, for practical purposes, by the &ldquo;ground-annual,&rdquo;
+which bears a double meaning. (i.) At the time of the Reformation
+in Scotland, the lands of the Church were parcelled out by the crown
+into various lordships&mdash;the grantees being called Lords of Erection.
+In the 17th century these Lords of Erection resigned their superiorities
+to the crown, with the exception of the feu-duties, which were to be
+retained till a price agreed upon for their redemption had been paid.
+This reserved power of redemption was, however, resigned by the
+crown on the eve of the Union and the feu-duties became payable in
+perpetuity to the Lords of Erection as a &ldquo;ground-annual.&rdquo; (ii.)
+Speculators in building ground usually grant sub-feus to builders at
+a high feu-duty. But where sub-feus are prohibited&mdash;as they might
+be, prior to the Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874&mdash;and there is
+much demand for building ground, the feuars frequently stipulate for
+an annual rent from the builders rather than for a price payable at
+once. This annual rent is called a &ldquo;ground-annual.&rdquo; Interest is not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span>
+due on arrears of ground-annuals. Like other real burdens, ground-annuals
+may now be freely assigned and conveyed (Conveyancing
+(Scotland) Act 1874, s. 30).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;ground rent&rdquo; in the English sense does not seem
+to be generally used in the United States, but is applied in
+Pennsylvania to a kind of tenure, created by a grant in fee simple,
+the grantor reserving to himself and his heirs a certain rent,
+which is the interest of the money value of the land. These
+&ldquo;ground rents&rdquo; are real estate, and, in cases of intestacy, go to
+the heir. They are rent services and not rent charges&mdash;the
+statute <i>Quia Emptores</i> never having been in force in Pennsylvania,
+and are subject to all the incidents of such rents (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>).
+The grantee of such a &ldquo;ground rent&rdquo; may mortgage, sell, or
+otherwise dispose of the grant as he pleases; and while the rent
+is paid the land cannot be sold or the value of the improvements
+lost.</p>
+
+<p>A ground rent being a freehold estate, created by deed and
+perpetual in duration, no presumption could, at common law,
+arise from lapse of time, that it had been released. But now,
+by statute (Act of 27th of April 1855, s. 7), a presumption of
+release or extinguishment is created where no payment, claim
+or demand has been made for the rent, nor any declaration or
+acknowledgment of its existence made or given by the owner
+of the premises subject to it, for the period of 21 years. Ground
+rents were formerly irredeemable after a certain time. But the
+creation of irredeemable ground rents is now forbidden (Pennsylvania
+Act 7 Assembly, 22nd of April 1850).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For English Law see Foa, <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London,
+1901); Scots Law, Bell&rsquo;s <i>Principles</i> (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899);
+American Law, Bouvier, <i>Law Dict.</i> (Boston and London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUNDSEL<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Kreuzkraut</i>; Fr. <i>seneçon</i>), <i>Senecio vulgaris</i>,
+an annual, glabrous, or more or less woolly plant of the
+natural order Compositae, having a branched succulent stem
+6 to 15 in. in height, pinnatifid irregularly and coarsely-toothed
+leaves, and small cylindrical heads of yellow tubular florets
+enveloped in an involucre of numerous narrow bracts; the
+ribbed fruit bears a soft, feathery, hoary tuft of hairs (<i>pappus</i>).
+The plant is indigenous to Europe, whence it has been introduced
+into all temperate climates. It is a troublesome weed, flowering
+throughout the year, and propagating itself rapidly by means
+of its light feathery fruits; it has its use, however, as a food
+for cage-birds. <i>Senecio Jacobaea</i>, ragwort, is a showy plant with
+heads of bright yellow flowers, common in pastures and by
+roadsides. The genus <i>Senecio</i> is a very large one, widely distributed
+in temperate and cold climates. The British species are
+all herbs, but the genus also includes shrubs and even arborescent
+forms, which are characteristic features of the vegetation of
+the higher levels on the mountains of tropical Africa. Many
+species of the genus are handsome florists&rsquo; plants. The groundsel
+tree, <i>Baccharis halimifolia</i>, a native of the North American
+sea-coast from Massachusetts southward, is a Composite shrub,
+attaining 6 to 12 ft. in height, and having angular branches,
+obovate or oblong-cuneate, somewhat scurfy leaves, and flowers
+larger than but similar to those of common groundsel. The
+long white pappus of the female plant renders it a conspicuous
+object in autumn. The groundsel tree has been cultivated in
+British gardens since 1683.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Old English word, represented by &ldquo;groundsel,&rdquo; appears in
+two forms, <i>grundeswylige</i> and <i>gundæswelgiæ</i>; of the first form the
+accepted derivation is from <i>grund</i>, ground, and <i>swelgau</i>, to swallow;
+a weed of such rapid growth would not inaptly be styled a &ldquo;ground-swallower.&rdquo;
+If the form without the <i>r</i> be genuine, the word might
+mean &ldquo;pus-absorber&rdquo; (O.E. <i>gund</i>, filth, matter), with reference to its
+use in poultices for abscesses and the like.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GROUND-SQUIRREL,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> one of the names for a group of (chiefly)
+North American striped terrestrial squirrel-like rodents, more
+generally known as chipmunks. They are closely allied to
+squirrels, from which they are distinguished by the possession
+of cheek-pouches for the storage of food. The sides, or the sides
+and back, are marked with light stripes bordered by dark bands;
+the ears are small, and without tufts; and the tail is relatively
+short. With the exception of one Siberian species (<i>Tamias
+asiaticus</i>), ground-squirrels are confined to North America,
+where they are represented by a large number of species and
+races, all referable to the genus <i>Tamias</i>. In North America
+ground-squirrels are migratory, and may be abundant in a
+district one year, and absent the next. They feed on nuts,
+beechmast, corn and roots, and also on grubs. With the assistance
+of their cheek-pouches they accumulate large supplies
+of food for the winter, during which season they lie dormant
+in holes. Although generally keeping to the ground, when
+hunted they take to trees, which they climb in search of food.
+One of the longest known American species is <i>T. striatus</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38202-h.htm or 38202-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/2/0/38202/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img543.jpg b/38202-h/images/img543.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40dbb2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img543.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img556a.jpg b/38202-h/images/img556a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..914ea43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img556a.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img556b.jpg b/38202-h/images/img556b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07f455a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img556b.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img556c.jpg b/38202-h/images/img556c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d6dff2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img556c.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img556d.jpg b/38202-h/images/img556d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d76aea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img556d.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img557a.jpg b/38202-h/images/img557a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a97eb94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img557a.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img557b.jpg b/38202-h/images/img557b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa045f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img557b.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img557c.jpg b/38202-h/images/img557c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e65166e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img557c.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img557d.jpg b/38202-h/images/img557d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5548208
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img557d.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img558a.jpg b/38202-h/images/img558a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eeb4a30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img558a.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img558b.jpg b/38202-h/images/img558b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26b5f75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img558b.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img558c.jpg b/38202-h/images/img558c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c7af14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img558c.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img558d.jpg b/38202-h/images/img558d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11e88db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img558d.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img558e.jpg b/38202-h/images/img558e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..99f1a7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img558e.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img559a.jpg b/38202-h/images/img559a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..30fe7af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img559a.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img559b.jpg b/38202-h/images/img559b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..872e327
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img559b.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img560a.jpg b/38202-h/images/img560a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a129c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img560a.jpg
diff --git a/38202-h/images/img560b.jpg b/38202-h/images/img560b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb06205
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202-h/images/img560b.jpg
diff --git a/38202.txt b/38202.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..529f476
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,18975 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5
+       "Greek Law" to "Ground-Squirrel"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38202]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GREEK LAW: "In all else Diodorus represents the new age in
+      which the Greek historian had no longer the practical knowledge and
+      insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, but only the
+      diligence, and usually the dullness, of a laborious compiler."
+      'dullness' amended from 'dulness'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREEN, THOMAS HILL: "... find this perfection attainable
+      only when the separate individualities are integrated as part of a
+      social whole." 'perfection' amended from 'prefection'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREENLAND: "Climate.--The climate is very uncertain, the
+      weather changing suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitoes
+      often swarm) to dense fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds."
+      'mosquitoes' amended from 'mosquitos'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA: "The exact date of his death is
+      unknown; some authorities refer it to 396, others to 400." '396'
+      amended from '376'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREGORY: "Most important was the two-fold mission to
+      Britain--of St Augustine in 596, of Mellitus, Paulinus and others
+      in 601 ..." 'Most' amended from 'Mose'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREGORY: "J. P. Kirsch, Die Ruckkehr der Papste Urban V. u.
+      Gregor XI. von Avignon nach Rom (Paderborn, 1898) ..." 'von'
+      amended from 'con'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH: "There a monument was
+      erected to his memory by his widow, to whom he had been but a few
+      months married." 'monument' amended from 'momument'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRINDAL, EDMUND: "... which was always a difficult see,
+      involved Bishop Sandys in similar troubles when Grindal had gone to
+      York." 'troubles' amended from 'tronbles'.
+
+    ARTICLE GRISONS: "The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520.
+      Of this number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the
+      Prattigau and in the Schanfigg valley) were Protestants, while
+      49,142 (mainly in the Bundner Oberland, the Val Mesocco and the
+      Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were also 114 Jews (81
+      of whom lived in Davos)." 'Val' amended from 'Vall'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE V
+
+       Greek Law to Ground-Squirrel
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GREEK LAW                         GREY, SIR GEORGE
+  GREEK LITERATURE                  GREY, HENRY GREY
+  GREEK RELIGION                    GREY, LADY JANE
+  GREELEY, HORACE                   GREY DE WILTON
+  GREELEY                           GREYMOUTH
+  GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY            GREYTOWN
+  GREEN, DUFF                       GREYWACKE
+  GREEN, JOHN RICHARD               GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE
+  GREEN, MATTHEW                    GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH
+  GREEN, THOMAS HILL                GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP
+  GREEN, VALENTINE                  GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB
+  GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY              GRIESBACH
+  GREENAWAY, KATE                   GRIFFE
+  GREENBACKS                        GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER
+  GREEN BAY                         GRIFFIN, GERALD
+  GREENCASTLE                       GRIFFIN (Georgia, U.S.A.)
+  GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON         GRIFFIN (creature)
+  GREENE, MAURICE                   GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN
+  GREENE, NATHANAEL                 GRILLE
+  GREENE, ROBERT                    GRILLPARZER, FRANZ
+  GREENFIELD                        GRIMALD, NICHOLAS
+  GREENFINCH                        GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO
+  GREENHEART                        GRIMALDI, JOSEPH
+  GREENLAND                         GRIMKE, SARAH MOORE & ANGELINA EMILY
+  GREENLAW                          GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR
+  GREENLEAF, SIMON                  GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL
+  GREEN MONKEY                      GRIMM, WILHELM CARL
+  GREENOCK                          GRIMMA
+  GREENOCKITE                       GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS CHRISTOFFEL VON
+  GREENORE                          GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI
+  GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS          GRIMSBY
+  GREENOUGH, HORATIO                GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE
+  GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET       GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT
+  GREEN RIBBON CLUB                 GRINDAL, EDMUND
+  GREENSAND                         GRINDELWALD
+  GREENSBORO                        GRINGOIRE, PIERRE
+  GREENSBURG                        GRINNELL
+  GREENSHANK                        GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST
+  GREENVILLE (Mississippi, U.S.A.)  GRISAILLE
+  GREENVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.)         GRISELDA
+  GREENVILLE (S. Carolina, U.S.A.)  GRISI, GIULIA
+  GREENVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.)        GRISON
+  GREENWICH (Connecticut, U.S.A.)   GRISONS
+  GREENWICH (England)               GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT
+  GREENWOOD, FREDERICK              GRIVET
+  GREENWOOD, JOHN                   GROAT
+  GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE            GROCER
+  GREGARINES                        GROCYN, WILLIAM
+  GREGOIRE, HENRI                   GRODNO (government of Russia)
+  GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS              GRODNO (town of Russia)
+  GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND            GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME
+  GREGORY, ST                       GROIN
+  GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS         GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON
+  GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA             GROMATICI
+  GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS             GRONINGEN
+  GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR           GRONINGEN
+  GREGORY (popes)                   GRONLUND, LAURENCE
+  GREGORY (Scottish family)         GRONOVIUS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
+  GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN              GROOM
+  GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT         GROOT, GERHARD
+  GREIFENBERG                       GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL
+  GREIFENHAGEN                      GROS, ANTOINE JEAN
+  GREIFSWALD                        GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH
+  GREISEN                           GROSBEAK
+  GREIZ                             GROSE, FRANCIS
+  GRENADA                           GROSS
+  GRENADE                           GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR
+  GRENADIER                         GROSSENHAIN
+  GRENADINES                        GROSSETESTE, ROBERT
+  GRENOBLE                          GROSSETO
+  GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL              GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO
+  GRENVILLE, GEORGE                 GROSSI, TOMMASO
+  GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (naval c.) GROSSMITH, GEORGE
+  GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD (royalist) GROS VENTRES
+  GRENVILLE, WILLIAM GRENVILLE      GROTE, GEORGE
+  GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS               GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH
+  GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON           GROTESQUE
+  GRESHAM'S LAW                     GROTH, KLAUS
+  GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS      GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON
+  GRETNA GREEN                      GROTIUS, HUGO
+  GRETRY, ANDRE ERNEST MODESTE      GROTTAFERRATA
+  GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE             GROUCHY, EMMANUEL
+  GREVILLE, CHARLES FULKE           GROUND-ICE
+  GREVIN, JACQUES                   GROUND NUT
+  GREVY, FRANCOIS PAUL JULES        GROUND-PEARL
+  GREW, NEHEMIAH                    GROUND RENT
+  GREY, CHARLES GREY                GROUNDSEL
+  GREY, SIR EDWARD                  GROUND-SQUIRREL
+
+
+
+
+GREEK LAW.
+
+  Greek law and comparative jurisprudence.
+
+Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative jurisprudence
+the importance of which has been long ignored. Jurists have commonly
+left its study to scholars, who have generally refrained from comparing
+the institutions of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek law
+has, however, been partially compared with Roman law, and has been
+incidentally illustrated with the aid of the primitive institutions of
+the Germanic nations. It may now be studied in its earlier stages in the
+laws of Gortyn; its influence may be traced in legal documents preserved
+in Egyptian papyri; and it may be recognized as a consistent whole in
+its ultimate relations to Roman law in the eastern provinces of the
+Roman empire.
+
+The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law is implied by the
+custom of settling a difference between two Greek states, or between
+members of a single state, by resorting to external arbitration. The
+general unity of Greek law is mainly to be seen in the laws of
+inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce and contract, and in the
+publicity uniformly given to legal agreements.
+
+
+  Original authorities.
+
+No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to us. Our
+knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject is derived from
+the Homeric poems. For the details of Attic law we have to depend on _ex
+parte_ statements in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are
+sometimes enabled to check those statements by the trustworthy, but
+often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental illustrations of the
+laws of Athens may be found in the Laws of Plato, who deals with the
+theory of the subject without exercising any influence on actual
+practice. The Laws of Plato are criticized in the _Politics_ of
+Aristotle, who, besides discussing laws in their relation to
+constitutions, reviews the work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The
+treatise on the _Constitution of Athens_ includes an account of the
+jurisdiction of the various public officials and of the machinery of the
+law courts, and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand
+testimony of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information
+from that treatise (see CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS). The works of
+Theophrastus _On the Laws_, which included a recapitulation of the laws
+of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now represented by
+only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106, ed. Wimmer).
+
+
+  Law in Homer.
+
+Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems. In the
+primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato) written laws
+were necessarily unknown; for, "in that early period, they had no
+letters; they lived by habit and by the customs of their ancestors"
+(_Laws_, 680 A). We find a survival from a still more primitive time in
+the savage Cyclops, who is "unfamiliar with dooms of law, or rules of
+right" ([Greek: oute dikas eu eidota oute themistas], _Od._ ix. 215 and
+112 f.).
+
+
+    Dike.
+
+  _Dike_ ([Greek: dike]), assigned by Curtius (_Etym._ 134) to the same
+  root as [Greek: deiknymi], primarily means a "way pointed out," a
+  "course prescribed by usage," hence "way" or "fashion," "manner" or
+  "precedent." In the Homeric poems it sometimes signifies a "doom" of
+  law, a legal "right," a "lawsuit"; while it is rarely synonymous with
+  "justice," as in _Od._ xiv. 84, where "the gods honour justice,"
+  [Greek: tiousi diken].
+
+
+    Themis.
+
+  Various senses of "right" are expressed in the same poems by _themis_
+  ([Greek: themis]), a term assigned (_ib._ 254) to the same root as
+  [Greek: tithemi]. In its primary sense _themis_ is that which "has
+  been laid down"; hence a particular decision or "doom." The plural
+  _themistes_ implies a body of such precedents, "rules of right," which
+  the king receives from Zeus with his sceptre (_Il._ ix. 99). _Themis_
+  and _dike_ have sometimes been compared with the Roman _fas_ and _jus_
+  respectively, the former being regarded as of divine, the latter of
+  human origin; and this is more satisfactory than the latest view (that
+  of Hirzel), which makes "counsel" the primary meaning of _themis_.
+
+
+    Thesmos. Nomos.
+
+  _Thesmos_ ([Greek: thesmos]), an ordinance (from the same root as
+  themis), is not found in "Homer," except in the last line of the
+  original form of the _Odyssey_ (xxiii. 296), where it probably refers
+  to the "ordinance" of wedlock. The common term for law, [Greek:
+  nomos], is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially legal sense
+  (e.g. _Op._ 276).
+
+
+  The trial scene.
+
+A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the shield of
+Achilles (_Il._ xviii. 497-508). The folk are here to be seen thronging
+the market-place, where a strife has arisen between two men as to the
+price of a man that has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all
+([Greek: eucheto pant' apodounai]), the kinsman of the slain protests
+that he has received nothing ([Greek: anaineto meden helesthai]); both
+are eager to join issue before an umpire, and both are favoured by their
+friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds. The cause is
+tried by the elders, who are seated on polished stones in a sacred
+circle, and in the midst there lie two talents of gold, "to give to him
+who, among them all, sets forth the cause most rightly" ([Greek: to
+domen hos meta toisi diken ithyntata eipoi]).
+
+  The discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned on two
+  points: (1) the legal questions at issue; and (2) the destination of
+  the "two talents." (1) In the ordinary view (a), it is solely a
+  question whether the fine or blood-money, corresponding to the
+  _Wergeld_ (see WERGELD, TEUTONIC PEOPLES, BRITAIN: _Anglo-Saxon_) of
+  the old Germanic law (Grimm, _Rechtsalterthumer_, 661 f.), has been
+  paid or not. (This is accepted by Thonissen, Lipsius, Sidgwick and
+  Ridgeway.) In the other view (b), it is held that the slayer "claimed
+  to pay" the fine, and the kinsman of the slain "refused to accept any
+  compensation" (so Passow and Leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The "two
+  talents" (shown by Ridgeway to be a small sum, equal in value to two
+  oxen) are awarded either (a) to the litigant who "pleads his cause
+  most justly before them" (so Thonissen, Shilleto and Lipsius, in
+  accordance with the Attic use of phrases like [Greek: diken eipein]),
+  or (b) to the judge "who, among all the elders, gives the most
+  righteous judgment" (so Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock, Leaf and
+  Ridgeway).
+
+  On this controversy, cf. Maine's _Ancient Law_, chap. x. pp. 385 f.,
+  405 f., ed. Pollock; Thonissen, _Droit penal_ (1875), 27; P. M.
+  Laurence (on Shilleto's view) in _Journal of Philology_, viii. (1879),
+  125 f.; Ridgeway, _ib._ x. (1882), 30 f., and _Journal of Hellenic
+  Studies_, viii. (1887), 133 f.; and Leaf, _ib._ viii. 122 f., and in
+  his Commentary on _Iliad_, ii. (1902), 610-614; also J. H. Lipsius in
+  _Leipziger Studien_, xii. (1890), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick
+  in _Classical Review_, viii. (1894), 1-4.
+
+We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted blood-money
+from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that the slayer remained
+in the land after paying this penalty (_Il._ ix. 633). As a rule the
+slayer found it safest to flee (_Od._ xxiii. 118 f.), but even so, he
+might be pursued by the friends of the slain (_Od._ xv. 272-278). If he
+remained, the land was not (as in later ages) deemed to be polluted by
+his presence. In Homer, Orestes does not slay Clytaemestra, and he needs
+no "purification" for slaying Aegisthus.
+
+
+  Greek lawgivers: Lycurgus at Sparta.
+
+The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus, whose
+traditional date is 884 B.C. Written laws are said to have been
+expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, 13); hence the
+"laws of Sparta" are simply a body of traditional observances. We learn
+that all trials for homicide came before the Council of Elders and
+lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried by the
+ephors (q.v.). We are also told that originally the land was equally
+divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this equality was
+enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the 4th century the ephor
+Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with his son, enacted that every
+Spartan should be allowed to transfer his estate and his allotment to
+any other person (Plutarch, _Agis_, 5), while Aristotle, in a
+much-debated passage of the _Politics_ (ii. 9. 14-15), criticizes the
+Spartan constitution for allowing the accumulation of property in a few
+hands, an evil aggravated by the large number of "heiresses"; "a man (he
+adds) may bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies
+intestate, this privilege descends to his heir."
+
+
+  Era of written laws.
+
+Law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century B.C. A written code
+is a necessary condition of just judgment, and such a code was the first
+concession which the people in the Greek cities extorted from the ruling
+aristocracies. The change was generally effected with the aid of a
+single legislator entrusted with complete authority to draw up a code.
+
+
+  Zaleucus at Locri Epizephyrii.
+
+  Charondas at Catana, etc.
+
+  Androdamas of Rhegium.
+
+  Philolaus of Corinth.
+
+The first communities to reach this stage of progress were the Greek
+colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian Locrians, near the extreme south
+of Italy, received the earliest written code from Zaleucus (663 B.C.),
+whose strict and severe legislation put an end to a period of strife and
+confusion, though we know little of his laws, except that they attached
+definite penalties to each offence, and that they strictly protected the
+rights of property. Two centuries later, his code was adopted even by
+the Athenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 B.C.). Charondas, the
+"disciple" of Zaleucus, became the lawgiver, not only of his native town
+of Catana on the east coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian
+colonies in Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a
+singular precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle) that he could
+claim as his own except the special procedure against false witnesses
+(_Politics_, ii. 12. 11). In the case of judges who neglected to serve
+in the law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small
+fine on the poor (_ib._ vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdamas of Rhegium gave
+laws on homicide and on heiresses to the Chalcidians of Thrace, while
+Philolaus of Corinth provided the Thebans with "laws of adoption" with a
+view to preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land
+(_ib._ ii. 12. 8-14).
+
+
+  The laws of Gortyn.
+
+Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the important
+city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a plain watered by the
+Lethaeus. Part of that stream forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or
+near this mill some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French
+archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to which most of
+our knowledge of the laws is due, was not discovered until 1884. It had
+been preserved on a wall 27 ft. long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of
+which was buried in the ground, while its farthest extremity passed
+obliquely athwart the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert
+the water before the last four columns could be transcribed by the
+Italian scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the same
+year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight columns by
+the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the following year Halbherr
+discovered more than eighty small fragments on the neighbouring site of
+a former temple of the Pythian Apollo.
+
+  These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription
+  above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 B.C. They precede the
+  introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties being reckoned,
+  not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the powers of the
+  magistrates and the observances of religion, but are mainly concerned
+  with private matters of barter and sale, dowry and adoption,
+  inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and questions of
+  blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a fixed scale of
+  penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and ranging from one
+  to a hundred caldrons.
+
+  The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (c. 450 B.C.). It
+  consists of a number of amendments or additions to an earlier code,
+  and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and
+  family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely
+  oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted; there are no
+  documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the memory
+  of the judge or of his "remembrancer." All the causes are tried before
+  a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the suit. Where
+  the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judgment ([Greek:
+  dikadden]) in accordance with the law and the "witnesses or oaths,"
+  but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide ([Greek:
+  krinein]) in view of "the contentions of the parties," as
+  distinguished from "the declarations of the witnesses." Offences
+  against the person are treated as matters of private compensation
+  according to a carefully graduated tariff. In certain cases the
+  defendant may clear himself by an "oath of purgation" with the support
+  of "cojurors" ([Greek: homomotai]), the _Eideshelfer_ of old Germanic
+  law (Grimm 859 f.), who have no necessary knowledge of the facts.
+  There is no interference with the exposure of infants, except in the
+  interest of the father (if the child is free-born) or of the lord (in
+  the case of serfs). The law of debt is primitive, though less severe
+  than that of the early Romans. In contrast with these primitive
+  elements we have others which are distinctly progressive. The estates
+  of husband, wife and sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wills
+  are unknown, even in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions
+  are made to secure with all speed the marriage of an "heiress"; she is
+  bound to marry the eldest of her paternal uncles or to surrender part
+  of her estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles that she
+  is permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their sons.
+  Adoption is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of stone
+  in the market-place and making a public announcement at a time when
+  the citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any
+  larger share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate
+  his adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person
+  repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the gift of a
+  small number of staters. In these later "laws of Gortyn" we have
+  reached the time when payments are made, not in "caldrons," but in
+  coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as
+  "these writings."
+
+  The text of the great inscription was first published by E. Fabricius
+  in _Ath. Mitth._ ix. (1885), 362-384; there is a cast of the whole in
+  the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Comparetti's _Leggi
+  di Gortyna_ (1893); Bucheler and Zittelmann in _Rhein. Mus._ xl.
+  (1885); Dareste, Haussoullier and Th. Reinach, _Inscr. juridiques
+  grecques_, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with the literature there quoted).
+  Eng. trans. by Roby in _Law Quarterly Review_ (1886), 135-152; see
+  also E. S. Roberts, _Gk. Epigraphy_, i. 39 f., 52 f., 325-332; J. W.
+  Headlam in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xiii. (1892-1893), 48-69; P.
+  Gardner and F. B. Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_ (1895), 560-574; W. Wyse
+  in Whibley's _Companion to Greek Studies_ (1905), 378-383; and Hermann
+  Lipsius, _Zum Recht von Gortyns_ (Leipzig, 1909).
+
+
+  Athens.
+
+  The three senior archons.
+
+  The thesmothetae.
+
+A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention of lawsuits
+(Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iii. 38), and the Athenians themselves regarded
+their tribunals of homicide as institutions of immemorial antiquity
+(Isocr. _Paneg._ 40). On the abolition of the single decennial
+archon[1] in 683 B.C., his duties were distributed over several
+officials holding office for one year only. The judicial duties
+thenceforth discharged by the chief archon (_the_ archon), in the case
+of citizens, were discharged by the polemarch in the case of foreign
+settlers or metics ([Greek: metoikoi]); while the king-archon, who
+succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient kings, decided cases
+connected with religious observances (see ARCHON). He also presided over
+the primitive council of the state, which was identical with the council
+of the Areopagus. It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the
+rights of the lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century
+B.C., the three archons were raised to the number of nine by the
+institution of the joint board of the six _thesmothetae_, who
+superintended the judicial system in general, kept a record of all legal
+decisions, and drew attention to any defects in the laws. It is probable
+that in their title we have the earliest example in Attic Greek of the
+use of _thesmos_ in the sense of "law."
+
+
+  Draco.
+
+The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical. With a view,
+however, to providing a remedy for the conflict between the several
+orders of the state, the first code of Athenian law was drawn up and
+published by Draco (strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a
+_thesmothetes_ (621). His laws were known as _thesmoi_. The distinctive
+part of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in such
+high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of Solon and
+in the democratic restoration of 411 B.C. It is partly preserved in an
+inscription of 409, which has been restored with the aid of quotations
+from the orators (_C.I.A._ i. 61; _Inscr. jurid. grecques_, ii. 1. 1-24;
+and Hicks, _Gk. Hist. Inscr._ No. 59). It drew a careful distinction
+between different kinds of homicide. Of the rest of Draco's legislation
+we only know that Aristotle (_Politics_, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the
+severity of the penalties, and that the creditor was permitted to seize
+the person of the debtor as security for his debt.
+
+
+  Solon.
+
+The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties agreed in
+choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 B.C.). Solon cancelled all
+mortgages and debts secured on the person of the debtor, set free all
+who had become slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future
+(see SOLON). Thenceforth every citizen had also "the right of appeal to
+the law-courts," and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction on
+behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional law (_inter
+alia_) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds of jurors, and
+the power of voting in these law-courts made the people masters of the
+constitution (Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, c. 9). Solon's
+legislation also had an important effect on the law of property. In
+primitive times, on a man's death, his money or lands remained in the
+family, and, even in the absence of direct descendants, the owner could
+not dispose of his property by will. Permission to execute a will was
+first given to Athenian citizens by the laws of Solon. But "the Athenian
+Will was only an inchoate Testament" (Maine's _Ancient Law_, c. vi.);
+for this permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no
+direct male descendants (Dem. _Lept._ 102; Plutarch, _Solon_, 21; cf.
+Wyse on Isaeus, p. 325).
+
+The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in [Dem.] 43, S
+51 (cf. Wyse, _ib._ p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct male
+descendants, a daughter who survived her father was known as an [Greek:
+epikleros], not an "heiress," but a "person who went with the estate";
+and, in the absence of a will, the right or duty of marrying the
+daughter followed (with certain obvious exceptions) the same rules as
+the right of succession to the estate (cf. Wyse, _ib._ p. 348 f.).
+
+
+  Cleisthenes, Ephialtes.
+
+  Pericles, Cleon.
+
+Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (508) was the law of ostracism (q.v.).
+The privileges of the Areopagus were curtailed (while its right to try
+certain cases of homicide was left untouched) by the reforms of
+Ephialtes (462), and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty "local
+justices" (453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood by both
+parents (451), and was the first to assign to jurors a fee for their
+services in the law-courts, which was raised to three obols by Cleon
+(425).
+
+
+  Ordinary course of legislation.
+
+In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers entrusted
+with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and Cleisthenes, there was
+the regular and normal course of public legislation. The legislative
+power was not exercised directly by the popular assembly (see ECCLESIA),
+but the preliminary consent of that body was necessary for the
+appointment of a legislative commission.
+
+
+  Syngrapheis. Nomothetae.
+
+In the 5th century (e.g. in 450 and 446 B.C.) certain commissioners
+called [Greek: syngrapheis] were appointed to draw up laws which, after
+approval by the council, were submitted to the assembly. The same term
+was still in use in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 61). But in October, on the
+overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners are for the first time
+called _nomothetae_ (_ib._ 97).
+
+  The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first
+  meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it
+  would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the
+  existing laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were granted,
+  any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effect was
+  required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand
+  them to the secretary of the council (Boule) to be read aloud at more
+  than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the
+  people appointed the legislative commissioners, who were drawn by lot
+  from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors. The
+  number, and the duration of the commission, were determined in each
+  case by the people. The proceedings before the commission were
+  conducted exactly in the manner of a lawsuit. Those who desired to see
+  old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws came forward as
+  _accusers_ of those laws; those of the contrary opinion, as
+  _defenders_; and the defence was formally entrusted to public
+  advocates specially appointed for the purpose ([Greek: sunegoroi]).
+  The number of the commissioners varied with the number or importance
+  of the laws in question; there is evidence for the number 1001 (Dem.
+  xxiv. 27). If a law approved by the commission was deemed to be
+  unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a
+  [Greek: graphe paranomon]), just as in the case of the proposer of an
+  unconstitutional decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings
+  might also be instituted against laws on the sole ground of their
+  inexpediency (see note on Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, p.
+  219, ed. Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment
+  of Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000
+  _drachmae_ (L40), and lost the right to adopt this procedure in
+  future. When a year had elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was
+  free from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines,
+  but the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five
+  advocates were appointed to defend it ([Greek: sundikoi]), cf. Dem.
+  _Lept._ 144, 146.
+
+
+  The laws of Athens.
+
+Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present article any
+survey of the purport of the extant remains of the laws of Athens. Such
+a survey would begin with the laws of the family, including laws of
+marriage, adoption and inheritance, followed by the law of property and
+contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the protection of
+the person, and the protection of the constitution. The texts have been
+collected and classified in Telfy's _Corpus juris Attici_ (1867), a work
+which can be supplemented or corrected with the aid of Aristotle's
+_Constitution of Athens_; while some of the recent expositions of the
+subject are mentioned in the bibliography at the end of this article. We
+now proceed to notice the law of homicide, but solely in connexion with
+jurisdiction.
+
+
+  Jurisdiction; the five primitive tribunals for the trial of homicide.
+
+The general term for a tribunal is [Greek: dikasterion] (from [Greek:
+dikazo]), Anglicized "dicastery." Of all the tribunals of Athens those
+for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive and the least
+liable to suffer change through lapse of time. In the old Germanic law
+all trials whatsoever were held in the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At
+Athens this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive courts
+of homicide, the object being to prevent the prosecutor and the judges
+from coming under the same roof as one who was charged with the shedding
+of blood (Antiphon, _De caede Herodis_, 11). The place where the trial
+was held depended on the nature of the charge.
+
+
+    On the Areopagus.
+
+  1. The rock of the Acropolis, outside the earliest of the city-walls,
+  was the proper place for the trial of persons charged with
+  premeditated homicide, or with wounding with intent to kill. The
+  penalty for the former crime was death; for the latter exile; and, in
+  either case, the property was confiscated. If the votes were equal,
+  the person accused was acquitted. The proceedings lasted for three
+  days, and each side might make two speeches. After the first speech
+  the person accused of premeditated homicide was mercifully permitted
+  to go into exile, in which case his property was confiscated, and in
+  the ordinary course he remained in exile for the rest of his life.
+
+
+    At the Palladion.
+
+  2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another to
+  inflict bodily harm on a third person, or of killing a slave or a
+  resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion, the
+  ancient shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The punishment for
+  unpremeditated homicide was exile (without confiscation) until such
+  time as the criminal had propitiated the relatives of the person
+  slain, or (failing that) for some definite time. The punishment for
+  instigating a crime was the same as for actually committing it.
+
+
+    At the Delphinion.
+
+  3. Trials at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo Delphinios, in the
+  same quarter, were reserved for special cases of either accidental or
+  justifiable homicide.
+
+
+    At Phreatto.
+
+  4. If a man already in exile for unpremeditated homicide were accused
+  of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to kill,
+  provision was made for this rare contingency by permitting him to
+  approach the shore of Attica and conduct his defence on board a boat,
+  while his judges heard the cause on shore, at a "place of pits" called
+  Phreatto, near the harbour of Zea. If the accused were found guilty,
+  he incurred the proper penalty; if acquitted, he remained in exile.
+
+
+    At the Prytaneum.
+
+  5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaneum, to the north of the
+  Acropolis, was only of ceremonial importance. It "solemnly heard and
+  condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or inanimate objects
+  that had caused the loss of life."[2] The writ ran "against the doer
+  of the deed," and any instrument of death that was found guilty was
+  thrown across the frontier. The trial was held by the four
+  "tribe-kings" ([Greek: phylobasileis]), an archaic survival from
+  before the time of Cleisthenes. (On these five courts see Aristotle's
+  _Constitution of Athens_, c. 57, and Dem. _Aristocr._ 65-79.)
+
+
+    Ephetae.
+
+  In all the courts of homicide the president was the archon-basileus,
+  or king-archon, who on these occasions laid aside his crown.
+  Originally all these courts were under the jurisdiction of an ancient
+  body of judges called the ephetae ([Greek: ephetai]), whose
+  institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer of the first of the
+  above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed to Solon.
+  In practice the jurisdiction of the ephetae (see also AREOPAGUS) was
+  probably confined to the courts at the Palladion and Delphinion; but
+  even there the rights of this primitive body became obsolete, for
+  trials "at the Palladion" sometimes came before an ordinary tribunal
+  of 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. _c. Callim._ 52, 54; [Dem.] _c. Neaeram_,
+  10).
+
+
+  The presidents of the tribunals.
+
+  The chief archon.
+
+  The king-archon.
+
+  The polemarch.
+
+  The strategi.
+
+  The thesmothetae.
+
+Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the right of
+jurisdiction was entrusted to the several archons until the date of
+Solon (594). When the direct jurisdiction of the archons was impaired by
+Solon's institution of the "right of appeal to the law-courts," the
+dignity of those officials was recognized by their having the privilege
+of presiding over the new tribunals ([Greek: hegemonia dikasteriou]). A
+similar position was assigned to the other executive officers, such as
+the strategi (generals), the board of police called the "Eleven," and
+the financial officers, all of whom presided over cases connected with
+their respective departments. In their new position as presidents of the
+several courts, the archons received plaints, obtained from both parties
+the evidence which they proposed to present, formally presided at the
+trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the sentence. The
+choice of the presiding magistrate in each case was determined by the
+normal duties of his office. Thus the chief archon, the official
+guardian of orphans and widows, presided in all cases, public or
+private, connected with the family property of citizens (Aristotle,
+_u.s._ c. 56). The king-archon had charge of all offences against
+religion, e.g. indictments for impiety, disputes within the family as to
+the right to hold a particular priesthood, and all actions for homicide
+(c. 57). The third archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to
+resident aliens all such legal duties as were discharged by the chief
+archon in relation to citizens (c. 58). The trial of military offences
+was under the presidency of the strategi, who were assisted by the other
+military officers in preparing the case for the court. The six junior
+archons, the _thesmothetae_, acted as a board which was responsible for
+all cases not specially assigned to any other officials (details in c.
+59).
+
+
+  The Forty.
+
+The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the ten tribes,
+acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages claimed did not
+exceed ten _drachmae_. Claims beyond that amount they handed over to the
+arbitrators. The four representatives of any given tribe received notice
+of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It seems probable
+that they dealt with all private suits not otherwise assigned, but,
+unlike the archons, they did not prepare any case for the court but
+referred it, in the first instance, to a public arbitrator appointed by
+lot (c. 53).[3]
+
+
+  The public arbitrators.
+
+The public arbitrators ([Greek: diaitetai]) were a body including all
+Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator, on
+receiving the case from the four representatives of the Forty, first
+endeavoured to bring the parties to an agreement. If this failed, he
+heard the evidence and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted,
+the case was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted on
+appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets (one for
+each party) copies of all the depositions, oaths and challenges, and of
+all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up, and, after attaching a
+copy of his own decision, handed them over to the four representatives
+of the Forty, who brought the case into court and presided over the
+trial. Documents which had not been brought before the arbitrator could
+not be produced in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors where the
+sum in question was not more than 1000 _drachmae_ (L40); in other cases
+the number of jurors was 401 (c. 53).
+
+
+  Eisagogeis.
+
+A small board of five appointed by lot, one for each pair of tribes, and
+known as the "introducers" ([Greek: eisagogeis]), brought up certain of
+the cases that had to be decided within a month ([Greek: emmenoi
+dikai]), such as actions for restitution of dowry, repayment of capital
+for setting up a business, and cases connected with banking.
+
+
+  Heliaea.
+
+The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the "dicastery"
+(_par excellence_), was known as the _heliaea_. The name, which is of
+uncertain origin,[4] denotes not only the place where the court was held
+but also the members of the court,--the _heliastae_ of Aristophanes, the
+_dicastae_, or [Greek: andres dikastai], of the Attic orators. During
+the palmy days of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the
+Persian and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve as
+jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, _u.s._ c. 24. 3), and this
+number was never exceeded (Aristoph. _Vesp._ 661 f.). Any Athenian
+citizen in full possession of his rights, and over thirty years of age,
+was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle, _u.s._ c. 63. 3). At
+the beginning of the year the whole body of jurors assembled on the hill
+of Ardettos looking down on the Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a
+solemn oath to the effect that they would judge according to the laws
+and decrees of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five
+Hundred (Boule), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would
+decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both sides
+impartially, and vote on the case actually before the court.
+
+It has been suggested that, as the normal number of a court was 500, the
+maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably divided into ten sections of
+500 each, with 1000 reserves. There is evidence in the 4th century for
+courts of 200, 400, 500, 700 and (in important political trials)
+various multiples of 500, namely, 1000, 1500, 2000 or 2500. To some of
+these numbers one juror is added; it was probably added to all, to
+obviate the risk of the votes being exactly equal.
+
+The evidence as to the organization of the jurors in the early part of
+the 4th century is imperfect. Passages in Aristophanes (_Ecclesiazusae_,
+682-688; _Plutus_, 1166 f.) imply that in 392-388 B.C. the total number
+was divided into ten sections distinguished by the first ten letters of
+the Greek alphabet, A to K. Every juror, on his first appointment,
+received a ticket of boxwood (or of bronze) bearing his name with that
+of his father and his deme, and with one of the above letters in the
+upper left-hand corner. Of the bronze tickets many have been found (see
+notes on Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, c. 63, and fig. 1 in
+frontispiece, ed. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the machinery
+for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To guard against the
+possibility of bribery or other undue influence, the allotment did not
+take place until immediately before the hearing of the case. Each court
+contained an equal number of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and
+thus represented the whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the
+court assigned him, received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece,
+_u.s._), on presenting which at the end of the day he received his fee.
+The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is minutely
+described at the end of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (for
+details, cf. Gilbert, 397-399, Eng. trans., or Wyse in Whibley's
+_Companion to Greek Studies_, 387 f.).
+
+
+  Jurisdiction of the council and assembly.
+
+  Eisangelia.
+
+The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient judicial
+functions of the council and the assembly, but the council continued to
+hold a strict scrutiny ([Greek: dokimasia]) of candidates for office or
+for other privileges, while the council itself, as well as all other
+officials, had to give account ([Greek: euthyna]) on ceasing to hold
+office. The council also retained the right to deal with extraordinary
+crimes against the state. It was open to any citizen to bring such
+crimes to the knowledge of the council in writing. The technical term
+for this information, denunciation or impeachment was _eisangelia_
+([Greek: eisangelia]). The council could inflict a fine of 500
+_drachmae_ (L20), or, in important cases, refer the matter either to a
+law-court, as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuc. viii. 68), or to the
+ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 B.C.), and the strategi in
+command at Arginusae (406; Xen. _Hell._ i. 7. 19). The term [Greek:
+eisangelia] was also applied to denunciations brought against persons
+who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public arbitrator who
+had neglected his duty (Dem. _Meidias_, 86 f.).
+
+
+  Probole.
+
+A "presentation" of criminal information ([Greek: probole]) might be
+laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its preliminary
+sanction for bringing the case before a judicial tribunal. Such was the
+mode of procedure adopted against persons who had brought malicious,
+groundless or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of
+certain public festivals. The leading example of the former is the trial
+of the accusers who prompted the people to put to death the generals who
+had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen. _Hell._ i. 7. 34); and, of the
+latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes against Meidias.
+
+
+  Classes of legal actions.
+
+Legal actions ([Greek: dikai]) were classified as private ([Greek:
+idiai]) or public ([Greek: demosiai]). The latter were also described as
+[Greek: graphai] or "prosecutions," but some [Greek: graphai] were
+called "private," when the state was regarded as only indirectly injured
+by a wrong done to an individual citizen (Dem. xxi. 47). A private suit
+could only be brought by the man directly interested, or, in the case of
+a slave, a ward or an alien, by the master, guardian or patron
+respectively; and, if the suit were successful, the sum claimed
+generally went to the plaintiff. Public actions may be divided into
+ordinary criminal cases, and offences against the state. As a rule they
+could be instituted by any person who possessed the franchise, and the
+penalty was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain
+one-fifth of the votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 _drachmae_ (L40),
+and lost the right of ever bringing a similar action.
+
+Lawsuits, whether public or private, were also distinguished as [Greek:
+dikai kata tinos] or [Greek: pros tina], according as the defeated party
+could or could not be personally punished. Actions ([Greek: agones])
+were also distinguished as [Greek: agones timetoi] ("to be assessed"),
+in which the amount of damages had to be determined by the court,
+because it had not been fixed by law, and [Greek: atimetoi] ("not to be
+assessed"), in which the damages had _not_ to be determined by the
+court, because they had already been fixed by law or by special
+agreement.
+
+Among special kinds of action were [Greek: apagoge], [Greek: ephegesis]
+and [Greek: endeixis]. These could only be employed when the offence was
+patent and could not be denied. In the first, the person accused was
+summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled into the presence of the
+proper official. In the second, the accuser took the officer with him to
+arrest the culprit (Dem. xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an
+information with the official, and left the latter to effect the
+capture. [Greek: Phasis], a general term for many kinds of legal
+"information," was a form of procedure specially directed against those
+who injured the fiscal interests of the state, and against guardians who
+neglected the pecuniary interests of their wards. [Greek: Apographe] was
+an action for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed
+as belonging to the state, the term being derived from the claimants'
+written inventory of the property in question.
+
+
+  Ordinary legal procedure.
+
+The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private, began with a
+personal summons ([Greek: prosklesis]) of the defendant by the plaintiff
+accompanied by two witnesses ([Greek: kleteres]). If the defendant
+failed to appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the summons,
+and judgment went by default.
+
+The action was begun by presenting a written statement of the case to
+the magistrate who presided over trials of the class in question. If the
+statement were accepted, court-fees were paid by both parties in a
+private action, and by the prosecutor alone in a public action. The
+magistrate fixed a day for the preliminary investigation ([Greek:
+anakrisis]), and, whenever several causes were instituted at the same
+time, he drew lots to determine the order in which they should be taken.
+Hence the plaintiff was said "to have a suit assigned him by lot"
+([Greek: lanchanein diken]), a phrase practically equivalent to
+"obtaining leave to bring an action." At the [Greek: anakrisis] the
+plaintiff and defendant both swore to the truth of their statements. If
+the defendant raised no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular
+course ([Greek: euthydikia]), but he might contend that the suit was
+inadmissible, and, to prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront
+those on the side of the plaintiff ([Greek: diamartyria]), or he might
+rely on argument without witnesses by means of a written statement
+traversing that of the plaintiff ([Greek: paragraphe]). The person who
+submitted the special plea in bar of action naturally spoke first, and,
+if he gained the verdict, the main suit could not come on, or, at any
+rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A cross-action
+([Greek: antigraphe]) might be brought by the defendant, but the verdict
+did not necessarily affect that of the original suit.
+
+
+  Documents.
+
+  Challenges.
+
+In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other documents
+bearing on the case were produced. If any such document were in the
+hands of a third person, he could be compelled to produce it by an
+action for that purpose ([Greek: eis emphanon katastasin]). The
+depositions were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were
+taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to be absent, a
+certified copy of his deposition might be sent ([Greek: ekmartyria]).
+The depositions of slaves were not accepted, unless made under torture,
+and for receiving such evidence the consent of both parties was
+required. Either party could challenge the other to submit his slaves to
+the test ([Greek: proklesis eis basanon]), and, in the event of the
+challenge being refused, could comment on the fact when the case came
+before the court. Either party could also challenge the other to take an
+oath ([Greek: proklesis eis horkon]), and, if the oath were declined,
+could similarly comment on the fact.
+
+
+  The trial.
+
+Mercantile cases had to be decided within the interval of a month;
+others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the day of trial, one of
+the parties was absent, his representative had to show cause under oath
+([Greek: hupomosia]); if the other party objected, he did so under oath
+([Greek: anthupomosia]). If the plea for delay were refused by the
+court, and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went by
+default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given in favour
+of the defendant.
+
+The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry also presided at
+the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn sacrifice. The plea of
+the plaintiff and the formal reply of the defendant were then read by
+the clerk. The court was next addressed first by the plaintiff, next by
+the defendant; in some cases there were two speeches on each side. Every
+litigant was legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were
+often composed by professional experts for delivery by the parties to
+the suit, who were required to speak in person, though one or more
+unprofessional supporters ([Greek: synhegoroi]) might subsequently speak
+in support of the case. The length of the speeches was in many cases
+limited by law to a fixed time recorded by means of a water-clock
+(clepsydra). Documents were not regarded as part of the speech, and,
+while these were being read, the clock was stopped (Goethe found a
+similar custom in force in Venice in October 1786). The witnesses were
+never cross-examined, but one of the litigants might formally
+interrogate the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally
+supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and friends.
+
+When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the 5th century
+mussel-shells ([Greek: choirinai]) were used for the purpose. Each of
+the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the two urns, in
+that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that to the back if he
+voted for condemnation. If a second vote had to be taken to determine
+the amount of the penalty, wax tablets were used, on which the juror
+drew a long line, if he gave the heavy penalty demanded by the
+plaintiff; a short one, if he decided in favour of the lighter penalty
+proposed by the defendant.
+
+In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks of bronze.
+Each disk (inscribed with the words [Greek: PSEPHOS DEMOSIA]) was about
+1 in. in diameter, with a short tube running through the centre. This
+tube was either perforated or closed (see figs. 6 and 7 in frontispiece
+to Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, ed. Sandys). One of each kind
+was given to every juror, who was required to use the perforated or the
+closed disk, according as he voted for the plaintiff or for the
+defendant. On the platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of
+wood. The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he
+proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the tube, so
+that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk or not, and then
+deposited it in the bronze urn, and (with the same precaution to ensure
+secrecy) dropped the unused disk into the wooden urn. The votes were
+sorted by persons appointed by lot, and counted by the president of the
+court, and the result announced by the herald. For any second vote the
+same procedure was adopted (Aristotle, _u.s._, c. 68 of Kenyon's Berlin
+text).
+
+
+  Penalties.
+
+Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in private suits;
+personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal penalties included
+sentences of death or exile, or different degrees of disfranchisement
+([Greek: atimia]) with or without confiscation. Imprisonment _before_
+trial was common, and persons mulcted in penalties might be imprisoned
+until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never inflicted as
+the _sole_ penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone could be sold into
+slavery. Sentences of death were carried out under the supervision of
+the board of police called the "Eleven." In ancient times a person
+condemned was hurled into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western
+suburb of Athens. In later times he was compelled to drink the fatal
+draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to death with clubs.
+Fines were collected and confiscated property sold by special
+officials, called [Greek: praktores] and [Greek: poletai] respectively.
+In private suits the sentence was executed by the state if the latter
+had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprisonment were part of the
+penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the sentence was left to the
+plaintiff, who had the right of distraint, or, if this failed, could
+bring an action of ejectment ([Greek: dike hexouges]).
+
+From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But, if judgment
+had been given by default, the person condemned might bring an action to
+prove that he was not responsible for such default, [Greek: ten eremon]
+(_sc._ [Greek: diken]) [Greek: antilanchanein]. The corresponding term
+for challenging the award of an arbitrator was [Greek: ten me ousan
+antilanchanein]. He might also bring an action for false evidence
+([Greek: dike pseudomartyrion]) against his opponent's witnesses, and,
+on their conviction, have the sentence annulled. This "denunciation" of
+false evidence was technically called [Greek: episkepsis] and [Greek:
+episkeptesthai].
+
+
+  Character of the Athenian tribunals.
+
+The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but, as was first
+proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also diminished the
+feeling of personal responsibility, while it increased the influence of
+political motives. In addressing such a court, the litigants were not
+above appealing to the personal interests of the general public. We have
+a striking example of this in the terms in which Lysias makes one of his
+clients close a speech in prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who
+have incurred the penalty of death by buying more than 75 bushels of
+wheat at one time: "If you _condemn_ these persons, you will be doing
+what is right, and will pay _less_ for the purchase of your corn; if you
+_acquit_ them, you will pay _more_" (xxii. S 22).
+
+Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular ignorance by
+misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the jurors could look for
+no aid from the officials who formally presided over the courts. The
+latter were not necessarily experts, for they owed their own original
+appointment to the caprice of the lot. Almost the only officials
+specially elected as experts were the strategi, and these presided only
+in their own courts. Again, there was every temptation for the informer
+to propose the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who
+would naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having
+his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every temptation
+to decide in the interests of the treasury. In conclusion we may quote
+the opinions on the judicial system of Athens which have been expressed
+by two eminent classical scholars and English lawyers.
+
+  A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion
+  "that it would be difficult to devise a judicial system less adapted
+  for the due administration of justice" (Preface to _Wasps_, xxxv. f.),
+  while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. R. Kennedy, observes that the
+  Athenian jurors "were persons of no legal education or learning; taken
+  at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly belonging to
+  the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the Athenians were
+  naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the world. Their wits
+  were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an active part in important
+  debates, and hearing the most splendid orators. There was so much
+  litigation at Athens that they were constantly either engaged as
+  jurors, or present as spectators in courts of law" (_Private
+  Orations_, p. 361).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--1. Greek Law. B. W. Leist, _Graco-italische
+  Rechtsgeschichte_ (Jena, 1884); L. Mitteis, _Reichsrecht und
+  Volksrecht in den ostlichen Provinzen des romischen Kaiserreichs, mit
+  Beitragen zur Kenntnis des griechischen Rechts_ (Leipzig, 1891); J. H.
+  Lipsius, _Von der Bedeutung des griechischen Rechts_ (Leipzig, 1893);
+  G. Gilbert, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des ... griechischen Rechtes"
+  in _Jahrb. fur kl. Philologie_ (Leipzig, 1896); H. J. Hitzig, _Die
+  Bedeutung des altgriechischen Rechtes fur die vergleichende
+  Rechtswissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1906); R. Hirzel, _Themis, Dike und
+  Verwandtes_ (Leipzig, 1907); J. J. Thonissen, _Le Droit criminel de la
+  Grece legendaire_, followed by _Le Droit penal de la republique
+  athenienne_ (Brussels, 1875).
+
+  2. Attic Law. (a) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. Telfy, _Corpus juris
+  Attici_ (Pest and Leipzig, 1868); Aristotle's _Constitution of
+  Athens_, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, &c., and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903);
+  ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig, 1903); text with critical and explanatory
+  notes, ed. Sandys (London, 1893); Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig,
+  1866-1871); Isaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, _Private
+  Orations_, ed. Paley and Sandys, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898);
+  _Against Midias_, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906); Dareste,
+  Haussoullier, Th. Reinach, _Inscr. juridiques grecques_ (Paris,
+  1891-1904). (b) Modern treatises: K. F. Hermann, _De vestigiis
+  institutorum ... Atticorum per Platonis de legibus libros indagandis_
+  (Marburg, 1836); _Staatsaltertumer_, ed. 6, Thumser (Freiburg, 1892);
+  _Rechtsaltertumer_, ed. 3, Thalheim (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt,
+  _Staatsund Rechtsaltertumer_, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); U. von
+  Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, _Aristoteles und Athen_ (Berlin, 1893); G.
+  Gilbert, _Gk. Constitutional Antiquities_ (vol. i., Eng. trans., pp.
+  376-416, London, 1895); J. H. Lipsius, (1) new ed. of Meier and
+  Schomann, _Der attische Process_ (Berlin, 1883-1887); (2) ed. 4 of
+  Schomann, _Gr. Altertumer_ (Berlin, 1897-1902); (3) _Das attische
+  Recht und Rechtsverfahren_ (Leipzig, 1905); Daremberg and Saglio,
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquites_ (Paris, 1877); G. Glotz, _La Solidarite
+  de la famille dans le droit criminel en Grece_ (Paris, 1904); L.
+  Beauchet, _Droit prive de la rep. athen._ (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C.
+  R. Kennedy, _Appendices to transl. of Dem._ vols. iii. and iv.
+  (1856-1861); Smith's _Dictionary of ... Antiquities_, ed. 3 (1891); F.
+  B. Jevons, in Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_ (1895, pp.
+  526-597); W. Wyse, in Whibley's _Companion to Greek Studies_
+  (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402.     (J. E. S.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian
+    constitution see ARCHON, AREOPAGUS, BOULE, ECCLESIA, STRATEGUS, and
+    articles on all the chief legislators.
+
+  [2] In the case of "animals," we may compare the Mosaic law of Exod.
+    xxxi. 28 and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664); and in that of
+    "inanimate objects," the English law of deodands (Blackstone i. 300),
+    repealed in 1846. See also Frazer on Pausanias, i. 28. 10.
+
+  [3] Cf. R. J. Bonner, in _Classical Philology_ (Chicago, 1907),
+    407-418, who urges that only cases belonging to the Forty were
+    subject to public arbitration.
+
+  [4] Connected either with [Greek: halizesthai], "to assemble," or
+    [Greek: helios], or [Greek: Helis] (cf. Curt Wachsmuth, _Stadt
+    Athen_, ii. (1) 359-364). The first is possibly right (cf. Rogers on
+    Aristoph. _Wasps_, xvii. f.); the second implies that this large
+    court was held in the open air (Lipsius, _Att. Recht_, 172).
+
+
+
+
+GREEK LITERATURE.--The literature of the Greek language is broadly
+divisible into three main sections: (1) Ancient, (2) Byzantine, (3)
+Modern. These are dealt with below in that order.
+
+
+1. THE ANCIENT GREEK LITERATURE
+
+The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) _The Early
+Literature_, to about 475 B.C.; epic, elegiac, iambic and lyric poetry;
+the beginnings of literary prose. (B) _The Attic Literature_ 475-300
+B.C.; tragic and comic drama; historical, oratorical and philosophical
+prose. (C) _The Literature of the Decadence_, 300 B.C. to A.D. 529;
+which may again be divided into the Alexandrian period, 300-146 B.C.,
+and the Graeco-Roman period, 146 B.C. to A.D. 529.
+
+For details regarding particular works or the lives of their authors
+reference should be made to the separate articles devoted to the
+principal Greek writers. The object of the following pages is to sketch
+the literary development as a whole, to show how its successive periods
+were related to each other, and to mark the dominant characteristics of
+each.
+
+(A) _The Early Literature._--A process of natural growth may be traced
+through all the best work of the Greek genius. The Greeks were not
+literary imitators of foreign models; the forms of poetry and prose in
+which they attained to such unequalled excellence were first developed
+by themselves. Their literature had its roots in their political and
+social life; it is the spontaneous expression of that life in youth,
+maturity and decay; and the order in which its several fruits are
+produced is not the result of accident or caprice. Further, the old
+Greek literature has a striking completeness, due to the fact that each
+great branch of the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its
+development. Ionians, Aeolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their
+share. Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life
+and character. Each found its appropriate work.
+
+
+  The dialects.
+
+The Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor--a lively and genial people,
+delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to everything bright and
+joyous--created artistic epic poetry out of the lays in which Aeolic
+minstrels sang of the old Achaean wars. And among the Ionians arose
+elegiac poetry, the first variation on the epic type. These found a
+fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible
+utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of Lesbos
+next created the lyric of personal passion, in which the traits of their
+race--its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous fancy--found a fitting
+voice in the fiery strength and tenderness of Aeolic speech. The Dorians
+of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and Magna Graecia then perfected the choral
+lyric for festivals and religious worship; and here again an earnest
+faith, a strong pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter
+in the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of the
+Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all the other
+kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in history, oratory and
+philosophy. It is in the Attic literature that the Greek mind receives
+its most complete interpretation.
+
+A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and that
+species of composition for which it had been specially used. Hence the
+dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted with more or less
+thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who were not Ionians. Thus
+the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the Dorian Theognis in elegy, though
+not without alloy. Similarly, the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in
+Aeolic. All the faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually
+brought out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature
+has an essential unity--the unity of a living organism; and this unity
+comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which is complete in its
+own kind.
+
+
+  Pre-Homeric poetry.
+
+  Songs of the seasons.
+
+  Hymns.
+
+Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems. These are works
+of art which imply a long period of antecedent poetical cultivation. Of
+the pre-Homeric poetry we have no remains, and very little knowledge.
+Such glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different stages in
+the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes. The first of these stages is
+that in which the agencies or forms of external nature were personified
+indeed, yet with the consciousness that the personal names were only
+symbols. Some very ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may have
+belonged to this stage--as the songs of Linus, Ialemus and Hylas. Linus,
+the fair youth killed by dogs, seems to be the spring passing away
+before Sirius. Such songs have been aptly called "songs of the seasons."
+The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now definitively
+personified the powers which they worship. Apollo, Demeter, Dionysus,
+Cybele, have now become to them beings with clearly conceived
+attributes. To this second stage belong the hymns connected with the
+names of the legendary bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who
+are themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses and the
+Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred poetry are not
+only "Thracian"--i.e. on the borders of northern Greece--but also
+"Phrygian" and "Cretan." It belongs, that is, presumably to an age when
+the ancestors of the Hellenes had left the Indo-European home in central
+Asia, but had not yet taken full possession of the lands which were
+afterwards Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others
+were settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through
+the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when the
+Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a religious ritual,
+it may be conjectured that it was not of long duration. Already in the
+_Iliad_ a secular character belongs to the marriage hymn and to the
+dirge for the dead, which in ancient India were chanted by the priest.
+The bent of the Greeks was to claim poetry and music as public joys;
+they would not long have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries.
+And among the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was
+employed were probably war-ballads, sung by minstrels in the houses of
+the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated.
+
+
+  Epos.
+
+Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest epic poetry
+of Greece was constructed. By an "epic" poem the Greeks meant a
+narrative of heroic action in hexameter verse. The term [Greek: epe]
+meant at first simply "verses"; it acquired its special meaning only
+when [Greek: mele], lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished
+from [Greek: epe] verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic
+poetry is the only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about
+700 B.C. The early epos of Greece is represented by the _Iliad_ and the
+_Odyssey_, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by some fragments of the
+"Cyclic" poets.
+
+
+  The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey."
+
+After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian emigrants who
+settled in the north-west of Asia Minor brought with them the warlike
+legends of their chiefs, the Achaean princes of old. These legends lived
+in the ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed southward
+into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually shaped them into higher
+artistic forms. Among the seven places which claimed to be the
+birthplace of Homer, that which has the best title is Smyrna. Homer
+himself is called "son of Meles"--the stream which flowed through old
+Smyrna, on the border between Aeolia and Ionia. The tradition is
+significant in regard to the origin and character of the _Iliad_, for in
+the _Iliad_ we have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. A
+preponderance of evidence is in favour of the view that the _Odyssey_
+also, at least in its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast of
+Asia Minor. According to the Spartan account, Lycurgus was the first to
+bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric poems, which he had
+obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or gild of poets in Samos. A
+better authenticated tradition connects Athens with early attempts to
+preserve the chief poetical treasure of the nation. Peisistratus is said
+to have charged some learned men with the task of collecting all "the
+poems of Homer"; but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended
+under this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission went
+beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be determined what
+exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respectively did for the
+Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought, enacted that the poems should
+be recited from an authorized text ([Greek: ex hypoboles]); Hipparchus,
+that they should be recited in a regular order ([Greek: ex
+hypolepseos]). At any rate, we know that in the 6th century B.C. a
+recitation of the poems of Homer was one of the established competitions
+at the Panathenaea, held once in four years. The reciter was called a
+_rhapsodist_--properly one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing chant,
+then an epic poet who chants his own or another's poem. The rhapsodist
+did not, like the early minstrel, use the accompaniment of the harp; he
+gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing in his hand a branch of
+laurel, the symbol of Apollo's inspiration. In the 5th century B.C. we
+find that various Greek cities had their own editions ([Greek: hai
+politikai, kata poleis] or [Greek: ek poleon ekdoseis]) of the poems,
+for recitation at their festivals. Among these were the editions of
+Massilia, of Chios and of Argolis. There were also editions bearing the
+name of the individual editor ([Greek: hai kat' andra])--the best known
+being that which Aristotle prepared for Alexander. The recension of the
+poems by Aristarchus (156 B.C.) became the standard one, and is probably
+that on which the existing text is based. The oldest Homeric MS. extant,
+Venetus A of the _Iliad_, is of the 10th century; the first printed
+edition of Homer was that edited by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondyles
+(Florence, 1488).
+
+
+  The Homeric question.
+
+The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the _Iliad_ and
+the _Odyssey_ to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom they also
+ascribed some extant hymns, and probably much more besides. Aristotle
+and Aristarchus seem to have put Homer's date about 1044 B.C., Herodotus
+about 850 B.C. It is not till about 170 B.C. that the grammarians
+Hellanicus and Xenon put forward the view that Homer was the author of
+the _Iliad_, but not of the _Odyssey_. Those who followed them in
+assigning different authors to the two poems were called the Separators
+(_Chorizontes_). Aristarchus combated "the paradox of Xenon," and it
+does not seem to have had much acceptance in antiquity. Giovanni
+Battista Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first
+modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition of the
+Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support of his theory
+that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are often mere symbols. F.
+A. Wolf, in the _Prolegomena_ to his edition (1795), was the founder of
+a scientific scepticism. The _Iliad_, he said (for he recognized the
+comparative unity and consistency of the _Odyssey_), was pieced together
+from many small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first
+committed to writing in the time of Peisistratus. This view was in
+harmony with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed
+as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing from
+fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at once found
+enthusiastic adherents. For the course of Homeric controversy since Wolf
+the reader is referred to the article HOMER.
+
+
+  Cyclic poems.
+
+The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems founded on the
+legends of the Trojan war, and intended as introductions or
+continuations to the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. The grammarian Proclus
+(A.D. 140) has preserved the names and subjects of some of these; but
+the fragments are very scanty. The _Nostoi_ or _Homeward Voyages_, by
+Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of ten years between
+the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_; the _Lay of Telegonus_, by Eugammon of
+Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey to the death of Odysseus by
+the hand of Telegonus, the son whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the
+_Cyprian Lays_ by Stasinus of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or
+Hegesinus) of Salamis or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the _Iliad_;
+the _Aethiopis_ and the _Sack of Troy_, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the
+_Little Iliad_, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it. These
+and many other names of lost epics--some taken also from the Theban
+myths (_Thebais_, _Epigoni_, _Oedipodea_)--serve to show how prolific
+was that epic school of which only two great examples remain. The name
+of _epic cycle_ was properly applied to a prose compilation of abstracts
+from these epics, pieced together in the order of the events. The
+compilers were called "cyclic" writers; and the term has now been
+transferred to the epic poets whom they used.[1]
+
+
+  Hesiodic epos.
+
+The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes in the old
+wars. But in Greece proper there arose another school of epos, which
+busied itself with religious lore and ethical precepts, especially in
+relation to the rural life of Boeotia. This school is represented by the
+name of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer in a
+poetical contest of Chalcis in Euboea; and it expresses the fact that,
+to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two contrasted epic
+types. Nothing is certainly known of his date, except that it must have
+been subsequent to the maturity of Ionian epos. He is conjecturally
+placed about 850-800 B.C.; but some would refer him to the early part of
+the 7th century B.C. His home was at Ascra, a village in a valley under
+Helicon, whither his father had migrated from Cyme in Aeolis on the
+coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod's _Works and Days_ we have the earliest
+example of a didactic poem. The seasons and the labours of the Boeotian
+farmer's year are followed by a list of the days which are lucky or
+unlucky for work. The _Theogony_, or "Origin of the Gods," describes
+first how the visible order of nature arose out of chaos; next, how the
+gods were born. Though it never possessed the character of a sacred
+book, it remained a standard authority on the genealogies of the gods.
+So far as a corrupt and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was
+piecing together--not always intelligently--the fragments of a very old
+cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns preserved in
+the temples and the myths which lived in folklore. The epic lay in 480
+lines called the _Shield of Heracles_--partly imitated from the 18th
+book of the _Iliad_--is the work of an author or authors later than
+Hesiod. In the Hesiodic poetry, as represented by the _Works and Days_
+and the _Theogony_, we see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod
+recognizes the existence of [Greek: daimones]--spirits of the departed
+who haunt the earth as the invisible guardians of justice; and he
+connects the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is
+one whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical
+duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic of the
+Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as relics of a sacred
+history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner, as subjects of idealizing
+art. Such titles as the _Maxims of Cheiron_ and the _Lay of Melampus_,
+the seer--lost poems of the Hesiodic school--illustrate its ethical and
+its mystic tendencies.
+
+
+  The Homeric hymns.
+
+The _Homeric Hymns_ are a collection of pieces, some of them very short,
+in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is--_Hymns_ or _Preludes of
+Homer and the Homeridae_. The second of the alternative designations is
+the true one. The pieces are not "hymns" used in formal worship, but
+"preludes" or prefatory addresses ([Greek: prooimia]) with which the
+rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic poetry. The "prelude"
+might be addressed to the presiding god of the festival, or to any local
+deity whom the reciter wished to honour. The pieces (of which there are
+33) range in date perhaps from 750 to 500 B.C. (though some authorities
+assign dates as late as the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.; see ed. by Sikes
+and Allen, e.g. p. 228), and it is probable that the collection was
+formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that of the
+Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces of the
+Hesiodic or Boeotian school. The principal "hymns" are (1) to Apollo
+(generally treated as two or more hymns combined in one); (2) to Hermes;
+(3) to Aphrodite; and (4) to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by
+Thucydides (iii. 104) as Homer's, is of peculiar interest on account of
+the lines describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces
+of a sportive kind passed under Homer's name. The _Margites_--a comic
+poem on one "who knew many things but knew them all badly"--is regarded
+by Aristotle as the earliest germ of comedy, and was possibly as old as
+700 B.C. Only a few lines remain. The _Batracho(myo)machia_, or _Battle
+of the Frogs and Mice_ probably belongs to the decline of Greek
+literature, perhaps to the 2nd century B.C.[2] About 300 verses of it
+are extant.
+
+
+  Transition from epos to elegy.
+
+In the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ the personal opinions or sympathies of
+the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are not declared or even
+hinted. Hesiod, indeed, sometimes gives us a glimpse of his own troubles
+or views. Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet. The
+message which he delivers is not from himself; the truths which he
+imparts have not been discovered by his own search. He is the mouthpiece
+of the Delphian Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his
+utterance, but they do not determine its general complexion. The egotism
+is a single thread; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry was
+in Greece the foundation of all other poetry; for many centuries no
+other kind was generally cultivated, no other could speak to the whole
+people. Politically, the age was monarchical or aristocratic;
+intellectually, it was too simple for the analysis of thought or
+emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the great deeds of their
+ancestors; common men loved to hear of them too, for they had no other
+interest. The mind of Greece found no subject of contemplation so
+attractive as the warlike past of the race, or so useful as that lore
+which experience and tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the
+8th century B.C. the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear.
+Monarchy gave place to oligarchy, and this--often after the intermediate
+phase of a tyrannis--to democracy. Such a change was necessarily
+favourable to the growth of reflection. The private citizen is no longer
+a mere cipher, the Homeric [Greek: tis], a unit in the dim multitude of
+the king-ruled folk; he gains more power of independent action, his
+mental horizon is widened, his life becomes fuller and more interesting.
+He begins to feel the need of expressing the thoughts and feelings that
+are stirred in him. But as yet a prose literature does not exist; the
+new thoughts, like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse.
+The forms of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic.
+
+
+  Elegy.
+
+The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic metre,
+obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as to make it a
+verse of five feet or measures. But the poetical capabilities of the
+elegiac couplet are of a wholly different kind from those of heroic
+verse. [Greek: elegos] seems to be the Greek form of a name given by the
+Carians and Lydians to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by
+the soft music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated
+with Greek elegy. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by this
+very fact. The flute was to the Greeks an Asiatic instrument--string
+instruments were those which they made their own--and it would hardly
+have been wedded by them to a species of poetry which had arisen among
+themselves. The early elegiac poetry of Greece was by no means confined
+to mourning for the dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy,
+were in turn its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of
+the poet and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the
+direct expression of the poet's own thoughts, addressed to a
+sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The second is
+that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it still preserves, on
+the whole, the tone of conversation or of narrative. Greek elegy stops
+short of lyric passion. English elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and
+Pope, or reflective as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type.
+Roman elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on
+the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or sentimental;
+and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early Greek elegists, not
+Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian elegists, such as
+Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced the metre to Latin
+literature, and used it with more fidelity than his followers to its
+genuine Greek inspiration.
+
+
+  Iambic verse.
+
+Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from epos. But
+almost at the same time another species arose which had nothing in
+common with epos, either in form or in spirit. This was the iambic. The
+word [Greek: iambos], _iambus_ ([Greek: iaptein], to dart or shoot) was
+used in reference to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter;
+it was the maiden Iambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from
+the mourning goddess. The iambic metre was at first used for satire; and
+it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed by its earliest
+master of note, Archilochus of Paros (670 B.C.). But it was adapted to
+the expression generally of any pointed thought. Thus it was suitable to
+fables. Elegiac and iambic poetry both belong to the borderland between
+epic and lyric. While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic
+stands nearer to the lyric. Iambic poetry can express the personal
+feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on the other
+hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment or glow. As we
+see in the case of Solon, iambic verse could serve for the expression of
+that deeper thought, that more inward self-communing, for which the
+elegiac form would have been inappropriate.
+
+But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and the iambic,
+belong essentially to the same stage of the literature. They stand
+between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the Aeolians and
+Dorians. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus and Tyrtaeus, use
+elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking hearts. Archilochus too wrote
+warlike elegy, but used it also in other strains, as in lament for the
+dead. The elegy of Mimnermus of Smyrna or Colophon is the plaintive
+farewell of an ease-loving Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In
+Solon elegy takes a higher range; it becomes political and ethical.[3]
+Theognis represents the maturer union of politics with a proverbial
+philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylides of Miletus; an admonitory
+poem extant under his name is probably the work of an Alexandrine Jewish
+Christian. Xenophanes gives a philosophic strain to elegy. With
+Simonides of Ceos it reverts, in an exquisite form, to its earliest
+destination, and becomes the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the
+Persian Wars. Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of
+Amorgus, as by Archilochus, for satire--but satire directed against
+classes rather than persons. Solon's iambics so far preserve the old
+associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or
+controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus was
+another iambic satirist--using the [Greek: skazon] ("limping") or
+choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an iambus in
+the last place. But it was not until the rise of the Attic drama that
+the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen.
+
+
+  Lyric poetry.
+
+The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final form of
+that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and iambic is still
+incomplete. The lyric expression is deeper and more impassioned. Its
+intimate union with music and with the rhythmical movement of the dance
+gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same time the continuity
+of the music permits pauses to the voice--pauses necessary as reliefs
+after a climax. Before lyric poetry could be effective, it was necessary
+that some progress should have been made in the art of music. The
+instrument used by the Greeks to accompany the voice was the
+four-stringed lyre, and the first great epoch in Greek music was when
+Terpander of Lesbos (660 B.C.), by adding three strings, gave the lyre
+the compass of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to Olympus
+and Thaletas. By 500 B.C. Greek music had probably acquired all the
+powers of expression which the lyric poet could demand. The period of
+Greek lyric poetry may be roughly defined as from 670 to 440 B.C. Two
+different parts in its development were taken by the Aeolians and the
+Dorians.
+
+
+  Aeolian school.
+
+The lyric poetry of the Aeolians--especially of Lesbos--was essentially
+the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually intended for a single
+voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos, in the 7th century B.C., had attained
+some naval and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy and
+democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often driven by revolution
+to exchange their luxurious home-life for the hardships of exile. It is
+such a life of contrasts and excitements, working on a sensuous and
+fiery temperament, that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In
+these glimpses of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state
+and of careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if
+Archilochus is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be
+compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the Aeolian
+lyric is Sappho, the only woman of Greek race who is known to have
+possessed poetical genius of the first order. Intensity and melody are
+the characteristics of the fragments that remain to us.[4] Probably no
+poet ever surpassed Sappho as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely
+subtle harmonies of form and sound. Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, may be
+classed with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his
+work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which he wrote was mainly
+the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns to the gods, from
+love-poems and festive songs. The collection of sixty short pieces which
+passes current under his name date only from the 10th century. The short
+poems which it comprises are of various age and authorship, probably
+ranging in date from c. 200 B.C. to A.D. 400 or 500. They have not the
+pure style, the flexible grace, or the sweetness of the classical
+fragments; but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty.
+
+
+  Dorian school.
+
+The Dorian lyric poetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had more of a
+public than of a personal character, and was for the most part choral.
+Hymns or choruses for the public worship of the gods, and odes to be
+sung at festivals on occasions of public interest, were its
+characteristic forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the
+Dorians in the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government
+and social usage. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not
+present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like those of
+Alcaeus and Sappho, but rather with a series of artists whose names are
+associated with improvements of form. Thus Alcman (the Doric form of
+Alcmaeon; 660 B.C.) is said to have introduced the balanced movement of
+strophe and antistrophe. Stesichorus, of Himera in Sicily, added the
+epode, sung by the chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion
+of Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn
+("dithyramb") in honour of Dionysus, and organized the "cyclic" or
+circular chorus which sang it at the altar. Ibycus of Rhegium (c. 540)
+wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and glowing love-songs in the
+Aeolic style.
+
+
+  Simonides and Pindar.
+
+The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great names,
+Simonides and Pindar. Simonides (556-468) was an Ionian of the island of
+Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by form to the choral Dorian school. Many
+of his subjects were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his
+epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis were celebrated.
+In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted by Ionian genius, and
+Athens--where part of his life was passed--is the point at which they
+meet. Simonides is the first Greek lyrist whose significance is not
+merely Aeolian or Dorian but Panhellenic. The same character belongs
+even more completely to his younger contemporary. Pindar (518-c. 443)
+was born in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian
+elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements meet in
+Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and most exquisite of the
+lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the most fervid and the most
+sublime. His extant fragments[5] represent almost every branch of the
+lyric art. But he is known to us mainly by forty-four _Epinicia_, or
+odes of victory, for the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian
+festivals. The general characteristic of the treatment is that the
+particular victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends
+connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating the
+moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry can be completely
+appreciated apart from the music, now lost, to which it was set.
+Pindar's odes were, further, essentially occasional poems; they abound
+in allusions of which the effect is partly or wholly lost on us; and the
+glories which they celebrate belong to a life which we can but
+imperfectly realize. Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the
+one to whom it is hardest for us to do justice; yet we can at least
+recognize his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his
+soaring flight.
+
+Bacchylides of Ceos (c. 504-430), the youngest of the three great lyric
+poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by scanty fragments until
+the discovery of nineteen poems on an Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They
+consist of thirteen (or fourteen) epinicia, two of which celebrate the
+same victories as two odes of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes
+for the festivals of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable
+information on the court life of the time and legendary history.
+Bacchylides, the little "Cean nightingale," is inferior to his great
+rival Pindar, "the Swan of Dirce," in originality and splendour of
+language, but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent
+[Greek: gnomai] attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind,
+amongst them the emperor Julian.
+
+Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus (d. 357),
+musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven-stringed lyre,
+were increased by the discovery in 1902 of some 250 lines of his "nome"
+the _Persae_, written after the manner of Terpander. The beginning is
+lost; the middle describes the battle of Salamis; the end is of a
+personal nature. The papyrus is the oldest Greek MS. and belongs to the
+age of Alexander the Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and
+the whole is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline.
+
+(B) _The Attic Literature._--The Ionians of Asia Minor, the Aeolians and
+the Dorians had now performed their special parts in the development of
+Greek literature. Epic poetry had interpreted the heroic legends of
+warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished kings and chiefs. Then, as the
+individual life became more and more elegiac and iambic poetry had
+become the social expression of that life in all its varied interests
+and feelings. Lastly, lyric poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold
+need--to be the more intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give
+choral voice, at stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or
+the sorrow, of a city or a race. A new form of poetry was now to be
+created, with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be
+achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and language the
+distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were tempered with some of the
+best qualities of the Dorian stock.
+
+
+  Origin of drama.
+
+  Tragedy.
+
+The drama (q.v.) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the god of wine,
+which were held at intervals from the beginning of winter to the
+beginning of spring. A troop of rustic worshippers would gather around
+the altar of the god, and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his
+victories or sufferings in his progress over the earth. "Tragedy" meant
+"the goat-song," a goat ([Greek: tragos]) being sacrificed to Dionysus
+before the hymn was sung. "Comedy," "the village-song," is the same hymn
+regarded as an occasion for rustic jest. Then the leader of the chorus
+would assume the part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the
+god himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made choral
+response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between the leader
+([Greek: koryphaios], _coryphaeus_) and one chosen member of the chorus,
+hence called "the answerer" ([Greek: hypokrites], _hypocrites_,
+afterwards the ordinary word for "actor"). This last improvement is
+ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 B.C.). The elements of drama
+were now ready. The choral hymn to Dionysus (the "dithyramb") had
+received an artistic form from the Dorians; dialogue, though only
+between the leader of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced
+in Attica. Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some
+events of the Persian Wars; but in his "drama" there was still only one
+actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Phlius, who belonged to the
+same period, developed the satyric drama; Pratinas also wrote tragedies,
+dithyrambs, and _hyporchemata_ (lively choral odes chiefly in honour of
+Apollo).
+
+
+  Aeschylus.
+
+  Sophocles.
+
+  Euripides.
+
+Aeschylus (born 525 B.C.) became the real founder of tragedy by
+introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue independent
+of the chorus. At the same time the choral song--hitherto the principal
+part of the performance--became subordinate to the dialogue; and drama
+was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various improvements of
+detail in costume and the like; and it was early in his career that the
+theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis was commenced--the first
+permanent home of Greek drama, in place of the temporary wooden
+platforms which had hitherto been used. The system of the "trilogy" and
+the "tetralogy" is further ascribed to Aeschylus,--the "trilogy" being
+properly a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the
+_Agamemnon_, _Choephori_, _Eumenides_, which together form the
+_Oresteia_, or Story of Orestes. The "tetralogy" is such a triad with a
+"satyric drama" added--that is, a drama in which "satyrs," the grotesque
+woodland beings who attended on Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the
+earlier dithyramb from which drama sprang. The _Cyclops_ of Euripides is
+the only extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies
+which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to have
+composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur which is truly
+Homeric; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriotism such as the Persian
+Wars in which he fought might well quicken in a soldier-poet; and,
+pervading all, there is a strain of speculative thought which seeks to
+reconcile the apparent conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the
+underworld by the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity,
+are working out the law of righteousness. Sophocles, who was born thirty
+years after Aeschylus (495 B.C.), is the most perfect artist of the
+ancient drama. No one before or after him gave to Greek tragedy so high
+a degree of ideal beauty, or appreciated so finely the possibilities and
+the limitations of its sphere. He excels especially in drawing
+character; his _Antigone_, his _Ajax_, his _Oedipus_--indeed, all the
+chief persons of his dramas--are typical studies in the great primary
+emotions of human nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by
+adding a third actor; and in one of his later plays, the _Oedipus at
+Colonus_, a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the
+tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 B.C. he was
+the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not only a great
+dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative of the age of
+Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of another kind. He
+was only fifteen years younger than Sophocles; but when he entered on
+his poetical career, the old inspirations of tragedy were already
+failing. Euripides marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and
+is, in fact, the mediator between the classical and the romantic drama.
+The myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt no
+longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself was imbued
+with the new intellectual scepticism of the day; and the speculative
+views which were conflicting in his own mind are reflected in his plays.
+He had much picturesque and pathetic power; he was a master of
+expression; and he shows ingenuity in devising fresh resources for
+tragedy--especially in his management of the choral songs. Aeschylus is
+Panhellenic, Sophocles is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands
+nearer to the modern world than either of his predecessors; and though
+with him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new
+elements of familiar human interest.
+
+In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years
+sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The two
+distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its originality and
+its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the only inventors of
+drama, but they were the first people who made drama a complete work of
+art. And the great tragic poets of Attica were remarkably prolific.
+Aeschylus was the reputed author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 113,
+Euripides of 92; and there were others whose productiveness was equally
+great.
+
+
+  Comedy.
+
+  Aristophanes.
+
+Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver side, of the
+Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following the gloom of
+winter. The process of growth was nearly the same as in tragedy; but the
+Dorians, not the Ionians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to
+the comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about 580
+B.C., pieces of the kind known as "Megarian farces." Epicharmus of Cos
+(who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form to the Doric farce, and
+treated in burlesque style the stories of gods and heroes, and subjects
+taken from everyday life. His Syracusan contemporary Sophron (c. 450)
+was a famous writer of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The
+most artistic form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in
+Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of Cratinus and
+Eupolis; but from about 470 B.C. there seems to have been a continuous
+succession of comic dramatists, amongst them Plato Comicus, the author
+of 28 comedies, political satires and parodies after the style of the
+Middle Comedy. Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 B.C.,
+and retained his popularity for about forty years. He presents a perhaps
+unique union of bold fancy, exquisite humour, critical acumen and
+lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may be divided into three
+groups, according as the licence of political satire becomes more and
+more restricted. In the _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_ and
+_Peace_ (425-421) the poet uses unrestrained freedom. In the _Birds_,
+_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusae_ and _Frogs_ (414-405) a greater
+reserve may be perceived. Lastly, in the _Ecclesiazusae_ and the
+_Plutus_ (392-388) personal satire is almost wholly avoided. The same
+general tendency continued. The so-called "Middle Comedy" (390-320)
+represents the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to
+satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Antiphanes
+of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The "New Comedy" (320-250) resembled the
+modern "comedy of manners."
+
+Its chief representative was Menander (342-291), the author of 105
+comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of these, of
+sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action. His plays
+were produced on the stage as late as the time of Plutarch, and his
+[Greek: gnomai], distinguished by worldly wisdom, were issued in the
+form of anthologies, which enjoyed great popularity. Other prominent
+writers of this class were Diphilus, Philemon, Posidippus and
+Apollodorus of Carystus. About 330 B.C. Rhinthon of Tarentum revived the
+old Doric farce in his _Hilarotragoediae_ or travesties of tragic
+stories. These successive periods cannot be sharply or precisely marked
+off. The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was simply
+the reflection of the change which passed over the political and social
+life of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the earlier plays of
+Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful engine of public criticism
+that has ever existed in any community. Unsparing personality was its
+essence. The comic poet used this recognized right on an occasion at
+once festive and sacred, in a society where every man of any note was
+known by name and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a
+policy or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be
+required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or in the courts
+of law.
+
+
+  Literary prose.
+
+The development of Greek poetry had been completed before a prose
+literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in extant Greek prose
+literature is that of Herodotus; and, when he wrote, the Attic drama had
+already passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of prose
+before Herodotus; but there had not been, in the proper sense of the
+term, a prose literature. The causes of this comparatively late origin
+of Greek literary prose are independent of the question as to the time
+at which the art of writing began to be generally used for literary
+purposes. Epic poetry exercised for a very long period a sovereign spell
+over the Greek mind. In it was deposited all that the race possessed of
+history, theology, philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection
+had begun, elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic
+verse, the vehicle of much which among other races would have been
+committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially poetical.
+A political cause worked in the same direction. In the Eastern
+monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the royal records
+afforded the elements of history from a remote date. The Greek nation
+was broken up into small states, each busied with its own affairs and
+its own men. It was the collision between the Greek and the barbarian
+world which first provided a national subject for a Greek historian. The
+work of Herodotus, in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous
+to the _Iliad_ in its relation to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest
+work of art, and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp.
+
+
+  Early prose writers.
+
+The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original may be inferred
+from what is known of earlier prose-writers. For about a century before
+Herodotus there had been a series of writers in philosophy, mythology,
+geography and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of the
+philosophical writers were Pherecydes of Syros (550 B.C.) and the Ionian
+Anaximenes and Anaximander. It is doubtful whether Cadmus of Miletus,
+supposed to have been the first prose writer, was an historical
+personage. The Ionian writers, especially called [Greek: logographoi],
+"narrators in prose" (as distinguished from [Greek: epopoioi], makers of
+verse), were those who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or
+who described foreign countries, their physical features, usages and
+traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 B.C.) is the best-known
+representative of the _logographi_ in both these branches. Hellanicus of
+Mytilene (450 B.C.), among whose works was a history of Attica, appears
+to have made a nearer approach to the character of a systematic
+historian. Other logographi were Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of
+Leros, who wrote on the myths of early Attica; Hippys of Rhegium, the
+oldest writer on Italy and Sicily; and Acusilaus of Argos in Boeotia,
+author of genealogies (see LOGOGRAPHI, and GREECE: _Ancient History_,
+"Authorities").
+
+
+  Herodotus.
+
+Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.; and his history was probably not
+completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.). His
+subject is the struggle between Greece and Asia, which he deduces from
+the legendary rape of the Argive Io by Phoenicians, and traces down to
+the final victory of the Greeks over the invading host of Xerxes. His
+literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers who had
+preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First, though he draws a line
+between the mythological and the historical age, he still holds that
+myths, as such, are worthy to be reported, and that in certain cases it
+is part of his duty to report them. Secondly, he follows the example of
+such writers as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features
+of countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or
+intelligent traveller with his proper part as historian. But when we
+turn from these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work,
+Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose method
+were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various as are the
+subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and complete; and
+the unity is due to this, that Herodotus refers all events of human
+history to the principle of divine Nemesis. If Sophocles had told the
+story of Oedipus in the _Oedipus Tyrannus_ alone, and had not added to
+it the _Oedipus at Colonus_, it would have been comparable to the story
+of Xerxes as told by Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the
+largeness of his historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lack
+of insight into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in
+regard to the history of political institutions. Both his strength and
+his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with that other
+historian who was strictly his contemporary and who yet seems divided
+from him by centuries.
+
+
+  Thucydides.
+
+Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus; but the
+intellectual space between the men is so great that they seem to belong
+to different ages. Herodotus is the first artist in historical writing;
+Thucydides is the first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of
+causation--human agency, represented by the good or bad qualities of
+men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance of the gods on
+behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his attention on the human
+agency (without, however, denying the other), and strives to trace its
+exact course. The subject of Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In
+resolving to write its history, he was moved, he says, by these
+considerations. It was probably the greatest movement which had ever
+affected Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary
+to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was likely to
+have a general value, over and above its particular interest as a
+record, seeing that the political future was likely to resemble the
+political past. This is what Thucydides means when he calls his work "a
+possession for ever." The speeches which he ascribes to the persons of
+the history are, as regards form, his own essays in rhetoric of the
+school to which Antiphon belongs. As regards matter, they are always so
+far dramatic that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived
+possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a rule, from
+moral comment; but he tells his story as no one could have told it who
+did not profoundly feel its tragic force; and his general claim to the
+merit of impartiality is not invalidated by the possible
+exceptions--difficult to estimate--in the cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus.
+
+
+  Xenophon.
+
+Strong as is the contrast between Herodotus and Thucydides, their works
+have yet a character which distinguish both alike from the historical
+work of Xenophon in the _Anabasis_ and the _Hellenica_. Herodotus gives
+us a vivid drama with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great
+chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which are at work
+throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific unity. Xenophon has
+not the grasp either of the dramatist or of the philosopher. His work
+does not possess the higher unity either of art or of science. The true
+distinction of Xenophon consists in his thorough combination of the
+practical with the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier,
+who had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could make a
+story both clear and lively. But the several parts of the story are not
+grouped around any central idea, such as a divine Nemesis is for
+Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds in the nature of political man.
+The seven books of the _Hellenica_ form a supplement to the history of
+Thucydides, beginning in 411 and going down to 362 B.C. The chief blot
+on the _Hellenica_ is the author's partiality to Sparta, and in
+particular to Agesilaus. Some of the greatest achievements of
+Epaminondas and Pelopidas are passed over in silence. On the whole,
+Xenophon is perhaps seen at his best in his narrative of the _Retreat of
+the Ten Thousand_--a subject which exactly suits him. The _Cyropaedeia_
+is a romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages.
+_The Recollections of Socrates_, on the other hand, derive their
+principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his minor pieces
+on various subjects Xenophon appears as the earliest essayist. It may be
+noted that one of the essays erroneously ascribed to him--that _On the
+Athenian Polity_--is probably the oldest specimen in existence of
+literary Attic prose.
+
+His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse wrote
+histories of Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the 4th century a
+number of histories were compiled by literary men of little practical
+knowledge, who had been trained in the rhetorical schools. Such were
+Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and
+the writers of _Atthides_ (chronicles of Attic history), the chief of
+whom were Androtion and Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the
+author of a great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning
+by Olympiads.
+
+
+  Oratory.
+
+The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the principal
+forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly in the Attic orators.
+Every Athenian citizen who aspired to take part in the affairs of the
+city, or even to be qualified for self-defence before a law-court,
+required to have some degree of skill in public speaking; and an
+Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political or
+forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art. Hence the
+speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a student of finished
+expression; and oratory had a more direct influence on the general
+structure of literary prose than has ever perhaps been the case
+elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took its rise in Sicily, where Corax of
+Syracuse (466 B.C.) devised his _Art of Words_ to assist those who were
+pleading before the law-courts; and it was brought to Athens by his
+disciple Tisias. The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed
+attention, though in a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of
+grammar and logic; and Gorgias of Leontini--whose declamation, however
+turgid, must have been striking--gave an impulse at Athens to the taste
+for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy.
+
+
+  The Attic orators.
+
+  Demosthenes.
+
+Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called the grand,
+style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are a grave, dignified
+movement, a frequent emphasis on verbal contrasts, and a certain austere
+elevation. The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but he has
+graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the "plain style," breaks
+through the rigid mannerism of the elder school, and uses the language
+of daily life with an ease and grace which, though the result of study,
+do not betray their art. He is, in his own way, the canon of an Attic
+style; and his speeches, written for others, exhibit also a high degree
+of dramatic skill. Isocrates, whose manner may be regarded as
+intermediate between that of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for
+readers rather than for hearers. The type of literary prose which he
+founded is distinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by
+the temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle of the 4th
+century B.C. the Isocratic style of prose became general in Greek
+literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which it became more florid,
+it passed to Cicero, and through him it has helped to shape the literary
+prose of the modern world. The speeches of Isaeus in will-cases are
+interesting,--apart from their bearing on Attic life,--because in them
+we see, as Dionysius says, "the seeds and the beginnings" of that
+technical mastery in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to
+perfection. Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of
+Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of Greek prose not only in
+power but in variety; his political speeches, his orations in public or
+private causes, show his consummate and versatile command over all the
+resources of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is
+completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are
+united. The modern world can more easily appreciate Demosthenes as a
+great natural orator than as an elaborate artist. But, in order to
+apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose, we must remember that
+the ancients felt him to be both; and that he was even reproached by
+detractors with excessive study of effect. Aeschines is the most
+theatrical of the Greek orators; he is vehement, and often brilliant,
+but seldom persuasive. Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the
+most effective; he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a
+fire and a pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches,
+found in Egypt between 1847 and 1890, are extant. The one oration of
+Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and stately, reminding us both
+of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus was merely a bad imitator of
+Demosthenes. There seems more reason to regret that Demades is not
+represented by larger fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be
+dated from Demetrius of Phalerum (318 B.C.), the pupil of Aristotle, and
+the first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginary
+subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero names him as the
+first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence, "preferring his
+own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his predecessors." He forms a
+connecting link between Athens and Alexandria, where he found refuge
+after his downfall and promoted the foundation of the famous library.
+
+In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and island
+settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a new, florid style
+of oration arose, called the "Asiatic," which owed its origin to
+Hegesias of Magnesia (c. 250 B.C.).
+
+
+  Philosophical prose--Plato and Aristotle.
+
+The place of Plato in the history of Greek literature is as unique as
+his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary genius shown in
+the dialogues is many-sided: it includes dramatic power, remarkable
+skill in parody, a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command
+over the finer tones of language. In passages of continuous exposition,
+where the argument rises into the higher regions of discussion, Plato's
+prose takes a more decidedly poetical colouring--never florid or
+sentimental, however, but lofty and austere. In Plato's later
+works--such, for instance, as the _Laws_, _Timaeus_, _Critias_--we can
+perceive that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary
+prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle's influence on
+the form of Attic prose literature would probably have been considerable
+if his _Rhetoric_ had been published while Attic oratory had still a
+vigorous life before it. But in this, as in other departments of mental
+effort, it was Aristotle's lot to set in order what the Greek intellect
+had done in that creative period which had now come to an end. His own
+chief contribution to the original achievements of the race was the most
+fitting one that could have been made by him in whose lifetime they were
+closed. He bequeathed an instrument by which analysis could be carried
+further, he founded a science of reasoning, and left those who followed
+him to apply it in all those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped
+out.[6] Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens
+the new age of research and scientific classification with his extant
+works on botany, but is better known to modern readers by his lively
+_Characters_, the prototypes of such sketches in English literature as
+those of Hall, Overbury and Earle.
+
+
+  Character of the creative age.
+
+(C) _The Literature of the Decadence._--The period of decadence in Greek
+literature begins with the extinction of free political life in the
+Greek cities. So long as the Greek commonwealths were independent and
+vigorous, Greek life rested on the identity of the man with the citizen.
+The city state was the highest unit of social organization; the whole
+training and character of the man were viewed relatively to his
+membership of the city. The market-place, the assembly, the theatre were
+places of frequent meeting, where the sense of citizenship was
+quickened, where common standards of opinion or feeling were formed.
+Poetry, music, sculpture, literature, art, in all their forms, were
+matters of public interest. Every citizen had some degree of
+acquaintance with them, and was in some measure capable of judging them.
+The poet and the musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live
+a life of studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were,
+as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their time.
+Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concentrated and ennobled
+expression of their political existence. Aeschylus breathed into tragedy
+the inspiration of one who had himself fought the great fight of
+national liberation. Sophocles was the colleague of Pericles in a high
+military command. Thucydides describes the operations of the
+Peloponnesian War with the practical knowledge of one who had been in
+charge of a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere
+visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more real and
+vivid, perceptions which had been quickened in them by a living
+communion with the Athenian spirit, by a daily contemplation of Athenian
+greatness, in the theatre where tragic poets idealized the legends of
+the past, in the ecclesia where every citizen had his vote on the policy
+of the state, or in that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet
+exempt from vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles.
+The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was such as
+was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions under which they
+arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a literary clique or of a
+social caste. The influence of jealousy or malevolence, and the more
+fatal influence of affectation, had little power to affect the verdict.
+The verdict was pronounced by the whole body of the citizens. The
+success or failure of a tragedy was decided, not by the minor
+circumstance that it gained the first or second prize, but by the
+collective opinion of the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus.
+A work of architecture or sculpture was approved or condemned, not by
+the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but by the
+general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each of whom was in
+some degree qualified by education and by habit to form an independent
+estimate. The artist worked for all his fellow-citizens, and knew that
+he would be judged by all. The soul of his work was the fresh and living
+inspiration of nature; it was the ennobled expression of his own life;
+and the public opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and
+sincere.
+
+
+  The transition to Hellenism.
+
+Philip of Macedon did not take away the municipal independence of the
+Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the old political life. The
+Athenian poet, historian, artist might still do good work, but he could
+never again have that which used to be the very mainspring of all such
+activity--the daily experience and consciousness of participation in the
+affairs of an independent state. He could no longer breathe the
+invigorating air of constitutional freedom, or of the social intercourse
+to which that freedom lent dignity as well as grace. Then came
+Alexander's conquests; Greek civilization was diffused over Asia and the
+East by means of Greek colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements were
+mingled. The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which
+Alexander's empire broke up, could not be animated by the spirit of the
+Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom. But the
+externals of Greek life were there--the temples, the statues, the
+theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals were conducted in the
+Greek manner. In private life Greek usages prevailed. Greek was the
+language most used; Greek books were in demand. The mixture of races
+would always in some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a
+community from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility with which
+Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different places. Syria,
+for example, was rapidly and completely Hellenized. Judaea resisted the
+process to the last. In Egypt a Greek aristocracy of office, birth and
+intellect existed side by side with a distinct native life. But, viewed
+in its broadest aspect, this new civilization may be called Hellenism.
+Hellenism (q.v.) means the adoption of Hellenic ways; and it is properly
+applied to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external things,
+pervading people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. What
+the Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature
+was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic form
+without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was creative; the
+literature of Hellenism is derivative.
+
+
+  The Alexandrian period.
+
+  Poetry.
+
+  Erudition and science.
+
+  Summary.
+
+Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from Alexander
+to Augustus. Its "Museum," or college, and its library, both founded by
+the first Ptolemy (Soter), gave it such attractions for learned men as
+no other city could rival. The labours of research or arrangement are
+those which characterize the Alexandrian period. Even in its poetry
+spontaneous motive was replaced by erudite skill, as in the hymns,
+epigrams and elegies of Callimachus, in the enigmatic verses of
+Lycophron, in the highly finished epic of Apollonius Rhodius, and in the
+versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and Nicander. The
+mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Cos (c. 200 B.C.), written in the
+Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent scenes from everyday life.
+The papyrus (published in 1891) contains seven complete poems and
+fragments of an eighth. They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd
+observations, but at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the
+age--Dorian by origin--was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to
+please at all, must have its spring in the contemplation of nature.
+Theocritus is not exempt from the artificialism of the Hellenizing
+literature; but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place
+in the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of
+Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of their
+bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of Asclepius at
+Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter poems and a paean (in
+Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by a local poet named Isyllus, who
+flourished about 280. Tragedy was represented by the poets known as the
+Alexandrian _Pleiad_. But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this
+period of Greek literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition
+and science. Aristarchus (156 B.C.), the greatest in a long line of
+Alexandrian critics, set the example of a more thorough method in
+revising and interpreting the ancient texts, and may in this sense be
+said to have become the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical
+studies of Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus,
+gradually formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek
+grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166), a pupil of
+Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which employed the
+learned of Alexandria--where the Septuagint version of the Old Testament
+was begun, probably about 300-250 B.C. Chronology was treated
+scientifically by Eratosthenes, and was combined with history by Manetho
+in his chronicles of Egypt, and by Berossus in his chronicles of
+Chaldaea. Euclid was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter.
+Herophilus and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and
+anatomists, and the authors of several medical works. The general
+results of the Alexandrian period might perhaps be stated thus.
+Alexandria produced a few eminent men of science, some learned poets (in
+a few cases, of great literary merit) and many able scholars. The
+preservation of the best Greek literature was due chiefly to the
+unremitting care of the Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it
+partly compensated for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in
+literature and art, and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form
+as free as possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the
+patronage of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of
+success as was possible under the existing conditions; and it was
+afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true literary
+tradition might die out of the world.
+
+
+  The Graeco-Roman period.
+
+The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may be dated from
+the Roman subjugation of Greece. "Greece made a captive of the rough
+conqueror," but it did not follow from this intellectual conquest that
+Athens became once more the intellectual centre of the world. Under the
+empire, indeed, the university of Athens long enjoyed a pre-eminent
+reputation. But Rome gradually became the point to which the greatest
+workers in every kind were drawn. Greek literature had already made a
+home there before the close of the 2nd century B.C. Sulla brought a
+Greek library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus were
+indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The power of
+speaking and writing the Greek language became an indispensable
+accomplishment for highly educated Romans. The library planned by Julius
+Caesar and founded by Augustus had two principal departments, one for
+Latin, the other for Greek works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and
+Trajan contributed to enlarge the collection. Rome became more and more
+the rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but
+also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found
+appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especially in its higher
+forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and philosophy, were all
+cultivated by Greek writers at Rome.
+
+
+  First part: 146-30 B.C.
+
+The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined as extending
+from 146 B.C. to the close of the Roman republic. At its commencement
+stands the name of one who had more real affinity than any of his
+contemporaries with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the
+same time, saw most clearly how the empire of the world was passing to
+Rome. The subject of Polybius (c. 205-120) was the history of Roman
+conquest from 264 to 146 B.C. His style, plain and straightforward, is
+free from the florid rhetoric of the time. But the distinction of
+Polybius is that he is the last Greek writer who in some measure retains
+the spirit of the old citizen-life. He chose his subject, not because it
+gave scope to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that
+which prompted the history of Thucydides--namely, because, as a Greek
+citizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those wars which
+had given Rome the mastery of the world. The chief historical work which
+the following century produced--the _Universal History_ of Diodorus
+Siculus (fl. c. 50 B.C.)--resembled that of Polybius in recognizing Rome
+as the political centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier
+series of events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new age
+in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical knowledge and
+insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, but only the
+diligence, and usually the dullness, of a laborious compiler.
+
+
+  Second part: 30 B.C.-A.D. 529.
+
+The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus to Justinian,
+was enormously prolific. The area over which the Greek language was
+diffused--either as a medium of intercourse or as an established branch
+of the higher education--was co-extensive with the empire itself. An
+immense store of materials had now been accumulated, on which critics,
+commentators, compilers, imitators, were employed with incessant
+industry. In very many of its forms, the work of composition or
+adaptation had been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one
+characteristic which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these
+five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in
+matter. Lucian is, in his way, a rare exception; and his great
+popularity--he is the only Greek writer of this period, except Plutarch,
+who has been widely popular--illustrates the flatness of the arid level
+above which he stands out. The sustained abundance of literary
+production under the empire was partly due to the fact that there was no
+open political career. Never, probably, was literature so important as a
+resource for educated men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or
+obsequious audiences swelled the number of writers whose taste had been
+cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought not to
+write.
+
+
+  Departments of prose literature.
+
+In the manifold prose work of this period, four principal departments
+may be distinguished. (1) _History_, with _Biography_, and _Geography_.
+History is represented by Dionysius of Halicarnassus--also memorable for
+his criticisms on the orators and his effort to revive a true standard
+of Attic prose--by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian, Appian, Herodian,
+Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the foremost names are Plutarch,
+Diogenes Laertius and Philostratus; in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaea,
+Strabo, Ptolemy and Pausanias. (2) _Erudition_ and _Science_. The
+learned labours of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their
+various fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works as the
+lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocration and Hesychius, Hephaestion's
+treatise on metre, and Herodian's system of accentuation; the
+commentaries of Galen on Plato and on Hippocrates; the learned
+miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian and Stobaeus; and the _Stratagems_ of
+Polyaenus. (3) _Rhetoric_ and _Belles-Lettres_. The most popular writers
+on the theory of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hermogenes, Aphthonius and
+Cassius Longinus--the last the reputed author of the essay _On
+Sublimity_. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric--now
+distinctively called "Sophists," or rhetoricians--were Dio Chrysostom,
+Aelius Aristides, Themistius, Himerius, Libanius and Herodes Atticus.
+Akin to the rhetorical exercises were various forms of ornamental or
+imaginative prose--dialogues, letters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his
+dialogues, exhibits more of the classical style and of the classical
+spirit than any writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable
+affinity with the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His
+Attic prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that
+had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was the author
+both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief of the Greek
+novelists (the forerunner of whom was Aristides of Miletus, c. 100 B.C.,
+in his _Milesian Tales_) are Xenophon of Ephesus and Longus,
+representing a purely Greek type of romance, and Heliodorus--with his
+imitators Achilles Tatius and Chariton--representing a school influenced
+by Oriental fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek,
+usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron's fictitious
+_Letters_--founded largely on the New Comedy of Athens--represent the
+same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phalaris,
+Aristaenetus and similar collections. (4) _Philosophy_ is represented
+chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of whom the Stoic
+element is the prevailing one; by the Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus,
+Porphyry, Iamblichus; and by Proclus, of that eclectic school which
+arose at Athens in the 5th century A.D.
+
+
+  Verse.
+
+  The Anthology.
+
+The Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high merit. Babrius
+versified the Aesopic _Fables_; Oppian (or two poets of this name) wrote
+didactic poems on fishing and hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smyrnaeus made
+elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired some poems
+and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called _Sibylline Oracles_, in
+hexameter verse, range in date from about 170 B.C. to A.D. 700, and are
+partly the expression of the Jewish longings for the restoration of
+Israel, partly predictions of the triumph of Christianity. By far the
+most pleasing compositions in verse which have come to us from this age
+are some of the short poems in the Greek Anthology, which includes some
+pieces as early as the beginning of the 5th century B.C. and some as
+late as the 6th century of the Christian era.
+
+The 4th century may be said to mark the beginning of the last stage in
+the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point the decline was rapid
+and nearly continuous. The attitude of the church towards it was no
+longer that which had been held by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin
+Martyr or by Origen. There was now a Christian Greek literature, and a
+Christian Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. The laity became more
+and more estranged from the Greek literature--however intrinsically pure
+and noble--of the pagan past. At the same time the Greek language--which
+had maintained its purity in Italian seats--was becoming corrupted in
+the new Greek Rome of the East. In A.D. 529 Justinian put forth an edict
+by which the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The act
+had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard against the
+supposition that such assumed landmarks in political or literary history
+always mark a definite transition from one order of things to another.
+But it is practically convenient, or necessary, to use such landmarks.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The first attempt at a connected history of Greek
+  literature was the monumental and still indispensable work of J. A.
+  Fabricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols. by G. C. Harless,
+  1790-1809); this was followed by F. Scholl's _Hist. de la litterature
+  grecque_ (1813). Both these works begin with the earliest times and go
+  down to the latest period of the Byzantine empire. Of more modern and
+  recent works the following may be mentioned: G. Bernhardy, _Grundriss
+  der griechischen Literatur_ (1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880; 5th ed. of
+  vol. i., by R. Volkmann, 1892), chiefly confined to the poets; C. O.
+  Muller, _History of Greek Literature_ (unfinished), written for the
+  London Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and published in
+  English in 1840, the translation being by G. Cornewall Lewis and J. W.
+  Donaldson (the latter completed the work to the end of the Byzantine
+  period for the edition of 1858; the German text was published by E.
+  Muller in 1841; 4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882-1884); W. Mure, _Critical
+  History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece_ (1850-1857);
+  T. Bergk, _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (1872-1894, vols. 2, 3,
+  ed. G. Hinrichs, vol. 4 by R. Peppmuller) containing epos, lyric,
+  drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose; R. Nicolai,
+  _Griechische Literaturgeschichte_ (2nd ed., 1873-1878), useful for
+  bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J. P. Mahaffy,
+  _Hist. of Classical Greek Literature_ (4th ed., 1903); A. and M.
+  Croiset, _Hist. de la litterature grecque_ (1887-1899, 2nd ed. 1896);
+  W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur bis auf die Zeit
+  Justinians_ (4th ed., 1905; 5th ed., pt. i., by O. Stahlin and W.
+  Schmid, 1908), by far the most serviceable handbook for the student.
+  F. Susemihl's _Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der
+  Alexandrinerzeit_ (1891-1892) is especially valuable for its notes. Of
+  smaller manuals the following will be found most useful: G. G. Murray,
+  _History of Ancient Greek Literature_ (1897); F. B. Jevons, _History
+  of Greek Literature_ (3rd ed., 1900) down to the time of Demosthenes;
+  A. and M. Croiset, _Manuel d'hist. de la litterature grecque_ (1900;
+  Eng. trans., by G. F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904); also the general
+  sketches by U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in _Die Kultur der
+  Gegenwart_, i. 8 (1905), by A. Gercke in the _Sammlung Goschen_
+  (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1905), and by R. C. Jebb in _Companion to Greek
+  Studies_ (Cambridge, 1905). Other works generally connected with the
+  subject are: E. Hubner, _Bibliographie der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_ (2nd ed., 1889), pp. 161-17l; W. Engelmann,
+  _Bibliotheca scriptorum classicorum_ (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880); J.
+  B. Mayor, _Guide to the Choice of Classical Books_ (1896), p. 86; W.
+  Kroll, _Die Altertumswissenschaft im letzten Vierteljahrhundert_
+  1875-1900 (1905), p. 465 foll.; J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical
+  Scholarship_ (1906-1908); "Bibliotheca philologica classica," in C.
+  Bursian's _Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie
+  der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (1894--).     (R. C. J.; X.)
+
+
+II. BYZANTINE LITERATURE
+
+  Definition.
+
+By "Byzantine literature" is generally meant the literature, written in
+Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no justification
+whatever for the inclusion of Latin works of the time of the East Roman
+empire. The close of the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year
+1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the peculiar
+culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an end. It is only
+as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period that any doubts exist.
+There are no sufficient grounds for dating it from Justinian, as was
+formerly often done. In surveying the whole development of the
+political, ecclesiastical and literary life and of the general culture
+of the Roman empire, and particularly of its eastern portion, we arrive,
+on the contrary, at the conclusion that the actual date of the beginning
+of this new era--i.e. the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to
+the Pagan-Greek and Pagan-Roman--falls within the reign of Constantine
+the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Constantinople
+(which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the establishment of the
+Christian faith as the state religion, Constantine finally broke with
+the Roman-Pagan tradition, and laid the foundation of the
+Christian-Byzantine period of development. Moreover, in the department
+of language, so closely allied with that of literature, the 4th century
+marks a new epoch. About this time occurred the final disappearance of a
+characteristic of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry
+and in rhythmic prose, the difference of "quantity." Its place was
+henceforth taken by the accent, which became a determining principle in
+poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the prose sentence.
+Thus the transition from the old musical language to a modern
+conversational idiom was complete.
+
+
+  Transitional period.
+
+The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the beginning of a
+new period in the most important spheres of national life, but it is
+equally certain that in most of them ancient tradition long continued to
+exercise an influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less common in
+the general culture and literary life of the world than in its political
+or ecclesiastical development. This is true of the transition from pagan
+antiquity to the Christian middle ages. Many centuries passed before the
+final victory of the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public
+and private intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of
+paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The last
+great educational establishment which rested upon pagan foundations--the
+university of Athens--was not abolished till A.D. 529. The Hellenizing
+of the seat of empire and of the state, which was essential to the
+independent development of Byzantine literature, proceeds yet more
+slowly. The first purely _Greek_ emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but
+the complete Hellenizing of the character of the state had not been
+accomplished until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the
+period from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between
+ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with the rise
+of a new power in the world's history--Islam. But though, in this
+transitional period, the old and the new elements are both to a large
+extent present and are often inextricably interwoven, yet it is certain
+that the new elements are, both as regards their essential force and
+their influence upon the succeeding period, of infinitely greater moment
+than the decrepit and mostly artificial survivals of the antique.
+
+
+  Mixed character of Byzantine culture.
+
+In order to estimate rightly the character of Byzantine literature and
+its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction to ancient Greek, it
+is imperative to examine the great difference between the civilizations
+that produced them. The Byzantine did not possess the homogeneous,
+organically constructed system of the ancient civilization, but was the
+outcome of an amalgamation of which Hellenism formed the basis. For,
+although the Latin character of the empire was at first completely
+retained, even after its final division in 395, yet the dominant
+position of Greek in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing
+of the state. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the
+codification, in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565).
+But it is significant that the _Novels_ of Justinian were composed
+partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period. Of the
+emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of course were
+foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others; but in language and
+education they were all Greeks. In the last five centuries of the
+empire, under the Comneni and the Palaeologi, court and state are purely
+Greek.
+
+In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern empire, a
+linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the foundation of the
+old Latin _Imperium Romanum_ never existed there. In the West, with the
+expansion of Rome's political supremacy, the Latin language and Latin
+culture were everywhere introduced--first into the non-Latin provinces
+of Italy, later into Spain, Gaul and North Africa, and at last even into
+certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so thorough
+that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries affected by it, was
+the parent of new and vigorous nationalities, the French, the Spaniards,
+the Portuguese and the Rumanians. Only in Africa did "Latinism" fail to
+take root permanently. From the 6th century that province relapsed into
+the hands of the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both
+the Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength during
+the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with Christianity,
+swept away without leaving a trace behind. It might have been expected
+that the Hellenizing of the political system of the Eastern empire would
+have likewise entailed the Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the
+empire. Such, however, was not the case; for all the conditions
+precedent to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions of
+the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually incorporated
+into the state from a Greek centre, as were the provinces in the West
+from a Latin centre. They had been acquired in the old period of the
+homogeneous Latin _Imperium_. In the centuries immediately following the
+division of the empire, the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces
+could not take root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least
+in principle, as the state language. During the later centuries, in the
+non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive inroads of
+barbarians began on all sides; and the government was too much occupied
+with the all but impossible task of preserving the political unity of
+the empire to entertain seriously the wider aim of an assimilation of
+language and culture. Moreover, the Greeks did not possess that enormous
+political energy and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate
+foreign races; and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental,
+mostly Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as
+were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their
+impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly
+judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even the Romans
+were within a short period driven back and overwhelmed by the North
+African Semites who for centuries had been subjected to an apparently
+thorough process of Latinization.
+
+The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how little indeed
+it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the fact that, after
+the violent Arab invasion in the south-east corner of the Mediterranean,
+the Copts and Syrians were able to retain their language and their
+national characteristics, while Greek culture almost completely
+disappeared. The one great instance of assimilation of foreign
+nationalities by the Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from
+the 6th century had migrated into central Greece and the Peloponnese.
+All other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether for
+longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern empire
+and its civilization--such as the Copts, Syrians, Armenians, Georgians,
+Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians--one and all retained their
+nationality and language. The complete Latinizing of the West has,
+accordingly, no counterpart in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This
+is clearly shown during the Byzantine period in the progress of
+Christianity. Everywhere in the West, even among the non-Romanized
+Anglo-Saxons, Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the
+church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical system;
+down to the Reformation the church remained a complete organic unity. In
+the East, at the earliest period of its conversion to Christianity,
+several foreign tongues competed with Greek, i.e. Syrian, Coptic,
+Armenian, Georgian, Gothic, Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books
+were translated into these languages and the church services were held
+in them and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic
+division in the church was the formation of various sects and national
+churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites, the
+Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national churches). The
+Church of the West was characterized by uniformity in language and in
+constitution. In the Eastern Church parallel to the multiplicity of
+languages developed also a corresponding variety of doctrine and
+constitution.
+
+
+  Roman influence.
+
+Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek, and Byzantine
+literature is attached by countless threads to ancient Greek literature,
+yet the Roman element forms a very essential part of it. The whole
+political character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its Greek form
+and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and administration, the
+military and naval traditions, are old Roman work, and as such, apart
+from immaterial alterations, they continued to exist and operate, even
+when the state in head and limbs had become Greek. It is strange,
+indeed, how strong was the political conception of the Roman state
+(_Staatsgedanke_), and with what tenacity it held its own, even under
+the most adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The
+Greeks even adopted the name "Romans," which gradually became so closely
+identified with them as to supersede the name "Hellenes"; and thus a
+political was gradually converted into an ethnographical and linguistic
+designation. _Rhomaioi_ was the most common popular term for Greeks
+during the Turkish period, and remains so still. The old glorious name
+"Hellene" was used under the empire and even during the middle ages in a
+contemptuous sense--"Heathen"--and has only in quite modern times, on
+the formation of the kingdom of "Hellas," been artificially revived. The
+vast organization of the Roman political system could not but exercise
+in various ways a profound influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it
+often seemed as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved
+the unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The Roman
+influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language, Greek of the
+Byzantine and modern period is rich in Latin terms for conceptions
+connected with the departments of justice, administration and the
+imperial court. In literature such "barbarisms" were avoided as far as
+possible, and were replaced by Greek periphrases.
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+  The Orient.
+
+But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought on the old
+Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet the transition was, in
+fact, by no means so abrupt as one might be led to believe by comparing
+the Pagan-Hellenic culture of Plato's day with the Christian-Byzantine
+of the time of Justinian. For the path had been most effectually
+prepared for the new religion by the crumbling away of the ancient
+belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine of the Stoics, and, finally,
+by the mystic intellectual tendencies of Neoplatonism. Moreover, in many
+respects Christianity met paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular
+usages and ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan
+literature. The whole educational system especially, even in Christian
+times, was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the
+methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the influences of
+Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of importance in
+developing the Byzantine civilization, and in lending Byzantine
+literature its distinctive character. Much that was oriental in the
+Eastern empire dates back to ancient times, notably to the period of
+Alexander the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had at that
+period Hellenized the East to the widest extent, and had already founded
+everywhere flourishing cities, they themselves fell under the manifold
+influences of the soil they occupied. In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in
+Asia Minor as far inland as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental
+characteristics were often blended. In respect of the wealth and the
+long duration of its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It
+covers a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of
+Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (A.D. 643). The
+real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during this long period can be
+properly estimated only if a practical attempt be made to eliminate from
+the history of Greek literature and science in pagan and in Christian
+times all that owed its origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of
+Egypt proved itself especially productive of Greek literature under the
+Cross (Origen, Athanasius, Arius, Synesius), in the same way as the soil
+of North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian, Cyprian,
+Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one of the chief
+characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine civilization, had its
+birth in Egypt.
+
+Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civilization at a
+later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and culture attained
+their highest development between the 3rd and the 8th centuries of the
+Christian era. Antioch rose to great influence, owing at first to its
+pagan school of rhetoric and later to its Christian school of exegesis.
+Gaza was renowned for its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of
+law. It is no mere accident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most
+valuable class of Byzantine literature, was born in Syria and Palestine.
+
+In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna, Ephesus,
+Nicopolis, &c., were all influential centres of Greek culture and
+literature. For instance, the three great fathers of Cappadocia, Basil,
+Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus all belonged to Asia Minor.
+
+If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries of the
+Christian era, i.e. the period of the complete development of Byzantine
+culture, be classified according to the countries of their birth, the
+significant fact becomes evident that nine-tenths come from the African
+and Asiatic districts, which were for the most part opened up only after
+Alexander the Great, and only one-tenth from European Greece. In other
+words, the old original European Greece was, under the emperors,
+completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the newly
+founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide of conquest which
+surged from Greece over African and Syrian territories occupied largely
+by foreign races and ancient civilizations, could not fail to be fraught
+with serious consequences for the Greeks themselves. The experience of
+the Romans in their conquest of Greece (_Graecia capta ferum victorem
+cepit_) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece, though to
+a minor extent and in a different way. The whole literature of Egypt,
+Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite its international and cosmopolitan
+character, disavow the influence of the Oriental soil on which it was
+nourished. Yet the growth of too strong a local colouring in its
+literature was repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek
+tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled all
+national distinctions. Even more clearly and unmistakably is Oriental
+influence shown in the province of Byzantine art, as Joseph Strzygowski
+has conclusively proved.
+
+
+  Language.
+
+The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of ancient times
+down to the threshold of modern history was written in a language
+identical in its principal features with the common literary language,
+the so-called Koine, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This
+is the literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form
+that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction down to
+one that approaches the language of everyday life such as we have, for
+instance, in the New Testament. From what has been already said, it
+follows that this stable literary language cannot always have remained a
+language of ordinary life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular
+Greek continually changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in
+vocabulary and grammar, and thus the living language surely and
+gradually separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf
+was, moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there took
+place in the written language a retrograde movement, the so-called
+"Atticism." Introduced by Dionysius of Halicarnassus in the 1st century
+before Christ, this linguistic-literary fashion attained its greatest
+height in the 2nd century A.D., but still continued to flourish in
+succeeding centuries, and, indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine
+period. It is true that it often seemed as though the living language
+would be gradually introduced into literature; for several writers, such
+as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis (the
+author of _Lives of Saints_) in the 7th century, the chronicler
+Theophanes at the beginning of the 9th century, and the emperor
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in their writings
+numerous concessions to the living language. This progressive tendency
+might well have led, in the 11th and 12th centuries, to the founding in
+the Greek vernacular of a new literary language similar to the promising
+national languages and literature which, at that period, in the Romance
+countries, developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of
+the Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change never took place.
+All attempts in the direction of a popular reform of the literary
+language, which were occasionally made in the period from the 6th to the
+10th centuries, were in turn extinguished by the resuscitation of
+classical studies, a movement which, begun in the 9th century by Photius
+and continued in the 11th by Psellus, attained its full development
+under the Comneni and the Palaeologi. This classical renaissance turned
+back the literary language into the old ossified forms, as had
+previously happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries
+of the empire. In the West, humanism (so closely connected with the
+Byzantine renaissance under the Comneni and the Palaeologi) also
+artificially reintroduced the "Ciceronian" Latin, but was unable
+seriously to endanger the development of the national languages, which
+had already attained to full vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic
+movement came prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had
+fairly established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers of
+the 11th-15th centuries is almost Old Greek in colour; artificially
+learnt by grammar, lexicon and assiduous reading, it followed Attic
+models more and more slavishly; to such an extent that, in determining
+the date of works, the paradoxical principle holds good that the more
+ancient the language, the more recent the author.
+
+Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast that had
+long existed with the vernacular was now for the first time fully
+revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language could no longer be
+bridged; and this fact found its expression in literature also. While
+the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-10th centuries, like the
+Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of Tours), still attempted a
+compromise between the language of the schools and that of conversation,
+we meet after the 12th century with authors who freely and naturally
+employed the vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form
+the Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and other
+Romance languages. That they could not succeed like their Roman
+colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of Greek literature, is due
+to the all-powerful philological-antiquarian tendency which existed
+under the Comneni and the Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular
+attempt to assert its literary rights, i.e. in Crete and some other
+islands in the 16th and 17th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled
+by the classical reaction of the 19th century. Hence it comes about that
+Greek literature even in the 20th century employs grammatical forms
+which were obsolete long before the 10th century. Thus the Greeks, as
+regards their literary language, came into a _cul de sac_ similar to
+that in which certain rigidly conservative Oriental nations find
+themselves, e.g. the Arabs and Chinese, who, not possessing a literary
+language suited to modern requirements, have to content themselves with
+the dead Old-Arabic or the ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of
+the written and spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most
+fatal heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their Byzantine
+forefathers.
+
+
+  General character of Byzantine literature.
+
+The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western medieval
+period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology accordingly, in
+literature too, occupies the chief place, in regard to both quantity and
+quality. Next to it comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines
+cultivated with great conscientiousness until after the fall of the
+empire. All other kinds of prose writing, e.g. in geography, philosophy,
+rhetoric and the technical sciences, were comparatively neglected, and
+such works are of value for the most part only in so far as they
+preserve and interpret old material. In poetry, again, theology takes
+the lead. The poetry of the Church produced works of high aesthetic
+merit and enduring value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams
+especially was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In
+popular literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of
+notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with.
+
+
+  Theology.
+
+The great classical period of Greek theological literature is that of
+the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this result--some of
+them positive, particularly the establishment of Christianity as the
+official religion and the protection accorded to it by the state, others
+negative, i.e. the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at
+this period arose in the east of the empire and threatened the unity of
+the doctrine and organization of the church. It was chiefly against
+these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed his attacks. The
+learned Eusebius founded a new department of literature, church history.
+In Egypt, Antonius (St Anthony) founded the Greek monastic system;
+Synesius of Cyrene, like his greater contemporary Augustine in the West,
+represents both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition
+from Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great
+intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great
+Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother Gregory
+of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the Christian faith,
+and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished orator and poet. Closely
+allied to them was St Chrysostom, the courageous champion of
+ecclesiastical liberty and of moral purity. To modern readers the
+greater part of this literature appears strange and foreign; but, in
+order to be appreciated rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of
+the period in which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by
+religious emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their
+readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable; though, of
+course, they produced nothing of such general human interest, nothing
+so deep and true, as the _Confessions_ of St Augustine, with which the
+poetical autobiography of Gregory of Nazianzus cannot for a moment be
+compared.
+
+The glorious bloom of the 4th century was followed by a perceptible
+decay in theological intellectual activity. Independent production was
+in succeeding centuries almost solely prompted by divergent dogmatical
+views and heresies, for the refutation of which orthodox authors were
+impelled to take up the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious
+literature was called into existence by the Monophysites, who maintained
+that there was but _one_ nature in Christ; in the 7th century by the
+Monothelites, who acknowledged but _one_ will in Christ; in the 8th
+century by the Iconoclasts and by the new teaching of Mahomet. One very
+eminent theologian, whose importance it has been reserved for modern
+times to estimate aright--Leontius of Byzantium (6th century)--was the
+first to introduce Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus
+be called the first scholastic. In his works he attacked the heretics of
+his age, particularly the Monophysites, who were also assailed by his
+contemporary Anastasius of Antioch. The chief adversaries of the
+Monothelites were Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem (whose main
+importance, however, is due to his work in other fields, in hagiography
+and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor, and Anastasius Sinaites, who
+also composed an interpretation of the _Hexaemeron_ in twelve books.
+Among writers in the departments of critical interpretation and
+asceticism in this period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who
+devoted himself principally to the exegesis of the Old Testament;
+Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read ascetic work
+_Klimax_ (Jacob's ladder); and Johannes Moschus (d. 619), whose chief
+work _Leimon_ ("spiritual pasture") describes monastic life in the form
+of statements and narratives of their experiences by monks themselves.
+The last great heresy, which shook the Greek Church to its very
+foundations, the Iconoclast movement, summoned to the fray the last
+great Greek theologian, John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). Yet his
+chief merit lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the
+Iconoclasts, and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his
+great dogmatic work, _The Fountain of Knowledge_, which contains the
+first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma. It has remained the
+standard work on Greek theology down to the present day. Just as the
+internal development of the Greek Church in all essentials reached its
+limit with the Iconoclasts, so also its productive intellectual activity
+ceased with John of Damascus. Such theological works as were
+subsequently produced, consisted mostly in the interpretation and
+revision of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful,
+literature was produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek
+and Roman Churches. Of a more independent character is the literature
+which in the 14th century centred round the dissensions of the
+Hesychasts.
+
+Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned: the emperor
+Leo VI., the Wise (886-911), who wrote numerous homilies and church
+hymns, and Theodorus of Studium (759-826), who in his numerous writings
+affords us instructive glimpses of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the
+figure of the patriarch Photius. Yet his importance consists less in his
+writings, which often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of
+thought and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church.
+For he it was who carried the differences which had already repeatedly
+arisen between Rome and Constantinople to a point at which
+reconciliation was impossible, and was mainly instrumental in preparing
+the way for the separation of the Greek and Latin Churches accomplished
+in 1054 under the patriarch Michael Cerularius. In the 11th century the
+polyhistor Michael Psellus also wrote polemics against the Euchites,
+among whom the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, including
+theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni. In the
+reign of Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118), Euthymius Zigabenus wrote his
+great dogmatic work, the _Dogmatic Panoply_, which, like _The Fountain
+of Knowledge_ of John of Damascus in earlier times, was partly positive,
+furnishing an armoury of theology, partly negative and directed against
+the sects. In addition to attacking the dead and buried doctrines of the
+Monothelites, Iconoclasts, &c., to fight which was at this time a mere
+tilting at windmills, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic against the
+heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils and Saracens.
+Zigabenus's _Panoply_ was continued and enlarged a century later by the
+historian Nicetas Acominatus, who published it under the title _Treasure
+of Orthodoxy_. To the writings against ancient heresies were next added
+a flood of tracts, of all shapes and sizes, "against the Latins," i.e.
+against the Roman Church, and among their authors must also be
+enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore II. Lascaris (1254-1258). The
+chief champion of the union with the Roman Church was the learned
+Johannes Beccus (patriarch of Constantinople 1275-1282). Of his
+opponents by far the most eminent was Gregory of Cyprus, who succeeded
+him on the patriarchal throne. The fluctuations in the fortunes of the
+two ecclesiastical parties are reflected in the occupation of the
+patriarchal throne. The battles round the question of the union, which
+were waged with southern passion, were for a while checked by the
+dissensions aroused by the mystic tendency of the Hesychasts. The
+impetus to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam, a
+native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an opponent of
+the Latins and was in 1339 entrusted by Andronicus III. with a mission
+to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon. He condemned the doctrine of the
+Hesychasts, and attacked them both orally and in writing. Among those
+who shared his views are conspicuous the historian Nicephorus Gregoras
+and Gregorius Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas
+Aquinas in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesychasts was
+essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and dreamy
+Graeco-Oriental mysticism. On the side of the Hesychasts fought
+Gregorius Palamas, who tried to give a dogmatic foundation to the
+mysticism of the Hesychasts, Cabasilas, and the emperor John VI.
+Cantacuzenus who, after his deposition, sought, in the peaceful retreat
+of a monastery, consolation in theological studies, and in his literary
+works refuted the Jews and the Mahommedans. For the greatest Byzantine
+"apologia" against Islamism we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II.
+Palaeologus (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to make up for
+the deficiency in martial prowess shown by the Byzantines in their
+struggle with the Turks. On the whole, theological literature was in the
+last century of the empire almost completely occupied with the struggles
+for and against the union with Rome. The reason lay in the political
+conditions. The emperors saw more and more clearly that without the aid
+of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground against
+the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent; while the
+majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the assistance of the West
+would force the Greeks to unite with Rome, and thereby to forfeit their
+ecclesiastical independence. Considering the supremacy of the
+theological party in Byzantium, it was but natural that religious
+considerations should gain the day over political; and this was the view
+almost universally held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of the
+empire; in the words of the chronicler Ducas: "it is better to fall into
+the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks." The chief
+opponent of the union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan of Ephesus,
+who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced the union with Rome
+accomplished by John VIII. Palaeologus. Conspicuous there among the
+partisans of the union, by reason of his erudition and general literary
+merit, was Bessarion, afterwards cardinal, whose chief activity already
+falls under the head of Graeco-Italian humanism.
+
+
+  Hagiography.
+
+Hagiography, i.e. the literature of the acts of the martyrs and the
+lives of the saints, forms an independent group and one comparatively
+unaffected by dogmatic struggles. The main interest centres here round
+the objects described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints
+themselves. The authors, on the other hand--the _Acts of the Martyrs_
+are mostly anonymous--keep more in the background than in other branches
+of literature. The man whose name is mainly identified with Greek
+hagiography, Symeon Metaphrastes, is important not as an original
+author, but only as an editor. Symeon revised in the 10th century,
+according to the rhetorical and linguistic principles of his day,
+numerous old _Acts of the Martyrs_, and incorporated them in a
+collection consisting of several volumes, which was circulated in
+innumerable copies, and thus to a great extent superseded the older
+original texts. These _Acts of the Martyrs_, in point of time, are
+anterior to our period; but of the _Lives of Saints_ the greater portion
+belong to Byzantine literature. They began with biographies of monks
+distinguished for their saintly living, such as were used by Palladius
+about 420 in his _Historia Lausiaca_. The most famous work of this
+description is that by Athanasius of Alexandria, viz. the biography of
+St Anthony, the founder of monachism. In the 6th century Cyril of
+Scythopolis wrote several lives of saints, distinguished by a simple and
+straightforward style. More expert than any one else in reproducing the
+naive popular style was Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus who, in the 7th
+century, wrote, among other works, a life of St John the Merciful,
+archbishop of Alexandria, which is very remarkable as illustrating the
+social and intellectual conditions of the time. From the popular _Lives
+of Saints_, which for the reading public of the middle ages formed the
+chief substitute for modern "belles lettres," it is easy to trace the
+transition to the religious novel. The most famous work of this class is
+the history of BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT (q.v.).
+
+
+  Religious poetry.
+
+The religious poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from the influence
+of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to original development. The
+oldest work of this class is the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers
+and dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts with the
+_Paedagogus_ of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215), but was probably
+not his work. The next piece of this class is the famous "Maidens' Song"
+in the _Banquet_ of St Methodius (d. about 311), in which many striking
+violations of the old rules of quantity are already apparent. More
+faithful to the tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus. But,
+owing to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification
+and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people or to
+find a place in the services of the church. Just as little could the
+artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the younger Apollinaris,
+or the subtle poems of Synesius, become popular. It became more and more
+patent that, with the archaic metre which was out of keeping with the
+character of the living language, no genuine poetry suited to the age
+could possibly be produced. Fortunately, an entirely new form of
+poetical art was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the
+blessings of an intelligible religious poetry--the rhythmic poem. This
+no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables, which had
+disappeared from the living language, but on the accent. Yet the
+transition was not effected by the substitution of accent for the old
+long syllables; the ancient verse form was entirely abandoned, and in
+its stead new and variously constructed lines and strophes were formed.
+In the history of the rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly
+marked--the preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the
+_Canones_. About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively
+little. It appears that in it church music was in the main confined to
+the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other portions of
+Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation. The oldest rhythmic
+songs date from Gregory of Nazianzus--his "Maidens' Song" and his
+"Evening Hymn." Church poetry reached its highest expression in the
+second period, in the grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs
+comprising from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each
+connected with the next in acrostic fashion. Hymnology, again, attained
+its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th century with
+Romanos, who in the great number and excellence of his hymns dominated
+this species of poetry, as Homer did the Greek epic. From this period
+dates, moreover, the most famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called
+_Acathistus_, an anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary, which has
+sometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch Sergius.
+
+
+  Canones.
+
+Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an increase in
+artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, with the
+composition of the _Canones_, songs artfully built up out of eight or
+nine lyrics, all differently constructed. Andreas, archbishop of Crete
+(c. 650-720), is regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His
+chief work, "the great Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes. The
+most celebrated writers of _Canones_ are John of Damascus and Cosmas of
+Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first half of the 8th century.
+The "vulgar" simplicity of Romanos was regarded by them as an obsolete
+method; they again resorted to the classical style of Gregory of
+Nazianzus, and John of Damascus even took a special delight in the most
+elaborate tricks of expression. In spite of this, or perhaps on that
+very account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times, were
+much read, and--as was very necessary--much commentated. Later, sacred
+poetry was more particularly cultivated in the monastery of the Studium
+at Constantinople by the abbot Theodorus and others. Again, in the 9th
+century, Joseph, "the hymn-writer," excelled as a writer of songs, and,
+finally, John Mauropus (11th century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras
+(12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century), were also
+distinguished as authors of sacred poems, i.e. _Canones_. The Basilian
+Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in 1004, and still existing,
+was also a nursery of religious poetry. As regards the rhythmic church
+poetry, it may now be regarded as certain that its origin was in the
+East. Old Hebrew and Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos
+(q.v.) was especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great
+Syrian father Ephraem (d. about 373).
+
+
+  Profane literature; historical accounts.
+
+In profane literature the writing of history takes the first place, as
+regards both form and substance. The Greeks have always been deeply
+interested in history, and they have never omitted, amid all the
+vicissitudes of their existence, to hand down a record to posterity.
+Thus, they have produced a literature extending from the Ionian
+logographers and Herodotus down to the times of Sultan Mahommed II. In
+the Byzantine period all historical accounts fall under one of two
+groups, entirely different, both in form and in matter, (1) historical
+works, the authors of which described, as did most historians of ancient
+times, a period of history in which they themselves had lived and moved,
+or one which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2)
+chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world. This latter
+class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature. The most clearly
+marked stage in the development of a Christian-Byzantine universal
+history was the chronicle (unfortunately lost) written by the Hellenized
+Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the beginning of the 2nd century of the
+Christian era; this work began with the story of Moses.
+
+Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ substantially
+from ancient historical works, except in their Christian colouring. Yet
+even this is often very faint and blurred owing to close adherence to
+ancient methods. Apart from this, neither a new style nor a new critical
+method nor any radically new views appreciably altered the main
+character of Byzantine historiography. In their style most Byzantine
+compilers of contemporary history followed the beaten track of older
+historians, e.g. Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also
+Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to imitation,
+they displayed considerable power in the delineation of character and
+were not wanting in independent judgment. As regards the selection of
+their matter, they adhered to the old custom of beginning their
+narrative where their predecessors left off.
+
+The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which after the
+close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is reflected in
+historiography also. After Constantine the Great, the history of the
+empire, although its Latin character was maintained until the 6th
+century, was mostly written by Greeks; e.g. Eunapius (c. 400),
+Olympiodorus (c. 450), Priscus (c. 450), Malchus (c. 490), and Zosimus,
+the last pagan historian (c. 500), all of whom, with the exception of
+Zosimus, are unfortunately preserved to us only in fragments.
+Historiography received a great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful
+Procopius and Agathias (q.v.), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described
+the stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of
+Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and Theophylactus
+of Simocatta described the second half of the 6th century. Towards the
+close of the 6th century also flourished the last independent
+ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who wrote the history of the church
+from 431 to 593. There now followed, however, a lamentable falling off
+in production. From the 7th to the 10th century the historical side is
+represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the 10th century
+that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, the art of
+writing history showed some signs of life. Several historical works are
+associated with the name of the emperor Constantine VII.
+Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle belonged also Joseph Genesius,
+who at the emperor's instance compiled the history of the period from
+813 to 886. A little work, interesting from the point of view of
+historical and ethnographical science, is the account of the taking of
+Thessalonica by the Cretan Corsairs (A.D. 904), which a priest, Johannes
+Cameniata, an eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity.
+There is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the
+period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of the
+Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians. A
+continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael Psellus in a work
+covering the period from 976 to 1077. A valuable supplement to the
+latter (describing the period from 1034 to 1079) was supplied by the
+jurist Michael Attaliata. The history of the Eastern empire during the
+Crusades was written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus
+Bryennius, his learned consort Anna Comnena, the "honest Aetolian,"
+Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an exhaustive
+work which is authoritative for the history of the 4th Crusade. The
+melancholy conditions and the ever increasing decay of the empire under
+the Palaeologi (13th-15th centuries) are described in the same lofty
+style, though with a still closer following of classical models. The
+events which took place between the taking of Constantinople by the
+Latins and the restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted
+by Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them. The
+succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius Pachymeres, the
+erudite and high-principled Nicephorus Gregoras, and the emperor John
+VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly, the death-struggle between the East Roman
+empire and the mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three
+historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus
+Chalcocondyles, Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be classed a
+fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), Critobulus, a
+high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style of the age of
+Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan Mahommed II. (down to
+1467).
+
+
+  Chronicles.
+
+The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly chronicles
+of the history of the world from the Creation) consists in the fact that
+they in part replace older lost works, and thus fill up many gaps in our
+historical survey (e.g. for the period from about 600 to 800 of which
+very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit, but are
+often serviceable for the history of language. Many such chronicles were
+furnished with illustrations. The remains of one such illustrated
+chronicle on papyrus, dating from the beginning of the 5th century, has
+been preserved for us by the soil of Egypt.[7] The authors of the
+chronicles were mostly monks, who wished to compile handbooks of
+universal history for their brethren and for pious laymen; and this
+explains the strong clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it
+is due to these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a
+circulation abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples
+Christianized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slavs, and in all of them sowed
+the seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles,
+despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment of
+material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far greater
+importance than the erudite contemporary histories designed only for the
+highly educated circles in Byzantium. The oldest Byzantine chronicle of
+universal history preserved to us is that of Malalas (6th century),
+which is also the purest type of this class of literature. In the 7th
+century was completed the famous _Easter_ or _Paschal Chronicle_
+(_Chronicon Paschale_). About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the
+9th century Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began
+with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284. At the request
+of the author, when on his death-bed, the continuation of this work was
+undertaken by Theophanes Confessor, who brought down the account from
+A.D. 284 to his own times (A.D. 813). This exceedingly valuable work of
+Theophanes was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous
+chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch Nicephorus,
+wrote, in addition to a _Short History_ of the period from 602 to 769, a
+chronological sketch from Adam down to the year of his own death in 829.
+Of great influence on the age that followed was Georgius Monachus, only
+second in importance as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who
+compiled a chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year
+843, the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and
+monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among later
+chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously. His work
+(covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the range of its
+subject-matter, is something between a universal and a contemporary
+history. Georgius Cedrenus (c. 1100) embodied the whole of Scylitza's
+work, almost unaltered, in his _Universal Chronicle_. In the 12th
+century the general increase in literary production was evident also in
+the department of chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for
+instance, the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the
+great universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century Michael
+Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a work written in
+the old popular style and designed for the widest circles of readers.
+Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine Manasses wrote a universal
+chronicle in the so-called "political" verse. With this verse-chronicle
+must be classed the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine
+trimeters at the beginning of the 14th century.
+
+
+  Geography.
+
+Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected with history,
+were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by their political
+forerunners, the Romans. Of purely practical importance are a few
+handbooks of navigation, itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and
+catalogues of provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics.
+The geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates from
+Justinian's time, has been lost. To the same period belongs the only
+large geographical work which has been preserved to us, the _Christian
+Topography_ of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the topography of
+Constantinople a work entitled _Ancient History (Patria) of
+Constantinople_, which may be compared to the medieval _Mirabilia urbis
+Romae_, and in late manuscripts has been wrongly attributed to a certain
+Codinus, is of great importance.
+
+
+  Philosophy.
+
+Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two new
+shoots--Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was the latter with which
+moribund paganism essayed to stem the advancing tide of Christianity.
+The last great exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens (d.
+485). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school of
+philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous system,
+which had long since outlived the conditions that made it a living
+force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity was of two main
+kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, e.g. that of Aristotle, was
+employed to systematize Christian doctrine, while, on the other, the
+old works were furnished with copious commentaries and paraphrases.
+Leontius of Byzantium had already introduced Aristotelian definitions
+into Christology; but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical
+philosophy was John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early
+attained to canonical authority, the independent progress of
+ecclesiastical philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in
+this respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West.
+Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas. In the 11th
+century philosophical studies experienced a satisfactory revival, mainly
+owing to Michael Psellus, who brought Plato as well as Aristotle again
+into fashion.
+
+
+  Rhetoric.
+
+Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with greater
+ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an indispensable
+aid to instruction. It would be difficult to imagine anything more
+tedious than the numerous theoretical writings on the subject and the
+examples of their practical application: mechanical school essays, which
+here count as "literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of
+which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects of this were felt
+beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention paid to the
+laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its withered flowers were
+detrimental to a great part of the rest of Byzantine literature, and
+greatly hampered the development of any individuality and simplicity of
+style. None the less, among the rhetorical productions of the time are
+to be found a few interesting pieces, such as the _Philopatris_, in the
+style of Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of
+Nicephorus Phocas (10th century). In two other smaller works a journey
+to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the pattern of Lucian's
+_Nekyomanteia_, viz. in _Timarion_ (12th century) and in Mazaris'
+_Journey to the Underworld_ (c. 1414). A very charming representative of
+Byzantine rhetoric is Michael Acominatus, who, in addition to
+theological works, wrote numerous occasional speeches, letters and
+poems.
+
+
+  The sciences.
+
+In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted literature
+in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited sense, Byzantium
+was dominated to an extravagant and even grotesque extent by the rules
+of what in modern times is termed "classical scholarship." The numerous
+works which belong to this category, such as grammars, dictionaries,
+commentaries on ancient authors, extracts from ancient literature, and
+metrical and musical treatises, are of little general interest, although
+of great value for special branches of philological study, e.g. for
+tracing the influences through which the ancient works handed down to us
+have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emendation; for
+information about ancient authors now lost; for the history of
+education; and for the underlying principles of intellectual life in
+Byzantium. The most important monument of Byzantine philology is,
+perhaps, the _Library_ of the patriarch Photius. The period from about
+650 to 850 is marked by a general decay of culture. Photius, who in the
+year 850 was about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable
+energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most part
+dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries, thus
+contributing to its preservation. He gave an account of all that he
+read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which were collected in what
+is commonly known as the _Library_ or _Myriobiblon_. The character of
+the individual sketches is somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or
+less complete account of the contents is followed by critical
+discussion, which is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With
+this work may be compared in importance the great _Lexikon_ of Suidas,
+which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclopaedia, of which
+the main feature was its articles on the history of literature. A truly
+sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the famous archbishop of Thessalonica
+(12th century). His voluminous commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the
+attention less than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic
+action on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity,
+and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had nothing
+in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaintance with a
+caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is afforded by Johannes
+Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, a Greek in neither name nor
+spirit, narrow-minded, angular, superficial, and withal immeasurably
+conceited and ridiculously coarse in his polemics. The transition to
+Western humanism was effected by the philologists of the period of the
+Palaeologi, such as Maximus Planudes, whose translations of numerous
+works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the West;
+Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and commentaries were, down
+to the 16th century, used as school text-books; Demetrius Triclinius,
+distinguished as a textual critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites,
+and others.
+
+
+  Jurisprudence.
+
+Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language of Roman
+law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his _Corpus juris_,
+the Hellenizing of the legal language also began. The _Institutes_ and
+the _Digest_ were translated into Greek, and the _Novels_ also were
+issued in a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after
+a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian. The
+emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the existing law,
+and made preparations for the codifying of all laws. But the whole work
+was not completed till the time of Leo VI. the Wise (886-912), and
+Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus (912-959), when it took the form of a
+grand compilation from the _Digests_, the _Codex_, and the _Novels_, and
+is commonly known as the _Basilica_ ([Greek: Ta basilika]). In the East
+it completely superseded the old Latin _Corpus juris_ of Justinian. More
+that was new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law
+than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of law, the
+_Canones_, were blended with those of civil law, and thus arose the
+so-called _Nomocanon_, the most important edition of which is that of
+Theodorus Bestes in 1090. The alphabetical handbook of canon law written
+by Matthaeus Blastares about the year 1335 also exercised a great
+influence.
+
+
+  Mathematics and astronomy.
+
+In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable fact must be
+recorded that the revival among the Greeks of these long-forgotten
+studies was primarily due to Perso-Arabian influence. The _Great
+Syntaxis_ of Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the _Almagest_.
+The most important direct source of this intellectual loan was not
+Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close of the 13th century the
+Greeks became acquainted with Persian astronomy. At the beginning of the
+14th century Georgius Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical
+treatises based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves,
+notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at last had
+recourse to the original Greek sources.
+
+
+  Military science.
+
+The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of military
+science. The most valuable work of the period on this subject is one on
+tactics, which has come down to posterity associated with the name of
+Leo VI., the Wise.
+
+
+  Profane poetry.
+
+Of profane poetry--in complete contrast to sacred poetry--the general
+characteristic was its close imitation of the antique in point of form.
+All works belonging to this category reproduce the ancient style and are
+framed after ancient models. The metre is, for the most part, either the
+Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the "political" verse;
+more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic measures.
+
+
+  Epic.
+
+Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with the
+vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the literary works of
+the period there are several which can be compared with the epics of the
+Alexandrine age. Nonnus (c. 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic
+epic on the triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a
+Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John. In the 7th
+century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy iambic poems the
+martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while the deacon Theodosius
+(10th century) immortalized in extravagant language the victories of the
+brave Nicephorus Phocas.
+
+
+  Didactic poems.
+
+From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical, astrological,
+medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed partly in
+duodecasyllables and partly in "political" verse, made their appearance
+in large quantities. Didactic religious poems were composed, for
+example, by Philippus ([Greek: ho Monotropos], Solitarius, c. 1100),
+grammatico-philological poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by
+Johannes Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel
+Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic epic by
+Georgius Lapithes (14th century).
+
+
+  Romances.
+
+To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in style and matter
+must be regarded as imitations of the ancient Greek romances. They all
+date from the 12th century, a fact evidently connected with the general
+revival of culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two of
+these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, viz. the story
+of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, and an imitation of
+this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles by Nicetas Eugenianus;
+one in "political" verse, the love story of Aristander and Callithea by
+Constantine Manasses, which has only been preserved in fragments, and
+lastly one in prose, the story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius
+(or Eumathius) Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all.
+
+
+  Lyrics.
+
+  The epigram.
+
+The objective point of view which dominated the whole Byzantine period
+was fatal to the development of a profane lyrical poetry. At most a few
+poems by Johannes Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others, in
+which personal experiences are recorded with some show of taste, may be
+placed in this category. The dominant form for all subjective poetry was
+the epigram, which was employed in all its variations from playful
+trifles to long elegiac and narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th
+century) treated the most diverse themes. In the 9th century Theodorus
+of Studium had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing monastic
+life in a series of epigrams. The same century produced the only poetess
+of the Byzantine period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic
+productions and church hymns, all characterized by originality.
+Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the 10th and 11th
+centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres, Christophorus of
+Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th
+century) and Manuel Philes (14th century). From the beginning of the
+10th century also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of
+Byzantine epigrammatic poems, the _Anthologia Palatina_ (see ANTHOLOGY).
+
+
+  Drama.
+
+Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as completely
+lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the condition precedent to its
+existence, namely, public performance. Apart from some moralizing
+allegorical dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and
+others), we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at
+least in external form, resembles a drama: the _Sufferings of Christ_
+([Greek: Christos Paschon]). This work, written probably in the 12th
+century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, i.e. is in great
+measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, e.g. Aeschylus,
+Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly not written with a view to
+the dramatic production.
+
+
+  Vernacular Greek literature.
+
+The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in contents. We
+have here remarkable originality of conception and probably also
+entirely new and genuinely medieval matter. While in the artificial
+literature prose is pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry,
+both in quantity and quality, takes the first place, as was also the
+case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar tongue first invaded the
+field of poetry and only later that of prose. Though a few preliminary
+attempts were made (proverbs, acclamations addressed by the people to
+the emperor, &c.), the Greek vernacular was employed for larger works
+only from the 12th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the
+major portion were cast in "political" verse, but some in the trochaic
+eight-syllabled line. Towards the close of the 15th century rhyme came
+into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular poetry are
+exceedingly diverse. In the capital city a mixture of the learned and
+the popular language was first used in poems of admonition, praise and
+supplication. In this oldest class of "vulgar" works must be reckoned
+the _Spaneas_, an admonitory poem in imitation of the letter of
+Pseudo-Isocrates addressed to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in
+prison by the chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of
+Theodorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period erotic
+poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs preserved in a MS. in
+the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner, Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like
+romances such as the _Story of Ptocholeon_, oracles, prayers, extracts
+from Holy Writ, lives of saints, &c. Great epic poems, in which antique
+subjects are treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form
+a separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after the
+manner of the works written in the artificial classical language, e.g.
+_Callimachus and Chrysorrhoe_, _Belthandrus and Chrysantza_, _Lybistrus
+and Rhodamne_, also romances in verse after the Western pattern, such as
+_Phlorius_ and _Platziaphlora_ (the old French story of _Flore et
+Blanchefleur_). Curious are also sundry legends connected with animals
+and plants, such as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables
+of the _Physiologus_, a history of quadrupeds, and a book of birds, both
+written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a rendering of the
+story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar originality also are several
+legendary and historical poems, in which famous heroes and historical
+events are celebrated. There are, for instance, poems on the fall of
+Constantinople, the taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating
+campaign of Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &c. In respect of
+importance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas stands
+pre-eminent.
+
+
+  "Vulgar" prose works.
+
+Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least in a
+compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering of two works
+from an Indian source, the _Book of the Seven Wise Masters_ (as
+_Syntipas the Philosopher_ by Michael Andreopulus), and the _Hitopadera_
+or _Mirror of Princes_ (through the Arabic _Kalilah and Dimnah_ by
+Simeon Sethus as [Greek: Stephanites kai Iknelates]), a fish book, a
+fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles). To
+these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of Cyprus of the
+12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite of many individual
+successes, the literature written in the vulgar tongue succumbed, in the
+race for existence, to its elder sister, the literature written in
+classical and polished Greek. This was mainly due to the continuous
+employment of the ancient language in the state, the schools and the
+church.
+
+
+  General significance of Byzantine literature.
+
+The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the history of the
+world is beyond dispute. The Christians of the East Roman empire guarded
+for more than a thousand years the intellectual heritage of antiquity
+against the violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called into
+life a peculiar medieval culture and literature. They communicated the
+treasures of the old pagan as well as of their own Christian literature
+to neighbouring nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the
+Armenians, the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the
+Serbs and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new East
+European culture, embodied above all in the Russian empire, which, on
+its religious side, is included in the Orthodox Eastern Church, and from
+the point of view of nationality touches the two extremes of Greek and
+Slav. Finally the learned men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing
+from the barbarism of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old
+Hellenic wisdom to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples
+with rich germs of culture.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--1. General sources: K. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der
+  byzantinischen Literatur_ (2nd ed., 1897), supplemented in _Die
+  byzantinische Zeitschrift_ (1892 seq.), and the _Byzantinisches
+  Archiv_ (1898 seq.), which is intended for the publication of more
+  exhaustive matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised
+  in the _Vizantiisky Vremennik_ (1894 seq.).
+
+  2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), _An Historical
+  Greek Grammar_ (1897); A. Dieterich, "Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
+  der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit bis zum 10ten
+  Jahrhundert," in _Byzant. Archiv_, i. (1898). Glossary: Ducange,
+  _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis_ (1688), in
+  which particular attention is paid to the "vulgar" language; E. A.
+  Sophocles, _Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods_ (3rd
+  ed., 1888).
+
+  3. Theology: Chief work, A. Ehrhard in Krumbacher's _Geschichte der
+  byz. Lit._ pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on Greek
+  patrology (under article FATHERS OF THE CHURCH). Collective edition of
+  the Fathers (down to the 15th century); _Patrologia, series Graeca_
+  (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry: A collection of
+  Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ and M. Paranikas,
+  entitled _Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum_ (1871). Many
+  unedited texts, particularly the songs of Romanos, were published by
+  Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the title _Analecta sacra spicilegio
+  Solesmensi parata_ (1876). A complete edition of the hymns is edited
+  by K. Krumbacher.
+
+  4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine
+  historians and chroniclers was begun under Louis XIV., and continued
+  later (1648-1819), called the _Paris Corpus_. This whole collection
+  was on B. G. Niebuhr's advice republished with some additions (Bonn,
+  1828-1878), under the title _Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae_.
+  The most important authors have also appeared in the _Bibliotheca
+  Teubneriana_. A few Byzantine and oriental historical works are also
+  contained in the collection edited by J. B. Bury (1898 seq.).
+
+  5. Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective editions
+  are: W. Wagner, _Medieval Greek Texts_ (1870), _Carmina Graeca Medii
+  Aevi_ (1874), _Trois Poemes grecs du moyen age_ (1881); E. Legrand,
+  _Collection de monuments pour servir a l'etude de la langue
+  neo-hellenique_ (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), _Bibliotheque grecque
+  vulgaire_ (in 8 vols., 1880-1896).     (K. Kr.)
+
+
+III. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE (1453-1908)
+
+After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek national
+life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization naturally
+involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek literary production
+in the regions subjected to the rule of a barbarous conqueror. Learned
+Greeks found a refuge away from their native land; they spoke the
+languages of foreign people, and when they wrote books they often used
+those languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The fall of
+Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating a break in the
+continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had that event so decisive an
+influence as has been supposed on the revival of learning in western
+Europe. The crusades had already brought the Greeks and Westerns
+together, and the rule of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant
+had rendered the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed
+the dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; some Greeks
+had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured to reconcile the two
+communions, some had attained preferment in the Roman Church. Many had
+become connected by marriage or other ties with the Italian nobles who
+ruled in the Aegean or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to
+settle in Italy. Of the writers who thus found their way to the West
+before the taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or
+Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and John
+Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and Cardinal Bessarion.
+
+
+  The Klephtic poetry.
+
+The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in the plains to a
+condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty continued to breathe in
+the mountains, where groups of desperate men, the Klephts and the
+Haiduks, maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The adventurous
+and romantic life of these champions of freedom, spent amid the noblest
+solitudes of nature and often tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally
+produced a poetry of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely
+indigenous. The Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the
+language of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine
+Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the forests and
+mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, which peopled nature
+with a thousand forms, they lend a voice to the trees, the rocks, the
+rivers and to the mountains themselves, which sing the prowess of the
+Klepht, bewail his death and comfort his disconsolate wife or mother.
+Olympia boasts to Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never
+desecrated its valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs;
+there is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on
+its summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying Klepht
+bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb that he may stand
+therein and load his musket: "Make a window in the side that the
+swallows may tell me that spring has come, that the nightingales may
+sing me the approach of flowery May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by
+his horse: "Rise, my master, let us go and find our comrades." "My bay
+horse, I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod
+hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms to my
+companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that she may see it and
+lament me." Another type of the popular poetry is presented by the
+folk-songs of the Aegean islanders and the maritime population of the
+Asiatic coast. In many of the former the influence of the Frankish
+conquest is apparent. Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be
+found in the popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who
+struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as a rule he
+triumphs in the conflict.
+
+
+  Cretan poets.
+
+In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of
+Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek poetry
+arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. The language employed
+is the dialect of the Candiotes, with its large admixture of Venetian
+words. The first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was
+_Erotocritos_, an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story
+of Arete, daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son
+of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of Greece
+under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing to describe an
+episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding some tedious passages,
+it possesses considerable merit and contains some charming scenes. The
+metre is the rhymed alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who
+lived in the middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he
+probably belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso was
+descended. The second poem is the _Erophile_ of George Chortakis, a
+Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is a tragic drama, the
+scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue is poor, but there are
+some fine choral interludes, which perhaps are by a different hand.
+Chortakis, who was brought up at Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th
+and beginning of the 17th centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of
+notice is the _Shepherdess_, a charming and graceful idyll written by
+Nicolas Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century.
+Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos (1500), who
+wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who endeavoured to write Pindaric
+odes.
+
+
+  Literary activity after the fall of Constantinople.
+
+Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a knowledge of Greek in
+Europe after the fall of Constantinople were John Argyropulos, Demetrius
+Chalcondyles, Constantine and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a
+Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary language; in general,
+however, they were rather employed about literature than engaged in
+producing it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek grammars;
+they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, and they collected
+manuscripts. Their stores enriched the newly founded libraries of St
+Mark at Venice, of the Escorial, of the Vatican and of the National
+Library in Paris. But none of them accomplished much in literature
+strictly so called. The question which most deeply interested them was
+that of the rival merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies,
+over which a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards
+the close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality theological
+rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed by the
+advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western Churches, that of
+Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, and all the fury of the old
+Byzantine dogmatic controversies was revived. The patriarch, George
+Kurtesios or Gennadius, whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the
+capture of Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and
+excommunicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among the
+Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who attacked Pletho
+with unmeasured virulence, was compelled to resign his post of secretary
+to Pope Nicholas V. and was imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was
+not wholly extinct in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time
+after the Turkish conquest. Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of
+Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and Euripides; his
+father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek proverbs. Aemilius Portos,
+a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650) of Chios edited a number of works
+of the classical and later periods with commentaries and translations;
+Allatios also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness.
+Constantine Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote
+verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the time of the
+fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers who wrote poems in
+the spoken dialect on historical subjects; among these were
+Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas Limenitis (1450-1500) and
+Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the 16th century); their poems have
+little merit, but are interesting as specimens of the popular language
+of the day and as illustrating the manners and ideas of contemporary
+Greeks.
+
+
+  Historical works.
+
+Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number of
+chroniclers. At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros, who had been
+private secretary of Mahommed II., wrote the history of his master,
+Emmanuel Melaxos a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history
+of the Palaeologi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a history of
+Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the 17th century Demetrius
+Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a history of the Ottoman empire,
+and G. Kontares tales of ancient Athens. Others composed chronicles of
+Cyprus and Crete, narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most
+of these works are written in the literary language, the study of which
+was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it maintained
+at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theological and philosophical
+works, grammars and dictionaries were written during this period, but
+elegant literature practically disappears.[8]
+
+
+  The literary revival.
+
+A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor of the
+national uprising which resulted in the independence of Greece. The
+efforts of the great Phanariote families at Constantinople, the
+educational zeal of the higher Greek clergy and the munificence of
+wealthy Greeks in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired
+fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of education among
+a people always eager for instruction. The Turks, indifferent to
+educational matters, failed to discern the significance of the movement.
+Schools were established in every important Greek town, and school-books
+and translations from Western languages issued from the presses of
+Venice, Triest, Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed
+colonies. Young men completed their studies in the Western universities
+and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization. For
+the greater part of the 18th century the literature was mainly
+theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch were Elias
+Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are written in the popular
+language, and Meletios of Iannina, metropolitan of Athens, whose
+principal works were an ecclesiastical history, written in ancient
+Greek, and a descriptive geography of Greece in the modern language,
+composed, like the work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works
+of two distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent
+partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731?-1800) and Eugenios
+Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the national and literary
+renaissance. They wrote much in defence of Greek orthodoxy against
+Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous as a preacher, wrote, besides
+theological and controversial works, treatises on mathematics, geography
+and physics. Bulgares was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous
+translations and works on theology, archaeology, philosophy,
+mathematics, physics and astronomy; he translated the _Aeneid_ and
+_Georgics_ of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II.
+His writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries.
+
+
+  Poets of the Greek revival.
+
+The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were Constantinos
+Rhigas (q.v.), the Alcman of the revolutionary movement, whose songs
+fired the spirit of his fellow-countrymen; Christopoulos (1772-1847), a
+Phanariote, who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos Rizos
+Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author of tragedies, comedies
+and lyrics, and of a work in French on modern Greek literature. They are
+followed in the epoch of Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes
+and Alexander Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos
+Rhangabes (Rhankaves, 1810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both Soutzos
+had a rich command of musical language, were highly ideal in their
+conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an ardent love of liberty.
+Both imitated to some extent Byron, Lamartine and Beranger; they tried
+various forms of poetry, but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially
+lyrical, that of Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek
+revival, Alexander Rizos Rhangabe, was a writer with a fine poetic
+feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of thought and
+sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns, ballads, narrative poems,
+tragedies and comedies, he wrote several prose works, including a
+history of ancient Greece, a history of modern Greek literature, several
+novels and works on ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous
+dramatic works of this time may be mentioned the [Greek: Maria
+Doxipatre] of Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is
+laid in the Morea at the time of the crusades.
+
+
+  Prose writers of the revival.
+
+In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was marked by
+an abundant output. Among the historians the greatest is Spiridon
+Trikoupis, whose _History of the Revolution_ is a monumental work. It is
+distinguished by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an
+impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the author played a
+leading part in the events which he narrates. Almost all the chiefs of
+the revolutionary movement left their memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who
+was illiterate, dictated his recollections. John Philemon, of
+Constantinople, wrote a history of the revolution in six volumes. He was
+an ardent partisan of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who
+was attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos's _History of the
+Greek Nation_ is especially valuable in regard to the later periods; in
+regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and Grote. With him may
+be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu, who wrote on Greek history and
+literature; Sakellarios, who dealt with the topography and history of
+Cyprus; N. Dragoumes, whose historical memoirs treat of the period which
+followed the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature and
+history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied by Miniates in
+the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones is well known by his
+_History of Patristic Literature of the First Three Centuries_ and his
+_Ecclesiastical History_, and Philotheos Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by
+his elaborate edition of _Clemens Romanus_. Kastorches wrote well on
+Latin literature. Great literary activity in the domains of law,
+political economy, mathematics, the physical sciences and archaeology
+displayed itself in the generation after the establishment of the Greek
+kingdom.
+
+
+  Coraes.
+
+But the writer who at the time of the national revival not only
+exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries but even to a
+large extent shaped the future course of Greek literature was Adamantios
+Coraes (Korais) of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to
+philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, and in the
+prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical writers, written
+In Greek or French, he strove to awake the interest of his countrymen in
+the past glories of their race or administered to them sage counsels, at
+the same time addressing ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their
+behalf. The great importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that
+he was practically the founder of the modern literary language.
+
+
+  The modern literary language.
+
+In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the modern
+language present themselves--the vernacular ([Greek: he kathomiloumene])
+and the purified ([Greek: he kathareuousa]). The former is the oral
+language, spoken by the whole Greek world, with local dialectic
+variations; the latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers,
+modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the popular
+speech. At the time of the War of Independence the enthusiasm of the
+Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the memory of an illustrious
+past, and at its close a classical reaction followed: the ancient
+nomenclature was introduced in every department of the new state, towns
+and districts received their former names, and children were christened
+after Greek heroes and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In
+the literary revival which attended the national movement, two schools
+of writers made their appearance--the purists, who, rejecting the spoken
+idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the restoration of the
+classical language, and the vulgarists, who regarded the vernacular or
+"Romaic" as the genuine and legitimate representative of the ancient
+tongue. A controversy which had existed in former times was thus
+revived, with the result that a state of confusion still prevails in the
+national literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted
+with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical or
+newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language, which he can
+read with ease side by side with poems or even prose in the vernacular
+which he will be altogether unable to interpret.
+
+
+  Reforms of Coraes.
+
+The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is universally
+spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by a natural and
+regular process, similar to that which has produced the Romance
+languages from the Latin, or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the
+old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with the modern
+European languages, and in obedience to the same laws; like them, it
+might have grown into a literary language had any great writers arisen
+in the middle ages to do for it what Dante and his successors of the
+_trecento_ did for Italian. But the effort to adapt it to the
+requirements of modern literature could hardly prove successful. In the
+first place, the national sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to
+imitate the classical writers, and so far as possible to appropriate
+their diction. The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses
+such an attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly
+to adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom. In
+the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has already been
+formed which cannot easily be broken down. For more than half a century
+the generally accepted written language, half modern half ancient, has
+been in use in the schools, the university, the parliament, the state
+departments and the pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the
+more educated classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present
+form--though a fixed standard is still lacking--to the influence and
+teaching of Coraes. As in the time of the decadence a [Greek: koine
+dialektos] stood midway between the classical language and the popular
+speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there existed a common
+literary dialect, largely influenced by the vernacular, but retaining
+the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, from which it was derived by
+an unbroken literary tradition. This written language Coraes took as the
+basis of his reforms, purging it of foreign elements, preserving its
+classical remnants and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from
+the ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with a
+fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing alike
+the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident optimism of the
+vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular speech all the material
+for a _langue savante_. The language which he thus endeavoured to shape
+and reconstruct is, of course, conventional and artificial. In course of
+time it will probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter
+will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The spoken and
+written languages, however, will always be separated by a wide interval.
+
+
+  Poetical writers in the vernacular.
+
+Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the vernacular,
+which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous expression of the
+feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798-1857), the greatest of them all,
+employed the dialect of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are
+full of poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his "Ode to
+Liberty." Other poets, of what may be described as the Ionic school,
+such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-1869), Julius Typaldos (1814-1883), John
+Zampelios (1787-1856), and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his
+example in using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios
+Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and Gerasimos
+Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, adopted in their
+lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads--in other words, the
+vernacular of the Pindus range and the mountainous district of Epirus.
+This dialect had at least the advantage of being generally current
+throughout the mainland, while it derived distinction from the heroic
+exploits of the champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites,
+which are characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have
+made a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely employed
+the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from the Klephtic songs
+were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his
+lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules, a Cretan (d. 1893). With the
+poems of this group may be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835).
+The popular language has been generally adopted by the younger
+generation of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios
+(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes Palamas
+(b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and Jacob Polylas (d.
+1896).
+
+
+  Poetical writers in the conventional language.
+
+Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there existed at
+Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the accepted literary
+language, and whose writings serve as models for the later group which
+gathered at Athens after the emancipation of Greece. The literary
+traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes (1810-1892) and the
+brothers Alexander and Panagiotis Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who
+belonged to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion
+Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Karasoutzas
+(1824-1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873), and Achilles
+Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling, has also employed
+the popular language. In general the practice of versification in the
+conventional literary language has declined, though sedulously
+encouraged by the university of Athens, and fostered by annual poetic
+competitions with prizes provided by patriotic citizens. Greek lyric
+poetry during the first half of the century was mainly inspired by the
+patriotic sentiment aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the
+present generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic and
+contemplative mood under the influence of Western models.
+
+
+  Dramatists, translators and satirists.
+
+There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature in recent
+years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John Zampelios and the two
+Soutzos, who belong to the past generation, Kleon Rhangabes, Angelos
+Vlachos, Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes are the most
+prominent among modern dramatic writers. Numerous translations of
+foreign masterpieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of
+_Romeo and Juliet_, _Othello_, _King Lear_, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_ and _The
+Merchant of Venice_, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as examples
+of artistic excellence. Goethe's _Faust_ has been rendered into verse by
+Probelegios, and _Hamlet_, _Antony and Cleopatra_, _Coriolanus and
+Julius Caesar_, into prose by Damiroles. Among recent satirists, George
+Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique position. He reviews social and
+political events in the [Greek: Rhomeos], a witty little newspaper
+written entirely in verse, which is read with delight by all classes of
+the population.
+
+
+  Recent prose writers.
+
+Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary language. In
+historical research the Greeks continue to display much activity and
+erudition, but no great work comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's
+_History of the Revolution_ has appeared in the present generation. A
+history of the Greek nation from the earliest times to the present day,
+by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history of the 19th century by
+Karolides, have recently been published. The valuable [Greek: Mnemeia]
+of Sathas, the [Greek: meletai Byzantines historias] of Spiridion
+Zampelios and Mavrogiannes's _History of the Ionian Islands_ deserve
+special mention, as well as the essays of Bikelas, which treat of the
+Byzantine and modern epochs of Greek history. Some of the last-named
+were translated into English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the
+writers on jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios
+Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and John
+Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have written
+philosophical works. The _Ecclesiastical History_ of Diomedes Kyriakos
+and the _Theological Treatises_ of Archbishop Latas should be noted. The
+best-known writers of philological works are Constantine Kontos, a
+strong advocate of literary purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore
+Papademetrakopoulos and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen
+Koumanoudes, Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a
+recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high authority on
+numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes on mathematics, Anast.
+Christomanos on chemistry, and Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well
+known.
+
+
+  Fiction.
+
+The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding the
+emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign influence. Modern
+Greece has not produced any great novelist. The [Greek: Kretikoi gamoi]
+of Spiridion Zampelios, the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the
+_Thanos Blechas_ of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of
+historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the
+mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much
+cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In later times
+the short story has come into vogue through the example of D. Bikelas,
+whose tales have acquired great popularity; one of them, _Loukis Laras_,
+has been translated into many languages. The example of Bikelas has been
+followed by Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many
+others.
+
+
+  Prose writers in the vernacular.
+
+The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the vernacular in
+prose is John Psichari, professor of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in
+Paris. He is the recognized leader of the vulgarists. Among the best
+known of his works are [Greek: To taxeidi mou], a narrative of a journey
+in Greek lands, [Greek: Toneiro tou Giannire], [Greek: He Zoulea], and
+[Greek: ho Magos]. The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in
+the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari's followers is M.
+Palli, who has recently published a translation of the _Iliad_. Owing to
+the limited resources of the popular language, the writers of this
+school are sometimes compelled to employ strange and little-known words
+borrowed from the various dialects. The vernacular has never been
+adopted by writers on scientific subjects, owing to its inherent
+unsuitability and the incongruity arising from the introduction of
+technical terms derived from the ancient language. Notwithstanding the
+zeal of its adherents, it seems unlikely to maintain its place in
+literature outside the domain of poetry; nor can any other result be
+expected, unless its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public
+instruction in Greece.
+
+
+  Periodicals and Journals.
+
+Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which may be mentioned
+the _Athena_, edited by Constantine Kontos, the _Ethnike Agoge_, a
+continuation of the old _Hestia_, the _Harmonia_ and the [Greek:
+Diaplasis ton paidon], an educational review. The Parnassos, the
+Archaeological Society and other learned bodies issue annual or
+quarterly reports. The Greek journals are both numerous and widely read.
+They contain much clever writing, which is often marred by inaccuracy
+and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their tendency to exaggerated
+patriotic sentiment sometimes borders on the ludicrous. For many years
+the Nea _Hemera_ of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the
+Greek world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor,
+Anastasios Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and
+judgment.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Constantine Sathas, [Greek: Neoellenike philologia]
+  (Athens, 1868); D. Bikelas, [Greek: Peri neoellenikes philologias
+  dokimion] (London, 1871), reprinted in [Greek: Dialexeis kai
+  anamneseis] (Athens, 1893); J. S. Blackie, _Horae Hellenicae_ (London,
+  1874); R. Nicolai, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_
+  (Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangabe, _Histoire litteraire de la Grece
+  moderne_ (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, _Etudes sur la litterature grecque
+  moderne_ (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, _Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire_
+  (vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, _Poetes grecs contemporains_
+  (Paris, 1881); Kontos, [Greek: Glossikai paratereseis] (Athens, 1882);
+  Rhangabe and Sanders, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur von
+  ihren Anfangen bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1885); J. Psichari,
+  _Essais de grammaire historique neo-grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886 and
+  1889); _Etudes de philologie neo-grecque_ (Paris, 1892); F. Blass,
+  _Die Aussprache des Griechischen_ (3rd ed., Berlin, 1888);
+  Papademetrakopoulos, [Greek: Basanos hellenikes prophoras] (Athens,
+  1889); M. Konstantinides, _Neo-hellenica_ (_Dialogues in Modern Greek,
+  with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect_) (London, 1892); Rhoides,
+  [Greek: Ta Eidola. Glossike melete] (Athens, 1893); Polites, [Greek:
+  Meletai peri tou biou kai tes glosses Hellenikou laou] (2 vols.,
+  Athens, 1899).
+
+  For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, _Chants
+  populaires de la Grece moderne_ (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow,
+  _Popularia carmina Graeciae recentioris_ (Leipzig, 1860); von Hahn,
+  _Griechische und albanesische Marchen_ (Leipzig, 1864); [Greek:
+  Tepharikes, Lianotragouda] (2nd ed., Athens, 1868); E. Legrand,
+  _Recueil de chansons populaires grecques_ (Paris, 1874); _Recueil de
+  contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881); Paul de Lagarde,
+  _Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien_ (Gottingen, 1886); A. Jannaris,
+  [Greek: Asmata Kretika] (_Kreta's Volkslieder_) (Leipzig, 1876); A.
+  Sakellariou, [Greek: Ta Kypriaka] (Athens, 1891); [Greek: Zographeios
+  Hagon], published by the [Greek: Hellenikos philologikos syllogos]
+  (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, _Greek Folksongs
+  from the Turkish Provinces of Greece_ (London, 1885); E. M. Geldart,
+  _Folklore of Modern Greece_ (London, 1884). Lexicons: A. N. Jannaris,
+  _A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern Greek Languages_
+  (English-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios (Skarlatos D.), [Greek:
+  Lexikon tes Hellenikes glosses] (Athens, 1895); A. Sakellario, [Greek:
+  Lexikon tes Hellenikes glosses] (5th ed., Athens, 1898); S.
+  Koumanoudes, [Greek: Synagoge neon lexeon] (Athens, 1900). Grammars:
+  Mitsotakes, _Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und
+  Umgangssprache_ (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, _A Practical Modern
+  Greek Grammar_ (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, _Einleitung in die
+  neugriechische Grammatik_ (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G.
+  Dickson, _Handbook to Modern Greek_ (London, 1893); A. Thumb,
+  _Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_ (Strassburg, 1895); C.
+  Wied, _Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch
+  Selbstunterricht schnell und leicht zu lernen_ (2nd ed., undated,
+  Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, _Historical Greek Grammar_ (London, 1897).
+       (J. D. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Allen in _Classical
+    Quarterly_ (Jan. and April 1908).
+
+  [2] Others attribute it, as well as the _Margites_, to Pigres of
+    Halicarnassus, the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia,
+    who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.
+
+  [3] The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy
+    quotations in the _Constitution of Athens_.
+
+  [4] Since the above was written, four considerable fragments
+    generally assigned to Sappho have been discovered: a prayer to the
+    Nereids for the safe return of her brother Charaxus; the leave-taking
+    of a favourite pupil; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends, in
+    Lydia; the fourth, much mutilated, addressed to another pupil,
+    Gongyla. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light on the
+    personality of Sappho and the language and metre of her poems.
+
+  [5] Recently increased by specimens of the _Partheneia_ (choral songs
+    for maidens) and paeans.
+
+  [6] His Constitution of Athens (q.v.), of which a papyrus MS. was
+    found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms part of a larger work on
+    the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities.
+
+  [7] See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, "Eine alexandrinische
+    Weltchronik" (1905) (_Denkschrift der kaiserlich. Akademie der
+    Wissenschaften_, li.).
+
+  [8] The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for a
+    time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made him many
+    enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constantinople, from
+    which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning the faith of
+    Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the Jesuits, and his
+    printing-press was suppressed.
+
+
+
+
+GREEK RELIGION. The recent development of anthropological science and of
+the comparative study of religions has enabled us at last to assign to
+ancient Greek religion its proper place in the classification of creeds
+and to appreciate its importance for the history of civilization. In
+spite of all the diversities of local cults we may find a general
+definition of the theological system of the Hellenic communities, and
+with sufficient accuracy may describe it as an anthropomorphic
+polytheism, preserving many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period,
+unchecked by any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and
+therefore pliantly adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of
+the social and political history of the race, and easily able to
+assimilate alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole
+or in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more capable
+of progress than others, possibly higher, that have crystallized at an
+early period into a fixed dogmatic type; and as, owing to its essential
+character, it could not be convulsed by any inner revolution that might
+obliterate the deposits of its earlier life, it was likely to preserve
+the imprints of the successive ages of culture, and to reveal more
+clearly than any other testimony the evolution of the race from savagery
+to civilization. Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with
+incongruities, the highest forms of religious life being often
+confronted with the most primitive. And for this reason the student of
+savage anthropology and the student of the higher religions of the
+world are equally rewarded by its study.
+
+Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the Hellenic nation,
+like others that have played great parts in history, was the product of
+a blend of populations, the conquering tribes of Aryan descent coming
+from the north and settling among and upon certain pre-Hellenic
+Mediterranean stocks. The conclusion that is naturally drawn from this
+is that Hellenic religion is also the product of a blend of early Aryan
+or Indo-Germanic beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the
+Mediterranean area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which
+the later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two component
+parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first problem for the
+history of the development of this religion, is by no means an easy
+task; we may advance further towards its solution, when the mysterious
+pre-Hellenic Mediterranean language or group of languages, of which
+traces remain in Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying
+uninterpreted on the brick-tablets of the palace of Cnossus, has found
+its interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language.
+But the comparative study of the Indo-European speech-group, great as
+its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre in its
+contributions to our positive knowledge of the original belief of the
+primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct a common
+Indo-European religion. The greater part of the separate Aryan
+cult-systems may have developed after the diffusion and may have been
+the result of contact in prehistoric days with non-Aryan peoples. And
+many old religious etymological equations, such as [Greek: Ouranos] =
+Sanskrit Varuna, [Greek: Hermes] = Saramey[=a]s, Athena = Ahana, were
+uncritically made and have been abandoned. The chief fact that philology
+has revealed concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is
+that many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word
+derived from a root meaning "bright," and which appears in Zeus,
+Jupiter, Sanskrit _Dyaus_. This is important enough, but we should not
+exaggerate its importance, nor draw the unwarranted inference that
+therefore the primitive Indo-Europeans worshipped one supreme God, the
+Sky-Father. Besides the word "Zeus," the only other names of the
+Hellenic pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of
+Aryan formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus (whose name and
+cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the Thraco-Phrygians) and
+probably Pan. But other names, such as Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis,
+Hera, Hermes, have no discovered affinities with other Aryan
+speech-groups; and yet there is nothing suspiciously non-Aryan in the
+formation of these words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest
+Hellenic-Aryan vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea, Hephaestus
+and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that they belonged to an
+older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in Crete and other islands, and
+here and there on the mainland; while we know that Zeus derived certain
+unintelligible titles in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan
+speech.
+
+A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence justifies the
+conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes, pushing down from
+the north, already possessed certain deities in common such as Zeus,
+Poseidon and Apollo with whom they associated certain goddesses, and
+that they maintained the cult of Hestia or "Holy Hearth." Further, a
+comparison of the developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples
+suggests that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity,
+although we have equally good reason to assert that the cult of
+goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is a genuinely "Aryan"
+product. But when the tribes of this family poured into the Greek
+peninsula, it is probable that they would find in certain centres of a
+very ancient civilization, such as Argolis and Crete, the dominant cult
+of a female divinity.[1] The recent excavations on the site of the Hera
+temple at Argos prove that a powerful goddess was worshipped here many
+centuries before it is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He
+may have even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with him
+and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are certain that
+the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by Dr Arthur Evans, is the
+ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek "Mother of the gods": and it is a
+reasonable conjecture that she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis
+and perhaps for Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in
+assuming as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult, as
+that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non-Hellenic
+religious phenomenon. The very name "Demeter" and the study of other
+Aryan religions prove the prominence of the worship of the earth-goddess
+in our own family of the nations. Finally, we must reckon with the
+possibility that the other great nations which fringed the
+Mediterranean, Hittite, Semitic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress
+on early Greek religion, although former scholars may have made rash use
+of this hypothesis.[2]
+
+
+  Animism.
+
+Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems concerning the
+ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at least reduce the tangle
+of facts to some order by distinguishing its lower from its higher
+forms, and thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We
+may collect and sift the phenomena that remain over from a
+pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past, the beliefs
+and practices that belong to the animistic or even the pre-animistic
+period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human sacrifice. We shall at
+once be struck with the contrast between such civilized cults as those
+of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal divinities to whom the attributes
+of a progressive morality could be attached, and practices that long
+survived in backward communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the
+thunder and the winds, the cult of Zeus [Greek: Keraunos] "the thunder"
+at Mantinea and Zeus [Greek: Kappotas] in Laconia, who is none other
+than the mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These are
+examples of a religious view in which certain natural phenomena or
+objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred in their own right
+and a personal divinity has not yet emerged or been separated from them.
+A noteworthy product of primitive animistic feeling is the universally
+prevalent cult of Hestia, who is originally "Holy Hearth" pure and
+simple, and who even under the developed polytheism, in which she played
+no small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic
+personage.
+
+
+  Fetishism
+
+The animistic belief that certain material objects can be charged with a
+divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism, a term which properly
+denotes the worshipful or superstitious use of objects made by art and
+invested with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for the
+purposes of protective magic or for higher purposes of communion with
+the divinity. From the earliest discoverable period down to the present
+day fetishism has been a powerful factor in the religion of the
+Graeco-Roman world. The importance of the sacred stone and pillar in the
+"Mycenaean" or "Minoan" period which preceded Homer has been
+impressively shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship
+continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the rude
+aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often by the side of
+the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable conjecture that the earliest
+anthropomorphic images of divinities, which were beginning to make their
+appearance by the time of Homer, were themselves evolved by slow
+transformation from the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may
+have arisen as another form of this; the simple heap of stones, such as
+those erected to Hermes by the way-side and called [Greek: Hermaioi
+lophoi], may have served both as a place of worship and as an _agalma_
+that could attract and absorb a divine potency into itself. Hence the
+fetishistic power of the altar was fully recognized in Greek ritual, and
+hence also in the cult of Apollo Agyieus the god and the altar are
+called by the same name.
+
+It has been supposed that the ancestors of the historic Greeks, before
+they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as in human form,
+may have been accustomed to invest them with animal attributes and
+traits. We must not indeed suppose it to be a general law of religious
+evolution that "theriomorphism" must always precede anthropomorphism and
+that the latter transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems
+can exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can
+conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at another
+bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was devotedly
+anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its weakness;
+nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine his Dionysus entering
+temporarily into the body of the sacrificial bull or goat, and the men
+of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to their horse-headed Demeter, and
+the primitive Laconians possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Theriolatry in
+itself, i.e. the worship of certain animals as of divine power in their
+own right, apart from any association with higher divinities, can
+scarcely be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They are
+not found to have paid reverence to any species, though individual
+animals could acquire temporarily a divine character through communion
+with the altar or with the god. The wolf might at one time have been
+regarded as the incarnation of Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there
+we find faint traces of a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for
+wolves. But the occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of
+actual worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptuous
+funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolf's relatives, yet
+the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf's head. Nor did any Greek
+individual or state worship flies as a class, although a small oblation
+might be thrown to the flies before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the
+Leucadian rock, to please them and to persuade them not to worry the
+worshippers at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would
+be likely to attract them.
+
+
+  Totemism.
+
+Theriolatry suggests totemism; and though we now know that the former
+can arise and exist quite independently of the latter, recent
+anthropologists have interpreted the apparent sanctity or prestige of
+certain animals in parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit
+of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation, originated and
+maintained with great acumen by Andrew Lang and W. Robertson Smith,
+appears now somewhat hazardous; and as a scientific hypothesis there are
+many flaws in it. The more observant study of existing totem-tribes has
+weakened our impression of the importance of totemism as a primitive
+religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a social than
+as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard totemism as a mere
+system of nomenclature, by which a tribe names itself after some animal
+or plant, then we might quote a few examples of Hellenic tribes
+totemistic in this sense. But totemism is a fact of importance only when
+it affects the tribal marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the
+tribal marriage laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray
+no clear mark of totemistic arrangements; nor does the totemism of
+contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such way as
+to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar phenomena of
+early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we have traces of a
+snake-tribe in Greece, the [Greek: Ophieis] in Aetolia, the [Greek:
+Ophiogeneis] in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that these
+worshipped the snake, though the latter clan were on terms of intimacy
+with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped in Hellenic cult--the
+cases are few and doubtful--it may have been regarded as the incarnation
+of the ancestor or as the _avatar_ of the under-world divinity.
+
+
+  Human sacrifice.
+
+Finally, among the primitive or savage phenomena the practice of human
+sacrifice looms large. Encouraged at one time by the Delphic oracle, it
+was becoming rare and repellent to the conscience by the 6th century
+B.C.; but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even by the time
+of Porphyry. The facts are very complex and need critical handling, and
+a satisfying scientific explanation of them all is still to be sought.
+
+We can now observe the higher aspects of the advanced polytheism. And at
+the outset we must distinguish between mythology and religion strictly
+understood, between the stories about the divinities and the private or
+public religious service. No doubt the former are often a reflection of
+the latter, in many cases being suggested by the ritual which they may
+have been invented to interpret, and often envisaging important
+cult-ideas. Such for example are the myths about the purification and
+trial of Orestes, Theseus, Ixion, the story of Demeter's sorrow, of the
+sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition of
+human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irresponsible,
+without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal prohibition; and
+frequently it sank below the level of the current religion, which was
+almost free from the impurities which shock the modern reader of
+Hellenic myths. Nor again did any one feel himself called upon to
+believe any particular myth; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in
+which the term is used in Christian theology, as the will to believe
+certain dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity, is
+a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic ethics or
+religious doctrine; only, if a man proclaimed his disbelief in the
+existence of the gods and refused to join in the ritual of the
+community, he would become "suspect," and might at times be persecuted
+by his fellows. Greek religion was not so much an affair of doctrine as
+of ritual, religious formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities
+were an important component, and prayer; and the most illuminative
+sources of our knowledge of it are the ritual-inscriptions and other
+state-documents, the private dedications, the monuments of religious art
+and certain passages in the literature, philology and archaeology being
+equally necessary to the equipment of the student.
+
+
+  Religion in Homer.
+
+We are tempted to turn to Homer as the earliest authority. And though
+Homer is not primitive and does not present even an approximately
+complete account of Greek religion, we can gather from his poems a
+picture of an advanced polytheism which in form and structure at least
+is that which was presented to the world of Aeschylus. We discern a
+pantheon already to some extent systematized, a certain hierarchy and
+family of divinities in which the supremacy of Zeus is established as
+incontestable. And the anthropomorphic impulse, the strongest trend in
+the Greek religious imagination, which filled the later world with
+fictitious personages, generating transparent shams such as an
+Ampidromus for the ritual of the Ampidromia, Amphiction for the
+Amphictiones, a hero [Greek: Keramos] for the gild of potters, is
+already at its height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already
+clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically
+shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could work upon,
+not vaguely conceived _numina_ like the forms of the old Roman religion.
+Nor can we call them for the most part nature-deities like the
+personages of the Vedic system, thinly disguised "personifications" of
+natural phenomena. Athena is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun; they
+are simply Athena and Apollo, divine personages with certain powers and
+character, as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for
+Christendom. By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate
+position, we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may
+properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river-deities,
+forms descending probably from a remote animistic period, but
+maintaining themselves within the popular religion till the end of
+Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and think at times with levity
+and _banalite_ about his deities, his deeper utterances impute an
+advanced morality to the supreme God. His Zeus is on the whole a power
+of righteousness, dealing with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never
+being himself the author of evil--an idea revealed in the opening
+passage of the _Odyssey_--but protecting the good and punishing the
+wicked. Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both
+for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as it is in Judaic
+and Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides protested strongly
+against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus is equally a god of pity and
+mercy, and the man who neglects the prayers of the sorrowful and
+afflicted, who violates the sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or
+oppresses the poor or the wanderer, may look for divine punishment.
+Though not regarded as the physical author of the universe or the
+Creator, he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though
+the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed in the
+Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men that they reveal are
+on the whole genial and social; the deity sits unseen at the good man's
+festal sacrifice, and there is a simple apprehension of the idea of
+divine communion. There is also indeed a glimmering of the dark
+background of the nether world, and the chthonian powers that might send
+up the Erinys to fulfil the curse of the wronged. Yet on the whole the
+religious atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that
+of the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition; nor is Homer
+troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely recognizes the
+cult of the dead,[3] and is not oppressed by fear of the ghost-world.
+
+
+  The post-Homeric period.
+
+If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek public and
+private worship of the historic period we find much in it that agrees
+with Homeric theology. His "Olympian" system retains a certain life
+almost to the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to suppose
+that it had lost its hold upon the people of the 5th and 4th century
+B.C. We find it, indeed, enriched in the post-Homeric period with new
+figures of prestige and power; Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly
+heard, becomes a high god with a worship full of promise for the future.
+Demeter and Kore, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well enough
+but could not use for his epic purposes, attract the ardent affections
+and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the old poet did not
+recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place in the later shrines. But
+much that has been said of the Homeric may be said of the later
+classical theology. The deities remain anthropomorphic, and appear as
+clearly defined individuals. A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is
+supreme, even in the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities
+played many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the departmental
+system of divine functions; certain members of the pantheon had a
+preference for the life of the fields, but as the _polis_ emerged from
+the village communities, Demeter, Hermes, Artemis and others, the gods
+and goddesses of the husbandmen and shepherds, become powers of the
+council-chamber and the market-place. The moral ideas that we find in
+the Homeric religion are amply attested by cult-records of the later
+period. The deities are regarded on the whole as beneficent, though
+revengeful if wronged or neglected; the cult-titles used in prayer,
+which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and wish of the
+worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the doubtful title of Demeter
+Erinys being possibly an exception. The important cults of Zeus [Greek:
+Hikesios] and [Greek: Prostropaios], the suppliant's protecting deity,
+embody the ideas of pity and mercy that mark advanced religion; and many
+momentous steps in the development of morality and law were either
+suggested or assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity
+of the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness, was
+originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may have been
+prone to perjury, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic religious ethics
+regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of family duties, the
+sacredness of the life of the kinsman, were ideas fostered by early
+Hellenic religion before they generated principles of secular ethics. In
+the post-Homeric period, the development of the doctrine of purity,
+which was associated with the Apolline religion, combining with a
+growing dread of the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many
+important ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide.[4]
+And the beginnings of international law and morality were rooted in
+religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state-life was indebted in
+manifold ways to Greek religion, and the study of the Greek oracles
+would alone supply sufficient testimony of this. In many cases the very
+origin of the state was religious, the earliest _polis_ sometimes having
+arisen under the shadow of the temple.
+
+Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state, and the
+priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic. Secular
+advance, moral progress and the march of science, could never long be
+thwarted by religious tradition; on the contrary, speculative thought
+and artistic creation were considered as attributes of divinity. We may
+say that the religion of Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people,
+but rather as a servant than as a master.
+
+Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of the clan and
+family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania and Samothrace, and the
+private services of the mystic brotherhoods. The latter were scattered
+broadcast over Hellas, and the influence of the former was strengthened
+and their significance intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread
+at first from the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards,
+and derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic
+brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the religious
+consciousness, and we find a strong Salvationist tendency, the promise
+of salvation relying on mystic communion with the deity. Also a new and
+vital principle is at work; Orphism is the only force in Greek religion
+of a clear apostolic purpose, for it broke the barriers of the old
+tribal and civic cults, and preached its message to bond and free,
+Hellene and barbarian.
+
+The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned with its gradual
+penetration by Oriental ideas and worships, and the results of this
+[Greek: theokrasia] are discerned in an ever increasing mysticism and a
+tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated as the old Hellenic religion
+appeared to be by Christianity, it nevertheless retained a certain life,
+though transformed, under the new creed to which it lent much of its
+hieratic organization and religious terminology. The indebtedness of
+Christianity to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of
+comparative religion; and for an adequate estimate a minute knowledge of
+the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of the essential
+conditions.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Older Authorities: A. Maury, _Histoire des religions de
+  la Grece antique_ (3 vols., 1857-1859); Welcker, _Griechische
+  Gotterlehre_ (3 vols., 1857-1863); Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,
+  2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887), all antiquated in regard to
+  theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent
+  Literature--(a) General Treatises: O. Gruppe, "Griechische Mythologie
+  und Religionsgeschichte" in Iwan von Muller's _Handbuch der
+  klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 2. 2 (1902-1906); L. R.
+  Farnell's _Cults of the Greek States_, 4 vols. (1896-1906, vol. 5,
+  1908); Miss Jane Harrison's _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
+  Religion_ (ed. 1908); Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
+  Religionsgeschichte_ (Greek section, 1904); (b) Special Works or
+  Dissertations: articles in Roscher's _Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der
+  griechischen und romischen Mythologie_, and Pauly-Wissowa
+  _Encyklopadie_ (1894-   ); Immerwahr, _Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_
+  (1891); Wide, _Lakonische Kulte_ (1893); de Visser, _De Graecorum diis
+  non referentibus speciem humanam_ (Leiden, 1900). Greek Ritual and
+  Festivals--A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); P. Stengel,
+  "Die griechischen Sacralaltertumer" in Iwan von Muller's _Handbuch_,
+  v. 3 (1898); W. H. D. Rouse, _Greek Votive Offerings_ (1902). Greek
+  Religious Thought and Speculation--L. Campbell's _Religion in Greek
+  Literature_ (1898); Ducharme, _La Critique des traditions religieuses
+  chez les Grecs des origines au temps de Plutarque_ (Paris, 1904). See
+  also articles on individual deities, and cf. ROMAN RELIGION;
+  MYSTERIES; MITHRAS.     (L. R. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This has often been explained as a result of _Mutterrecht_, or
+    reckoning descent through the female: for reasons against this
+    hypothesis see L. R. Farnell in _Archiv fur vergleichende
+    Religionswissenschaft_ (1904); cf. A. J. Evans, "Mycenaean Tree and
+    Pillar Cult," in _Journ. of Hellenic Studies_ (1901).
+
+  [2] V. Berard has recently revived the discredited theory of a
+    prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical work,
+    _L'Origine des cultes arcadiens_. M. P. Foucart believes in very
+    early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion of
+    Demeter and Dionysus; see _Les Grands Mysteres d'Eleusis_ and _Le
+    Culte de Dionysos en Attique_.
+
+  [3] This became very powerful from the 7th century onward, and there
+    are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric, or
+    Mycenaean, period; _vide_ Rohde's _Psyche_ (new edition), Tsountas
+    and Manatt, _The Mycenaean Age_.
+
+  [4] See L. R. Farnell, _Evolution of Religion_ (Hibbert Lectures,
+    1905), pp. 139-152.
+
+
+
+
+GREELEY, HORACE (1811-1872), American statesman and man of letters, was
+born at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of February 1811. His parents
+were of Scottish-Irish descent, but the ancestors of both had been in
+New England for several generations. He was the third of seven children.
+His father, Zaccheus Greeley, owned a farm of 50 acres of stony, sterile
+land, from which a bare support was wrung. Horace was a feeble and
+precocious lad, taking little interest in the ordinary sports of
+childhood, learning to read before he was able to talk plainly, and the
+prodigy of the neighbourhood for accurate spelling. Before Horace was
+ten years old (1820), his father became bankrupt, his home was sold by
+the sheriff, and Zaccheus Greeley himself fled the state to escape
+arrest for debt. The family soon removed to West Haven, Vermont, where,
+all working together, they made a scanty living as day labourers. Horace
+from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely eleven years
+old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office at Whitehall, New
+York, but was rejected on account of his youth. After three years more
+with the family as a day labourer at West Haven, he succeeded, with his
+father's consent, in being apprenticed in the office of _The Northern
+Spectator_, at East Poultney, Vermont. Here he soon became a good
+workman, developed a passion for politics and especially for political
+statistics, came to be depended upon for more or less of the editing of
+the paper, and was a figure in the village debating society. He received
+only $40 a year, but he sent most of his money to his father. In June
+1830 _The Northern Spectator_ was suspended. Meantime his father had
+removed to a small tract of wild land in the dense forests of Western
+Pennsylvania, 30 m. from Erie. The released apprentice now visited his
+parents, and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile
+seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he got it,
+giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last, with no further
+prospect of work nearer home, he started for New York. He travelled on
+foot and by canal-boat, entering New York in August 1831, with all his
+clothes in a bundle carried over his back with a stick, and with but $10
+in his pocket. More than half of this sum was exhausted while he made
+vain efforts to find employment. Many refused to employ him, in the
+belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor, ill-fitting
+apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against him. At last he
+found work on a 32mo New Testament, set in agate, double columns, with a
+middle column of notes in pearl. It was so difficult and so poorly paid
+that other printers had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded in making
+enough to pay his board bill, but he finished the task, and thus found
+subsequent employment easier to get.
+
+In January 1833 Greeley formed a partnership with Francis V. Story, a
+fellow-workman. Their combined capital amounted to about $150. Procuring
+their type on credit, they opened a small office, and undertook the
+printing of the _Morning Post_, the first cheap paper published in New
+York. Its projector, Dr Horatio D. Shepard, meant to sell it for one
+cent, but under the arguments of Greeley he was persuaded to fix the
+price at two cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the
+printers losing only $50 or $60 by the experiment. They still had a
+_Bank Note Reporter_ to print, and soon got the printing of a tri-weekly
+paper, the _Constitutionalist_, the organ of some lottery dealers.
+Within six months Story was drowned, but his brother-in-law, Jonas
+Winchester, took his place in the firm. Greeley was now asked by James
+Gordon Bennett to go into partnership with him in starting _The Herald_.
+He declined the venture, but recommended the partner whom Bennett
+subsequently took. On the 2nd of March 1834, Greeley and Winchester
+issued the first number of _The New Yorker_, a weekly literary and news
+paper, the firm then supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of the
+first number they sold about 100 copies; of the second, nearly 200.
+There was an average increase for the next month of about 100 copies per
+week. The second volume began with a circulation of about 4550 copies,
+and with a loss on the first year's publication of $3000. The second
+year ended with 7000 subscribers and a further loss of $2000. By the end
+of the third year _The New Yorker_ had reached a circulation of 9500
+copies, and had sustained a total loss of $7000. It was published seven
+years (until the 20th of September 1841), and was never profitable, but
+it was widely popular, and it gave Greeley, who was its sole editor,
+much prominence. On the 5th of July 1836 Greeley married Miss Mary Y.
+Cheney, a Connecticut school teacher, whom he had met in a Grahamite
+(vegetarian) boarding-house in New York.
+
+During the publication of _The New Yorker_ he added to the scanty income
+which the job printing brought him by supplying editorials to the
+short-lived _Daily Whig_ and various other publications. In 1838 he had
+gained such standing as a writer that he was selected by Thurlow Weed,
+William H. Seward, and other leaders of the Whig Party, for the
+editorship of a campaign paper entitled _The Jeffersonian_, published at
+Albany. He continued _The New Yorker_, and travelled between Albany and
+New York each week to edit the two papers. The _Jeffersonian_ was a
+quiet and instructive rather than a vehement campaign sheet, and the
+Whigs believed that it had a great effect upon the elections of the next
+year. When, on the 2nd of May 1840, some time after the nomination by
+the Whig party of William Henry Harrison for the Presidency, Greeley
+began the publication of a new weekly campaign paper, _The Log Cabin_,
+it sprang at once into a great circulation; 40,000 copies of the first
+number were sold, and it finally rose to 80,000. It was considered a
+brilliant political success, but it was not profitable, and in September
+1841 was merged in the _Weekly Tribune_. On the 3rd of April 1841,
+Greeley announced that on the following Saturday (April 10th) he would
+begin the publication of a daily newspaper of the same general
+principles, to be called _The Tribune_. He was now entirely without
+money. From a personal friend, James Coggeshall, he borrowed $1000, on
+which capital and the editor's reputation _The Tribune_ was founded. It
+began with 500 subscribers. The first week's expenses were $525 and the
+receipts $92. By the end of the fourth week it had run up a circulation
+of 6000, and by the seventh reached 11,000, which was then the full
+capacity of its press. It was alert, cheerful and aggressive, was
+greatly helped by the attacks of rival papers, and promised success
+almost from the start.
+
+From this time Greeley was popularly identified with _The Tribune_, and
+its share in the public discussion of the time is his history. It soon
+became moderately prosperous, and his assured income should have placed
+him beyond pecuniary worry. His income was long above $15,000 per year,
+frequently as much as $35,000 or more. But he lacked business thrift,
+inherited a disposition to endorse for his friends, and was often unable
+to distinguish between deserving applicants for aid and adventurers. He
+was thus frequently straitened, and, as his necessities pressed, he sold
+successive interests in his newspaper. At the outset he owned the whole
+of it. When it was already firmly established (in July 1841), he took in
+Thomas McElrath as an equal partner, upon the contribution of $2000 to
+the common fund. By the 1st of January 1849 he had reduced his interest
+to 31-1/2 shares out of 100; by July 2nd, 1860, to 15 shares; in 1868 he
+owned only 9; and in 1872, only 6. In 1867 the stock sold for $6500 per
+share, and his last sale was for $9600. He bought wild lands, took stock
+in mining companies, desiccated egg companies, patent looms,
+photo-lithographic companies, gave away profusely, lent to plausible
+rascals, and was the ready prey of every new inventor who chanced to
+find him with money or with property that he could readily convert into
+money.
+
+In September 1841 Greeley merged his weekly papers, _The Log Cabin_ and
+_The New Yorker_, into _The Weekly Tribune_, which soon attained as wide
+circulation as its predecessors, and was much more profitable. It rose
+in a time of great political excitement to a total circulation of a
+quarter of a million, and it sometimes had for successive years 140,000
+to 150,000. For several years it was rarely much below 100,000. Its
+subscribers were found throughout all quarters of the northern half of
+the Union from Maine to Oregon, large packages going to remote districts
+beyond the Mississippi or Missouri, whose only connexion with the
+outside world was through a weekly or semi-weekly mail. The readers of
+this weekly paper acquired a personal affection for its editor, and he
+was thus for many years the American writer most widely known and most
+popular among the rural classes. The circulation of _The Daily Tribune_
+was never proportionately great--its advocacy of a protective tariff,
+prohibitory liquor legislation and other peculiarities, repelling a
+large support which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It
+rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of
+20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and thereafter
+ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a semi-weekly edition
+was also printed, which ultimately reached a steady circulation of from
+15,000 to 25,000.
+
+From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to hear all
+sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas. In March 1842
+_The Tribune_ began to give one column daily to a discussion of the
+doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed by Albert Brisbane. Gradually
+Greeley came to advocate some of these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he
+had a sharp discussion upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J.
+Raymond, then employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve
+articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book form.
+Greeley became personally interested in one of the Fourierite
+associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red Bank, N. J.
+(1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions doubtless led to or
+gave encouragement to other socialistic experiments, such as that at
+Brook Farm. When this was abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one
+or two other members, sought employment from Greeley upon _The Tribune_.
+Greeley dissented from many of Fourier's propositions, and in later
+years was careful to explain that the principle of association for the
+common good of working men and the elevation of labour was the chief
+feature which attracted him. Co-operation among working men he continued
+to urge throughout his life. In 1850 the Fox Sisters, on his wife's
+invitation, spent several weeks in his house. His attitude towards their
+"rappings" and "spiritual manifestations" was one of observation and
+inquiry; and in his _Recollections_ he wrote concerning these
+manifestations: "That some of them are the result of juggle, collusion
+or trick I am confident; that others are _not_, I decidedly believe."
+
+From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and throughout his
+active life he was its most trenchant advocate and propagandist. Besides
+constantly urging it in the columns of _The Tribune_, he appeared as
+early as 1843 in a public debate on "The Grounds of Protection," with
+Samuel J. Tilden and Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular
+essays on the subject were published over his own signature in _The
+Tribune_ in 1869, and subsequently republished in book form, with a
+title-page describing protection to home industry as a system of
+national co-operation for the elevation of labour. He opposed woman
+suffrage on the ground that the majority of women did not want it and
+never would, and declared that until woman should "emancipate herself
+from the thraldom to etiquette," he "could not see how the 'woman's
+rights theory' is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible
+abstraction." He aided practical efforts, however, for extending the
+sphere of woman's employments. He opposed the theatres, and for a time
+refused to publish their advertisements. He held the most rigid views on
+the sanctity of marriage and against easy divorce, and vehemently
+defended them in controversies with Robert Dale Owen and others. He
+practised and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous
+liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise. He
+denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to pay interest
+on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once held a place in the
+"Directory of the Friends of Ireland," and contributed liberally to its
+support. He used the occasion of Charles Dickens's first visit to
+America to urge international copyright, and was one of the few editors
+to avoid alike the flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and
+the ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his
+_American Notes_. On the occasion of Dickens's second visit to America,
+Greeley presided at the great banquet given him by the press of the
+country. He made the first elaborate reports of popular scientific
+lectures by Louis Agassiz and other authorities. He gave ample hearing
+to the advocates of phonography and of phonographic spelling. He was one
+of the most conspicuous advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many
+other internal improvements.
+
+But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief agency in
+educating the mass of the Northern people to that opposition through
+legal forms to the extension of slavery which culminated in the election
+of Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War, that Greeley's main work was done.
+Incidents in it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a
+scheme for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in
+Washington by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indictment
+in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary documents,
+perpetual denunciation of him in Southern newspapers and speeches, and
+the hostility of the Abolitionists, who regarded his course as too
+conservative. His anti-slavery work culminated in his appeal to
+President Lincoln, entitled "The Prayer of Twenty Millions," in which he
+urged "that all attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time
+uphold its inciting cause" were preposterous and futile, and that "every
+hour of deference to slavery" was "an hour of added and deepened peril
+to the Union." President Lincoln in his reply said: "My paramount object
+is to save the Union, and not either to save or destroy slavery.... What
+I do about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it
+helps to save this Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not
+believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here stated my
+purpose according to my views of official duty; and I intend no
+modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere
+could be free." Precisely one month after the date of this reply the
+Emancipation Proclamation was issued.
+
+Greeley's political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one of the
+founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he held few
+offices. In 1848-1849 he served a three months' term in Congress,
+filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for giving small tracts
+of government land free to actual settlers, and published an exposure of
+abuses in the allowance of mileage to members, which corrected the evil,
+but brought him much personal obloquy. In the National Republican
+Convention in 1860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state
+on account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate, he was
+made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to Seward did much to
+prevent the success of that statesman, and to bring about instead the
+nomination of Abraham Lincoln. This was attributed by his opponents to
+personal motives, and a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication
+of which he challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling
+days he had been wounded at Seward's failure to offer him office. In
+1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal
+opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that Evarts could
+not be elected, his supporters threw their votes for a third candidate,
+Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over Greeley by a small majority. At the
+outbreak of the war he favoured allowing the Southern states to secede,
+provided a majority of their people at a fair election should so decide,
+declaring "that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof one section
+was pinned to the other by bayonets." When the war began he urged the
+most vigorous prosecution of it. The "On to Richmond" appeal, which
+appeared day after day in _The Tribune_, was incorrectly attributed to
+him, and it did not wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in
+the first battle of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he
+urged negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern
+Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to confer with
+them. They were found to have no sufficient authority. In 1864 he was
+one of the Lincoln Presidential electors for New York. At the close of
+the war, contrary to the general feeling of his party, he urged
+universal amnesty and impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction.
+In 1867 his friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the
+United States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he
+refused to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and
+with what his friends thought unnecessary candour re-stated his
+obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before the time for
+the election, with the certainty that this would prevent his success.
+Some months later he signed the bail bond of Jefferson Davis, and this
+provoked a torrent of public indignation. He had written a popular
+history of the late war, the first volume having an immense sale and
+bringing him unusually large profits. The second was just issued, and
+the subscribers, in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An
+unsuccessful attempt was also made to expel him from the Union League
+Club of New York.
+
+In 1867 he was a delegate-at-large to the convention for the revision of
+the state constitution, and in 1869 and 1870 he was the Republican
+candidate for controller of the state and member of Congress
+respectively, but in each case was defeated.
+
+He was dissatisfied with General Grant's administration, and became its
+sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to develop ended in the
+organization of the Liberal Republican party, which held its National
+Convention at Cincinnati in 1872, and nominated Greeley for the
+presidency. For a time the tide of feeling ran strongly in his favour.
+It was first checked by the action of his life-long opponents, the
+Democrats, who also nominated him at their National Convention. He
+expected their support, on account of his attitude toward the South and
+hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him their formal
+nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many Republicans who had
+sympathized with his criticisms of the administration, and with the
+declaration of principles adopted at the first convention, were repelled
+by the coalition. This feeling grew stronger until the election. His old
+party associates regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a
+half-hearted support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual
+bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August, on
+representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took the field
+in person, and made a series of campaign speeches, beginning in New
+England and extending throughout Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana, which
+aroused great enthusiasm, and were regarded at the time by both friends
+and opponents as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied
+intellectual power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass.
+General Grant received in the election 3,597,070 votes, Greeley
+2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia, Kentucky,
+Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas.
+
+He had resigned his editorship of _The Tribune_ immediately after the
+nomination; he now resumed it cheerfully; but it was soon apparent that
+his powers had been overstrained. For years he had suffered greatly from
+sleeplessness. During the intense excitement of the campaign the
+difficulty was increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went
+immediately to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had
+practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation of the
+upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He expired on the 29th
+of November 1872. His funeral was a simple but impressive public
+pageant. The body lay in state in the City Hall, where it was surrounded
+by crowds of many thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the
+President and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief-Justice of
+the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men of both
+parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession, preceded by the
+mayor and other civic authorities, down Broadway. He had been the target
+of constant attack during his life, and his personal foibles, careless
+dress and mental eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But
+his death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held as a
+leader of opinion and faithful public servant. "Our later Franklin"
+Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his countrymen
+remember him.
+
+In 1851 Greeley visited Europe for the first time, serving as a juryman
+at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before a committee of the
+House of Commons on newspaper taxes, and urging the repeal of the stamp
+duty on advertisements. In 1855 he made a second trip to Europe. In
+Paris he was arrested on the suit of a sculptor, whose statue had been
+injured in the New York World's Fair (of which he had been a director),
+and spent two days in Clichy, of which he gave an amusing account. In
+1859 he visited California by the overland route, and had numerous
+public receptions. In 1871 he visited Texas, and his trip through the
+southern country, where he had once been so hated, was an ovation. About
+1852 he purchased a farm at Chappaqua, New York, where he afterwards
+habitually spent his Saturdays, and experimented in agriculture. He was
+in constant demand as a lecturer from 1843, when he made his first
+appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences, and, in spite
+of his bad management in money matters, received considerable sums,
+sometimes $6000 or $7000 for a single winter's lecturing. He was also
+much sought for as a contributor, over his own signature, to the weekly
+newspapers, and was sometimes largely paid for these articles. In
+religious faith he was from boyhood a Universalist, and for many years
+was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalist church in New York.
+
+His published works are: _Hints Toward Reforms_ (1850); _Glances at
+Europe_ (1851); _History of the Struggle for Slavery Extension_ (1856);
+_Overland Journey to San Francisco_ (1860); _The American Conflict_ (2
+vols., 1864-1866); _Recollections of a Busy Life_ (1868; new edition,
+with appendix containing an account of his later years, his argument
+with Robert Dale Owen on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873);
+_Essays on Political Economy_ (1870); and _What I know of Farming_
+(1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland, in
+editing _A Political Text-book_ (1860), and supervised for many years
+the annual issues of _The Whig Almanac_ and _The Tribune Almanac_,
+comprising extensive political statistics.
+
+  The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Parton (New York, 1855;
+  new ed., Boston, 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y. 1903). Lives have also
+  been written by L. U. Reavis (New York, 1872), and L. D. Ingersoll
+  (Chicago, 1873); and there is a _Memorial of Horace Greeley_ (New
+  York, 1873).     (W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GREELEY, a city and the county-seat of Weld county, Colorado, U.S.A.,
+about 50 m. N. by E. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 2395; (1900) 3023 (286
+foreign-born); (1910) 8179. It is served by the Union Pacific and the
+Colorado & Southern railways. In 1908 a franchise was granted to the
+Denver & Greeley Electric railway. The city is the seat of the State
+Normal School of Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the
+city. The county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its
+agricultural importance is due to an elaborate system of irrigation. In
+1899 Weld county had under irrigation 226,613 acres, representing an
+increase of 102.2% since 1889, and a much larger irrigated area than in
+any other county of the state. Irrigation ditches are supplied with
+water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre, Big Thompson and South Platte
+rivers, near the foothills. The principal crops are potatoes, sugar
+beets, onions, cabbages and peas; in 1899 Weld county raised 2,821,285
+bushels of potatoes on 23,195 acres (53% of the potato acreage for the
+entire state). The manufacture of beet sugar is a growing industry, a
+large factory having been established at Greeley in 1902. Beets are also
+grown as food for live stock, especially sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages
+and onions are canned here. Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Cook
+Meeker (1817-1879), agricultural editor of the New York _Tribune_. With
+the support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named), he
+began in 1869 to advocate in _The Tribune_ the founding of an
+agricultural colony in Colorado. Subsequently President Hayes appointed
+him Indian agent at White River, Colorado, and he was killed at what is
+now Meeker, Colorado, in an uprising of the Ute Indians. Under Meeker's
+scheme, which attracted mainly people from New England and New York
+state, most of whom were able to contribute at least a little capital,
+the Union Colony of Colorado was organized and chartered, and bought
+originally 11,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from
+it one residence lot, one business lot, and a tract of farm land. The
+funds thus acquired were, to a large extent, expended in making public
+improvements. A clause inserted in all deeds forbade the sale of
+intoxicating liquors on the land concerned, under pain of the reversion
+of such property to the colony. The initiation fees ($5) were used for
+the expenses of locating the colony, and the membership certificate fees
+($150) were expended in the construction of irrigating ditches, as was
+the money received from the sale of town lots, except about $13,000
+invested in a school building (now the Meeker Building). Greeley was
+organized as a town in 1871, and was chartered as a city of the second
+class in 1886. The "Union Colony of Colorado" still exists as an
+incorporated body and holds reversionary rights in streets, alleys and
+public grounds, and in all places "where intoxicating liquors are
+manufactured, sold or given away, as a beverage."
+
+  See Richard T. Ely, "A Study of a 'Decreed' Town," _Harper's
+  Magazine_, vol. 106 (1902-1903), p. 390 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832-1896), English geologist, son of the Rev.
+Thomas Sheldon Green, master of the Ashby Grammar School, was born at
+Maidstone on the 10th of October 1832. He was educated partly at his
+father's school, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and afterwards at Gonville and Caius
+College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixth wrangler in 1855 and was
+elected a fellow of his college. In 1861 he joined the Geological Survey
+of Great Britain, and surveyed large areas of the midland counties,
+Derbyshire and Yorkshire. He wrote (wholly or in part) memoirs on the
+Geology of Banbury (1864), of Stockport (1866), of North Derbyshire
+(1869, 2nd ed. 1887), and of the Yorkshire Coal-field (1878). In 1874 he
+retired from the Geological Survey, having been appointed professor of
+geology in the Yorkshire College at Leeds; in 1885 he became also
+professor of mathematics, while for many years he held the lectureship
+on geology at the school of military engineering at Chatham. He was
+elected F.R.S. in 1886, and two years later was chosen professor of
+geology in the university of Oxford. His manual of _Physical Geology_
+(1876, 3rd ed. 1882) is an excellent book. He died at Boar's Hill,
+Oxford, on the 19th of August 1896.
+
+  A portrait of him, with brief memoir, was published in _Proc. Yorksh.
+  Geol. and Polytechnic Soc._ xiii. 232.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, DUFF (1791-1875), American politician and journalist, was born in
+Woodford county, Kentucky, on the 15th of August 1791. He was a school
+teacher in his native state, served during the War of 1812 in the
+Kentucky militia, and then settled in Missouri, where he worked as a
+schoolmaster and practised law. He was a member of the Missouri
+Constitutional Convention of 1820, and was elected to the state House of
+Representatives in 1820 and to the state Senate in 1822, serving one
+term in each house. Becoming interested in journalism, he purchased and
+for two years edited the St Louis _Enquirer_. In 1825 he bought and
+afterwards edited in Washington, D.C., _The United States Telegraph_,
+which soon became the principal organ of the Jackson men in opposition
+to the Adams administration. Upon Andrew Jackson's election to the
+presidency, the _Telegraph_ became the principal mouthpiece of the
+administration, and received printing patronage estimated in value at
+$50,000 a year, while Green became one of the coterie of unofficial
+advisers of Jackson known as the "Kitchen Cabinet." In the quarrel
+between Jackson and John C. Calhoun, Green supported the latter, and
+through the columns of the _Telegraph_ violently attacked the
+administration. In consequence, his paper was deprived of the government
+printing in the spring of 1831. Green, however, continued to edit it in
+the Calhoun interest until 1835, and gave vigorous support to that
+leader's nullification views. From 1835 to 1838 he edited _The
+Reformation_, a radically partisan publication, devoted to free trade
+and the extreme states' rights theory. In 1841-1843 he was in Europe on
+behalf of the Tyler administration, and he is said to have been
+instrumental in causing the appointment of Lord Ashburton to negotiate
+in Washington concerning the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada.
+In January 1843 Green established in New York City a short-lived
+journal, _The Republic_, to combat the spoils system and to advocate
+free trade. In September 1844 Calhoun, then secretary of state, sent
+Green to Texas ostensibly as consul at Galveston, but actually, it
+appears, to report to the administration, then considering the question
+of the annexation of Texas, concerning the political situation in Texas
+and Mexico. After the close of the war with Mexico Green was sent to
+that country in 1849 by President Taylor to negotiate concerning the
+moneys which, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had
+agreed to pay; and he saved his country a considerable sum by arranging
+for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subsequently Green was
+engaged in railway building in Georgia and Alabama. On the 10th of June
+1875 he died in Dalton, Georgia, a city which in 1848 he had helped to
+found.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837-1883), English historian, was born at Oxford
+on 12th December 1837, and educated at Magdalen College School and at
+Jesus College, where he obtained an open scholarship. On leaving Oxford
+he took orders and became the incumbent of St Philip's, Stepney. His
+preaching was eloquent and able; he worked diligently among his poor
+parishioners and won their affection by his ready sympathy. Meanwhile he
+studied history in a scholarly fashion, and wrote much for the _Saturday
+Review_. Partly because his health was weak and partly because he ceased
+to agree with the teaching of the Church of England, he abandoned
+clerical life and devoted himself to history; in 1868 he took the post
+of librarian at Lambeth, but his health was already breaking down and he
+was attacked by consumption. His _Short History of the English People_
+(1874) at once attained extraordinary popularity, and was afterwards
+expanded in a work of four volumes (1877-1880). Green is pre-eminently a
+picturesque historian; he had a vivid imagination and a keen eye for
+colour. His chief aim was to depict the progressive life of the English
+people rather than to write a political history of the English state. In
+accomplishing this aim he worked up the results of wide reading into a
+series of brilliant pictures. While generally accurate in his statement
+of facts, and showing a firm grasp of the main tendency of a period, he
+often builds more on his authorities than is warranted by their words,
+and is apt to overlook points which would have forced him to modify his
+representations and lower the tone of his colours. From his animated
+pages thousands have learned to take pleasure in the history of their
+own people, but could scarcely learn to appreciate the complexity
+inherent in all historical movement. His style is extremely bright, but
+it lacks sobriety and presents some affectations. His later histories,
+_The Making of England_ (1882) and _The Conquest of England_ (1883), are
+more soberly written than his earlier books, and are valuable
+contributions to historical knowledge. Green died at Mentone on the 7th
+of March 1883. He was a singularly attractive man, of wide intellectual
+sympathies and an enthusiastic temperament; his good-humour was
+unfailing and he was a brilliant talker; and his work was done with
+admirable courage in spite of ill-health. It is said that Mrs Humphry
+Ward's _Robert Elsmere_ is largely a portrait of him. In 1877 Green
+married Miss Alice Stopford; and Mrs Green, besides writing a memoir of
+her husband, prefixed to the 1888 edition of his _Short History_, has
+herself done valuable work as an historian, particularly in her _Henry
+II._ in the "English Statesmen" series (1888), her _Town Life in the
+15th Century_ (1894), and _The Making of Ireland and its Undoing_
+(1908).
+
+  See the _Letters of J. R. Green_ (1901), edited by Leslie Stephen.
+       (W. Hu.)
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737), English poet, was born of Nonconformist
+parents. He had a post in the custom house, and the few anecdotes that
+have been preserved of him show him to have been as witty as his poems
+would lead one to expect. He died unmarried at his lodging in Nag's Head
+Court, Gracechurch Street, in 1737. His _Grotto_, a poem on Queen
+Caroline's grotto at Richmond, was printed in 1732; and his chief poem,
+_The Spleen_, in 1737 with a preface by his friend Richard Glover. These
+and some other short poems were printed in Dodsley's collection (1748),
+and subsequently in various editions of the British poets. They were
+edited In 1796 with a preface by Dr Aikin and in 1883 by R. E. A.
+Willmott with the poems of Gray and others. _The Spleen_ is an epistle
+to Mr Cuthbert Jackson, advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet
+content as remedies. It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of
+it: "There is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have formed
+his judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-notes often
+break out into strains of real poetry and music."
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882), English philosopher, the most typical
+English representative of the school of thought called _Neo-Kantian_, or
+_Neo-Hegelian_, was born on the 7th of April 1836 at Birkin, a village
+in the West Riding of Yorkshire, of which his father was rector. On the
+paternal side he was descended from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest,
+sturdy independence of character he seemed to have inherited. His
+education was conducted entirely at home until, at the age of fourteen,
+he entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In 1855 he became an
+undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford, of which society he
+was, in 1860, elected fellow. His life henceforth, was devoted to
+teaching (mainly philosophical) in the university--first as college
+tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his death (at Oxford on the 26th of
+March 1882) as Whyte's Professor of Moral Philosophy. The lectures he
+delivered as professor form the substance of his two most important
+works, viz. the _Prolegomena to Ethics_ and the _Lectures on the
+Principles of Political Obligation_, which contain the whole of his
+positive constructive teaching. These works were not published until
+after his death, but Green's views were previously known indirectly
+through the _Introduction_ to the standard edition of Hume's works by
+Green and T. H. Grose (d. 1906), fellow of Queen's College, in which the
+doctrine of the "English" or "empirical" philosophy was exhaustively
+examined.
+
+Hume's empiricism, combined with a belief in biological evolution
+(derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature in English thought
+during the third quarter of the 19th century. Green represents primarily
+the reaction against doctrines which, when carried out to their logical
+conclusion, not only "rendered all philosophy futile," but were fatal to
+practical life. By reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated
+atomic sensations, this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge,
+and further, by representing man as a "being who is simply the result of
+natural forces," it made conduct, or any theory of conduct, unmeaning;
+for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a personal self which
+(1) _knows_ what to do, (2) has _power_ to do it. Green was thus driven,
+not theoretically, but as a practical necessity, to raise again the
+whole question of man in relation to nature. When (he held) we have
+discovered what man in himself is, and what his relation to his
+environment, we shall then know his function--what he is fitted to do.
+In the light of this knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral
+code, which, in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and
+social institutions. These form, naturally and necessarily, the
+objective expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social
+whole that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape.
+
+To ask "What is man?" is to ask "What is experience?" for experience
+means that of which I am conscious. The facts of consciousness are the
+only facts which, to begin with, we are justified in asserting to exist.
+On the other hand, they are valid evidence for whatever is necessary to
+their own explanation, i.e. for whatever is logically involved in them.
+Now the most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks him
+specially, as contrasted with other animals, is _self_-consciousness. The
+simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations of the human
+mind--the act of sense-perception--is never merely a _change_, physical
+or psychical, but is the _consciousness_ of a change. Human experience
+consists, not of processes in an animal organism, but of these processes
+recognized as such. That which we perceive is from the outset an
+apprehended fact--that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated
+elements (so-called sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of
+consciousness at all, but exists from the first as a synthesis of
+relations in a consciousness which keeps distinct the "self" and the
+various elements of the "object," though holding all together in the
+unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental
+structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with its
+most complex constituents, of the "work of the mind." Locke and Hume held
+that the work of the mind was _eo ipso_ unreal because it was "made by"
+man and not "given to" man. It thus represented a subjective creation,
+not an objective fact. But this consequence follows only upon the
+assumption that the work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to
+be unjustified by the results of exact science, with the distinction,
+universally recognized, which such science draws between truth and
+falsehood, between the real and "mere ideas." This (obviously valid)
+distinction logically involves the consequence that the object, or
+content, of knowledge, viz. reality, is an intelligible ideal reality, a
+system of thought relations, a spiritual cosmos. How is the existence of
+this ideal whole to be accounted for? Only by the existence of some
+"principle which renders all relations possible and is itself determined
+by none of them"; an eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what
+we know in part. To God the world _is_, to man the world _becomes_. Human
+experience is God gradually made manifest.
+
+Carrying on the same analytical method into the special department of
+moral philosophy, Green held that ethics applies to the peculiar
+conditions of social life that investigation into man's nature which
+metaphysics began. The faculty employed in this further investigation is
+no "separate moral faculty," but that same reason which is the source of
+all our knowledge--ethical and other. Self-reflection gradually reveals
+to us human capacity, human function, with, consequently, human
+responsibility. It brings out into clear consciousness certain
+potentialities in the realization of which man's true good must consist.
+As the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into the
+surroundings man lives in, a "content"--a moral code--becomes gradually
+evolved. Personal good is perceived to be realizable only by making
+actual the conceptions thus arrived at. So long as these remain
+potential or ideal, they form the motive of action; motive consisting
+always in the idea of some "end" or "good" which man presents to himself
+as an end in the attainment of which he would be satisfied, that is, in
+the realization of which he would find his true self. The determination
+to realize the self in some definite way constitutes an "act of will,"
+which, as thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally
+determined. For the motive which may be said to be its cause lies _in_
+the man himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive
+is a _self_-determination, which is at once both rational and free. The
+"freedom of man" is constituted, not by a supposed ability to do
+anything he may choose, but in the power to identify himself with that
+true good which reason reveals to him as _his_ true good. This good
+consists in the realization of personal character; hence the final good,
+i.e. the moral ideal, as a whole, can be realized only in some society
+of persons who, while remaining ends to themselves in the sense that
+their individuality is not lost but rendered more perfect, find this
+perfection attainable only when the separate individualities are
+integrated as part of a social whole. Society is as necessary to form
+persons as persons are to constitute society. Social union is the
+indispensable condition of the development of the special capacities of
+the individual members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in
+isolation; it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens
+in the social community.
+
+The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or
+political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less
+constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but consists
+in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which
+self-analysis has revealed to us as _our_ ideal. From this fact arises
+the ground of political obligation, for the institutions of political or
+civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral ideas in terms of our
+day and generation. But, as society exists only for the proper
+development of persons, we have a criterion by which to test these
+institutions, viz. do they, or do they not, contribute to the
+development of moral character in the individual citizens? It is obvious
+that the final moral ideal is not realized in any body of civic
+institutions actually existing, but the same analysis which demonstrates
+this deficiency points out the direction which a true development will
+take. Hence arises the conception of rights and duties which _should_
+be maintained by law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the
+further consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to
+rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is, in
+order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes the
+_raison d'etre_ of the state. The state does not consist in any definite
+concrete organization formed once for all. It represents a "general
+will" which is a desire for a common good. Its basis is not a coercive
+authority imposed upon the citizens from without, but consists in the
+spiritual recognition, on the part of the citizens, of that which
+constitutes their true nature. "Will, not force, is the basis of the
+state."
+
+  Green's teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent
+  philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the 19th
+  century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and his
+  personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of the
+  effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the
+  universities more into touch with the people, and to break down the
+  rigour of class distinctions.
+
+  Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking characteristic
+  is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in thought and in
+  reality. "That which is" is a _whole_, not an _aggregate_; an organic
+  complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a "whole" too not material
+  but spiritual, a "world of thought-relations." On the critical side
+  this teaching is now admittedly valid against the older empiricism,
+  and the cogency of the reasoning by which his constructive theory is
+  supported is generally recognized. Nevertheless, Green's statement of
+  his conclusions presents important difficulties. Even apart from the
+  impossibility of conceiving a whole of relations which are relations
+  and nothing else (this objection is perhaps largely verbal), no
+  explanation is given of the fact (obvious in experience) that the
+  spiritual entities of which the Universe is composed _appear_
+  material. Certain elements present themselves in feeling which seem
+  stubbornly to resist any attempt to explain them in terms of thought.
+  While, again, legitimately insisting upon personality as a fundamental
+  constituent in any true theory of reality, the relation between human
+  individualities and the divine Person is left vague and obscure; nor
+  is it easy to see how the existence of several individualities--human
+  or divine--in one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the
+  solution of these two questions that philosophy in the immediate
+  future may be expected to work.
+
+  Green's most important treatise--the _Prolegomena to
+  Ethics_--practically complete in manuscript at his death--was
+  published in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley
+  (4th ed., 1899). Shortly afterwards R. L. Nettleship's standard
+  edition of his _Works_ (exclusive of the _Prolegomena_) appeared in
+  three volumes: vol. i. containing reprints of Green's criticism of
+  Hume, Spencer, Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the
+  Principles of Political Obligation; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded
+  by a full _Memoir_ by the Editor. The _Principles of Political
+  Obligation_ was afterwards published in separate form. A criticism of
+  _Neo-Hegelianism_ will be found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison),
+  _Hegelianism and Personality_. See also articles in _Mind_ (January
+  and April 1884) by A. J. Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the _Academy_
+  (xxviii. 242 and xxv. 297) by S. Alexander, and in the _Philosophical
+  Review_ (vi., 1897) by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, _Philosophy of
+  T. H. Green_ (London and New York, 1896); D. G. Ritchie, _The
+  Principles of State Interference_ (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick,
+  _Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant_ (London, 1905); J. H. Muirhead,
+  _The Service of the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of
+  T. H. Green_ (1908); A. W. Benn, _English Rationalism in the XIXth
+  Century_ (1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foll.     (W. H. F.,* X.)
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, VALENTINE (1739-1813), British engraver, was born at Halesowen.
+He was placed by his father in a solicitor's office at Evesham, where he
+remained for two years; but ultimately he decided, on his own
+responsibility, to abandon the legal profession and became a pupil of a
+line engraver at Worcester. In 1765 he migrated to London and began work
+as a mezzotint engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of
+this art, and quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of
+British engravers. He became a member of the Incorporated Society of
+Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy in 1775, and
+for some forty years he followed his profession with the greatest
+success. The exclusive right of engraving and publishing plates from the
+pictures in the Dusseldorf gallery was granted him by the duke of
+Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had issued more than twenty of these
+plates, the siege of that city by the French put an end to this
+undertaking and caused him serious financial loss. From this cause, and
+through the failure of certain other speculations, he was reduced to
+poverty; and in consequence he took the post of keeper of the British
+Institution in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of
+his life. During his career as an engraver he produced some four hundred
+plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney, and other British artists,
+after the compositions of Benjamin West, and after pictures by Van Dyck,
+Rubens, Murillo, and other old masters. It is claimed for him that he
+was one of the first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be
+applied to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as
+portraits, but at the present time it is to his portraits that most
+attention is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by
+exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious
+management of relations of light and shade; and they have, almost
+without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling.
+
+  See _Valentine Green_, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (1825-1900), American Hebrew scholar, was born in
+Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 27th of January 1825. He
+was descended in the sixth generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first
+president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and
+his ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian church.
+He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he was tutor in
+mathematics (1840-1842) and adjunct professor (1843-1844). In 1846 he
+graduated from Princeton Theological Seminary, and was instructor in
+Hebrew there in 1846-1849. He was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the
+Central Presbyterian church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August
+1851 until his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February
+1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in Princeton
+Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair was Oriental and
+Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused the presidency of Princeton
+College; as senior professor he was long acting head of the Theological
+Seminary. He was a great Hebrew teacher: his _Grammar of the Hebrew
+Language_ (1861, revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on
+Gesenius, Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic
+languages he used in a "conservative Higher Criticism," which is
+maintained in the following works: _The Pentateuch Vindicated from the
+Aspersions of Bishop Colenso_ (1863), _Moses and the Prophets_ (1883),
+_The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses
+Concerning the Pentateuch_ (1885), _The Unity of the Book of Genesis_
+(1895), _The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch_ (1895), and _A General
+Introduction to the Old Testament_, vol. i. Canon (1898), vol. ii.
+_Text_ (1899). He was the scholarly leader of the orthodox wing of the
+Presbyterian church in America, and was moderator of the General
+Assembly of 1891. Green was chairman of the Old Testament committee of
+the Anglo-American Bible revision committee.
+
+  See the articles by John D. Davis in _The Biblical World_, new series,
+  vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and _The Presbyterian and
+  Reformed Review_, vol. xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GREENAWAY, KATE (1846-1901), English artist and book illustrator, was
+the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known draughtsman and engraver on
+wood, and was born in London on the 17th of March 1846. After a course
+of study at South Kensington, at "Heatherley's" life classes, and at the
+Slade School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour
+drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable early work,
+however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by reason of their quaint
+beauty of design and charm of draughtsmanship, enjoyed an extraordinary
+vogue. Her subjects were, in the main, young girls, children, flowers,
+and landscape; and the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and
+purity of these little works so appealed to public and artists alike
+that the enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be
+attributed to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had
+struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks, R.A., and
+she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to return to a more
+conventional manner. Thenceforward her illustrations for children (such
+as for _Little Folks_, 1873, _et seq._) attracted much attention. In
+1877 her drawings at the Dudley Gallery were sold for L54, and her Royal
+Academy picture for eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to
+draw for the _Illustrated London News_. In the year 1879 she produced
+_Under the Window_, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold,
+and of which French and German editions were also issued. Then followed
+_The Birthday Book_, _Mother Goose_, _Little Ann_, and other books for
+children which were appreciated not less by adults, and were to be found
+on sale in the bookshops of every capital in Europe and in the cities of
+America. The extraordinary success achieved by the young girl may be
+estimated by the amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for
+_Under the Window_ she received L1130; for _The Birthday Book_, L1250;
+for _Mother Goose_, L905; and for _Little Ann_, L567. These four books
+alone produced a clear return of L8000. "Toy-books" though they were,
+these little works created a revolution in illustration, and so were of
+real importance; they were loudly applauded by John Ruskin (_Art of
+England_ and _Fors Clavigera_), by Ernest Chesneau and Arsene Alexandre
+in France, by Dr Muther in Germany, and by leading art-critics
+throughout the world. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the
+Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, and in 1891, 1894 and 1898
+she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations for her
+books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a representative
+selection was exhibited in 1902), where they surprised the world by the
+infinite delicacy, tenderness, and grace which they displayed. A leading
+feature in Miss Greenaway's work was her revival of the delightfully
+quaint costume of the beginning of the 19th century; this lent humour to
+her fancy, and so captivated the public taste that it has been said,
+with poetic exaggeration, that "Kate Greenaway dressed the children of
+two continents." Her drawings of children have been compared with
+Stothard's for grace and with Reynolds's for naturalness, and those of
+flowers with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to 1897,
+with a break only in 1896, she issued a series of _Kate Greenaway's
+Almanacs_. Although she illustrated _The Pied Piper of Hamelin_ and
+other works, the artist preferred to provide her own text; the numerous
+verses which were found among her papers after her death prove that she
+might have added to her reputation with her pen. She had great charm of
+character, but was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest
+in private life. She died at Hampstead on the 6th of November 1901.
+
+  See the _Life_, by M. H. Spielmann and G. S. Layard (1905).
+       (M. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENBACKS, a form of paper currency in the United States, so named from
+the green colour used on the backs of the notes. They are treasury
+notes, and were first issued by the government in 1862, "as a question
+of hard necessity," to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The
+government, following the example of the banks, had suspended specie
+payment. The new notes were therefore for the time being an
+inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal tender,
+were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing for the issue
+of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that of the 25th February
+1862; the acts of 11th July 1862 and 3rd March 1863 each authorized
+further issues of $150,000,000. The notes soon depreciated in value, and
+at the lowest were worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of 12th
+April 1866 authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six
+months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter; this was discontinued by
+act of 4th February 1868. On 1st January 1879 specie payment was
+resumed, and the nominal amount of notes then stood at $346,681,000,
+which is still outstanding.
+
+  The so-called _Greenback party_ (also called the _Independent_, and
+  the _National_ party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in
+  1876, when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,740 votes. It
+  advocated increasing the volume of greenbacks, forbidding bank issues,
+  and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government bonds
+  not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various fusions,
+  cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen; and in 1880
+  there was fusion with labour reformers and it cast 308,578 votes for
+  its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver, and elected 8 Congressmen.
+  In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the candidate of the
+  Anti-Monopoly party) received 175,370 votes. Subsequently the party
+  went out of existence.
+
+
+
+
+GREEN BAY, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at the mouth of the Fox
+river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 9069; (1900) 18,684, of whom
+4022 were foreign-born and 33 were negroes; (1910 census) 25,236. The
+city is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee &
+St Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay & Western, and the Green Bay & Western
+railways, by an inter-urban electric railway connecting with other Fox
+River Valley cities, and by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay
+lies on high level ground on both sides of the river, which is here
+crossed by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library, the
+Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business college, several
+academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum and the State Odd Fellows'
+Home. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being
+the earliest established in the North-west. The so-called "Tank
+Cottage," now in Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in
+Wisconsin; it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by
+Joseph Roy, a French-Canadian _voyageur_, in 1766, was subsequently
+somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to its present
+site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway between Green Bay and
+De Pere (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay) is the state reformatory, opened in
+1899-1901. Green Bay's fine harbour accommodates a considerable lake
+commerce, and the city is the most important railway and wholesale
+distributing centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber
+and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm implements and
+machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick and tile and dairy products;
+and it has lumber yards, grain elevators, fish warehouses and railway
+repair shops. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$4,873,027, an increase of 79.9% since 1900. The first recorded visit of
+a European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of Jean
+Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and found, probably at
+the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present city, a village of Winnebago
+Indians, who he thought at first were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658
+Radisson and Groseilliers and other _coureurs des bois_ were at Green
+Bay. Claude Jean Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission
+on the W. shore of the bay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later he
+removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter of 1671-1672
+established it permanently 5 m. above the present city, at Rapides des
+Peres, on the E. shore of the Fox river. In 1673 Joliet and Marquette
+visited the spot. In 1683-1685 Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with
+the Indians here. In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth
+of the river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted was
+permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin de Langlade
+established a trading post at La Baye and later brought his family there
+from Mackinac. This was the first permanent settlement at Green Bay and
+in Wisconsin. The British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to
+1763, during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward
+Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac's rising, and the fort was
+never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short time during the
+War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye were, however, acknowledged
+subjects of Great Britain, the jurisdiction of the United States being
+practically a dead letter until the American fort (Fort Howard) was
+garrisoned in 1816. As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob
+Astor, were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse and
+other buildings; and for many years Green Bay consisted of two distinct
+settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were finally united in 1839 as
+Green Bay. The city was chartered in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was
+consolidated with it. The Green Bay _Intelligencer_, the first newspaper
+in Wisconsin, began publication here in 1833.
+
+  See Neville and Martin, _Historic Green Bay_ (Green Bay, 1893); and
+  Martin and Beaumont, _Old Green Bay_ (Green Bay, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GREENCASTLE, a city and the county-seat of Putnam county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis and on the Big Walnut
+river. Pop. (1900) 3661; (1910) 3790. It is served by the Cleveland,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, the Chicago, Indianapolis &
+Louisville, the Vandalia, and the Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern
+(electric) railways. It has manufactures of some importance, including
+lumber, pumps, kitchen-cabinets, drag-saws, lightning-rods and
+tin-plate, is in the midst of a blue grass region, and is a shipping
+point for beef cattle. The city has a Carnegie library and is the seat
+of the de Pauw University (co-educational), a Methodist Episcopal
+institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837, and renamed
+in 1884 in honour of Washington Charles de Pauw (1822-1887), a
+successful capitalist, banker and glass manufacturer. The total gifts of
+Mr de Pauw and his family to the institution amount to about $600,000.
+Among the presidents of the university have been Bishop Matthew Simpson,
+Bishop Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes (b. 1866),
+all of the Methodist Episcopal church. The university comprises the
+Asbury College of Liberal Arts, a School of Music, a School of Art and
+an Academy, and had in 1909-1910 43 instructors, a library of 37,000
+volumes, and 1017 students. Greencastle was first settled about 1820,
+and was chartered as a city in 1861.
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1811-1883), American historian, was born at
+East Greenwich, Rhode Island, on the 8th of April 1811, the grandson of
+Major-General Nathanael Greene. He entered Brown University in 1824,
+left in his junior year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during
+the next twenty years, except in 1833-1834, when he was principal of
+Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States consul at Rome
+from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in modern languages in Brown
+University from 1848 to 1852; and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer
+in American history in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich,
+Rhode Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. His published works include
+French and Italian text-books; _Historical Studies_ (1850);
+_Biographical Studies_ (1860); _Historical View of the American
+Revolution_ (1865); _Life of Nathanael Greene_ (3 vols., 1867-1871);
+_The German Element in the War of American Independence_ (1876); and a
+_Short History of Rhode Island_ (1877).
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, MAURICE (1695-1755) English musical composer, was born in
+London. He was the son of a clergyman in the city, and soon became a
+chorister of St Paul's cathedral, where he studied under Charles King,
+and subsequently under Richard Brind, organist of the cathedral from
+1707 to 1718, whom, on his death in the last-named year, he succeeded.
+Nine years later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal, on
+the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair of music in
+the university of Cambridge, and had the degree of doctor of music
+conferred on him. Dr Greene was a voluminous composer of church music,
+and his collection of _Forty Select Anthems_ became a standard work of
+its kind. He wrote a "Te Deum," several oratorios, a masque, _The
+Judgment of Hercules_, and a pastoral opera, _Phoebe_ (1748); also glees
+and catches: and a collection of _Catches and Canons for Three and Four
+Voices_ is amongst his compositions. In addition he composed many
+occasional pieces for the king's birthday, having been appointed master
+of the king's band in 1735. But it is as a composer of church music that
+Greene is chiefly remembered. It is here that his contrapuntal skill and
+his sound musical scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was
+originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for Buononcini,
+Handel's rival, estranged the German master's feelings from him, and all
+personal intercourse between them ceased. Greene, in conjunction with
+the violinist Michael Christian Festing (1727-1752) and others,
+originated the Society of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and
+their families. He died on the 1st of December 1755.
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, NATHANAEL (1742-1786), American general, son of a Quaker farmer
+and smith, was born at Potowomut, in the township of Warwick, Rhode
+Island, on the 7th of August (not, as has been stated, 6th of June)
+1742. Though his father's sect discouraged "literary accomplishments,"
+he acquired a large amount of general information, and made a special
+study of mathematics, history and law. At Coventry, R.I., whither he
+removed in 1770 to take charge of a forge built by his father and his
+uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a public school;
+and in the same year he was chosen a member of the legislature of Rhode
+Island, to which he was re-elected in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He
+sympathized strongly with the Whig, or Patriot, element among the
+colonists, and in 1774 joined the local militia. At this time he began
+to study the art of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee
+appointed by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in
+attending to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of
+Friends.
+
+In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island, he joined
+the American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd of June was appointed
+a brigadier by Congress. To him Washington assigned the command of the
+city of Boston after it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene's
+letters of October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate
+from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a declaration of
+independence. On the 9th of August 1776 he was promoted to be one of the
+four new major-generals and was put in command of the Continental troops
+on Long Island; he chose the place for fortifications (practically the
+same as that picked by General Charles Lee) and built the redoubts and
+entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe illness
+prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island. He was prominent
+among those who advised a retreat from New York and the burning of the
+city, so that the British might not use it. Greene was placed in command
+of Fort Lee, and on the 25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam
+in command of Fort Washington. He received orders from Washington to
+defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the 11th of October
+Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect; but later
+Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. Greene ordered
+Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend the place until
+he should hear from him again, and reinforced it to meet General Howe's
+attack. Nevertheless, the blame for the losses of Forts Washington and
+Lee was put upon Greene, but apparently without his losing the
+confidence of Washington, who indeed himself assumed the responsibility.
+At Trenton Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own,
+accompanied by Washington, arriving first; and after the victory here he
+urged Washington to push on immediately to Princeton, but was over-ruled
+by a council of war. At the Brandywine Greene commanded the reserve. At
+Germantown Greene's command, having a greater distance to march than the
+right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time--a failure
+which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him Washington's
+regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington, Bancroft based his
+unfavourable estimate of Greene's ability. But on their arrival, Greene
+and his troops distinguished themselves greatly.
+
+At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March 1778, at Valley
+Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster-general (succeeding
+Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this difficult work, which
+Washington heartily approved, a modern critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington,
+has said that it was "as good as was possible under the circumstances of
+that fluctuating uncertain force." He had become quartermaster-general
+on the understanding, however, that he should retain the right to
+command troops in the field; thus we find him at the head of the right
+wing at Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August Greene and Lafayette
+commanded the land forces sent to Rhode Island to co-operate with the
+French admiral d'Estaing, in an expedition which proved abortive. In
+June 1780 Greene commanded in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In
+August he resigned the office of quartermaster-general, after a long and
+bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army
+administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions appointed by
+Congress. Before his resignation became effective it fell to his lot to
+preside over the court which, on the 29th of September, condemned Major
+John Andre to death.
+
+On the 14th of October he succeeded Gates as commander-in-chief of the
+Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C., on the 2nd of
+December. The army was weak and badly equipped and was opposed by a
+superior force under Cornwallis. Greene decided to divide his own
+troops, thus forcing the division of the British as well, and creating
+the possibility of a strategic interplay of forces. This strategy led to
+General Daniel Morgan's victory of Cowpens (just over the South Carolina
+line) on the 17th of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court
+House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the British
+troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforcements for his own
+army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only at such cost to the victor
+that Tarleton called it "the pledge of ultimate defeat." Three days
+after this battle Cornwallis withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene's
+generalship and judgment were again conspicuously illustrated in the
+next few weeks, in which he allowed Cornwallis to march north to
+Virginia and himself turned swiftly to the reconquest of the inner
+country of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord
+Rawdon's hands at Hobkirk's Hill (2 m. N. of Camden) on the 25th of
+April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring to the
+coast. Greene then gave his forces a six weeks' rest on the High Hills
+of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with 2600 men, engaged the
+British under Lieut.-Colonel James Stuart (who had succeeded Lord
+Rawdon) at Eutaw Springs; the battle, although tactically drawn, so
+weakened the British that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene
+penned them during the remaining months of the war. Greene's Southern
+campaign showed remarkable strategic features that remind one of those
+of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as his model in his studies
+before the war. He excelled in dividing, eluding and tiring his opponent
+by long marches, and in actual conflict forcing him to pay for a
+temporary advantage a price that he could not afford. He was greatly
+assisted by able subordinates, including the Polish engineer, Tadeusz
+Kosciusko, the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry ("Light-Horse Harry")
+Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thomas Sumter and
+Francis Marion.
+
+South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberal grants of lands and
+money. The South Carolina estate, Boone's Barony, S. of Edisto in
+Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills for the rations of his Southern
+army. On the Georgia estate, Mulberry Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on
+the river, he settled in 1785, after twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the
+post of secretary of war, and there he died of sunstroke on the 19th of
+June 1786. Greene was a singularly able, and--like other prominent
+generals on the American side--a self-trained soldier, and was second
+only to Washington among the officers of the American army in military
+ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of using small means to
+the utmost advantage. His attitude towards the Tories was humane and
+even kindly, and he generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly
+intrigued against him, when Gates's conduct of the campaign in the South
+was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah (1829). His
+statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the state of Rhode
+Island in the National Hall of Statuary in the Capitol at Washington; in
+the same city there is a bronze equestrian statue of him by H. K. Brown.
+
+  See the _Life of Nathanael Greene_ (3 vols., 1867-1871), by his
+  grandson, George W. Greene, and the biography (New York, 1893), by
+  Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in the "Great Commanders Series."
+
+
+
+
+GREENE, ROBERT (c. 1560-1592), English dramatist and miscellaneous
+writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The identity of his father has
+been disputed, but there is every reason to believe that he belonged to
+the tradesmen's class and had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert
+Greene attended Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man
+(to one of whose plays, _Friar Bacon_, the Norfolk and Suffolk
+borderland owes a lasting poetic commemoration) he naturally found his
+way to Cambridge, where he entered St John's College as a sizar in 1575
+and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding M.A. in 1583 from Clare
+Hall. His life at the university was, according to his own account,
+spent "among wags as lewd as himself, with whom he consumed the flower
+of his youth." In 1588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so that on some
+of his title-pages he styles himself "utriusque Academiae in Artibus
+Magister"; and Nashe humorously refers to him as "utriusque Academiae
+Robertus Greene." Between the years 1578 and 1583 he had travelled
+abroad, according to his own account very extensively, visiting France,
+Germany, Poland and Denmark, besides learning at first-hand to "hate the
+pride of Italie" and to know the taste of that poet's fruit, "Spanish
+mirabolones." The grounds upon which it has been suggested that he took
+holy orders are quite insufficient; according to the title-page of a
+pamphlet published by him in 1585 he was then a "student in phisicke."
+Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he had according to his
+own account begun his London life, and his earliest extant literary
+production was in hand as early as 1580. He now became "an author of
+playes and a penner of love-pamphlets, so that I soone grew famous in
+that qualitie, that who for that trade growne so ordinary about London
+as Robin Greene?" "Glad was that printer," says Nashe, "that might bee
+so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit." By his own
+account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries of the town, though
+Nashe declares that he never knew him guilty of notorious crime. He was
+not without passing impulses towards a more righteous and sober life,
+and was derided in consequence by his associates as a "Puritane and
+Presizian." It is possible that he, as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel
+Harvey, exaggerated the looseness of his conduct. His marriage, which
+took place in 1585 or 1586, failed to steady him; if Francesco, in
+Greene's pamphlet _Never too late to mend_ (1590), is intended for the
+author himself, it had been a runaway match; but the fiction and the
+autobiographical sketch in the _Repentance_ agree in their account of
+the unfaithfulness which followed on the part of the husband. He lived
+with his wife, whose name seems to have been Dorothy ("Doll"; and cf.
+Dorothea in _James IV._), for a while; "but forasmuch as she would
+perswade me from my wilful wickednes, after I had a child by her, I cast
+her off, having spent up the marriage-money which I obtained by her.
+Then left I her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to
+London," where his reputation as a playwright and writer of pamphlets of
+"love and vaine fantasyes" continued to increase, and where his life was
+a feverish alternation of labour and debauchery. In his last years he
+took it upon himself to make war on the cutpurses and "conny-catchers"
+with whom he came into contact in the slums, and whose doings he
+fearlessly exposed in his writings. He tells us how at last he was
+friendless "except it were in a fewe alehouses," where he was respected
+on account of the score he had run up. When the end came he was a
+dependant on the charity of the poor and the pitying love of the
+unfortunate. Henri Murger has drawn no picture more sickening and more
+pitiful than the story of Greene's death, as told by his Puritan
+adversary, Gabriel Harvey--a veracious though a far from unprejudiced
+narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels provided by the Harvey
+brothers on their intervention in the Marprelate controversy, and made
+an attack (immediately suppressed) upon Gabriel's father and family in
+the prose-tract _A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute
+between Velvet Breeches and Cloth Breeches_ (1592). After a banquet
+where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe--an old associate and
+perhaps a college friend of Greene's, any great intimacy with whom,
+however, he seems to have been anxious to disclaim--Greene had fallen
+sick "of a surfeit of pickle herringe and Rennish wine." At the house of
+a poor shoemaker near Dowgate, deserted by all except his compassionate
+hostess (Mrs Isam) and two women--one of them the sister of a notorious
+thief named "Cutting Ball," and the mother of his illegitimate son,
+Fortunatus Greene--he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before
+his death he wrote under a bond for L10 which he had given to the good
+shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long-forsaken wife:
+"Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth and by my soules rest,
+that thou wilte see this man paide; for if hee and his wife had not
+succoured me, I had died in the streetes.--Robert Greene."
+
+_Four Letters and Certain Sonnets_, Harvey's attack on Greene, appeared
+almost immediately after his death, as to the circumstances of which his
+relentless adversary had taken care to inform himself personally. Nashe
+took up the defence of his dead friend and ridiculed Harvey in _Strange
+News_ (1593); and the dispute continued for some years. But, before this,
+the dramatist Henry Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the
+unhappy man, entitled _Greene's Groat's-worth of Wit bought with a
+Million of Repentance_ (1592), containing the story of Roberto, who may
+be regarded, for practical purposes, as representing Greene himself. This
+ill-starred production may almost be said to have done more to excite the
+resentment of posterity against Greene's name than all the errors for
+which he professed his repentance. For in it he exhorted to repentance
+three of his _quondam_ acquaintance. Of these three Marlowe was one--to
+whom and to whose creation of "that Atheist Tamberlaine" he had
+repeatedly alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe. But
+the passage addressed to Peele contained a transparent allusion to a
+fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as "an vpstart crow
+beautified with our feathers, that with his _Tygres heart wrapt in a
+player's hyde_ supposes hee is as well able to bombast out a blanke-verse
+as the best of you; and being an absolute Iohannes-fac-totum, is in his
+owne conceyt the onely shake-scene in a countrey." The phrase italicized
+parodies a passage occurring in _The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of
+York_, &c., and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene (as many
+eminent critics have thought) had a hand in _The True Tragedie_, he must
+here have intended a charge of plagiarism against Shakespeare. But while
+it seems more probable that (as the late R. Simpson suggested) the
+upstart crow beautified with the feathers of the three dramatists is a
+sneering description of the actor who declaimed their verse, the _animus_
+of the whole attack (as explained by Dr Ingleby) is revealed in its
+concluding phrases. This "shake-scene," i.e. this _actor_ had ventured to
+intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights--their
+monopoly was in danger!
+
+Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were issued
+posthumously. Of these, _The Repentance of Robert Greene, Master of
+Arts_ (1592), must originally have been written by him on his death-bed,
+under the influence, as he says, of Father Parsons's _Booke of
+Resolution_ (_The Christian Directorie, appertayning to Resolution_,
+1582, republished in an enlarged form, which became very popular, in
+1585); but it bears traces of having been improved from the original;
+while _Greene's Vision_ was certainly not, as the title-page avers,
+written during his last illness.
+
+Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed to
+Greene's prolific pen. Nearly all of them are interspersed with verses;
+in their themes they range from the "misticall" wonders of the heavens
+to the familiar but "pernitious sleights" of the sharpers of London. But
+the most widely attractive of his prose publications were his
+"love-pamphlets," which brought upon him the outcry of Puritan censors.
+The earliest of his novels, as they may be called, _Mamillia_, was
+licensed in 1583. This interesting story may be said to have accompanied
+Greene through life; for even part ii., of which, though probably
+completed several years earlier, the earliest extant edition bears the
+date 1593, had a sequel, _The Anatomie of Love's Flatteries_, which
+contains a review of suitors recalling Portia's in _The Merchant of
+Venice_. _The Myrrour of Modestie_ (the story of Susanna) (1584); _The
+Historie of Arhasto, King of Denmarke_ (1584); _Morando, the Tritameron
+of Love_ (a rather tedious imitation of the _Decameron_ (1584);
+_Planetomachia_ (1585) (a contention in story-telling between Venus and
+Saturn); _Penelope's Web_ (1587) (another string of stories); _Alcida_,
+_Greene's Metamorphosis_ (1588), and others, followed. In these popular
+productions he appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lyly;
+indeed, the first part of _Mamillia_ was entered in the Stationers'
+Registers in the year of the appearance of _Euphues_, and two of
+Greene's novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the
+parent romance: _Euphues his Censure to Philautus_ (1587), _Menaphon.
+Camilla's Alarum to Slumbering Euphues_ (1589), named in some later
+editions _Greene's Arcadia_. This pastoral romance, written in direct
+emulation of Sidney's, with a heroine called Samila, contains St
+Sephestia's charming lullaby, with its refrain "Father's sorowe,
+father's joy." But, though Greene's style copies the balanced
+oscillation, and his diction the ornateness (including the proverbial
+philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives to interest by the matter as well as
+to attract attention by the manner of his narratives. Of his highly
+moral intentions he leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are
+exposed on the title-pages. The full title of the _Myrrour of Modestie_
+for instance continues: "wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how
+the Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and plagueth
+the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punishments," &c. On his
+_Pandosto, The Triumph of Time_ (1588) Shakespeare founded _A Winter's
+Tale_; in fact, the novel contains the entire plot of the comedy, except
+the device of the living statue; though some of the subordinate
+characters in the play, including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare,
+together with the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes.
+
+In Greene's _Never too Late_ (1590), announced as a "Powder of
+Experience: sent to all youthfull gentlemen" for their benefit, the
+hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for Greene himself, the
+sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction. This episodical
+narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of manner which savour of an
+18th century novel rather than of an Elizabethan tale concerning the
+days of "Palmerin, King of Great Britain." Philador, the prodigal of
+_The Mourning Garment_ (1590), is obviously also in some respects a
+portrait of the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of _Greene's
+Groat's-worth of Wit_ (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of
+the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn--for a born
+rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins. Besides these and
+the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance, Greene left realistic
+pictures of the very disreputable society to which he finally descended,
+in his pamphlets on "conny-catching": _A Notable Discovery of Coosnage_
+(1591), _The Blacke Bookes Messenger, Laying open the Life and Death of
+Ned Browne, one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbiters, and
+Conny-catchers that ever lived in England_ (1592). Much in Greene's
+manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of low life,
+anticipated what proved the slow course of the actual development of the
+English novel; and it is probable that his true _metier_, and that which
+best suited the bright fancy, ingenuity and wit of which his genius was
+compounded, was pamphlet-spinning and story-telling rather than dramatic
+composition. It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his
+contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like his
+resemble Shakespeare's in their native freshness.
+
+Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out, Greene, except
+in the two pamphlets written just before his death, never refers to his
+having written plays; and before 1592 his contemporaries are equally
+silent as to his labours as a playwright. Only four plays remain to us
+of which he was indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these
+seems to have been the _Comicall History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon_,
+of which Henslowe's _Diary_ contains no trace. But it can hardly have
+been first acted long after the production of Marlowe's _Tamburlaine_,
+which had, in all probability, been brought on the stage in 1587. For
+this play, "comical" only in the negative sense of having a happy
+ending, was manifestly written in emulation as well as in direct
+imitation of Marlowe's tragedy. While Greene cannot have thought himself
+capable of surpassing Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably wished
+to outdo him in "business," and to equal him in the rant which was sure
+to bring down at least part of the house. _Alphonsus_ is a _history_
+proper--a dramatized chronicle or narrative of warlike events. Its fame
+could never equal that of Marlowe's tragedy; but its composition showed
+that Greene could seek to rival the most popular drama of the day,
+without falling very far short of his model.
+
+In the _Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (not known
+to have been acted before February, 1592, but probably written in 1589)
+Greene once more attempted to emulate Marlowe; and he succeeded in
+producing a masterpiece of his own. Marlowe's _Doctor Faustus_, which
+doubtless suggested the composition of Greene's comedy, reveals the
+mighty tragic genius of its author; but Greene resolved on an altogether
+distinct treatment of a cognate theme. Interweaving with the popular
+tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming idyl (so far as
+we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince Edward's love for
+the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a comedy brimful of amusing
+action and genial fun. _Friar Bacon_ remains a dramatic picture of
+English Elizabethan life with which _The Merry Wives_ alone can vie; and
+not even the ultra-classicism in the similes of its diction can destroy
+the naturalness which constitutes its perennial charm. _The History of
+Orlando Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France_ has on
+unsatisfactory evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have
+been acted on the 21st of February 1592. It is a free dramatic
+adaptation of Ariosto, Harington's translation of whom appeared in 1591,
+and who in one passage is textually quoted; and it contains a large
+variety of characters and a superabundance oi action. Fairly lucid in
+arrangement and fluent in style, the treatment of the madness oi Orlando
+lacks tragic power. Very few dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare
+have succeeded in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the
+tragic; and Greene is not to be included in the list.
+
+In _The Scottish Historie of James IV._ (acted 1592, licensed for
+publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax of his
+dramatic powers. The "historical" character of this play is pure
+pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi Cinthio's tales. Its
+theme is the illicit passion of King James for the chaste lady Ida, to
+obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the suggestion of a villain called
+Ateukin, to make away with his own wife. She escapes in doublet and
+hose, attended by her faithful dwarf; but, on her father's making war
+upon her husband to avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation
+between them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked
+out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Ateukin there is a
+touch of Iago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the piece, is
+unexceptionable; and, lest even so the play should hang heavy on the
+audience, its action is carried off by a "pleasant comedie"--i.e. a
+prelude and some dances between the acts--"presented by Oboram, King of
+Fayeries," who is, however, a very different person from the Oberon of
+_A Midsummer Night's Dream_.
+
+_George-a-Greene the Pinner of Wakefield_ (acted 1593, printed 1599), a
+delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the author of _Friar
+Bungay_, has been attributed to him; but the external evidence is very
+slight, and the internal unconvincing. Of the comedy of _Fair Em_, which
+resembles _Friar Bacon_ in more than one point, Greene cannot have been
+the author; the question as to the priority between the two plays is not
+so easily solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays
+on which the second and third parts of _Henry VI._ are founded has been
+already referred to. He was certainly joint author with Thomas Lodge of
+the curious drama called _A Looking Glasse for London and England_
+(acted in 1592 and printed in 1594)--a dramatic apologue conveying to
+the living generation of Englishmen the warning of Nineveh's corruption
+and prophesied doom. The lesson was frequently repeated in the streets
+of London by the "Ninevitical motions" of the puppets; but there are
+both fire and wealth of language in Greene and Lodge's oratory. The
+comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by Adam, the
+clown of the piece, who belongs to the family of Slipper, and of Friar
+Bacon's servant, Miles.
+
+Greene's dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of Marlowe's
+tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at his best. On the
+other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally animated with the breezy
+freshness which no artifice can simulate. He had considerable
+constructive skill, but he has created no character of commanding
+power--unless Ateukin be excepted; but his personages are living men and
+women, and marked out from one another with a vigorous but far from rude
+hand. His comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and
+graceful dialogue. His diction is overloaded with classical ornament,
+but his versification is easy and fluent, and its cadence is at times
+singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the simplest means; and
+he is indisputably one of the most attractive of early English dramatic
+authors.
+
+  Greene's dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander Dyce in
+  1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued in one
+  volume in 1858. His complete works were edited for the Huth Library by
+  A. B. Grosart. This issue (1881-1886) contains a translation of
+  Nicholas Storojhenko's monograph on Greene (Moscow, 1878). Greene's
+  plays and poems were edited with introductions and notes by J. Churton
+  Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905); the general introduction to this
+  edition has superseded previous accounts of Greene and his dramatic
+  and lyrical writings. An account of his pamphlets is to be found in J.
+  J. Jusserand's _English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_ (Eng.
+  trans., 1890). See also W. Bernhardi, _Robert Greenes Leben und
+  Schriften_ (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in _Shakespeare's Zeitgenossen
+  und ihre Werke_ (1858); and an introduction by A. W. Ward to _Friar
+  Bacon and Friar Bungay_ (Oxford, 1886, 4th ed., 1901).     (A. W. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Franklin county, in N.E.
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of 20 sq. m. of meadow and hill
+country, watered by the Green and Deerfield rivers and various small
+tributaries. Pop. (1890) 5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same
+name as the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river,
+and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley street
+railway (electric). Among Greenfield's manufactures are cutlery,
+machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally part of Deerfield,
+was settled about 1682, was established as a "district" in 1753, and on
+the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a general Act, separated from Deerfield
+and incorporated as a separate township, although it had assumed full
+township rights in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress.
+In 1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838 part
+of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed a part of
+Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of Shays's Rebellion.
+
+  See F. M. Thompson, _History of Greenfield_ (2 vols., Greenfield,
+  1904).
+
+
+
+
+GREENFINCH (Ger. _Grunfink_), or GREEN LINNET, as it is very often
+called, a common European bird, the _Fringilla chloris_ of Linnaeus,
+ranked by many systematists with one section of hawfinches,
+_Coccothraustes_, but apparently more nearly allied to the other section
+_Hesperiphona_, and perhaps justifiably deemed the type of a distinct
+genus, to which the name _Chloris_ or _Ligurinus_ has been applied. The
+cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green and yellow is one of the most
+finely coloured of common English birds, but he is rather heavily built,
+and his song is hardly commended. The hen is much less brightly tinted.
+Throughout Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful
+birds, and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the
+whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits Palestine,
+but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant in Mauritania, whence
+specimens are so brightly coloured that they have been deemed to form a
+distinct species, the _Ligurinus aurantiiventris_ of Dr Cabanis, but
+that view is now generally abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its
+adjacent islands occur two allied species--the _Fringilla sinica_ of
+Linnaeus and the _F. kawarahiba_ of Temminck. (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENHEART, one of the most valuable of timbers, the produce of
+_Nectandra Rodiaei_, natural order Lauraceae, a large tree, native of
+tropical South America and the West Indies. The Indian name of the tree
+is _sipiri_ or _bibiru_, and from its bark and fruits is obtained the
+febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart wood is of a dark-green colour,
+sap wood and heart wood being so much alike that they can with difficulty
+be distinguished from each other. The heart wood is one of the most
+durable of all timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact
+that it is proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly
+destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other kinds of wood
+available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow, there
+are two pieces of planking from a wreck submerged during eighteen years
+on the west coast of Scotland. The one specimen--greenheart--is merely
+slightly pitted on the surface, the body of the wood being perfectly
+sound and untouched, while the other--teak--is almost entirely eaten
+away. Greenheart, tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is
+one of the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its
+specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second line of
+Lloyd's Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is extensively used
+for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &c., as well as in the
+general engineering arts, but its excessive weight unfits it for many
+purposes for which its other properties would render it eminently
+suitable.
+
+
+
+
+GREENLAND (Danish, &c., _Gronland_), a large continental island, the
+greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle, while the whole
+is arctic in character. It is not connected with any portion of Europe
+or America except by suboceanic ridges; but in the extreme north it is
+separated only by a narrow strait from Ellesmere Land in the archipelago
+of the American continent. It is bounded on the east by the North
+Atlantic, the Norwegian and Greenland Seas--Jan Mayen, Iceland, the
+Faeroe Islands and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and
+Norway. Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the
+northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from Spitsbergen.
+On the west Davis Strait and Baffin Bay separate it from Baffin Land.
+The so-called bay narrows northward into the strait successively known
+as Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A
+submarine ridge, about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland
+with Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A
+similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula of
+Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with others
+smaller) lie probably off the north coast, being apparently divided from
+it by very narrow channels which are not yet explored. If they be
+reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then the north coast, fronting
+the polar sea, culminates about 83 deg. 40' N. Cape Farewell, the most
+southerly point (also on a small island), is in 59 deg. 45' N. The
+extreme length of Greenland may therefore be set down at about 1650 m.,
+while its extreme breadth, which occurs about 77 deg. 30' N., is
+approximately 800 m. The area is estimated at 827,275 sq. m. Greenland
+is a Danish colony, inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern
+east coast belong to the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of
+Europeans on the southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the trade
+is a monopoly of the Danish government.
+
+The southern and south-western coasts have been known, as will be
+mentioned later, since the 10th century, when Norse settlers appeared
+there, and the names of many famous arctic explorers have been
+associated with the exploration of Greenland. The communication between
+the Norse settlements in Greenland and the motherland Norway was broken
+off at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century, and
+the Norsemen's knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more
+or less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then
+re-discovered by John Davis in July 1585, though previous explorers, as
+Cortereal, Frobisher and others, had seen it, and at the end of the 16th
+and the beginning of the 17th century the work of Davis (1586-1588).
+Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the western seas afforded some
+knowledge of the west coast. This was added to by later explorers and by
+whalers and sealers. Among explorers who in the 19th century were
+specially connected with the north-west coast may be mentioned E. A.
+Inglefield (1852) who sailed into Smith's Sound,[1] Elisha Kent Kane
+(1853-1855)[2] who worked northward through Smith Sound into Kane Basin,
+and Charles Francis Hall (1871) who explored the strait (Kennedy Channel
+and Robeson Channel) to the north of this.[3]
+
+The northern east coast was sighted by Hudson (1607) in about 73 deg.
+30' N. (C. Hold with Hope), and during the 17th century and later this
+northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch whalers. The first who
+gave more accurate information was the Scottish whaler, Captain William
+Scoresby, jun. (1822), who, with his father, explored the coast between
+69 deg. and 75 deg. N., and gave the first fairly trustworthy map of
+it.[4] Captains Edward Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast
+between 72 deg. 5' and 75 deg. 12' N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen
+in this part of Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870,
+under Carl Christian Koldewey[5] (1837-1908), reached 77 deg. N. (Cape
+Bismarck); and the duke of Orleans, in 1905, ascertained that this point
+was on an island (the Dove Bay of the German expedition being in reality
+a strait) and penetrated farther north, to about 78 deg. 16'. From this
+point the north-east coast remained unexplored, though a sight was
+reported in 1670 by a whaler named Lambert, and again in 1775 as far
+north as 79 deg. by Daines Barrington, until a Danish expedition under
+Mylius Erichsen in 1906-1908 explored it, discovering North-East
+Foreland, the easternmost point (see Polar Regions and map). The
+southern part of the east coast was first explored by the Dane Wilhelm
+August Graah (1829-1830) between Cape Farewell and 65 deg. 16' N.[6] In
+1883-1885 the Danes G. Holm and T. V. Garde carefully explored and
+mapped the coast from Cape Farewell to Angmagssalik, in 66 deg. N.[7] F.
+Nansen and his companions also travelled along a part of this coast in
+1888.[8] A. E. Nordenskiold, in the "Sophia," landed near Angmagssalik,
+in 65 deg. 36' N., in 1883.[9] Captain C. Ryder, in 1891-1892, explored
+and mapped the large Scoresby Sound, or, more correctly, Scoresby
+Fjord.[10] Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899, explored the coast from
+Angmagssalik north to 67 deg. 22' N.[11] A part of this coast, about 67
+deg. N., had also been seen by Nansen in 1882.[12] In 1899 Professor A.
+G. Nathorst explored the land between Franz Josef Fjord and Scoresby
+Fjord, where the large King Oscar Fjord, connecting Davy's Sound with
+Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered.[13] In 1900 Lieutenant Amdrup
+explored the still unknown east coast from 690 10' N. south to 67 deg.
+N.[14]
+
+From the work of explorers in the north-west it had been possible to
+infer the approximate latitude of the northward termination of Greenland
+long before it was definitely known. Towards the close of the 19th
+century several explorers gave attention to this question. Lieutenant
+(afterwards Admiral) L. A. Beaumont (1876), of the Nares Expedition,
+explored the coast north-east of Robeson Channel to 82 deg. 20' N.[15]
+In 1882 Lieut. J. B. Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain) D. L.
+Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to Lady Franklin Bay,[16] explored the
+north-west coast beyond Beaumont's farthest to a promontory in 83 deg.
+24' N. and 40 deg. 46' E. and they saw to the north-east Cape
+Washington, in about 83 deg. 38' N. and 39 deg. 30' E., the most
+northerly point of land till then observed. In July 1892 R. E. Peary and
+E. Astrup, crossing by land from Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound,
+discovered Independence Bay on the north-east coast in 81 deg. 37' N.
+and 34 deg. 5' W.[17] In May 1895 it was revisited by Peary, who
+supposed this bay to be a sound communicating with Victoria Inlet on the
+north-west coast. To the north Heilprin Land and Melville Land were seen
+stretching northwards, but the probability seemed to be that the coast
+soon trended north-west. In 1901 Peary rounded the north point, and
+penetrated as far north as 83 deg. 50' N. The scanty exploration of the
+great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted to cover the whole
+of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly from the west
+coast. In 1751 Lars Dalager, a Danish trader, took some steps in this
+direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870 Nordenskiold and Berggren walked
+35 m. inland from the head of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an
+elevation of 2200 ft. The Danish captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen
+reached, in 1878, the Jensen Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45
+m. from the western margin, in 62 deg. 50' N.[18] Nordenskiold
+penetrated in 1883 about 70 m. inland in 68 deg. 20' N., and two Lapps
+of his expedition went still farther on skis, to a point nearly under 45
+deg. W. at an elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and Maigaard reached in 1886
+about 100 m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in 69 deg. 30' N. Nansen with
+five companions in 1888 made the first complete crossing of the inland
+ice, working from the east coast to the west, about 64 deg. 25' N., and
+reached a height of 8922 ft. Peary and Astrup, as already indicated,
+crossed in 1892 the northern part of the inland ice between 78 deg. and
+82 deg. N., reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and determined the
+northern termination of the ice-covering. Peary made very nearly the
+same journey again in 1895. Captain T. V. Garde explored in 1893 the
+interior of the inland ice between 61 deg. and 62 deg. N. near its
+southern termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft. about 60 m.
+from the margin.[19]
+
+[Illustration: Map of Greenland.]
+
+  _Coasts._--The coasts of Greenland are for the most part deeply
+  indented with fjords, being intensely glaciated. The coast-line of
+  Melville Bay (the northern part of the west coast) is to some degree
+  an exception, though the fjords may here be somewhat filled with
+  glaciers, and, for another example, it may be noted that Peary
+  observed a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward as far as Cape
+  Morris Jesup there are precipitous headlands and islands, as
+  elsewhere, with deep water close inshore. East of the same cape there
+  is an abrupt change; the coast is unbroken, the mountains recede
+  inland, and there is shoal-water for a considerable distance from the
+  coast. Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they are indented;
+  but these are in no case large, excepting those off the north coast,
+  and that of Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel of
+  70 deg. N. This island, which is separated by Waigat Strait from the
+  Nugsuak peninsula, is lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Steenstrup
+  in 1898 discovered in it the warmest spring known in Greenland, having
+  a temperature of 66 deg. F.
+
+  The unusual glaciation of the east coast is evidently owing to the
+  north polar current carrying the ice masses from the north polar basin
+  south-westward along the land, and giving it an entirely arctic
+  climate down to Cape Farewell. In some parts the interior ice-covering
+  extends down to the outer coast, while in other parts its margin is
+  situated more inland, and the ice-bare coast-land is deeply
+  intersected by fjords extending far into the interior, where they are
+  blocked by enormous glaciers or "ice-currents" from the interior
+  ice-covering which discharge masses of icebergs into them. The east
+  coast of Greenland is in this respect highly interesting. All coasts
+  in the world which are much intersected by deep fjords have, with very
+  few exceptions, a western exposure, e.g. Norway, Scotland, British
+  Columbia and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even Spitsbergen and
+  Novaya Zemlya, whose west coasts are far more indented than their east
+  ones. Greenland forms the most prominent exception, its eastern coast
+  being quite as much indented as its western. The reason is to be found
+  in its geographical position, a cold ice-covered polar current running
+  south along the land, while not far outside there is an open warmer
+  sea, a circumstance which, while producing a cold climate, must also
+  give rise to much precipitation, the land being thus exposed to the
+  alternate erosion of a rough atmosphere and large glaciers. On the
+  east coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are similar conditions.
+  The result is that the east coast of Greenland has the largest system
+  of typical fjords known on the earth's surface. Scoresby Fjord has a
+  length of about 180 m. from the outer coast to the point where it is
+  blocked by the glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an
+  enormous area. Franz Josef Fjord, with its branch King Oscar Fjord,
+  communicating with Davy's Sound, forms a system of fjords on a similar
+  scale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest depth found by Ryder
+  in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are certainly still
+  greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have, however, probably
+  all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow water, near their
+  mouths. A few soundings made outside this coast seem to indicate that
+  the fjords continue as deep submarine valleys far out into the sea. On
+  the west coast there are also many great fjords. One of the best known
+  from earlier days is the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north
+  of 64 deg. N. Along the east coast there are many high mountains,
+  exceeding 6000 and 7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks
+  hitherto measured is at Tiningnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 60
+  deg. 35' N., which is 7340 ft. high. At the bottom of Mogens Heinesen
+  Fjord, 62 deg. 30' N., the peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of
+  Umanak, 63 deg. N., they even exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen
+  began his journey across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting
+  through the ice-covering was Gamel's Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64 deg. 34'
+  N. In the region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the
+  mountains rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf's
+  Fjeld, in 66 deg. 20' N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out
+  at sea, and forms an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk
+  (i.e. Blue Sark or blue shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first
+  landmark on their way from Iceland to the Oster Bygd, the present
+  Julianehaab district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little
+  farther north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000
+  ft., and just north of 67 deg. 10' N. only to 500 ft. or less.[20] The
+  highest mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about
+  7000 ft. The Petermann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef Fjord,
+  measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto been
+  considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but according to
+  Nathorst it "is probably only two-thirds as high as Payer supposed,"
+  perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft.
+
+  Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally not
+  quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not
+  uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and
+  Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there is
+  no other known land of such a size so filled along its coasts on all
+  sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys.
+
+  _The Inland Ice._--The whole interior of Greenland is completely
+  covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a
+  regular shield-shaped expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying all
+  valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about 715,400
+  sq. m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern
+  hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but
+  not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks are known as
+  _nunataks_ (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to a
+  level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends
+  gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coasts or the bottom
+  of the fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its yearly
+  drainage or surplus of precipitation in the form of icebergs in the
+  fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on the west
+  and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are gradually
+  melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered by cold
+  stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of these
+  icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of Newfoundland. The
+  surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the west
+  to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approaching an
+  arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen's route has its highest ridge
+  somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also seems to
+  be the case farther south. The curve shows, however, slight
+  irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the slope
+  decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where it may be
+  1 deg. or more, towards the interior, where it is 0 deg. In the
+  interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which
+  never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the winds.
+  It extends as a completely even plain of snow, with long, almost
+  imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to 10,000
+  ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the mountains
+  and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the deepest valleys
+  of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at least 6000 or 7000
+  ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from the interior, the snow
+  of the surface gradually changes its structure. At first it becomes
+  more coarse-grained, like the _Firn Schnee_ of the Alps, and is moist
+  by melting during the summer. Nearer the coast, where the melting on
+  the surface is more considerable, the wet snow freezes hard during the
+  winter and is more or less transformed into ice, on the surface of
+  which rivers and lakes are formed, the water of which, however, soon
+  finds its way through crevasses and holes in the ice down to its under
+  surface, and reaches the sea as a sub-glacial river. Near its margin
+  the surface of the inland ice is broken up by numerous large
+  crevasses, formed by the outward motion of the glacier covering the
+  underlying land. The steep ice-walls at the margin of the inland ice
+  show, especially where the motion of the ice is slow, a distinct
+  striation, which indicates the strata of annual precipitation with the
+  intervening thin seams of dust (Nordenskiold's kryokonite). This is
+  partly dust blown on to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare
+  coast-land and partly the dust of the atmosphere brought down by the
+  falling snow and accumulated on the surface of the glacier's covering
+  by the melting during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of
+  the ice-fjords this striation is not distinctly visible, being
+  evidently obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses.
+
+  The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a
+  viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is
+  pressed outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass
+  of pitch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of
+  time flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the
+  outwards-creeping inland ice will naturally be more independent of the
+  configurations of the underlying land in the interior, where its
+  thickness is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner.
+  Here the ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing
+  velocity in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off
+  as icebergs. The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly
+  given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the
+  snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its
+  western margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced
+  on its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor
+  Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great
+  velocity, up to 64-3/4 ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the
+  glaciers of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice
+  and its glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V.
+  Steenstrup during several years, Captain Hammer in 1879-1880, Captain
+  Ryder in 1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in 1891-1893,[21] and several
+  American expeditions in later years, all examined the question
+  closely. The highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by
+  Ryder in the Upernivik glacier (in 73 deg. N.), where, between the
+  13th and 14th of August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in
+  twenty-four hours, and an average velocity during several days of 101
+  ft. (Danish).[22] It was, however, ascertained that there is a great
+  difference between the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in
+  summer. For instance, Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an
+  average velocity of only 33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be
+  periodical oscillations in the extension of the glaciers and the
+  inland ice similar to those that have been observed on the glaciers of
+  the Alps and elsewhere. But these interesting phenomena have not
+  hitherto been subject to systematic observation, and our knowledge of
+  them is therefore uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as
+  polished striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the
+  whole of Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the
+  coast, has once been covered by the inland ice.
+
+  Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine
+  mollusca, &c., occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate
+  that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has
+  sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now
+  ice-bare outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these
+  traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are
+  very marked; but they are also very distinct in the south, although
+  not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the
+  upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord (72 deg.
+  20' N.) the highest terrace is 480 ft. above the sea.[23] On Manitsok
+  (65 deg. 30' N.) the highest raised beach was 360 ft. above the
+  sea.[24] In the Isortok Fjord (67 deg. 11' N.) the highest raised
+  beach is 380 ft. above sea-level.[25] In the Ameralik Fjord (64 deg.
+  14' N.) the highest marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level,
+  and at Ilivertalik (63 deg. 14' N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest
+  terrace is about 325 ft. above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the
+  Bjornesund (62 deg. 50' N.), a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the
+  sea, but it is doubtful whether this is of marine origin.[26] In the
+  Julianehaab district, between 60 deg. and 61 deg. N., the highest
+  marine terraces are found at about 160 ft. above the sea.[27] The
+  highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby Fjord, on the east coast,
+  was 240 ft. above sea-level.[28] There is a common belief that during
+  quite recent times the west and south-west coast, within the Danish
+  possessions, has been sinking. Although there are many indications
+  which may make this probable, none of them can be said to be quite
+  decisive.[29]
+
+  [_Geology._--So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland
+  is as follows:
+
+  1. _Laurentian gneiss_ forms the greatest mass of the exposed rocks of
+  the country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of Smith Sound,
+  rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene and Cretaceous
+  rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the Oolites of Pendulum
+  Island in East Greenland. Ancient schists occur on the east coast
+  south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and schists are found in Scoresby
+  Fjord. It is possible that some of these rocks are also of Huronian
+  age, but it is doubtful whether the rocks so designated by the
+  geologists of the "Alert" and "Discovery" expedition are really the
+  rocks so known in Canada, or are a continuous portion of the
+  fundamental or oldest gneiss of the north-west of Scotland and the
+  western isles.
+
+  2. _Silurian._--Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the
+  Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower
+  Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North America,
+  are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has discovered
+  them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south as the Danish
+  possessions.
+
+  3. _Devonian_ rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnudiorbik
+  Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous sandstone,
+  rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is, however, likely
+  that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in Dana Bay, Captain
+  Feilden found a species of _Spirifera_ and _Productus mesolobus_ or
+  _costatus_, though it is possible that these fossils represent the
+  "Ursa stage" (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous. A few Devonian forms
+  have also been recorded from the Parry Archipelago, and Nathorst has
+  shown the existence of Old Red Sandstone facies of Devonian in Traill
+  Island, Geographical Society Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula.
+
+  4. _Carboniferous._--In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the
+  Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a _Sigillaria_ and a
+  species of either _Pecopteris_ or _Gleichenia_, perhaps of this age;
+  and probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land, and
+  therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore, contains a
+  clearly developed Carboniferous Limestone fauna, identical with that
+  so widely distributed over the North American continent, and referable
+  also to British and Spitsbergen species. Of the Coal Measures above
+  these, if they occur, we know nothing at present. Capt. Feilden notes
+  as suggestive that, though the explorers have not met with this
+  formation on the northern shores of Greenland, yet it was observed
+  that a continuation of the direction of the known strike of the
+  limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried over the polar area, passes
+  through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen, where the formation occurs,
+  and contains certain species identical with those of the Grinnell Land
+  rocks of this horizon. The facies of the fossils is, according to Mr
+  Etheridge, North American and Canadian, though many of the species are
+  British. The corals are few in number, but the _Molluscoida_
+  (_Polyzoa_) are more numerous in species and individuals. No Secondary
+  rocks have been discovered in the extreme northern parts of West
+  Greenland, but they are present on the east and west coasts in more
+  southerly latitudes than Smith Sound.
+
+  5. _Jurassic._--These do not occur on the west coast, but on the east
+  coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones on Kuhn
+  Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, characterized by the
+  presence of the genus _Aucella_, _Olcostephanus Payeri_, _O.
+  striolaris_, _Belemnites Panderianus_, _B. volgensis_, _B. absolutus_,
+  and a _Cyprina_ near to _C. syssolae_. On the south coast of the same
+  island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured
+  calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render it
+  probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic
+  rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire. There is
+  also coal on Kuhn Island.
+
+  The Danish expeditions of 1899-1900 have added considerably to our
+  knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. Rhaetic-Lias plants
+  have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Stewart and Vardekloft. Dr
+  Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond with those from the
+  Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of England. Upper Kimmeridge
+  and Portlandian beds also occur.
+
+  6. _Cretaceous._--Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and coal,
+  are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the southern side
+  of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former locality, "the Kome
+  strata" of Nordenskiold, being the oldest. They reach 1000 ft. in
+  thickness, occupying undulating hollows in the underlying gneiss, and
+  dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at 20 deg., when the overlying
+  Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these series contain numerous plant
+  remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias, aralias, &c., and seams of lignite
+  (coal), which is burnt; but in neither occur the marine beds of the
+  United States. Still, the presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as
+  _Magnolia alternans_, in the Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close
+  alliance with the Dakota series of the United States. The underlying
+  Kome beds are not present in the American series. They are
+  characterized by fine cycads (_Zamites arcticus_ and _Glossozamites
+  Hoheneggeri_), which also occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff.
+
+  7. _Miocene._--This formation, one of the most widely spread in polar
+  lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best known
+  feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and perhaps to
+  a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neighbouring country,
+  and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone, shale and coal--the
+  sideritic shale containing immense quantities of leaves, stems, fruit,
+  &c., as well as some insects, and the coal pieces of retinite. The
+  study of these plant and insect remains shows that forests containing
+  a vegetation very similar to that of California and the southern
+  United States, in some instances even the species of trees being all
+  but identical, flourished in 70 deg. N. during geological periods
+  comparatively recent. These beds, as well as the Cretaceous series,
+  from which they are as yet only imperfectly distinguished, are
+  associated with sheets of basalt, which penetrate them in great dikes,
+  and in some places, owing to the wearing away of the softer
+  sedimentary rocks, stand out in long walls running across the beds.
+  These Miocene strata have not been found farther north on the
+  Greenland shore than the region mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay,
+  on the Grinnell Land side of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that
+  the chances are they will be found on the opposite coast, though
+  doubtless the great disintegration Greenland has undergone and is
+  undergoing has destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous
+  rocks. On the east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland,
+  the Miocene beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of
+  them even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at
+  the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since early Tertiary
+  times there has been a great change in the climate of Greenland.
+
+  Nathorst has suggested that the whole of Greenland is a "horst," in
+  the subordinate folds of which, as well as in the deeper "graben," the
+  younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary or
+  later lava flows.[30]--J. A. H.]
+
+  _Minerals._--Native iron was found by Nordenskiold at Ovifak, on Disco
+  Island, in 1870, and brought to Sweden (1871) as meteorites. The
+  heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has later
+  been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the west coast
+  enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This iron has
+  very often beautiful Widmannstatten figures like those of iron
+  meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin.[31] In 1895 Peary
+  found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross's voyage in 1818 it
+  has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got iron for
+  their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule to New York;
+  it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This iron is considered by
+  several of the first authorities on the subject to be of meteoric
+  origin,[32] but no evidence hitherto given seems to prove decisively
+  that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found were lying on
+  gneissic rock, with no basaltic rocks in the neighbourhood, does not
+  prove that the iron may not originate from basalt, for the nodules may
+  have been transported by the glaciers, like other erratic blocks, and
+  will stand erosion much longer than the basalt, which may long ago
+  have disappeared. This iron seems, however, in several respects to be
+  unlike the celebrated large nodules of iron found by Nordenskiold at
+  Ovifak, but appears to resemble much more closely the softer kind of
+  iron nodules found by Steenstrup in the basalt;[33] it stands exposure
+  to the air equally well, and has similar Widmannstatten figures very
+  sharp, as is to be expected in such a large mass. It contains,
+  however, more nickel and also phosphorus. A few other minerals may be
+  noticed, and some have been worked to a small extent--graphite is
+  abundant, particularly near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost
+  exclusively at Ivigtut; copper has been observed at several places,
+  but only in nodules and laminae of limited extent; and coal of poor
+  quality is found in the districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord.
+  Steatite or soapstone has long been used by the natives for the
+  manufacture of lamps and vessels.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing
+  suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitoes often swarm) to dense
+  fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab in the
+  extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that of Norway
+  and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean temperature for the
+  whole year probably approximates to that on the Norwegian coast 600 m.
+  farther north. The climate of the interior has been found to be of a
+  continental character, with large ranges of temperature, and with an
+  almost permanent anti-cyclonic region over the interior of the inland
+  ice, from which the prevailing winds radiate towards the coasts. On
+  the 64th parallel the mean annual temperature at an elevation of 6560
+  ft. is supposed to be -13 deg. F., or reduced to sea-level 5 deg. F.
+  The mean annual temperature in the interior farther north is supposed
+  to be -10 deg. F. reduced to sea-level. The mean temperature of the
+  warmest month, July, in the interior should be, reduced to sea-level,
+  on the 64th parallel 32 deg. F., and that of the coldest month,
+  January, about -22 deg. F., while in North Greenland it is probably
+  -40 deg. reduced to sea-level. Here we may probably find the lowest
+  temperatures of the northern hemisphere. The interior of Greenland
+  contains both summer and winter a pole of cold, situated in the
+  opposite longitude to that of Siberia, with which it is well able to
+  compete in extreme severity. On Nansen's expedition temperatures of
+  about -49 deg. F. were experienced during the nights in the beginning
+  of September, and the minimum during the winter may probably sink to
+  -90 deg. F. in the interior of the inland ice. These low temperatures
+  are evidently caused by the radiation of heat from the snow-surface in
+  the rarefied air in the interior. The daily range of temperature is
+  therefore very considerable, sometimes amounting to 40 deg. Such a
+  range is elsewhere found only in deserts, but the surface of the
+  inland ice may be considered to be an elevated desert of snow.[34] The
+  climate of the east coast is on the whole considerably more arctic
+  than that of the west coast on corresponding latitudes; the land is
+  much more completely snow-covered, and the snow-line goes considerably
+  lower. The probability also is that there is more precipitation, and
+  that the mean temperatures are lower.[35] The well-known strangely
+  warm and dry _fohn_-winds of Greenland occur both on the west and the
+  east coast; they are more local than was formerly believed, and are
+  formed by cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the
+  outer slope of the inland ice.[36] Mirage and similar phenomena and
+  the aurora are common.
+
+  _Fauna and Flora._--It was long a common belief that the fauna and
+  flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance which
+  would make it probable that Greenland has been separated by sea from
+  America during a longer period of time than from Europe. The
+  correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be doubted. The land
+  mammals of Greenland are decidedly more American than European; the
+  musk-ox, the banded lemming (_Cuniculus torquatus_), the white polar
+  wolf, of which there seems to have been a new invasion recently round
+  the northern part of the country to the east coast, the Eskimo and the
+  dog--probably also the reindeer--have all come from America, while the
+  other land mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare,
+  the stoat (_Mustela erminea_), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The
+  species of seals and whales are, if anything, more American than
+  European, and so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal
+  (_Cystophora cristata_), for instance, may be said to be a
+  Greenland-American species, while a Scandinavian species, such as the
+  grey seal (_Halichoerus grypus_), appears to be very rare both in
+  Greenland and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in
+  Greenland, eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest
+  circumpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their
+  distribution.[37] About 310 species of vascular plants are found, of
+  which about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic,
+  fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe or
+  Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic elements
+  of the flora are nearly equivalent; and if the flora of Arctic North
+  America were better known, the number of plants common to America
+  might be still more enlarged.[38]
+
+  In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have been introduced.
+  The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west coast but
+  decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The white whale
+  fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing is important;
+  walruses are also caught and sometimes narwhal. There are also
+  important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish (_Sebastes_)
+  and _nepisak_ (_Cyclopterus lumpus_); a shark (_Somniosus
+  microcephalus_) is taken for the oil from its liver; and sea-trout are
+  found in the streams and small lakes of the south. On land reindeer
+  were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south, but
+  in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg there are
+  still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other sea-birds are
+  in some parts valuable for food in winter, and so is the ptarmigan.
+  Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down. Valuable fur is
+  obtained from the white and blue fox, the skin of the eider-duck and
+  the polar bear.
+
+  At Tasiusak (73 deg. 22' N.), the most northern civilized settlement
+  in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but
+  several plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70 deg. 40' N.)
+  is the most northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes grow
+  well, turnips (but not every year), lettuce and chervil succeed
+  sometimes, but parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn (69 deg. 12'
+  N.), only some 15 m. from the inland ice, gardening succeeds very
+  well; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly; the spinach produces large
+  leaves; chervil, pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips grow very
+  well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during the summer (June
+  to August). In the south, in the Julianehaab district, even flowering
+  plants, such as aster, nemophilia and mignonette, are cultivated, and
+  broccoli, spinach, sorrel, chervil, parsley, rhubarb, turnips,
+  lettuce, radishes grow well. Potatoes give fair results when they are
+  taken good care of, carrots grow to a thickness of 1-1/2 in., while
+  cabbage does poorly. Strawberries and cucumbers have been ripened in a
+  forcing frame. In the "Kongespeil" (King's mirror) of the 13th century
+  it is stated that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley.
+
+  The wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable
+  situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species.
+  The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied
+  to those found in Lapland or on the summits of the highest British
+  hills. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where
+  the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground is
+  covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willows, crow-berries
+  and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the andromeda,
+  the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &c. besides the flowering
+  mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in the shape of
+  bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very sheltered
+  places, the willows may grow higher than a man, and the vegetation is
+  less arctic and more abundant.
+
+_Government and Trade._--The trade of Greenland is a monopoly of the
+Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in Copenhagen by a
+government board (_Kongelige Gronlandske Handel_) and in the country by
+various government officials. In order to meet the double purposes of
+government and trade the west coast, up to nearly 74 deg. N., is divided
+into two inspectorates, the southern extending to 67 deg. 40' N., the
+northern comprising the rest of the country; the respective seats of
+government being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates are ruled
+by two superior officials or governors responsible to the director of
+the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspectorates is divided into
+districts, each district having, in addition to the chief settlement or
+_coloni_, several outlying posts and Eskimo hunting stations, each
+presided over by an _udligger_, who is responsible to the
+_coloni-bestyrer_, or superintendent of the district. These trading
+settlements, which dot the coast for a distance of 1000 m., are about
+sixty in number. From the Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is
+the chief article received, and is forwarded in casks to the _coloni_,
+where it is boiled into oil, and prepared for being despatched to
+Copenhagen by means of the government ships which arrive and leave
+between May and November. For the rest of the year navigation is
+stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing season. The
+principle upon which the government acts is to give the natives low
+prices for their produce, but to sell them European articles of
+necessity at prime cost, and other stores, such as bread, at prices
+which will scarcely pay for the purchase and freight, while no
+merchandise is charged, on an average, more than 20% over the cost price
+in Denmark. In addition the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from
+private dealers on paying freight for them at the rate of 2-1/2d. per 10
+lb., or 1s. 6d. per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and
+native articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and
+Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government. Out of the
+payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-sixth devoted to
+the Greenlanders' public fund, spent in "public works," in charity, and
+on other unforeseen contingencies. The object of the monopoly is solely
+for the good of the Greenlanders--to prevent spirits being sold to them,
+and the vice, disease and misery which usually attend the collision
+between natives and civilization of the trader's type being introduced
+into the primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition to
+being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious crime is very
+rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local councils or
+_parsissaet_ were organized in 1857 in every district. To these parish
+parliaments delegates are sent from every station. These _parsissoks_,
+elected at the rate of about one representative to 120 voters, wear a
+cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid the European members of the
+council in distributing the surplus profit apportioned to each district,
+and generally in advising as to the welfare of that part of Greenland
+under their partial control. The municipal council has the disposal of
+20% of the annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines
+of each district. It holds two sessions every year, and the discussions
+are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition to their functions as
+guardians of the poor, the parish members have to investigate crimes and
+punish misdemeanours, settle litigations and divide inheritances. They
+can impose fines for small offences not worth sending before the
+inspector, and, in cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of
+inflicting corporal punishment.
+
+A Danish _coloni_ in Greenland might seem to many not to be a cheerful
+place at best; though in the long summer days they would certainly find
+some of those on the southern fjords comparatively pleasant. The fact
+is, however, that most people who ever lived some time in Greenland
+always long to go back. There are generally in a _coloni_ three or four
+Danish houses, built of wood and pitched over, in addition to
+storehouses and a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents
+may include, besides a _coloni-bestyrer_ and his assistant, a
+_missionair_ or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a
+carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally from
+twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built of stone and
+turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their houses in the
+_colonis_ have also to some extent been built of imported wood.
+Following the west coast northward, the trading centres are these: in
+the south inspectorate, Julianehaab, near which are remains of the early
+Norse settlements of Eric the Red and his companions (the _Oster-Bygd_);
+Frederikshaab, in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut;
+Godthaab, the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of which
+are also early Norse remains (the _Vester-Bygd_); Sukkertoppen, a most
+picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the north inspectorate the
+centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet at the mouth of Disco Bay;
+Christianshaab, one of the pleasantest settlements in the north, and
+Jacobshavn, on the inner shores of the same bay; Godhavn (or Lievely) on
+the south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of the
+whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly of all,
+Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni, Angmagssalik, in
+65 deg. 30' N., only established in 1894. For ecclesiastical purposes
+Danish Greenland is reckoned in the province of the bishop of Zeeland.
+The Danish mission in Greenland has a yearly grant of L2000 from the
+trading revenue of the colony, besides a contribution of L880 from the
+state. The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a century
+and a half, retired from the country in 1900. The trade of Greenland has
+on the whole much decreased in modern times, and trading and missions
+cost the Danish state a comparatively large sum (about L11,000 every
+year), although this is partly covered by the income from the royalty of
+the cryolite mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of
+more than L6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was
+formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought about by
+the fall in the price of seal-oil. It might be expected that there
+should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries, caused by the
+European and American sealers catching larger quantities every year,
+especially along the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and so
+actually diminishing the number of the animals in the Greenland seas.
+The statistics of South Greenland, however, do not seem to demonstrate
+any such decrease. The average number of seals killed annually is about
+33,000.[39] The annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured
+goods, foodstuffs, &c., may be taken somewhat to exceed L40,000. The
+chief articles of export (together with those that have lapsed) have
+been already indicated; but they may be summarized as including
+seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins, fish products and eiderdown,
+with some quantity of worked skins. Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which
+in the days of the old Norse settlements were the chief articles of
+export, are now of little importance.
+
+_Population._--The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated at
+45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The Europeans
+number about 300. The Eskimo population of Danish Greenland (west coast)
+seems to have decreased since the middle of the 18th century. Hans Egede
+estimated the population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large
+over-estimate. The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious
+diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During the last
+half of the 19th century there was on the whole a slight increase of the
+native population. The population fluctuates a good deal, owing, to some
+extent, to an immigration of natives from the east to the west coast.
+The population of the east coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in
+number, several hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north
+part of the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef
+Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in 1823
+Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either completely died out
+or have wandered south. A little tribe of Eskimo living in the region of
+Cape York near Smith Sound--the so-called "Arctic Highlanders" or Smith
+Sound Eskimo--number about 240.
+
+_History._--In the beginning of the 10th century the Norwegian
+Gunnbjorn, son of Ulf Kraka, is reported to have found some islands to
+the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without landing upon it, the
+southern part of the east coast of Greenland. In 982 the Norwegian Eric
+the Red sailed from Iceland to find the land which Gunnbjorn had seen,
+and he spent three years on its south-western coasts exploring the
+country. On his return to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in
+order to make people more willing to go there, and reported so
+favourably on its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining
+followers. In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only
+14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on the
+south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric built his
+house at Brattalid, near the inner end oi the fjord Tunugdliarfik, just
+north of the present Julianehaab. Other settlers followed and in a few
+years two colonies had been formed, one called Osterbygd in the present
+district of Julianehaab comprising later about 190 farms, and another
+called Vesterbygd farther north on the west coast in the present
+district of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins in
+the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where these
+colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped in coarse hairy
+cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones with runic inscriptions
+have been found. On a voyage from Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son
+of Eric the Red) discovered America in the year 1000, and a few years
+later Torfinn Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from
+Greenland to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years
+later (see VINLAND).
+
+When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various remains
+indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been people of a
+similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in America, whom they
+called _Skraeling_ (the meaning of the word is uncertain, it means
+possibly weak people); but the sagas do not report that they actually
+met the natives then. But somewhat later they have probably met with the
+Eskimo farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco
+Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &c. The Norse
+colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at least to 73 deg.
+N., where a small runic stone from the 14th century has been found. On a
+voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still farther north into the
+Melville Bay.
+
+Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance of Olaf
+Trygvasson, king of Norway, in 1000 and following years. In the
+beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own bishop, who resided
+at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station Igoliko, on an isthmus
+between two fjords, Igaliksfjord (the old Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik
+(the old Eriksfjord), inside the present colony Julianehaab. The Norse
+colonies had twelve churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the
+Osterbygd, and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland,
+had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261, when the
+Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the king of Norway.
+Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown till 1814, when, at the
+dissolution of the union between Denmark and Norway, neither it nor
+Iceland and the Faeroes were mentioned, and they, therefore, were kept
+by the Danish king and thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called
+respectively _Oster Bygd_ (or eastern settlement) and _Vester_ (western)
+_Bygd_, both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the
+districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though for long the
+view was persistently held that the first was on the east coast, and
+numerous expeditions have been sent in search of these "lost colonies"
+and their imaginary survivors. These settlements at the height of their
+prosperity are estimated to have had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however,
+is an over-estimate, the number having probably been nearer one-half or
+one-third of that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in
+1540, but long before that date those appointed had never reached their
+sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland died there in 1377. After
+the middle of the 14th century very little is heard of the settlements,
+and their communication with the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually
+ceased. This may have been due in great part to the fact that the
+shipping and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of Norway,
+who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of years) to
+Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade of Norway came more
+and more in the hands of the Hanseatic League, which took no interest in
+Greenland. The last ship that is known to have visited the Norse colony
+in Greenland returned to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the
+settlements seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they
+were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period seem to
+have become more numerous and to have extended southwards along the
+coast from the north. This seems a less feasible explanation; it is more
+probable that the Norse settlers intermarried with the Eskimo and were
+gradually absorbed. About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the
+16th century it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically
+disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no sign of any
+people save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a few directly
+relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of Norse influence.[40]
+For more than two hundred years Greenland seems to have been neglected,
+almost forgotten. It was visited by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing
+in the form of permanent European settlements was established until the
+year 1721, when the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans
+Egede, landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid many
+hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at the present day the
+native race is civilized and Christianized. Many of the colonists of the
+18th century were convicts and other offenders; and in 1750 the trade
+became a monopoly in the hands of a private company. In 1733-1734 there
+was a dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number of
+the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a private
+monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the government took it over.
+Julianehaab was founded in the following year. In 1807-1814, owing to
+the war, communication was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but
+subsequently the colony prospered in a languid fashion.
+
+  _Authorities._--As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen and
+  its early history see Konrad Maurer's excellent paper, "Geschichte der
+  Entdeckung Ostgronlands" in the report of _Die zweite deutsche
+  Nordpolarfahrt 1869-1870_ (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i.; G. Storm, _Studies
+  on the "Vineland" Voyages_ (Copenhagen, 1889); _Extraits des Memoires
+  de la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_ (1888); K. J. V.
+  Steenstrup, "Om Osterbygden," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part ix.
+  (1882), pp. 1-51; Finnur Jonsson, "Gronlands gamle Topografi efter
+  Kilderne" in _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part xx. (1899), pp. 265-329;
+  Joseph Fischer, _The Discoveries of the Norsemen in America_,
+  translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London, 1903). As to the
+  general literature on Greenland, a number of the more important modern
+  works have been noticed in footnotes. The often-quoted _Meddelelser om
+  Gronland_ is of especial value; it is published in parts (Copenhagen)
+  since 1879, and is chiefly written in Danish, but each part has a
+  summary in French. In part xiii. there is a most valuable list of
+  literature about Greenland up to 1880. See also _Geographical
+  Journal_, passim.
+
+  Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned: Hans
+  Egede, _Description of Greenland_ (London, 1745); Crantz, _History of
+  Greenland_ (2 vols., London, 1820); _Gronlands historiske
+  Mindesmerker_ (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1838-1845); H. Rink, _Danish
+  Greenland_ (London, 1877); H. Rink, _Tales of the Eskimo_ (London,
+  1875); (see also same, "Eskimo Tribes" in _Meddelelser om Gronland_,
+  part xi.); Johnstrup, _Giesecke's Mineralogiske Reise i Gronland_
+  (Copenhagen, 1878).     (F. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Inglefield, _Summer Search for Franklin_ (London, 1853).
+
+  [2] _Second Grinnell Expedition_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856).
+
+  [3] Davis, Polaris (_Hall's_) _North Polar Expedition_ (Washington,
+    1876). See also Bessels, _Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition_
+    (Leipzig, 1879).
+
+  [4] _Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery_ (1823).
+
+  [5] _Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt_ (1873-1875).
+
+  [6] _Reise til Ostkysten af Gronland_ (1832; trans. by G. Gordon
+    Macdougall, 1837).
+
+  [7] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888).
+
+  [8] _The First Crossing of Greenland_, vol. i. (London, 1890), H.
+    Mohn and F. Nansen; "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen
+    Durchquerung von Gronland" (1888). Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu
+    _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892).
+
+  [9] A. F. Nordenskiold, _Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til
+    Gronland_ (Stockholm, 1885).
+
+  [10] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, pts. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen,
+    1895-1896).
+
+  [11] _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899).
+
+  [12] _Ibid._ vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884).
+
+  [13] _The Geographical Journal_, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901);
+    _Tva Somrar i Norra Ishafvet_ (Stockholm, 1901).
+
+  [14] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, parts xxvi.-xxvii.
+
+  [15] Nares, _Voyage to the Polar Sea_ (2 vols. London, 1877). See
+    also Blue Book, journals, &c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London,
+    1877).
+
+  [16] A. W. Greely, _Report on the Proceedings of the United States
+    Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land_, vols. i. and ii.
+    (Washington, 1885); _Three Years of Arctic Service_ (2 vols. London,
+    1886).
+
+  [17] R. E. Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice"_ (2 vols. New York,
+    1898); E. Astrup, _Blandt Nordpolen's Naboer_ (Christiania, 1895).
+
+  [18] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).
+
+  [19] _Ibid._ part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896).
+
+  [20] See C. Kruuse in _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 64 (Copenhagen,
+    1899). See also F. Nansen, "Die Ostkuste Gronlands," Erganzungsheft
+    No. 105 zu _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and pl.
+    iv., sketch No. 11.
+
+  [21] E. v. Drygalski, _Gronland-Expedition der Gesellschaft fur
+    Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891-1893_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).
+
+  [22] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen,
+    1889).
+
+  [23] _Ibid._ part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv.
+    pp. 317 et seq., 323.
+
+  [24] _Ibid._ part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898).
+
+  [25] _Ibid._ part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881).
+
+  [26] _Ibid._ part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).
+
+  [27] _Ibid._ part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. 150-154
+    (1896).
+
+  [28] _Ibid._, part xix. p. 175 (1896).
+
+  [29] _Ibid._ part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347;
+    part iv. p. 237; part viii. p. 26.
+
+  [30] See A. G. Nathorst, "Bidrag till nordostra Gronlands geologi,"
+    with map _Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar_, No. 257,
+    Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, _Flora fossilis Arctica_ (7 vols.,
+    1868-1883), and especially _Meddelelser om Gronland_ for numerous
+    papers on the geology and palaeontology.
+
+  [31] _Medd. om Gronl._, part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).
+
+  [32] See Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice,"_ ii. 604 et seq.
+    (New York, 1898).
+
+  [33] See _loc. cit._ pp. 127-128.
+
+  [34] H. Mohn, "The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," _The Scott.
+    Geogr. Magazine_, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; H.
+    Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c.
+    Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p. 51.
+
+  [35] On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V.
+    Willaume-Jantzen, _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part ix. (1889), pp.
+    285-310, part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180.
+
+  [36] See A. Paulsen, _Meteorolog. Zeitschrift_ (1889), p. 241; F.
+    Nansen, _The First Crossing of Greenland_ (London, 1890), vol. ii.
+    pp. 496-497; H. Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,"
+    &c. Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p.
+    51.
+
+  [37] H. Winge, "Gronlands Fugle," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part
+    xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).
+
+  [38] See J. Lange, "Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," _Meddelelser om
+    Gronland_, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming, "Om
+    Gronlands Vegetation," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part xii.
+    (Copenhagen, 1888); and in _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. x.
+    (1888-1889). See also A. Blytt, _Englers Jahrbucher_, ii. (1882), pp.
+    1-50; A. G. Nathorst, _Otversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl._
+    (Stockholm, 1884); "Kritische Bemerkungen uber die Geschichte der
+    Vegetation Gronlands," _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. xiv. (1891).
+
+  [39] Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874 as to
+    the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Greenland,
+    and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation, the
+    Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for the
+    establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in
+    question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to put
+    its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships or
+    subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned in
+    the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar
+    provisions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in
+    council under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of
+    April in each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February
+    15, 1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still
+    operative.
+
+  [40] Cf. F. Nansen, _Eskimo Life_ (London, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+GREENLAW (a "grassy hill"), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62-1/4 m. S.E. of
+Edinburgh by the North British railway company's branch line from Reston
+Junction to St Boswells. The town was built towards the end of the 17th
+century, to take the place of an older one, which stood about a mile to
+the S.E. It was the county town from 1696 to 1853, when for several
+years it shared this dignity with Duns, which, however, is now the sole
+capital. The chief manufactures are woollens and agricultural
+implements. About 3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the
+13th century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English in
+1547, in spite of Lady Home's gallant defence, it was retaken two years
+afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its surrender to Cromwell
+in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards the close of the 18th century the
+3rd earl of Marchmont had the walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and
+the castle, though a mere shell of the original structure, is now a
+picturesque ruin.
+
+
+
+
+GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was born at Newburyport,
+Massachusetts, on the 5th of December 1783. When a child he was taken by
+his father to Maine, where he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise
+at Standish. He soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve
+years, and in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme
+court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of _Reports
+of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine_ (1822-1835). In 1833 he became
+Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded Judge Joseph Story as Dane
+professor of law in Harvard University; in 1848 he retired from his
+active duties, and became professor emeritus. After being for many years
+president of the Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge,
+Mass., on the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf's principal work is a
+_Treatise on the Law of Evidence_ (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also
+published _A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or
+Limited in their Application, taken from American and English Reports_
+(1821), and _Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists by the
+Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice, with an account
+of the Trial of Jesus_ (1846; London, 1847). He revised for the American
+courts William Cruise's _Digest of Laws respecting Real Property_ (3
+vols., 1849-1850).
+
+
+
+
+GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical group of the
+guenon monkeys technically known as _Cercopithecus callitrichus_, taking
+its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur of the back, which forms
+a marked contrast to the white whiskers and belly.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOCK, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Renfrewshire,
+Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of
+Glasgow by the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways, 21
+m. by the river and firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water
+frontage of nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town
+in which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch Gryfe,
+from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic use, and for
+driving several mills and factories. The streets are laid out on the
+comparatively level tract behind the firth, the older thoroughfares and
+buildings lying in the centre. The west end contains numerous handsome
+villas and a fine esplanade, 1-1/2 m. long, running from Prince's Pier to
+Fort Matilda, which is supplied with submarine mines for the defence of
+the river. The capacious bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence
+from a religious house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank
+that ends here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway
+between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and the
+southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper firth.
+There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting with Port
+Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total distance of 7-1/2 m.
+The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and Greenock thus has the
+reputation of being the wettest town in Scotland.
+
+Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The municipal
+buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with a tower 244
+ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on the old steamboat
+quay, in classic style with a Doric portico, dates from 1818. The county
+buildings (1867) have a tower and spire 112 ft. high. The Watt
+Institution, founded in 1837 by a son of the famous engineer, James
+Watt, contains the public library (established in 1783), the Watt
+scientific library (presented in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble
+statue of James Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the
+museum and lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other
+buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library, founded
+by the widow of William Spence the mathematician. In addition to
+numerous board schools there are the Greenock academy for secondary
+education, the technical college (1900), the school of art, and a school
+of navigation and engineering. The charitable institutions include the
+infirmary; the cholera hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception
+house; Sir Gabriel Wood's mariners' asylum, an Elizabethan building
+erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant seamen; and the
+Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built beyond the southern
+boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour stands the old west now the north
+parish church (a Gothic edifice dating from 1591) containing some
+stained-glass windows by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's
+"Highland Mary" was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson
+Street (1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile.
+The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the Classic
+style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the infirmary and
+attached to a few of the older churches, a beautiful cemetery, 90 acres
+in extent, has been laid out in the south-western district. The parks
+and open spaces include Wellington Park, Well Park in the heart of the
+town (these were the gift of Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle
+Road--a broad drive winding over the heights towards Gourock,
+constructed as a "relief work" in the severe winter of 1879-1880.
+
+Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with provost and
+bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by one member. The
+corporation owns the supplies of water (the equipment of works and
+reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas, electric light and power, and
+the tramways (leased to a company). The staple industries are
+shipbuilding (established in 1760) and sugar refining (1765).
+Greenock-built vessels have always been esteemed, and many Cunard, P. &
+O. and Allan liners have been constructed in the yards. The town has
+been one of the chief centres of the sugar industry. Other important
+industries include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives,
+anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and worsted
+goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium factory, a
+flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The seal and whale
+fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct, but the
+fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland grounds are
+considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first harbour (finished in
+1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but acquired it in that and the
+following year, and a graving dock was opened in 1786. Since then
+additions and improvements have been periodically in progress, and there
+are now several tidal harbours--among them Victoria harbour, Albert
+harbour, the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour,
+the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt dock
+(completed in 1886 at a cost of L650,000 with an area of 2000 ft. by 400
+ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel graving dock and other
+dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100 acres in area and the quay walls are
+over 3 m. in length. Both the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western
+railways (in Prince's Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage
+nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last the
+outlay on the harbour has exceeded L1,500,000.
+
+In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing village,
+consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century later there were
+only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it was erected by Charles
+I. into a burgh of barony under a charter granted to John Shaw, the
+government being administered by a baron-bailie, or magistrate,
+appointed by the superior. Its commercial prosperity received an
+enormous impetus from the Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with
+America and the West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of
+Independence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in
+in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in
+amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw--to whom and to whose descendants, the
+Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been indebted--by charter (dated 1741
+and 1751) had empowered the householders to elect a council of nine
+members, which proved to be the most liberal constitution of any Scots
+burgh prior to the Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the
+status of a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to
+parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt, William Spence
+(1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898), principal of Glasgow
+University, who died in the town and was buried in Greenock cemetery.
+John Galt, the novelist, was educated in Greenock, where he also served
+some time in the custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided
+the town in 1715.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurring
+as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals or as a canary-yellow powder.
+Crystals are hexagonal with hemimorphic development, being differently
+terminated at the two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the
+numerous hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The
+crystals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine to
+resinous lustre; hardness 3-3-1/2; specific gravity 4.9. Crystals have
+been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the neighbourhood
+of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite in the amygdaloidal
+cavities of basaltic igneous rocks--a rather unusual mode of occurrence
+for a metallic sulphide. The first, and largest crystal (about 1/2 in.
+across) was found, about the year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at
+Bowling in Dumbartonshire, but this was thought to be blende. A larger
+number of crystals, but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the
+cutting of the Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they
+were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of Cathcart,
+after whom the mineral was named. A third locality is the Boyleston
+quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities--Przibram in Bohemia,
+Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.--the mineral is represented
+only as a powder dusted over the surface of zinc minerals, especially
+blende and calamine, which contain a small amount of cadmium replacing
+zinc.
+
+Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide (ZnS) known
+as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared artificially, and are not
+uncommon as furnace products. Previous to the recent discovery in
+Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small octahedral crystals, greenockite was
+the only known mineral containing cadmium as an essential constituent.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENORE, a seaport and watering-place of county Louth, Ireland,
+beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on its western
+shore. It was brought to importance by the action of the London &
+North-Western railway company of England, which owns the pier and
+railways joining the Great Northern system at Dundalk (12-1/2 m.) and
+Newry (14 m.). A regular service of passenger steamers controlled by
+the company runs to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses
+the Lough to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places
+of county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out the golf
+links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach, some 10 ft. above
+present sea-level, is to be seen.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geologist, was born in
+London on the 18th of January 1778. He was educated at Eton, and
+afterwards (1795) entered Pembroke College, Oxford, but never graduated.
+In 1798 he proceeded to Gottingen to prosecute legal studies, but having
+attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the study of
+natural history, and, coming into the possession of a fortune, he
+abandoned law and devoted his attention to science. He studied
+mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in various parts of
+Europe and the British Isles, and worked at chemistry at the Royal
+Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused deep interest in political
+questions, and he was in 1807 elected member of parliament for the
+borough of Gatton, continuing to hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his
+interest in geology increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was
+the chief founder with others of the Geological Society of London in
+1807. He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it
+was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and in this
+capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and did much to promote
+the advancement of geology. In 1819 he published _A Critical Examination
+of the First Principles of Geology_, a work which was useful mainly in
+refuting erroneous theories. In the same year was published his famous
+_Geological Map of England and Wales_, in six sheets; of which a second
+edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based on the
+original map of William Smith; but much new information was embodied. In
+1843 he commenced to prepare a geological map of India, which was
+published in 1854. He died at Naples on the 2nd of April 1855.
+
+
+
+
+GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852), American sculptor, son of a merchant,
+was born at Boston, on the 6th of September 1805. At the age of sixteen
+he entered Harvard, but he devoted his principal attention to art, and
+in the autumn of 1825 he went to Rome, where he studied under
+Thorwaldsen. After a short visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed
+busts of John Quincy Adams and other people of distinction, he returned
+to Italy and took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first
+commissions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chanting
+Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government to execute the
+colossal statue of Washington for the national capital. It was unveiled
+in 1843, and was really a fine piece of work for its day; but in modern
+times it has been sharply criticized as unworthy and incongruous.
+Shortly afterwards he received a second government commission for a
+colossal group, the "Rescue," intended to represent the conflict between
+the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to Washington to
+superintend its erection, and in the autumn of 1852 he was attacked by
+brain fever, of which he died in Somerville near Boston on the 18th of
+December. Among other works of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of
+Lafayette, the Medora and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston
+Athenaeum. Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in
+prose and verse.
+
+  See H. T. Tuckerman, _Memoir of Horatio Greenough_ (New York, 1853).
+
+
+
+
+GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1901), American classical scholar, was
+born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May 1833. He graduated at Harvard
+in 1856, studied one year at the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the
+Michigan bar, and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he
+was appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became assistant
+professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which he resigned
+hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the
+11th of October 1901. Following the lead of Goodwin's _Moods and Tenses_
+(1860), he set himself to study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870
+published _Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive_, a brief treatise,
+privately printed, of much originality and value, and in many ways
+coinciding with Berthold Delbruck's _Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und
+Optativs in Sanskrit und Griechischen_ (1871), which, however, quite
+overshadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared _A Latin Grammar for Schools
+and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar_, by Joseph A. Allen and
+James B. Greenough, a work of great critical carefulness. His theory of
+_cum_-constructions is that adopted and developed by William Gardner
+Hale. In 1872-1880 Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and
+comparative philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced
+scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen and
+Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occasionally
+contributed to _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_ (founded in 1889
+and endowed at his instance by his own class) papers on Latin syntax,
+prosody and etymology--a subject on which he planned a long work--on
+Roman archaeology and on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy.
+He assisted largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able
+English scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with
+Professor George L. Kittredge on _Words and their Ways in English
+Speech_ (1901), one of the best books on the subject in the language. He
+wrote clever light verse, including _The Blackbirds_, a comedietta,
+first published in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (vol. xxxix. 1877); _The Rose
+and the Ring_ (1880), a pantomime adapted from Thackeray; _The Queen of
+Hearts_ (1885), a dramatic fantasia; and _Old King Cole_ (1889), an
+operetta.
+
+  See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in _Harvard Studies in Classical
+  Philology_, vol. xiv. (1903). pp. 1-17 (also printed in _Harvard
+  Graduates' Magazine_, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201).
+
+
+
+
+GREEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely combined
+associations which met from time to time in London taverns or
+coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century. It had its
+meeting-place at the King's Head tavern at Chancery Lane End, and was
+therefore known as the "King's Head Club." It seems to have been founded
+about the year 1675 as a resort for members of the political party
+hostile to the court, and as these associates were in the habit of
+wearing in their hats a bow, or "bob," of green ribbon, as a
+distinguishing badge useful for the purpose of mutual recognition in
+street brawls, the name of the club became changed, about 1679, to the
+Green Ribbon Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction
+of the country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who were
+concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion. Roger North
+tells us that "they admitted all strangers that were confidingly
+introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions to make
+proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly come to town."
+According to Dryden (_Absalom and Achitophel_) drinking was the chief
+attraction, and the members talked and organized sedition over their
+cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied the court with a list of forty-eight
+members of the Green Ribbon Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield's
+numerous perjuries make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives
+confirmation as regards several names from a list given to James II. by
+Nathan Wade in 1885 (_Harleian MSS._ 6845), while a number of more
+eminent personages are mentioned in _The Cabal_, a satire published in
+1680, as also frequenting the club. From these sources it would appear
+that the duke of Monmouth himself, and statesmen like Halifax,
+Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Macclesfield, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of
+Warke, Herbert of Cherbury, were among those who fraternized at the
+King's Head Tavern with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and
+Shadwell, with remnants of the Cromwellian regime like Falconbridge,
+Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard of
+Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the type of
+Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield, notorious among his
+other crimes and treacheries for a seditious paper found in a meal-tub,
+is found in connexion with the club in _The Loyal Subjects' Litany_, one
+of the innumerable satires of the period, in which occur the lines:
+
+  "From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club
+   From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub,
+            _Libera nos, Domine_."
+
+The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the court, and
+its members were active promoters of conspiracy and sedition. The
+president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir Robert Peyton, M.P. for
+Middlesex, who afterwards turned informer. The Green Ribbon Club served
+both as a debating society and an intelligence department for the Whig
+faction. Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed out
+by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news from
+Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, "for some or others
+were continually coming and going," says Roger North, "to import or
+export news and stories." Slander of the court or the Tories was
+invented in the club and sedulously spread over the town, and measures
+were there concerted for pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting
+the pretensions of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to
+Catholic outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the
+scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk armour,
+supposed to be bullet proof, "in which any man dressed up was as safe as
+a house," says North, "for it was impossible to strike him for
+laughing"; while in their pockets, "for street and crowd-work," they
+carried the weapon of offence invented by Stephen College and known as
+the "Protestant Flail."
+
+The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club the means of
+constructing the first systematized political organization in England.
+North relates that "every post conveyed the news and tales legitimated
+there, as also the malign constructions of all the good actions of the
+government, especially to places where elections were depending, to
+shape men's characters into fit qualifications to be chosen or
+rejected." In the general election of January and February 1679 the Whig
+interest throughout the country was managed and controlled by a
+committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club's organizing
+activity was also notably effective in the agitation of the Petitioners
+in 1679. This celebrated movement was engineered from the Green Ribbon
+Club with all the skill and energy of a modern caucus. The petitions
+were prepared in London and sent down to every part of the country,
+where paid canvassers took them from house to house collecting
+signatures with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The
+great "pope-burning" processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary of
+Queen Elizabeth's accession, were also organized by the club. They ended
+by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club windows; and as
+they proved an effective means of inflaming the religious passions of
+the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon Club that the _mobile vulgus_
+first received the nickname of "the mob." The activity of the club was,
+however, short-lived. The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of
+the favourite projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence,
+which declined rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation
+of the city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House
+Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685 John
+Ayloffe, who was found to have been "a clubber at the King's Head Tavern
+and a green-ribon man," was executed in front of the premises on the
+spot where the "pope-burning" bon-fires had been kindled; and although
+the tavern was still in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green
+Ribbon Club which made it famous did not survive the accession of James
+II. The precise situation of the King's Head Tavern, described by North
+as "over against the Inner Temple Gate," was at the corner of Fleet
+Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the latter thoroughfare.
+
+  See Sir George Sitwell, _The First Whig_ (Scarborough, 1894),
+  containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-burning
+  procession; Roger North, _Examen_ (London, 1740); Anchitell Grey,
+  _Debates of the House of Commons_, 1667-1684, vol. viii. (10 vols.,
+  London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc.,
+  London, 1845).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to no fewer than
+three distinct members of the Cretaceous System, viz. the Upper
+Greensand (see GAULT), the Lower Greensand and the so-called Cambridge
+Greensand, a local phase of the base of the Chalk (q.v.). The term was
+introduced by the early English geologists for certain sandy rocks which
+frequently exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of
+minute grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of
+these rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion
+between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian) and the
+Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention to the latter.
+
+The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H. Fitton
+(_Q.J.G.S._ iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name "Vectine"
+for the formation. The name was revived under the form "Vectian" in 1885
+by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because, although sands and sandstones prevail,
+the green colour has often changed by oxidation of the iron to various
+shades of red and brown, and other lithological types, clays and
+limestones represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand
+is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of Wight, in
+Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again beneath the northern
+outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxfordshire and Bedfordshire, and
+thence it is traceable through Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east
+Yorkshire. It rests conformably upon the Wealden formation in the south
+of England, but it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the
+occurrence of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked
+overlap of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived
+pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft. thick
+at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly westward. It is
+usually clearly marked off from the overlying Gault.
+
+In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been subdivided as follows,
+although the several members are not everywhere recognizable:--
+
+                                           Isle of Wight.
+  Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.)    Carstone and Sand rock series.
+  Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.)      Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands).
+  Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.)         Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).
+  Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.)     Atherfield Clay.
+
+The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The basal
+portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the "Perna bed" from the abundance of
+_Perna Mulleti_; other fossils are _Hoplites Deshayesii_, _Exogyra
+sinuata_, _Ancyloceras Mathesonianum_. The Hythe beds are
+interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former are
+bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain amount of quartz
+and glauconite. The limestone is known locally as "rag"; the Kentish Rag
+has been largely employed as a building stone and roadstone; it
+frequently contains layers of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that
+town). The sandy portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey
+and calcareous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone;
+locally it is called "hassock" (or Calkstone). The two stones are well
+exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so called from the
+discovery of the bones of that reptile). Southwest of Dorking sandstone
+and grit become more prevalent, and it is known there as "Bargate
+stone," much used around Godalming. Pulborough stone is another local
+sandstone of the Hythe beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this
+formation in Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand
+and clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst,
+Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller's earth
+deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near Maidstone, at
+Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds are light-coloured,
+rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous limestone (Folkestone
+stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found near the top. These beds are
+well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone and near Reigate. At Ightham there
+is a fine, hard, white sandstone along with a green, quartzitic variety
+(Ightham stone). In Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking,
+but a ferruginous grit, "carstone," occurs in lenticular masses and
+layers, which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c.
+
+The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy country, as about
+Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at Woburn, or at Shanklin and
+Sandown in the Isle of Wight. Outside the southern area the Lower
+Greensand is represented by the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in
+Berkshire, the Sandy and Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron
+sands of Oxfordshire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the
+Leighton Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the
+Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county and
+Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the
+Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along with the
+upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands of the Lower
+Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture of glass, for which
+purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone, near Reigate, Hartshill,
+near Aylesbury and other places; the ferruginous sand is worked as an
+iron ore at Seend.
+
+This formation is continuous across the channel into France, where it is
+well developed in Boulonnais. According to the continental
+classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the Urgonian or
+Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to the Aptian (q.v.);
+while the upper part of the Folkestone beds would fall within the lower
+Albian (q.v.).
+
+  See the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey_, "Geology of the Weald"
+  (1875), "Geology of the Isle of Wight" (2nd ed., 1889), "Geology of
+  the Isle of Purbeck" (1898); and the _Record of Excursions_,
+  Geologists' Association (London, 1891).     (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county, North
+Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 3317, (1900)
+10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is
+served by several lines of the Southern railway. It is situated in the
+Piedmont region of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is
+the seat of the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of
+the Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; chartered in
+1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles F. Deems was
+president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the burning of its
+buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of two institutions for
+negroes--a State Agricultural and Mechanical College, and Bennett
+College (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1873). Another school for
+negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College (Evangelical Lutheran,
+co-educational), was opened at Concord, N.C., in 1903, was removed to
+Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907 was established at Lutherville, E. of
+Greensboro. About 6 m. W. of Greensboro is Guilford College
+(co-educational; Friends), founded as "New Garden Boarding School" in
+1837 and rechartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a
+Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is the
+shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking region, among
+whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton are especially important;
+is an important insurance centre; has a large wholesale trade; and has
+various manufactures, including cotton goods[1] (especially blue denim),
+tobacco and cigars, lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds,
+machinery, foundry products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory
+products increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or
+97.6%. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro
+was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the 15th of
+March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford Court House,
+about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a Battle-Ground Park of
+100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this park contains a Revolutionary
+museum, and twenty-nine monuments, including a Colonial Column, an arch
+(1906) in memory of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North
+Carolina, who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and
+Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-1781), a
+brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed at Catawba
+and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson, N.C., was named.
+Greensboro was founded and became the county-seat in 1808, was organized
+as a town in 1829, and was first chartered as a city in 1870.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the first
+    in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed about
+    20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three very
+    large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill
+    villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these three
+    mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population was
+    estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools for the
+    children of operatives and carry on "welfare work" in these villages.
+
+
+
+
+GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmoreland county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 4202;
+(1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420. It is served by two lines
+of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an important coal centre, and
+manufactures engines, iron and brass goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In
+addition to its public school system, it has several private schools,
+including St Mary's Academy and St Joseph's Academy, both Roman
+Catholic. About 3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of
+Hanna's Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed by the
+Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to have been the
+first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on the 6th of April
+1773, and the county courts continued to be held here until 1787.
+Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, immediately after the opening of
+the state road, not far from the trail followed by General John Forbes
+on his march to Fort Duquesne in 1758; it was made the county-seat in
+1787, and was incorporated in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick
+(pop. in 1900, 901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg
+(620) were merged with Greensburg.
+
+  See John N. Boucher's _History of Westmoreland County, Pa._ (3 vols.,
+  New York, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+GREENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly known as
+sandpipers, the _Totanus glottis_ of most ornithological writers. Some
+exercise of the imagination is however needed to see in the dingy
+olive-coloured legs of this species a justification of the English name
+by which it goes, and the application of that name, which seems to be
+due to Pennant, was probably by way of distinguishing it from two allied
+but perfectly distinct species of _Totanus_ (_T. calidris_ and _T.
+fuscus_) having red legs and usually called redshanks. The greenshank is
+a native of the northern parts of the Old World, but in winter it
+wanders far to the south, and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope,
+in India and thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia.
+It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance there
+must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a woodcock, it is of a
+much more slender build, and its long legs and neck give it a graceful
+appearance, which is enhanced by the activity of its actions. Disturbed
+from the moor or marsh, where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the
+air, conspicuous by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries
+flies round the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree,
+if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits all
+the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many other
+_Limicolae_ indulge during the breeding-season--with certain variations,
+however, that are peculiarly its own. It breeds in no small numbers in
+the Hebrides, and parts of the Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to
+Sutherland, as well as in the more elevated or more northern districts
+of Norway, Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kamchatka. In
+North America it is represented by two species, _Totanus semipalmatus_
+and _T. melanoleucus_, there called willets, telltales or tattlers,
+which in general habits resemble the greenshank of the Old World.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington county,
+Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 75
+m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900) 7642 (4987 negroes); (1910)
+9610. Greenville is served by the Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi
+Valley railways, and by various passenger and freight steamboat lines on
+the Mississippi river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta,
+a rich cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost
+exclusively connected with that staple. There are large warehouses,
+compresses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills. Old
+Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county seat of
+Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it), and later
+became the county-seat of Washington county. Much of the old town caved
+into the river, and during the Civil War it was burned by the Federal
+forces soon after the capture of Memphis. The present site was then
+adopted. The town of Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was
+chartered as a city.
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Darke county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton. Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237.
+It is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the
+Cincinnati Northern railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is
+situated about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a
+large and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco.
+It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and creamery
+products and has grain elevators and tobacco warehouses. In the city is
+a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there is a county Children's Home
+and Infirmary. The municipality owns and operates its water-works.
+Greenville occupies the site of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville
+(built by General Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on
+the 3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory over
+the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the treaty of
+Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of hostilities and
+ceding to the United States a considerable portion of Ohio and a number
+of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and Michigan (including the sites
+of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance, Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and
+Chicago), and the United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000
+worth of goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500, for
+ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Delawares, the
+Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawatomies, the Miamis, the
+Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas, the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river
+tribe. Tecumseh lived at Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second
+Indian treaty was negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H.
+Harrison and Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the
+Shawnees, the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United
+States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white
+settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town was laid
+out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of the newly erected
+county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in 1838 and chartered as a
+city in 1887.
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Greenville county, South
+Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m. N.W. of Columbia, in
+the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom
+5414 were negroes; (1910, census) 15,741. It is served by the Southern,
+the Greenville & Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina
+railways. It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue
+Ridge Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors. It
+is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing district.
+Greenville's chief interest is in cotton, but it has various other
+manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron and fertilizers. The
+total value of the factory products of the city in 1905 was $1,676,774,
+an increase of 73.5% since 1900. The city is the seat of Furman
+University, Chicora College for girls (1893; Presbyterian), and
+Greenville Female College (1854; Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379
+students, and which, besides the usual departments, has a conservatory
+of music, a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture
+and a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University (Baptist;
+opened in 1852) grew out of the "Furman Academy and Theological
+Institution," opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827, and named in honour of
+Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-known Baptist clergyman of South
+Carolina, whose son, James C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of
+the University. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250
+students, of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville was
+laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and was first
+chartered as a city in 1868.
+
+
+
+
+GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m. N.E. of Dallas. Pop.
+(1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-born and 1751 were negroes; (1910)
+8850. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis
+South-Western and the Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton
+market, has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery, and
+other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agricultural
+district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. It is
+the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in 1893, and 1 m. from
+the city limits, in the village of Peniel (pop. 1908, about 500), a
+community of "Holiness" people, are the Texas Holiness University
+(1898), a Holiness orphan asylum and a Holiness press. Greenville was
+settled in 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas
+legislature granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission
+government similar to that of Galveston.
+
+
+
+
+GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long
+Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the state, about 28 m. N.E. of
+New York City. It contains a borough of the same name and the villages
+of Cos Cob, Riverside and Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New
+Haven & Hartford Railway; the township has steamboat and electric
+railway connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900)
+12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of the borough
+(1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort, principally for New Yorkers.
+Among the residents have been Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman,
+the landscape painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder
+of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches in the
+township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H. Murray
+(1840-1904), called "Adirondack Murray," from his _Camp Life in the
+Adirondack Mountains_ (1868), was once pastor. In the borough are a
+public library, Greenwich Academy (1827; co-educational), the Brunswick
+School for boys (1901), with which Betts Academy of Stamford was united
+in 1908, and a hospital. The principal manufactures are belting,
+woollens, tinners' hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are
+shipped from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven
+Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the exploration of Long
+Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid claim to Greenwich, and as New
+Haven did nothing to assist the settlers, they consented to union with
+New Netherland in 1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty
+of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and the New
+Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to Greenwich, but the
+inhabitants of the town refused to submit to the New Haven Colony until
+October 1656. Six years later Greenwich was one of the first towns of
+the New Haven Colony to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered
+severely during the War of Independence on account of the frequent
+quartering of American troops within its borders, the depredations of
+bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York by the British in
+1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779 (February 25) and 1781
+(December 5). There was also a strong loyalist sentiment. On the old
+post-road in Greenwich is the inn, built about 1729, at which Israel
+Putnam was surprised in February 1779 by a force under General Tryon;
+according to tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone
+steps. The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American
+Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial. The township
+government of Greenwich was instituted in the colonial period. The
+borough of Greenwich was incorporated in 1858.
+
+  See D. M. Mead, _History of the Town of Greenwich_ (New York, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,
+bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by
+Deptford. Pop. (1901) 95,770. Area, 3851.7 acres. It has a
+river-frontage of 4-1/2 m., the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing
+the Isle of Dogs on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich
+side. Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the
+Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs
+(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street traffic,
+crossing to a point between the East and West India Docks (see POPLAR).
+The main thoroughfares from W. to E. are Woolwich and Shooter's Hill
+Roads, the second representing the old high road through Kent, the Roman
+Watling Street. Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred,
+when it was a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).
+
+The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the observatory.
+Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became in 1873 a Royal Naval
+College. Upon it or its site centre nearly all the historical
+associations of the place. The noble buildings, contrasting strangely
+with the wharves adjacent and opposite to it, make a striking picture,
+standing on the low river-bank with a background formed by the wooded
+elevation of Greenwich Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal
+palace called Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as
+early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort, duke of
+Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, who largely
+improved the property and named it _Placentia_. It did not revert to the
+crown till his death in 1447. It was the birthplace of Henry VIII.,
+Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building
+was enlarged by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief
+residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the "Queen's
+House" for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land from the crown "as of the
+manor of East Greenwich" became at this time a recognized formula, and
+occurs in a succession of American colonial charters from those of
+Virginia in 1606, 1609 and 1612 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along
+with other royal palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by
+the Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of
+Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of the
+present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design which was
+not further carried out. In its unfinished state it was assigned by the
+patent of William and Mary to certain of the great officers of state, as
+commissioners for its conversion into a hospital for seamen; and it was
+opened as such in 1705. The building consists of four blocks. Behind a
+terrace 860 ft. in length, stretching along the river side, are the
+buildings erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones's designs,
+and in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren; and
+behind these buildings are on the west those of King William and on the
+east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs. In the King William
+range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the remains of Nelson lay in
+state before their burial in St Paul's Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling
+were painted by Sir James Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and
+it is hung with portraits of the most distinguished admirals and
+paintings of the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range
+is the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson and of
+Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal quadrangle
+of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by Rysbrack, sculptured
+out of a single block of marble taken from the French by Admiral Sir
+George Rooke. In the upper quadrangle is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey,
+and there are various other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the
+building was in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was
+erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endowments of the
+hospital were increased at various periods from bequests and forfeited
+estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen were boarded within it, and 5000
+or 6000 others, called out-pensioners, received stipends at various
+rates out of its funds; but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the
+Admiralty to grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such
+of the inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another
+act was passed making their leaving on these conditions compulsory. It
+was then devoted to the accommodation of the students of the Royal Naval
+College, the Infirmary being granted to the Seamen's Hospital Society.
+Behind the College is the Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons
+of petty officers and seamen, are boarded.
+
+To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres), lying high,
+and commanding extensive views over London, the Thames and the plain of
+Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and laid out by
+Charles II., and contains a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in
+his time. In it is situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the
+advancement of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact time
+is conveyed each day at one o'clock by electric signal to the chief
+towns throughout the country; British and the majority of foreign
+geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A standard clock and
+measures are seen at the entrance. A new building was completed in 1899,
+the magnetic pavilion lying some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to
+avoid the disturbance of instruments which would be occasioned by the
+iron used in the principal building. South of the park lies the open
+common of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in the
+east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich Common.
+
+At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known as the
+whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony arose out of a
+dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex shore of the Thames, by
+the commissioners for engineering works carried out there in
+1705-1720--a remarkable achievement for this period--to save the
+lowlands from flooding. To one of these dinners Pitt was invited, and
+was subsequently accompanied by some of his colleagues. Early in the
+19th century the venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial
+function, was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always
+held here, was later celebrated regularly at the "Ship," an hotel of
+ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet continued till 1868, was
+revived in 1874-1880, and was held for the last time in 1894.
+
+The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated to St
+Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the Danes in 1012. In the
+church Wolfe, who died at Quebec (1759), and Tallis, the musician, are
+buried. A modern stained-glass window commemorates Wolfe.
+
+The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member. Two burgesses
+were returned in 1577, but it was not again represented till the same
+privilege was conferred on it in 1832. The borough council consists of a
+mayor, five aldermen and thirty councillors.
+
+
+
+
+GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist and man of letters,
+was born in April 1830. He was one of three brothers--the others being
+James and Charles--who all gained reputation as journalists. Frederick
+started life in a printing house, but at an early age began to write in
+periodicals. In 1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a
+volume called _The Napoleon Dynasty_ (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote
+several novels: _The Loves of an Apothecary_ (1854), _The Path of Roses_
+(1859) and (with his brother James) _Under a Cloud_ (1860). To the
+second number of the _Cornhill Magazine_ he contributed "An Essay
+without End," and this led to an introduction to Thackeray. In 1862,
+when Thackeray resigned the editorship of the _Cornhill_, Greenwood
+became joint editor with G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole
+editor, a post which he held until 1868. While at the _Cornhill_ he
+wrote an article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray
+might have intended to conclude his unfinished work _Denis Duval_, and
+in its pages appeared _Margaret Denzil's History_, Greenwood's most
+ambitious work of fiction, published in volume form in 1864. At that
+time Greenwood had conceived the idea of an evening newspaper, which,
+while containing "all the news proper to an evening journal," should,
+for the most part, be made up "of original articles upon the many things
+which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse the leisure
+of mankind." Public affairs, literature and art, "and all the influences
+which strengthen or dissipate society" were to be discussed by men whose
+independence and authority were equally unquestionable. Canning's
+_Anti-Jacobin_ and the _Saturday Review_ of 1864 were the joint models
+Greenwood had before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and
+the _Pall Mall Gazette_ (so named after Thackeray's imaginary paper in
+_Pendennis_) was launched in February 1865, with Greenwood as editor.
+Within a few years he had come to exercise a great influence on public
+affairs. His views somewhat rapidly ripened from what was described as
+philosophic Liberalism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain,
+Mr Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a more
+effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield had in
+Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood that Beaconsfield
+purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the Khedive Ismail; the
+British government being ignorant, until informed by Greenwood, that the
+shares were for sale and likely to be bought by France. It was
+characteristic of Greenwood that he declined to publish the news of the
+purchase of the shares in the _Pall Mall_ before the official
+announcement was made.
+
+Early in 1880 the _Pall Mall_ changed owners, and the new proprietor
+required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood at once resigned his
+editorship, but in May a new paper, the _St James's Gazette_, was
+started for him by Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and
+Greenwood proceeded to carry on in it the tradition which he had
+established in the _Pall Mall_. At the _St James's_ Greenwood remained
+for over eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon
+political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone
+administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of Lord
+Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August 1888, owing to
+disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E. Steinkopff, who had bought
+the _St James's_ at Greenwood's own suggestion. In January 1891
+Greenwood brought out a weekly review which he named the _Anti-Jacobin_.
+It failed, however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in
+January 1892. In 1893 he published _The Lover's Lexicon_ and in 1894
+_Imagination in Dreams_. He continued to express his views on political
+and social questions in contributions to newspapers and magazines,
+writing frequently in the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall_,
+_Blackwood_, the _Cornhill_, &c. Towards the end of his life his
+political views reverted in some respects to the Liberalism of his early
+days.
+
+In the words of George Meredith "Greenwood was not only a great
+journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national interests were
+always urgent at his heart." He was remarkable for securing for his
+papers the services of the ablest writers of the day, and for the gift
+of recognizing merit in new writers, such, for instance, as Richard
+Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His instinct for capacity in others was as
+sure as was his journalistic judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his
+75th birthday, a dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen,
+journalists, and men of letters (with John Morley--who had succeeded him
+as editor of the _Pall Mall_--in the chair). In May 1907 he contributed
+to _Blackwood_ an article on "The New Journalism," in which he drew a
+sharp contrast between the old and the new conditions under which the
+work of a newspaper writer is conducted. He died at Sydenham on the 14th
+of December 1909.
+
+  See _Honouring Frederick Greenwood_, being a report of the speeches at
+  the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed, 1905);
+  "Birth and Infancy of the _Pall Mall Gazette_," an article contributed
+  by Greenwood to the _Pall Mall_ of the 14th of April 1897; "The
+  Blowing of the Trumpet" in the introduction to the _St James's_ (May
+  31, 1880); obituary notices in the _Athenaeum_ (Dec. 25, 1909) and
+  _The Times_ (Dec. 17, 1909).
+
+
+
+
+GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and Separatist (the date and
+place of his birth are unknown), entered as a sizar at Corpus Christi
+College, Cambridge, on the 18th of March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A.
+1581. Whether he was directly influenced by the teaching of Robert
+Browne (q.v.), a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case
+he held strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism
+of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich, at
+Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been made deacon by
+John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest by Thomas Cooper, bishop of
+Lincoln; but ere long he renounced this ordination as "wholly unlawful."
+Details of the next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the
+recognized leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable
+number had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood was
+arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was committed to
+the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default of bail for
+conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some controversial tracts
+in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner Henry Barrowe (q.v.). He is
+understood to have been at liberty in the autumn of 1588; but this may
+have been merely "the liberty of the prison." However, he was certainly
+at large in September 1592, when he was elected "teacher" of the
+Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) "An Answer to George
+Gifford's pretended Defence of Read Prayers." On the 5th of December he
+was again arrested; and the following March was tried, together with
+Barrowe, and condemned to death on a charge of "devising and circulating
+seditious books." After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he
+was hanged on the 6th of April 1593.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H. M. Dexter, _Congregationalism during the last three
+  hundred years_; _The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_; F. J.
+  Powicke, _Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam_; B. Brook,
+  _Lives of the Puritans_; C. H. Cooper, _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, vol.
+  ii.
+
+
+
+
+GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English essayist, the son of a
+merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was educated at the
+university of Edinburgh and for a time managed a mill of his father's at
+Bury, and in 1832 began business on his own account. He entered with
+ardour into the struggle for free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize
+offered by the Anti-Corn Law League for the best essay on "Agriculture
+and the Corn Laws." He was too much occupied with political, economical
+and theological speculations to give undivided attention to his
+business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. His
+_Creed of Christendom_ was published in 1851, and in 1852 he contributed
+no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies. Disraeli
+praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed a Commissionership of
+Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864 he was made Comptroller of the
+Stationery Office. Besides contributions to periodicals he produced
+several volumes of essays on political and social philosophy. The
+general spirit of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best
+known, _The Enigmas of Life_ (1872) and _Rocks Ahead_ (1874). They
+represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth, when
+wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every public ill. Greg
+was a man of deep moral earnestness of character and was interested in
+many philanthropic works. He died at Wimbledon on the 15th of November
+1881. His brother, ROBERT HYDE GREG (1795-1875), was an economist and
+antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, SAMUEL GREG (1804-1876),
+became well known in Lancashire by his philanthropic efforts on behalf
+of the working-people. PERCY GREG (1836-1889), son of William Rathbone
+Greg, also wrote, like his father, on politics, but his views were
+violently reactionary. His _History of the United States to the
+Reconstruction of the Union_ (1887) is a polemic rather than a history.
+
+
+
+
+GREGARINES (mod. Lat. _Gregarina_, from _gregarius_, collecting in a
+flock or herd, _grex_) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa Ectospora,
+in which a very high degree of morphological specialization and
+cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently found. On the
+other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly simple. Other
+principal characters which distinguish Gregarines from allied Sporozoan
+parasites are as follows:--The fully-grown adult (trophozoite) is always
+"free" in some internal cavity, i.e. it is extracellular; in nearly all
+cases prior to sporulation two Gregarines (associates) become attached
+to one another, forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a
+common cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes
+segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes, primary
+sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the resulting copula
+(zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually a spore by the secretion
+of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up
+to form the germs (sporozoites).
+
+
+  Historical.
+
+F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a Gregarine
+parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no means certain. Much
+later (1787) Cavolini described and figured an indubitable Gregarine
+(probably the form now known as _Aggregata conformis_) from a Crustacean
+(_Pachygrapsus_), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm. Leon
+Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came across several
+species of these parasites, also considered them as allied to the worms
+and proposed the generic name of _Gregarina_. The unicellular nature of
+Gregarines was first realized by A. von Kolliker, who from 1845-1848
+added considerably to our knowledge of the frequent occurrence and wide
+distribution of these organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein
+who demonstrated about this time the relation of the "pseudo-navicellae"
+(spores) to the reproduction of the parasites.
+
+[Illustration: From Wasielewswi's _Sporozoenkunde_, after Pfeiffer.
+
+FIG. 1.--a, Transverse Section of Intestine of Mealworm, infected with
+_Gregarina_ (_Clepsydrina_) _polymorpha_;[1] b, Part of a highly
+magnified.]
+
+Apart from the continually increasing number of known species, matters
+remained at about this stage for many years. It is, in fact, only since
+the closing years of the 19th century that the complete life-history has
+been fully worked out; this has now been done in many cases, thanks to
+the researches of M. Siedlecki, L. Cuenot, L. Leger, O. Duboscq, A.
+Laveran, M. Caullery, F. Mesnil and others, to whom also we owe most of
+our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the cells of
+their host during their early development.
+
+
+  Occurrence; mode of infection.
+
+Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are not
+known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in Ascidians. By
+far the greatest number of hosts is furnished by the Arthropods. Many
+members of the various groups of worms (especially the Annelids) also
+harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting forms are found in
+Echinoderms; in the other classes, they either occur only sporadically
+or else are absent. Infection is invariably of the accidental (casual)
+type, by way of the alimentary canal, the spores being usually swallowed
+by the host when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been
+described by Woodcock (31) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic in
+Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca into the
+respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.
+
+[Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger.
+
+FIG. 2.--Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a larva of
+_Tipula_.]
+
+
+  Habitat and effects on host.
+
+The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its
+diverticula (e.g. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity. In the
+latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated germs at once
+traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may come to rest in the
+connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remaining, however,
+extracellular), grow considerably in that situation, and ultimately fall
+into the body-cavity (e.g. _Diplocystis_); or they may pass straightway
+into the body-cavity and there come into relation with some organ or
+tissue (e.g. _Monocystis_) of the earthworm, which is for a time
+intracellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case of
+intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite with
+respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly. The parasite
+may remain only attached to the host-cell, never becoming actually
+intracellular (e.g. _Pterocephalus_); more usually it penetrates
+partially into it, the extracellular portion of the Gregarine, however,
+giving rise subsequently to most of the adult (e.g. _Gregarina_); or
+lastly, in a few forms, the early development is entirely intracellular
+(e.g. _Lankesteria_, _Stenophora_).
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester.
+
+FIG. 3.--_Porospora gigantea f_, (E. van Ben.), from the intestine of
+the lobster. a, Nucleus.]
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester, after various authors.
+
+FIG. 4.
+
+  a-c, Trophozoites of _Monocystis agilis_.
+  a and b, Young individuals showing changes of body-form.
+  c, Older individual, still enveloped in a coat of spermatozoa.
+  d, e, Trophozoites of _M. magna_ attached to seminal funnel of
+    _Lumbricus_.
+  Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in which the extremity of the parasite
+    is inserted.]
+
+The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells. These
+generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and alteration in
+character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy, when the
+substance of the cell becomes in one way or another practically absorbed
+by the growing parasite (cf. also COCCIDIA). Since, however, the
+Gregarines never overrun their hosts in the way that many other Sporozoa
+do (because of their lack, in general, of the power of endogenous
+multiplication), the number of cells of any tissue attacked, even in the
+case of a strong infection, is only a very small percentage of the
+whole. In short the hosts do not, as a rule, suffer any appreciable
+inconvenience from the presence of the parasites.
+
+
+    Morphology.
+
+  The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval
+  or elongated; in one or two instances (e.g. _Diplodina_) it is
+  spherical, and, on the other hand, in _Porospora_ (fig. 3) it is
+  greatly drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines, the body is
+  divided into two distinct but unequal regions or halves, the anterior
+  part being known as the _protomerite_, the hinder, generally the
+  larger, as the _deutomerite_. This feature is closely associated with
+  another important morphological character, one which is observable,
+  however, only during the earlier stages of growth and development,
+  namely, the presence of a definite organ, the _epimerite_, which
+  serves for the attachment of the parasite to the host-cell (fig. 6).
+
+  [Illustration: After Siedlecki, from Lankester's _Treatise on
+  Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 5.--Part of a section through the apparatus of fixation of a
+  _Pterocephalus_, showing root-like processes extending from the
+  Gregarine between the epithelial cells. g, Head of Gregarine; r,
+  Root-like processes; ep, Epithelial cells.]
+
+  In those Gregarines (most intestinal forms) which become attached to
+  an epithelial cell, the attachment occurs by means of a minute
+  projection or beak (rostrum) at the anterior end of the sporozoite,
+  which pushes its way into the cell, followed by the first part of the
+  growing germ. This portion of the body increases in size much quicker
+  at first than the rest (the extracellular part), more or less fills up
+  the host-cell, and forms the well-developed epimerite or secondary
+  attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next
+  grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short distance
+  away from (outside) the point where the body penetrates into the cell
+  (fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite posteriorly (distally).
+  Leger thinks that this partition most likely owes its origin to
+  trophic considerations, i.e. to the slightly different manner in which
+  the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal, largely
+  intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be supposed
+  to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the host-cell
+  supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal liquid;
+  and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting limit
+  between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer does not
+  think that mechanical considerations should be altogether left out of
+  account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an adaption for
+  strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against lateral thrusts
+  or strains, due to the impact of foreign bodies (food, &c.) in the
+  intestine.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger.
+
+  FIG. 6.--_Corycella armata_, Leger. a, Cephalont; b, Epimerite in
+  host-cell; c, Sporont.]
+
+  At the point where the body becomes actually intracellular, it is
+  constricted, and this constriction marks off the epimerite
+  (internally) from the middle portion (between this point and the
+  septum), which is the protomerite. Further growth is restricted,
+  practically, to the extracellular regions, and the epimerite often
+  comes to appear ultimately as a small appendage at the anterior end of
+  the protomerite. A Gregarine at this stage is known as a cephalont.
+  Later on, the parasite breaks loose from the host-cell and becomes
+  free in the lumen, the separation taking place at the constriction
+  between the protomerite and the epimerite; the latter is left behind
+  in the remains of the host-cell, the former becomes the anterior part
+  of the free trophozoite.
+
+  In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards,
+  ultimately becoming "coelomic," as well as those which become entirely
+  intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further, the body
+  remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include, for instance,
+  _Monocystis_ (fig. 4), _Lankesteria_, _Diplocystis_, are
+  distinguished, as _Acephalina_ or _Aseptata_ (_Haplocyta_,
+  _Monocystida_), according to which character is referred to, from the
+  others, termed _Cephalina_ or _Septata_ (_Polycystida_).
+
+  The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or
+  interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite,
+  but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and are
+  hence known as _Pseudomonocystida_; this condition may be primitive
+  (_Doliocystis_) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having in
+  course of time disappeared. Again, _Stenophora_ is a septate form
+  which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the
+  young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of an
+  epimerite.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Forms of Epimerites.
+
+    1, _Gregarina longa_.
+    2, _Sycia inopinata_.
+    3, _Pileocephalus heerii_.
+    4, _Stylorhynchus longicollis_.
+    5, _Beloides firmus_.
+    6, _Cometoides crinitus_.
+    7, _Geneiorhynchus monnieri_.
+    8, _Echinomera hispida_.
+    9, _Pterocephalus nobilis_.]
+
+  With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety of
+  form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In one or
+  two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is met
+  with. Thus in _Pterocephalus_, only the rostrum of the sporozoite
+  penetrates into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a
+  number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the
+  anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus
+  anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious
+  _Schizogregarinae_, the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a
+  number of stiff, irregular processes, which perform the same function
+  (fig. 8). It is to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and
+  not in any way comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly
+  likened.
+
+  A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has been
+  recently described by Leger (18) in the case of a new Gregarine,
+  _Taeniocystis_. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically
+  segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozoites
+  possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding to the
+  septum between the proto- and deuto-merite in an ordinary Polycystid),
+  which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal compartments. Leger
+  thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus segmented, the protomerite
+  remaining small and undivided. The nucleus remains single, so that
+  there is no question as to the unicellular or individual nature of the
+  entire animal.
+
+  [Illustration: After Leger and Hagenmuller, from Lankester's _Treatise
+  on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 8.--Three Individuals (G) of _Ophryocystis schneideri_, attached
+  to wall of Malpighian tubule of _Blaps_ sp. p, Syncytial protoplasm of
+  the tubule; c, Cilia lining the lumen.]
+
+
+    Minute structure.
+
+  The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and
+  endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte), secreted
+  by the former. The cuticle varies considerably in thickness, being
+  well developed in active, intestinal forms, but very thin and delicate
+  in non-motile coelomic forms (e.g. _Diplodina_). In the former case it
+  may show longitudinal striations. The cuticle also forms the hooks or
+  spines of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. 9A) a
+  differentiation into two layers, an outer, firmer layer, clear and
+  hyaline, the sarcocyte, and an inner layer, the myocyte, which is
+  formed of a network of muscle-fibrillae (mainly longitudinal and
+  transverse, fig. 9B). The sarcocyte alone constitutes the septum,
+  traversing the endoplasm, in septate Gregarines. The myonemes are
+  undoubtedly the agents responsible for the active "gregarinoid"
+  movements (of flexion and contraction) to be observed in many forms.
+  The peculiar gliding movements were formerly thought to be produced by
+  the extrusion of a gelatinous thread posteriorly, but Crawley (8) has
+  recently ascribed them to a complicated succession of wave-like
+  contractions of the myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact
+  that certain coelomic forms, like _Diplodina_ and others, which either
+  lack muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at
+  all, are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a
+  semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains and
+  spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an
+  accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to
+  reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are of a substance
+  termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened
+  lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and
+  highly-refringent granules often occur.
+
+  [Illustration: After Schewiakoff, from Lankester's _Treatise on
+  Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 9A.--Longitudinal section of a Gregarine in the region of the
+  septum between protomerite and deutomerite.
+
+    Pr, Protomerite.
+    De, Deutomerite.
+    s,  Septum.
+    en, Endoplasm.
+    sc, Sarcocyte.
+    c,  Cuticle.
+    m, f, Myocyte fibrils (cut across).
+    g, Gelatinous layer.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9B.--_Gregarina munieri_, showing the network of
+  myocyte fibrillae.]
+
+  The nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate
+  forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical
+  and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often
+  contains chromatin. The most characteristic feature of the nucleus is
+  the deeply-staining, more or less vacuolated spherical karyosome
+  (consisting of chromatin intimately bound up with a plastinoid basis)
+  which is invariably present. In one or two instances (e.g.
+  _Diplocystis schneideri_) the nucleus has more than one karyosome. All
+  the chromatin of the nucleus is not, however, confined to the
+  karyosome, some being in the form of grains in the nuclear sap; and in
+  some cases at any rate (e.g. _Diplodina, Lankesteria_) there is a
+  well-marked nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and
+  dots of chromatin.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after A. Schneider.
+
+  FIG. 10.--Schizogony in _Ophryocystis francisci_. a, Rosette of small
+  individuals, produced from a schizont which has just divided; b, A
+  later stage, the daughter-individuals about to separate and assuming
+  the characters of the adult.]
+
+
+    Life-history.
+
+  A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to occur
+  in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of
+  _Gonospora_, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery and
+  Mesnil [4]), the rest among the _Schizogregarinae_, so named for this
+  reason, in which schizogonous fission takes place regularly during the
+  free, trophic condition. Usually, the body divides up, by a process of
+  multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to eight)
+  daughter-individuals; but in a new genus (_Eleutheroschizon_), Brasil
+  (3) finds that a great number of little merozoites are formed, and a
+  large amount of vacuolated cytoplasm is left over unused.
+
+  In the vast majority of Gregarines, however, the life-cycle is limited
+  to gametogony and sporogony. A very general, if not indeed universal,
+  prelude to gametogony is the characteristic and important feature of
+  the order, known as association, the biological significance of which
+  has only lately been fully brought out (see H. M. Woodcock [31]). In
+  normal association, two individuals which are to be regarded as of
+  opposite sex, come into close contact with each other and remain thus
+  attached. The manner in which the parasites join varies in different
+  forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by like or
+  by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral) (fig. 12). The
+  couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith to encystment and
+  sporoblast-formation (_Lankesteria, Monocystis_), or may continue in
+  the trophic phase for some time longer (_Gregarina_). In one or two
+  instances (_Zygocystis_), association occurs as soon as the
+  trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting
+  phenomenon of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile,
+  coelomic Gregarines (e.g. _Cystobia_, _Diplodina_ and _Diplocystis_),
+  in which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (_loc. cit._) has
+  described and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a
+  permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these forms.
+  Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition (seen, for
+  instance, in _Diplodina minchinii_) the union takes place very early
+  in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than
+  sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm
+  of the two associates joining. In such cases, there is absolutely
+  nothing to indicate the "double" nature of the growing trophozoite,
+  but the presence of the two nuclei which remain quite distinct.
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger.
+
+  FIG. 11.--_Eirmocystis spp._ a, b, Associations of two and three
+  Gregarines; c, Chain of five parasites; p, Primite; s, Satellites.]
+
+  There can be little doubt that, in the great majority, if not in all
+  Gregarines, association is necessary for subsequent sporulation to
+  take place; i.e. that the cytotactic attraction imparts a
+  developmental stimulus to both partners, which is requisite for the
+  formation of primary sporoblasts (gametes). This association is
+  usually permanent; but in one or two cases (perhaps _Gonospora sp._)
+  temporary association may suffice. While association has fundamentally
+  a reproductive (sexual) significance, in some cases, this function may
+  be delayed or, as it were, temporarily suspended, the cytotactic
+  attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life.
+  Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations
+  and long chains of Gregarines (fig. 11) sometimes met with (e.g.
+  _Eirmocystis_, _Clepsydrina_).
+
+  Encystment is nearly always double, i.e. of an associated couple.
+  Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful
+  independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the
+  encystment in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior
+  (temporary) association. In the case of free parasites, a
+  well-developed cyst is secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and
+  gradually becomes spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer
+  cyst-membrane (_ectocyst_) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm
+  internal one (endocyst). The cyst once formed, further development is
+  quite independent of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside
+  it. In certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in
+  very close relation with the host's tissues, little or nothing of an
+  encystment-process on the part of the parasites is recognizable, the
+  cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing layer of the host
+  (_Diplodina_).
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger.
+
+  FIG. 12.--Associations of _Gonospora sparsa_.]
+
+  The nuclear changes and multiplication which precede
+  sporoblast-formation vary greatly in different Gregarines and can only
+  be outlined here. In the formation of both sets of sexual elements
+  (gametes) there is always a comprehensive nuclear purification or
+  maturation. This elimination of a part of the nuclear material (to be
+  distinguished as trophic or somatic, from the functional or germinal
+  portion, which forms the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely-different
+  periods. In some cases (_Lankesteria_, _Monocystis_), a large part of
+  the original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate is at once got rid
+  of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus, which is
+  highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other cases, again,
+  the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and the distinction
+  between somatic and germinal portions does not become manifest until
+  after nuclear multiplication has continued for some little time, when
+  certain of the daughter-nuclei become altered in character, and
+  ultimately degenerate, the remainder giving rise to the
+  sporoblast-nuclei (_Diplodina_, _Stylorhynchus_). Even after the
+  actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are constituted, their
+  nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (e.g. _Clepsydrina ovata_);
+  and in _Monocystis_, indeed, Brasil (2) finds that what is apparently
+  a similar process is delayed until after conjugation and formation of
+  the zygote (definitive sporoblast).
+
+  Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a
+  rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The
+  attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes
+  consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without
+  centrosomic granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a
+  few astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and
+  the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest
+  nuclear divisions are direct; the daughter-nuclei being formed either
+  by a process of simple constriction (e.g. _Diplodina_), or by a kind
+  of multiple fission or fragmentation (_Gregarina_ and _Selenidium
+  spp._). Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in _Diplodina_,
+  are indirect.
+
+  By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed, the
+  bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually become
+  very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes and
+  processes. While in some forms (e.g. _Monocystis_, _Urospora_,
+  _Stylorhynchus_) the two individuals remain fairly separate and
+  independent of each other, in others (_Lankesteria_) they become
+  intertwined and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent
+  (_Diplodina_). The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the
+  processes and segments, where they take up a position of uniform
+  distribution. Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes
+  segregated, the whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from
+  the general surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut
+  off as the sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the
+  general protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused,
+  constituting two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in
+  _Diplodina_, however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in
+  the formation of the gametes.
+
+  [Illustration: After Leger, from Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 13.--Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in _Stylorhynchus
+  longicollis_.
+
+    a, Undifferentiated gamete, attached to body of parent-individual.
+    b-d, Stages in development of motile male gamete.
+    e, Mature female gamete.
+    f, g, Stages in conjugation and nuclear union of the two elements.
+    h, Zygote (copula).
+    i, Spore, still with single nucleus and undivided sporoplasm.]
+
+  The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition of
+  marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one of
+  complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed in
+  _Pterocephalus_. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are minute,
+  elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum anteriorly
+  and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the female elements
+  (megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid, and quite passive. In
+  _Stylorhynchus_ the difference between the conjugating gametes is not
+  quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male elements being of about the
+  same bulk as the females, but pyriform instead of round, and
+  possessing a distinct flagellum; a most interesting point about this
+  parasite is that certain highly motile and spermatozoon-like male
+  gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are, however, quite sterile and
+  have acquired a subsidiary function. In other cases, again, the two
+  kinds of element exhibit either very slight differences (_Monocystis_)
+  or none (_Urospora_, _Gonospora_), in size and appearance, the chief
+  distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male elements being
+  smaller and chromatically denser than those of the females.
+
+  Lastly, in _Lankesteria_, _Gregarina_, _Clepsydrina_, _Diplocystis_
+  and _Diplodina_ complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent
+  difference whatever between the conjugating elements. Nevertheless,
+  these forms are also to be regarded as instances of binary sexuality
+  and not merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain that this
+  condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical anisogamy, through
+  a stage such as is seen in _Gonospora_, &c. And, similarly, just as in
+  all instances where the formation of differentiated gametes has been
+  observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from different
+  associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising from the
+  same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case here.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Cyst of _Monocystis agilis_, the common
+  Gregarine of the Earthworm, showing ripe spores and absence of any
+  residual protoplasm in the cyst. (From Lankester.)]
+
+  The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known
+  phenomenon termed the _danse des sporoblastes_, which is due to
+  various causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes
+  (_Pterocephalus_), the actively motile microgametes rush about here
+  and there, and seek out the female elements. In _Stylorhynchus_, Leger
+  has shown that the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring
+  about, by their vigorous movements, the _melee sexuelle_. In the forms
+  where the gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and
+  (probably) not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing
+  the necessary commingling. Thus in _Gregarina sp._ from the mealworm,
+  the unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out
+  processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the
+  cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied
+  (_Urospora_) the movements of the host are considered to be
+  sufficient; and lastly, in _Diplodina_, owing to the extent to which
+  the intertwining process is carried, if each gamete is not actually
+  contiguous to a suitable fellow-conjugant, a very slight movement or
+  mutual attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact.
+
+  An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation and
+  conjugation, which occurs in _Ophryocystis_, must be mentioned. Here
+  encystment of two associates takes place as usual; the sporont-nucleus
+  of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-nuclei
+  resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one
+  sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original
+  nuclear-material, persists in each half. Around this some of the
+  cytoplasm condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or
+  gamete thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates
+  with the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote
+  results which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the
+  ordinary manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves
+  of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis occurs,
+  each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore.
+
+  The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with
+  cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast
+  or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that
+  of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the
+  ectospore. This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced
+  into rims, spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic
+  appearance of the Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another,
+  thinner membrane, the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes
+  form the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore
+  have been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually
+  mitotic, the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each
+  of which becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm
+  becomes split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight
+  sickle-shaped (falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a
+  certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the
+  spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that
+  in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporozoites
+  in the spore is eight; the exception is _Selenidium_, in many ways far
+  from typical, where the number is half, viz. four.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Ripe Cyst of _Gregarina blattarum_, partially
+  emptied. (From Lankester.) a, Channels leading to the sporoducts; b,
+  Mass of spores still left in the cyst; c, Endocyst; d, The everted
+  sporoducts; e, Gelatinous ectocyst.]
+
+  Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation has been
+  considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the
+  _Aggregatidae_ and the _Porosporidae_. The spores of these forms have
+  been regarded as gymnospores (naked), lacking the enveloping membranes
+  (sporocyst) of the ordinary spores, and the sporozoites, consequently,
+  as developed freely in the cyst. In the case of the first-named
+  parasites, however, what was taken for sporogony has been proved to be
+  really schizogony, and on other grounds these forms are, in the
+  present writer's opinion, preferably associated with the Coccidia
+  (q.v.). With regard to the _Porosporidae_, also, it is quite likely
+  that the gymnosporous cysts considered to belong to the Gregarine
+  _Porospora_ (as known in the trophic condition) have really no
+  connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of some
+  other form, similar to _Aggregata_; in which case the true spores of
+  _Porospora_ have yet to be identified.
+
+  In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are
+  liberated. This is usually largely brought about by the swelling of
+  the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (e.g. _Gregarina_) long tubular
+  outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the
+  residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior.
+
+
+    Classification.
+
+  The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several families,
+  characterized, for the most part, by the form of the spores (fig. 16).
+  The specialized _Schizogregarinae_ are usually separated off from the
+  rest as a distinct sub-order.
+
+  SUB-ORDER I.--_Schizogregarinae._
+
+  Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence
+  during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera,
+  _Ophryocystis_, _Schizocystis_ and _Eleutheroschizon_, different
+  peculiarities of which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic
+  in the intestine or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of
+  parasite, as exemplified by _Ophryocystis_, the body was formerly
+  wrongly considered as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a
+  special order, the _Amoebosporidia_.)
+
+  [Illustration: From Wasielewski, after Leger.
+
+  FIG. 16.--Spores of various Gregarines.
+
+    a, _Eirmocystis, Sphaerocystis_, &c.
+    b, _Echinomera, Pterocephalus_, &c.
+    c, _Gregarina_, &c.
+    d, _Beloides_.
+    e, _Ancyrophora_.
+    f, _Stylorhynchidae_ (type of).
+    g, _Menosporidae_.
+    h, _Gonospora terebellae_.
+    i, _Ceratospora_.
+    k, _Urospora synaptae_.]
+
+  SUB-ORDER II.--_Eugregarinae._
+
+  Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular
+  phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described
+  as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic),
+  respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these two
+  sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is adopted,
+  the other must be taken into account in estimating the proper position
+  of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephalont condition is
+  regarded as the more primary and fundamental.
+
+  Tribe A.--_Cephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Septata_).
+
+  Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate
+  during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly
+  intestinal parasites of Arthropods.
+
+  The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows:
+  _Porosporidae_, with _Porospora gigantea_, at present thought to be
+  gymnosporous; _Gregarinidae_ (_Clepsydrinidae_), with _Gregarina_,
+  _Clepsydrina_, _Eirmocystis_, _Hyalospora_, _Cmenidospora_,
+  _Stenophora_; _Didymophyidae_, with _Didymophyes_; _Dactylophoridae_,
+  with _Dactylophorus_, _Pterocephalus_, _Echinomera_, _Rhopalonia_;
+  _Actinocephalidae_ with _Actinocephalus_, _Pyxinia_, _Coleorhynchus_,
+  _Stephanophora_, _Legeria_, _Stictospora_, _Pileocephalus_,
+  _Sciadophora_; _Acanthosporidae_ with _Acanthospora_, _Corycella_,
+  _Cometoides_; _Menosporidae_ with _Menospora_, _Hoplorhynchus_;
+  _Stylorhynchidae_, with _Stylorhynchus_, _Lophocephalus_;
+  _Doliocystidae_ with _Doliocystis_; and _Taeniocystidae_, with
+  _Taeniocystis_. The curious genus _Selenidium_ is somewhat apart.
+
+  Tribe B.--_Acephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Aseptata_,
+  _Haplocyta_).
+
+  The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly
+  coelomic parasites of "worms," Holothurians and insects.
+
+  The _Aseptata_ have not been so completely arranged in families as the
+  _Septata_. Leger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but the
+  remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam.
+  _Gonosporidae_, with _Gonospora_, _Diplodina_; and _Urosporidae_, with
+  _Urosopora_, _Cystobia_, _Lithocystis_, _Ceratospora_; the genera
+  _Monocystis_, _Diplocystis Lankesteria_ and _Zygocystis_ probably
+  constitute another; _Pterospora_ and, again, _Syncystis_ are distinct;
+  lastly, certain forms, e.g. _Zygosoma_, _Anchora_ (_Anchorina_), are
+  incompletely known.
+
+  There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently described
+  by J. Nusbaum (24) under the appropriate name of _Schaudinnella
+  henleae_, which inhabits the intestine of _Henlea leptodera_. Briefly
+  enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as follows.
+  The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the intestinal
+  cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is very
+  primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place
+  indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of
+  the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary; at other times
+  it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a
+  gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encystment
+  occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The female
+  gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and sickle-like, but
+  with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While many of the zygotes
+  ("amphionts") resulting from copulation pass out to the exterior, to
+  infect a new host, others, possessing a more delicate
+  investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal cells,
+  producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous sporozoites
+  are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that _Schaudinnella_ is a
+  practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it recalls the
+  Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs widely from them
+  in several characteristic features, being primitive in some respects,
+  but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot be properly
+  included in the order. _Schaudinnella_ rather represents a primitive
+  Ectosporan parasite, which has proceeded upon a line of its own,
+  intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the important papers relating to Gregarines are
+  the following: 1. A. Berndt, "Beitrag zur Kenntnis der ...
+  Gregarinen," _Arch. Protistenk._ I, p. 375, 3 pls. (1902); 2. L.
+  Brasil, "Recherches sur la reproduction des Gregarines monocystidees,"
+  _Arch. zool. exp._ (4) 3, p. 17, pl. 2 (1905), and _op. cit._ 4, p.
+  69, 2 pls. (1905); 3. L. Brazil, "_Eleutheroschizon duboscqi_,
+  parasite nouveau, &c.," _op. cit._ (N. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs.
+  (1906); 4. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une Gregarine ...
+  presentant ... une phase de multiplication asporulee," _C.R. Ac. Sci._
+  126, p. 262 (1898); 5. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Le Parasitisme
+  intracellulaire des Gregarines," _op. cit._ 132, p. 220 (1901); 6. M.
+  Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une mode particuliere de division
+  nucleaire chez les Gregarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 3, p. 146, 1
+  pl. (1900); 7. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques parasites
+  internes des Annelides," _Misc. biol._ (_Trav. Stat. Wimereux_), 9, p.
+  80, 1 pl. (1899); 7a. J. Cecconi, "Sur l'_Anchorina sagittata_, &c.,"
+  _Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 230, 2 pls. (1905); 8. H. Crawley,
+  "Progressive Movement of Gregarines," _P. Ac. Philad._ 54, p. 4, 2
+  pls. (1902), also _op. cit._ 57, p. 89 (1905); 9. H. Crawley, "List of
+  the Polycystid Gregarines of the U.S.," _op. cit._ 55, pp. 41, 632, 4
+  pls. (1903); 10. L. Cuenot, "Recherches sur l'evolution et la
+  conjugaison des Gregarines," _Arch. biol._ 17, p. 581, 4 pls. (1901);
+  11. A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques particularites de
+  l'evolution d'une Gregarine et la reaction de la cellule-hote," _C.R.
+  Soc. Biol._ 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); 12. L. Leger, "Recherches sur
+  les Gregarines," _Tabl. zool._ 3, p. i., 22 pls. (1892); 13. L. Leger,
+  "Contribution a la connaissance des Sporozoaires, &c.," _Bull. Sci.
+  France_, 30, p. 240, 3 pls. (1897); 14. L. Leger, "Sur un nouveau
+  Sporozoaire (_Schizocystis_), &c.," _C.R. Ac. Sci._ 131, p. 722
+  (1900); 15. L. Leger, "La Reproduction sexuee chez les Ophryocystis,"
+  _t. c._ p. 761 (1900); 16. L. Leger, "Sur une nouvelle Gregarine
+  (_Aggregata coelomica_,), &c." _op. cit._ 132, p. 1343 (1901); 17. L.
+  Leger, "La Reproduction sexuee chez les Stylorhynchus," _Arch.
+  Protistenk._ 3, p. 304, 2 pls. (1904); 18. L. Leger, "Etude sur
+  _Taeniocystis mira_ (Leger), &c.," _op. cit._ 7, p. 307, 2 pls.
+  (1906); 19. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "La Reproduction sexuee chez
+  _Pterocephalus_," _Arch. zool. exp._ (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, 11
+  figs. (1903); 20. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "_Aggregata vagans_, n.
+  sp., &c." _t. c._ p. 147, 6 figs. (1903); 21. L. Leger and O. Duboscq,
+  "Les Gregarines et l'epithelium intestinal, &c.," _Arch. parasitol._
+  6, p. 377, 4 pls. (1902); 22. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "Nouvelles
+  Recherches sur les Gregarines, &c.," _Arch. Protistenk._ 4, p. 335, 2
+  pls. (1904); 23. M. Luhe, "Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _t.
+  c._ p. 88, several figs. (1904); 24. J. Nusbaum, "Uber die ...
+  Fortpflanzung einer ... Gregarine, _Schaudinnella henleae_," _Zeit.
+  wiss. Zool._ 75, p. 281, pl. 22 (1903); 25. F. Paehler, "Uber die
+  Morphologie, Fortpflanzung ... von _Gregarina ovata_," _Arch.
+  Protistenk._ 4, p. 64, 2 pls. (1904); 26. S. Prowazek, "Zur
+  Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _op. cit._, 1, p. 297, pl. 9 (1902); 27.
+  A. Schneider (Various memoirs on Gregarines), _Tabl. zool._ 1 and 2
+  (1886-1892); 28. H. Schnitzler, "Uber die Fortpflanzung von
+  _Clepsydrina ovata_," _Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 309, 2 pls. (1905);
+  29. M. Siedlecki, "Uber die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der _Monocystis
+  ascidiae_," _Bull. Ac. Cracovie_, p. 515, 2 pls. (1900); 30. M.
+  Siedlecki, "Contribution a l'etude des changements cellulaires
+  provoquees par les Gregarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 4, p. 87, 9
+  figs. (1901); 31. H. M. Woodcock, "The Life-Cycle of _Cystobia
+  irregularis_, &c.," _Q.J.M. Sci._ 50, p. 1. 6 pls. (1906).
+       (H. M. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Figures 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 16 are redrawn from
+    Wasielewski's _Sporozoenkunde_, by permission of the author and of
+    the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena.
+
+
+
+
+GREGOIRE, HENRI (1750-1831), French revolutionist and constitutional
+bishop of Blois, was born at Veho near Luneville, on the 4th of December
+1750, the son of a peasant. Educated at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he
+became cure of Embermenil and a teacher at the Jesuit school at
+Pont-a-Mousson. In 1783 he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his
+_Eloge de la poesie_, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an _Essai sur la
+regeneration physique et morale des Juifs_. He was elected in 1789 by
+the clergy of the _bailliage_ of Nancy to the states-general, where he
+soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies of
+Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolution. He was
+among the first of the clergy to join the third estate, and contributed
+largely to the union of the three orders; he presided at the permanent
+sitting of sixty-two hours while the Bastille was being attacked by the
+people, and made a vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He
+subsequently took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges of
+the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution of the
+clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath (December 27,
+1790), he was elected bishop by two departments. He selected that of
+Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop of Blois, and for ten
+years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with exemplary zeal. An ardent
+republican, it was he who in the first session of the National
+Convention (September 21, 1792) proposed the motion for the abolition of
+the kingship, in a speech in which occurred the memorable phrase that
+"kings are in the moral order what monsters are in the natural." On the
+15th of November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the
+king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards was elected
+president of the Convention, over which he presided in his episcopal
+dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being absent with other three
+colleagues on a mission for the union of Savoy to France, he along with
+them wrote a letter urging the condemnation of the king, but omitting
+the words _a mort_; and he endeavoured to save the life of the king by
+proposing in the Convention that the penalty of death should be
+suspended.
+
+When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris, was intimidated
+into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of the Convention,
+Gregoire, who was temporarily absent from the sitting, hearing what had
+happened, hurried to the hall, and in the face of a howling mob of
+deputies refused to abjure either his religion or his office. He was
+prepared to face the death which he expected; but his courage, a rare
+quality at that time, won the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of
+"Let Gregoire have his way!" Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks
+in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the street
+corners, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress and daily
+read mass in his house. After Robespierre's fall he was the first to
+advocate the reopening of the churches (speech of December 21, 1794). He
+also exerted himself to get measures put in execution for restraining
+the vandalistic fury against the monuments of art, extended his
+protection to artists and men of letters, and devoted much of his
+attention to the reorganization of the public libraries, the
+establishment of botanic gardens, and the improvement of technical
+education. He had taken during the Constituent Assembly a great interest
+in Negro emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour in
+the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites. On the
+establishment of the new constitution, Gregoire was elected to the
+Council of 500, and after the 18th Brumaire he became a member of the
+Corps Legislatif, then of the Senate (1801). He took the lead in the
+national church councils of 1797 and 1801; but he was strenuously
+opposed to Napoleon's policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and
+after the signature of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October
+8, 1801). He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted
+against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the creation of
+the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from Josephine; but
+notwithstanding this he was subsequently created a count of the empire
+and officer of the Legion of Honour. During the later years of
+Napoleon's reign he travelled in England and Germany, but in 1814 he had
+returned to France and was one of the chief instigators of the action
+that was taken against the empire.
+
+To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme in the
+Lower Chamber and in the circles of the court after the second
+Restoration, Gregoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic bishop, was
+an object of double loathing. He was expelled from the Institute and
+forced into retirement. But even in this period of headlong reaction his
+influence was felt and feared. In 1814 he had published a work, _De la
+constitution francaise de l'an 1814_, in which he commented on the
+Charter from a Liberal point of view, and this reached its fourth
+edition in 1819. In this latter year he was elected to the Lower Chamber
+by the department of Isere. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this
+event was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was
+even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the terms of
+the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. To prevent such a catastrophe
+Louis XVIII. decided on a modification of the franchise; the Dessolle
+ministry resigned; and the first act of Decazes, the new premier, was to
+carry a vote in the chamber annulling the election of Gregoire. From
+this time onward the ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in
+literary pursuits and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants
+of Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator he
+was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support. He died on
+the 20th of May 1831.
+
+To the last Gregoire remained a devout Catholic, exactly fulfilling all
+his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but he refused to budge an
+inch from his revolutionary principles. During his last illness he
+confessed to his parish _cure_, a priest of Jansenist sympathies, and
+expressed his desire for the last sacraments of the Church. These the
+archbishop of Paris would only concede on condition that he would
+retract his oath to the civil constitution of the clergy, which he
+peremptorily refused to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop,
+the abbe Baradere gave him the _viaticum_, while the rite of extreme
+unction was administered by the abbe Guillon, an opponent of the civil
+constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish cure. The
+attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement in Paris, and the
+government had to take precautions to avoid a repetition of the riots
+which in the preceding February had led to the sacking of the church of
+St Germain l'Auxerrois and the archiepiscopal palace. On the day after
+his death Gregoire's funeral was celebrated at the church of the
+Abbaye-aux-Bois; the clergy of the church had absented themselves in
+obedience to the archbishop's orders, but mass was sung by the abbe
+Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated with the
+episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the church the horses
+were unyoked, and it was dragged by students to the cemetery of
+Montparnasse, the cortege being followed by a sympathetic crowd of some
+20,000 people.
+
+Whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist, Gregoire's name
+lives in history mainly by reason of his wholehearted effort to prove
+that Catholic Christianity is not irreconcilable with modern conceptions
+of political liberty. In this effort he was defeated, mainly because the
+Revolution, for lack of experience in the right use of liberty, changed
+into a military despotism which allied itself with the spiritual
+despotism of Rome; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown,
+the parties of reaction sought salvation in the "union of altar and
+throne." Possibly Gregoire's Gallicanism was fundamentally
+irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it made
+their traditional religion possible for those many French Catholics who
+clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution had brought them; and
+had it prevailed, it might have spared France and the world that fatal
+gulf between Liberalism and Catholicism which Pius IX.'s Syllabus of
+1864 sought to make impassable.
+
+  Besides several political pamphlets, Gregoire was the author of
+  _Histoire des sectes religieuses, depuis le commencement du siecle
+  dernier jusqu'a l'epoque actuelle_ (2 vols., 1810); _Essai historique
+  sur les libertes de l'eglise gallicane_ (1818); _De l'influence du
+  Christianisme sur la condition des femmes_ (1821); _Histoire des
+  confesseurs des empereurs, des rois, et d'autres princes_ (1824);
+  _Histoire du mariage des pretres en France_ (1826). _Gregoireana, ou
+  resume general de la conduite, des actions, et des ecrits de M. le
+  comte Henri Gregoire_, preceded by a biographical notice by Cousin
+  d'Avalon, was published in 1821; and the _Memoires ... de Gregoire_,
+  with a biographical notice by H. Carnot, appeared in 1837 (2 vols.).
+  See also A. Debidour, _L'Abbe Gregoire_ (1881); A. Gazier, Etudes sur
+  l'histoire religieuse de la Revolution Francaise (1883); L. Maggiolo,
+  La Vie et les oeuvres de l'abbe Gregoire (Nancy, 1884), and numerous
+  articles in _La Revolution Francaise_; E. Meaume, _Etude hist. et
+  biog. sur les Lorrains revolutionnaires_ (Nancy, 1882); and A. Gazier,
+  _Etudes sur l'histoire religieuse de la Revolution Francaise_ (1887).
+
+
+
+
+GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS (c. 1295-1360), Byzantine historian, man of
+learning and religious controversialist, was born at Heraclea in Pontus.
+At an early age he settled at Constantinople, where his reputation for
+learning brought him under the notice of Andronicus II., by whom he was
+appointed Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 1326 Gregoras
+proposed (in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar,
+which the emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances; nearly
+two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory XIII. on almost
+the same lines. When Andronicus was dethroned (1328) by his grandson
+Andronicus III., Gregoras shared his downfall and retired into private
+life. Attacked by Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with
+difficulty persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in
+which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputation and
+brought him a large number of pupils. Gregoras remained loyal to the
+elder Andronicus to the last, but after his death he succeeded in
+gaining the favour of his grandson, by whom he was appointed to conduct
+the unsuccessful negotiations (for a union of the Greek and Latin
+churches) with the ambassadors of Pope John XXII. (1333). Gregoras
+subsequently took an important part in the Hesychast controversy, in
+which he violently opposed Gregorius Palamas, the chief supporter of the
+sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized at the synod of
+1351, Gregoras, who refused to acquiesce, was practically imprisoned in
+a monastery for two years. Nothing is known of the end of his life. His
+chief work is his _Roman History_, in 37 books, of the years 1204 to
+1359. It thus partly supplements and partly continues the work of George
+Pachymeres. Gregoras shows considerable industry, but his style is
+pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to religious matters
+and dogmatic quarrels. This work and that of John Cantacuzene supplement
+and correct each other, and should be read together. The other writings
+of Gregoras, which (with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished,
+attest his great versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of
+the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early instructor
+John, metropolitan of Heraclea, and of the martyr Codratus of Antioch;
+funeral orations for Theodore Metochita, and the two emperors
+Andronicus; commentaries on the wanderings of Odysseus and on Synesius's
+treatise on dreams; tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful
+meaning; a philosophical dialogue called _Florentius or Concerning
+Wisdom_; astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the
+preparation of the astrolabe; and an extensive correspondence.
+
+  _Editions_: in Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz._, by L. Schopen and
+  I. Bekker, with life and list of works by J. Boivin (1829-1855); J. P.
+  Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, cxlviii., cxlix.; see also C. Krumbacher,
+  _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+
+GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND (1821-1891), German historian, was born at
+Neidenburg on the 19th of January 1821, and studied at the university of
+Konigsberg. After spending some years in teaching he took up his
+residence in Italy in 1852, remaining in that country for over twenty
+years. He was made a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the 1st
+of May 1891. Gregorovius's interest in and acquaintance with Italy and
+Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, _Geschichte
+der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_ (Stuttgart, 1859-1872, and other
+editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been
+translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1894-1900), and also
+into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice, 1874-1876). It deals
+with the history of Rome from about A.D. 400 to the death of Pope
+Clement VII. in 1534, and in the words of its author it describes "how,
+from the time of Charles the Great to that of Charles V., the historic
+system of the papacy remained inseparable from that of the Empire." The
+other works of Gregorovius include: _Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian und
+seiner Zeit_ (Konigsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E. Robinson
+(1898); _Corsica_ (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation by R. Martineau
+(1855); _Lucrezia Borgia_ (Stuttgart, 1874), English translation by J.
+L. Garner (1904); _Die Grabdenkmaler der Papste_ (Leipzig, 1881),
+English translation by R. W. Seton-Watson (1903); _Wanderjahre in
+Italien_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1892); _Geschichte der Stadt Athen im
+Mittelalter_ (1889); _Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte der Kultur_
+(Leipzig, 1887-1892); and _Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien und dem
+Kaiser_ (Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian by
+the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also something of a
+poet; he wrote a drama, _Der Tod des Tiberius_ (1851), and some
+_Gedichte_ (Leipzig, 1891).
+
+  His _Romische Tagebucher_ were edited by F. Althaus (Stuttgart, 1892),
+  and were translated into English as the _Roman Journals of F.
+  Gregorovius_, by A. Hamilton (1907).
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST (c. 213-c. 270), surnamed in later ecclesiastical tradition
+Thaumaturgus (the miracle-worker), was born of noble and wealthy pagan
+parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus, about A.D. 213. His original name was
+Theodorus. He took up the study of civil law, and, with his brother
+Athenodorus, was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at
+Caesarea he met Origen, and became his pupil and then his convert (A.D.
+233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years after his conversion,
+it had been his original intention to live a retired ascetic life (Eus.
+_H.E._ vi. 30), but, urged by Origen, and at last almost compelled by
+Phaedimus of Amasia, his metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to
+see so much learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the
+church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity, was consecrated
+bishop of his native town (about 240). His episcopate, which lasted some
+thirty years, was characterized by great missionary zeal, and by so much
+success that, according to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement
+of Gregory of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were
+only seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only
+seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity. This result
+he achieved in spite of the Decian persecution (250-251), during which
+he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself from his diocese, and
+notwithstanding the demoralizing effects of an irruption of barbarians
+(Goths and Boranians) who laid waste the diocese in A.D. 253-254.
+Gregory, although he has not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism,
+now holds an undisputed place among the fathers of the church; and
+although the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he
+is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal
+controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of Antioch
+(A.D. 264-265), which investigated and condemned the heresies of Paul of
+Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of a Trinitarianism approaching
+the Nicene type is attributed in large measure to the weight of his
+influence. Gregory is believed to have died in the reign of Aurelian,
+about the year 270, though perhaps an earlier date is more probable. His
+festival (semiduplex) is observed by the Roman Catholic Church on the
+17th of November.
+
+  For the facts of his biography we have an outline of his early years
+  in his eulogy on Origen, and incidental notices in the writings of
+  Eusebius, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa's
+  untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles of a
+  very startling description; but nothing related by him comes near the
+  astounding narratives given in the _Martyrologies_, or even in the
+  _Breviarium Romanum_, in connexion with his name.
+
+  The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the _Panegyricus in
+  Origenem_ ([Greek: Eis Origenen panegyrikos logos]), which he wrote
+  when on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it
+  contains a valuable minute description of Origen's mode of
+  instruction), a _Metaphrasis in Ecclesiasten_, characterized by Jerome
+  as "short but useful"; and an _Epistola canonica_, which treats of the
+  discipline to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of
+  persecution had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to
+  the privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the
+  conditions of the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf.
+  art PENANCE). The [Greek: Ekthesis pisteos] (_Expositio fidei_), a
+  short creed usually attributed to Gregory, and traditionally alleged
+  to have been received by him immediately in vision from the apostle
+  John himself, is probably authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of
+  doubtful authenticity "on the impassivity and the passivity of God" in
+  Syriac is in the British Museum.
+
+  _Editions_: Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1604), Fronto Ducaus (Paris, 1622),
+  Migne, Patr. Graec. x. 963.
+
+  _Translations_: S. D. F. Salmond in _Ante-Nicene Fathers_, vi.;
+  _Lives_, by Pallavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. R.
+  Reynolds (_Dict. Chr. Biog._ ii.); G. Kruger, _Early Chr. Lit._ 226;
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk._ vii. (where full bibliographies are given).
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329-389), surnamed Theologus, one of the four
+great fathers of the Eastern Church, was born about the year A.D. 329,
+at or near Nazianzus, Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had
+lately become bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a
+powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father and
+son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas, Alexandria and
+Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics, rhetoric and philosophy;
+at Athens he had for fellow-students Basil (q.v.), who afterwards became
+bishop of Caesarea, and Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his
+return to his father's house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory
+received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of
+religion; but for some time, and indeed more or less throughout his
+whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which that
+service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and education to a
+contemplative life spent among books and in the society of congenial
+friends, he was continually urged by outward circumstances, as well as
+by an inward call, to active pastoral labour. The spirit of refined
+intellectual monasticism, which clung to him through life and never
+ceased to struggle for the ascendancy, was about this time strongly
+encouraged by his intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the
+exalted pleasures of his retirement in Pontus. To this period belongs
+the preparation of the [Greek: Philokalia], a sort of chrestomathy
+compiled by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the events
+which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of Cappadocia,
+and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career of learned leisure
+difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory's position and
+temperament. The emperor Constantius, having by intrigue and
+intimidation succeeded in thrusting a semi-Arian formula upon the
+Western bishops assembled at Ariminum in Italy, had next attempted to
+follow the same course with the Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of
+Nazianzus having yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose
+among the monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence
+of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was ordained
+to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his new duties and
+responsibilities by flight, he appears to have continued to act as a
+presbyter in his father's diocese without interruption for some
+considerable time; and it is probable that his two _Invectives_ against
+Julian are to be assigned to this period. Subsequently (about 372),
+under a pressure which he somewhat resented, he allowed himself to be
+nominated by Basil as bishop of Sasima, a miserable little village some
+32 m. from Tyana; but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the
+duties of this diocese, for after another interval of "flight" we find
+him once more (about 372-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father,
+on whose death (374) he retired to Seleucia in Isauria for a period of
+some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities was
+opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed remnant of the
+orthodox party in Constantinople sent him an urgent summons to undertake
+the task of resuscitating their cause, so long persecuted and borne down
+by the Arians of the capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the
+imperial throne, the prospect of success to the Nicene doctrine had
+dawned, if only it could find some courageous and devoted champion. The
+fame of Gregory as a learned and eloquent disciple of Origen, and still
+more of Athanasius, pointed him out as such a defender; nor could he
+resist the appeal made to him, although he took the step reluctantly.
+Once arrived in Constantinople, he laboured so zealously and well that
+the orthodox party speedily gathered strength; and the small apartment
+in which they had been accustomed to meet was soon exchanged for a vast
+and celebrated church which received the significant name of Anastasia,
+the Church of the Resurrection. Among the hearers of Gregory were to be
+found, not only churchmen like Jerome and Evagrius, but also heretics
+and pagans; and it says much for the sound wisdom and practical tact of
+the preacher that he set himself less to build up and defend a doctrinal
+position than to urge his flock to the cultivation of the loving
+Christian spirit which cherishes higher aims than mere heresy hunting or
+endless disputation. Doctrinal, nevertheless, he was, as is abundantly
+shown by the famous five discourses on the Trinity, which earned for him
+the distinctive appellation of [Greek: theologos]. These orations are
+the finest exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity as
+conceived by the orthodox teachers of the East, and they were directed
+especially against the Eunomians and Macedonians. "There is perhaps no
+single book in Greek patristic literature to which the student who
+desires to gain an exact and comprehensive view of Greek theology can be
+more confidently referred." With the arrival of Theodosius in 380 came
+the visible triumph of the orthodox cause; the metropolitan see was then
+conferred upon Gregory, and after the assembling of the second
+ecumenical council in 381 he received consecration from Meletius. In
+consequence, however, of a spirit of discord and envy which had
+manifested itself in connexion with this promotion, he soon afterwards
+resigned his dignity and withdrew into comparative retirement. The rest
+of his days were spent partly at Nazianzus in ecclesiastical affairs,
+and partly on his neighbouring patrimonial estate at Arianzus, where he
+followed his favourite literary pursuits, especially poetical
+composition, until his death, which occurred in 389 or 390. His festival
+is celebrated in the Eastern Church on the 25th and 30th of January, in
+the Western on the 9th of May (duplex).
+
+  His extant works consist of poems, epistles and orations. The poems,
+  which include epigrams, elegies and an autobiographical sketch, have
+  been frequently printed, the _editio princeps_ being the Aldine
+  (1504). Other editions are those of Tollius (1696) and Muratori
+  (1709); a volume of _Carmina selecta_ also has been edited by Dronke
+  (1840). The tragedy entitled [Greek: Christos paschon] usually
+  included is certainly not genuine. Gregory's poetry did not absorb his
+  best energies; it was adopted in his later years as a recreation
+  rather than as a serious pursuit; thus it is occasionally delicate,
+  graphic, beautiful, but it is not sustained. Of the hymns none have
+  passed into ecclesiastical use. The letters are entitled to a higher
+  place in literature. They are always easy and natural; and there is
+  nothing forced in the manner in which their acute, witty and profound
+  sayings are introduced. Those to Basil introduce us to the story of a
+  most romantic friendship, those to Cledonius have theological value
+  for their bearing on the Apollinarian controversy. As an orator he was
+  so facile, vigorous and persuasive, that men forgot his small stature
+  and emaciated countenance. Forty-five orations are extant. Gregory was
+  less an independent theologian than an interpreter. He was influenced
+  by Athanasius in his Christology, by Origen in his anthropology, for,
+  though teaching original sin and deriving human mortality from the
+  Fall, he insists on the ability of the human will to choose the good
+  and to co-operate in the work of salvation with the will of God.
+  Though possessed neither of Basil's gift of government nor of Gregory
+  of Nyssa's power of speculative thought, he worthily takes a place in
+  that triumvirate of Cappadocians whom the Catholic Church gratefully
+  recognizes as having been, during the critical struggles in the latter
+  half of the 4th century, the best defenders of its faith. The _Opera
+  omnia_ were first published by Hervagius (Basel, 1550); the
+  subsequent editions have been those of Billius (Paris, 1609, 1611;
+  aucta ex interpretatione Morelli, 1630), of the Benedictines (begun in
+  1778, but interrupted by the French Revolution and not completed until
+  1840, Caillau being the final editor) and of Migne. The _Theological
+  Orations_ (edited by A. J. Mason) were published separately at
+  Cambridge in 1899.
+
+  Scattered notices of the life of Gregory Nazianzen are to be found in
+  the writings of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Rufinus, as well as
+  in his own letters and poems. The data derived from these sources do
+  not always harmonize with the account of Suidas. The earlier modern
+  authorities, such as Tillemont (_Mem. Eccl._ t. ix.) and Leclerc
+  (_Bib. Univ._ t. xviii.), were used by Gibbon. See also C. Ullmann,
+  _Gregorius von Nazianz, der Theologe_ (1825; Eng. trans. by G. F.
+  Coxe, M.A., 1857); A. Benoit, _St Gregoire de Nazianze; sa vie, ses
+  oeuvres, et son epoque_ (1877); Montaut, _Revue critique de quelques
+  questions historiques se rapportant a St Gregoire de Nazianze_ (1879);
+  F. W. Farrar, _Lives of the Fathers_, i. 491-582, and F. Loofs in
+  Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk. fur prot. Theologie_, vii. 138.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c. 331-c. 396), one of the four great fathers of
+the Eastern Church, designated by one of the later ecumenical councils
+as "a father of fathers," was a younger brother of Basil (the Great),
+bishop of Caesarea, and was born (probably) at Neocaesarea about A.D.
+331. For his education he was chiefly indebted to his elder brother. At
+a comparatively early age he entered the church, and held for some time
+the office of anagnost or reader; subsequently he manifested a desire to
+devote himself to the secular life as a rhetorician, an impulse which
+was checked by the earnest remonstrances of Gregory of Nazianzus.
+Finally, in 371 or 372 he was ordained by his brother Basil to the
+bishopric of Nyssa, a small town in Cappadocia. Here he is usually said
+(but on inadequate data) to have adopted the opinion then gaining ground
+in favour of the celibacy of the clergy, and to have separated from his
+wife Theosebia, who became a deaconess in the church. His strict
+orthodoxy on the subject of the Trinity and the Incarnation, together
+with his vigorous eloquence, combined to make him peculiarly obnoxious
+to the Arian faction, which was at that time in the ascendant through
+the protection of the emperor Valens; and in 375, the synod of Ancyra,
+convened by Demetrius the Arian governor of Pontus, condemned him for
+alleged irregularities in his election and in the administration of the
+finances of his diocese. In 376 he was deprived of his see, and Valens
+sent him into exile, whence he did not return till the publication of
+the edict of Gratian in 378. Shortly afterwards he took part in the
+proceedings of the synod which met at Antioch in Caria, principally in
+connexion with the Meletian schism. At the great ecumenical council held
+at Constantinople in 381, he was a conspicuous champion of the orthodox
+faith; according to Nicephorus, indeed, the additions made to the Nicene
+creed were entirely due to his suggestion, but this statement is of
+doubtful authority. That his eloquence was highly appreciated is shown
+by the facts that he pronounced the discourse at the consecration of
+Gregory of Nazianzus, and that he was chosen to deliver the funeral
+oration on the death of Meletius the first president of the council. In
+the following year, moreover (382), he was commissioned by the council
+to inspect and set in order the churches of Arabia, in connexion with
+which mission he also visited Jerusalem. The impressions he gathered
+from this journey may, in part at least, be gathered from his famous
+letter _De euntibus Hierosolyma_, in which an opinion strongly
+unfavourable to pilgrimages is expressed. In 383 he was probably again
+in Constantinople; where in 385 he pronounced the funeral orations of
+the princess Pulcheria and afterwards of the empress Placilla. Once more
+we read of him in 394 as having been present in that metropolis at the
+synod held under the presidency of Nectarius to settle a controversy
+which had arisen among the bishops of Arabia; in the same year he
+assisted at the consecration of the new church of the apostles at
+Chalcedon, on which occasion there is reason to believe that his
+discourse commonly but wrongly known as that [Greek: Eis ten heautou
+cheirotonian] was delivered. The exact date of his death is unknown;
+some authorities refer it to 396, others to 400. His festival is
+observed by the Greek Church on the 10th of January; in the Western
+martyrologies he is commemorated on the 9th of March.
+
+Gregory of Nyssa was not so firm and able an administrator as his
+brother Basil, nor so magnificent an orator as Gregory of Nazianzus, but
+he excelled them both, alike as a speculative and constructive
+theologian, and in the wide extent of his acquirements. His teaching,
+though strictly trinitarian, shows considerable freedom and originality
+of thought; in many points his mental and spiritual affinities with
+Origen show themselves with advantage, as in his doctrine of [Greek:
+apokatastasis] or final restoration. There are marked pantheistic
+tendencies, e.g. the inclusion of sin as a necessary part of the
+cosmical process, which make him akin to the pantheistic monophysites
+and to some modern thinkers.
+
+  His style has been frequently praised by competent authorities for
+  sweetness, richness and elegance. His numerous works may be classified
+  under five heads: (1) Treatises in doctrinal and polemical theology.
+  Of these the most important is that _Against Eunomius_ in twelve
+  books. Its doctrinal thesis (which is supported with great philosophic
+  acumen and rhetorical power) is the divinity and consubstantiality of
+  the Word; incidentally the character of Basil, which Eunomius had
+  aspersed, is vindicated, and the heretic himself is held up to scorn
+  and contempt. This is the work which, most probably in a shorter
+  draft, was read by its author when at Constantinople before Gregory
+  Nazianzen and Jerome in 381 (Jerome, _De vir. ill._ 128). To the same
+  class belong the treatise _To Ablavius_, against the tritheists; _On
+  Faith_, against the Arians; _On Common Notions_, in explanation of the
+  terms in current employment with regard to the Trinity; _Ten
+  Syllogisms_, against the Manichaeans; _To Theophilus_, against the
+  Apollinarians; an _Antirrhetic_ against the same; _Against Fate_, a
+  disputation with a heathen philosopher; _De anima et resurrectione_, a
+  dialogue with his dying sister Macrina; and the _Oratio catechetica
+  magna_, an argument for the incarnation as the best possible form of
+  redemption, intended to convince educated pagans and Jews. (2)
+  Practical treatises. To this category belong the tracts _On Virginity_
+  and _On Pilgrimages_; as also the _Canonical Epistle_ upon the rules
+  of penance. (3) Expository and homiletical works, including the
+  _Hexaemeron_, and several series of discourses _On the Workmanship of
+  Man_, _On the Inscriptions of the Psalms_, _On the Sixth Psalm_, _On
+  the first three Chapters of Ecclesiastes_, _On Canticles_, _On the
+  Lord's Prayer_ and _On the Eight Beatitudes_. (4) Biographical,
+  consisting chiefly of funeral orations. (5) Letters.
+
+  The only complete editions of the whole works are those by Fronton le
+  Duc (Fronto Ducaus, Paris, 1615; with additions, 1618 and 1638) and by
+  Migne. G. H. Forbes began an excellent critical edition, but only two
+  parts of the first volume appeared (Burntisland, 1855 and 1861)
+  containing the _Explicatio apologetica in hexaemeron_ and the _De
+  opificio hominis_. Of the new edition projected by F. Oehler only the
+  first volume, containing the _Opera dogmatica_, has appeared (1865).
+  There have been numerous editions of several single treatises, as for
+  example of the _Oratio catechetica_ (J. G. Krabinger, Munich, 1838; J.
+  H. Crawley, Cambridge, 1903), _De precatione_ and _De anima et
+  resurrectione_.
+
+  See F. W. Farrar, _Lives of the Fathers_, ii. 56-83, the monograph by
+  J. Rupp (_Gregors, des Bischofs von Nyssa, Leben und Meinungen_,
+  Leipzig, 1834), and compare P. Heyns (_Disputatio historico-theologica
+  de Greg. Nyss._, 1835), C. W. Moller (_Gregorii Nyss. doctrinam de
+  hominis natura et illustravit et cum Origeniana comparavit_, 1854) and
+  J. N. Stigler, _Die Psychologie des h. Gregors von Nyssa_ (Regensburg,
+  1857), and many smaller monographs cited in Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk.
+  fur prot. Theol._ vii. 149.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594), historian of the Franks, was born in
+the chief city of the Arverni (the modern Clermont-Ferrand) on the 30th
+of November 538. His real name was Georgius Florentius, Georgius being
+his grandfather's name and Florentius his father's. He was called
+Gregory after his maternal great-grandfather, the bishop of Langres.
+Gregory belonged to an illustrious senatorial family, many of whose
+members held high office in the church and bear honoured names in the
+history of Christianity. He was descended, it is said, from Vettius
+Epagathus, who was martyred at Lyons in 177 with St Pothinus; his
+paternal uncle, Gallus, was bishop of Clermont; his maternal
+grand-uncle, Nicetius (St Nizier), occupied the see of Lyons; and he was
+a kinsman of Euphronius, bishop of Tours.
+
+Gregory lost his father early, and his mother Armentaria settled in the
+kingdom of Burgundy on an estate belonging to her near Cavaillon, where
+her son often visited her. Gregory was brought up at Clermont-Ferrand by
+his uncle Gallus and by his successor, Avitus, and there he received his
+education. Among profane authors he read the first six books of the
+_Aeneid_ and Sallust's history of the Catiline conspiracy, but his
+education was mainly religious. The principles of religion he learnt
+from the Bible, Sulpicius Severus and some lives of saints, but to
+patristic literature and the subtleties of theology he remained a
+stranger. In 563, at the age of twenty-five, he was ordained deacon.
+Falling seriously ill, he went to Tours to seek a cure at the tomb of St
+Martin. At Tours he lived with Euphronius, and so great was the young
+man's popularity that, on the death of Euphronius in 573, the people
+unanimously designated him bishop.
+
+At that time Tours belonged to Austrasia, and King Sigebert hastened to
+confirm Gregory's election. After the assassination of Sigebert (575),
+the province was ruled by Chilperic for nine years, during which period
+Gregory displayed the greatest energy in protecting his town and church
+from the Frankish king. He had to contend with Count Leudast, the
+governor of Tours; despite all the king's threats, he refused to give up
+Chilperic's son Meroving, who had sought refuge from his father's wrath
+at the sanctuary of St Martin; and he defended Bishop Pretextatus
+against Chilperic, by whom he had been condemned for celebrating the
+marriage of Merovech and Queen Brunhilda. In 580 Gregory was himself
+accused before a council at Berny of using abusive language against
+Queen Fredegond, but he cleared himself of the charge by an oath and was
+acquitted. On the death of Chilperic, Tours remained for two years
+(584-585) in the hands of Guntram, but when Guntram adopted his nephew
+Childebert, Sigebert's son, it again became Austrasian. This change was
+welcome to Gregory, who often visited the court. In 586 he was at
+Coblenz, and on his return to Yvois (the modern Carignan) visited the
+stylite Wulfilaic; in 588 we hear of him at Metz and also at
+Chalon-sur-Saone, whither he was sent to obtain from King Guntram the
+ratification of the pact of Andelot; in 593 he was at Orleans, where
+Childebert had just succeeded his uncle Guntram. In the intervals of
+these journeys he governed Tours with great firmness, repressing
+disorders and reducing the monks and nuns to obedience. He died on the
+17th of November 594.
+
+Gregory left many writings, of which he himself gives an enumeration at
+the end of his _Historia Francorum_: "Decem libros Historiarum, septem
+Miraculorum, unum de Vita Patrum scripsi; in Psalterii tractatu librum
+unum commentatus sum; de Cursibus etiam ecclesiasticis unum librum
+condidi." The ten books of history are discussed below. The seven books
+of miracles are divided into the _De gloria martyrum_, the _De
+virtutibus sancti Juliani_, four books of _Miracula sancti Martini_, and
+the _De gloria confessorum_, the last dealing mainly with confessors who
+had dwelt in the cities of Tours and Clermont. The _Vitae patrum_
+consists of twenty biographies of bishops, abbots and hermits belonging
+to Gaul. The commentary on the Psalms is lost, the preface and the
+titles of the chapters alone being extant. The treatise _De cursibus
+ecclesiasticis_, discovered in 1853, is a liturgical manual for
+determining the hour of divers nocturnal offices by the position of the
+stars. Gregory also left a life of St Andrew, translated from the Greek,
+and a history of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, translated from Syriac.
+
+His most important work, however, is the _Historia Francorum_, which is
+divided into three parts. The first four books, which were composed at
+one time, cover the period from the creation of the world to the death
+of Sigebert in 575. The first book, which is a mere compilation from the
+chronicles of St Jerome and Orosius, is of no value. The second book,
+from 397 to 511, deals with the invasions of the Franks, and is based on
+the histories of Sulpicius Alexander and Renatus Profuturus Frigeridus,
+now lost; on the catalogues of the bishops of Clermont and Tours; on
+some lives of saints, e.g. Remigius and Maxentius, now lost; on the
+annals of Arles and Angers, now lost; and on legends, either collected
+by Gregory himself from oral tradition, or cantilenes or epics written
+in the Latin and Germanic languages. In the third and fourth books the
+earlier part is based on materials collected from men older than
+himself; of the later events he was himself an eye-witness. The fifth
+and sixth books, up to the death of Chilperic (584), deal with matters
+within his own experience. The first six books are often separate in the
+MSS., and it was these alone that were used by the chronicler
+Fredegarius in his abridgment of Gregory's history. To the first six
+books Gregory subsequently added chapters on the bishops Salonius and
+Sagittarius, and on his quarrels with Felix of Nantes. The authenticity
+of these chapters has been undeservedly attacked by Catholic writers.
+Books vii. to x., from 584 to 591, were written in the form of a diary;
+of each important event, as it occurred, he inserted an account in his
+book. The last six books are of great historical value.
+
+Gregory had an intimate knowledge of contemporary events. He was
+frequently at court, and he found Tours an excellent place for
+collecting information. The shrine of St Martin attracted the sick from
+all quarters, and the basilica of the saint was a favourite sanctuary
+for political refugees. Moreover, Tours was on the high road between the
+north and south of France, and was a convenient stage for travellers,
+the ambassadors going to and from Spain frequently halting there.
+Gregory plied every one with questions, and in this way gathered a great
+mass of detailed information. He was, besides, at great pains to be an
+impartial writer, but was not always successful. His devotion to
+Austrasia made him very bitter against, and perhaps unjust to, the
+sovereigns of Neustria, Chilperic and Fredegond. As an orthodox
+Christian, he had no good word for the Arians. He excuses the crimes of
+kings who protected the church, such as Clovis, Clotaire I. and Guntram,
+but had no mercy for those who violated ecclesiastical privileges. This
+attitude, no doubt, explains his hatred for Chilperic. But if Gregory's
+historical judgments are suspect, he at least concealed nothing and
+invented nothing; and we can correct his judgments by his own narrative.
+His history is a curious compound of artlessness and shrewdness. He was
+ignorant of the rules of grammar, confused genders and cases, and wrote
+in the vernacular Latin of his time, apart from certain passages which
+are especially elaborated and filled with poetical and elegant
+expressions. But in spite of his shortcomings he is an exceedingly
+attractive writer, and his mastery of the art of narrative has earned
+for him the name of the Herodotus of the barbarians.
+
+  T. Ruinart brought out a complete edition of Gregory's works at Paris
+  in 1699. The best modern complete edition is that of W. Arndt and B.
+  Krusch in _Mon. Germ. hist. script. rer. Merov._ (vol. i., 1885). Of
+  the many editions of the _Historia Francorum_ may be mentioned those
+  of Guadet and Taranne in the _Soc. de l'hist. de France_ (4 vols.,
+  with French translation, 1836-1838), of Omont (the first six books; a
+  reproduction of the Corvey MS.) and of G. Collon (the last four books;
+  a reproduction of the Brussels MS. No. 9, 403). Gregory's hagiographic
+  works were published by H. Bordier in the _Soc. de l'hist. de France_
+  (4 vols., with French translation, 1857-1864). Cf. J. W. Lobell,
+  _Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1868); G. Monod,
+  "Etudes critiques sur les sources de l'histoire merovingienne" in the
+  _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes_ (1872); G. Kurth, "Gregoire de
+  Tours et les etudes classiques au VI^e siecle" in the _Revue des
+  questions historiques_ (xxiv. 586 seq., 1878); Max Bonnet, _Le Latin
+  de Gregoire de Tours_ (Paris, 1890). For details, see Ulysse
+  Chevalier, _Biobibliographie_ (2nd ed.).     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, the reputed founder of the Armenian Church. His
+legend is briefly as follows. His father Anak, head of the Parthian clan
+of Suren, was bribed about the time of his birth (c. 257) by the
+Sassanid king of Persia to assassinate the Armenian king, Chosroes, who
+was of the old Arsacid dynasty, and father of Tiridates or Trdat, first
+Christian king of Armenia. Anak was slain by his victim's soldiers;
+Gregory was rescued by his Christian nurse, carried to Caesarea in
+Cappadocia, and brought up a Christian. Grown to manhood he took service
+under Tiridates, now king of Armenia, in order by his own fidelity to
+atone for his father's treachery. Presently at a feast of Anahite
+Gregory refused to assist his sovereign in offering pagan sacrifice, and
+his parentage being now revealed, was thrown into a deep pit at
+Artashat, where he languished for fourteen years, during which
+persecution raged in Armenia.
+
+The scene of the legend now shifts to Rome, where Diocletian falls in
+love with a lovely nun named Ripsime; she, rather than gratify his
+passion, flees with her abbess Gaiana and several priests to Armenia.
+Diocletian asks her back of Tiridates, who meanwhile has fallen in love
+with her himself. He too is flouted, and in his rage tortures and slays
+her and her companions. The traditional date of this massacre is the 5th
+of October, A.D. 301. Providence, incensed at such cruelty, turns
+Tiridates into a wild boar, and afflicts his subjects with madness; but
+his sister, Chosrowidukht, has a revelation to bring Gregory back out of
+his pit. The king consents, the saint is acclaimed, the bodies of the
+thirty-seven martyrs solemnly interred, and the king, after fasting
+five, and listening to Gregory's homilies for sixty days, is healed.
+This all took place at Valarshapat, where Gregory, anxious to fix a site
+on which to build shrines for the relics of Ripsime and Gaiana, saw the
+Son of God come down in a sheen of light, the stars of heaven attending,
+and smite the earth with a golden hammer till the nether world resounded
+to his blows. Three chapels were built on the spot, and Gregory raised
+his cross there and elsewhere for the people to worship, just as St Nino
+was doing about the same time in Georgia. There followed a campaign
+against the idols whose temples and books were destroyed. The time had
+now come for Gregory, who was still a layman and father of two sons, to
+receive ordination; so he went to Caesarea, where Leontius ordained and
+consecrated him catholicos or vicar-general of Armenia. This was
+sometime about 290, when Leontius may have acceded, though we first hear
+of him as bishop in 314.
+
+Gregory's ordination at Caesarea is historical. The vision at
+Valarshapat was invented later by the Armenians when they broke with the
+Greeks, in order to give to their church the semblance, if not of
+apostolic, at least of divine origin.
+
+According to Agathangelus, Tiridates went to Rome with Gregory,
+Aristaces, son of Gregory, and Albianos, head of the other priestly
+family, to make a pact with Constantine, newly converted to the faith,
+and receive a pallium from Silvester. The better sources make Sardica
+the scene of meeting and name Eusebius (of Nicomedia) as the prelate who
+attended Constantine. There is no reason to doubt that some such visit
+was made about the year 315, when the death of Maximin Daza left
+Constantine supreme. Eusebius testifies (_H.E._ ix. 8) that the
+Armenians were ardent Christians, and ancient friends and allies of the
+Roman empire when Maximin attacked them about the year 308. The
+conversion of Tiridates was probably a matter of policy. His kingdom was
+honeycombed with Christianity, and he wished to draw closer to the West,
+where he foresaw the victory of the new faith, in order to fortify his
+realm against the Sassanids of Persia. Following the same policy he sent
+Aristaces in 325 to the council of Nice. Gregory is related to have
+added a clause to the creed which Aristaces brought back; he became a
+hermit on Mount Sebuh about the year 332, and died there.
+
+Is the Ripsime episode mere legend? The story of the conversion of
+Georgia by St Nino in the same age is so full of local colour, and
+coheres so closely with the story of Ripsime and Gaiana, that it seems
+over-sceptical to explain the latter away as a mere doublet of the
+legend of Prisca and Valeria. The historians Faustus of Byzant and Lazar
+of Pharp in the 5th century already attest the reverence with which
+their memory was invested. We know from many sources the prominence
+assigned to women prophets in the Phrygian church. Nino's story reads
+like that of such a female missionary, and something similar must
+underlie the story of her Armenian companions.
+
+The history of Gregory by Agathangelus is a compilation of about 450,
+which was rendered into Greek 550. Professor Marr has lately published
+an Arabic text from a MS. in Sinai which seems to contain an older
+tradition. A letter of Bishop George of Arabia to Jeshu, a priest of the
+town Anab, dated 714 (edited by Dashian, Vienna, 1891), contains an
+independent tradition of Gregory, and styles him a Roman by birth.
+
+In spite of legendary accretions we can still discern the true outlines
+and significance of his life. He did not really illumine or convert
+great Armenia, for the people were in the main already converted by
+Syrian missionaries to the Adoptionist or Ebionite type of faith which
+was dominant in the far East, and was afterwards known as Nestorianism.
+Marcionites and Montanists had also worked in the field. Gregory
+persuaded Tiridates to destroy the last relics of the old paganism, and
+carried out in the religious sphere his sovereign's policy of detaching
+Great Armenia from the Sassanid realm and allying it with the
+Graeco-Roman empire and civilization. He set himself to Hellenize or
+Catholicize Armenian Christianity, and in furtherance of this aim set up
+a hierarchy officially dependent on the Cappadocian. He in effect turned
+his country into a province of the Greek see of Cappadocia. This
+hierarchical tie was soon snapped, but the Hellenizing influence
+continued to work, and bore its most abundant fruit in the 5th century.
+His career was thus analogous to that of St Patrick in Ireland.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--S. Weber, _Die Catholische Kirche in Armenien_
+  (Freiburg, 1903, with bibliography); Bollandii, _Acta sanctorum sept._
+  tom. 8; A. Carriere, _Les Huit Sanctuaires de l'Armenie_ (Paris,
+  1899); "Chrysostom" in Migne, _P. Gr._ tom. 63, col. 943 foll.; C.
+  Fortescue, _The Armenian Church_ (London, 1872); H. Gelzer, _Die
+  Anfange der armenischen Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1895) (_Sachs. Gesells. der
+  Wissensch._); and s.v. "Armenien" in Herzog-Hauck (Leipzig, 1897); v.
+  Gutschmid, _Kleine Schriften_ (Leipzig, 1892); Himpel, _Gregor der
+  Erleuchter_, Kl. v.; Issaverdenz, _Hist. of Arm. Church_ (Venice,
+  1875); de Lagarde, _Agathangelos_ (Gottingen, 1888); Arshak Ter
+  Mikelian, _Die arm. Kirche_ (Leipzig, 1892); Palmieri, "La Conversione
+  ufficiale degli Iberi," _Oriens Christ._ (Rome, 1902); Ryssel, _Ein
+  Brief Gregors, ubersetzt, Studien und Kritiken_, 56, Bd. (1883);
+  Samuelian, _Bekehrung Armeniens_ (Vienna, 1844); Vetter, "Die arm.
+  Vater," in Nischl's _Lehrbuch der Patrol._ iii. 215-262, (Mainz,
+  1881-1885); Malan, _S. Gregory the Illuminator_ (Rivingtons, 1868).
+       (F. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY (_Gregorius_), the name of sixteen popes and one anti-pope.
+
+SAINT GREGORY, surnamed the Great (_c._ 540-604), the first pope of that
+name, and the last of the four doctors of the Latin Church, was born in
+Rome about the year 540. His father was Gordianus "the regionary," a
+wealthy man of senatorial rank, owner of large estates in Sicily and of
+a palace on the Caelian Hill in Rome; his mother was Silvia, who is
+commemorated as a saint on the 3rd of November. Of Gregory's early
+period we know few details, and almost all the dates are conjectural. He
+received the best education to be had at the time, and was noted for his
+proficiency in the arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic. Entering on
+a public career he held, about 573, the high office of prefect of the
+city of Rome; but about 574, feeling irresistibly attracted to the
+"religious" life, he resigned his post, founded six monasteries in
+Sicily and one in Rome, and in the last--the famous monastery of St
+Andrew--became himself a monk. This grateful seclusion, however, he was
+not permitted long to enjoy. About 578 he was ordained "seventh deacon"
+(or possibly archdeacon) of the Roman Church, and in the following
+spring Pope Pelagius II. appointed him "apocrisiarius," or resident
+ambassador, at the imperial court in Constantinople. Here he represented
+the interests of his church till about 586, when he returned to Rome and
+was made abbot of St Andrew's monastery. His rule, though popular, was
+characterized by great severity, as may be inferred from the story of
+the monk Justus, who was denied Christian burial because he had secreted
+a small sum of money. About this time Gregory completed and published
+his well-known exposition of the book of Job, commenced in
+Constantinople: he also delivered lectures on the Heptateuch, the books
+of Kings, the Prophets, the book of Proverbs and the Song of Songs. To
+this period, moreover, Bede's incident of the English slave-boys (if
+indeed it be accepted as historical) ought to be assigned. Passing one
+day through the Forum, Gregory saw some handsome slaves offered for
+sale, and inquired their nation. "Angles," was the reply. "Good," said
+the abbot, "they have the faces of angels, and should be coheirs with
+the angels in heaven. From what province do they come?" "From Deira."
+"Deira. Yea, verily, they shall be saved from God's ire (_de ira_) and
+called to the mercy of Christ. How is the king of that country named?"
+"Aella." "Then must Allelulia be sung in Aella's land." Gregory
+determined personally to undertake the conversion of Britain, and with
+the pope's consent actually set out upon the mission, but on the third
+day of his journey he was overtaken by messengers recalling him to Rome.
+In the year 590 Pelagius II. died of the plague that was raging in the
+city; whereupon the clergy and people unanimously chose Gregory as his
+successor. The abbot did his best to avoid the dignity, petitioned the
+emperor Maurice not to ratify his election, and even meditated going
+into hiding; but, "while he was preparing for flight and concealment, he
+was seized and carried off and dragged to the basilica of St Peter," and
+there consecrated bishop, on the 3rd of September 590.
+
+The fourteen years of Gregory's pontificate were marked by extraordinary
+vigour and activity. "He never rested," writes a biographer, "he was
+always engaged in providing for the interests of his people, or in
+writing some composition worthy of the church, or in searching out the
+secrets of heaven by the grace of contemplation." His mode of life was
+simple and ascetic in the extreme. Having banished all lay attendants
+from his palace, he surrounded himself with clerics and monks, with whom
+he lived as though he were still in a monastery. To the spiritual needs
+of his people he ministered with pastoral zeal, frequently appointing
+"stations" and delivering sermons; nor was he less solicitous in
+providing for their physical necessities. Deaconries (offices of alms)
+and guest-houses were liberally endowed, and free distributions of food
+were made to the poor in the convents and basilicas. The funds for these
+and similar purposes were supplied from the Patrimony of St Peter--the
+papal estates in Italy, the adjacent islands, Gaul, Dalmatia and Africa.
+These extensive domains were usually administered by specially appointed
+agents,--rectors and defensors,--who resided on the spot; but the
+general superintendence devolved upon the pope. In this sphere Gregory
+manifested rare capacity. He was one of the best of the papal landlords.
+During his pontificate the estates increased in value, while at the same
+time the real grievances of the tenants were redressed and their general
+position was materially improved. Gregory's principal fault as a man of
+business was that he was inclined to be too lavish of his revenues. It
+is said that he even impoverished the treasury of the Roman Church by
+his unlimited charities.
+
+Within the strict bounds of his patriarchate, i.e. the churches of the
+suburbicarian provinces and the islands, it was Gregory's policy to
+watch with particular care over the election and discipline of the
+bishops. With wise toleration he was willing to recognize local
+deviations from Roman usage (e.g. in the ritual of baptism and
+confirmation), yet he was resolute to withstand any unauthorized
+usurpation of rights and privileges. The following rules he took pains
+to enforce: that clerics in holy orders should not cohabit with their
+wives or permit any women, except those allowed by the canons, to live
+in their houses; that clerics accused on ecclesiastical or lesser
+criminal charges should be tried only in the ecclesiastical courts; that
+clerics in holy orders who had lapsed should "utterly forfeit their
+orders and never again approach the ministry of the altar"; that the
+revenues of each church should be divided by its bishop into four equal
+parts, to be assigned to the bishop, the clergy, the poor and the repair
+of the fabric of the church.
+
+In his relations with the churches which lay outside the strict limits
+of his patriarchate, in northern Italy, Spain, Gaul, Africa and
+Illyricum and also in the East, Gregory consistently used his influence
+to increase the prestige and authority of the Roman See. In his view
+Rome, as the see of the Prince of the Apostles, was by divine right "the
+head of all the churches." The decrees of councils would have no binding
+force "without the authority and consent of the apostolic see": appeals
+might be made to Rome against the decisions even of the patriarch of
+Constantinople: all bishops, including the patriarchs, if guilty of
+heresy or uncanonical proceedings, were subject to correction by the
+pope. "If any fault is discovered in a bishop," Gregory wrote, "I know
+of no one who is not subject to the apostolic see." It is true that
+Gregory respected the rights of metropolitans and disapproved of
+unnecessary interference within the sphere of their jurisdiction
+canonically exercised; also that in his relations with certain churches
+(e.g. those in Africa) he found it expedient to abstain from any
+obtrusive assertion of Roman claims. But of his general principle there
+can be no doubt. His sincere belief in the apostolic authority of the
+see of St Peter, his outspoken assertion of it, the consistency and
+firmness with which in practice he maintained it (e.g. in his
+controversies with the bishops of Ravenna concerning the use of the
+pallium, with Maximus the "usurping" bishop of Salona, and with the
+patriarchs of Constantinople in respect of the title "ecumenical
+bishops"), contributed greatly to build up the system of papal
+absolutism. Moreover this consolidation of spiritual authority coincided
+with a remarkable development of the temporal power of the papacy. In
+Italy Gregory occupied an almost regal position. Taking advantage of the
+opportunity which circumstances offered, he boldly stepped into the
+place which the emperors had left vacant and the Lombard kings had not
+the strength to seize. For the first time in history the pope appeared
+as a political power, a temporal prince. He appointed governors to
+cities, issued orders to generals, provided munitions of war, sent his
+ambassadors to negotiate with the Lombard king and actually dared to
+conclude a private peace. In this direction Gregory went farther than
+any of his predecessors: he laid the foundation of a political influence
+which endured for centuries. "Of the medieval papacy," says Milman, "the
+real father is Gregory the Great."
+
+The first monk to become pope, Gregory was naturally a strong supporter
+of monasticism. He laid himself out to diffuse the system, and also to
+carry out a reform of its abuses by enforcing a strict observance of the
+Rule of St Benedict (of whom, it may be noted, he was the earliest
+biographer). Two slight innovations were introduced: the minimum age of
+an abbess was fixed at sixty, and the period of novitiate was prolonged
+from one year to two. Gregory sought to protect the monks from episcopal
+oppression by issuing _privilegia_, or charters in restraint of abuses,
+in accordance with which the jurisdiction of the bishops over the
+monasteries was confined to spiritual matters, all illegal aggressions
+being strictly prohibited. The documents are interesting as marking the
+beginning of a revolution which eventually emancipated the monks
+altogether from the control of their diocesans and brought them under
+the direct authority of the Holy See. Moreover Gregory strictly forbade
+monks to minister in parish churches, ordaining that any monk who was
+promoted to such ecclesiastical cure should lose all rights in his
+monastery and should no longer reside there. "The duties of each office
+separately are so weighty that no one can rightly discharge them. It is
+therefore very improper that one man should be considered fit to
+discharge the duties of both, and that by this means the ecclesiastical
+order should interfere with the monastic life, and the rule of the
+monastic life in turn interfere with the interests of the churches."
+
+Once more, Gregory is remembered as a great organizer of missionary
+enterprise for the conversion of heathens and heretics. Most important
+was the two-fold mission to Britain--of St Augustine in 596, of
+Mellitus, Paulinus and others in 601; but Gregory also made strenuous
+efforts to uproot paganism in Gaul, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica,
+Arianism in Spain, Donatism in Africa, Manichaeism in Sicily, the heresy
+of the Three Chapters in Istria and northern Italy. In respect of the
+methods of conversion which he advocated he was not less intolerant than
+his contemporaries. Towards the Jews, however, he acted with exceptional
+lenity, protecting them from persecution and securing them the enjoyment
+of their legal privileges. The so-called "simoniacal heresy,"
+particularly prevalent in Gaul, Illyricum and the East, be repeatedly
+attacked; and against the Gallican abuse of promoting laymen to
+bishoprics he protested with vigour.
+
+The extent and character of Gregory's works in connexion with the
+liturgy and the music of the church is a subject of dispute. If we are
+to credit a 9th century biographer, Gregory abbreviated and otherwise
+simplified the Sacramentary of Gelasius, producing a revised edition
+with which his own name has become associated, and which represents the
+groundwork of the modern Roman Missal. But though it is certain that he
+introduced three changes in the liturgy itself (viz. the addition of
+some words in the prayer _Hanc igitur_, the recitation of the Pater
+Noster at the end of the Canon immediately before the fraction of the
+bread, and the chanting of the Allelulia after the Gradual at other
+times besides the season of Easter) and two others in the ceremonial
+connected therewith (forbidding deacons to perform any musical portion
+of the service except the chanting of the gospel, and subdeacons to wear
+chasubles), neither the external nor the internal evidence appears to
+warrant belief that the Gregorian Sacramentary is his work.
+Ecclesiastical tradition further ascribes to Gregory the compilation of
+an Antiphonary, the revision and rearrangement of the system of church
+music, and the foundation of the Roman _schola cantorum_. It is highly
+doubtful, however, whether he had anything to do either with the
+Antiphonary or with the invention or revival of the _cantus planus_; it
+is certain that he was not the founder of the Roman singing-school,
+though he may have interested himself in its endowment and extension.
+
+Finally, as Fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, Gregory claims the
+attention of theologians. He is the link between two epochs. The last of
+the great Latin Fathers and the first representative of medieval
+Catholicism he brings the dogmatic theology of Tertullian, Ambrose and
+Augustine into relation with the Scholastic speculation of later ages.
+"He connects the Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of
+Christianity." His teaching, indeed, is neither philosophical,
+systematic nor truly original. Its importance lies mainly in its simple,
+popular summarization of the doctrine of Augustine (whose works Gregory
+had studied with infinite care, but not always with insight), and in its
+detailed exposition of various religious conceptions which were current
+in the Western Church, but had not hitherto been defined with precision
+(e.g. the views on angelology and demonology, on purgatory, the
+Eucharistic Sacrifice, and the efficacy of relics). In his exposition of
+such ideas Gregory made a distinct advance upon the older theology and
+influenced profoundly the dogmatic development of the future. He
+imparted a life and impulse to prevailing tendencies, helping on the
+construction of the system hereafter to be completed in Scholasticism.
+He gave to theology a tone and emphasis which could not be disregarded.
+From his time to that of Anselm no teacher of equal eminence arose in
+the Church.
+
+Gregory died on the 12th of March 604, and was buried the same day in
+the portico of the basilica of St Peter, in front of the sacristy.
+Translations took place in the 9th, 15th and 17th centuries, and the
+remains now rest beneath the altar in the chapel of Clement VIII. In
+respect of his character, while most historians agree that he was a
+really great man, some deny that he was also a great saint. The worst
+blot on his fair fame is his adulatory congratulation of the murderous
+usurper Phocas; though his correspondence with the Frankish queen
+Brunhilda, and the series of letters to and concerning the renegade monk
+Venantius also present problems which his admirers find difficult of
+solution. But while it may be admitted that Gregory was inclined to be
+unduly subservient to the great, so that at times he was willing to shut
+his eyes to the vices and even the crimes of persons of rank; yet it
+cannot fairly be denied that his character as a whole was singularly
+noble and unselfish. His life was entirely dominated by the religious
+motive. His sole desire was to promote the glory of God and of his
+church. At all times he strove honestly to live up to the light that was
+in him. "His goal," says Lau, "was always that which he acknowledged as
+the best." Physically, Gregory was of medium height and good figure. His
+head was large and bald, surrounded with a fringe of dark hair. His face
+was well-proportioned, with brown eyes, aquiline nose, thick and red
+lips, high-coloured cheeks, and prominent chin sparsely covered with a
+tawny beard. His hands, with tapering fingers, were remarkable for their
+beauty.
+
+  _Gregory's Works._--The following are now universally admitted to be
+  genuine:--_Epistolarum libri xiv._, _Moralium libri xxxv._, _Regulae
+  pastoralis liber_, _Dialogorum libri iv._, _Homiliarum in Ezechielem
+  prophetam libri ii._, _Homiliarum in Evangelia libri ii._ These are
+  all printed in Migne's _Patrologia Latina_. The _Epistolae_, however,
+  have been published separately by P. Ewald and L. M. Hartmann in the
+  _Monumenta Germaniae historica_ (Berlin, 1887-1899), and this splendid
+  edition has superseded all others. The question of the chronological
+  reconstruction of the _Register_ is dealt with by Ewald in his
+  celebrated article in the _Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft fur altere
+  deutsche Geschichtskunde_, iii. pp. 433-625; and briefly by T.
+  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, v. 333-343. For information about
+  these writings of Gregory, consult especially G. J. T. Lau, _Gregor I.
+  der Grosse_, pt. ii. chap. i. _Die Schriften Gregors_ and F. Homes
+  Dudden, _Gregory the Great_ (see Index II. B.). In addition to the
+  above-mentioned works there are printed under Gregory's name in
+  Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, vol. lxxix., the following:--_Super
+  Cantico Canticorum expositio_, _In librum primum Regum variarum
+  expositionum libri vi._, _In septem psalmos poenitentiales expositio_
+  and _Concordia quorundam teslimoniorum s. scripturae_. But (with the
+  possible exception of the first) none of these treatises are of
+  Gregorian authorship. See the discussions in Migne, Lau and Dudden.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(a) The principal ancient authorities for the life and
+  works of Gregory are given in their chronological order. They are:
+  Gregory of Tours, _Historia Francorum_, x. 1; _Liber pontificalis_,
+  "Vita Gregorii Magni"; Isidore of Seville, _De vir. illustr._ 40, and
+  Ildefonsus of Toledo, _De vir. illustr._ i.; an anonymous _Vita
+  Gregorii_ (of English authorship) belonging to the monastery of St
+  Gall, discovered by Ewald and published by F. A. Gasquet, _A Life of
+  Pope St Gregory the Great_ (1904); Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_, ii.
+  c. 1; Paul the Deacon, _Vita Gregorii Magni_ (770-780); John the
+  Deacon, _Vita Gregorii_ (872-882). (b) Recent Literature: J. Barmby,
+  _Gregory the Great_ (1892); T. Bonsmann, _Gregor I. der Grosse, ein
+  Lebensbild_ (1890); F. Homes Dudden, _Gregory the Great: his place in
+  History and Thought_ (2 vols., 1905); G. J. T. Lau, _Gregor I. der
+  Grosse nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert_ (1845); C.
+  Wolfsgruber, _Gregor der Grosse_ (1897). See also F. Gregorovius,
+  _Rome in the Middle Ages_ (Eng. trans.) ii. 16-103; T. Hodgkin, _Italy
+  and her Invaders_, v. cc. 7-10; H. K. Mann, _The Lives of the Popes_,
+  i. 1-250; F. W. Kellett, _Pope Gregory the Great and his Relations
+  with Gaul_; L. Pingaud, _La Politique de Saint Gregoire le Grand_; W.
+  Wisbaum, _Die wichtigsten Richtungen und Ziele der Tatigkeit des
+  Papstes Gregors des Grossen_; W. Hohaus, _Die Bedeutung Gregors des
+  Grossen als liturgischer Schriftsteller_; E. G. P. Wyatt, _St Gregory
+  and the Gregorian Music_; and the bibliographies of Gregory in
+  Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age_, and A.
+  Potthast, _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_.     (F. H. D.)
+
+GREGORY II., pope from 715 to 731, succeeded Constantine I., whom he
+accompanied from Constantinople in 710. Gregory did all in his power to
+promote the spread of Christianity in Germany, and gave special
+encouragement to the mission of St Boniface, whom he consecrated bishop
+in 722. He was a staunch adherent of the East Roman empire, which still
+exercised sovereignty over Rome, Ravenna and some other parts of Italy,
+and he impeded as far as possible the progress of the Lombards. About
+726, however, he became involved in a conflict with the emperor Leo the
+Isaurian on account of the excessive taxation of the Italians, and,
+later, on the question of image worship, which had been proscribed by
+the government of Constantinople. Leo endeavoured to rid himself of the
+pope by violence, but Gregory, supported by the people of Rome and also
+by the Lombards, succeeded in eluding the emperor's attacks, and died
+peacefully on the 11th of February 731.
+
+GREGORY III., pope from 731 to 741. He condemned the iconoclasts at a
+council convened at Rome in November 731, and, like his predecessor
+Gregory II., stimulated the missionary labours of St Boniface, on whom
+he conferred the pallium. Towards the Lombards he took up an imprudent
+attitude, in support of which he in vain invoked the aid of the Frankish
+prince Charles Martel.
+
+GREGORY IV., pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed Valentinus in
+December 827, on which occasion he recognized the supremacy of the
+Frankish emperor in the most unequivocal manner. His name is chiefly
+associated with the quarrels between Lothair and Louis the Pious, in
+which he espoused the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus
+Mendacii (_Lugenfeld_, field of lies), as it is usually called (833), he
+secured by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the
+feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died on the
+25th of January 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II.
+
+GREGORY V. (Bruno), pope from 996 to 999, a great-grandson of the
+emperor Otto the Great, succeeded John XV. when only twenty-four years
+of age, and until the council of Pavia (997) had a rival in the person
+of the anti-pope John XVI., whom the people of Rome, in revolt against
+the will of the youthful emperor Otto III., had chosen after having
+expelled Gregory. The most memorable acts of his pontificate were those
+arising out of the contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was
+ultimately brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a
+sentence of excommunication. Gregory died suddenly, and not without
+suspicion of foul play, on the 18th of February 999. His successor was
+Silvester II.
+
+GREGORY VI., pope from 1045 to 1046. As Johannes Gratianus he had earned
+a high reputation for learning and probity, and in 1045 he bought the
+Roman pontificate from his godson Benedict IX. At a council held by the
+emperor Henry III. at Sutri in 1046, he was accused of simony and
+deposed. He was banished into Germany, where he died in 1047. He was
+accompanied into exile by his young protege Hildebrand (afterwards pope
+as Gregory VII.), and was succeeded by Clement II. (L. D.*)
+
+GREGORY VII., pope from 1073 to 1085. Hildebrand (the future pope) would
+seem to have been born in Tuscany--perhaps Raovacum--early in the third
+decade of the 11th century. The son of a plain citizen, Bunicus or
+Bonizo, he came to Rome at an early age for his education; an uncle of
+his being abbot of the convent of St Mary on the Aventine. His
+instructors appear to have included the archpriest Johannes Gratianus,
+who, by disbursing a considerable sum to Benedict IX., smoothed his way
+to the papal throne and actually ascended it as Gregory VI. But when the
+emperor Henry III., on his expedition to Rome (1046), terminated the
+scandalous _impasse_ in which three popes laid claim to the chair of
+Peter by deposing all three, Gregory VI. was banished to Germany, and
+Hildebrand found himself obliged to accompany him. As he himself
+afterwards admitted, it was with extreme reluctance that he crossed the
+Alps. But his residence in Germany was of great educative value, and
+full of significance for his later official activity. In Cologne he was
+enabled to pursue his studies; he came into touch with the circles of
+Lorraine where interest in the elevation of the Church and her life was
+highest, and gained acquaintance with the political and ecclesiastical
+circumstances of that country which was destined to figure so largely in
+his career. Whether, on the death of Gregory VI. in the beginning of
+1048, Hildebrand proceeded to Cluny is doubtful. His brief residence
+there, if it actually occurred, is to be regarded as no more than a
+visit; for he was never a monk of Cluny. His contemporaries indeed
+describe him as a monk; but his entry into the convent must be assigned
+to the period preceding or following his German travels and presumably
+took place in Rome. He returned to that city with Bishop Bruno of Toul,
+who was nominated pope under the title of Leo IX. (1048-1054). Under him
+Hildebrand found his first employment in the ecclesiastical service,
+becoming a sub-deacon and steward in the Roman Church. He acted,
+moreover, as a legate in France, where he was occupied _inter alia_ with
+the question of Berengarius of Tours, whose views on the Lord's Supper
+had excited opposition. On the death of Leo IX. he was commissioned by
+the Romans as their envoy to the German court, to conduct the
+negotiations with regard to his successor. The emperor pronounced in
+favour of Bishop Gebhard of Eichstadt, who, in the course of his short
+reign as Victor II. (1055-1057), again employed Hildebrand as his legate
+to France. When Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine) was raised to the
+papacy, without previous consultation with the German court, Hildebrand
+and Bishop Anselm of Lucca were despatched to Germany to secure a
+belated recognition, and he succeeded in gaining the consent of the
+empress Agnes. Stephen, however, died before his return, and, by the
+hasty elevation of Bishop Johannes of Velletri, the Roman aristocracy
+made a last attempt to recover their lost influence on the appointment
+to the papal throne--a proceeding which was charged with peril to the
+Church as it implied a renewal of the disastrous patrician regime. That
+the crisis was surmounted was essentially the work of Hildebrand. To
+Benedict X., the aristocratic nominee, he opposed a rival pope in the
+person of Bishop Gerhard of Florence, with whom the victory rested. The
+reign of Nicholas II. (1059-1061) was distinguished by events which
+exercised a potent influence on the policy of the Curia during the next
+two decades--the _rapprochement_ with the Normans in the south of Italy,
+and the alliance with the democratic and, subsequently, anti-German
+movement of the Patarenes in the north. It was also under his
+pontificate (1059) that the law was enacted which transferred the papal
+election to the College of Cardinals, thus withdrawing it from the
+nobility and populace of Rome and thrusting the German influence on one
+side. It would be too much to maintain that these measures were due to
+Hildebrand alone, but it is obvious that he was already a dominant
+personality on the Curia, through he still held no more exalted office
+than that of archdeacon, which was indeed only conferred on him in 1059.
+Again, when Nicholas II. died and a new schism broke out, the
+discomfiture of Honorius II. (Bishop Cadalus of Parma) and the success
+of his rival (Anselm of Lucca) must be ascribed principally, if not
+entirely, to Hildebrand's opposition to the former. Under the sway of
+Alexander II. (1061-1073) this man loomed larger and larger in the eye
+of his contemporaries as the soul of the Curial policy. It must be
+confessed the general political conditions, especially in Germany, were
+at that period exceptionally favourable to the Curia, but to utilize
+them with the sagacity actually shown was nevertheless no slight
+achievement, and the position of Alexander at the end of his pontificate
+was a brilliant justification of the Hildebrandine statecraft.
+
+On the death of Alexander II. (April 21, 1073), Hildebrand became pope
+and took the style of Gregory VII. The mode of his election was bitterly
+assailed by his opponents. True, many of the charges preferred are
+obviously the emanations of scandal and personal dislike, liable to
+suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to impugn his
+promotion till several years had elapsed (_c._ 1076); still it is plain
+from his own account of the circumstances of his elevation that it was
+conducted in extremely irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed
+by the law of 1059 were not observed. But the sequel justified his
+election--of which the worst that can be said is that there was no
+general suffrage. And this sequel again owed none of its success to
+chance, but was the fruit of his own exertions. In his character were
+united wide experience and great energy tested in difficult situations.
+It is proof of the popular faith in his qualifications that, although
+the circumstances of his election invited assault in 1073, no sort of
+attempt was then made to set up a rival pontiff. When, however, the
+opposition which took head against him had gone so far as to produce a
+pretender to the chair, his long and undisputed possession tended to
+prove the original legality of his papacy; and the appeal to
+irregularities at its beginning not only lost all cogency but assumed
+the appearance of a mere biased attack. On the 22nd of May he received
+sacerdotal ordination, and on the 30th of June episcopal consecration;
+the empress Agnes and the duchess Beatrice of Tuscany being present at
+the ceremony, in addition to Bishop Gregory of Vercelli, the chancellor
+of the German king, to whom Gregory would thus seem to have communicated
+the result of the election.
+
+The focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII. is to
+be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death of Henry III.
+the strength of the monarchy in that country had been seriously
+impaired, and his son Henry IV. had to contend with great internal
+difficulties. This state of affairs was of material assistance to the
+pope. His advantage was still further accentuated by the fact that in
+1073 Henry was but twenty-three years of age and by temperament inclined
+to precipitate action. Many sharp lessons were needful before he learned
+to bridle his impetuosity, and he lacked the support and advice of a
+disinterested and experienced statesman. Such being the conditions, a
+conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. could have only one
+issue--the victory of the former.
+
+In the two following years Henry was compelled by the Saxon rebellion to
+come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost. Consequently in May
+1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in presence of the legates to expiate
+his continued intimacy with the members of his council banned by
+Gregory, took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in the work
+of reforming the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him
+the confidence of the pope, he abandoned so soon as he gained the upper
+hand of the Saxons: this he achieved by his victory at Hohenburg on the
+Unstrut (June 9, 1075). He now attempted to reassert his rights of
+suzerain in upper Italy without delay. He sent Count Eberhard to
+Lombardy to combat the Patarenes; nominated the cleric Tedaldo to the
+archbishopric of Milan, thus settling a prolonged and contentious
+question; and finally endeavoured to establish relations with the Norman
+duke, Robert Guiscard. Gregory VII. answered with a rough letter, dated
+December 8, in which--among other charges--he reproached the German king
+with breach of his word and with his further countenance of the
+excommunicated councillors; while at the same time he sent by word of
+mouth a brusque message intimating that the enormous crimes which would
+be laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the
+church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory ventured on these
+audacious measures at a time when he himself was confronted by a
+reckless opponent in the person of Cencius, who on Christmas-night did
+not scruple to surprise him in church and carry him off as a prisoner,
+though on the following day he was obliged to surrender his captive. The
+reprimands of the pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented
+form, infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily
+convened national council in Worms, which met on the 24th of January
+1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy Gregory had many enemies,
+and a Roman cardinal, Hugo Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but
+now at variance, had made a hurried expedition to Germany for the
+occasion and appeared at Worms with the rest. All the gross scandals
+with regard to the pontiff that this prelate could utter were greedily
+received by the assembly, which committed itself to the ill-considered
+and disastrous resolution that Gregory had forfeited his papal dignity.
+In a document full of accusations the bishops renounced their
+allegiance. In another King Henry pronounced him deposed, and the Romans
+were required to choose a new occupant for the vacant chair of St Peter.
+With the utmost haste two bishops were despatched to Italy in company
+with Count Eberhard under commission of the council, and they succeeded
+in procuring a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops in the
+synod of Piacenza. The communication of these decisions to the pope was
+undertaken by the priest Roland of Parma, and he was fortunate enough to
+gain an opportunity for speech in the synod, which had barely assembled
+in the Lateran church, and there to deliver his message announcing the
+dethronement of the pontiff. For the moment the members were petrified
+with horror, but soon such a storm of indignation was aroused that it
+was only due to the moderation of Gregory himself that the envoy was not
+cut down on the spot. On the following day the pope pronounced the
+sentence of excommunication against the German king with all formal
+solemnity, divested him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects
+from the oaths they had sworn to him. This sentence purported to eject
+the king from the church and to strip him of his crown. Whether it would
+produce this effect, or whether it would remain an idle threat, depended
+not on the author of the verdict, but on the subjects of Henry--before
+all, on the German princes. We know from contemporary evidence that the
+excommunication of the king made a profound impression both in Germany
+and Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III. had deposed three popes, and
+thereby rendered a great and acknowledged service to the church. When
+Henry IV. attempted to copy this summary procedure he came to grief, for
+he lacked the support of the people. In Germany there was a speedy and
+general revulsion of sentiment in favour of Gregory, and the
+particularism of the princes utilized the auspicious moment for
+prosecuting their anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the
+papal decision. When at Whitsuntide the king proposed to discuss the
+measures to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles at
+Mainz, only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the
+golden opportunity for renewing their insurrection and the anti-royalist
+party grew in strength from month to month. The situation now became
+extremely critical for Henry. As a result of the agitation, which was
+zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau, the
+princes met in October at Tribur to elect a new German king, and Henry,
+who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only
+saved from the loss of his sceptre by the failure of the assembled
+princes to agree on the question of his successor. Their dissension,
+however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry, they
+declared, must make reparation to the pope and pledge himself to
+obedience; and they settled that, if, on the anniversary of his
+excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the throne should be
+considered vacant. At the same time they determined to invite Gregory to
+Augsburg, there to decide the conflict. These arrangements showed Henry
+the course to be pursued. It was imperative, under any circumstances and
+at any price, to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period
+named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their intention
+to pursue their attack against himself and justify their measures by an
+appeal to his excommunication. At first he attempted to attain his ends
+by an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he took the
+celebrated step of going to Italy in person. The pope had already left
+Rome, and had intimated to the German princes that he would expect their
+escort for his journey on January 8 in Mantua. But this escort had not
+appeared when he received the news of the king's arrival. Henry, who
+travelled through Burgundy, had been greeted with wild enthusiasm by the
+Lombards, but resisted the temptation to employ force against Gregory.
+He chose instead the unexpected and unusual, but, as events proved, the
+safest course, and determined to compel the pope to grant him absolution
+by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken refuge. This
+occurrence was quickly embellished and inwoven by legend, and great
+uncertainty still prevails with regard to several important points. The
+reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and
+definite pledges on the part of the king, and it was with reluctance
+that Gregory at length gave way, for, if he conferred his absolution,
+the diet of princes in Augsburg, in which he might reasonably hope to
+act as arbitrator, would either be rendered purposeless, or, if it met
+at all, would wear an entirely different character. It was impossible,
+however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the church, and the
+politician had in this case to be subordinated to the priest. Still the
+removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation, and no basis
+was gained for a settlement of the great questions at issue--notably
+that of investiture. A new conflict was indeed inevitable from the very
+fact that Henry IV. naturally considered the sentence of deposition
+repealed with that of excommunication; while Gregory on the other hand,
+intent on reserving his freedom of action, gave no hint on the subject
+at Canossa.
+
+That the excommunication of Henry IV. was simply a pretext--not a
+motive--for the opposition of the rebellious German nobles is manifest.
+For not only did they persist in their policy after his absolution, but
+they took the more decided step of setting up a rival king in the person
+of Duke Rudolph of Swabia (Forchheim, March 1077). At the election the
+papal legates present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory
+himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following years. His
+task was the easier in that the two parties were of fairly equal
+strength, each endeavouring to gain the upper hand by the accession of
+the pope to their side. But his hopes and labours, with the object of
+receiving an appeal to act as arbitrator in the dynastic strife, were
+fruitless, and the result of his non-committal policy was that he
+forfeited in large measure the confidence of both parties. Finally he
+decided for Rudolph of Swabia in consequence of his victory at
+Flarchheim (January 27, 1080). Under pressure from the Saxons, and
+misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his
+waiting policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition
+of King Henry (March 7, 1080), unloosing at the same time all oaths
+sworn to him in the past or the future. But the papal censure now proved
+a very different thing from the papal censure four years previously. In
+wide circles it was felt to be an injustice, and men began to put the
+question--so dangerous to the prestige of the pope--whether an
+excommunication pronounced on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect.
+To make matters worse, Rudolph of Swabia died on the 16th of October of
+the same year. True, a new claimant--Hermann of Luxemburg--was put
+forward in August 1081, but his personality was ill adapted for a leader
+of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV. was in the
+ascendant. The king, who had now been schooled by experience, took up
+the struggle thus forced upon him with great vigour. He refused to
+acknowledge the ban on the ground of illegality. A council had been
+summoned at Brixen, and on the 25th of June 1080 it pronounced Gregory
+deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of Ravenna as his
+successor--a policy of anti-king, anti-pope. In 1081 Henry opened the
+conflict against Gregory in Italy. The latter had now fallen on evil
+days, and he lived to see thirteen cardinals desert him, Rome
+surrendered by the Romans to the German king, Guibert of Ravenna
+enthroned as Clement III. (March 24, 1084), and Henry crowned emperor by
+his rival, while he himself was constrained to flee from Rome.
+
+The relations of Gregory to the remaining European states were
+powerfully influenced by his German policy; for Germany, by engrossing
+the bulk of his powers, not infrequently compelled him to show to other
+rulers that moderation and forbearance which he withheld from the German
+king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The
+great concessions made to them under Nicholas II. were not only
+powerless to stem their advance into central Italy but failed to secure
+even the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was hard
+pressed by Henry IV., Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only
+interfered when he himself was menaced with the German arms. Then, on
+the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to the tender mercies of his
+warriors, and by the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about
+the banishment of Gregory.
+
+In the case of several countries, Gregory attempted to establish a claim
+of suzerainty on the part of the see of St Peter, and to secure the
+recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of
+"immemorial usage" Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the
+Roman Church. Spain and Hungary were also claimed as her property, and
+an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a
+fief from the pope. Philip I. of France, by his simony and the violence
+of his proceedings against the church, provoked a threat of summary
+measures; and excommunication, deposition and the interdict, appeared to
+be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his
+menaces into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no
+change, for he wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the
+conflict soon to break out in Germany. In England, again, William the
+Conqueror derived no less benefit from this state of affairs. He felt
+himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of
+the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, filled bishoprics and
+abbeys, and evinced little anxiety when the pope expatiated to him on
+the different principles which he entertained as to the relationship of
+church and state, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded
+him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory had
+no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his
+ecclesiastical policy, so chose to ignore what he could not approve, and
+even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular affection.
+
+Gregory, in fact, established relations--if no more--with every land in
+Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the
+ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence
+extended to Poland, Russia and Bohemia. He wrote in friendly terms to
+the Saracen king of Mauretania in north Africa, and attempted, though
+without success, to bring the Armenians into closer contact with Rome.
+The East, especially, claimed his interest. The ecclesiastical rupture
+between the bishops of Rome and Byzantium was a severe blow to him, and
+he laboured hard to restore the former amicable relationship. At that
+period it was impossible to suspect that the schism implied a definite
+separation, for prolonged schisms had existed in past centuries, but had
+always been surmounted in the end. Both sides, moreover, had an
+interest in repairing the breach between the churches. Thus,
+immediately on his accession to the pontificate, Gregory sought to come
+into touch with the emperor Michael VII. and succeeded. When the news of
+the Saracenic outrages on the Christians in the East filtered to Rome,
+and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he
+conceived the project of a great military expedition and exhorted the
+faithful to participation in the task of recovering the sepulchre of the
+Lord (1074). Thus the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land already floated
+before Gregory's vision, and his intention was to place himself at the
+head. But the hour for such a gigantic enterprise was not yet come, and
+the impending struggle with Henry IV. turned his energies into another
+channel.
+
+In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform,
+Gregory did not stand alone, but on the contrary found powerful support.
+Since the middle of the 11th century the tendency--mainly represented by
+Cluny--towards a stricter morality and a more earnest attitude to life,
+especially on the part of the clergy, had converted the papacy; and,
+from Leo IX. onward, the popes had taken the lead in the movement. Even
+before his election, Gregory had gained the confidence of these circles,
+and, when he assumed the guidance of the church, they laboured for him
+with extreme devotion. From his letters we see how he fostered his
+connexion with them and stimulated their zeal, how he strove to awake
+the consciousness that his cause was the cause of God and that to
+further it was to render service to God. By this means he created a
+personal party, unconditionally attached to himself, and he had his
+confidants in every country. In Italy Bishop Anselm of Lucca, to take an
+example, belonged to their number. Again, the duchess Beatrice of
+Tuscany and her daughter the Margravine Matilda, who put her great
+wealth at his disposal, were of inestimable service. The empress Agnes
+also adhered to his cause. In upper Italy the Patarenes had worked for
+him in many ways, and all who stood for their objects stood for the
+pope. In Germany at the beginning of his reign the higher ranks of the
+clergy stood aloof from him and were confirmed in their attitude by some
+of his regulations. But Bishop Altmann of Passau, who has already been
+mentioned, and Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg, were among his most
+zealous followers. That the convent of Hirschau in Swabia was held by
+Gregory was a fact of much significance, for its monks spread over the
+land as itinerant agitators and accomplished much for him in southern
+Germany. In England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury probably stood
+closest to him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugo of Die, who
+afterwards ascended the archiepiscopal chair of Lyons.
+
+The whole life-work of Gregory VII. was based on his conviction that the
+church has been founded by God and entrusted with the task of embracing
+all mankind in a single society in which His will is the only law; that,
+in her capacity as a divine institution, she outtops all human
+structures; and that the pope, _qua_ head of the church, is the
+vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies
+disobedience to God--or, in other words, a defection from Christianity.
+Elaborating an idea discoverable in St Augustine, he looked on the
+worldly state--a purely human creation--as an unhallowed edifice whose
+character is sufficiently manifest from the fact that it abolishes the
+equality of man, and that it is built up by violence and injustice. He
+developed these views in a famous series of letters to Bishop Hermann of
+Metz. But it is clear from the outset that we are only dealing with
+reflections of strictly theoretical importance; for any attempt to
+interpret them in terms of action would have bound the church to
+annihilate not merely a single definite state, but all states. Thus
+Gregory, as a politician desirous of achieving some result, was driven
+in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the
+existence of the state as a dispensation of Providence, described the
+coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized
+the necessity of union between the _sacerdotium_ and the _imperium_. But
+at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an
+equality; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which
+admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted. Again, this
+very superiority of the church implied in his eyes a superiority of the
+papacy, and he did not shrink from drawing the extreme conclusions from
+these premises. In other words, he claimed the right of excommunicating
+and deposing incapable monarchs, and of confirming the choice of their
+successors. This habit of thought needs to be appreciated in order to
+understand his efforts to bring individual states into feudal subjection
+to the chair of St Peter. It was no mere question of formality, but the
+first step to the realization of his ideal theocracy comprising each and
+every state.
+
+Since this papal conception of the state involved the exclusion of
+independence and autonomy, the history of the relationship between
+church and state is the history of one continued struggle. In the time
+of Gregory it was the question of appointment to spiritual offices--the
+so-called _investiture_--which brought the theoretical controversy to a
+head. The preparatory steps had already been taken by Leo IX., and the
+subsequent popes had advanced still further on the path he indicated;
+but it was reserved for Gregory and his enactments to provoke the
+outbreak of the great conflict which dominated the following decades. By
+the first law (1075) the right of investiture for churches was in
+general terms denied to the laity. In 1078 neglect of this prohibition
+was made punishable by excommunication, and, by a further decree of the
+same year, every investiture conferred by a layman was declared invalid
+and its acceptance pronounced liable to penalty. It was, moreover,
+enacted that every layman should restore, under pain of excommunication,
+all lands of the church, held by him as fiefs from princes or clerics;
+and that, henceforward, the assent of the pope, the archbishop, &c., was
+requisite for any investiture of ecclesiastical property. Finally in
+1080 the forms regulating the canonical appointment to a bishopric were
+promulgated. In case of a vacancy the election was to be conducted by
+the people and clergy under the auspices of a bishop nominated by the
+pope or metropolitan; after which the consent of the pope or archbishop
+was to be procured; if any violation of these injunctions occurred, the
+election should be null and void and the right of choice pass to the
+pope or metropolitan. In so legislating, Gregory had two objects: in the
+first place, to withdraw the appointment to episcopal offices from the
+influence of the king; in the second, to replace that influence by his
+own. The intention was not to increase the power of the metropolitan: he
+simply desired that the nomination of bishops by the pope should be
+substituted for the prevalent nomination of bishops by the king. But in
+this course of action Gregory had a still more ambitious goal before his
+eyes. If he could once succeed in abolishing the lay investiture the
+king would, _ipso facto_, be deprived of his control over the great
+possessions assigned to the church by himself and his predecessors, and
+he could have no security that the duties and services attached to those
+possessions would continue to be discharged for the benefit of the
+Empire. The bishops in fact were to retain their position as princes of
+the Empire, with all the lands and rights of supremacy pertaining to
+them in that capacity, but the bond between them and the Empire was to
+be dissolved: they were to owe allegiance not to the king, but to the
+pope--a non-German sovereign who, in consequence of the Italian policy
+of the German monarchy, found himself in perpetual opposition to
+Germany. Thus, by his ecclesiastical legislation, Gregory attempted to
+shake the very foundations on which the constitution of the German
+empire rested, while completely ignoring the historical development of
+that constitution (see INVESTITURE).
+
+That energy which Gregory threw into the expansion of the papal
+authority, and which brought him into collision with the secular powers,
+was manifested no less in the internal government of the church. He
+wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals
+were to be addressed to himself, and he arrogated the right of
+legislation. The fact that his laws were usually promulgated by Roman
+synods which he convened during Lent does not imply that these possessed
+an independent position; on the contrary, they were entirely dominated
+by his influence, and were no more than the instruments of his will.
+The centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally
+involved a curtailment of the powers of the bishops and metropolitans.
+Since these in part refused to submit voluntarily and attempted to
+assert their traditional independence, the pontificate of Gregory is
+crowded with struggles against the higher ranks of the prelacy. Among
+the methods he employed to break their power of resistance, the despatch
+of legates proved peculiarly effective. The regulation, again, that the
+metropolitans should apply at Rome in person for the pallium--pronounced
+essential to their qualifications for office--served to school them in
+humility.
+
+This battle for the foundation of papal omnipotence within the church is
+connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy
+and his attack on simony. Gregory VII. did not introduce the celibacy of
+the priesthood into the church, for even in antiquity it was enjoined by
+numerous laws. He was not even the first pope to renew the injunction in
+the 11th century, for legislation on the question begins as early as in
+the reign of Leo IX. But he took up the struggle with greater energy and
+persistence than his predecessors. In 1074 he published an encyclical,
+requiring all to renounce their obedience to those bishops who showed
+indulgence to their clergy in the matter of celibacy. In the following
+year he commanded the laity to accept no official ministrations from
+married priests and to rise against all such. He further deprived these
+clerics of their revenues. Wherever these enactments were proclaimed
+they encountered tenacious opposition, and violent scenes were not
+infrequent, as the custom of marriage was widely diffused throughout the
+contemporary priesthood. Other decrees were issued by Gregory in
+subsequent years, but were now couched in milder terms, since it was no
+part of his interest to increase the numbers of the German faction. As
+to the objectionable nature of simony--the transference or acquisition
+of a spiritual office for monetary considerations--no doubt could exist
+in the mind of an earnest Christian, and no theoretical justification
+was ever attempted. The practice, however, had attained great dimensions
+both among the clergy and the laity, and the sharp campaign, which had
+been waged since the days of Leo IX., had done little to limit its
+scope. The reason was that in many cases it had assumed an extremely
+subtle form, and detection was difficult when the simony took the
+character of a tax or an honorarium. The fact, again, that lay
+investiture was described as simony, inevitably brought with it an
+element of confusion, and, in the case of a charge of simoniacal
+practices, enormously accentuates the difficulty of determining the
+actual state of affairs. The war against simony in its original form was
+undoubtedly necessary, but it led to highly complicated and problematic
+issues. Was the priest or bishop, whose ordination was due to simony,
+actually in the possession of the sacerdotal or episcopal power or not?
+If the answer was in the affirmative, it would seem possible to buy the
+Holy Ghost; if in the negative, then obviously all the official acts of
+the respective priest or bishop--which, according to the doctrine of the
+church, presupposed the possession of a spiritual quality--were invalid.
+And, since the number of simoniacal bishops was at that period extremely
+large, incalculable consequences resulted. The difficulty of the problem
+accounts for the diversity of solutions propounded. The perplexity of
+the situation was aggravated by the fact that, if the stricter view was
+adopted, it followed that the sacrament of ordination must be pronounced
+invalid, even in the cases where it had been unconsciously sought at the
+hands of a simoniac, for the dispenser was in point of fact no bishop,
+although he exercised the episcopal functions and his transgressions
+were unknown, and consequently it was impossible for him to ordain
+others. In the time of Gregory the conflict was still swaying to and
+fro, and he himself in 1078 declared consecration by a simoniac null and
+void.
+
+The pontificate of Gregory VII. came to a melancholy close, for he died
+an exile in Salerno; the Romans and a number of his most trusted
+coadjutors had renounced him, and the faithful band in Germany had
+shrunk to scant proportions. Too much the politician, too rough in his
+methods, too exclusively the representative of the Roman see and its
+interests, he had gained more enemies than friends. He was of course a
+master of statecraft; he had pursued political ends with consummate
+skill, causing them to masquerade as requirements of religion; but he
+forgot that incitement to civil war, the preaching of rebellion, and the
+release of subjects from their oaths, were methods which must infallibly
+lead to moral anarchy, and tend, with justice, to stifle the confidence
+once felt in him. The more he accustomed his contemporaries to the
+belief that any and every measure--so long as it opened up some prospect
+of success--was good in his sight, no matter how dangerous the fruits it
+might mature, the fainter grew their perception of the fact that he was
+not only a statesman but primarily the head of the Christian Church.
+That the frail bonds of piety and religious veneration for the chair of
+St Peter had given way in the struggle for power was obvious to all,
+when he himself lost that power and the star of his opponent was in the
+ascendant. He had given the rein to his splendid gifts as a ruler, and
+in his capacity of pope he omitted to provide an equivalent
+counterpoise. We are told that he was once an impressive preacher, and
+he could write to his faithful countesses in terms which prove that he
+was not wanting in religious feeling; but in the whirlpool of secular
+politics this phase of his character was never sufficiently developed to
+allow the vice-gerent of Christ to be heard instead of the hierarch in
+his official acts.
+
+But to estimate the pontificate of Gregory by the disasters of its
+closing years would be to misconceive its significance for the history
+of the papacy entirely. On the contrary, his reign forms an important
+chapter in the history of the popedom as an institution; it contains the
+germs of far-reaching modifications of the church, and it gave new
+impulses to both theory and practice, the value of which may indeed be
+differently estimated, but of which the effects are indubitable. It was
+he who conceived and formulated the ideal of the papacy as a structure
+embracing all peoples and lands. He took the first step towards the
+codification of ecclesiastical law and the definite ratification of the
+claims of the apostolic chair as corner-stones in the church's
+foundation. He educated the clergy and the lay world in obedience to
+Rome; and, finally, it was due to his efforts that the duty of the
+priest with regard to sexual abstinence was never afterwards a matter of
+doubt in the Catholic Christianity of the West.
+
+On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes of his last
+years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. _Dilexi justitiam et odivi
+iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio_--are said to have been his last
+words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him into the _Martyrologium
+Romanum_; in 1606 he was canonized by Paul V. The words dedicated to him
+in the _Breviarium Romanum_, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of
+his pontificate that in the 18th and 19th centuries they were prohibited
+by the governments of several countries with Roman Catholic populations.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A comprehensive survey of the sources and literature
+  for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.v. "Gregor
+  VII." in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed. vol. vii. pp. 96
+  sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of his letters
+  and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the
+  _Registrum_ (ed. P. Jaffe, _Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum_, ii.,
+  Berlin, 1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official
+  collection are also reprinted by Jaffe under the title of _Epistolae
+  collectae_. The _Dictatus Papae_--a list of twenty-seven short
+  sentences on the rights of the pope,--which is given in the
+  _Registrum_, is not the work of Gregory VII., but should probably be
+  ascribed to Cardinal Deusdedit. Further: A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca
+  historica medii aevi_, i. (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii.
+  1351; P. Jaffe, _Regesta pontificum_ (2nd ed., 1865), tome i. pp.
+  594-649, Nr. 4771-5313, tome ii. p. 751. The most important letters
+  and decrees of Gregory VII. are reprinted by C. Mirbt, _Quellen zur
+  Geschichte des Papsttums_ (2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp.
+  100 sqq. The oldest life of Gregory is that by Paul von Bermried,
+  reprinted, e.g. by Watterich, _Vitae pontificum_, i. 474-546. Among
+  the historians the following are of especial importance: Berthold,
+  Bernold, Lambert von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia,
+  Peter of Marte Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny,
+  Arnulph and Landulf of Milan, Donizo--their works being reprinted in
+  the section "Scriptores" in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, vols.
+  v., vi., vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory
+  VII. and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise
+  to a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their
+  internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent, and
+  display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view.
+  Most of them are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, under the
+  title, _Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI. et XII.
+  conscripti_, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome iii.
+  (1897). The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received
+  enormous benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the
+  _Monumenta Germaniae_, so that the old literature is for the most part
+  antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope--A.
+  F. Gfrorer, _Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter_ (7 vols.,
+  Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution. The
+  present state of criticism is represented by the following works: G.
+  Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV.
+  und Heinrich V._, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1894), iii. (1900),
+  iv. (1903); W. Martens, _Gregor VII., sein Leben und Werken_ (2 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1904); C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII._
+  (Leipzig, 1894); A. Hauck, _Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands_ (3 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during the
+  Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here.
+  On Gregory's elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, _Die Wahl Gregors
+  VII._ (Marburg, 1892). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., _Life and Times of
+  Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII._ (1910).     (C. M.)
+
+GREGORY VIII. (_Mauritius Burdinus_), antipope from 1118 to 1121, was a
+native of southern France, who had crossed the Pyrenees while young and
+had later been made archbishop of Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in
+1114 on account of a dispute with the Spanish primate and papal legate,
+the archbishop of Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an
+extent that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He
+opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal of
+Gelasius II. to concede the emperor's claim to investiture, he was
+proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V. on the 8th of March 1118. He was not
+universally recognized, however, and never fully enjoyed the papal
+office. He was excommunicated by Gelasius II. in April 1118, and by
+Calixtus II. at the synod of Reims (October 1119). He was driven from
+Rome by the latter in June 1121, and, having been surrendered by the
+citizens of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the
+triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled to the
+convent of La Cava, where he died.
+
+  The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in _Baluzii miscellanea_, vol.
+  i, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of an
+  antipope. The chief sources are in _Monumenta Germaniae historica_,
+  _Scriptores_, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman.
+  vitae_, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors
+  VII._ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Langen, _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von
+  Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); Jaffe, _Regesta pontif.
+  Roman._, 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele,
+  _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the
+  Middle Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
+  1900-1902); P. B. Gams, _Kirchengeschichte von Spanien_, vol. 3
+  (Regensburg, 1876).
+
+GREGORY VIII. (_Alberto de Mora_), pope from the 21st of October to the
+17th of December 1187, a native of Benevento and Praemonstratensian
+monk, successively abbot of St Martin at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San'
+Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and
+chancellor of the Roman Church, was elected to succeed Urban III. Of
+amiable disposition, he hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and
+promised not to oppose the latter's claim to Sicily. He addressed
+general letters both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to
+the Roman Church, especially of their required visits _ad limina_, and
+to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to recover
+Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making peace between the
+Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the help of both cities in the
+crusade. His successor was Clement III.
+
+  His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 202. Consult also
+  J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and
+  Jaffe-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (1885-1888). See J. Langen,
+  _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._
+  (Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, _Gregors VIII. 57 tagiges Pontifikat_ (Basel,
+  1890); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, _Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit der
+  Kurie_ (Berlin, 1866); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol.
+  4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896).
+
+GREGORY IX. (_Ugolino Conti de Segni_), pope from the 19th of March
+1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of Anagni and probably
+a nephew of Innocent III. He studied at Paris and Bologna, and, having
+been successively archpriest of St Peter's, papal chaplain,
+cardinal-deacon of Sant' Eustachio, cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first
+protector of the Franciscan order, and papal legate in Germany under
+Innocent III., and Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy.
+He had long been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but
+now excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued neglect of
+his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When Frederick finally
+set out the following June without making submission to the pope,
+Gregory raised an insurrection against him in Germany, and forced him in
+1230 to beg for absolution. The Romans, however, soon began a very
+bitter war against the temporal power and exiled the pope (1st of June
+1231). Hardly had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the
+papacy (May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick
+II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his subjects from
+their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick, on his side, invaded
+the Papal States and prevented the assembling of a general council
+convoked for Easter 1241. The work of Gregory, however, was by no means
+limited to his relations with emperor and Romans. He systematized the
+Inquisition and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against
+heretics remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported
+Henry III. against the English barons, and protested against the
+Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent monks to
+Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church unity, but
+without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of Thuringia, Dominic,
+Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi. He permitted free study of the
+Aristotelian writings, and issued (1234), through his chaplain, Raymond
+of Pennaforte, an important new compilation of decretals which he
+prescribed in the bull _Rex pacificus_ should be the standard text-book
+in canon law at the universities of Bologna and Paris. Gregory was famed
+for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his great
+strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August 1241, while
+Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was succeeded by Celestine
+IV.
+
+  For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters in _Monumenta
+  Germaniae historica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Roman.
+  selectae_ (Berlin, 1883); "Les Registres de Gregoire IX," ed. L.
+  Auvray in _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_
+  (Paris, 1890-1905); A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (Berlin,
+  1875) and "Registri dei Cardinali Ugolino d' Ostia et Ottaviano degli
+  Ubaldini," ed. G. Levi in _Fonti per la storia d' Italia_ (1890). See
+  J. Felten, _Papst Gregor IX._ (Freiburg i. B., 1886); J. Marx, _Die
+  Vita Gregorii IX. quellenkritisch untersucht_ (1889); P. Balan,
+  _Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi_ (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873);
+  F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W.
+  Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol.
+  5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, _Rapporti tra Federico II e Gregorio IX
+  rispetto alla spedizione in Palestina_ (1896); P. T. Masetti, _I
+  Pontefici Onorio III, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a fronte dell'
+  Imperatore Federico II nel secolo XIII_ (1884); T. Frantz, _Der grosse
+  Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit des Hohenstaufen
+  Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum u. Byzanz_
+  (Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography and an excellent article on
+  Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_,
+  3rd edition.
+
+GREGORY X. (_Tebaldo Visconti_), pope from the 1st of September 1271, to
+the 10th of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208, studied for the
+church, and became archdeacon of Liege. The eighteen cardinals who met
+to elect a successor to Clement IV. were divided into French and Italian
+factions, which wrangled over the election for nearly three years in the
+midst of great popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the
+eloquence of St Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the
+choice to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying
+Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and was ordained
+priest on the 19th of March 1272, and consecrated on the 27th. He at
+once summoned the fourteenth general council of the Catholic Church,
+which met at Lyons in 1274, with an attendance of some 1600 prelates,
+for the purpose of considering the eastern schism, the condition of the
+Holy Land, and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded,
+thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for the time
+being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the council all imperial
+rights in the States of the Church. The most celebrated among the many
+reform decrees issued by Gregory was the constitution determining for
+the first time the form of conclave at papal elections, which in large
+measure has remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on
+his way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great crusade in
+company with the kings of England, France, Aragon and Sicily, when he
+died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276. He was a nobleman, fond of
+peace and actuated by the consciousness of a great mission. He has been
+honoured as a saint by the inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His
+successor in the papacy was Innocent V.
+
+  The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud in the
+  _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_ (Paris,
+  1892-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 5, 2nd
+  edition (1873-1890); H. Finke, _Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des 13ten
+  Jahrhunderts_ (Munster, 1891); P. Piacenza, _Compendia della storia
+  del b. Gregorio X, papa_ (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in
+  the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
+  1900-1902); H. Otto, _Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von Habsburgs zu Papst
+  Gregor X._ (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Zisterer, _Gregor X. u. Rudolf von
+  Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen_ (Freiburg i. B., 1891);
+  F. Walter, _Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X._ (Berlin, 1894); A.
+  Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); W. Norden,
+  _Das Papsttum und Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); J. Loserth, "Akten uber die
+  Wahl Gregors X." in _Neues Archiv_, xxi. (1895); A. von
+  Hirsch-Gereuth, "Die Kreuzzugspolitik Gregors X." in _Studien z.
+  Gesch. d. Kreuzzugsidee nach den Kreuzzugen_ (Munich, 1896). There is
+  an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd
+  edition.
+
+GREGORY XI. (_Pierre Roger de Beaufort_), pope from the 30th of December
+1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin in 1330, created
+cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his uncle, Clement VI., was the
+successor of Urban V. His efforts to establish peace between France and
+England and to aid the Eastern Christians against the Turks were
+fruitless, but he prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further
+encroachments on the States of the Church. He introduced many reforms in
+the various monastic orders and took vigorous measures against the
+heresies of the time. His energy was stimulated by the stirring words of
+Catherine of Siena, to whom in particular the transference of the papal
+see back to Italy (17th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst
+at Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury, the
+king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding an
+investigation of Wycliffe's doctrines. Gregory was meditating a return
+to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French popes who for
+some seventy years had made Avignon their see, a man learned and full of
+zeal for the church, but irresolute and guilty of nepotism. The great
+schism, which was to endure fifty years, broke out soon after the
+election of his successor, Urban VI.
+
+  See H. J. Tomaseth, "Die Register u. Secretare Urbans V. u. Gregors
+  XI." in _Mitteilungen des Instituts fur osterreichische
+  Geschichtsforschung_ (1898); Baluzius, _Vitae pap. Avenion._ vol. I
+  (Paris, 1693); L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. I, trans. by F.
+  I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_,
+  vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J. P.
+  Kirsch, _Die Ruckkehr der Papste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. von Avignon
+  nach Rom_ (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, _Histoire de la papaute
+  pendant le XIV^e siecle_, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good
+  article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd edition.
+
+GREGORY XII. (_Angelo Coriaro_, or _Correr_), pope from the 30th of
+November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a noble family at
+Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of Castello, Latin patriarch of
+Constantinople, cardinal-priest of San Marco, and papal secretary, he
+was elected to succeed Innocent VII., after an interregnum of
+twenty-four days, under the express condition that, should the antipope
+Benedict XIII. at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also
+would renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated. As
+pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by which a
+general council was to be held at Savona in September, 1408, but King
+Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from policy, seized Rome and
+brought the negotiations to nought. Gregory had promised not to create
+any more cardinals, and when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals
+deserted him and, together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the
+council of Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in June
+1409 the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V.
+Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by Rupert,
+king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus, and in a synod at
+Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and Alexander as schismatical,
+perjured and scandalous. John XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of
+Alexander in 1410, concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by which Gregory
+was banished from Naples on the 31st of October 1411. The pope then took
+refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through whom he presented
+his resignation to the council of Constance on the 4th of July 1415. A
+weak and easily-influenced old man, his resignation was the noblest act
+of his pontificate. The rest of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity
+as cardinal-bishop of Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at
+Recanati on the 18th of October 1417. Some writers reckon Alexander V.
+and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accordingly count
+Gregory's pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman Catholic authorities,
+however, incline to the other reckoning.
+
+  See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by F. I.
+  Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. 1
+  (London, 1899); N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme d'occident_
+  (Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, _Le Grand Schisme d'occident_ (Paris,
+  1898); J. von Haller, _Papsttum u. Kirchenreform_ (Berlin, 1903); J.
+  Loserth, _Geschichte des spateren Mittelalters_ (1903); _Theoderici de
+  Nyem de schismate libri tres_, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890). There
+  is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_ 2nd
+  ed., vol. 5.     (C. H. Ha.)
+
+GREGORY XIII. (_Ugo Buoncompagno_), pope from 1572 to 1585, was born on
+the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he received his education,
+and subsequently taught, until called to Rome (1539) by Paul III., who
+employed him in various offices. He bore a prominent part in the council
+of Trent, 1562-1563. In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in
+the following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the 13th of May 1572 he
+was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life had been rather
+worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but as pope he gave no occasion
+of offence. He submitted to the influence of the rigorists, and carried
+forward the war upon heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his
+predecessor. However, he received the news of the massacre of St
+Bartholomew (23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the
+event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists, that
+France had been miraculously delivered, and that the Huguenots had
+suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse Spain and Venice
+against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form a general coalition against
+the Protestants. He subsidized Philip II. in his wars in the
+Netherlands; aided the Catholic League in France; incited attacks upon
+Elizabeth by way of Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose
+privileges he multiplied, he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He
+established or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the
+Collegium Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the
+Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy achievements are the
+reform of the calendar on the 24th of February 1582 (see CALENDAR); the
+improved edition of the _Corpus juris canonici_, 1582; the splendid
+Gregorian Chapel in St Peter's; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the
+Quirinal Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses
+entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted to
+confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing
+arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace: nobles armed
+in their defence; old feuds revived; the country became infested with
+bandits; not even in Rome could order be maintained. Amid these
+disturbances Gregory died, on the 10th of April 1585, leaving to his
+successor, Sixtus V., the task of pacifying the state.
+
+  See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De
+  vitis pontiff. Rom._; Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum
+  pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1601-1602); and Ciappi, _Comp. dell' attioni e
+  santa vita di Gregorio XIII_ (Rome, 1591). See also Bompiano, _Hist.
+  pontificatus Gregorii XIII._ (Rome, 1655); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng.
+  trans., Austin), i. 428 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii.
+  2, 566 seq.; and for numerous references upon Gregory's relation to
+  the massacre of St Bartholomew, _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ iii. 771 seq.
+
+GREGORY XIV. (_Nicolo Sfondrato_), pope 1590-1591, was born in Cremona,
+on the 11th of February 1535, studied in Perugia, and Padua, became
+bishop of his native place in 1560, and took part in the council of
+Trent, 1562-1563. Gregory XIII. made him a cardinal, 1583, but
+ill-health forbade his active participation in affairs. His election to
+the papacy, to succeed Urban VII., on the 5th of December 1590, was due
+to Spanish influence. Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly
+ignorant of politics. During his short pontificate the States of the
+Church suffered dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak
+of brigandage. Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he
+aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and threatened his
+adherents with the ban; but the effect of his intervention was only to
+rally the moderate Catholics to the support of Henry, and to hasten his
+conversion. Gregory died on the 15th of October 1591, and was succeeded
+by Innocent IX.
+
+  See Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._ (Rome,
+  1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De vitis pontiff.
+  Rom._ (both contemporary); Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_ (1880).
+  i. 300; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq.
+
+GREGORY XV. (_Alessandro Ludovisi_) was born on the 9th of January 1554,
+in Bologna, where he also studied and taught. He was made archbishop of
+his native place and cardinal by Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on
+the 9th of February 1621. Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory
+displayed remarkable energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years'
+War, and the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims of
+Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was rewarded with
+the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was carried off to Rome.
+Gregory founded the Congregation of the Propaganda, encouraged missions,
+fixed the order to be observed in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius
+Loyola, Francis Xavier, Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the
+8th of July 1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII.
+
+  See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius,
+  _Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._; Ranke's excellent
+  account, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq.; v. Reumont,
+  _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 609 seq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des
+  Kirchenstaates_ (1880), i. 370 seq.; and the extended bibliography in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. "Gregor XV."     (T. F. C.)
+
+GREGORY XVI. (_Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari_), pope from 1831 to 1846,
+was born at Belluno on the 18th of September 1765, and at an early age
+entered the order of the Camaldoli, among whom he rapidly gained
+distinction for his theological and linguistic acquirements. His first
+appearance before a wider public was in 1799, when he published against
+the Italian Jansenists a controversial work entitled _Il Trionfo della
+Santa Sede_, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy,
+has been translated into several European languages. In 1800 he became a
+member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion, founded by Pius VII., to
+which he contributed a number of memoirs on theological and
+philosophical questions and in 1805 was made abbot of San Gregorio on
+the Caelian Hill. When Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809,
+Cappellari withdrew to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other
+members of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the
+restoration of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received
+successive appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of
+the Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops. In
+March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII., and shortly afterwards
+was entrusted with an important mission to adjust a concordat regarding
+the interests of the Catholics of Belgium and the Protestants of
+Holland. On the 2nd of February 1831 he was, after sixty-four days'
+conclave, unexpectedly chosen to succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair.
+The revolution of 1830 had just inflicted a severe blow on the
+ecclesiastical party in France, and almost the first act of the new
+government there was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and
+particularly the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to
+demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the struggle which
+ensued it was more than once necessary to call in the Austrian bayonets.
+The reactionaries in power put off their promised reforms so
+persistently as to anger even Metternich; nor did the replacement of
+Bernetti by Lambruschini in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal
+secretary of state objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and
+was liberal chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The
+embarrassed financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the
+Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in architectural
+and engineering works, and his magnificent patronage of learning in the
+hands of Mai, Mezzofanti, Gaetano, Moroni and others, were for the real
+benefit of his subjects. The years of his pontificate were marked by the
+steady development and diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were
+ultimately formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX.,
+by the council of the Vatican. He died on the 1st of June 1846.
+
+  See A. M. Bernasconi, _Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet
+  constitutiones, bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae_, vols. i-4
+  (Rome, 1901 ff.); Cardinal Wiseman, _Recollections of the Last Four
+  Popes_ (London, 1858); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, vol. vii.
+  (Leipzig, 1899), 127 ff. (gives literature); Frederik Nielsen,
+  _History of the Papacy in the 19th Century_, ii. (London, 1906).
+       (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY,[1] the name of a Scottish family, many members of which
+attained high eminence in various departments of science, fourteen
+having held professorships in mathematics or medicine. Of the most
+distinguished of their number a notice is given below.
+
+I. DAVID GREGORY (1627-1720), eldest son of the Rev. John Gregory of
+Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, who married Janet Anderson in 1621. He was for
+some time connected with a mercantile house in Holland, but on
+succeeding to the family estate of Kinardie returned to Scotland, and
+occupied most of his time in scientific pursuits, freely giving his
+poorer neighbours the benefit of his medical skill. He is said to have
+been the first possessor of a barometer in the north of Scotland; and on
+account of his success by means of it in predicting changes in the
+weather, he was accused of witchcraft before the presbytery of Aberdeen,
+but he succeeded in convincing that body of his innocence.
+
+II. JAMES GREGORY (1638-1675), Scottish mathematician, younger brother
+of the preceding, was educated at the grammar school of Aberdeen and at
+Marischal College of that city. At an early period he manifested a
+strong inclination and capacity for mathematics and kindred sciences;
+and in 1663 he published his famous treatise _Optica promota_, in which
+he made known his great invention, the Gregorian reflecting telescope.
+About 1665 he went to the university of Padua, where he studied for some
+years, and in 1667 published _Vera circuli et hyperbolae quadratura_, in
+which he discussed infinite convergent series for the areas of the
+circle and hyperbola. In the following year he published also at Padua
+_Geometriae pars universalis_, in which he gave a series of rules for
+the rectification of curves and the mensuration of their solids of
+revolution. On his return to England in this year he was elected a
+fellow of the Royal Society; in 1669 he became professor of mathematics
+in the university of St Andrews; and in 1674 he was transferred to the
+chair of mathematics in Edinburgh. In October 1675, while showing the
+satellites of the planet Jupiter to some of his students through one of
+his telescopes, he was suddenly struck with blindness, and he died a few
+days afterwards.
+
+  He was also the author of _Exercitationes geometricae_ (1668), and, it
+  is alleged, of a satirical tract entitled _The Great and New Art of
+  Weighing Vanity_, intended to ridicule certain fallacies of a
+  contemporary writer on hydraulics, and published at Glasgow in 1672,
+  professedly by "Patrick Mathers, archbeadle of the university of St
+  Andrews."
+
+III. DAVID GREGORY (1661-1708), son of David Gregory (1627-1720), was
+born in Aberdeen and educated partly in his native city and partly in
+Edinburgh, where he became professor of mathematics in 1683. From 1691
+till his death he was Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. His
+principal works are _Exercitatio geometrica de dimensione figurarum_
+(1684), _Catoptricae et dioptricae sphaericae elementa_ (1695), and
+_Astronomiae physicae et geometricae elementa_ (1702)--the last a work
+highly esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton, of whose system it is an
+illustration and a defence. _A Treatise on Practical Geometry_ which he
+left in manuscript was translated from the Latin and published in 1745.
+He was succeeded in the chair of mathematics in Edinburgh by bis brother
+James; another brother, Charles, was in 1707 appointed professor of
+mathematics in the university of St Andrews; and his eldest son, David
+(1696-1767), became professor of modern history at Oxford, and canon and
+subsequently dean of Christ Church.
+
+IV. JOHN GREGORY (1724-1773), Scottish physician, grandson of James
+Gregory (1638-1675) and youngest son of Dr James Gregory (d. 1731),
+professor of medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, was born at Aberdeen
+on the 3rd of June 1724. He received his early education at the grammar
+school of Aberdeen and at King's College in that city, and in 1741 he
+attended the medical classes at Edinburgh university. In 1745 he went to
+Leiden to complete his medical studies, and during his stay there he
+received without solicitation the degree of doctor of medicine from
+King's College, Aberdeen. On his return from Holland he was elected
+professor of philosophy at King's College, but in 1749 he resigned his
+professorship on account of its duties interfering too much with his
+private practice. In 1754 he proceeded to London, where he made the
+acquaintance of many persons of distinction, and the same year was
+chosen fellow of the Royal Society. On the death in November 1755 of his
+brother Dr James Gregory, who had succeeded his father as professor of
+medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, he was appointed to that office.
+In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh in the hope of obtaining a more extended
+field of practice as a physician, and in 1766 he was appointed professor
+of the practice of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, to whose
+eminence as a medical school he largely contributed. He died of gout on
+the 10th of February 1773.
+
+  He is the author of _A Comparative View of the State and Faculties of
+  Man with those of the Animal World_ (1765); _Observations on the
+  Duties, Offices and Qualifications of a Physician_ (1772); _Elements
+  of the Practice of Physic_ (1772); and _A Father's Legacy to his
+  Daughters_ (1774). _His Whole Works_, with a life by Mr Tytler
+  (afterwards Lord Woodhouselee), were published at Edinburgh in 1788.
+
+V. JAMES GREGORY (1753-1821), Scottish physician, eldest son of the
+preceding, was born at Aberdeen in January 1753. He accompanied his
+father to Edinburgh in 1764, and after going through the usual course of
+literary studies at that university, he was for a short time a student
+at Christchurch, Oxford. It was there probably that he acquired that
+taste for classical learning which afterwards distinguished him. He
+studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, after graduating doctor of medicine
+in 1774, spent the greater part of the next two years in Holland, France
+and Italy. Shortly after his return to Scotland he was appointed in 1776
+to the chair his father had formerly held, and in the following year he
+also entered on the duties of teacher of clinical medicine in the Royal
+Infirmary. On the illness of Dr William Cullen in 1790 he was appointed
+joint-professor of the practice of medicine, and he became the head of
+the Edinburgh Medical School on the death of Dr Cullen in the same year.
+He died on the 2nd of April 1821. As a medical practitioner Gregory was
+for the last ten years of his life at the head of the profession in
+Scotland. He was at one time president of the Edinburgh College of
+Physicians, but his indiscretion in publishing certain private
+proceedings of the college led to his suspension on the 13th of May 1809
+from all rights and privileges which pertained to the fellowship.
+
+  Besides his _Conspectus medicinae theoreticae_, published in 1788 as a
+  text-book for his lectures on the institutes, Dr Gregory was the
+  author of "A Theory of the Moods of Verbs," published in the _Edin.
+  Phil. Trans._ (1787), and of _Literary and Philosophical Essays_,
+  published in two volumes in 1792.
+
+VI. WILLIAM GREGORY (1803-1858), son of James Gregory (1753-1821), was
+born on the 25th of December 1803. In 1837 he became professor of
+chemistry at the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow, in 1839 at King's
+College, Aberdeen, and in 1844 at Edinburgh University. He died on the
+24th of April 1858. Gregory was one of the first in England to advocate
+the theories of Justus von Liebig, and translated several of his works.
+He is also the author of _Outlines of Chemistry_ (1845), and an
+_Elementary Treatise on Chemistry_ (1853).
+
+VII. DUNCAN FARQUHARSON GREGORY (1813-1844), brother of the preceding,
+was born on the 13th of April 1813. After studying at the university of
+Edinburgh he in 1833 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was
+for a time assistant professor of chemistry, but he devoted his
+attention chiefly to mathematics. He died on the 23rd of February 1844.
+
+  The _Cambridge Mathematical Journal_ was originated, and for some time
+  edited, by him; and he also published a _Collection of Examples of
+  Processes in the Differential and Integral Calculus_ (1841). A
+  _Treatise on the Application of Analysis to Solid Geometry_, which he
+  left unfinished, was completed by W. Walton, and published
+  posthumously in 1846. His _Mathematical Writings_, edited by W.
+  Walton, with a biographical memoir by Robert Leslie Ellis, appeared in
+  1865.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See A. G. Stewart, _The Academic Gregories_.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-1909), British painter, born at Southampton,
+began work at the age of fifteen in the engineer's drawing office of the
+Peninsular and Oriental Company. Afterwards he studied at South
+Kensington, and about 1871 entered on a successful career as an
+illustrator and as an admirable painter in oil and water colour. He was
+elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1883, academician in 1898, and
+president of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1898.
+His work is distinguished by remarkable technical qualities, by
+exceptional firmness and decision of draughtsmanship and by unusual
+certainty of handling. His "Marooned," a water colour, is in the
+National Gallery of British Art. Many of his pictures were shown at
+Burlington House at the winter exhibition of 1909-1910 after his death
+in June 1909.
+
+
+
+
+GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774-1841), English mathematician, was born
+on the 29th of January 1774 at Yaxley in Huntingdonshire. Having been
+educated by Richard Weston, a Leicester botanist, he published in 1793 a
+treatise, Lessons _Astronomical and Philosophical_. Having settled at
+Cambridge in 1796, Gregory first acted as sub-editor on the _Cambridge
+Intelligencer_, and then opened a bookseller's shop. In 1802 he obtained
+an appointment as mathematical master at Woolwich through the influence
+of Charles Hutton, to whose notice he had been brought by a manuscript
+on the "Use of the Sliding Rule"; and when Hutton resigned in 1807
+Gregory succeeded him in the professorship. Failing health obliged him
+to retire in 1838, and he died at Woolwich on the 2nd of February 1841.
+
+  Gregory wrote _Hints for the Use of Teachers of Elementary
+  Mathematics_ (1840, new edition 1853), and _Mathematics for Practical
+  Men_ (1825), which was revised and enlarged by Henry Law in 1848, and
+  again by J. R. Young in 1862. His _Letters on the Evidences of
+  Christianity_ (1815) have been several times reprinted, and an
+  abridgment was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1853. He
+  will probably be longest remembered for his _Biography of Robert
+  Hall_, which first appeared in the collected edition of Hall's works,
+  was published separately in 1833, and has since passed through several
+  editions. The minor importance of his _Memoir of John Mason Good_
+  (1828) is due to the narrower fame of the subject. Gregory was one of
+  the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1802 he was
+  appointed editor of the _Gentlemen's Diary_, and in 1818 editor of the
+  _Ladies' Diary_ and superintendent of the almanacs of the Stationers'
+  Company.
+
+
+
+
+GREIFENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania,
+on the Rega, 45 m. N.E. of Stettin on the railway to Kolberg. Pop.
+(1905) 7208. It has two Evangelical churches (among them that of St
+Mary, dating from 13th century), two ancient gateways, a powder tower
+and a gymnasium. The manufacture of machines, stoves and bricks are the
+principal industries. Greifenberg possessed municipal rights as early as
+1262, and in the 14th and 15th centuries had a considerable shipping
+trade, but it lost much of its prosperity during the Thirty Years' War.
+
+  See Riemann, _Geschichte der Stadt Greifenberg_ (1862).
+
+
+
+
+GREIFENHAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania,
+on the Reglitz, 12 m. S.S.W. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1905) 6473. Its
+prosperity depends chiefly on agriculture and it has a considerable
+trade in cattle. There are also felt manufactures and saw mills.
+Greifenhagen was built in 1230, and was raised to the rank of a town and
+fortified about 1250. In the Thirty Years' War it was taken both by the
+imperialists and the Swedes, and in 1675 it was captured by the
+Brandenburgers, into whose possession it came finally in 1679.
+
+
+
+
+GREIFSWALD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on
+the navigable Ryk, 3 m. from its mouth on the Baltic at the little port
+of Wyk, and 20 m. S.E. from Stralsund by rail. Pop. (1875) 18,022,
+(1905) 23,750. It has wide and regular streets, flanked by numerous
+gabled houses, and is surrounded by pleasant promenades on the site of
+its old ramparts. The three Gothic Protestant churches, the
+Marienkirche, the Nikolaikirche and the Jakobikirche, and the town-hall
+(Rathaus) are the principal edifices, and these with their lofty spires
+are very picturesque. There is a statue of the emperor Frederick III.
+and a war memorial in the town. The industries mainly consist in
+shipbuilding, fish-curing, and the manufacture of machinery
+(particularly for agriculture), and the commerce in the export of corn,
+wood and fish. There is a theatre, an orphanage and a municipal library.
+Greifswald is, however, best known to fame by reason of its university.
+This, founded in 1456, is well endowed and is largely frequented by
+students of medicine. Connected with it are a library of 150,000 volumes
+and 800 MSS., a chemical laboratory, a zoological museum, a
+gynaecological institute, an ophthalmological school, a botanical garden
+and at Eldena (a seaside resort on the Baltic) an agricultural school.
+In front of the university, which had 775 students and about 100
+teachers in 1904, stands a monument commemorating its four hundredth
+anniversary.
+
+Greifswald was founded about 1240 by traders from the Netherlands. In
+1250 it received a town constitution and Lubeck rights from Duke
+Wratislaw of Pomerania. In 1270 it joined the Hanse towns, Stralsund,
+Rostock, Wismar and Lubeck, and took part in the wars which they carried
+on against the kings of Denmark and Norway. During the Thirty Years' War
+it was formed into a fortress by the imperialists, but they vacated it
+in 1631 to the Swedes, in whose possession it remained after the peace
+of Westphalia. In 1678 it was captured by the elector of Brandenburg,
+but was restored to the Swedes in the following year; in 1713 it was
+desolated by the Russians; in 1715 it came into the possession of
+Denmark; and in 1721 it was again restored to Sweden, under whose
+protection it remained till 1815, when, along with the whole of Swedish
+Pomerania, it came into the possession of Prussia.
+
+  See J. G. L. Kosegarten, _Geschichte der Universitat Greifswald_
+  (1856); C. Gesterding, _Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald_
+  (3 vols., 1827-1829); and I. Ziegler, _Geschichte der Stadt
+  Greifswald_ (Greifswald, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GREISEN (in French, _hyalomicte_), a modification of granite, consisting
+essentially of quartz and white mica, and distinguished from granite by
+the absence of felspar and biotite. In the hand specimen the rock has a
+silvery glittering appearance from the abundance of lamellar crystals of
+muscovite, but many greisens have much of the appearance of granite,
+except that they are paler in colour. The commonest accessory minerals
+are tourmaline, topaz, apatite, fluorspar and iron oxides; a little
+felspar more or less altered may also be present and a brown mica which
+is biotite or lithionite. The tourmaline in section is brown, green,
+blue or colourless, and often the same crystal shows many different
+tints. The white mica forms mostly large plates with imperfect
+crystalline outlines. The quartz is rich in fluid enclosures. Apatite
+and topaz are both colourless and of irregular form. Felspar if present
+may be orthoclase and oligoclase.
+
+Greisen occurs typically in belts or veins intersecting granite. At the
+centre of each vein there is usually a fissure which may be open or
+filled with quartz. The greisen bands are from 1 in. up to 2 ft. or more
+in thickness. At their outer edges they pass gradually into the granite,
+for they contain felspar crystals more or less completely altered into
+aggregates of white mica and quartz. The transition between the two
+rocks is perfectly gradual, a fact which shows that the greisen has been
+produced by alteration of the granite. Vapours or fluids rising through
+the fissure have been the agents which effected the transmutation. They
+must have contained fluorine, boron and probably also lithium, for
+topaz, mica and tourmaline, the new minerals of the granite, contain
+these elements. The change is a post-volcanic or pneumatolytic one
+induced by the vapours set free by the granite magma when it cools.
+Probably the rock was at a relatively high temperature at the time. A
+similar type of alteration, the development of white mica, quartz and
+tourmaline, is found sometimes in sedimentary rocks around granite
+masses. Greisen is closely connected with schorl rock both in its
+mineralogical composition and in its mode of origin. The latter is a
+pneumatolytic product consisting of quartz and tourmaline; it often
+contains white mica and thus passes by all stages into greisen. Both of
+these rocks carry frequently small percentages of tin oxide
+(cassiterite) and may be worked as ores of tin. They are common in
+Cornwall, Saxony, Tasmania and other districts which are centres of
+tin-mining. Many other greisens occur in which no tin is found. The
+analyses show the composition of Cornish granite and greisen. They make
+it clear that there has been an introduction of fluorine and boron and a
+diminution in the alkalies during the transformation of the granitic
+rock into the greisen.
+
+  +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+
+  |         | SiO2. | Al2O3.|Fe2O3.| FeO. | CaO. | MgO. | K2O. | Na2O.| Fl.  |B2O3.|
+  +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+
+  | Granite | 70.17 | 15.07 |  .88 | 1.79 | 1.13 | 1.11 | 5.73 | 2.69 |  .15 | tr. |
+  | Greisen | 69.42 | 15.65 | 1.25 | 3.30 |  .63 | 1.02 | 4.06 |  .27 | 3.36 | .59 |
+  +---------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+
+
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GREIZ, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-Greiz
+(Reuss the Elder), in a pleasant valley on the right bank of the White
+Elster, near the borders of Saxony, and 66 m. by rail S. from Leipzig.
+Pop. (1875) 12,657; (1905) 23,114. It consists of two parts, the old
+town on the right bank and the new town on the left bank of the river;
+it is rapidly growing and is regularly laid out. The principal buildings
+are the palace of the prince of Reuss-Greiz, surrounded by a fine park,
+the old chateau on a rocky hill overlooking the town, the summer palace
+with a fine garden, the old town church dating from 1225 and possessing
+a beautiful tower, the town hall, the governmental buildings and statues
+of the emperor William I. and of Bismarck. There are classical and
+modern schools and a school of textile industry. The industries are
+considerable, and include dyeing, tanning and the manufacture of
+woollen, cotton, shawls, coverlets and paper. Greiz (formerly _Grewcz_)
+is apparently a town of Slav origin. From the 12th century it was
+governed by _advocati_ (_Vogte_), but in 1236 it came into the
+possession of Gera, and in 1550 of the younger line of the house of
+Plauen. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1494, and almost totally in
+1802.
+
+  See Wilke, _Greiz und seine Umgebung_ (1875), and _Jahresberichte des
+  Vereins fur Greizer Geschichte_ (1894, seq.)
+
+
+
+
+GRENADA, the southernmost of the Windward Islands, British West Indies.
+It lies between 11 deg. 58' and 12 deg. 15' N. and between 61 deg. 35'
+and 61 deg. 50' W., being 140 m. S.W. of Barbados and 85 m. N. by W. of
+Trinidad. In shape oval, it is 21 m. long, 12 m. broad at its maximum
+and has an area of 133 sq. m. It owes much of its beauty to a
+well-wooded range of mountains traversing the island from N. to S. and
+throwing off from the centre spurs which form picturesque and fertile
+valleys. These mountains attain their highest elevation in Mount
+Catharine (2750 ft.). In the S.E. and N.W. there are stretches of low or
+undulating ground, devoted to fruit growing and cattle raising. The
+island is of volcanic origin; the only signs of upheaval are raised
+limestone beaches in the extreme N. Red and grey sandstones, hornblende
+and argillaceous schist are found in the mountains, porphyry and
+basaltic rocks also occur; sulphur and fuller's earth are worked. In the
+centre, at the height of 1740 ft. above the sea, is the chief natural
+curiosity of Grenada, the Grand Etang, a circular lake, 13 acres in
+extent, occupying the site of an ancient crater. Near it is a large
+sanatorium, much frequented as a health resort. In the north-east is a
+larger lake, Lake Antoine, also occupying a crater, but it lies almost
+at the sea level. The island is watered by several short rivers, mainly
+on the east and south; there are numerous fresh water springs, as well
+as hot chalybeate and sulphurous springs. The south-eastern coast is
+much indented with bays. The climate is good, the temperature equable
+and epidemic diseases are rare. In the low country the average yearly
+temperature is 82 deg. F., but it is cooler in the heights. The rainfall
+is very heavy, amounting in some parts to as much as 200 in., a year.
+The rainy season lasts from May to December, but refreshing showers
+frequently occur during other parts of the year. The average annual
+rainfall at St Georges is 79.07 in., and at Grand Etang 164 in. The
+excellent climate and good sea-bathing have made Grenada the health
+resort of the neighbouring islands, especially of Trinidad. Good roads
+and byeways intersect it in every direction. The soil is extraordinarily
+fertile, the chief products being cocoa and spices, especially nutmegs.
+The exports, sent chiefly to Great Britain, are cocoa, spices, wool,
+cotton, coffee, live stock, hides, turtles, turtle shell, kola nuts,
+vanilla and timber. Barbados is dependent on Grenada for the majority of
+its firewood. Sugar is still grown, and rum and molasses are made, but
+the consumption of these is confined to the island.
+
+Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of the various
+denominations, whose schools are assisted by government grants-in-aid.
+There are, however, a few secular schools conducted by the government,
+and government-aided secondary schools for girls and a grammar school
+for boys. The schools are controlled by a board of education, the
+members of which are nominated by the government, and small fees are
+charged in all schools. The governor of the Windward Islands resides in
+Grenada and is administrator of it. The Legislative Council consists of
+14 members; 7 including the governor are _ex-officio_ members and the
+rest are nominated by the Crown. English is universally spoken, but the
+negroes use a French _patois_, which, however, is gradually dying out.
+Only 2% of the inhabitants are white, the rest being negroes and
+mulattoes with a few East Indians. The capital, St George, in the
+south-west, is built upon a lava peninsula jutting into the sea and
+forming one side of its land-locked harbour. It is surrounded by an
+amphitheatre of hills, up the sides of which climb the red-brick houses
+of the town. At the extremity of the peninsula is Fort St George, with a
+saluting battery. The ridge connecting Fort St George with Hospital Hill
+is tunnelled to give access to the two parts of the town lying on either
+side. The population in 1901 was 5198. There are four other towns--on
+the west coast Gouyave, or Charlotte Town, and 4 m. N. of it Victoria;
+on the north coast Sauteurs; and Grenville at the head of a wide bay on
+the east. They are all in frequent communication with the capital by
+steamer. The population of the entire colony in 1901 was 63,438.
+
+_History._--Grenada was discovered in 1498 by Columbus, who named it
+Conception. Neither the Spanish nor the British, to whom it was granted
+in 1627, settled on the island. The governor of Martinique, du Parquet,
+purchased it in 1650, and the French were well received by the Caribs,
+whom they afterwards extirpated with the greatest cruelty. In 1665
+Grenada passed into the hands of the French West India Company, and was
+administered by it until its dissolution in 1674, when the island passed
+to the French Crown. Cocoa, coffee and cotton were introduced in 1714.
+During the wars between Great Britain and France, Grenada capitulated to
+the British forces in 1762, and was formally ceded next year by the
+Treaty of Paris. The French, under Count d'Estaing, re-captured the
+island in 1779, but it was restored to Great Britain by the Treaty of
+Versailles in 1783. A rebellion against the British rule, instigated and
+assisted by the French, occurred in 1795, but was quelled by Sir Ralph
+Abercromby in the following year. The emancipation of the slaves took
+place in 1837, and by 1877 it was found necessary to introduce East
+Indian labour. Grenada, with cocoa as its staple, has not experienced
+similar depression to that which overtook the sugar-growing islands of
+the West Indies.
+
+  See _Grenada Handbook_ (London, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+GRENADE (from the French word for a pomegranate, from a resemblance in
+shape to that fruit), a small spherical explosive vessel thrown by hand.
+Hand-grenades were used in war in the 16th century, but the word
+"grenade" was also from the first used to imply an explosive shell
+fired from a gun; this survives to the present day in the German
+_Granate_. These weapons were employed after about 1660, by special
+troops called "grenadiers" (q.v.), and in the wars of the 17th and 18th
+centuries they are continually met with. They became obsolete in the
+19th century, but were given a new lease of life in the 20th, owing to
+their employment in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, where
+hand-grenades of a modern type, and containing powerful modern
+explosives, proved very effective (see AMMUNITION, _shell_).
+Hand-grenades filled with chemicals and made of glass are used as a
+method of fire-extinction, and similar vessels containing a liquid with
+a very strong smell are used to discover defects in a drain or sewer.
+
+
+
+
+GRENADIER, originally a soldier whose special duty it was to throw
+hand-grenades. The latter were in use for a considerable time before any
+special organization was given to the troops who were to use them. In
+1667 four men per company in the French _Regiment du Roi_ were trained
+with grenades (siege of Lille), and in 1668-1670 grenadier companies
+were formed in this regiment and in about thirty others of the French
+line. Evelyn, in his _Diary_, tells us that on the 29th of June 1678 he
+saw at Hounslow "a new sort of soldiers called granadiers, who were
+dexterous in flinging hand-granades." As in the case of the fusiliers,
+the French practice was therefore quickly copied in England. Eventually
+each English battalion had a grenadier company (see for illustrations
+_Archaeological Journal_, xxiii. 222, and xlvii. 321-324). Besides their
+grenades and the firelock, grenadiers carried axes which, with the
+grenades, were employed in the assault of fortresses, as we are told in
+the celebrated song, "The British Grenadiers."
+
+The grenadier companies were formed always of the most powerful men in
+the regiment and, when the grenade ceased to be used, they maintained
+their existence as the "crack" companies of their battalions, taking the
+right of the line on parade and wearing the distinctive grenadier
+headdress. This system was almost universal, and the typical infantry
+regiment of the 18th and early 19th century had a grenadier and a light
+company besides its "line" companies. In the British and other armies
+these _elite_ companies were frequently taken from their regiments and
+combined in grenadier and light infantry battalions for special service,
+and Napoleon carried this practice still further in the French army by
+organizing brigades and divisions of grenadiers (and correspondingly of
+_voltigeurs_). Indeed the companies thus detached from the line
+practically never returned to it, and this was attended with serious
+evils, for the battalion at the outbreak of war lost perhaps a quarter
+of its best men, the average men only remaining with the line. This
+special organization of grenadiers and light companies lasted in the
+British army until about 1858. In the Prussian service the grenadiers
+became permanent and independent battalions about 1740, and the gradual
+adoption of the four-company battalion by Prussia and other nations
+tended still further to place the grenadiers by themselves and apart
+from the line. Thus at the present day in Germany, Russia and other
+countries, the title of "grenadiers" is borne by line regiments,
+indistinguishable, except for details of uniform and often the _esprit
+de corps_ inherited from the old _elite_ companies, from the rest. In
+the British service the only grenadiers remaining are the Grenadier
+Guards, originally the 1st regiment of Foot Guards, which was formed in
+1660 on the nucleus of a regiment of English royalists which followed
+the fortunes of Charles II. in exile. In Russia a whole army corps
+(headquarters Moscow), inclusive of its artillery units, bears the
+title.
+
+The special headdress of the grenadier was a pointed cap, with peak and
+flaps, of embroidered cloth, or a loose fur cap of similar shape; both
+these were light field service caps. The fur cap has in the course of
+time developed into the tall "bearskin" worn by British guards and
+various corps of other armies; the embroidered field cap survives,
+transformed, however, into a heavy brass headdress, in the uniform of
+the 1st Prussian Foot Guards, the 1st Prussian Guard Grenadiers and the
+Russian Paul (Pavlovsky) Grenadier Guards.
+
+
+
+
+GRENADINES, a chain of islets in the Windward Islands, West Indies. They
+stretch for 60 m. between St Vincent and Grenada, following a N.E. to
+S.W. direction, and consist of some 600 islets and rocks. Some are a few
+square miles in extent, others are merely rocky cones projecting from
+the deep. For purposes of administration they are divided between St
+Vincent and Grenada. Bequia, the chief island in the St Vincent group,
+is long and narrow, with an area 6 sq. m. Owing to a lack of water it is
+only slightly cultivated, but game is plentiful. Admiralty Bay, on the
+W. side, is a safe and commodious harbour. Carriacou, belonging to
+Grenada, is the largest of the group, being 7 m. long, 2 m. wide and 13
+sq. m. in extent. A ridge of hills, rising to an altitude of 700 ft.,
+traverses the centre from N.E. to S.W.; here admirable building stone is
+found. There are two good harbours on the west coast, Hillsborough Bay
+on which stands Hillsborough, the chief town, and Tyrell Bay, farther
+south. The island is thickly populated, the negro peasantry occupying
+small lots and working on the _metayer_ system. Excellent oysters are
+found along the coast, and cotton and cattle are the chief exports. Pop.
+of the group, mostly on Carriacou (1901) 6497.
+
+
+
+
+GRENOBLE, the ancient capital of the Dauphine in S.E. France, and now
+the chief town of the Isere department, 75 m. by rail from Lyons, 38-1/2
+m. from Chambery and 85-1/2 m. from Gap. Pop. (1906), town, 58,641;
+commune, 73,022. It is one of the most beautifully situated, and also
+one of the most strongly fortified, cities in Europe. Built at a height
+of 702 ft. on both banks of the river Isere just above its junction with
+the Drac, the town occupies a considerable plain at the south-western
+end of the fertile Graisivaudan valley. To the north rise the mountains
+of the Grande Chartreuse, to the east the range of Belledonne, and to
+the south those of Taillefer and the Moucherotte, the higher summits of
+these ranges being partly covered with snow. From the Jardin de Ville
+and the quays of the banks of the Isere the summit of Mont Blanc itself
+is visible. The greater part of the town rises on the left bank of the
+Isere, which is bordered by broad quays. The older portion has the
+tortuous and narrow streets usual in towns that have been confined
+within fortifications, but in modern times these hindrances have been
+demolished. The newer portion of the town has wide thoroughfares and
+buildings of the modern French type, solid but not picturesque. The
+original town (of but small extent) was built on the right bank of the
+Isere at the southern foot of the Mont Rachais, now covered by a
+succession of fortresses that rise picturesquely on the slope of that
+hill to a very considerable height (885 ft. above the town).
+
+Grenoble is the seat of a bishopric which was founded in the 4th
+century, and now comprises the department of the Isere--formerly a
+suffragan of Vienne it now forms part of the ecclesiastical province of
+Lyons. The most remarkable building in the town is the Palais de
+Justice, erected (late 15th century to 16th century) on the site of the
+old palace of the Parlement of the Dauphine. Opposite is the most
+noteworthy church of the city, that of St Andre (13th century), formerly
+the chapel of the dauphins of the Viennois: in it is the 17th century
+monument of Bayard (1476-1524), the _chevalier sans peur et sans
+reproche_, which was removed hither in 1822; but it is uncertain whose
+bones are therein. The cathedral church of Notre Dame is a heavy
+building, dating in part from the 11th century. The church of St
+Laurent, on the right bank of the Isere, is the oldest in the city (11th
+century) and has a remarkable crypt, dating from Merovingian times. The
+town hall is a mainly modern building, constructed on the site of the
+palace of the dauphins, while the prefecture is entirely modern. The
+town library contains a considerable collection of paintings, mainly of
+the modern French school, but is more remarkable for its very rich
+collection of MSS. (7000) and printed books (250,000 vols.) which in
+great part belonged till 1793 to the monastery of the Grande Chartreuse.
+The natural history museum houses rich collections of various kinds,
+which contain (_inter alia_) numerous geological specimens from the
+neighbouring districts of the Dauphine and Savoy. The university,
+revived in modern times after a long abeyance, occupies a modern
+building, as does also the hospital, though founded as far back as the
+15th century. There are numerous societies in the town, including the
+Academie Delphinale (founded in 1772), and many charitable institutions.
+
+The staple industry of Grenoble is the manufacture of kid gloves, most
+of the so-called _gants Jouvin_ being made here--they are named after
+the reviver of the art, X. Jouvin (1800-1844). There are about 80 glove
+factories, which employ 18,500 persons (of whom 15,000 are women), the
+annual output being about 800,000 dozen pairs of gloves. Among other
+articles produced at Grenoble are artificial cements, liqueurs, straw
+hats and carved furniture.
+
+Grenoble occupies the site of Cularo, a village of the Allobroges, which
+only became of importance when fortified by Diocletian and Maximian at
+the end of the 3rd century. Its present name is a corruption of
+Gratianopolis, a title assumed probably in honour of Gratian (4th
+century), who raised it to the rank of a _civitas_. After passing under
+the power of the Burgundians (c. 440) and the Franks (532) it became
+part of the kingdom of Provence (879-1032). On the break-up of that
+kingdom a long struggle for supremacy ensued between the bishops of the
+city and the counts of Albon, the latter finally winning the day in the
+12th century, and taking the title of Dauphins of the Viennois in the
+13th century. In 1349 Grenoble was ceded with the rest of the Dauphine
+to France, but retained various municipal privileges which had been
+granted by the dauphins to the town, originally by a charter of 1242. In
+1562 it was sacked by the Protestants under the baron des Adrets, but in
+1572 the firmness of its governor, Bertrand de Gordes, saved it from a
+repetition of the Massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1590 Lesdiguieres
+(1543-1626) took the town in the name of Henry IV., then still a
+Protestant, and during his long governorship (which lasted to his death)
+did much for it by the construction of fortifications, quays, &c. In
+1788 the attempt of the king to weaken the power of the parlement of
+Grenoble (which, though strictly a judicial authority, had preserved
+traditions of independence, since the suspension of the states-general
+of the Dauphine in 1628) roused the people to arms, and the "day of the
+tiles" (7th of June 1788) is memorable for the defeat of the royal
+forces. In 1790, on the formation of the department of the Isere,
+Grenoble became its capital. Grenoble was the first important town to
+open its gates to Napoleon on his return from Elba (7th of March 1815),
+but a few months later (July) it was obliged to surrender to the
+Austrian army. Owing to its situation Grenoble was formerly much subject
+to floods, particularly in the case of the wild Drac. One of the worst
+took place in 1219, while that of 1778 was known as the _deluge de la
+Saint Crepin_. Among the celebrities who have been born at Grenoble are
+Vaucanson (1709-1782), Mably (1709-1785), Condillac (1715-1780), Beyle,
+best known as Stendhal, his _nom de guerre_ (1783-1842), Barnave
+(1761-1793) and Casimir Perier (1777-1832).
+
+  See A. Prudhomme, _Histoire de Grenoble_ (1888); X. Roux, _La
+  Corporation des gantiers de Grenoble_ (1887); H. Duhamel, _Grenoble
+  considere comme centre d'excursions_ (1902); J. Marion, _Cartulaires
+  de l'eglise cathedrale de Grenoble_ (Paris, 1869).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL (1596-1643), Royalist soldier in the English Civil
+War (see GREAT REBELLION), was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. As
+member of Parliament, first for Cornwall, then for Launceston, Grenville
+supported Sir John Eliot and the opposition, and his intimacy with Eliot
+was life-long. In 1639, however, he appears as a royalist going to the
+Scottish War in the train of Charles I. The reasons of this change of
+front are unknown, but Grenville's honour was above suspicion, and he
+must have entirely convinced himself that he was doing right. At any
+rate he was a very valuable recruit to the royalist cause, being "the
+most generally loved man in Cornwall." At the outbreak of the Civil War
+he and others of the gentry not only proclaimed the king's Commission of
+Array at Launceston assizes, but also persuaded the grand jury of the
+county to declare their opponents guilty of riot and unlawful assembly,
+whereupon the _Posse comitatus_ was called out to expel them. Under the
+command of Sir Ralph Hopton, Sir Bevil took a distinguished part in the
+action of Bradock Down, and at Stratton (16 May 1643), where the
+parliamentary earl of Stamford was completely routed by the Cornishmen,
+led one of the storming parties which captured Chudleigh's lines
+(_Clarendon_, vii. 89). A month later, the endeavour of Hopton to unite
+with Maurice and Hertford from Oxford brought on the battle of Lansdown,
+near Bath. Here Grenville was killed at the head of the Cornish infantry
+as it reached the top of the hill. His death was a blow from which the
+king's cause in the West never recovered, for he alone knew how to
+handle the Cornishmen. Hopton they revered and respected, but Grenville
+they loved as peculiarly their own commander, and after his death there
+is little more heard of the reckless valour which had won Stratton and
+Lansdown. Grenville is the type of all that was best in English
+royalism. He was neither rapacious, drunken nor dissolute, but his
+loyalty was unselfish, his life pure and his skill no less than his
+bravery unquestionable. A monument to him has been erected on the field
+of Lansdown.
+
+  See Lloyd, _Memoirs of Excellent Personages_ (1668); S. R. Gardiner,
+  _History of the English Civil War_ (vol. i. _passim_).
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE, GEORGE (1712-1770), English statesman, second son of Richard
+Grenville and Hester Temple, afterwards Countess Temple, was born on the
+14th of October 1712. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
+Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1735. He entered parliament in 1741
+as member for Buckingham, and continued to represent that borough till
+his death. In parliament he was a member of the "Boy Patriot" party
+which opposed Sir Robert Walpole. In December 1744 he became a lord of
+the admiralty in the Pelham administration. He allied himself with his
+brother Richard and with William Pitt in forcing their feeble chief to
+give them promotion by rebelling against his authority and obstructing
+business. In June 1747 he became a lord of the treasury, and in 1754
+treasurer of the navy and privy councillor. As treasurer of the navy in
+1758 he introduced and carried a bill which established a less unfair
+system of paying the wages of the seamen than had existed before. He
+remained in office in 1761, when his brother Lord Temple and his
+brother-in-law Pitt resigned upon the question of the war with Spain,
+and in the administration of Lord Bute he was entrusted with the
+leadership of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he was appointed
+secretary of state, and in October first lord of the admiralty; and in
+April 1763 he became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the
+exchequer. The most prominent measures of his administration were the
+prosecution of Wilkes and the passing of the American Stamp Act, which
+led to the first symptoms of alienation between America and the mother
+country. During the latter period of his term of office he was on a very
+unsatisfactory footing with the young king George III., who gradually
+came to feel a kind of horror of the interminable persistency of his
+conversation, and whom he endeavoured to make use of as the mere puppet
+of the ministry. The king made various attempts to induce Pitt to come
+to his rescue by forming a ministry, but without success, and at last
+had recourse to the marquis of Rockingham, on whose agreeing to accept
+office Grenville was dismissed July 1765. He never again held office,
+and died on the 13th of November 1770.
+
+The nickname of "gentle shepherd" was given him because he bored the
+House by asking over and over again, during the debate on the Cider Bill
+of 1763, that somebody should tell him "where" to lay the new tax if it
+was not to be put on cider. Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune
+"Gentle Shepherd, tell me where," and the House laughed. Though few
+excelled him in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of
+administrative details, his tact in dealing with men and with affairs
+was so defective that there is perhaps no one who has been at the head
+of an English administration to whom a lower place can be assigned as a
+statesman.
+
+In 1749 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Wyndham, by whom
+he had a large family. His son, the second Earl Temple, was created
+marquess, and his grandson duke, of Buckingham. Another son was William,
+afterwards Lord Grenville. Another, Thomas Grenville (1755-1846), who
+was, with one interval, a member of parliament from 1780 to 1818, and
+for a few months during 1806 and 1807 president of the board of control
+and first lord of the admiralty, is perhaps more famous as a
+book-collector than as a statesman; he bequeathed his large and valuable
+library to the British Museum.
+
+  _The Grenville Papers, being the Correspondence of Richard Grenville,
+  Earl Temple, K.G., and the Right Hon. George Grenville, their Friends
+  and Contemporaries_, were published at London in 1852, and afford the
+  chief authority for his life. But see also H. Walpole's _Memoirs of
+  the Reign of George II._ (London, 1845); Lord Stanhope's _History of
+  England_ (London, 1858); Lecky's _History of England_ (1885); and E.
+  D. Adams, _The Influence of Grenville on Pitt's Foreign Policy_
+  (Washington, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE (or GREYNVILE), SIR RICHARD (c. 1541-1591), British naval
+commander, was born of an old Cornish family about 1541. His
+grandfather, Sir Richard, had been marshal of Calais in the time of
+Henry VIII., and his father commanded and was lost in the "Mary Rose" in
+1545. At an early age Grenville is supposed to have served in Hungary
+under the emperor Maximilian against the Turks. In the years 1571 and
+1584 he sat in parliament for Cornwall, and in 1583 and 1584 he was
+commissioner of the works at Dover harbour. He appears to have been a
+man of much pride and ambition. Of his bravery there can be no doubt. In
+1585 he commanded the fleet of seven vessels by which the colonists sent
+out by his cousin, Sir Walter Raleigh, were carried to Roanoke Island in
+the present North Carolina. Grenville himself soon returned with the
+fleet to England, capturing a Spanish vessel on his way, but in 1586 he
+carried provisions to Roanoke, and finding the colony deserted, left a
+few men to maintain possession. He then held an important post in charge
+of the defences of the western counties of England. When a squadron was
+despatched in 1591, under Lord Thomas Howard, to intercept the
+homeward-bound treasure-fleet of Spain, Grenville was appointed as
+second in command on board the "Revenge," a ship of 500 tons which had
+been commanded by Drake against the Armada in 1588. At the end of August
+Howard with 16 ships lay at anchor to the north of Flores in the Azores.
+On the last day of the month he received news from a pinnace, sent by
+the earl of Cumberland, who was then off the Portugal coast, that a
+Spanish fleet of 53 vessels was then bearing up to the Azores to meet
+the treasure-ships. Not being in a position to fight a fleet more than
+three times the size of his own, Howard gave orders to weigh anchor and
+stand out to sea. But, either from some misunderstanding of the order,
+or from some idea of Grenville's that the Spanish vessels rapidly
+approaching were the ships for which they had been waiting, the
+"Revenge" was delayed and cut off from her consorts by the Spaniards.
+Grenville resolved to try to break through the middle of the Spanish
+line. His ship was becalmed under the lee of a huge galleon, and after a
+hand-to-hand fight lasting through fifteen hours against fifteen Spanish
+ships and a force of five thousand men, the "Revenge" with her hundred
+and fifty men was captured. Grenville himself was carried on board the
+Spanish flag-ship "San Pablo," and died a few days later. The incident
+is commemorated in Tennyson's ballad of "The Revenge."
+
+The spelling of Sir Richard's name has led to much controversy. Four
+different families, each of which claim to be descended from him, spell
+it Granville, Grenville, Grenfell and Greenfield. The spelling usually
+accepted is Grenville, but his own signature, in a bold clear
+handwriting, among the Tanner MSS. in the Bodleian library at Oxford, is
+Greynvile.
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE (or GRANVILLE), SIR RICHARD (1600-1658), English royalist, was
+the third son of Sir Bernard Grenville (1559-1636), and a grandson of
+the famous seaman, Sir Richard Grenville. Having served in France,
+Germany and the Netherlands, Grenville gained the favour of the duke of
+Buckingham, took part in the expeditions to Cadiz, to the island of Rhe
+and to La Rochelle, was knighted, and in 1628 was chosen member of
+parliament for Fowey. Having married Mary Fitz (1596-1671), widow of Sir
+Charles Howard (d. 1622) and a lady of fortune, Grenville was made a
+baronet in 1630; his violent temper, however, made the marriage an
+unhappy one, and he was ruined and imprisoned as the result of two
+lawsuits, one with his wife, and the other with her kinsman, the earl of
+Suffolk. In 1633 he escaped from prison and went to Germany, returning
+to England six years later to join the army which Charles I. was
+collecting to march against the Scots. Early in 1641, just after the
+outbreak of the Irish rebellion, Sir Richard led some troops to Ireland,
+where he won some fame and became governor of Trim; then returning to
+England in 1643 he was arrested at Liverpool by an officer of the
+parliament, but was soon released and sent to join the parliamentary
+army. Having, however, secured men and money, he hurried to Charles I.
+at Oxford and was despatched to take part in the siege of Plymouth,
+quickly becoming the leader of the forces engaged in this enterprise.
+Compelled to raise the siege he retired into Cornwall, where he helped
+to resist the advancing Parliamentarians; but he quickly showed signs of
+insubordination, and, whilst sharing in the siege of Taunton, he was
+wounded and obliged to resign his command. About this time loud
+complaints were brought against Grenville. He had behaved, it was said,
+in a very arbitrary fashion; he had hanged some men and imprisoned
+others; he had extorted money and had used the contributions towards the
+cost of the war for his own ends. Many of these charges were undoubtedly
+true, but upon his recovery the councillors of the prince of Wales gave
+him a position under Lord Goring, whom, however, he refused to obey.
+Equally recalcitrant was his attitude towards Goring's successor, Sir
+Ralph Hopton, and in January 1646 he was arrested. But he was soon
+released; he went to France and Italy, and after visiting England in
+disguise passed some time in Holland. He was excepted by parliament from
+pardon in 1648, and after the king's execution he was with Charles II.
+in France and elsewhere until some unfounded accusation which he brought
+against Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, led to his removal
+from court. He died in 1658, and was buried at Ghent. In 1644, when
+Grenville deserted the parliamentary party, a proclamation was put out
+against him; in this there were attached to his name several offensive
+epithets, among them being _skellum_, a word probably derived from the
+German _Schelm_, a scoundrel. Hence he is often called "skellum
+Grenville."
+
+  Grenville wrote an account of affairs in the west of England, which
+  was printed in T. Carte's _Original Letters_ (1739). To this partisan
+  account Clarendon drew up an answer, the bulk of which he afterwards
+  incorporated in his _History_. In 1654 Grenville wrote his _Single
+  defence against all aspersions of all malignant persons_. This is
+  printed in the _Works_ of George Granville, Lord Lansdowne (London,
+  1736), where Lansdowne's _Vindication_ of his kinsman, Sir Richard,
+  against Clarendon's charges is also found. See also Clarendon,
+  _History of the Rebellion_, edited by W. D. Macray (Oxford, 1888); and
+  R. Granville, _The King's General in the West_ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE, BARON (1759-1834), English
+statesman, youngest son of George Grenville, was born on the 25th of
+October 1759. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining
+the chancellor's prize for Latin verse in 1779. In February 1782
+Grenville was returned to parliament as member for the borough of
+Buckingham, and in the following September he became secretary to the
+lord lieutenant of Ireland, who at this time was his brother, Earl
+Temple, afterwards marquess of Buckingham. He left office in June 1783,
+but in the following December he became paymaster-general of the forces
+under his cousin, William Pitt, and in 1786 vice-president of the
+committee of trade. In 1787 he was sent on an important mission to the
+Hague and Versailles with reference to the affairs of Holland. In
+January 1789 he was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, but he
+vacated the chair in the same year on being appointed secretary of state
+for the home department; about the same time he resigned his other
+offices, but he became president of the board of control, and in
+November 1790 was created a peer as Baron Grenville. In the House of
+Lords he was very active in directing the business of the government,
+and in 1791 he was transferred to the foreign office, retaining his post
+at the board of control until 1793. He was doubtless regarded by Pitt as
+the man best fitted to carry out his policy with reference to France,
+but in the succeeding years he and his chief were frequently at variance
+on important questions of foreign policy. In spite of his multifarious
+duties at the foreign office Grenville continued to take a lively
+interest in domestic matters, which he showed by introducing various
+bills into the House of Lords. In February 1801 he resigned office with
+Pitt because George III. would not consent to the introduction of any
+measure of Roman Catholic relief, and in opposition he gradually
+separated himself from his former leader. When Pitt returned to power in
+1804 Grenville refused to join the ministry unless his political ally,
+Fox, was also admitted thereto; this was impossible and he remained out
+of office until February 1806, when just after Pitt's death he became
+the nominal head of a coalition government. This ministry was very
+unfortunate in its conduct of foreign affairs, but it deserves to be
+remembered with honour on account of the act passed in 1807 for the
+abolition of the slave trade. Its influence, however, was weakened by
+the death of Fox, and in consequence of a minute drawn up by Grenville
+and some of his colleagues the king demanded from his ministers an
+assurance that in future they would not urge upon him any measures for
+the relief of Roman Catholics. They refused to give this assurance and
+in March 1807 they resigned. Grenville's attitude in this matter was
+somewhat aggressive; his colleagues were not unanimous in supporting
+him, and Sheridan, one of them, said "he had known many men knock their
+heads against a wall, but he had never before heard of any man who
+collected the bricks and built the very wall with an intention to knock
+out his own brains against it."
+
+Lord Grenville never held office again, although he was requested to do
+so on several occasions. He continued, however, to take part in public
+life, being one of the chief supporters of Roman Catholic emancipation,
+and during the remaining years of his active political career, which
+ended in 1823, he generally voted with the Whigs, although in 1815 he
+separated himself from his colleague, Charles Grey, and supported the
+warlike policy of Lord Liverpool. In 1819, when the marquess of
+Lansdowne brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of
+the distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville
+delivered an alarmist speech advocating repressive measures. His
+concluding years were spent at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire, where he died
+on the 12th of January 1834. His wife, whom he married in 1792, was Anne
+(1772-1864), daughter of Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford, but he had no
+issue and his title became extinct. In 1809 he was elected chancellor of
+Oxford university.
+
+Though Grenville's talents were not of the highest order his
+straightforwardness and industry, together with his knowledge of
+politics and the moderation of his opinions, secured for him
+considerable political influence. He may be enrolled among the band of
+English statesmen who have distinguished themselves in literature. He
+edited Lord Chatham's letters to his nephew, Thomas Pitt, afterwards
+Lord Camelford (London, 1804, and other editions); he wrote a small
+volume, _Nugae Metricae_ (1824), being translations into Latin from
+English, Greek and Italian, and an _Essay on the Supposed Advantages of
+a Sinking Fund_ (1828).
+
+  The Dropmore MSS. contain much of Grenville's correspondence, and on
+  this the Historical Manuscripts Commission has published a report.
+
+
+
+
+GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS (1519-1579), London merchant, the founder of the
+Royal Exchange and of Gresham College, London, was descended from an old
+Norfolk family; he was the only son of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading
+London merchant, who for some time held the office of lord mayor, and
+for his services as agent of Henry VIII. in negotiating loans with
+foreign merchants received the honour of knighthood. Though his father
+intended him to follow his own profession, he nevertheless sent him for
+some time to Caius College, Cambridge, but there is no information as to
+the duration of his residence. It is uncertain also whether it was
+before or after this that he was apprenticed to his uncle Sir John
+Gresham, who was also a merchant, but we have his own testimony that he
+served an apprenticeship of eight years. In 1543, at the age of
+twenty-four, he was admitted a member of the Mercers' Company, and in
+the same year he went to the Low Countries, where, either on his own
+account or on that of his father or uncle, he both carried on business
+as a merchant and acted in various matters as an agent for Henry VIII.
+In 1544 he married the widow of William Read, a London merchant, but he
+still continued to reside principally in the Low Countries, having his
+headquarters at Antwerp. When in 1551 the mismanagement of Sir William
+Dansell, "king's merchant" in the Low Countries, had brought the English
+government into great financial embarrassment, Gresham was called in to
+give his advice, and chosen to carry out his own proposals. Their
+leading feature was the adoption of various methods--highly ingenious,
+but quite arbitrary and unfair--for raising the value of the pound
+sterling on the "bourse" of Antwerp, and it was so successful that in a
+few years nearly all King Edward's debts were discharged. The advice of
+Gresham was likewise sought by the government in all their money
+difficulties, and he was also frequently employed in various diplomatic
+missions. He had no stated salary, but in reward of his services
+received from Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which
+at that time was ultimately about L400 a year. On the accession of Mary
+he was for a short time in disfavour, and was displaced in his post by
+Alderman William Dauntsey. But Dauntsey's financial operations were not
+very successful and Gresham was soon reinstated; and as he professed his
+zealous desire to serve the queen, and manifested great adroitness both
+in negotiating loans and in smuggling money, arms and foreign goods, not
+only were his services retained throughout her reign, but besides his
+salary of twenty shillings _per diem_ he received grants of church lands
+to the yearly value of L200. Under Queen Elizabeth, besides continuing
+in his post as financial agent of the crown, he acted temporarily as
+ambassador at the court of the duchess of Parma, being knighted in 1559
+previous to his departure. By the outbreak of the war in the Low
+Countries he was compelled to leave Antwerp on the 19th of March 1567;
+but, though he spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued
+his business as merchant and financial agent of the government in much
+the same way as formerly. Elizabeth also found him useful in a great
+variety of other ways, among which was that of acting as jailer, to Lady
+Mary Grey, who, as a punishment for marrying Thomas Keys the sergeant
+porter, remained a prisoner in his house from June 1569 to the end of
+1572. In 1565 Gresham made a proposal to the court of aldermen of London
+to build at his own expense a bourse or exchange, on condition that they
+purchased for this purpose a piece of suitable ground. In this proposal
+he seems to have had an eye to his own interest as well as to the
+general good of the merchants, for by a yearly rental of L700 obtained
+for the shops in the upper part of the building he received a sufficient
+return for his trouble and expense. Gresham died suddenly, apparently of
+apoplexy, on the 21st of November 1579. His only son predeceased him,
+and his illegitimate daughter Anne he married to Sir Nathaniel Bacon,
+brother of the great Lord Bacon. With the exception of a number of small
+sums bequeathed to the support of various charities, the bulk of his
+property, consisting of estates in various parts of England of the
+annual value of more than L2300, was bequeathed to his widow and her
+heirs with the stipulation that after her decease his residence in
+Bishopsgate Street, as well as the rents arising from the Royal
+Exchange, should be vested in the hands of the corporation of London and
+the Mercers' Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which
+seven professors should read lectures--one each day of the week--on
+astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music. The
+lectures were begun in 1597, and were delivered in the original building
+until 1768, when, on the ground that the trustees were losers by the
+gift, it was made over to the crown for a yearly rent of L500, and
+converted into an excise office. From that time a room in the Royal
+Exchange was used for the lectures until in 1843 the present building
+was erected at a cost of L7000.
+
+  A notice of Gresham is contained in Fuller's _Worthies_ and Ward's
+  _Gresham Professors_; but the fullest account of him, as well as of
+  the history of the Exchange and Gresham College is that by J. M.
+  Burgon in his _Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham_ (2 vols., 1839).
+  See also a _Brief Memoir of Sir Thomas Gresham_ (1833); and _The Life
+  of Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON (1832-1895), American statesman and jurist, was
+born near Lanesville, Harrison county, Indiana, on the 17th of March
+1832. He spent two years in an academy at Corydon, Indiana, and one year
+at the Indiana State University at Bloomington, then studied law, and in
+1854 was admitted to the bar. He was active as a campaign speaker for
+the Republican ticket in 1856, and in 1860 was elected to the State
+House of Representatives as a Republican in a strong Democratic
+district. In the House, as chairman of the committee on military
+affairs, he did much to prepare the Indiana troops for service in the
+Federal army; in 1861 he became colonel of the 53rd Indiana Volunteer
+Infantry, and subsequently took part in Grant's Tennessee campaign of
+1862, and in the operations against Corinth and Vicksburg, where he
+commanded a brigade. In August 1863 he was appointed brigadier-general
+of volunteers, and was placed in command of the Federal forces at
+Natchez. In 1864 he commanded a division of the 17th Army Corps in
+Sherman's Atlanta campaign, and before Atlanta, on the 20th of July, he
+received a wound which forced him to retire from active service, and
+left him lame for life. In 1865 he was brevetted major-general of
+volunteers. After the war he practised law at New Albany, Indiana, and
+in 1869 was appointed by President Grant United States District Judge
+for Indiana. In April 1883 he succeeded Timothy O. Howe (1816-1883) as
+postmaster-general in President Arthur's cabinet, taking an active part
+in the suppression of the Louisiana Lottery, and in September 1884
+succeeded Charles J. Folger as secretary of the treasury. In the
+following month he resigned to accept an appointment as United States
+Judge for the Seventh Judicial Circuit. Gresham was a candidate for the
+Republican presidential nomination in 1884 and 1888, in the latter year
+leading for some time in the balloting. Gradually, however, he grew out
+of sympathy with the Republican leaders and policy, and in 1892
+advocated the election of the Democratic candidate, Grover Cleveland,
+for the presidency. From the 7th of March 1893 until his death at
+Washington on the 28th of May 1895, he was secretary of state in
+President Cleveland's cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+GRESHAM'S LAW, in economics, the name suggested in 1857 by H. D. Macleod
+for the principle of currency which may be briefly summarized--"bad
+money drives out good." Macleod gave it this name, which has been
+universally adopted, under the impression that the principle was first
+explained by Sir Thomas Gresham in 1558. In reality it had been well set
+forth by earlier economic writers, notably Oresme and Copernicus.
+Macleod states the law in these terms: the worst form of currency in
+circulation regulates the value of the whole currency and drives all
+other forms of currency out of circulation. Gresham's law applies where
+there is under-weight or debased coin in circulation with full-weight
+coin of the same metal; where there are two metals in circulation, and
+one is undervalued as compared with the other, and where inconvertible
+paper money is put into circulation side by side with a metallic
+currency. See further BIMETALLISM; MONEY.
+
+
+
+
+GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1709-1777), French poet and dramatist, was
+born at Amiens on the 29th of August 1709. His poem _Vert Vert_ is his
+main title to fame. He spent, however, the last twenty-five years of his
+life in regretting the frivolity which enabled him to produce this most
+charming of poems. He was brought up by the Jesuits of Amiens. He was
+accepted as a novice at the age of sixteen, and sent to pursue his
+studies at the College Louis le Grand in Paris. After completing his
+course he was appointed, being then under twenty years of age, to a post
+as assistant master in a college at Rouen. He published _Vert Vert_ at
+Rouen in 1734. It is a story, in itself exceedingly humorous, showing
+how a parrot, the delight of a convent, whose talk was all of prayers
+and pious ejaculations, was conveyed to another convent as a visitor to
+please the nuns. On the way he falls among bad companions, forgets his
+convent language, and shocks the sisters on arrival by profane swearing.
+He is sent back in disgrace, punished by solitude and plain bread,
+presently repents, reforms and is killed by kindness. The story,
+however, is nothing. The treatment of the subject, the atmosphere which
+surrounds it, the delicacy in which the little prattling ways of the
+nuns, their jealousies, their tiny trifles, are presented, takes the
+reader entirely by surprise. The poem stands absolutely unrivalled, even
+among French _contes en vers_.
+
+Gresset found himself famous. He left Rouen, went up to Paris, where he
+found refuge in the same garret which had sheltered him when a boy at
+the College Louis le Grand, and there wrote his second poem, _La
+Chartreuse_. It was followed by the _Careme impromptu_, the _Lutrin
+vivant_ and _Les Ombres_. Then trouble came upon him; complaints were
+made to the fathers of the alleged licentiousness of his verses, the
+real cause of complaint being the ridicule which _Vert Vert_ seemed to
+throw upon the whole race of nuns and the anti-clerical tendency of the
+other poems. An example, it was urged, must be made; Gresset was
+expelled the order. Men of robust mind would have been glad to get rid
+of such a yoke. Gresset, who had never been taught to stand alone, went
+forth weeping. He went to Paris in 1740 and there produced _Edouard
+III_, a tragedy (1740) and _Sidnei_ (1745), a comedy. These were
+followed by _Le Mechant_ which still keeps the stage, and is qualified
+by Brunetiere as the best verse comedy of the French 18th century
+theatre, not excepting even the _Metromanie_ of Alexis Piron. Gresset
+was admitted to the Academy in 1748. And then, still young, he retired
+to Amiens, where his relapse from the discipline of the church became
+the subject of the deepest remorse. He died at Amiens on the 16th of
+June 1777.
+
+  The best edition of his poems is A. A. Renouard's (1811). See Jules
+  Wogue, _J. B. L. Gresset_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+GRETNA GREEN, or GRAITNEY GREEN, a village in the south-east of
+Dumfriesshire, Scotland, about 8 m. E. of Annan, 9 m. N.N.W. of
+Carlisle, and 3/4 m. from the river Sark, here the dividing-line between
+England and Scotland, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western
+railway. The Caledonian and North British railways have a station at
+Gretna on the English side of the Border. As the nearest village on the
+Scottish side, Gretna Green was notorious as the resort of eloping
+couples, who had failed to obtain the consent of parents or guardians to
+their union. Up till 1754, when Lord Hardwicke's act abolishing
+clandestine marriages came into force, the ceremony had commonly been
+performed in the Fleet prison in London. After that date runaway couples
+were compelled to seek the hospitality of a country where it sufficed
+for them to declare their wish to marry in the presence of witnesses. At
+Gretna Green the ceremony was usually performed by the blacksmith, but
+the toll-keeper, ferryman or in fact any person might officiate, and the
+toll-house, the inn, or, after 1826, Gretna Hall was the scene of many
+such weddings, the fees varying from half a guinea to a sum as large as
+impudence could extort or extravagance bestow. As many as two hundred
+couples were married at the toll-house in a year. The romantic traffic
+was practically, though not necessarily, put an end to in 1856, when the
+law required one of the contracting parties to reside in Scotland three
+weeks previous to the event.
+
+
+
+
+GRETRY, ANDRE ERNEST MODESTE (1741-1813), French composer, was born at
+Liege on the 8th of February 1741, his father being a poor musician. He
+was a choir boy at the church of St Denis. In 1753 he became a pupil of
+Leclerc and later of Renekin and Moreau. But of greater importance was
+the practical tuition he received by attending the performance of an
+Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Galuppi, Pergolesi
+and other masters; and the desire of completing his own studies in Italy
+was the immediate result. To find the necessary means he composed in
+1759 a mass which he dedicated to the canons of the Liege cathedral, and
+it was at the cost of Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in the March of
+1759. In Rome he went to the College de Liege. Here Gretry resided for
+five years, studiously employed in completing his musical education
+under Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counterpoint was, however,
+according to his own confession, at all times very moderate. His first
+great success was achieved by _La Vendemmiatrice_, an Italian intermezzo
+or operetta, composed for the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with
+universal applause. It is said that the study of the score of one of
+Monsigny's operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy in
+Rome, decided Gretry to devote himself to French comic opera. On New
+Year's day 1767 he accordingly left Rome, and after a short stay at
+Geneva (where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, and produced another
+operetta) went to Paris. There for two years he had to contend with the
+difficulties incident to poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not
+without friends, and by the intercession of Count Creutz, the Swedish
+ambassador, Gretry obtained a libretto from Marmontel, which he set to
+music in less than six weeks, and which, on its performance in August
+1768, met with unparalleled success. The name of the opera was _Le
+Huron_. Two others, _Lucile_ and _Le Tableau parlant_, soon followed,
+and thenceforth Gretry's position as the leading composer of comic opera
+was safely established. Altogether he composed some fifty operas. His
+masterpieces are _Zemire et Azor_ and _Richard Coeur de Lion_,--the
+first produced in 1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect
+way became connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the
+celebrated romance, _O Richard, o mon roi, l'univers t'abandonne_, which
+was sung at the banquet--"fatal as that of Thyestes," remarks
+Carlyle--given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles
+garrison on October 3, 1789. The _Marseillaise_ not long afterwards
+became the reply of the people to the expression of loyalty borrowed
+from Gretry's opera. The composer himself was not uninfluenced by the
+great events he witnessed, and the titles of some of his operas, such as
+_La Rosiere republicaine_ and _La Fete de la raison_, sufficiently
+indicate the epoch to which they belong; but they are mere _pieces de
+circonstance_, and the republican enthusiasm displayed is not genuine.
+Little more successful was Gretry in his dealings with classical
+subjects. His genuine power lay in the delineation of character and in
+the expression of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure
+of his concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his
+instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his works
+had to be rewritten by other composers, in order to make them acceptable
+to modern audiences. During the revolution Gretry lost much of his
+property, but the successive governments of France vied in favouring the
+composer, regardless of political differences. From the old court he
+received distinctions and rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an
+inspector of the conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the
+legion of honour and a pension. Gretry died on the 24th of September
+1813, at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house of Rousseau.
+Fifteen years after his death Gretry's heart was transferred to his
+birthplace, permission having been obtained after a tedious lawsuit. In
+1842 a colossal bronze statue of the composer was set up at Liege.
+
+  See Michael Brenet, _Vie de Gretry_ (Paris, 1884); Joach. le Breton,
+  _Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de Gretry_ (Paris,
+  1814); A. Gretry (his nephew), _Gretry en famille_ (Paris, 1814);
+  Felix van Hulst, _Gretry_ (Liege, 1842); L. D. S. _Notice biographique
+  sur Gretry_ (Bruxelles, 1859).
+
+
+
+
+GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1725-1805), French painter, was born at Tournus,
+in Burgundy, on the 21st of August 1725, and is generally said to have
+formed his own talent; this is, however, true only in the most limited
+sense, for at an early age his inclinations, though thwarted by his
+father, were encouraged by a Lyonnese artist named Grandon, or Grondom,
+who enjoyed during his lifetime considerable reputation as a
+portrait-painter. Grandon not only persuaded the father of Greuze to
+give way to his son's wishes, and permit the lad to accompany him as his
+pupil to Lyons, but, when at a later date he himself left Lyons for
+Paris--where his son-in-law Gretry the celebrated composer enjoyed the
+height of favour--Grandon carried young Greuze with him. Settled in
+Paris, Greuze worked from the living model in the school of the Royal
+Academy, but did not attract the attention of his teachers; and when he
+produced his first picture, "Le Pere de famille expliquant la Bible a
+ses enfants," considerable doubt was felt and shown as to his share in
+its production. By other and more remarkable works of the same class
+Greuze soon established his claims beyond contest, and won for himself
+the notice and support of the well-known connoisseur La Live de Jully,
+the brother-in-law of Madame d'Epinay. In 1755 Greuze exhibited his
+"Aveugle trompe," upon which, presented by Pigalle the sculptor, he was
+immediately _agree_ by the Academy. Towards the close of the same year
+he left France for Italy, in company with the Abbe Louis Gougenot, who
+had deserted from the magistrature--although he had obtained the post of
+"conseillier au Chatelet"--in order to take the "petit collet." Gougenot
+had some acquaintance with the arts, and was highly valued by the
+Academicians, who, during his journey with Greuze, elected him an
+honorary member of their body on account of his studies in mythology and
+allegory; his acquirements in these respects are said to have been
+largely utilized by them, but to Greuze they were of doubtful advantage,
+and he lost rather than gained by this visit to Italy in Gougenot's
+company. He had undertaken it probably in order to silence those who
+taxed him with ignorance of "great models of style," but the Italian
+subjects which formed the entirety of his contributions to the Salon of
+1757 showed that he had been put on a false track, and he speedily
+returned to the source of his first inspiration. In 1759, 1761
+("L'Accordee de village"--Louvre), and 1763 Greuze exhibited with
+ever-increasing success; in 1765 he reached the zenith of his powers and
+reputation. In that year he was represented with no less than thirteen
+works, amongst which may be cited "La Jeune Fille qui pleure son oiseau
+mort," "La Bonne Mere," "Le Mauvais fils puni" (Louvre) and "La
+Malediction paternelle" (Louvre). The Academy took occasion to press
+Greuze for his diploma picture, the execution of which had been long
+delayed, and forbade him to exhibit on their walls until he had complied
+with their regulations. "J'ai vu la lettre," says Diderot, "qui est un
+modele d'honnetete et d'estime; j'ai vu la reponse de Greuze, qui est un
+modele de vanite et d'impertinence: il fallait appuyer cela d'un
+chef-d'oeuvre, et c'est ce que Greuze n'a pas fait." Greuze wished to be
+received as a historical painter, and produced a work which he intended
+to vindicate his right to despise his qualifications as a _peintre de
+genre_. This unfortunate canvas--"Severe et Caracalla" (Louvre)--was
+exhibited in 1769 side by side with Greuze's portrait of Jeaurat
+(Louvre) and his admirable "Petite Fille au chien noir." The
+Academicians received their new member with all due honours, but at the
+close of the ceremonies the Director addressed Greuze in these
+words--"Monsieur, l'Academie vous a recu, mais c'est comme peintre de
+genre; elle a eu egard a vos anciennes productions, qui sont
+excellentes, et elle a ferme les yeux sur celle-ci, qui n'est digne ni
+d'elle ni de vous." Greuze, greatly incensed, quarrelled with his
+_confreres_, and ceased to exhibit until, in 1804, the Revolution had
+thrown open the doors of the Academy to all the world. In the following
+year, on the 4th of March 1805, he died in the Louvre in great poverty.
+He had been in receipt of considerable wealth, which he had dissipated
+by extravagance and bad management, so that during his closing years he
+was forced even to solicit commissions which his enfeebled powers no
+longer enabled him to carry out with success. The brilliant reputation
+which Greuze acquired seems to have been due, not to his acquirements as
+a painter--for his practice is evidently that current in his own
+day--but to the character of the subjects which he treated. That return
+to nature which inspired Rousseau's attacks upon an artificial
+civilization demanded expression in art. Diderot, in _Le Fils naturel et
+le pere de famille_, tried to turn the vein of domestic drama to account
+on the stage; that which he tried and failed to do Greuze, in painting,
+achieved with extraordinary success, although his works, like the plays
+of Diderot, were affected by that very artificiality against which they
+protested. The touch of melodramatic exaggeration, however, which runs
+through them finds an apology in the firm and brilliant play of line, in
+the freshness and vigour of the flesh tints, in the enticing softness of
+expression (often obtained by almost an abuse of _meplats_), by the
+alluring air of health and youth, by the sensuous attractions, in short,
+with which Greuze invests his lessons of bourgeois morality. As Diderot
+said of "La Bonne Mere," "ca preche la population;" and a certain
+piquancy of contrast is the result which never fails to obtain
+admirers. "La Jeune Fille a l'agneau" fetched, indeed, at the Pourtales
+sale in 1865, no less than 1,000,200 francs. One of Greuze's pupils,
+Madame Le Doux, imitated with success the manner of her master; his
+daughter and granddaughter, Madame de Valory, also inherited some
+traditions of his talent. Madame de Valory published in 1813 a
+comedie-vaudeville, _Greuze, ou l'accordee de village_, to which she
+prefixed a notice of her grandfather's life and works, and the _Salons_
+of Diderot also contain, besides many other particulars, the story at
+full length of Greuze's quarrel with the Academy. Four of the most
+distinguished engravers of that date, Massard pere, Flipart, Gaillard
+and Levasseur, were specially entrusted by Greuze with the reproduction
+of his subjects, but there are also excellent prints by other engravers,
+notably by Cars and Le Bas.
+
+  See also Normand, _J. B. Greuze_ (1892).     (E. F. S. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE (1794-1865), English diarist, a
+great-grandson by his father of the 5th earl of Warwick, and son of Lady
+Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the duke of Portland, formerly a leader
+of the Whig party, and first minister of the crown, was born on the 2nd
+of April 1794. Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather's
+house at Bulstrode. He was one of the pages of George III., and was
+educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the university
+early, having been appointed private secretary to Earl Bathurst before
+he was twenty. The interest of the duke of Portland had secured for him
+the secretaryship of the island of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office,
+the duties being performed by a deputy, and the reversion of the
+clerkship of the council. Greville entered upon the discharge of the
+duties of clerk of the council in ordinary in 1821, and continued to
+perform them for nearly forty years. He therefore served under three
+successive sovereigns,--George IV., William IV. and Victoria,--and
+although no political or confidential functions are attached to that
+office, it is one which brings a man into habitual intercourse with the
+chiefs of all the parties in the state. Well-born, well-bred, handsome
+and accomplished, Greville led the easy life of a man of fashion, taking
+an occasional part in the transactions of his day and much consulted in
+the affairs of private life. Until 1855 when he sold his stud he was an
+active member of the turf, and he trained successively with Lord George
+Bentinck, and with the duke of Portland. But the celebrity which now
+attaches to his name is entirely due to the posthumous publication of a
+portion of a Journal or Diary which it was his practice to keep during
+the greater part of his life. These papers were given by him to his
+friend Mr Henry Reeve a short time before his death (which took place on
+the 18th of January 1865), with an injunction that they should be
+published, as far as was feasible, at not too remote a period after the
+writer's death. The journals of the reigns of George IV. and William IV.
+(extending from 1820 to 1837) were accordingly so published in obedience
+to his directions about ten years after that event. Few publications
+have been received with greater interest by the public; five large
+editions were sold in little more than a year, and the demand in America
+was as great as in England. These journals were regarded as a faithful
+record of the impressions made on the mind of a competent observer, at
+the time, by the events he witnessed and the persons with whom he
+associated. Greville did not stoop to collect or record private scandal.
+His object appears to have been to leave behind him some of the
+materials of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would
+be judged. He records not so much public events as the private causes
+which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir-writer has left behind
+him a more valuable contribution to the history of the 19th century.
+Greville published anonymously, in 1845, a volume on the _Past and
+Present Policy of England to Ireland_, in which he advocated the payment
+of the Roman Catholic clergy; and he was also the author of several
+pamphlets on the events of his day.
+
+His brother, HENRY GREVILLE (1801-1872), attache to the British embassy
+in Paris from 1834 to 1844, also kept a diary, of which part was
+published by Viscountess Enfield, _Leaves from the Diary of Henry
+Greville_ (London, 1883-1884).
+
+  See the preface and notes to the _Greville Memoirs_ by Henry Reeve.
+  The memoirs appeared in three sets--one from 1817 to 1837 (London,
+  1875, 3 vols.), and two for the period from 1837 to 1860, three
+  volumes in 1885 and two in 1887. When the first series appeared in
+  1875 some passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as
+  far as possible recalled and passages suppressed.
+
+
+
+
+GREVIN, JACQUES (c. 1539-1570), French dramatist, was born at Clermont
+about 1539. He studied medicine at the university of Paris. He became a
+disciple of Ronsard, and was one of the band of dramatists who sought to
+introduce the classical drama in France. As Sainte-Beuve points out, the
+comedies of Grevin show considerable affinity with the farces and
+_soties_ that preceded them. His first play, _La Maubertine_, was lost,
+and formed the basis of a new comedy, _La Tresoriere_, first performed
+at the college of Beauvais in 1558, though it had been originally
+composed at the desire of Henry II. to celebrate the marriage of Claude,
+duchess of Lorraine. In 1560 followed the tragedy of _Jules Cesar_,
+imitated from the Latin of Muret, and a comedy, _Les Ebahis_, the most
+important but also the most indecent of his works. Grevin was also the
+author of some medical works and of miscellaneous poems, which were
+praised by Ronsard until the friends were separated by religious
+differences. Grevin became in 1561 physician and counsellor to Margaret
+of Savoy, and died at her court in Turin in 1570.
+
+  The _Theatre_ of Jacques Grevin was printed in 1562, and in the
+  _Ancien Theatre francais_, vol. iv. (1855-1856). See L. Pinvert,
+  _Jacques Grevin_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+GREVY, FRANCOIS PAUL JULES (1813-1891). President of the French
+Republic, was born at Mont-sous-Vaudrey in the Jura, on the 15th of
+August 1813. He became an advocate in 1837, and, having steadily
+maintained republican principles under the Orleans monarchy, was elected
+by his native department to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Foreseeing
+that Louis Bonaparte would be elected president by the people, he
+proposed to vest the chief authority in a president of the Council
+elected and removable by the Assembly, or in other words, to suppress
+the Presidency of the Republic. After the _coup d'etat_ this proposition
+gained Grevy a reputation for sagacity, and upon his return to public
+life in 1868 he took a prominent place in the republican party. After
+the fall of the Empire he was chosen president of the Assembly on the
+16th of February 1871, and occupied this position till the 2nd of April
+1876, when he resigned on account of the opposition of the Right, which
+blamed him for having called one of its members to order in the session
+of the previous day. On the 8th of March 1876 he was elected president
+of the Chamber of Deputies, a post which he filled with such efficiency
+that upon the resignation of Marshal MacMahon he seemed to step
+naturally into the Presidency of the Republic (30th January 1879), and
+was elected without opposition by the republican parties (see FRANCE:
+_History_). Quiet, shrewd, attentive to the public interest and his own,
+but without any particular distinction, he would have left an
+unblemished reputation if he had not unfortunately accepted a second
+term (18th December 1885). Shortly afterwards the traffic of his
+son-in-law (Daniel Wilson) in the decorations of the Legion of Honour
+came to light. Grevy was not accused of personal participation in these
+scandals, but he was somewhat obstinate in refusing to realize that he
+was responsible indirectly for the use which his relative had made of
+the Elysee, and it had to be unpleasantly impressed upon him that his
+resignation was inevitable (2nd December 1887). He died at
+Mont-sous-Vaudrey on the 9th of September 1891. He owed both his success
+and his failure to the completeness with which he represented the
+particular type of the thrifty, generally sensible and patriotic, but
+narrow-minded and frequently egoistic _bourgeois_.
+
+  See his _Discours politiques et judiciaires, rapports et messages ...
+  accompagnes de notices historiques et precedes d'une introduction par
+  L. Delabrousse_ (2 vols., 1888).
+
+
+
+
+GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712), English vegetable anatomist and
+physiologist, was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607-1688),
+Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Michael's, Coventry, and was born
+in Warwickshire in 1641. He graduated at Cambridge in 1661, and ten
+years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden, his thesis being
+_Disputatio medico-physica ... de liquore nervoso_. He began
+observations on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in 1670 his essay,
+_The Anatomy of Vegetables begun_, was communicated to the Royal Society
+by Bishop Wilkins, on whose recommendation he was in the following year
+elected a fellow. In 1672, when the essay was published, he settled in
+London, and soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. In 1673
+he published his _Idea of a Phytological History_, which consisted of
+papers he had communicated to the Royal Society in the preceding year,
+and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as secretary of the society. He
+edited the _Philosophical Transactions_ in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he
+published "by request" a descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved
+at Gresham College, with which were printed some papers he had read to
+the Royal Society on the _Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and Guts_. In
+1682 appeared his great work on the _Anatomy of Plants_, which also was
+largely a collection of previous publications. It was divided into four
+books, _Anatomy of Vegetables begun_, _Anatomy of Roots_, _Anatomy of
+Trunks_ and _Anatomy of Leaves, Flowers, Fruits and Seeds_, and was
+illustrated with eighty-two plates, while appended to it were seven
+papers mostly of a chemical character. Among his other publications were
+_Sea-water made Fresh_ (1684), the _Nature and Use of the Salt contained
+in Epsom and such other Waters_ (1697), which was a rendering of his
+_Tractatus de salis ... usu_ (1695), and _Cosmologia sacra_ (1701). He
+died suddenly on the 25th of March 1712. Linnaeus named a genus of trees
+_Grewia_ (nat. ord. Tiliaceae) in his honour.
+
+
+
+
+GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845), English statesman, was the
+eldest surviving son of General Sir Charles Grey, afterwards 1st Earl
+Grey. He was born at his father's residence, Fallodon, near Alnwick, on
+the 13th of March 1764. General Grey (1729-1807), who was a younger son
+of the house of Grey of Howick, one of the most considerable territorial
+families in Northumberland, had already begun a career of active service
+which, like the political career of his son, covered nearly half a
+century. Before the latter was born, General Grey had served on the
+staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven Years' War and had
+been wounded at Minden. While the son was making verses at Eton, the
+father was serving against the revolted colonists in Pennsylvania and
+New Jersey, and while the young member for Northumberland was denouncing
+Pitt's war against the Convention, the veteran soldier was destroying
+the remnant of the French colonial empire by the capture of Martinique
+and Guadeloupe. When Napoleon threatened an invasion, General Grey took
+the command of the southern district, and at the peace of Amiens he was
+rewarded with a peerage, as Baron Grey of Alnwick, being created in 1806
+Earl Grey and Viscount Howick. His elder brother, Sir Henry Grey of
+Howick, the head of the family, had supported the government in
+parliament. But the political career of young Grey, who was
+heir-presumptive to the family estates, took a different complexion.
+
+Young Grey expected to reoccupy the seat which had been his uncle's; and
+his early years were spent in preparation for a parliamentary career. He
+was sent to Eton, and proceeded thence to Cambridge. William Pitt, a
+youth five years older, was then in residence as a master of arts,
+studiously paying court to the Whigs of the university; and at the
+general election of 1780 he came forward as a candidate for the
+academical seat. His name stood last on the poll, but he was brought in
+elsewhere, and his first speech proved him a man of the first mark. The
+unparalleled successes which followed portended grave changes. Pitt's
+elevation to the premiership, his brilliant and hard-fought battle in
+the house, and his complete rout of the Whig party at the general
+election of 1784, when he came in for Cambridge at the head of the poll,
+threatened the great territorial interest with nothing less than
+extinction. It was to this interest that Grey belonged; and hence, when
+at length returned for Northumberland in 1786, he at once came forward
+as a vigorous assailant of the government of Pitt. He was hailed by the
+opposition, and associated with Fox, Burke and Sheridan as a manager in
+the Hastings impeachment. During the nineteen years which remained of
+the career of Fox, he followed the great Whig statesman with absolute
+fidelity, and succeeded him as leader of the party. The shortcomings of
+Fox's statesmanship were inherited by Grey. Both were equally devoid of
+political originality, shunned the severer labours of the politician,
+and instinctively feared any deviation from the traditions of their
+party. Such men cannot save a party in its decadence, and the history of
+Fox and Grey has been aptly termed the history of the decline and fall
+of Whiggism.
+
+The stunning blow of 1784 was the first incident in this history. Its
+full significance was not at once perceived. An opposition, however weak
+in the beginning, generally has a tendency to revive, and Grey's early
+successes in the house helped to revive the Foxites. The European
+situation became favourable to this revival. The struggle in France for
+popular rights, culminating in the great Revolution, was watched by Fox
+with interested sympathy. He affected to regard the domination of Pitt
+as the domination of the crown, and as leading logically to absolutism,
+and saw in that popular sympathy for the French Revolution which
+naturally arose in England an instrument which might be employed to
+overthrow this domination.
+
+But Pitt gathered the fruits of the windfall. The spread of
+"Jacobinism," or "French principles," became the pretext on which the
+stronger half of the opposition went over to the government. Burke led
+the movement in the Commons, the duke of Portland and Lord Fitzwilliam
+in the Lords, and with this second incident in the Whig decline began
+the difficulties of Grey's career. The domination of the premier had
+already stirred the keenest resentment in the younger and more ambitious
+members of the Whig party. Freed from the restraint of the steadier
+politicians under Burke and Portland, the residuum under Fox fell into a
+series of grave mistakes. Of this residuum Grey became the moving
+spirit, for though Fox did not check their activity, he disclaimed the
+responsibility of their policy. Fox had refused to condemn "French
+principles," and denounced the war with France; but he would take no
+part in exciting agitation in England. It was otherwise with the
+restless spirits among whom Grey was found. Enraged by the attitude of
+Pitt, which was grounded on the support of the constituencies as they
+then stood, the residuum plotted an ill-timed agitation for
+parliamentary reform.
+
+The demand for parliamentary reform was as yet in a rudimentary stage.
+Forty years later it had become the demand of an unenfranchised nation,
+disabused by a sudden spread of political and economical knowledge. It
+was as yet but the occasional instrument of the scheming politician.
+Chatham had employed the cry in this sense. The Middlesex agitators had
+done the same; even the premier of the time, after his accession to
+power, had sought to strengthen his hands in the same way. But Pitt's
+hands were now strengthened abundantly; whereas the opposition had
+nothing to lose and much to gain by such a measure. The cry for reform
+thus became their natural expedient. Powerless to carry reform in the
+House, they sought to overawe parliament by external agitation, and
+formed the Society of the Friends of the People, destined to unite the
+forces of all the "patriotic" societies which already existed in the
+country, and to pour their violence irresistibly on a terrified
+parliament. Grey and his friends were enrolled in this portentous
+association, and presented in parliament its menacing petitions. Such
+petitions, which were in fact violent impeachments of parliament itself,
+proceeding from voluntary associations having no corporate existence,
+had been hitherto unknown in the English parliament. They had been well
+known in the French assembly. They had heralded and furthered the
+victory of the Jacobins, the dissolution of the constitution, the
+calling of the Convention and the fall of the monarchy.
+
+The Society of the Friends of the People was originally an after-dinner
+folly, extemporized at the house of a man who afterwards gained an
+earldom by denouncing it as seditious. Fox discountenanced it, though he
+did not directly condemn it; but Grey was overborne by the fierce
+Jacobinism of Lauderdale, and avowed himself the parliamentary
+mouthpiece of this dangerous agitation. But Pitt, strong in his
+position, cut the ground from under Grey's feet by suppressing the
+agitation with a strong hand. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act,
+the Gagging Acts and the state prosecutions form a painful historical
+episode. But the discredit belongs as much to Grey and Lauderdale as to
+Pitt. Grey always spoke regretfully of his share in the movement. "One
+word from Fox," he said, "would have kept me out of all the mess of the
+Friends of the People. But he never spoke it."
+
+It was Grey who moved the impeachment of Pitt, and he next promoted the
+equally foolish "Secession." Since the parliament did not properly
+represent the nation, and refused to reform itself or to impeach the
+minister, nothing remained but to disown it; and the opposition
+announced their intention of "seceding," or systematically absenting
+themselves from their places in parliament. This futile movement was
+originated by Grey, Lauderdale and the duke of Bedford. It obtained a
+somewhat wider support. It suited the languor of some dispirited
+politicians like Fox, and the avarice of some lawyers in large practice
+like Erskine; but sensible politicians at once condemned it. It directly
+ignored parliamentary government, and amounted to nothing but a pettish
+threat of revolution. "Secession," said Lord Lansdowne, with
+characteristic shrewdness, "either means rebellion, or it is nonsense."
+Pitt easily dashed this feeble weapon from the hands of his opponents.
+He roused jealousy in the absent by praising the parts and the
+patriotism of the rest, and thus gradually brought them back. Grey
+himself reappeared to protest against the union with Ireland.
+
+When Pitt died in 1806 nothing could prevent the reunited opposition
+from coming into power, and thus the Broad-bottom ministry was formed
+under Fox. On his death Grenville became premier, and Grey, now Lord
+Howick, foreign secretary, and leader of the House of Commons. Disunion,
+always the bane of English Liberalism, lurked in the coalition, and the
+Foxites and Grenvillites were only ostensibly at one. Grey opposed the
+war policy of Grenville; and this policy was not more successful than it
+had been in the hands of Pitt. And the change from the leadership of Fox
+to that of Grenville was only too perceptible. Both in court and country
+Grenville affected the role of Pitt, and assumed a stiff and peremptory
+attitude which ill became him. An ill-advised dissolution weakened their
+majority; they lost ground by the "delicate investigation" into the
+conduct of the princess of Wales; Lord Henry Petty's budget was too
+specious to command confidence; and the king, fully aware of their weak
+situation, resolved to get rid of them. When they proposed to concede a
+portion of the Catholic claims, George refused and demanded of them an
+undertaking never to propose such a measure again. This was refused, and
+the Grenville-Grey cabinet retired in March 1807. In the same year
+Grey's father died, and Grey went to the Upper House. Opposition united
+Grey and Grenville for a time, but the parties finally split on the old
+war question. When Napoleon returned from Elba in 1815, and once more
+seized the government of France, the same question arose which had
+arisen in 1792, Was England to go to war for the restoration of the
+Bourbons? Grenville followed the traditions of Pitt, and supported the
+ministry in at once renewing hostilities. Grey followed those of Fox,
+and maintained the right of France to choose her own governors, and the
+impossibility of checking the reaction in the emperor's favour. The
+victory of Waterloo put an end to the dispute, but the disruption became
+permanent. The termination of the war, and the cessation of all action
+in common, reduced the power of the opposition to nothing. Grenville
+retired from public life, and his adherents reinforced the ministry.
+Little remained for the Whigs to do. But the persecution of the queen
+afforded an opportunity of showing that the ministry were not
+omnipotent; and the part taken on that occasion by Grey won him at once
+the increased respect of the nation and the undying aversion of George
+IV. It sealed the exclusion of himself and his few friends from office
+during the king's life; and when in 1827 Grey came forth to denounce the
+ministry of Canning, he declared that he stood alone in the political
+world. His words were soon justified, for when Lord Goderich resigned,
+the remnant which had hitherto supported Grey, hastened to support the
+ministry of the duke of Wellington.
+
+We now reach the principal episode in Grey's career. In 1827 he seemed
+to stand forth the solitary and powerless relic of an extinct party. In
+1832 we find that party restored to its old numbers and activity,
+supreme in parliament, popular in the nation, and Lord Grey at its head.
+The duke of Wellington's foolish declaration against parliamentary
+reform, made in a season of great popular excitement, suddenly deprived
+him of the confidence of the country, and a coalition of the Whigs and
+Canningites became inevitable. The Whigs had in 1827 supported the
+Canningites; the latter now supported the Whigs, of whom Grey remained
+the traditional head. George IV. was dead, and no obstacle existed to
+Grey's elevation. Grey was sent for by William IV. in November 1830, and
+formed a coalition cabinet, pledged to carry on the work in which the
+duke of Wellington had faltered. But Grey himself was the mere
+instrument of the times. An old-fashioned Whig, he had little personal
+sympathy with the popular cause, though he had sometimes indicated a
+certain measure of reform as necessary. When he took office, he guessed
+neither the extent to which the Reform Act would go, nor the means by
+which it would be carried. That he procured for the country a measure of
+constitutional reform for which he had agitated in his youth was little
+more than a coincidence. In his youth he had put himself at the head of
+a frantic agitation against parliament, because he there found himself
+powerless. In his old age the case was reversed. Suddenly raised to a
+position of authority in the country, he boldly stood between
+parliament, as then constituted, and the formidable agitation which now
+threatened it and by a forced reform saved it from revolution. In his
+youth he had assailed Pitt's administration because Pitt's
+administration threatened with extinction the political monopoly of that
+landed interest to which he belonged. In his old age, on the contrary,
+unable to check the progress of the wave, he swam with it, and headed
+the movement which compelled that landed interest to surrender its
+monopoly.
+
+The second reading of the first Reform Bill was carried in the Commons
+by a majority of one. This was equivalent to a defeat, and further
+failures precipitated a dissolution. The confidence which the bold
+action of the ministry had won was soon plainly proved, for the second
+reading was carried in the new parliament by a majority of 136. When the
+bill had at length passed the Commons after months of debate, it was
+Grey's task to introduce it to the Lords. It was rejected by a majority
+of 41. The safety of the country now depended on the prudence and
+courage of the ministry. The resignation of Grey and his colleagues was
+dreaded even by the opposition, and they remained in office with the
+intention of introducing a third Reform Bill in the next session. The
+last months of 1831 were the beginning of a political crisis such as
+England had not seen since 1688. The two extreme parties, the
+Ultra-Radicals and the Ultra-Tories, were ready for civil war. Between
+them stood the ministry and the majority of intelligent peace-loving
+Englishmen; and their course of action was soon decided. The bill must
+be passed, and there were but two ways of passing it. One was to declare
+the consent of the House of Lords unnecessary to the measure, the other
+to create, if necessary, new peers in sufficient number to outvote the
+opposition. These two expedients did not in reality differ. To swamp the
+house in the way proposed would have been to destroy it. The question
+whether the ministry should demand the king's consent to such a
+creation, if necessary, was debated in the cabinet in September.
+Brougham proposed it, and gradually a majority of the cabinet were won
+over. Grey had at first refused to employ even the threat of so
+unconstitutional a device as a means to the proposed end. But his
+continued refusal would have broken up the ministry, and the breaking up
+of the ministry must now have been the signal for revolution. The second
+reading in the Commons was passed in December by a majority of 162, and
+on New-Year's day 1832 the majority of the cabinet resolved on demanding
+power to carry it in the Lords by a creation of peers. Grey carried the
+resolution to the king. Some time still remained before the bill could
+be committed and read a third time. It was not until the 9th of April
+that Grey moved the second reading in the Lords. A sufficient number of
+the opposition temporized; and the second reading was allowed to pass by
+a majority of nine. Their intention was to mutilate the bill in
+committee. The Ultra-Tories, headed by the duke of Wellington, had
+entered a protest against the second reading, but they were now
+politically powerless. The struggle had become a struggle on the one
+hand for the whole bill, to be carried by a creation of peers, and on
+the other for some mutilated measure. Grey's instinct divined that the
+crisis was approaching. Either the king must consent to swamp the House,
+or the ministry must cease to stand in the breach between the peers and
+the country. The king, a weak and inexperienced politician, had in the
+meantime been wrought upon by the temporizing leaders in the Lords. He
+was induced to believe that if the Commons should reject the mutilated
+bill when it was returned to them, and the ministry should consequently
+retire, the mutilated bill might be reintroduced and passed by a Tory
+ministry. He was deaf to all representations of the state of public
+opinion; and to the surprise of the ministry, and the terror and
+indignation of every man of sense in the country, he rejected their
+proposal and accepted their resignation, May 9, 1832. The duke of
+Wellington undertook the hopeless task of constructing a ministry which
+should pass a restricted or sham Reform Bill. The only man who could
+have made the success of such a ministry even probable was Peel, and
+Peel's conscience and good sense forbade the attempt. He refused, and
+after a week of the profoundest agitation throughout the country, the
+king, beaten and mortified, was forced to send for Grey and Brougham. On
+being told that his consent to the creation of peers was the only
+condition on which they could undertake the government, he angrily and
+reluctantly yielded. The chancellor, with cool forethought, demanded
+this consent in writing. Grey thought such a demand harsh and
+unnecessary. "I wonder," he said to Brougham, when the interview was
+over, "you could have had the heart to press it." But Brougham was
+inexorable, and the king signed the following paper: "The king grants
+permission to Earl Grey, and to his chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create
+such a number of peers as will be sufficient to ensure the passing of
+the Reform Bill, first calling up peers' eldest sons.--WILLIAM R.,
+Windsor, May 17, 1832."
+
+Grey had now won the game. There was no danger that he would have to
+resort to the expedient which he was authorized to employ. The
+introduction of sixty new peers would have destroyed the opposition, but
+it would have been equivalent to the abolition of the House. The king's
+consent made known, a sufficient number of peers were sure to withdraw
+to enable the bill to pass, and thus the dignity of both king and
+peerage would be saved. The duke of Wellington headed this movement on
+the part of the opposition; and the third reading of the bill was
+carried in the Lords by a majority of 84.
+
+It is well known that in after years both Grey and Brougham disclaimed
+any intention of executing their threat. If this were so, they must have
+merely pretended to brave a danger which they secretly feared to face,
+and intended to avoid; and the credit of rescuing the country would
+belong to the duke of Wellington and the peers who seceded with him. To
+argue such cowardice in them from statements made when the crisis was
+long past, and when they were naturally willing to palliate the rough
+policy which they were forced to adopt, would be to set up a needless
+and unjustifiable paradox. Nothing else in the career of either Grey or
+Brougham leads us to suppose them capable of the moral baseness of
+yielding up the helm of state, in an hour of darkness and peril, to
+reckless and unskilled hands. Such would have been the result if they
+had lacked the determination to carry out their programme to the end.
+The influence of every statesman in the country would then have been
+extinguished, and the United Kingdom would have been absolutely in the
+hands of O'Connell and Orator Hunt.
+
+Grey took but little part in directing the legislation of the reformed
+parliament. Never anxious for power, he had executed the arduous task
+of 1831-1832 rather as a matter of duty than of inclination, and wished
+for an opportunity of retiring. Such an opportunity very shortly
+presented itself. The Irish policy of the ministry had not conciliated
+the Irish people, and O'Connell denounced them with the greatest
+bitterness. On the renewal of the customary Coercion Bill, the ministry
+was divided on the question whether to continue to the lord-lieutenant
+the power of suppressing public meetings. Littleton, the Irish
+secretary, was for abolishing it; and with the view of conciliating
+O'Connell, he informed him that the ministry intended to abandon it. But
+the result proved him to have been mistaken, and O'Connell, with some
+reason supposing himself to have been duped, called on Littleton to
+resign his secretaryship. It had also transpired in the discussion that
+Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of Commons, was privately opposed
+to retaining those clauses which it was his duty to push through the
+house. Lord Althorp therefore resigned, and Grey, who had lately passed
+his seventieth year, took the opportunity of resigning also. It was his
+opinion, it appeared, which had overborne the cabinet in favour of the
+public meeting clauses; and his voluntary withdrawal enabled Lord
+Althorp to return to his post and to proceed with the bill in its milder
+form. Grey was succeeded by Lord Melbourne; but no other change was made
+in the cabinet. Grey took no further part in politics. During most of
+his remaining years he continued to live in retirement at Howick, where
+he died on the 17th of July 1845, in his eighty-second year. By his wife
+Mary Elizabeth, only daughter of the first Lord Ponsonby, whom he
+married on the 18th of November 1794, he became the father of ten sons
+and five daughters. Grey's eldest son Henry (q.v.) became the 3rd earl,
+and among his other sons were General Charles Grey (1804-1870) and
+Admiral Frederick Grey (1805-1878).
+
+In public life, Grey could always be upon occasion bold, strenuous and
+self-sacrificing; but he was little disposed for the active work of the
+politician. He was not one of those who took the statesman's duty "as a
+pleasure he was to enjoy." A certain stiffness and reserve ever seemed
+in the popular eye to hedge him in; nor was his oratory of the kind
+which stirs enthusiasm and delight. A tall, stately figure, fine voice
+and calm aristocratic bearing reminded the listener of Pitt rather than
+of Fox, and his speeches were constructed on the Attic rather than the
+Asiatic model. Though simple and straightforward, they never lacked
+either point or dignity; and they were admirably adapted to the audience
+to which they were addressed. The scrupulous uprightness of Grey's
+political and private character completed the ascendancy which he
+gained; and no politician could be named who, without being a statesman
+of the highest class, has left a name more enviably placed in English
+history.     (E. J. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GREY, SIR EDWARD, 3rd Bart. (1862-   ), English statesman, was educated
+at Winchester and at Balliol College, Oxford, and succeeded his
+grandfather, the 2nd baronet, at the age of twenty. He entered the House
+of Commons as Liberal member for Berwick-on-Tweed in 1885, but he was
+best known as a country gentleman with a taste for sport, and as amateur
+champion tennis-player. His interest in politics was rather languid, but
+he was a disciple of Lord Rosebery, and in the 1892-1895 Liberal
+ministry he was under-secretary for foreign affairs. In this position he
+earned a reputation as a politician of thorough straightforwardness and
+grit, and as one who would maintain British interests independently of
+party; and he shared with Mr Asquith the reputation of being the ablest
+of the Imperialists who followed Lord Rosebery. Though outside foreign
+affairs he played but a small part in the period of Liberal opposition
+between 1895 and 1905, he retained public confidence as one who was
+indispensable to a Liberal administration. When Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet was formed in December 1905 he became
+foreign minister, and he retained this office when in April 1908 Mr
+Asquith became prime minister.
+
+
+
+
+GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812-1898), British colonial governor and statesman,
+only son of Lieutenant-Colonel Grey of the 30th Foot, was born in Lisbon
+on the 14th of April 1812, eight days after the death of his father at
+the storming of Badajoz. He passed through Sandhurst with credit, and
+received his commission in 1829. His lieutenancy was dated 1833, and his
+captaincy 1839, in which year he sold out and left the army. In the
+early 'thirties he was quartered in Ireland, where the wretchedness of
+the poorer classes left a deep impression on his mind. In 1836 the Royal
+Geographical Society accepted his offer to explore the north-west region
+of West Australia, and accordingly he landed at Hanover Bay at the end
+of 1837. The surrounding country he found broken and difficult, and his
+hardships were aggravated by the tropical heat and his ignorance of the
+continent. In a skirmish with the natives, in which he was speared near
+the hip, he showed great courage, and put the assailants to flight,
+shooting the chief, who had wounded him. After a brave endeavour to
+continue his journey his wound forced him to retreat to the coast,
+whence he sailed to Mauritius to recruit. Next year he again essayed
+exploration, this time on the coast to the north and south of Shark's
+Bay. He had three whale-boats and an ample supply of provisions, but by
+a series of disasters his stores were spoilt by storms, his boats
+wrecked in the surf, and the party had to tramp on foot from Gantheaume
+Bay to Perth, where Grey, in the end, walked in alone, so changed by
+suffering that friends did not know him. In 1839 he was appointed
+governor-resident at Albany, and during his stay there married Harriett,
+daughter of Admiral Spencer, and also prepared for publication an
+account, in two volumes, of his expeditions. In 1840 he returned to
+England, to be immediately appointed by Lord John Russell to succeed
+Colonel Gawler as governor of South Australia. Reaching the colony in
+May 1841, he found it in the depths of a depression caused by
+mismanagement and insane land speculation. By rigorously reducing public
+expenditure, and forcing the settlers to quit the town and betake
+themselves to tilling their lands, and with the opportune help of
+valuable copper discoveries, Grey was able to aid the infant colony to
+emerge from the slough. So striking were his energy and determination
+that when, in 1845, the little settlements in New Zealand were found to
+be involved in a native war, and on the verge of ruin, he was sent to
+save them. The Maori chiefs in open rebellion were defeated, and made
+their submission. Another powerful leader suspected of fomenting
+discontent was arrested, and friendly chieftains were subsidized and
+honoured. Bands of the natives were employed in making government roads,
+and were paid good wages. The governor gained the veneration of the
+Maori tribes, in whose welfare he took a close personal interest, and of
+whose legends and myths he made a valuable and scholarly collection,
+published in New Zealand in 1855 and reprinted thirty years afterwards.
+With peace prosperity came to New Zealand, and the colonial office
+desired to give the growing settlements full self-government. Grey,
+arguing that this would renew war with the Maori, returned the
+constitution to Downing Street. But though the colonial office sustained
+him, he became involved in harassing disputes with the colonists, who
+organized an active agitation for autonomy. In the end a second
+constitution, partly framed by Grey himself, was granted them, and Grey,
+after eight years of despotic but successful rule, was transferred to
+Cape Colony. He had been knighted for his services, and had undoubtedly
+shown strength, dexterity and humanity in dealing with the whites and
+natives. In South Africa his success continued. He thwarted a formidable
+Kaffir rebellion in the Eastern Provinces, and pushed on the work of
+settlement by bringing out men from the German Legion and providing them
+with homes. He gained the respect of the British, the confidence of the
+Boers, the admiration and the trust of the natives. The Dutch of the
+Free State and the Basuto chose him as arbitrator of their quarrels.
+When the news of the Indian Mutiny reached Cape Town he strained every
+nerve to help Lord Canning, despatching men, horses, stores and L60,000
+in specie to Bombay. He persuaded a detachment, then on its way round
+the Cape as a reinforcement for Lord Elgin in China, to divert its
+voyage to Calcutta. Finally, in 1859, Grey almost reached what would
+have been the culminating point of his career by federating South
+Africa. Persuaded by him, the Orange Free State passed resolutions in
+favour of this great step, and their action was welcomed by Cape Town.
+But the colonial office disapproved of the change, and when Grey
+attempted to persevere with it Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton recalled him. A
+change of ministry during his voyage to England displaced Sir Edward
+Bulwer Lytton. But though the duke of Newcastle reinstated Grey, it was
+with instructions to let federation drop. In 1861 the colonial office
+sent him, for the fourth time in succession, to take up a post of
+exceptional difficulty by again entrusting him with the governorship of
+New Zealand, where an inglorious native war in Taranaki had just been
+succeeded by an armed truce. Grey did his best to make terms with the
+rebels and to re-establish friendship with the Maori king and the land
+league of tribes formed to stop further sales of land to the whites. But
+the Maori had got guns and powder, and were suspicious and truculent. In
+vain Grey, supported by Bishop Selwyn and by Fox and the peace party
+among the settlers, strove to avert war. It came in 1863, and spread
+from province to province. Ten thousand regulars and as many colonial
+riflemen were employed to put it down. The imperial troops were badly
+handled, and Grey, losing patience, became involved in bitter disputes
+with their commanders. As an example to the former he himself attacked
+and captured Weraroa, the strongest of the Maori stockades, with a
+handful of militia, a feat which delighted the colonists, but made him
+as much disliked at the war office as he now was at Downing Street.
+Moreover, Grey had no longer real control over the islands. New Zealand
+had become a self-governing colony, and though he vindicated the
+colonists generally when libellous imputations of cruelty and
+land-grabbing were freely made against them in London, he crossed swords
+with his ministers when the latter confiscated three million acres of
+tribal land belonging to the insurgent Maori. Yet through all these
+troubles progress was made; many successes were gained in 1866, chiefly
+by the colonial militia, and a condition of something like tranquillity
+had been reached in 1867, when he received a curt intimation from the
+duke of Buckingham that he was about to be superseded. The colonists,
+who believed he was sacrificed for upholding their interests and good
+name, bade farewell to him in 1868 in an outburst of gratitude and
+sympathy; but his career as a colonial governor was at an end. Returning
+to England, he tried to enter public life, delivered many able speeches
+advocating what later came to be termed Imperialism, and stood for
+Newark. Discouraged, however, by the official Liberals, he withdrew and
+turned again to New Zealand. In 1872 he was given a pension of L1000 a
+year, and settled down on the island of Kawau, not far from Auckland,
+which he bought, and where he passed his leisure in planting, gardening
+and collecting books. In 1875, on the invitation of the Auckland
+settlers, he became superintendent of their province, and entered the
+New Zealand House of Representatives to resist the abolition of the
+provincial councils of the colony, a change then being urged on by Sir
+Julius Vogel in alliance with the Centralist Party. In this he failed,
+but his eloquence and courage drew round him a strong Radical following,
+and gave him the premiership in 1877. Manhood suffrage, triennial
+parliaments, a land-tax, the purchase of large estates and the popular
+election of the governor, were leading points of his policy. All these
+reforms, except the last, he lived to see carried; none of them were
+passed by him. A commercial depression in 1879 shook his popularity, and
+on the fall of his ministry in 1879 he was deposed, and for the next
+fifteen years remained a solitary and pathetic figure in the New Zealand
+parliament, respectfully treated, courteously listened to, but never
+again invited to lead. In 1891 he came before Australia as one of the
+New Zealand delegates to the federal convention at Sydney, and
+characteristically made his mark by standing out almost alone for "one
+man one vote" as the federal franchise. This point he carried, and the
+Australians thronged to hear him, so that his visits to Victoria and
+South Australia were personal triumphs. When, too, in 1894, he quitted
+New Zealand for London, some reparation was at last made him by the
+imperial government; he was called to the privy council, and graciously
+received by Queen Victoria on his visit to Windsor. Thereafter he lived
+in London, and died on the 20th of September 1898. He was given a public
+funeral at St Paul's. Grey was all his life a collector of books and
+manuscripts. After leaving Cape Colony, he gave his library to Cape Town
+in 1862; his subsequent collection, which numbered 12,000 volumes, he
+presented to the citizens of Auckland in 1887. In gratitude the people
+of Cape Town erected a statue of him opposite their library building.
+
+  _Lives_ of Sir George Grey have been written by W. L. and L. Rees
+  (1892), Professor G. C. Henderson (1907) and J. Collier (1909).
+       (W. P. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894), English statesman, was born on
+the 28th of December 1802, the son of the 2nd Earl Grey, prime minister
+at the time of the Reform Bill of 1832. He entered parliament in 1826,
+under the title of Viscount Howick, as member for Winchelsea, which
+constituency he left in 1831 for Northumberland. On the accession of the
+Whigs to power in 1830 he was made under-secretary for the colonies, and
+laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance with colonial
+questions. He belonged at the time to the more advanced party of
+colonial reformers, sharing the views of Edward Gibbon Wakefield on
+questions of land and emigration, and resigned in 1834 from
+dissatisfaction that slave emancipation was made gradual instead of
+immediate. In 1835 he entered Lord Melbourne's cabinet as secretary at
+war, and effected some valuable administrative reforms, especially by
+suppressing malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the
+partial reconstruction of the ministry in 1839 he again resigned,
+disapproving of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues. These
+repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotchetiness, which he
+did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his old colleagues by
+his action on free trade questions in the session of 1841. During the
+exile of the Liberals from power he went still farther on the path of
+free trade, and anticipated Lord John Russell's declaration against the
+corn laws. When, on Sir Robert Peel's resignation in December 1845, Lord
+John Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had become
+Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding July, refused to
+enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were foreign secretary (see J.
+R. Thursfield in vol. i. and Hon. F. H. Baring in vol. xxiii. of the
+_English Historical Review_). He was greatly censured for perverseness,
+and particularly when in the following July he accepted Lord Palmerston
+as a colleague without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded
+Lord John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation. Becoming
+colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere confronted with
+arduous problems, which in the main he encountered with success. His
+administration formed an epoch. He was the first minister to proclaim
+that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and not for
+the mother-country's; the first systematically to accord them
+self-government so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce
+free trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The
+concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from the
+mother-country _ad libitum_ was not his; he protested against it, but
+was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he could not
+overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion; in New Zealand he
+suspended the constitution he had himself accorded, and yielded
+everything into the masterful hands of Sir George Grey. The least
+successful part of his administration was his treatment of the convict
+question at the Cape of Good Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule
+that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and in
+accordance with their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating
+defeat. After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his
+colonial policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell, a dry but
+instructive book (_Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's
+Administration_, 1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No room
+was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and although during
+the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed to him as the fittest man as
+minister for war, he never again held office. During the remainder of
+his long life he exercised a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In
+1858 he wrote a work (republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in
+1888 he wrote another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the
+United States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor
+of weighty letters to _The Times_ on land, tithes, currency and other
+public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances were when he
+moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866, and when in 1878 he
+passionately opposed the policy of the Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He
+nevertheless supported Lord Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding
+Mr Gladstone's accession to power with much greater alarm. He was a
+determined opponent of Mr Gladstone's Home Rule policy. He died on the
+9th of October 1894. None ever doubted his capacity or his
+conscientiousness, but he was generally deemed impracticable and
+disagreeable. Prince Albert, however, who expressed himself as ready to
+subscribe to all Grey's principles, and applauded him for having
+principles, told Stockmar that, although dogmatic, he was amenable to
+argument; and Sir Henry Taylor credits him with "more freedom from
+littlenesses of feeling than I have met before in any public man." His
+chief defect was perceived and expressed by his original tutor and
+subsequent adversary in colonial affairs, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who
+wrote, "With more than a common talent for understanding principles, he
+has no originality of thought, which compels him to take all his ideas
+from somebody; and no power of working out theory in practice, which
+compels him to be always in somebody's hands as respects decision and
+action."
+
+The earl had no sons, and he was followed as 4th earl by his nephew
+Albert Henry George (b. 1851), who in 1904 became governor-general of
+Canada.
+
+
+
+
+GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554), a lady remarkable no less for her
+accomplishments than for her misfortunes, was the great-granddaughter of
+Henry VII. of England. Her descent from that king was traced through a
+line of females. His second daughter Mary, after being left a widow by
+Louis XII. of France, married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, who was
+a favourite with her brother King Henry VIII. Of this marriage came two
+daughters, the elder of whom, Lady Frances Brandon, was married to Henry
+Grey, marquess of Dorset; and their issue, again, consisted of daughters
+only. Lady Jane, the subject of this article, was the eldest of three
+whom the marquess had by Lady Frances. Thus it will appear that even if
+the crown of England had ever fallen into the female line of descent
+from Henry VII., she could not have put in a rightful claim unless the
+issue of his elder daughter, Margaret, had become extinct. But Margaret
+had married James IV. of Scotland; and, though her descendant, James
+VI., was ultimately called to the English throne, Henry VIII. had placed
+her family after that of his second sister in the succession; so that,
+failing the lawful issue of Henry himself, Lady Jane would, according to
+this arrangement, have succeeded. It was to these circumstances that she
+owed her exceptional position in history, and became the victim of an
+ambition which was not her own.
+
+She was born at her father's seat named Bradgate in Leicestershire about
+the year 1537. Her parents, though severe disciplinarians, bestowed more
+than ordinary care upon her education, and she herself was so teachable
+and delighted so much in study that she became the marvel of the age for
+her acquirements. She not only excelled in needlework and in music, both
+vocal and instrumental, but while still very young she had thoroughly
+mastered Latin, Greek, French and Italian. She was able to speak and
+write both Greek and Latin with an accuracy that satisfied even such
+critics as Ascham and her tutor Dr Aylmer, afterwards bishop of London.
+She also acquired some knowledge of at least three Oriental tongues,
+Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic. In Ascham's _Schoolmaster_ is given a
+touching account of the devotion with which she pursued her studies and
+the harshness she experienced from her parents. The love of learning was
+her solace; in reading Demosthenes and Plato she found a refuge from
+domestic unhappiness. When about ten years old she was placed for a time
+in the household of Thomas, Lord Seymour, who, having obtained her
+wardship, induced her parents to let her stay with him, even after the
+death of his wife, Queen Catherine Parr, by promising to marry her to
+his nephew, King Edward VI. Lord Seymour, however, was attainted of high
+treason and beheaded in 1549, and his brother, the duke of Somerset,
+made some overtures to the marquess of Dorset to marry her to his son
+the earl of Hertford. These projects, however, came to nothing. The duke
+of Somerset in his turn fell a victim to the ambition of Dudley, duke of
+Northumberland, and was beheaded three years after his brother.
+Meanwhile, the dukedom of Suffolk having become extinct by the deaths of
+Charles Brandon and his two sons, the title was conferred upon the
+marquess of Dorset, Lady Jane's father. Northumberland, who was now
+all-powerful, fearing a great reverse of fortune in case of the king's
+death, as his health began visibly to decline, endeavoured to strengthen
+himself by marriages between his family and those of other powerful
+noblemen, especially of the new-made duke of Suffolk. His three eldest
+sons being already married, the fourth, who was named Lord Guilford
+Dudley, was accordingly wedded to Lady Jane Grey about the end of May
+1553. The match received the full approval of the king, who furnished
+the wedding apparel of the parties by royal warrant. But Edward's state
+of health warned Northumberland that he must lose no time in putting the
+rest of his project into execution. He persuaded the king that if the
+crown should descend to his sister Mary the work of the Reformation
+would be undone and the liberties of the kingdom would be in danger.
+Besides, both Mary and her sister Elizabeth had been declared
+illegitimate by separate acts of parliament, and the objections to Mary
+queen of Scots did not require to be pointed out. Edward was easily
+persuaded to break through his father's will and make a new settlement
+of the crown by deed. The document was witnessed by the signatures of
+all the council and of all but one of the judges; but those of the
+latter body were obtained only with difficulty by threats and
+intimidation.
+
+Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553, and it was announced to Lady Jane
+that she was queen. She was then but sixteen years of age. The news came
+upon her as a most unwelcome surprise, and for some time she resisted
+all persuasions to accept the fatal dignity; but at length she yielded
+to the entreaties of her father, her father-in-law and her husband. The
+better to mature their plans the cabal had kept the king's death secret
+for some days, but they proclaimed Queen Jane in the city on the 10th.
+The people received the announcement with manifest coldness, and a
+vintner's boy was even so bold as to raise a cry for Queen Mary, for
+which he next day had his ears nailed to the pillory and afterwards cut
+off. Mary, however, had received early intimation of her brother's
+death, and, retiring from Hunsdon into Norfolk, gathered round her the
+nobility and commons of those parts. Northumberland was despatched
+thither with an army to oppose her; but after reaching Newmarket he
+complained that the council had not sent him forces in sufficient
+numbers and his followers began to desert. News also came that the earl
+of Oxford had declared for Queen Mary; and as most of the council
+themselves were only seeking an opportunity to wash their hands of
+rebellion, they procured a meeting at Baynard's Castle, revoked their
+former acts as done under coercion, and caused the lord mayor to
+proclaim Queen Mary, which he did amid the shouts of the citizens. The
+duke of Suffolk was obliged to tell his daughter that she must lay aside
+her royal dignity and become a private person once more. She replied
+that she relinquished most willingly a crown that she had only accepted
+out of obedience to him and her mother, and her nine days' reign was
+over.
+
+The leading actors in the conspiracy were now called to answer for their
+deeds. Northumberland was brought up to London a prisoner, tried and
+sent to the block, along with some of his partisans. The duke of Suffolk
+and Lady Jane were also committed to the Tower; but the former, by the
+influence of his duchess, procured a pardon. Lady Jane and her husband
+Lord Guilford Dudley were also tried, and received sentence of death for
+treason. This, however, was not immediately carried out; on the
+contrary, the queen seems to have wished to spare their lives and
+mitigated the rigour of their confinement. Unfortunately, owing to the
+general dislike of the queen's marriage with Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas
+Wyat soon after raised a rebellion in which the duke of Suffolk and his
+brothers took part, and on its suppression the queen was persuaded that
+it was unsafe to spare the lives of Lady Jane and her husband any
+longer. On hearing that they were to die, Lady Jane declined a parting
+interview with her husband lest it should increase their pain, and
+prepared to meet her fate with Christian fortitude. She and her husband
+were executed on the same day, on the 12th of February 1554, her husband
+on Tower Hill, and herself within the Tower an hour afterwards, amidst
+universal sympathy and compassion.
+
+  See Ascham's _Schoolmaster_; Burnet's _History of the Reformation_;
+  Howard's _Lady Jane Grey_; Nicolas's Literary _Remains of Lady Jane
+  Grey_; Tytler's _England under Edward VI. and Mary_; _The Chronicles
+  of Queen Jane_, ed. J. G. Nichols; _The Accession of Queen Mary_
+  (Guaras's narrative), ed. R. Garnett (1892); Foxe's _Acts and
+  Monuments_.
+
+
+
+
+GREY DE WILTON and GREY DE RUTHYN. The first Baron Grey de Wilton was
+Reginald de Grey, who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1295 and
+who died in 1308. Reginald's son John, the 2nd baron (1268-1323), was
+one of the lords ordainers in 1310 and was a prominent figure in English
+politics during the reign of Edward II. The later barons Grey de Wilton
+were descended from John's eldest son Henry (d. 1342), while a younger
+son Roger (d. 1353) was the ancestor of the barons Grey de Ruthyn.
+
+WILLIAM, 13TH LORD GREY DE WILTON (d. 1562), who succeeded to the title
+on the death of his brother Richard, about 1520, won great fame as a
+soldier by his conduct in France during the concluding years of Henry
+VIII.'s reign, and was one of the leaders of the victorious English army
+at the battle of Pinkie in 1547. He was then employed on the Scottish
+marches and in Scotland, and in 1549 he rendered good service in
+suppressing the rebellion in Oxfordshire and in the west of England; in
+1551 he was imprisoned as a friend of the fallen protector, the duke of
+Somerset, and he was concerned in the attempt made by John Dudley, duke
+of Northumberland, to place Lady Jane Grey on the English throne In
+1553. However, he was pardoned by Queen Mary and was entrusted with the
+defence of Guines. Although indifferently supported he defended the town
+with great gallantry, but in January 1558 he was forced to surrender and
+for some time he remained a prisoner in France. Under Elizabeth, Grey
+was again employed on the Scottish border, and he was responsible for
+the pertinacious but unavailing attempt to capture Leith in May 1560. He
+died at Cheshunt in Hertfordshire on the 14th/25th of December 1562.
+
+  He was described by William Cecil as "a noble, valiant, painful and
+  careful gentleman," and his son and successor, Arthur, wrote _A
+  Commentary of the Services and Charges of William, Lord Grey of
+  Wilton, K.G._ This has been edited by Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton for
+  the Camden Society (1847).
+
+Grey's elder son ARTHUR, 14TH LORD GREY DE WILTON (1536-1593), was
+during early life with his father in France and in Scotland; he fought
+at the battle of St Quentin and helped to defend Guines and to assault
+Leith. In July 1580 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland, and after
+an initial defeat in Wicklow was successful in reducing many of the
+rebels to a temporary submission. Perhaps the most noteworthy event
+during his tenure of this office was the massacre of 600 Italians and
+Spaniards at Smerwick in November 1580, an action for which he was
+responsible. Having incurred a heavy burden of debt Grey frequently
+implored the queen to recall him, and in August 1582 he was allowed to
+return to England (see E. Spenser, _View of the State of Ireland_,
+edited by H. Morley, 1890, and R. Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_,
+vol. iii., 1890). While in Ireland Grey was served as secretary by
+Edmund Spenser, and in book v. of the _Faerie Queene_ the poet
+represents his patron as a knight of very noble qualities named
+Artegall. As one of the commissioners who tried Mary queen of Scots,
+Grey defended the action of Elizabeth's secretary, William Davison, with
+regard to this matter, and he took part in the preparations for the
+defence of England against the Spaniards in 1588. His account of the
+defence of Guines was used by Holinshed in his _Chronicles_.
+
+When he died on the 14th of October 1593 he was succeeded as 15th baron
+by his son THOMAS (d. 1614), who while serving in Ireland incurred the
+enmity of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, and of Henry Wriothesley, earl
+of Southampton; and after fighting against Spain in the Netherlands he
+was a member of the court which sentenced these two noblemen to death in
+1601. On the accession of James I. he was arrested for his share in the
+"Bye" plot, an attempt made by William Watson and others to seize the
+king. He was tried and sentenced to death, but the sentence was not
+carried out and he remained in prison until his death on the 9th of July
+1614. He displayed both ability and courage at his trial, remarking
+after sentence had been passed, "the house of Wilton hath spent many
+lives in their prince's service and Grey cannot beg his." Like his
+father Grey was a strong Puritan. He left no children and his barony
+became extinct.
+
+  In 1784 Sir Thomas Egerton, Bart., a descendant in the female line of
+  the 14th baron, was created Baron Grey de Wilton. He died without sons
+  in September 1814, when his barony became extinct; but the titles of
+  Viscount Grey de Wilton and earl of Wilton, which had been conferred
+  upon him in 1801, passed to Thomas Grosvenor (1799-1882), the second
+  son of his daughter Eleanor (d. 1846); and her husband Robert
+  Grosvenor, 1st marquess of Westminster. Thomas took the name of
+  Egerton and his descendants still hold the titles.
+
+ROGER GREY, 1ST BARON GREY DE RUTHYN, who was summoned to parliament as
+a baron in 1324, saw much service as a soldier before his death on the
+6th of March 1353. The second baron was his son Reginald, whose son
+REGINALD (c. 1362-1440) succeeded to the title on his father's death in
+July 1388. In 1410 after a long dispute the younger Reginald won the
+right to bear the arms of the Hastings family. He enjoyed the favour
+both of Richard II. and Henry IV., and his chief military exploits were
+against the Welsh, who took him prisoner in 1402 and only released him
+upon payment of a heavy ransom. Grey was a member of the council which
+governed England during the absence of Henry V. in France in 1415; he
+fought in the French wars in 1420 and 1421 and died on the 30th of
+September 1440. His eldest son, Sir John Grey, K.G. (d. 1439), who
+predeceased his father, fought at Agincourt and was deputy of Ireland in
+1427. He was the father of EDMUND GREY (d. 1489), who succeeded his
+grandfather as Lord Grey de Ruthyn in 1440 and was created earl of Kent
+in 1465.
+
+  One of Reginald Grey's younger sons, Edward (1415-1457), succeeded his
+  maternal grandfather as Baron Ferrers of Groby in 1445. He was the
+  ancestor of the earls of Stamford and also of the Greys, marquesses of
+  Dorset and dukes of Suffolk.
+
+  The barony of Grey de Ruthyn was merged in the earldom of Kent until
+  the death of Henry, the 8th earl, in November 1639. It then devolved
+  upon Kent's nephew Charles Longueville (1612-1643), through whose
+  daughter Susan (d. 1676) it came to the family of Yelverton, who were
+  earls of Sussex from 1717 to 1799. The next holder was Henry Edward
+  Gould (1780-1810), a grandson of Henry Yelverton, earl of Sussex; and
+  through Gould's daughter Barbara, marchioness of Hastings (d. 1858),
+  it passed to the last marquess of Hastings, on whose death in 1868 the
+  barony fell into abeyance, this being terminated in 1885 in favour of
+  Hastings's sister Bertha (d. 1887), the wife of Augustus Wykeham
+  Clifton. Their son, Rawdon George Grey Clifton (b. 1858), succeeded
+  his mother as 24th holder of the barony.
+
+
+
+
+GREYMOUTH, a seaport of New Zealand, the principal port on the west
+coast of South Island, in Grey county. Pop. (1906) 4569. It stands on
+the small estuary of the Grey or Mawhera river, has a good harbour, and
+railway communication with Hokitika, Reefton, &c., while the
+construction of a line to connect with Christchurch and Nelson was begun
+in 1887. The district is both auriferous and coal-bearing. Gold-dredging
+is a rich industry, and the coal-mines have attendant industries in
+coke, bricks and fire-clay. The timber trade is also well developed. The
+neighbouring scenery is picturesque, especially among the hills
+surrounding Lake Brunner (15 m. S.E.).
+
+
+
+
+GREYTOWN (SAN JUAN DEL NORTE), the principal seaport on the Caribbean
+coast of Nicaragua, in the extreme south-eastern corner of the republic,
+and at the mouth of the northern channel of the San Juan river delta.
+Pop. (1905) about 2500. The town occupies the seaward side of a narrow
+peninsula, formed by the windings of the river. Most of its houses are
+raised on piles 2 or 3 ft. above the ground. The neighbourhood is
+unhealthy and unsuited for agriculture, so that almost all food-stuffs
+must be imported, and the cost of living is high. Greytown has suffered
+severely from the accumulation of sand in its once fine harbour. Between
+1832 and 1848 Point Arenas, the seaward end of the peninsula, was
+enlarged by a sandbank more than 1 m. long; between 1850 and 1875 the
+depth of water over the bar decreased from about 25 ft. to 5 ft., and
+the entrance channel, which had been nearly 1/2 m. wide, was almost
+closed. Subsequent attempts to improve the harbour by dredging and
+building jetties have only had partial success; but Greytown remains the
+headquarters of Nicaraguan commerce with Europe and eastern America. The
+village called America, 1 m. N., was built as the eastern terminus of a
+proposed interoceanic canal.
+
+The harbour of San Juan, discovered by Columbus, was brought into
+further notice by Captain Diego Machuca, who in 1529 sailed down the
+river from Lake Nicaragua. The date of the first Spanish settlement on
+the spot is not known, but in the 17th century there were fortifications
+at the mouth of the river. In 1796 San Juan was made a port of entry by
+royal charter, and new defences were erected in 1821. In virtue of the
+protectorate claimed by Great Britain over the Mosquito Coast (q.v.),
+the Mosquito Indians, aided by a British force, seized the town in 1848
+and occupied it until 1860, when Great Britain ceded its protectorate to
+Nicaragua by the treaty of Managua. This treaty secured religious
+liberty and trial by jury for all civil and criminal charges in
+Greytown; its seventh article declared the port free, but was never
+enforced.
+
+
+
+
+GREYWACKE, or GRAUWACKE (a German word signifying a grey earthy rock),
+the designation, formerly more generally used by English geologists than
+at the present day, for impure, highly composite, gritty rocks belonging
+to the Palaeozoic systems. They correspond to the sandstones, grits and
+fine conglomerates of the later periods. Greywackes are mostly grey,
+brown, yellow or black, dull-coloured, sandy rocks which may occur in
+thick or thin beds along with slates, limestones, &c., and are abundant
+in Wales, the south of Scotland and the Lake district of England. They
+contain a very great variety of minerals, of which the principal are
+quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase, calcite, iron oxides and graphitic
+carbonaceous matters, together with (in the coarser kinds) fragments of
+such rocks as felsite, chert, slate, gneiss, various schists, quartzite.
+Among other minerals found in them are biotite and chlorite, tourmaline,
+epidote, apatite, garnet, hornblende and augite, sphene, pyrites. The
+cementing material may be siliceous or argillaceous, and is sometimes
+calcareous. As a rule greywackes are not fossiliferous, but organic
+remains may be common in the finer beds associated with them. Their
+component particles are usually not much rounded by attrition, and the
+rocks have often been considerably indurated by pressure and mineral
+changes, such as the introduction of interstitial silica. In some
+districts the greywackes are cleaved, but they show phenomena of this
+kind much less perfectly than the slates. Although the group is so
+diverse that it is difficult to characterize mineralogically, it has a
+well-established place in petrographical classifications, because these
+peculiar composite arenaceous deposits are very frequent among Silurian
+and Cambrian rocks, and rarely occur in Secondary or Tertiary systems.
+Their essential features are their gritty character and their complex
+composition. By increasing metamorphism greywackes frequently pass into
+mica-schists, chloride schists and sedimentary gneisses.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1715-1789), French artillery general, was
+the son of a magistrate of Amiens and was born there on the 15th of
+September 1715. He entered the French royal artillery in 1732 as a
+volunteer, and became an officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years
+regimental duty and scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became
+captain of a company of miners. A few years later he was employed in a
+military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being then a lieutenant-colonel,
+he was lent to the Austrian army on the outbreak of the Seven Years'
+War, and served as a general officer of artillery. The siege of Glatz
+and the defence of Schweidnitz were his principal exploits. The empress
+Maria Theresa rewarded him for his work with the rank of lieutenant
+field-marshal and the cross of the Maria Theresa order. On his return to
+France he was made _marechal de camp_, in 1764 inspector of artillery,
+and in 1765 lieutenant-general and commander of the order of St Louis.
+For some years after this he was in disfavour at court, and he became
+first inspector of artillery only in 1776, in which year also he
+received the grand cross of the St Louis order. He was now able to carry
+out the reforms in the artillery arm which are his chief title to fame.
+See ARTILLERY; and for full details Gribeauval's own _Table des
+constructions des principaux attirails de l'artillerie ... de M. de
+Gribeauval_, and the _reglement_ for the French artillery issued in
+1776. He died in 1789.
+
+  See Puysegur in _Journal de Paris_, supplement of the 8th of July
+  1789; Chevalier de Passac, _Precis sur M. de Gribeauval_ (Paris,
+  1816); Veyrines, _Gribeauval_ (Paris, 1889), and Hennebert,
+  _Gribeauval, lieutenant-general des armees du roy_ (Paris, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH (1795-1829), Russian dramatic author,
+was born in 1795 at Moscow, where he studied at the university from 1810
+to 1812. He then obtained a commission in a hussar regiment, but
+resigned it in 1816. Next year he entered the civil service, and in 1818
+was appointed secretary of the Russian legation in Persia, whence he was
+transferred to Georgia. He had commenced writing early, and had produced
+on the stage at St Petersburg in 1816 a comedy in verse, translated from
+the French, called _The Young Spouses_, which was followed by other
+pieces of the same kind. But neither these nor the essays and verses
+which he wrote would have been long remembered but for the immense
+success gained by his comedy in verse, _Gore ot uma_, or "Misfortune
+from Intelligence" (Eng. trans. by N. Benardaky, 1857). A satire upon
+Russian society, or, as a high official styled it, "A pasquinade on
+Moscow," its plot is slight, its merits consisting in its accurate
+representation of certain social and official types--such as Famousoff,
+the lover of old abuses, the hater of reforms; his secretary, Molchanin,
+servile fawner upon all in office; the aristocratic young liberal and
+Anglomaniac, Repetiloff; contrasted with whom is the hero of the piece,
+Tchatsky, the ironical satirist, just returned from the west of Europe,
+who exposes and ridicules the weaknesses of the rest, his words echoing
+that outcry of the young generation of 1820 which reached its climax in
+the military insurrection of 1825, and was then sternly silenced by
+Nicholas. Griboyedov spent the summer of 1823 in Russia, completed his
+play and took it to St Petersburg. There it was rejected by the
+censorship. Many copies were made and privately circulated, but
+Griboyedov never saw it published. The first edition was printed in
+1833, four years after his death. Only once did he see it on the stage,
+when it was acted by the officers of the garrison at Erivan. Soured by
+disappointment he returned to Georgia, made himself useful by his
+linguistic knowledge to his relative Count Paskievitch-Erivansky during
+a campaign against Persia, and was sent to St Petersburg with the treaty
+of 1828. Brilliantly received there, he thought of devoting himself to
+literature, and commenced a romantic drama, _A Georgian Night_. But he
+was suddenly sent to Persia as minister-plenipotentiary. Soon after his
+arrival at Teheran a tumult arose, caused by the anger of the populace
+against some Georgian and Armenian captives--Russian subjects--who had
+taken refuge in the Russian embassy. It was stormed, Griboyedov was
+killed (February 11, 1829), and his body was for three days so
+ill-treated by the mob that it was at last recognized only by an old
+scar on the hand, due to a wound received in a duel. It was taken to
+Tiflis, and buried in the monastery of St David. There a monument was
+erected to his memory by his widow, to whom he had been but a few months
+married.
+
+
+
+
+GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP (1843-1907), Norwegian musical composer, was born
+on the 15th of June 1843 in Bergen, where his father, Alexander Grieg
+(_sic_), was English consul. The Grieg family were of Scottish origin,
+but the composer's grandfather, a supporter of the Pretender, left his
+home at Aberdeen after Charles Edward's defeat at Culloden, and went to
+Bergen, where he carried on business. The composer's mother, Gesine
+Hagerup, belonged to a pure Norwegian peasant family; and it is from the
+mother rather than from the father that Edvard Grieg derived his musical
+talent. She had been educated as a pianist and began to give her son
+lessons on the pianoforte when he was six years of age. His first
+composition, "Variations on a German melody," was written at the age of
+nine. A summer holiday in Norway with his father in 1858 seems to have
+exercised a powerful influence on the child's musical imagination, which
+was easily kindled at the sight of mountain and fjord. In the autumn of
+the same year, at the recommendation of Ole Bull, young Grieg entered
+the Leipzig Conservatorium, where he passed, like all his
+contemporaries, under the influence of the Mendelssohn and Schumann
+school of romantics. But the curriculum of academic study was too narrow
+for him. He dreamed half his time away and overworked during the other
+half. In 1862 he completed his Leipzig studies, and appeared as pianist
+and composer before his fellow-citizens of Bergen. In 1863 he studied in
+Copenhagen for a short time with Gade and Emil Hartmann, both composers
+representing a sentimental strain of Scandinavian temperament, from
+which Grieg emancipated himself in favour of the harder inspiration of
+Richard Nordraak. "The scales fell from my eyes," says Grieg of his
+acquaintance with Nordraak. "For the first time I learned through him to
+know the northern folk tunes and my own nature. We made a pact to combat
+the effeminate Gade-Mendelssohn mixture of Scandinavism, and boldly
+entered upon the new path along which the northern school at present
+pursues its course." Grieg now made a kind of crusade in favour of
+national music. In the winter of 1864-1865 he founded the Copenhagen
+concert-society Euterpe, which was intended to produce the works of
+young Norwegian composers. During the winters of 1865-1866 and 1869-1870
+Grieg was in Rome. In the autumn of 1866 he settled in Christiania,
+where from 1867 till 1880 he conducted a musical union. From 1880 to
+1882 he directed the concerts of the Harmonic Society in Bergen. In 1872
+the Royal Musical Academy of Sweden made Grieg a member; in 1874 the
+Norwegian Storthing granted him an annual stipend of 1600 kronen. He had
+already been decorated with the Olaf order in 1873. In 1888 he played
+his pianoforte concerto and conducted his "two melodies for strings" at
+a Philharmonic concert in London, and visited England again in 1891,
+1894 and 1896, receiving the degree of Mus.D. from the university of
+Cambridge in 1894. He died at Bergen on the 4th of September 1907.
+
+As a composer Grieg's distinguishing quality is lyrical. Whether his
+orchestral works or his songs or his best pianoforte works are submitted
+to examination, it is almost always the note of song that tells.
+Sometimes, as in the music to Ibsen's _Peer Gynt_, or in the suite for
+stringed orchestra, _Aus Holbergs Zeit_, this characteristic is combined
+with a strong power for raising pictures in the listener's mind, and the
+romantic "programme" tendency in Grieg's music becomes clearer the
+farther writers like Richard Strauss carry this movement. Grieg's songs
+may be said to be generally the more spontaneous the more closely they
+conform to the simple model of the _Volkslied_; yet the much sung "Ich
+liebe dich" is a song of a different kind, which has hardly ever been
+surpassed for the perfection with which it depicts a strong momentary
+emotion, and it is difficult to ascribe greater merits to songs of Grieg
+even so characteristic as "Solvejg's Lied" and "Ein Schwan." The
+pianoforte concerto is brilliant and spontaneous; it has been performed
+by most pianists of the first rank, but its essential qualities and the
+pure nationality of its themes have been brought out to their perfection
+by one player only--the Norwegian pianist Knudsen. The first and second
+of Grieg's violin sonatas are agreeable, so free and artless is the flow
+of their melody. In his numerous piano pieces and in those of his songs
+which are devoid of a definitely national inspiration the impression
+made is less permanent. Bulow called Grieg the "Chopin of the North."
+The phrase is an exaggeration rather than an expression of the truth,
+for the range of the appeal in Chopin is far wider, nor has the
+national movement inaugurated by Grieg shown promise of great
+development. He is rather to be regarded as the pioneer of a musical
+mission which has been perfectly carried out by himself alone.
+
+  See La Mara, _Edvard Grieg_ (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB (1745-1812), German biblical critic, was born at
+Butzbach, a small town of Hesse-Darmstadt, where his father, Konrad
+Kaspar (1705-1777), was pastor, on the 4th of January 1745. He was
+educated at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and at the universities of Tubingen,
+Leipzig and Halle, where he became one of J. S. Semler's most ardent
+disciples. It was Semler who induced him to turn his attention to the
+textual criticism of the New Testament. At the close of his
+undergraduate career he undertook a literary tour through Germany,
+Holland, France and England. On his return to Halle, he acted for some
+time as _Privatdozent_, but in 1773 was appointed to a professorial
+chair; in 1775 he was translated to Jena, where the rest of his life was
+spent (though he received calls to other universities). He died on the
+24th of March 1812. Griesbach's fame rests upon his work in New
+Testament criticism, in which he inaugurated a new epoch.
+
+  His critical edition of the New Testament first appeared at Halle, in
+  three volumes, in 1774-1775. The first volume contained the first
+  three Gospels, synoptically arranged; the second, the Epistles and the
+  book of Revelation. All the historical books were reprinted in one
+  volume in 1777, the synoptical arrangement of the Gospels having been
+  abandoned as inconvenient. Of the second edition, considerably
+  enlarged and improved, the first volume appeared in 1796 and the
+  second in 1806 (Halle and London). Of a third edition, edited by David
+  Schulz, only the first volume, containing the four Gospels, appeared
+  (1827).
+
+  For the construction of his critical text Griesbach took as his basis
+  the Elzevir edition. Where he differed from it he placed the Elzevir
+  reading on the inner margin along with other readings he thought
+  worthy of special consideration (these last, however, being printed in
+  smaller type). To all the readings on this margin he attached special
+  marks indicating the precise degree of probability in his opinion
+  attaching to each. In weighing these probabilities he proceeded upon a
+  particular theory which in its leading features he had derived from J.
+  A. Bengel and J. S. Semler, dividing all the MSS. into three main
+  groups--the Alexandrian, the Western and the Byzantine (see BIBLE:
+  _New Testament_, "Textual Criticism"). A reading supported by only one
+  recension he considered as having only one witness in its favour;
+  those readings which were supported by all the three recensions, or
+  even by two of them, especially if these two were the Alexandrian and
+  the Western, he unhesitatingly accepted as genuine. Only when each of
+  the three recensions gives a different reading does he proceed to
+  discuss the question on other grounds. See his _Symbolae criticae ad
+  supplendas et corrigendas variarum N.T. lectionum collectiones_
+  (Halle, 1785, 1793), and his _Commentarius criticus in textum Graecum
+  N.T._, which extends to the end of Mark, and discusses the more
+  important various readings with great care and thoroughness (Jena,
+  1794 ff.). Among the other works of Griesbach (which are comparatively
+  unimportant) may be mentioned his university thesis _De codicibus
+  quatuor evangelistarum Origenianis_ (Halle, 1771) and a work upon
+  systematic theology (_Anleitung zur Kenntniss der popularen Dogmatik_,
+  Jena, 1779). His _Opuscula_, consisting chiefly of university
+  "Programs" and addresses, were edited by Gabler (2 vols., Jena, 1824).
+
+  See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+GRIESBACH, a watering-place in the grand duchy of Baden, in the valley
+of the Rench, 1550 ft. above the sea, 6 m. W. from Freudenstadt in
+Wurttemberg. It is celebrated for its saline chalybeate waters (twelve
+springs), which are specific in cases of anaemia, feminine disorders and
+diseases of the nervous system, and were used in the 16th century. The
+annual number of visitors is nearly 2000. Pop. (1900) 800. From 1665 to
+1805 Griesbach was part of the bishopric of Strassburg.
+
+  See Haberer, _Die Renchbader Petersthal und Griesbach_ (Wurzburg,
+  1866).
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFE (French for "claw"), an architectural term for the spur, an
+ornament carved at the angle of the square base of columns.
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER, COUNT (_Peder Schumacher_) (1635-1699), Danish
+statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th of August 1635, of a
+wealthy trading family connected with the leading civic, clerical and
+learned circles in the Danish capital. His tutor, Jens Vorde, who
+prepared him in his eleventh year for the university, praises his
+extraordinary gifts, his mastery of the classical languages and his
+almost disquieting diligence. The brilliant way in which he sustained
+his preliminary examination won him the friendship of the examiner,
+Bishop Jasper Brokman, at whose palace he first met Frederick III. The
+king was struck with the lad's bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous
+face; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a chapter from
+a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into Danish, for the
+entertainment of the scholarly monarch. In 1654 young Schumacher went
+abroad for eight years, to complete his education. From Germany he
+proceeded to the Netherlands, staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam,
+and passing in 1657 to Queen's College, Oxford, where he lived three
+years. The epoch-making events which occurred in England, while he was
+at Oxford, profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the Revolution
+in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle classes, convinced
+him that his proper sphere was politics. In the autumn of 1660
+Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after Mazarin's death, when the young
+Louis XIV. first seized the reins of power. Schumacher seems to have
+been profoundly impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong
+centralised monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew his
+own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever afterwards was
+his model. The last year of his travels was spent in Spain, where he
+obtained a thorough knowledge of the Castilian language and literature.
+His travels, however, if they enriched his mind, relaxed his character,
+and he brought home easy morals as well as exquisite manners.
+
+On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the monarchy
+established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager to buy the
+services of every man of the middle classes who had superior talents to
+offer. Determined to make his way in this "new Promised Land," the young
+adventurer contrived to secure the protection of Kristoffer Gabel, the
+king's confidant, and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A
+romantic friendship with the king's bastard, Count Ulric Frederick
+Gyldenlove, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher obtained his
+first political post as the king's secretary, and the same year composed
+the memorable _Kongelov_ (see DENMARK: _History_). He was now a
+personage at court, where he won all hearts by his amiability and
+gaiety; and in political matters also his influence was beginning to be
+felt.
+
+On the death of Frederick III. (February 9th, 1670) Schumacher was the
+most trusted of all the royal counsellors. He alone was aware of the
+existence of the new throne of walrus ivory embellished with three
+silver life-size lions, and of the new regalia, both of which treasures
+he had, by the king's command, concealed in a vault beneath the royal
+castle. Frederick III. had also confided to him a sealed packet
+containing the _Kongelov_, which was to be delivered to his successor
+alone. Schumacher had been recommended to his son by Frederick III. on
+his death-bed. "Make him a great man, but do it slowly!" said Frederick,
+who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his minister.
+Christian V. was, moreover, deeply impressed by the confidence which his
+father had ever shown to Schumacher. When, on the 9th of February 1670,
+Schumacher delivered the _Kongelov_ to Christian V., the king bade all
+those about him withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with
+Schumacher, appointed him his "Obergeheimesekreter." His promotion was
+now almost disquietingly rapid. In May 1670 he received the titles of
+excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same year he was
+ennobled under the name of Griffenfeldt, deriving his title from the
+gold griffin with outspread wings which surmounted his escutcheon; in
+November 1673 he was created a count, a knight of the Elephant and,
+finally, imperial chancellor. In the course of the next few months he
+gathered into his hands every branch of the government: he had reached
+the apogee of his short-lived greatness.
+
+But if his offices were manifold, so also were his talents. Seldom has
+any man united so many and such various gifts in his own person and
+carried them so easily--a playful wit, a vivid imagination, oratorical
+and literary eloquence and, above all, a profound knowledge of human
+nature both male and female, of every class and rank, from the king to
+the meanest citizen. He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III.
+by his literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse and
+ignorant Christian V. by saving him trouble, by acting and thinking for
+him, and at the same time making him believe that he was thinking and
+acting for himself. Moreover, his commanding qualities were coupled with
+an organizing talent which made itself felt in every department of the
+state, and with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal
+diplomatist.
+
+On the 25th of May 1671 the dignities of count and baron were introduced
+into Denmark "to give lustre to the court"; a few months later the order
+of the Danebrog was instituted as a fresh means of winning adherents by
+marks of favour. Griffenfeldt was the originator of these new
+institutions. To him monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he
+had also a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its
+reverses, still remained the elite of society; and Griffenfeldt, the son
+of a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most
+determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing their existence
+entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent into aristocratic
+circles. Griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the first at court would be
+the first everywhere. Much was also done to promote trade and industry,
+notably by the revival of the _Kammer Kollegium_, or board of trade, and
+the abolition of some of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher
+and the provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the
+view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the positions
+and duties of the various magistrates, who now also received fixed
+salaries, were for the first time exactly defined. But what Griffenfeldt
+could create, Griffenfeldt could dispense with, and it was not long
+before he began to encroach upon the jurisdiction of the new departments
+of state by private conferences with their chiefs. Nevertheless it is
+indisputable that, under the single direction of this master-mind, the
+Danish state was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as
+it had never done before.
+
+In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeldt gave himself
+entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark. It is
+difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence was
+perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second place,
+because the force of circumstances compelled him, again and again, to
+shift his standpoint; and finally because personal considerations
+largely intermingled with his foreign policy, and made it more elusive
+and ambiguous than it need have been. Briefly, Griffenfeldt aimed at
+restoring Denmark to the rank of a great power. He proposed to
+accomplish this by carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime
+securing and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large
+subsidies while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a conditional
+and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power, in a period of
+universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult; but Griffenfeldt did
+not regard it as impossible. The first postulate of such a policy was
+peace, especially peace with Denmark's most dangerous neighbour, Sweden.
+The second postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the
+wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent on
+armaments. Above all things Denmark was to beware of making enemies of
+France and Sweden at the same time. An alliance, on fairly equal terms,
+between the three powers, would, in these circumstances, be the
+consummation of Griffenfeldt's "system"; an alliance with France to the
+exclusion of Sweden would be the next best policy; but an alliance
+between France and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be
+avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeldt's policy succeeded, Denmark
+might have recovered her ancient possessions to the south and east
+comparatively cheaply. But again and again he was overruled. Despite his
+open protests and subterraneous counter-mining, war was actually
+declared against Sweden in 1675, and his subsequent policy seemed so
+obscure and hazardous to those who did not possess the clue to the
+perhaps purposely tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his
+arrogance and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to
+destroy him.
+
+On the 11th of March 1676, while on his way to the royal apartments,
+Griffenfeldt was arrested in the king's name and conducted to the
+citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny of his papers, lasting
+nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treasonable; but it provided the
+enemies of the fallen statesman with a deadly weapon against him in the
+shape of an entry in his private diary, in which he had imprudently
+noted that on one occasion Christian V. in a conversation with a foreign
+ambassador had "spoken like a child." On the 3rd of May Griffenfeldt was
+tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the _Hojesteret_, or
+supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries, none
+of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused.
+Griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony, bribery, oath-breaking,
+malversation and _lese-majeste_, conducted his own defence under every
+imaginable difficulty. For forty-six days before his trial he had been
+closely confined in a dungeon without lights, books or writing
+materials. Every legal assistance was illegally denied him. Nevertheless
+he proved more than a match for the forensic ability arrayed against
+him, and his first plea in defence is in a high degree dignified and
+manly. Finally, he was condemned to degradation and decapitation; though
+one of the ten judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but
+remonstrated in private with the king against its injustice. And indeed
+its injustice was flagrant. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor was
+the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could convert into a
+capital offence, while the charge of treason had not been substantiated.
+Griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold, at the very moment when the
+axe was about to descend. On hearing that the sentence was commuted to
+life-long imprisonment, he declared that the pardon was harder than the
+punishment, and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the
+rest of his life as a common soldier. For the next two and twenty years
+Denmark's greatest statesman lingered out his life in a lonely
+state-prison, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, and finally at
+Munkholm on Trondhjem fiord. He died at Trondhjem on the 12th of March
+1699. Griffenfeldt married Kitty Nansen, the granddaughter of the great
+Burgomaster Hans Nansen, who brought him half a million rix-dollars. She
+died in 1672, after bearing him a daughter.
+
+  See _Danmark's Riges Histoire_, vol. v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905);
+  Jorgenson, _Peter Schumacher-Griffenfeldt_ (Copenhagen, 1893-1894); O.
+  Vaupell, _Rigskansler Grev Griffenfeldt_ (Copenhagen, 1880-1882);
+  Bain, _Scandinavia_, cap. x. (Cambridge, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFIN [O'GRIOBTA, O'GREEVA], GERALD (1803-1840), Irish novelist and
+dramatic writer, was born at Limerick of good family, on the 12th of
+December 1803. His parents emigrated in 1820 to America, but he was left
+with an elder brother, who was a medical practitioner at Adare. As early
+as his eighteenth year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a
+newspaper in Limerick. Having written a tragedy, _Aguire_, which was
+highly praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for London with the
+purpose of "revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by writing
+for the stage." In spite of the recommendations of John Banim, he had a
+hard struggle with poverty. It was only by degrees that his literary
+work obtained any favour. _The Noyades_, an opera entirely in
+recitative, was produced at the English Opera House in 1826; and the
+success of _Holland Tide Tales_ (1827) led to _Tales of the Munster
+Festivals_ (3 vols., 1827), which were still more popular. In 1829
+appeared his fine novel, _The Collegians_, afterwards successfully
+adapted for the stage by Dion Boucicault under the title of _The Colleen
+Bawn_. He followed up this success with _The Invasion_ (1832), _Tales of
+my Neighbourhood_ (1835), _The Duke of Monmouth_ (1836), and _Talis
+Qualis, or Tales of the Jury-room_ (1842). He also wrote a number of
+lyrics touched with his native melancholy. But he became doubtful as to
+the moral influence of his writings, and ultimately he came to the
+conclusion that his true sphere of duty was to be found within the
+Church. He was admitted into a society of the Christian Brothers at
+Dublin, in September 1838, under the name of Brother Joseph, and in the
+following summer he removed to Cork, where he died of typhus fever on
+the 12th of June 1840. Before adopting the monastic habit he burned all
+his manuscripts; but _Gisippus_, a tragedy which he had composed before
+he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction, and in 1842 was put on
+the Drury Lane stage by Macready with great success.
+
+  The collected works of Gerald Griffin were published in 1842-1843 in
+  eight volumes, with a _Life_ by his brother William Griffin, M.D.; an
+  edition of his _Poetical and Dramatic Works_ (Dublin, 1895) by C. G.
+  Duffy; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by George
+  Sigerson, is included in the _Treasury of Irish Poetry_, edited by
+  Stopford A. Brooke and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFIN, a city and the county-seat of Spalding county, Georgia, U.S.A.,
+43 m. S. of Atlanta, and about 970 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1890) 4503;
+(1900) 6857 (3258 negroes); (1910) 7478. It is served by the Southern
+and the Central of Georgia railways, and is the southern terminus of the
+Griffin & Chattanooga Division of the latter. The city is situated in a
+rich agricultural region, and just outside the corporate limits is an
+agricultural experiment station, established by the state but maintained
+by the Federal government. Griffin has a large trade in cotton and
+fruit. The principal industry is the manufacture of cotton and
+cotton-seed oil. Buggies, wagons, chairs and harness are among the other
+manufactures. The municipality owns and operates the water and
+electric-lighting systems. Griffin was founded in 1840 and was chartered
+as a city in 1846.
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFIN, GRIFFON or GRYPHON (from Fr. _griffon_, Lat. _gryphus_, Gr.
+[Greek: gryps]), in the natural history of the ancients, the name of an
+imaginary rapacious creature of the eagle species, represented with four
+legs, wings and a beak,--the fore part resembling an eagle and the
+hinder a lion. In addition, some writers describe the tail as a serpent.
+This animal, which was supposed to watch over gold mines and hidden
+treasures, and to be the enemy of the horse, was consecrated to the Sun;
+and the ancient painters represented the chariot of the Sun as drawn by
+griffins. According to Spanheim, those of Jupiter and Nemesis were
+similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is probably the osprey, and
+the name is now given to a species of vulture. The griffin was said to
+inhabit Asiatic Scythia, where gold and precious stones were abundant;
+and when strangers approached to gather these the creatures leapt upon
+them and tore them in pieces, thus chastising human avarice and greed.
+The one-eyed Arimaspi waged constant war with them, according to
+Herodotus (iii. 16). Sir John de Mandeville, in his _Travels_, described
+a griffin as eight times larger than a lion.
+
+The griffin is frequently seen as a charge in heraldry (see HERALDRY,
+fig. 163); and in architectural decoration is usually represented as a
+four-footed beast with wings and the head of a leopard or tiger with
+horns, or with the head and beak of an eagle; in the latter case, but
+very rarely, with two legs. To what extent it owes its origin to Persian
+sculpture is not known, the capitals at Persepolis have sometimes
+leopard or lion heads with horns, and four-footed beasts with the beaks
+of eagles are represented in bas-reliefs. In the temple of Apollo
+Branchidae near Miletus in Asia Minor, the winged griffin of the
+capitals has leopards' heads with horns. In the capitals of the
+so-called lesser propylaea at Eleusis conventional eagles with two feet
+support the angles of the abacus. The greater number of those in Rome
+have eagles' beaks, as in the frieze of the temple of Antoninus and
+Faustina, and their tails develop into conventional foliage. A similar
+device was found in the Forum of Trajan. The best decorative employment
+of the griffin is found in the vertical supports of tables, of which
+there are two or three examples in Pompeii and others in the Vatican and
+the museums in Rome. In some of these cases the head is that of a lion
+at one end of the support and an eagle at the other end, and there is
+only one strongly developed paw; the wings circling round at the top
+form conspicuous features on the sides of these supports, the surfaces
+below being filled with conventional Greek foliage.
+
+
+
+
+GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1784-1878), Irish geologist, was born in
+Dublin on the 20th of September 1784. He obtained in 1799 a commission
+in the Royal Irish Artillery, but a year later, when the corps was
+incorporated with that of England, he retired, and devoted his attention
+to civil engineering and mining. He studied chemistry, mineralogy and
+mining for two years in London under William Nicholson (editor of the
+_Journal of Nat. Phil._), and afterwards examined the mining districts
+in various parts of England, Wales and Scotland. While in Cornwall he
+discovered ores of nickel and cobalt in material that had been rejected
+as worthless. He completed his studies under Robert Jameson and others
+at Edinburgh, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
+1807, a member of the newly established Geological Society of London in
+1808, and in the same year he returned to Ireland. In 1809 he was
+appointed by the commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of
+the bogs in Ireland, and the means of improving them. In 1812 he was
+elected professor of geology and mining engineer to the Royal Dublin
+Society. During subsequent years he made many surveys and issued many
+reports on mineral districts in Ireland, and these formed the foundation
+of his first geological map of the country (1815). In 1822 Griffith
+became engineer of public works in Cork, Kerry and Limerick, and was
+occupied until 1830 in repairing old roads and in laying out many miles
+of new roads. Meanwhile in 1825 he was appointed to carry out the
+perambulation or boundary survey of Ireland, the object of which was to
+ascertain and mark the boundaries of every county, barony, parish and
+townland in preparation for the ordnance survey. This work was finished
+in 1844. He was also called upon to assist in preparing a bill for the
+general valuation of Ireland; the act was passed in 1826, and he was
+appointed commissioner of valuation, in which capacity he continued to
+act until 1868. On "Griffith's valuation" the various local and public
+assessments were made. His extensive investigations furnished him with
+ample material for improving his geological map, and the second edition
+was published in 1835. A third edition on a larger scale (1 in. to 4 m.)
+was issued under the Board of Ordnance in 1839, and it was further
+revised in 1855. For this great work and his other services to science
+he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1854. In
+1850 he was made chairman of the Irish Board of Works, and in 1858 he
+was created a baronet. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of September 1878.
+
+  Among his many geological works the following may be mentioned:
+  _Outline of the Geology of Ireland_ (1838); _Notice respecting the
+  Fossils of the Mountain Limestone of Ireland, as compared with those
+  of Great Britain, and also with the Devonian System_ (1842); _A
+  Synopsis of the Characters of the Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of
+  Ireland_ (1844) (with F. McCoy); _A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils
+  of Ireland_ (1846) (with F. McCoy). See memoirs in _Quart. Journ.
+  Geol. Soc._ xxxv. 39; and _Geol. Mag._, 1878, p. 524, with
+  bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+GRILLE, a French term for an enclosure in either iron or bronze; there
+is no equivalent in English, "grating" applying more to a horizontal
+frame of bars over a sunk area, and "grate" to the iron bars of an open
+fireplace. The finest examples of the grille are those known as the
+_rejas_, which in Spanish churches form the enclosures of the chapels,
+such as the _reja_ in the Capilla Real at Granada in wrought iron partly
+gilt (1522). Similar grilles are employed to protect the ground-floor
+windows of mansions not only in Spain but in Italy and Germany. In
+England the most beautiful example is that in front of Queen Eleanor's
+tomb in Westminster Abbey, in wrought iron. The finest grilles in Italy
+are the enclosures of the tombs of the Della Scalas at Verona (end of
+13th century), in Germany the grille of the cenotaph of Maximilian at
+Innsbruck (early 16th century) and in France those which enclose the
+Place Stanislaus, the Place de la Carriere and the churches of Nancy,
+which were wrought by Jean Lamour in the middle of the 18th century.
+Generally, however, throughout Germany the wrought iron grilles are fine
+examples of forging, and they are employed for the enclosures of the
+numerous fountains, in the tympana of gateways, and for the protection
+of windows. At Danzig in the Marienkirche are some fine examples in
+brass.
+
+
+
+
+GRILLPARZER, FRANZ (1791-1872), the greatest dramatic poet of Austria,
+was born in Vienna, on the 15th of January 1791. His father, severe,
+pedantic, a staunch upholder of the liberal traditions of the reign of
+Joseph II., was an advocate of some standing; his mother, a nervous,
+finely-strung woman, belonged to the well-known musical family of
+Sonnleithner. After a desultory education, Grillparzer entered in 1807
+the university of Vienna as a student of jurisprudence; but two years
+later his father died, leaving the family in straitened circumstances,
+and Franz, the eldest son, was obliged to turn to private tutoring. In
+1813 he received an appointment in the court library, but as this was
+unpaid, he accepted after some months a clerkship that offered more
+solid prospects, in the Lower Austrian revenue administration. Through
+the influence of Graf Stadion, the minister of finance, he was in 1818
+appointed poet to the Hofburgtheater, and promoted to the _Hofkammer_
+(exchequer); in 1832 he became director of the archives of that
+department, and in 1856 retired from the civil service with the title of
+_Hofrat_. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official career and
+regarded his office merely as a means of independence.
+
+In 1817 the first representation of his tragedy _Die Ahnfrau_ made him
+famous, but before this he had written a long tragedy in iambics,
+_Bianca von Castilien_ (1807-1809), which was obviously modelled on
+Schiller's _Don Carlos_; and even more promising were the dramatic
+fragments _Spartacus_ and _Alfred der Grosse_ (1809). _Die Ahnfrau_ is a
+gruesome "fate-tragedy" in the trochaic measure of the Spanish drama,
+already made popular by Adolf Mullner in his _Schuld_; but Grillparzer's
+work is a play of real poetic beauties, and reveals an instinct for
+dramatic as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it
+from other "fate-dramas" of the day. Unfortunately its success led to
+the poet's being classed for the best part of his life with playwrights
+like Mullner and Houwald. _Die Ahnfrau_ was followed by _Sappho_ (1818),
+a drama of a very different type; in the classic spirit of Goethe's
+_Tasso_, Grillparzer unrolled the tragedy of poetic genius, the
+renunciation of earthly happiness imposed upon the poet by his higher
+mission. In 1821 appeared _Das goldene Vliess_, a trilogy which had been
+interrupted in 1819 by the death of the poet's mother--in a fit of
+depression she had taken her own life--and a subsequent visit to Italy.
+Opening with a powerful dramatic prelude in one act, _Der Gastfreund_,
+Grillparzer depicts in _Die Argonauten_ Jason's adventures in his quest
+for the Fleece; while _Medea_, a tragedy of noble classic proportions,
+contains the culminating events of the story which had been so often
+dramatized before. The theme is similar to that of _Sappho_, but the
+scale on which it is represented is larger; it is again the tragedy of
+the heart's desire, the conflict of the simple happy life with that
+sinister power--be it genius, or ambition--which upsets the equilibrium
+of life. The end is bitter disillusionment, the only consolation
+renunciation. Medea, her revenge stilled, her children dead, bears the
+fatal Fleece back to Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the
+nothingness of human striving and earthly happiness.
+
+For his historical tragedy _Konig Ottokars Gluck und Ende_ (1823, but
+owing to difficulties with the censor, not performed until 1825),
+Grillparzer chose one of the most picturesque events in Austrian
+domestic history, the conflict of Ottokar of Bohemia with Rudolph von
+Habsburg. With an almost modern realism he reproduced the motley world
+of the old chronicler, at the same time not losing sight of the needs of
+the theatre; the fall of Ottokar is but another text from which the poet
+preached the futility of endeavour and the vanity of worldly greatness.
+A second historical tragedy, _Ein treuer Diener seines Herrn_ (1826,
+performed 1828), attempts to embody a more heroic gospel; but the
+subject--the superhuman self-effacement of Bankbanus before Duke Otto of
+Meran--proved too uncompromising an illustration of Kant's categorical
+imperative of duty to be palatable in the theatre. With these historical
+tragedies began the darkest ten years in the poet's life. They brought
+him into conflict with the Austrian censor--a conflict which grated on
+Grillparzer's sensitive soul, and was aggravated by his own position as
+a servant of the state; in 1826 he paid a visit to Goethe in Weimar, and
+was able to compare the enlightened conditions which prevailed in the
+little Saxon duchy with the intellectual thraldom of Vienna. To these
+troubles were added more serious personal worries. In the winter of
+1820-1821 he had met for the first time Katharina Frohlich (1801-1879),
+and the acquaintance rapidly ripened into love on both sides; but
+whether owing to a presentiment of mutual incompatibility, or merely
+owing to Grillparzer's conviction that life had no happiness in store
+for him, he shrank from marriage. Whatever the cause may have been, the
+poet was plunged into an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary
+bears heart-rending witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in
+the fine cycle of poems bearing the significant title _Tristia ex Ponto_
+(1835).
+
+Yet to these years we owe the completion of two of Grillparzer's
+greatest dramas, _Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen_ (1831) and _Der
+Traum, ein Leben_ (1834). In the former tragedy, a dramatization of the
+story of Hero and Leander, he returned to the Hellenic world of
+_Sappho_, and produced what is perhaps the finest of all German
+love-tragedies. His mastery of dramatic technique is here combined with
+a ripeness of poetic expression and with an insight into motive which
+suggests the modern psychological drama of Hebbel and Ibsen; the old
+Greek love-story of Musaeus is, moreover, endowed with something of that
+ineffable poetic grace which the poet had borrowed from the great
+Spanish poets, Lope de Vega and Calderon. _Der Traum, ein Leben_,
+Grillparzer's technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more
+Spanish; it is also more of what Goethe called a "confession." The
+aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are shadowed forth in
+the hero's dream, which takes up nearly three acts of the play;
+ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare to realize the truth of
+Grillparzer's own pessimistic doctrine that all earthly ambitions and
+aspirations are vanity; the only true happiness is contentment with
+one's lot, "des Innern stiller Frieden und die schuldbefreite Brust."
+_Der Traum, ein Leben_ was the first of Grillparzer's dramas which did
+not end tragically, and in 1838 he produced his only comedy, _Weh' dem,
+der lugt_. But _Weh' dem, der lugt_, in spite of its humour of
+situation, its sparkling dialogue and the originality of its
+idea--namely, that the hero gains his end by invariably telling the
+truth, where his enemies as invariably expect him to be lying--was too
+strange to meet with approval in its day. Its failure was a blow to the
+poet, who turned his back for ever on the German theatre. In 1836
+Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris and London, in 1843 to Athens and
+Constantinople. Then came the Revolution which struck off the
+intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and his contemporaries had
+groaned in Austria, but the liberation came too late for him. Honours
+were heaped upon him; he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences;
+Heinrich Laube, as director of the Burgtheater, reinstated his plays on
+the repertory; he was in 1861 elected to the Austrian _Herrenhaus_; his
+eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died in Vienna,
+on the 21st of January 1872, the mourning of the Austrian people was
+universal. With the exception of a beautiful fragment, _Esther_ (1861),
+Grillparzer published no more dramatic poetry after the fiasco of _Weh'
+dem, der lugt_, but at his death three completed tragedies were found
+among his papers. Of these, _Die Judin von Toledo_, an admirable
+adaptation from the Spanish, has won a permanent place in the German
+classical repertory; _Ein Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg_ is a powerful
+historical tragedy and _Libussa_ is perhaps the ripest, as it is
+certainly the deepest, of all Grillparzer's dramas; the latter two plays
+prove how much was lost by the poet's divorce from the theatre.
+
+Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, his lyric poetry is in
+the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior to Lenau's; and the
+bitterness of his later years found vent in biting and stinging epigrams
+that spared few of his greater contemporaries. As a prose writer, he has
+left one powerful short story, _Der arme Spielmann_ (1848), and a volume
+of critical studies on the Spanish drama, which shows how completely he
+had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point of view.
+
+Grillparzer's brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of will-power,
+his pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which his self-imposed
+martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly adapted to express the
+mood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual thraldom that lay between
+the Napoleonic wars and the Revolution of 1848; his poetry reflects
+exactly the spirit of his people under the Metternich regime, and there
+is a deep truth behind the description of _Der Traum, ein Leben_ as the
+Austrian _Faust_. His fame was in accordance with the general tenor of
+his life; even in Austria a true understanding for his genius was late
+in coming, and not until the centenary of 1891 did the German-speaking
+world realize that it possessed in him a dramatic poet of the first
+rank; in other words, that Grillparzer was no mere "Epigone" of the
+classic period, but a poet who, by a rare assimilation of the strength
+of the Greeks, the imaginative depth of German classicism and the
+delicacy and grace of the Spaniards, had opened up new paths for the
+higher dramatic poetry of Europe.
+
+  Grillparzer's _Samtliche Werke_ are edited by A. Sauer, in 20 vols.,
+  5th edition (Stuttgart, 1892-1894); also, since the expiry of the
+  copyright in 1901, innumerable cheap reprints. _Briefe und
+  Tagebucher_, edited by C. Glossy and A. Sauer (2 vols., Stuttgart,
+  1903). _Jahrbuch der Grillparzer-Gesellschaft_, edited by K. Glossy
+  (the publication of the Grillparzer Society) (Vienna, 1891 ff.). See
+  also H. Laube, _Franz Grillparzers Lebensgeschichte_ (Stuttgart,
+  1884); J. Volkelt, _Franz Grillparzer als Dichter des Tragischen_
+  (Nordlingen, 1888); E. Reich, _Franz Grillparzers Dramen_ (Dresden,
+  1894); A. Ehrhard, _Franz Grillparzer_ (Paris, 1900) (German
+  translation by M. Necker, Munich, 1902); H. Sittenberger,
+  _Grillparzer, sein Leben und Wirken_ (Berlin, 1904); Gustav Pollak,
+  _F. Grillparzer and the Austrian Drama_ (New York, 1907). Of
+  Grillparzer's works, translations have appeared in English of _Sappho_
+  (1820, by J. Bramsen; 1846, by E. B. Lee; 1855, by L. C. Cumming;
+  1876, by E. Frothingham); and of _Medea_ (1879, by F. W. Thurstan and
+  J. A. Wittmann). Byron's warm admiration of _Sappho_ (_Letters and
+  Journals_, v. 171) is well known, while Carlyle's criticism, in his
+  essay on _German Playwrights_ (1829), is interesting as expressing the
+  generally accepted estimate of Grillparzer in the first half of the
+  19th century. See the bibliography in K. Goedeke's _Grundriss zur
+  Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung_, 2nd ed., vol. viii. (1905).
+       (J. G. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIMALD (or GRIMOALD), NICHOLAS (1519-1562), English poet, was born in
+Huntingdonshire, the son probably of Giovanni Baptista Grimaldi, who had
+been a clerk in the service of Empson and Dudley in the reign of Henry
+VII. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took his
+B.A. degree in 1540. He then removed to Oxford, becoming a
+probationer-fellow of Merton College in 1541. In 1547 he was lecturing
+on rhetoric at Christ Church, and shortly afterwards became chaplain to
+Bishop Ridley, who, when he was in prison, desired Grimald to translate
+Laurentius Valla's book against the alleged _Donation of Constantine_,
+and the _De gestis Basiliensis Concilii_ of Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.).
+His connexion with Ridley brought him under suspicion, and he was
+imprisoned in the Marshalsea. It is said that he escaped the penalties
+of heresy by recanting his errors, and was despised accordingly by his
+Protestant contemporaries. Grimald contributed to the original edition
+(June 1557) of _Songes and Sonettes_ (commonly known as _Tottel's
+Miscellany_), forty poems, only ten of which are retained in the second
+edition published in the next month. He translated (1553) Cicero's _De
+officiis as Marcus Tullius Ciceroes thre bokes of duties_ (2nd ed.,
+1556); a Latin paraphrase of Virgil's _Georgics_ (printed 1591) is
+attributed to him, but most of the works assigned to him by Bale are
+lost. Two Latin tragedies are extant; _Archipropheta sive Johannes
+Baptista_, printed at Cologne in 1548, probably performed at Oxford the
+year before, and _Christus redivivus_ (Cologne, 1543), edited by Prof.
+J. M. Hart (for the Modern Language Association of America, 1886,
+separately issued 1899). It cannot be determined whether Grimald was
+familiar with Buchanan's _Baptistes_ (1543), or with J. Schoeppe's
+_Johannes decollatus vel Ectrachelistes_ (1546). Grimald provides a
+purely romantic motive for the catastrophe in the passionate attachment
+of Herodias to Herod, and constantly resorts to lyrical methods. As a
+poet Grimald is memorable as the earliest follower of Surrey in the
+production of blank verse. He writes sometimes simply enough, as in the
+lines on his own childhood addressed to his mother, but in general his
+style is more artificial, and his metaphors more studied than is the
+case with the other contributors to the _Miscellany_. His classical
+reading shows itself in the comparative terseness and smartness of his
+verses. His epitaph was written by Barnabe Googe in May 1562.
+
+  See C. H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations of England and
+  Germany_ (pp. 113-119, 1886). _A Catalogue of printed books ... by
+  writers bearing the name of Grimaldi_ (ed. A. B. Grimaldi), printed
+  1883; and Arber's reprint oi _Tottel's Miscellany_.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (1606-1680), Italian architect and painter,
+named Il Bolognese from the place of his birth, was a relative of the
+Caracci family, under whom it is presumed he studied first. He was
+afterwards a pupil of Albani. He went to Rome, and was appointed
+architect to Pope Paul V., and was also patronized by succeeding popes.
+Towards 1648 he was invited to France by Cardinal Mazarin, and for about
+two years was employed in buildings for that minister and for Louis
+XIV., and in fresco-painting in the Louvre. His colour was strong,
+somewhat excessive in the use of green; his touch light. He painted
+history, portraits and landscapes--the last with predilection,
+especially in his advanced years--and executed engravings and etchings
+from his own landscapes and from those of Titian and the Caracci.
+Returning to Rome, he was made president of the Academy of St Luke; and
+in that city he died on the 28th of November 1680, in high repute not
+only for his artistic skill but for his upright and charitable deeds.
+His son Alessandro assisted him both in painting and in engraving.
+Paintings by Grimaldi are preserved in the Quirinal and Vatican palaces,
+and in the church of S. Martino a'Monti; there is also a series of his
+landscapes in the Colonna Gallery.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMALDI, JOSEPH (1779-1837), the most celebrated of English clowns, was
+born in London on the 18th of December 1779, the son of an Italian
+actor. When less than two years old he was brought upon the stage at
+Drury Lane; at the age of three he began to appear at Sadler's Wells;
+and he did not finally retire until 1828. As the clown of pantomime he
+was considered without an equal, his greatest success being in _Mother
+Goose_, at Covent Garden (1806 and often revived). Grimaldi died on the
+31st of May 1837.
+
+  His _Memoirs_ in two volumes (1838) were edited by Charles Dickens.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMKE, SARAH MOORE (1792-1873) and ANGELINA EMILY (1805-1879), American
+reformers, born in Charleston, South Carolina--Sarah on the 6th of
+November 1792, and Angelina on the 20th of February 1805--were daughters
+of John Fachereau Grimke (1752-1819), an artillery officer in the
+Continental army, a jurist of some distinction, a man of wealth and
+culture and a slave-holder.
+
+Their older brother, THOMAS SMITH GRIMKE (1786-1834), was born in
+Charleston; graduated at Yale in 1807; was a successful lawyer, and in
+1826-1830 was a member of the state Senate, in which he, almost alone of
+the prominent lawyers of the state, opposed nullification; he strongly
+advocated spelling-reform, temperance and absolute non-resistance, and
+published _Addresses on Science, Education and Literature_ (1831). His
+early intellectual influence on Sarah was strong.
+
+In her thirteenth year Sarah was godmother to her sister Angelina. Sarah
+in 1821 revisited Philadelphia, whither she had accompanied her father
+on his last illness, and there, having been already dissatisfied with
+the Episcopal Church and with the Presbyterian, she became a Quaker; so,
+too, did Angelina, who joined her in 1829. Both sisters (Angelina first)
+soon grew into a belief in immediate abolition, strongly censured by
+many Quakers, who were even more shocked by a sympathetic letter dated
+"8th Month, 30th, 1835" written by Angelina to W. L. Garrison, followed
+in 1836 by her _Appeal to the Christian Women of the South_, and at the
+end of that year, by an _Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States_,
+written by Sarah, who now thoroughly agreed with her younger sister. In
+the same year, at the invitation of Elizur Wright (1804-1885),
+corresponding secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Angelina,
+accompanied by Sarah, began giving talks on slavery, first in private
+and then in public, so that in 1837, when they set to work in
+Massachusetts, they had to secure the use of large halls. Their speaking
+from public platforms resulted in a letter issued by some members of the
+General Association of Congregational Ministers of Massachusetts,
+calling on the clergy to close their churches to women exhorters;
+Garrison denounced the attack on the Grimke sisters and Whittier
+ridiculed it in his poem "The Pastoral Letter." Angelina pointedly
+answered _Miss Beecher on the Slave Question_ (1837) in letters in the
+_Liberator_. Sarah, who had never forgotten that her studies had been
+curtailed because she was a girl, contributed to the Boston _Spectator_
+papers on "The Province of Woman" and published _Letters on the
+Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes_ (1838)--the real
+beginning of the "woman's rights" movement in America, and at the time a
+cause of anxiety to Whittier and others, who urged upon the sisters the
+prior importance of the anti-slavery cause. In 1838 Angelina married
+Theodore Dwight Weld (1803-1895), a reformer and abolition orator and
+pamphleteer, who had taken part in the famous Lane Seminary debates in
+1834, had left the Seminary for the lecture platform when the
+anti-slavery society was broken up by the Lane trustees, but had lost
+his voice in 1836 and had become editor of the publications of the
+American Anti-Slavery Society.[1] They lived, with Sarah, at Fort Lee,
+New Jersey, in 1838-1840, then on a farm at Belleville, New Jersey, and
+then conducted a school for black and white alike at Eagleswood, near
+Perth Amboy, New Jersey, from 1854 to 1864. Removing to Hyde Park,
+Massachusetts, the three were employed in Dr Lewis's school. There Sarah
+died on the 23rd of December 1873, and Angelina on the 26th of October
+1879. Both sisters indulged in various "fads"--Graham's diet,
+bloomer-wearing, absolute non-resistance. Angelina did no public
+speaking after her marriage, save at Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia),
+destroyed by a mob immediately after her address there; but besides her
+domestic and school duties she was full of tender charity. Sarah at the
+age of 62 was still eager to study law or medicine, or to do something
+to aid her sex; at 75 she translated and abridged Lamartine's life of
+Joan of Arc.
+
+  See Catherine H. Birney, _The Grimke Sisters_ (Boston, 1885).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Weld was the author of several anti-slavery books which had
+    considerable influence at the time. Among them are _The Bible against
+    Slavery_ (1837), _American Slavery as It Is_ (1839), a collection of
+    extracts from Southern papers, and _Slavery and the Internal Slave
+    Trade in the U.S._ (1841).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, BARON VON (1723-1807), French author, the son
+of a German pastor, was born at Ratisbon on the 26th of December 1723.
+He studied at the University of Leipzig, where he came under the
+influence of Gottsched and of J. A. Ernesti, to whom he was largely
+indebted for his critical appreciation of classical literature. When
+nineteen he produced a tragedy, _Banise_, which met with some success.
+After two years of study he returned to Ratisbon, where he was attached
+to the household of Count Schonberg. In 1748 he accompanied August
+Heinrich, Count Friesen, to Paris as secretary, and he is said by
+Rousseau to have acted for some time as reader to Frederick, the young
+hereditary prince of Saxe-Gotha. His acquaintance with Rousseau, through
+a mutual sympathy in regard to musical matters, soon ripened into
+intimate friendship, and led to a close association with the
+encyclopaedists. He rapidly obtained a thorough knowledge of the French
+language, and acquired so perfectly the tone and sentiments of the
+society in which he moved that all marks of his foreign origin and
+training seemed effaced. A witty pamphlet entitled _Le Petit Prophete de
+Boehmischbroda_ (1753), written by him in defence of Italian as against
+French opera, established his literary reputation. It is possible that
+the origin of the pamphlet is partly to be accounted for by his vehement
+passion[1] for Mlle Fel, the _prima donna_ of the Italian company. In
+1753 Grimm, following the example of the abbe Raynal, began a literary
+correspondence with various German sovereigns. Raynal's letters,
+_Nouvelles litteraires_, ceased early in 1755. With the aid of friends,
+especially of Diderot and Mme d'Epinay, during his temporary absences
+from France, Grimm himself carried on the correspondence, which
+consisted of two letters a month, until 1773, and eventually counted
+among his subscribers Catherine II. of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski,
+king of Poland, and many princes of the smaller German States. It was
+probably in 1754 that Grimm was introduced by Rousseau to Madame
+d'Epinay, with whom he soon formed a _liaison_ which led to an
+irreconcilable rupture between him and Rousseau. Rousseau was induced by
+his resentment to give in his _Confessions_ a wholly mendacious portrait
+of Grimm's character. In 1755, after the death of Count Friesen, who was
+a nephew of Marshal Saxe and an officer in the French army, Grimm became
+_secretaire des commandements_ to the duke of Orleans, and in this
+capacity he accompanied Marshal d'Estrees on the campaign of Westphalia
+in 1756-57. He was named envoy of the town of Frankfort at the court of
+France in 1759, but was deprived of his office for criticizing the comte
+de Broglie in a despatch intercepted by Louis XV. He was made a baron of
+the Holy Roman Empire in 1775. His introduction to Catherine II. of
+Russia took place at St Petersburg in 1773, when he was in the suite of
+Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt on the occasion of her marriage to the
+czarevitch Paul. He became minister of Saxe-Gotha at the court of France
+in 1776, but in 1777 he again left Paris on a visit to St Petersburg,
+where he remained for nearly a year in daily intercourse with Catherine.
+He acted as Paris agent for the empress in the purchase of works of art,
+and executed many confidential commissions for her. In 1783 and the
+following years he lost his two most intimate friends, Mme d'Epinay and
+Diderot. In 1792 he emigrated, and in the next year settled in Gotha,
+where his poverty was relieved by Catherine, who in 1796 appointed him
+minister of Russia at Hamburg. On the death of the empress Catherine he
+took refuge with Mme d'Epinay's granddaughter, Emilie de Belsunce,
+comtesse de Bueil. Grimm had always interested himself in her, and had
+procured her dowry from the empress Catherine. She now received him with
+the utmost kindness. He died at Gotha on the 19th of December 1807.
+
+The correspondence of Grimm was strictly confidential, and was not
+divulged during his lifetime. It embraces nearly the whole period from
+1750 to 1790, but the later volumes, 1773 to 1790, were chiefly the work
+of his secretary, Jakob Heinrich Meister. At first he contented himself
+with enumerating the chief current views in literature and art and
+indicating very slightly the contents of the principal new books, but
+gradually his criticisms became more extended and trenchant, and he
+touched on nearly every subject--political, literary, artistic, social
+and religious--which interested the Parisian society of the time. His
+notices of contemporaries are somewhat severe, and he exhibits the
+foibles and selfishness of the society in which he moved; but he was
+unbiassed in his literary judgments, and time has only served to confirm
+his criticisms. In style and manner of expression he is thoroughly
+French. He is generally somewhat cold in his appreciation, but his
+literary taste is delicate and subtle; and it was the opinion of
+Sainte-Beuve that the quality of his thought in his best moments will
+compare not unfavourably even with that of Voltaire. His religious and
+philosophical opinions were entirely negative.
+
+  Grimm's _Correspondance litteraire, philosophique et critique ...,
+  depuis 1753 jusqu'en 1769_, was edited, with many excisions, by J. B.
+  A. Suard and published at Paris in 1812, in 6 vols. 8vo; _deuxieme
+  partie, de 1771 a 1782_, in 1812 in 5 vols. 8vo; and _troisieme
+  partie, pendant une partie des annees 1775 et 1776, et pendant les
+  annees 1782 a 1790 inclusivement_, in 1813 in 5 vols. 8vo. A
+  supplementary volume appeared in 1814; the whole correspondence was
+  collected and published by M. Jules Taschereau, with the assistance of
+  A. Chaude, in a _Nouvelle Edition, revue et mise dans un meilleur
+  ordre, avec des notes et des eclaircissements, et ou se trouvent
+  retablies pour la premiere fois les phrases supprimees par la censure
+  imperiale_ (Paris, 1829, 15 vols. 8vo); and the _Correspondance
+  inedite, et recueil de lettres, poesies, morceaux, et fragments
+  retranches par la censure imperiale en 1812 et 1813_ was published in
+  1829. The standard edition is that of M. Tourneux (16 vols.,
+  1877-1882). Grimm's _Memoire historique sur l'origine et les suites de
+  mon attachement pour l'imperatrice Catherine II jusqu'au deces de sa
+  majeste imperiale_, and Catherine's correspondence with Grimm
+  (1774-1796) were published by J. Grot in 1880, in the _Collection_ of
+  the Russian Imperial Historical Society. She treats him very
+  familiarly, and calls him Heraclite, Georges Dandin, &c. At the time
+  of the Revolution she begged him to destroy her letters, but he
+  refused, and after his death they were returned to St Petersburg.
+  Grimm's side of the correspondence, however, is only partially
+  preserved. He signs himself "Pleureur." Some of Grimm's letters,
+  besides the official correspondence, are included in the edition of M.
+  Tourneux; others are contained in the _Erinnerungen einer
+  Urgrossmutter_ of K. von Bechtolsheim, edited (Berlin, 1902) by Count
+  C. Oberndorff. See also Mme d'Epinay's _Memoires_; Rousseau's
+  _Confessions_; the notices contained in the editions quoted; E.
+  Scherer, _Melchior Grimm_ (1887); Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_,
+  vol. vii. For further works bearing on the subject, see K. A. Georges,
+  _Friedrich Melchior Grimm_ (Hanover and Leipzig, 1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Rousseau's account of this affair (_Confessions_, 2nd part, 8th
+    book) must be received with caution.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1863), German philologist and
+mythologist, was born on the 4th of January 1785 at Hanau, in
+Hesse-Cassel. His father, who was a lawyer, died while he was a child,
+and the mother was left with very small means; but her sister, who was
+lady of the chamber to the landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and
+educate her numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm
+(born on the 24th of February 1786), was sent in 1798 to the public
+school at Cassel. In 1802 he proceeded to the university of Marburg,
+where he studied law, a profession for which he had been destined by his
+father. His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just
+recovered from a long and severe illness, and likewise began the study
+of law. Up to this time Jacob Grimm had been actuated only by a general
+thirst for knowledge and his energies had not found any aim beyond the
+practical one of making himself a position in life. The first definite
+impulse came from the lectures of Savigny, the celebrated investigator
+of Roman law, who, as Grimm himself says (in the preface to the
+_Deutsche Grammatik_), first taught him to realize what it meant to
+study any science. Savigny's lectures also awakened in him that love for
+historical and antiquarian investigation which forms the basis of all
+his work. Then followed personal acquaintance, and it was in Savigny's
+well-provided library that Grimm first turned over the leaves of
+Bodmer's edition of the Old German minnesingers and other early texts,
+and felt an eager desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and
+half-revealed mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 1805 he
+received an invitation from Savigny, who had removed to Paris, to help
+him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very happy time in Paris,
+strengthening his taste for the literatures of the middle ages by his
+studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the close of the year he
+returned to Cassel, where his mother and Wilhelm had settled, the latter
+having finished his studies. The next year he obtained a situation in
+the war office with the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his
+grievances was that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a
+stiff uniform and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution
+of his studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was
+appointed superintendent of the private library of Jerome Buonaparte,
+king of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Cassel had been incorporated by
+Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an auditor to the state council, while he
+retained his other post. His salary was increased in a short interval
+from 2000 to 4000 francs, and his official duties were hardly more than
+nominal. After the expulsion of Jerome and the reinstalment of an
+elector, Grimm was appointed in 1813 secretary of legation, to accompany
+the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814 he
+was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books carried off by the
+French, and in 1814-1815 he attended the congress of Vienna as secretary
+of legation. On his return he was again sent to Paris on the same errand
+as before. Meanwhile Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Cassel
+library, and in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel. On
+the death of Volkel in 1828 the brothers expected to be advanced to the
+first and second librarianships respectively, and were much dissatisfied
+when the first place was given to Rommel, keeper of the archives. So
+they removed next year to Gottingen, where Jacob received the
+appointment of professor and librarian, Wilhelm that of under-librarian.
+Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary
+history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on
+the _Germania_ of Tacitus. At this period he is described as small and
+lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian dialect.
+His powerful memory enabled him to dispense with the manuscript which
+most German professors rely on, and he spoke extempore, referring only
+occasionally to a few names and dates written on a slip of paper. He
+himself regretted that he had begun the work of teaching so late in
+life; and as a lecturer he was not successful: he had no idea of
+digesting his facts and suiting them to the comprehension of his
+hearers; and even the brilliant, terse and eloquent passages which
+abound in his writings lost much of their effect when jerked out in the
+midst of a long array of dry facts. In 1837, being one of the seven
+professors who signed a protest against the king of Hanover's abrogation
+of the constitution established some years before, he was dismissed from
+his professorship, and banished from the kingdom of Hanover. He returned
+to Cassel together with his brother, who had also signed the protest,
+and remained there till, in 1840, they accepted an invitation from the
+king of Prussia to remove to Berlin, where they both received
+professorships, and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Not
+being under any obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together
+with his brother worked at the great dictionary. During their stay at
+Cassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy, where he
+read papers on the most varied subjects. The best known of these are
+those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother Wilhelm (who died in 1859),
+on old age, and on the origin of language. He also described his
+impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more
+general observations with linguistic details, as is the case in all his
+works.
+
+Grimm died in 1863, working up to the last. He was never ill, and worked
+on all day, without haste and without pause. He was not at all impatient
+of interruption, but seemed rather to be refreshed by it, returning to
+his work without effort. He wrote for the press with great rapidity, and
+hardly ever made corrections. He never revised what he had written,
+remarking with a certain wonder of his brother, "Wilhelm reads his
+manuscripts over again before sending them to press!" His temperament
+was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused. Outside his own
+special work he had a marked taste for botany. The spirit which animated
+his work is best described by himself at the end of his autobiography.
+"Nearly all my labours have been devoted, either directly or indirectly,
+to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws. These
+studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me
+they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and
+inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to
+foster the love of it. My principle has always been in these
+investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the
+illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of
+the written monuments."
+
+The purely scientific side of Grimm's character developed slowly. He
+seems to have felt the want of definite principles of etymology without
+being able to discover them, and indeed even in the first edition of his
+grammar (1819) he seems to be often groping in the dark. As early as
+1815 we find A. W. Schlegel reviewing the _Altdeutsche Walder_ (a
+periodical published by the two brothers) very severely, condemning the
+lawless etymological combinations it contained, and insisting on the
+necessity of strict philological method and a fundamental investigation
+of the laws of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds.
+This criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the
+direction of Grimm's studies.
+
+The first work he published, _Uber den altdeutschen Meistergesang_
+(1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in this essay Grimm
+showed that _Minnesang_ and _Meistersang_ were really one form of
+poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of
+development, and also announced his important discovery of the
+invariable division of the _Lied_ into three strophic parts.
+
+His text-editions were mostly prepared in common with his brother. In
+1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the _Hildebrandslied_
+and the _Weissenbrunner Gebet_, Jacob having discovered what till then
+had never been suspected--the alliteration in these poems. However,
+Jacob had little taste for text-editing, and, as he himself confessed,
+the evolving of a critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore
+left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his
+brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical
+philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. Both brothers
+were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the
+form of epics, ballads or popular tales. They published in 1816-1818 an
+analysis and critical sifting of the oldest epic traditions of the
+Germanic races under the title of _Deutsche Sagen_. At the same time
+they collected all the popular tales they could find, partly from the
+mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published
+in 1812-1815 the first edition of those _Kinder- und Hausmarchen_ which
+have carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the
+civilized world, and founded the science of folk-lore. The closely
+allied subject of the satirical beast epic of the middle ages also had a
+great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the
+_Reinhart Fuchs_ in 1834. His first contribution to mythology was the
+first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken conjointly
+with his brother, published in 1815, which, however, was not followed by
+any more. The first edition of his _Deutsche Mythologie_ appeared in
+1835. This great work covers the whole range of the subject, tracing the
+mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of
+direct evidence, and following their decay and loss down to the popular
+traditions, tales and expressions in which they still linger.
+
+Although by the introduction of the Code Napoleon into Westphalia
+Grimm's legal studies were made practically barren, he never lost his
+interest in the scientific study of law and national institutions, as
+the truest exponents of the life and character of a people. By the
+publication (in 1828) of his _Rechtsalterthumer_ he laid the foundations
+of that historical study of the old Teutonic laws and constitutions
+which was continued with brilliant success by Georg L. Maurer and
+others. In this work Grimm showed the importance of a linguistic study
+of the old laws, and the light that can be thrown on many a dark passage
+in them by a comparison of the corresponding words and expressions in
+the other old cognate dialects. He also knew how--and this is perhaps
+the most original and valuable part of his work--to trace the spirit of
+the laws in countless allusions and sayings which occur in the old poems
+and sagas, or even survive in modern colloquialisms.
+
+Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching is his
+_Geschichte der deutschen Sprache_, where at the same time the
+linguistic element is most distinctly brought forward. The subject of
+the work is, indeed, nothing less than the history which lies hidden in
+the words of the German language--the oldest national history of the
+Teutonic tribes determined by means of language. For this purpose he
+laboriously collects the scattered words and allusions to be found in
+classical writers, and endeavours to determine the relations in which
+the German language stood to those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians,
+and many other nations whose languages are known only by doubtfully
+identified, often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and
+Latin authors. Grimm's results have been greatly modified by the wider
+range of comparison and improved methods of investigation which now
+characterize linguistic science, and many of the questions raised by him
+will probably for ever remain obscure; but his book will always be one
+of the most fruitful and suggestive that have ever been written.
+
+Grimm's famous _Deutsche Grammatik_ was the outcome of his purely
+philological work. The labours of past generations--from the humanists
+onwards--had collected an enormous mass of materials in the shape of
+text-editions, dictionaries and grammars, although most of it was
+uncritical and often untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the
+way of comparison and the determination of general laws, and the
+conception of a comparative Teutonic grammar had been clearly grasped by
+the illustrious Englishman George Hickes, at the beginning of the 18th
+century, and partly carried out by him in his _Thesaurus_. Ten Kate in
+Holland had afterwards made valuable contributions to the history and
+comparison of the Teutonic languages. Even Grimm himself did not at
+first intend to include all the languages in his grammar; but he soon
+found that Old High German postulated Gothic, that the later stages of
+German could not be understood without the help of the Low German
+dialects, including English, and that the rich literature of Scandinavia
+could as little be ignored. The first edition of the first part of the
+_Grammar_, which appeared in 1819, and is now extremely rare, treated of
+the inflections of all these languages, together with a general
+introduction, in which he vindicated the importance of an historical
+study of the German language against the a priori, quasi-philosophical
+methods then in vogue.
+
+In 1822 this volume appeared in a second edition--really a new work,
+for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, it cost him little reflection
+to mow down the first crop to the ground. The wide distance between the
+two stages of Grimm's development in these two editions is significantly
+shown by the fact that while the first edition gives only the
+inflections, in the second volume phonology takes up no fewer than 600
+pages, more than half of the whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened
+to the full conviction that all sound philology must be based on
+rigorous adhesion to the laws of sound-change, and he never afterwards
+swerved from this principle, which gave to all his investigations, even
+in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and that force of
+conviction which distinguish science from dilettanteism; up to Grimm's
+time philology was nothing but a more or less laborious and
+conscientious dilettanteism, with occasional flashes of scientific
+inspiration; he made it into a science. His advance must be attributed
+mainly to the influence of his contemporary R. Rask. Rask was born two
+years later than Grimm, but his remarkable precocity gave him somewhat
+the start. Even in Grimm's first editions his Icelandic paradigms are
+based entirely on Rask's grammar, and in his second edition he relied
+almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to Rask can only be
+estimated at its true value by comparing his treatment of Old English in
+the two editions; the difference is very great. Thus in the first
+edition he declines _daeg_, _daeges_, plural _daegas_, not having
+observed the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask. There can be
+little doubt that the appearance of Rask's Old English grammar was a
+main inducement for him to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask
+also belongs the merit of having first distinctly formulated the laws of
+sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the
+vowels, those more fleeting elements of speech which had hitherto been
+ignored by etymologists.
+
+This leads to a question which has been the subject of much
+controversy,--Who discovered what is known as _Grimm's law_? This law of
+the correspondence of consonants in the older Indo-germanic, Low and
+High German languages respectively was first fully stated by Grimm in
+the second edition of the first part of his grammar. The correspondence
+of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several
+of his predecessors; but the one who came nearest to the discovery of
+the complete law was the Swede J. Ihre, who established a considerable
+number of "literarum permutationes," such as _b_ for _f_, with the
+examples _baera = ferre_, _befwer = fiber_. Rask, in his essay on the
+origin of the Icelandic language, gives the same comparisons, with a few
+additions and corrections, and even the very same examples in most
+cases. As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentions
+this essay of Rask, there is every probability that it gave the first
+impulse to his own investigations. But there is a wide difference
+between the isolated permutations of his predecessors and the
+comprehensive generalizations under which he himself ranged them. The
+extension of the law to High German is also entirely his own. The only
+fact that can be adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished
+to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is that he does not expressly
+mention Rask's results in his second edition. But this is part of the
+plan of his work, viz. to refrain from all controversy or reference to
+the works of others. In his first edition he expressly calls attention
+to Rask's essay, and praises it most ungrudgingly. Rask himself refers
+as little to Ihre, merely alluding in a general way to Ihre's
+permutations, although his own debt to Ihre is infinitely greater than
+that of Grimm to Rask or any one else. It is true that a certain
+bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but
+this was the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and
+irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of Grimm's
+views when they involved modification of his own. The importance of
+Grimm's generalization in the history of philology cannot be
+overestimated, and even the mystic completeness and symmetry of its
+formulation, although it has proved a hindrance to the correct
+explanation of the causes of the changes, was well calculated to strike
+the popular mind, and give it a vivid idea of the paramount importance
+of law, and the necessity of disregarding mere superficial resemblance.
+The most lawless etymologist bows down to the authority of Grimm's law,
+even if he honours it almost as much in the breach as in the observance.
+
+The grammar was continued in three volumes, treating principally of
+derivation, composition and syntax, which last was left unfinished.
+Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the
+vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by
+the dictionary. The grammar stands alone in the annals of science for
+comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail. Every law, every
+letter, every syllable of inflection in the different languages is
+illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material. It has served as a
+model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the Romance
+languages is founded entirely on its methods, which have also exerted a
+profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-Germanic languages in
+general.
+
+In the great German dictionary Grimm undertook a task for which he was
+hardly suited. His exclusively historical tendencies made it impossible
+for him to do justice to the individuality of a living language; and the
+disconnected statement of the facts of language in an ordinary
+alphabetical dictionary fatally mars its scientific character. It was
+also undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for him and
+his brother to complete it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was
+worked out by Grimm himself, may be described as a collection of
+disconnected antiquarian essays of high value.
+
+Grimm's scientific character is notable for its combination of breadth
+and unity. He was as far removed from the narrowness of the specialist
+who has no ideas, no sympathies beyond some one author, period or corner
+of science, as from the shallow dabbler who feverishly attempts to
+master the details of half-a-dozen discordant pursuits. Even within his
+own special studies there is the same wise concentration; no
+Mezzofanti-like parrot display of useless polyglottism. The very
+foundations of his nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of
+historical investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the
+study of the language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his
+own countrymen and their nearest kindred. But from this centre his
+investigations were pursued in every direction as far as his unerring
+instinct of healthy limitation would allow. He was equally fortunate in
+the harmony that subsisted between his intellectual and moral nature. He
+made cheerfully the heavy sacrifices that science demands from its
+disciples, without feeling any of that envy and bitterness which often
+torment weaker natures; and although he lived apart from his fellow men,
+he was full of human sympathies, and no man has ever exercised a
+profounder influence on the destinies of mankind. His was the very ideal
+of the noblest type of German character.
+
+  The following is a complete list of his separately published works,
+  those which he published in common with his brother being marked with
+  a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, &c., see vol. v. of
+  his _Kleinere Schriften_, from which the present list is taken. His
+  life is best studied in his own "Selbstbiographie," in vol. i. of the
+  _Kleinere Schriften_. There is also a brief memoir by K. Godeke in
+  _Gottinger Professoren_ (Gotha (Perthes), 1872): _Uber den
+  altdeutschen Meistergesang_ (Gottingen, 1811); *_Kinder- und
+  Hausmarchen_ (Berlin, 1812-1815) (many editions); *_Das Lied von
+  Hildebrand und das Weissenbrunner Gebet_ (Cassel, 1812); _Altdeutsche
+  Walder_ (Cassel, Frankfort, 1813-1816, 3 vols.); *_Der arme Heinrich
+  von Hartmann von der Aue_ (Berlin, 1815); *_Irmenstrasse und
+  Irmensaule_ (Vienna, 1815); *_Die Lieder der allen Edda_ (Berlin,
+  1815), _Silva de romances viejos_ (Vienna, 1815); *_Deutsche Sagen_
+  (Berlin, 1816-1818, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1865-1866); _Deutsche Grammatik_
+  (Gottingen, 1819, 2nd ed., Gottingen, 1822-1840) (reprinted 1870 by W.
+  Scherer, Berlin); _Wuk Stephanovitsch's kleine serbische Grammatik,
+  verdeutscht mit einer Vorrede_ (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824); _Zur
+  Recension der deutschen Grammatik_ (Cassel, 1826); *_Irische
+  Elfenmarchen, aus dem Englischen_ (Leipzig, 1826); _Deutsche
+  Rechtsaltertumer_ (Gottingen, 1828, 2nd ed., 1854); _Hymnorum veteris
+  ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio theodisca_ (Gottingen, 1830); _Reinhart
+  Fuchs_ (Berlin, 1834); _Deutsche Mythologie_ (Gottingen, 1835, 3rd
+  ed., 1854, 2 vols.); _Taciti Germania edidit_ (Gottingen, 1835); _Uber
+  meine Entlassung_ (Basel, 1838); (together with Schmeller)
+  _Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI. Jahrhunderts_ (Gottingen, 1838);
+  _Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann uber Reinhart Fuchs_ (Berlin, 1840);
+  _Weistumer_, Th. i. (Gottingen, 1840) (continued, partly by others, in
+  5 parts, 1840-1869); _Andreas und Elene_ (Cassel, 1840); _Frau
+  Aventure_ (Berlin, 1842); _Geschichte der deutschen Sprache_ (Leipzig,
+  1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.); _Das Wort des Besitzes_ (Berlin, 1850);
+  *_Deutsches Worterbuch_, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1854); _Rede auf Wilhelm
+  Grimm und Rede uber das Alter_ (Berlin, 1868, 3rd ed., 1865);
+  _Kleinere Schriften_ (Berlin, 1864-1870, 5 vols.).     (H. Sw.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859). For the chief events in the life of
+Wilhelm Grimm see article on Jacob Grimm above. As Jacob himself said in
+his celebrated address to the Berlin Academy on the death of his
+brother, the whole of their lives were passed together. In their
+schooldays they had one bed and one table in common, as students they
+had two beds and two tables in the same room, and they always lived
+under one roof, and had their books and property in common. Nor did
+Wilhelm's marriage in any way disturb their harmony. As Cleasby said
+("Life of Cleasby," prefixed to his _Icelandic Dictionary_, p. lxix.),
+"they both live in the same house, and in such harmony and community
+that one might almost imagine the children were common property."
+Wilhelm's character was a complete contrast to that of his brother. As a
+boy he was strong and healthy, but as he grew up he was attacked by a
+long and severe illness, which left him weak all his life. His was a
+less comprehensive and energetic mind than that of his brother, and he
+had less of the spirit of investigation, preferring to confine himself
+to some limited and definitely bounded field of work; he utilized
+everything that bore directly on his own studies, and ignored the rest.
+These studies were almost always of a literary nature. It is
+characteristic of his more aesthetic nature that he took great delight
+in music, for which his brother had but a moderate liking, and had a
+remarkable gift of story-telling. Cleasby, in the account of his visit
+to the brothers, quoted above, tells that "Wilhelm read a sort of farce
+written in the Frankfort dialect, depicting the 'malheurs' of a rich
+Frankfort tradesman on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and
+he read it admirably." Cleasby describes him as "an uncommonly animated,
+jovial fellow." He was, accordingly, much sought in society, which he
+frequented much more than his brother.
+
+  His first work was a spirited translation of the Danish _Kaempeviser,
+  Altdanische Heldenlieder_, published in 1811-1813, which made his name
+  at first more widely known than that of his brother. The most
+  important of his text editions are--_Ruolandslied_ (Gottingen, 1838);
+  _Konrad von Wurzburg's Goldene Schmiede_ (Berlin, 1840); _Grave
+  Ruodolf_ (Gottingen, 1844, 2nd ed.); _Athis und Prophilias_ (Berlin,
+  1846); _Altdeutsche Gesprache_ (Berlin, 1851); _Freidank_ (Gottingen,
+  1860, 2nd ed.). Of his other works the most important is _Deutsche
+  Heldensage_ (Berlin, 1868, 2nd ed.). His _Deutsche Runen_ (Gottingen,
+  1821) has now only an historical interest.     (H. Sw.)
+
+
+
+
+GRIMMA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of the Mulde,
+19 m. S.E. of Leipzig on the railway Dobeln-Dresden. Pop. (1905) 11,182.
+It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, and among other
+principal buildings are the Schloss built in the 12th century, and long
+a residence of the margraves of Meissen and the electors of Saxony; the
+town-hall, dating from 1442, and the famous school Furstenschule
+(_Illustre Moldanum_), erected by the elector Maurice on the site of the
+former Augustinian monastery in 1550, having provision for 104 free
+scholars and a library numbering 10,000 volumes. There are also a modern
+school, a teachers' seminary, a commercial school and a school of
+brewing. Among the industries of the town are ironfounding, machine
+building and dyeworks, while paper and gloves are manufactured there.
+Gardening and agriculture generally are also important branches of
+industry. In the immediate neighbourhood are the ruins of the Cistercian
+nunnery from which Catherine von Bora fled in 1523, and the village of
+Doben, with an old castle. Grimma is of Sorbian origin, and is first
+mentioned in 1203. It passed then into possession of Saxony and has
+remained since part of that country.
+
+  See Lorenz, _Die Stadt Grimma, historisch beschrieben_ (Leipzig,
+  1871); Rossler, _Geschichte der koniglich sachsischen Fursten- und
+  Landesschule Grimma_ (Leipzig, 1891); L. Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der
+  Stadt Grimma_ (Leipzig, 1895); and Fraustadt, _Grimmenser Stammbuch_
+  (Grimma, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON (c. 1625-1676), German
+author, was born at Gelnhausen in or about 1625. At the age of ten he
+was kidnapped by Hessian soldiery, and in their midst tasted the
+adventures of military life in the Thirty Years' War. At its close,
+Grimmelshausen entered the service of Franz Egon von Furstenberg, bishop
+of Strassburg and in 1665 was made _Schultheiss_ (magistrate) at Renchen
+in Baden. On obtaining this appointment, he devoted himself to literary
+pursuits, and in 1669 published _Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus,
+Teutsch, d.h. die Beschreibung des Lebens eines seltsamen Vaganten,
+genannt Melchior Sternfels von Fuchsheim_, the greatest German novel of
+the 17th century. For this work he took as his model the picaresque
+romances of Spain, already to some extent known in Germany.
+_Simplicissimus_ is in great measure its author's autobiography; he
+begins with the childhood of his hero, and describes the latter's
+adventures amid the stirring scenes of the Thirty Years' War. The
+realistic detail with which these pictures are presented makes the book
+one of the most valuable documents of its time. In the later parts
+Grimmelshausen, however, over-indulges in allegory, and finally loses
+himself in a Robinson Crusoe story. Among his other works the most
+important are the so-called _Simplicianische Schriften: Die
+Erzbetrugerin und Landstortzerin Courasche_ (c. 1669); _Der seltsame
+Springinsfeld_ (1670) and _Das wunderbarliche Vogelnest_ (1672). His
+satires, such as _Der teutsche Michel_ (1670), and "gallant" novels,
+like _Dietwald und Amelinde_ (1670) are of inferior interest. He died at
+Renchen on the 17th of August 1676, where a monument was erected to him
+in 1879.
+
+  Editions of _Simplicissimus_ and the _Simplicianische Schriften_ have
+  been published by A. von Keller (1854), H. Kurz (1863-1864), J.
+  Tittmann (1877) and F. Bobertag (1882). A reprint of the first edition
+  of the novel was edited by R. Kogel for the series of _Neudrucke des
+  16. und 17. Jahrhunderts_ (1880). See the introductions to these
+  editions; also F. Antoine, _Etude sur le Simplicissimus de
+  Grimmelshausen_ (1882) and E. Schmidt in his _Charakteristiken_, vol.
+  i. (1886).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI, COMTE DE (1753-1815), French soldier and
+military writer, entered the royal army at the age of sixteen, and in
+1775 published his _Essai theorique et practique sur les batailles_.
+Shortly afterwards Louis XVI. placed him in his own military cabinet and
+employed him especially in connexion with schemes of army reform. By the
+year of the Revolution he had become one of Louis's most valued
+counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and was marked
+out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of War. In 1791
+Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation of the scheme of defence for
+France, which proved two years later of great assistance to the
+Committee of Public Safety. The events of 1792 put an end to his
+military career, and the remainder of his life was spent in writing
+military books.
+
+  The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained
+  some importance: _Histoire des dernieres campagnes de Turenne_ (Paris,
+  1780), _Lettres et memoires de Turenne_ (Paris, 1780), _Troupes
+  legeres et leur emploi_ (Paris, 1782), _Conquetes de Gustave-Adolphe_
+  (Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1782-1791); _Memoires de Gustave Adolphe_
+  (Paris, 1790), Correspondence of Marshal Richelieu (Paris, 1789), St
+  Germain (1789), and Bernis (1790), _Vie et regne de Frederic le Grand_
+  (London, 1788), _Lettres et memoires du marechal de Saxe_ (Paris,
+  1794), _L'Expedition de Minorque en 1756_ (Paris, 1798), _Recherches
+  sur la force de l'armee francaise depuis Henri IV jusqu'en 1805_
+  (Paris, 1806), _Memoires du marechal de Tesse_ (Paris, 1806), _Lettres
+  de Bolingbroke_ (Paris, 1808), _Traite, sur le service d'etat-major_
+  (Paris, 1809), and (with Servan) _Tableau historique de la guerre de
+  la Revolution 1792-1794_ (Paris, 1808).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMSBY, or GREAT GRIMSBY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
+of Lincolnshire, England; an important seaport near the mouth of the
+Humber on the south shore. Pop. (1901) 63,138. It is 155 m. N. by E.
+from London by the Great Northern railway, and is also served by the
+Great Central railway. The church of St James, situated in the older
+part of the town, is a cruciform Early English building, retaining, in
+spite of injudicious restoration, many beautiful details. The chief
+buildings are that containing the town hall and the grammar school (a
+foundation of 1547), the exchange, a theatre, and the customs house and
+dock offices. A sailors' and fishermen's Harbour of Refuge, free
+library, constitutional club and technical school are maintained. The
+duke of York public gardens were opened in 1894. Adjacent to Grimsby on
+the east is the coastal watering-place of Cleethorpes.
+
+The dock railway station lies a mile from the town station. In 1849 the
+Great Central (then the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire) railway
+initiated a scheme of reclamation and dock-construction. This was
+completed in 1854, and subsequent extensions were made. There are two
+large fish-docks, and, for general traffic, the Royal dock,
+communicating with the Humber through a tidal basin, the small Union
+dock, and the extensive Alexandra dock, together with graving docks,
+timber yards, a patent slip, &c. These docks have an area of about 104
+acres, but were found insufficient for the growing traffic of the port,
+and in 1906 the construction of a large new dock, of about 40 acres'
+area and 30 to 35 ft. depth, was undertaken by the Great Central Company
+at Immingham, 5 m. above Grimsby on the Humber. The principal imports
+are butter, woollens, timber, cereals, eggs, glass, cottons, preserved
+meat, wool, sugar and bacon. The exports consist chiefly of woollen
+yarn, woollens, cotton goods, cotton yarn, machinery, &c. and coal. It
+is as a fishing port, however, that Grimsby is chiefly famous. Two of
+the docks are for the accommodation of the fishing fleet, which,
+consisting principally of steam trawlers, numbers upwards of 500
+vessels. Regular passenger steamers run from Grimsby to Dutch and south
+Swedish ports, and to Esbjerg (Denmark), chiefly those of the Wilson
+line and the Great Central railway. The chief industries of Grimsby are
+shipbuilding, brewing, tanning, manufactures of ship tackle, ropes, ice
+for preserving fish, turnery, flour, linseed cake, artificial manure;
+and there are saw mills, bone and corn mills, and creosote works. The
+municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors.
+Area, 2852 acres.
+
+Grimsby (_Grimesbi_) is supposed to have been the landing-place of the
+Danes on their first invasion of Britain towards the close of the 8th
+century. It was a borough by prescription as early as 1201, in which
+year King John granted the burgesses a charter of liberties according to
+the custom of the burgesses of Northampton. Henry III. in 1227 granted
+to "the mayor and good men" of Grimsby, that they should hold the town
+for a yearly rent of L111, and confirmed the same in 1271. These
+charters were confirmed by later sovereigns. A governing charter, under
+the title of mayor and burgesses, was given by James II. in 1688, and
+under this the appointment of officers and other of the corporation,
+arrangements are to a great extent regulated. In 1201 King John granted
+the burgesses an annual fair for fifteen days, beginning on the 25th of
+May. Two annual fairs are now held, namely on the first Monday in April
+and the second Monday in October. No early grant of a market can be
+found, but in 1792 the market-day was Wednesday. In 1888 it had ceased
+to exist. Grimsby returned two members to the parliament of 1298, but in
+1833 the number was reduced to one.
+
+In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was an important seaport, but the
+haven became obstructed by sand and mud deposited by the Humber, and so
+the access of large vessels was prevented. At the beginning of the 19th
+century a subscription was raised by the proprietors of land in the
+neighbourhood for improving the harbour, and an act was obtained by
+which they were incorporated under the title "The Grimsby Haven Co." The
+fishing trade had become so important by 1800 that it was necessary to
+construct a new dock.
+
+
+
+
+GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE (1603-1685), English politician, second son of
+Sir Harbottle Grimston, Bart. (d. 1648), was born at Bradfield Hall,
+near Manningtree, on the 27th of January 1603. Educated at Emmanuel
+College, Cambridge, he became a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, then
+recorder of Harwich and recorder of Colchester. As member for
+Colchester, Grimston sat in the Short Parliament of 1640, and he
+represented the same borough during the Long Parliament, speedily
+becoming a leading member of the popular party. He attacked Archbishop
+Laud with great vigour; was a member of the important committees of the
+parliament, including the one appointed in consequence of the attempted
+seizure of the five members; and became deputy-lieutenant of Essex after
+the passing of the militia ordinance in January 1642. He disliked taking
+up arms against the king, but remained nominally an adherent of the
+parliamentary party during the Civil War. In the words of Clarendon, he
+"continued rather than concurred with them." Grimston does not appear to
+have taken the Solemn League and Covenant, but after the conclusion of
+the first period of the war he again became more active. He was
+president of the committee which investigated the escape of the king
+from Hampton Court in 1647, and was one of those who negotiated with
+Charles at Newport in 1648, when, according to Burnet, he fell upon his
+knees and urged the king to come to terms. From this time Grimston's
+sympathies appear to have been with the Royalists. Turned out of the
+House of Commons when the assembly was "purged" by colonel Pride, he was
+imprisoned; but was released after promising to do nothing detrimental
+to the parliament or the army, and spent the next few years in
+retirement. Before this time, his elder brother having already died, he
+had succeeded his father as 2nd baronet. In 1656 Sir Harbottle was
+returned to Cromwell's second parliament as member for Essex; but he was
+not allowed to take his seat; and with 97 others who were similarly
+treated he issued a remonstrance to the public. He was among the
+secluded members who re-entered the Long Parliament in February 1660,
+was then a member of the council of state, and was chosen Speaker of the
+House of Commons in the Convention Parliament of 1660. As Speaker he
+visited Charles II. at Breda, and addressed him in very flattering terms
+on his return to London; but he refused to accede to the king's demand
+that he should dismiss Burnet from his position as chaplain to the
+Master of the Rolls, and in parliament he strongly denounced any
+relaxation of the laws against papists. Grimston did not retain the
+office of Speaker after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament,
+but he was a member of the commission which tried the regicides, and in
+November 1660 he was appointed Master of the Rolls. Report says he paid
+Clarendon L8000 for the office, while Burnet declares he obtained it
+"without any application of his own." He died on the 2nd of January
+1685. His friend and chaplain, Burnet, speaks very highly of his piety
+and impartiality, while not omitting the undoubted fact that he was
+"much sharpened against popery." He translated the law reports of his
+father-in-law, the judge, Sir George Croke (1560-1642), which were
+written in Norman-French, and five editions of this work have appeared.
+Seven of his parliamentary speeches were published, and he also wrote
+_Strena Christiana_ (London, 1644, and other editions). Grimston's first
+wife, Croke's daughter Mary, bore him six sons and two daughters; and by
+his second wife, Anne, daughter and heiress of Sir Nathaniel Bacon,
+K.B., a grandson of Sir Nicholas Bacon, he had one daughter.
+
+Of his sons one only, Samuel (1643-1700), survived his father, and when
+he died in October 1700 the baronetcy became extinct. Sir Harbottle's
+eldest daughter, Mary, married Sir Capel Luckyn, Bart., and their
+grandson, William Luckyn, succeeded to the estates of his great-uncle,
+Sir Samuel Grimston, and took the name of Grimston in 1700. This William
+Luckyn Grimston (1683-1756) was created Baron Dunboyne and Viscount
+Grimston in the peerage of Ireland in 1719. He was succeeded as 2nd
+viscount by his son James (1711-1773), whose son James Bucknall
+(1747-1808) was made an English peer as baron Verulam of Gorhambury in
+1790. Then in 1815 his son James Walter (1775-1845), 2nd baron Verulam,
+was created earl of Verulam, and the present peer is his direct
+descendant. Sir Harbottle Grimston bought Sir Nicholas Bacon's estate
+at Gorhambury, which is still the residence of his descendants.
+
+  See G. Burnet, _History of My Own Time_, edited by O. Airy (Oxford,
+  1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT, 1ST BARON (1816-1905), son of Sir Edmund
+Beckett Denison, was born on the 12th of May 1816. He was educated at
+Doncaster and Eton, whence he proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge,
+and graduated thirtieth wrangler in 1838. He was called to the bar at
+Lincoln's Inn in 1841. Upon succeeding to the baronetcy in 1874 he
+dropped the name of Denison, which his father had assumed in 1816. From
+1877 to 1900 he was chancellor and vicar-general of York, and he was
+raised to the peerage in 1886. He was made a Q.C. in 1854, and was for
+many years a leader of the Parliamentary Bar. He devoted himself to the
+study of astronomy, horology and architecture, more especially Gothic
+ecclesiastical architecture. As early as 1850 he had become a recognized
+authority on clocks, watches and bells, and in particular on the
+construction of turret clocks, for he had designed Dent's Great
+Exhibition clock, and his _Rudimentary Treatise_ had gone through many
+editions. In 1851 he was called upon, in conjunction with the astronomer
+royal (Mr, afterwards Sir, G. B. Airy) and Mr Dent, to design a suitable
+clock for the new Houses of Parliament. The present tower clock,
+popularly known as "Big Ben," was constructed after Lord Grimthorpe's
+designs. In a number of burning questions during his time Lord
+Grimthorpe took a prominent part. It is, however, in connexion with the
+restoration of St Albans Abbey that he is most widely known. The St
+Albans Abbey Reparation Committee, which had been in existence since
+1871, and for which Sir Gilbert Scott had carried out some admirable
+repairs, obtained a faculty from the Diocesan Court in 1877 to repair
+and restore the church and fit it for cathedral and parochial services.
+Very soon, however, the committee found itself unable to raise the
+necessary funds, and it was at this juncture that a new faculty was
+granted to Lord Grimthorpe (then Sir Edmund Beckett) to "restore, repair
+and refit" the abbey at his own expense. Lord Grimthorpe made it an
+express stipulation that the work should be done according to his own
+designs and under his own supervision. His public spirit in undertaking
+the task was undeniable, but his treatment of the roof, the new west
+front, and the windows inserted in the terminations of the transepts,
+excited a storm of adverse criticism, and was the subject of vigorous
+protests from the professional world of architecture. He died on the
+29th of April 1905, being succeeded as 2nd baron by his nephew, E. W.
+Beckett (b. 1856), who had sat in parliament as conservative member for
+the Whitby division of Yorkshire from 1885.
+
+
+
+
+GRINDAL, EDMUND (c. 1519-1583), successively bishop of London,
+archbishop of York and archbishop of Canterbury, born about 1519, was
+son of William Grindal, a farmer of Hensingham, in the parish of St
+Bees, Cumberland. He was educated at Magdalene and Christ's Colleges and
+then at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was
+elected fellow in 1538. He proceeded M.A. in 1541, was ordained deacon
+in 1544 and was proctor and Lady Margaret preacher in 1548-1549.
+Probably through the influence of Ridley, who had been master of
+Pembroke Hall, Grindal was selected as one of the Protestant disputants
+during the visitation of 1549. He had a considerable talent for this
+work and was often employed on similar occasions. When Ridley became
+bishop of London, he made Grindal one of his chaplains and gave him the
+precentorship of St Paul's. He was soon promoted to be one of Edward
+VI.'s chaplains and prebendary of Westminster, and in October 1552 was
+one of the six divines to whom the Forty-two articles were submitted for
+examination before being sanctioned by the Privy Council. According to
+Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of the court preachers in
+1553 by denouncing the worldliness of the courtiers and foretelling the
+evils to follow on the king's death.
+
+That event frustrated Grindal's proposed elevation to the episcopal
+bench and he did not consider himself bound to await the evils which he
+had foretold. He abandoned his preferments on Mary's accession and made
+his way to Strassburg. Thence, like so many of the Marian exiles, he
+proceeded to Frankfurt, where he endeavoured to compose the disputes
+between the "Coxians" (see COX, RICHARD), who regarded the 1552 Prayer
+Book as the perfection of reform, and the Knoxians, who wanted further
+simplification. He returned to England in January 1559, was appointed
+one of the committee to revise the liturgy, and one of the Protestant
+representatives at the Westminster conference. In July he was also
+elected Master of Pembroke Hall in succession to the recusant Dr Thomas
+Young (1514-1580) and Bishop of London in succession to Bonner.
+
+Grindal himself was, however, inclined to be recalcitrant from different
+motives. He had qualms about vestments and other traces of "popery" as
+well as about the Erastianism of Elizabeth's ecclesiastical government.
+His Protestantism was robust enough; he did not mind recommending that a
+priest "might be put to some torment" (_Hatfield MSS._ i. 269); and in
+October 1562 he wrote to Cecil begging to know "if that second Julian,
+the king of Navarre, is killed; as he intended to preach at St Paul's
+Cross, and might take occasion to mention God's judgements on him"
+(_Domestic Cal._, 1547-1580, p. 209). But he was loth to execute
+judgments upon English Puritans, and modern high churchmen complain of
+his infirmity of purpose, his opportunism and his failure to give Parker
+adequate assistance in rebuilding the shattered fabric of the English
+Church. Grindal lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of
+uniformity and autocracy which enabled Whitgift to persecute with a
+clear conscience nonconformists whose theology was indistinguishable
+from his own. Perhaps he was as wise as his critics; at any rate the
+rigour which he repudiated hardly brought peace or strength to the
+Church when practised by his successors, and London, which was always a
+difficult see, involved Bishop Sandys in similar troubles when Grindal
+had gone to York. As it was, although Parker said that Grindal "was not
+resolute and severe enough for the government of London," his attempts
+to enforce the use of the surplice evoked angry protests, especially in
+1565, when considerable numbers of the nonconformists were suspended;
+and Grindal of his own motion denounced Cartwright to the Council in
+1570. Other anxieties were brought upon him by the burning of his
+cathedral in 1561, for although Grindal himself is said to have
+contributed L1200 towards its rebuilding, the laity of his diocese were
+niggardly with their subscriptions and even his clergy were not liberal.
+
+In 1570 Grindal was translated to the archbishopric of York, where
+Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly for Roman
+Catholics. His first letter from Cawood to Cecil told that he had not
+been well received, that the gentry were not "well-affected to godly
+religion and among the common people many superstitious practices
+remained." It is admitted by his Anglican critics that he did the work
+of enforcing uniformity against the Roman Catholics with good-will and
+considerable tact. He must have given general satisfaction, for even
+before Parker's death two persons so different as Burghley and Dean
+Nowell independently recommended Grindal's appointment as his successor,
+and Spenser speaks warmly of him in the _Shepherd's Calendar_ as the
+"gentle shepherd Algrind." Burghley wished to conciliate the moderate
+Puritans and advised Grindal to mitigate the severity which had
+characterized Parker's treatment of the nonconformists. Grindal indeed
+attempted a reform of the ecclesiastical courts, but his metropolitical
+activity was cut short by a conflict with the arbitrary temper of the
+queen. Elizabeth required Grindal to suppress the "prophesyings" or
+meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the Puritan
+clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching; she would have
+no doctrine that was not inspired by her authority. Grindal
+remonstrated, claiming some voice for the Church, and in June 1577 was
+suspended from his jurisdictional, though not his spiritual, functions
+for disobedience. He stood firm, and in January 1578 Secretary Wilson
+informed Burghley that the queen wished to have the archbishop deprived.
+She was dissuaded from this extreme course, but Grindal's sequestration
+was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 1581 for his
+reinstatement. Elizabeth then suggested that he should resign; this he
+declined to do, and after making an apology to the queen he was
+reinstated towards the end of 1582. But his infirmities were increasing,
+and while making preparations for his resignation, he died on the 6th of
+July 1583 and was buried in Croydon parish church. He left considerable
+benefactions to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, Queen's College, Oxford, and
+Christ's College, Cambridge; he also endowed a free school at St Bees,
+and left money for the poor of St Bees, Canterbury, Lambeth and Croydon.
+
+  Strype's _Life of Grindal_ is the principal authority; see also _Dict.
+  Nat. Biogr._ and, besides the authorities there cited, Gough's General
+  Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. of
+  Hatfield MSS.; Dixon's _Hist. of the Church of England_; Frere's
+  volume in Stephens' and Hunt's series; _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ vol.
+  iii.; Gee's _Elizabethan Clergy_; Birt's _Elizabethan Religious
+  Settlement_; and Pierce's _Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts_
+  (1909).     (A. F. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GRINDELWALD, a valley in the Bernese Oberland, and one of the chief
+resorts of tourists in Switzerland. It is shut in on the south by the
+precipices of the Wetterhorn, Mettenberg and Eiger, between which two
+famous glaciers flow down. On the north it is sheltered by the Faulhorn
+range, while on the east the Great Scheidegg Pass leads over to
+Meiringen; and on the south-west the Little Scheidegg or Wengern Alp
+(railway 11-1/2 m. across) divides it from Lauterbrunnen. The main
+village is connected with Interlaken by a rack railway (13 m.). The
+valley is very green, and possesses excellent pastures, as well as fruit
+trees, though little corn is grown. It is watered by the Black
+Lutschine, a tributary of the Aar. The height of the parish church above
+the sea-level is 3468 ft. The population in 1900 was 3346, practically
+all Protestant and German-speaking, and living in 558 houses. The
+glacier guides are among the best in the Alps. The valley was originally
+inhabited by the serfs of various great lords in summer for the sake of
+pasturage. A chapel in a cave was superseded about 1146 by a wooden
+church, replaced about 1180 by a stone church, which was pulled down in
+1793 to erect the present building. Gradually the Austin canons of
+Interlaken bought out all the other owners in the valley, but when that
+house was suppressed in 1528 by the town of Bern the inhabitants gained
+their freedom. The houses near the hotel Adler bear the name of
+Gydisdorf, but there is no village of Grindelwald properly speaking,
+though that name is usually given to the assemblage of hotels and shops
+between Gydisdorf and the railway station. Grindelwald is now very much
+frequented by visitors in winter.
+
+  See W. A. B. Coolidge, _Walks and Excursions in the Valley of
+  Grindelwald_ (also in French and German) (Grindelwald, 1900); Emmanuel
+  Friedli, _Barndutsch als Spiegel bernischen Volkstums_, vol. ii.
+  (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); E. F. von Mulinen, _Beitrage zur
+  Heimatkunde des Kantons Bern, deutschen Teils_, vol. i. (Bern, 1879),
+  pp. 24-26; G. Strasser, _Der Gletschermann_ (Grindelwald, 1888-1890).
+  Scattered notices may be found in the edition (London, 1899) of the
+  "General Introduction" (entitled "Hints and Notes for Travellers in
+  the Alps") to John Ball's _Alpine Guide_.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRINGOIRE (or GRINGORE), PIERRE (c. 1480-1539), French poet and
+dramatist, was born about the year 1480, probably at Caen. In his first
+work, _Le Chasteau de labour_ (1499), a didactic poem in praise of
+diligence, he narrates the troubles following on marriage. A young
+couple are visited by Care, Need, Discomfort, &c.; and other personages
+common to medieval allegories take part in the action. In November 1501
+Gringoire was in Paris directing the production of a mystery play in
+honour of the archduke Philip of Austria, and in subsequent years he
+received many similar commissions. The fraternity of the _Enfans sans
+Souci_ advanced him to the dignity of _Mere Sotte_ and afterwards to the
+highest honour of the gild, that of _Prince des Sots_. For twenty years
+Gringoire seems to have been at the head of this illustrious confrerie.
+As _Prince des Sots_ he exercised an extraordinary influence. At no time
+was the stage, rude and coarse as it was, more popular as a true
+exponent of the popular mind. Gringoire's success lay in the fact that
+he followed, but did not attempt to lead; on his stage the people saw
+exhibited their passions, their judgments of the moment, their
+jealousies, their hatreds and their ambitions. Brotherhoods of the kind
+existed all over France. In Paris there were the _Enfans sans Souci_,
+the _Basochiens_, the _Confrerie de la Passion_ and the _Souverain
+Empire de Galilee_; at Dijon there were the _Mere Folle_ and her family;
+in Flanders the _Societe des Arbaletriers_ played comedies; at Rouen the
+_Cornards_ or _Conards_ yielded to none in vigour and fearlessness of
+satire. On Shrove Tuesday 1512 Gringoire, who was the accredited
+defender of the policy of Louis XII., and had already written many
+political poems, represented the _Jeu du Prince des Sots et Mere Sotte_.
+It was at the moment when the French dispute with Julius II. was at its
+height. _Mere Sotte_ was disguised as the Church, and disputed the
+question of the temporal power with the prince. The political meaning
+was even more thinly veiled in the second part of the entertainment, a
+morality named _L'Homme obstine_, the principal personage representing
+the pope. The performance concluded with a farce. Gringoire adopted for
+his device on the frontispiece of this trilogy, _Tout par Raison_,
+_Raison par Tout_, _Par tout Raison_. He has been called the
+_Aristophane des Halles_. In one respect at least he resembles
+Aristophanes. He is serious in his merriment; there is purpose behind
+his extravagances. The Church was further attacked in a poem printed
+about 1510, _La Chasse du cerf des cerfs_ (_serf des serfs_, i.e.
+_servus servorum_), under which title that of the pope is thinly veiled.
+About 1514 he wrote his mystery of the _Vie de Monseigneur Saint-Louis
+par personnages_ in nine books for the _confrerie_ of the masons and
+carpenters. He became in 1518 herald at the court of Lorraine, with the
+title of Vaudemont, and married Catherine Roger, a lady of gentle birth.
+During the last twenty years of a long life he became orthodox, and
+dedicated a _Blason des heretiques_ to the duke of Lorraine. There is no
+record of the payment of his salary as a herald after Christmas 1538, so
+that he died probably in 1539.
+
+  His works were edited by C. d'Hericault and A. de Montaiglon for the
+  _Bibliotheque elzevirienne_ in 1858. This edition was incomplete, and
+  was supplemented by a second volume in 1877 by Montaiglon and M. James
+  de Rothschild. These volumes include the works already mentioned,
+  except _Le Chasteau de labour_, and in addition, _Les Folles
+  Entreprises_ (1505), a collection of didactic and satirical poems,
+  chiefly ballades and rondeaux, one section of which is devoted to the
+  exposition of the tyranny of the nobles, and another to the vices of
+  the clergy; _L'Entreprise de Venise_ (c. 1509), a poem in seven-lined
+  stanzas, giving a list of the Venetian fortresses which belonged,
+  according to Gringoire, to other powers; _L'Espoir de paix_ (1st ed.
+  not dated; another, 1510), a verse treatise on the deeds of "certain
+  popes of Rome," dedicated to Louis XII.; and _La Coqueluche_ (1510), a
+  verse description of an epidemic, apparently influenza. For details of
+  his other satires, _Les Abus du monde_ (1509), _Complainte de trop
+  tard marie, Les Fantasies du monde qui regne_; of his religious verse,
+  _Chants royaux_ (on the Passion, 1527), _Heures de Notre Dame_ (1525);
+  and a collection of tales in prose and verse, taken from the _Gesta
+  Romanorum_, entitled _Les Fantasies de Mere Sotte_ (1516), see G.
+  Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_ (_s.v._ Gringore). Most of Gringoire's
+  works conclude with an acrostic giving the name of the author. The
+  _Chasteau de labour_ was translated into English by Alexander Barclay
+  and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1506. Barclay's translation was
+  edited (1905) with his original for the Roxburghe Club by Mr A. W.
+  Pollard, who provided an account of Gringoire, and a bibliography of
+  the book. See also, for the _Jeu du Prince des Sots_, Petit de
+  Julleville, _La Comedie et les moeurs en France au moyen age_, pp.
+  151-168 (Paris, 1886); for _Saint Louis_, the same author's _Les
+  Mysteres_, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further
+  bibliographical references; and E. Picot, _Gringore et les comediens
+  italiens_ (1877). The real Gringoire cannot be said to have many
+  points of resemblance with the poet described in Victor Hugo's
+  _Notre-Dame de Paris_, nor is there more foundation in fact for the
+  one-act prose comedy of Theodore de Banville.
+
+
+
+
+GRINNELL, a city in Poweshiek county, Iowa, U.S.A., 55 m. E. by N. of
+Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 3860, of whom 274 were foreign-born; (1905)
+4634; (1910) 5036. Grinnell is served by the Chicago, Rock Island &
+Pacific, and the Iowa Central railways. It is the seat of Iowa College
+(co-educational), founded in 1847 by the Iowa Band (Congregationalists
+and graduates of New England colleges and Andover Theological Seminary,
+who had devoted themselves to home missionary educational work in Iowa,
+and who came to Iowa in 1843), and by a few earlier pioneers from New
+England. The college opened in 1848 at Davenport, and in 1859 removed to
+Grinnell, where there was a school called Grinnell University, which it
+absorbed. Closely affiliated with the college are the Grinnell Academy
+and the Grinnell School of Music. In 1907-1908 the College had 463
+students, the Academy had 129 students, and the School of Music had 141
+students. Among the manufactures are carriages and gloves. The city was
+named in honour of one of its founders, Josiah Bushnell Grinnell
+(1821-1891), a Congregational clergyman, friend of and sympathizer with
+John Brown, and from 1863 to 1867 a member of the National House of
+Representatives. Grinnell was settled in 1854, was incorporated as a
+town in 1865, and in 1882 was chartered as a city of the second class.
+In 1882 it suffered severely from a cyclone.
+
+
+
+
+GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST, territorial divisions of the Cape
+Province of the Union of South Africa. Griqualand East, which lies south
+of Basutoland and west of Natal, is so named from the settlement there
+in 1862 of Griquas under Adam Kok. It forms part of the Transkeian
+Territories of the Cape, and is described under KAFFRARIA. Griqualand
+West, formerly Griqualand simply, also named after its Griqua
+inhabitants, is part of the great tableland of South Africa. It is
+bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by Bechuanaland, E. by the
+Transvaal and Orange Free State Province, and has an area of 15,197 sq.
+m. It has a general elevation of 3000 to 4000 ft. above the sea, low
+ranges of rocky hills, the Kaap, Asbestos, Vansittart and Langeberg
+mountains, traversing its western portion in a general N.E.-S.W.
+direction. The only perennial rivers are in the eastern district,
+through which the Vaal flows from a point a little above Fourteen
+Streams to its junction with the Orange (160 m.). In this part of its
+course the Vaal receives the Harts river from the north and the Riet
+from the east. The Riet, 4 m. within the Griqualand frontier, is joined
+by the Modder. The banks of the rivers are shaded by willows; elsewhere
+the only tree is the mimosa. The greater part of the country is barren,
+merging N.W. into absolute desert. The soil is, however, wherever
+irrigated, extremely fertile. The day climate is hot and dry, but the
+nights are frequently cold. Rain rarely falls, though thunderstorms of
+great severity occasionally sweep over the land, and sandstorms are
+prevalent in the summer. A portion of the country is adapted for
+sheep-farming and the growing of crops, horse-breeding is carried on at
+Kimberley, and asbestos is worked in the south-western districts, but
+the wealth of Griqualand West lies in its diamonds, which are found
+along the banks of the Vaal and in the district between that river and
+the Riet. From the first discovery of diamonds in 1867 up to the end of
+1905 the total yield of diamonds was estimated at 13-1/2 tons, worth
+L95,000,000.
+
+The chief town is Kimberley (q.v.), the centre of the diamond mining
+industry. It is situated on the railway from Cape Town to the Zambezi,
+which crosses the country near its eastern border. Three miles south of
+Kimberley is Beaconsfield (q.v.). On the banks of the Vaal are Barkly
+West (q.v.), Windsorton (pop. 800) and Warrenton (pop. 1500); at all
+these places are river diggings, diamonds being found along the river
+from Fourteen Streams to the Harts confluence. Warrenton is 44 m. N. by
+rail from Kimberley. Douglas (pop. 300), on the south bank of the Vaal,
+12 m. above its confluence with the Orange, is the centre of an
+agricultural district, a canal 9-1/2 m. long serving to irrigate a
+considerable area. Thirty-five miles N.W. of Douglas is Griquatown (pop.
+401), the headquarters of the first Griqua settlers. Campbell (pop. 250)
+is 30 m. E. of Griquatown, and Postmasburg 42 m. N. by W. A census taken
+in 1877 showed the population of Griqualand West to be 45,277, of whom
+12,347 were whites. At the census of 1891 the population was 83,215, of
+whom 29,602 were whites, and in 1904 the population was 108,498, of whom
+32,570 were whites.
+
+_History._--Before the settlement in it of Griqua clans the district was
+thinly inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots. At the end of the 18th
+century a horde known as Bastaards, descendants of Dutch farmers and
+Hottentot women, led a nomadic life on the plains south of the Orange
+river. In 1803 a missionary named Anderson induced a number of the
+Bastaards with their chief Barend Barends to settle north of the river,
+and a mission station was formed at a place where there was a strong
+flowing fountain, which has now disappeared, which gave the name of
+Klaarwater to what is now known as Griquatown or Griquastad. Klaarwater
+became a retreat for other Bastaards, Hottentot refugees, Kaffirs and
+Bechuanas. From Little Namaqualand came a few half-breeds and others
+under the leadership of Adam Kok, son of Cornelius Kok and grandson of
+Adam Kok (c. 1710-1795), a man of mixed white and Hottentot blood who is
+regarded as the founder of the modern Griquas. The settlement prospered,
+and in 1813, at the instance of the Rev. John Campbell, who had been
+sent by the London Missionary Society to inspect the country, the
+tribesmen abandoned the name of Bastaards in favour of that of
+Griquas,[1] some of them professing descent from a Hottentot tribe,
+originally settled near Saldanha Bay, called by the early Dutch settlers
+at the Cape Chariguriqua or Grigriqua. Under the guidance of
+missionaries the Griquas made some progress in civilization, and many
+professed Christianity. Adam Kok and Barends having moved eastward in
+1820, those who remained behind elected as their head man a teacher in
+the mission school named Andries Waterboer, who successfully
+administered the settlement, and by defeating the Makololo raiders
+greatly increased the prestige of the tribe. Meanwhile Adam Kok and his
+companions had occupied part of the country between the Modder and
+Orange rivers. In 1825 Kok settled at the mission station of Philippolis
+(founded two years previously), and in a short time had exterminated the
+Bushmen inhabiting that region. He died about 1835, and after a period
+of civil strife was succeeded by his younger son, Adam Kok III. This
+chief in November 1843 signed a treaty placing himself under British
+protection. Many Dutch farmers were settled on the land he claimed. In
+1845 he received British military aid in a contest with the white
+settlers, and in 1848 helped the British under Sir Harry Smith against
+the Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_). Eventually finding himself
+straitened by the Boers of the newly established Orange Free State, he
+removed in 1861-1863 with his people, some 3000 in number, to the region
+(then depopulated by Kaffir wars) now known as Griqualand East. His
+sovereign rights to all territory north of the Orange he sold to the
+Free State for L4000. He founded Kokstad (q.v.) and died in 1876.
+Waterboer, the principal Griqua chief, had entered into treaty relations
+with the British government as early as 1834, and he received a subsidy
+of L150 a year. He proved a stanch ally of the British, and kept the
+peace on the Cape frontier to the day of his death in 1852. He was
+succeeded by his son Nicholas Waterboer, under whom the condition of the
+Griquas declined--a decline induced by the indolence of the people and
+intensified by the drying up of the water supplies, cattle plague and
+brandy drinking. During this period white settlers acquired farms in the
+country, and the loss of their independence by the Griquas became
+inevitable. The discovery of diamonds along the banks of the Vaal in
+1867 entirely altered the fortunes of the country, and by the end of
+1869 the rush to the alluvial diggings had begun. At the diggers' camps
+the Griquas exercised no authority, but over part of the district the
+South African Republic and the Orange Free State claimed sovereignty. At
+Klip Drift (now Barkly West) the diggers formed a regular government and
+elected Theodore Parker as their president. Most of the diggers being
+British subjects, the high commissioner of South Africa interfered, and
+a Cape official was appointed magistrate at Klip Drift, President Parker
+resigning office in February 1871. At this time the "dry diggings," of
+which Kimberley is the centre, had been discovered,[2] and over the
+miners there the Orange Free State asserted jurisdiction. The land was,
+however, claimed by Nicholas Waterboer, who, on the advice of his agent,
+David Arnot, petitioned the British to take over his country. This Great
+Britain consented to do, and on the 27th of October 1871 proclamations
+were issued by the high commissioner receiving Waterboer and his
+Griquas as British subjects and defining the limits of his territory. In
+addition to the Kimberley district this territory included that part of
+the diamondiferous area which had been claimed by the Transvaal, but
+which had been declared, as the result of the arbitration of R. W.
+Keate, lieutenant-governor of Natal, part of Waterboer's land. On the
+4th of November a small party of Cape Mounted Police took possession of
+the dry diggings and hoisted the British flag. Shortly afterwards the
+representative of the Orange Free State withdrew. The Free State was
+greatly incensed by the action of the British government, but the
+dispute as to the sovereignty was settled in 1876 by the payment of
+L90,000 by the British to the Free State as compensation for any injury
+inflicted on the state.
+
+The diggers, who under the nominal rule of the Transvaal and Free State
+had enjoyed practical independence, found the new government did little
+for their benefit, and a period of disorder ensued, which was not put an
+end to by the appointment in January 1873 of Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard
+Southey[3] as sole administrator, in place of the three commissioners
+who had previously exercised authority. In the July following the
+territory was made a crown colony and Southey's title changed to that of
+lieutenant-governor. The government remained unpopular, the diggers
+complaining of its unrepresentative character, the heavy taxation
+exacted, and the inadequate protection of property. They formed a
+society for mutual protection, and the discontent was so great that an
+armed force was sent (early in 1875) from the Cape to overawe the
+agitators. At the same time measures were taken to render the government
+more popular. The settlement of the dispute with the Free State paved
+the way for the annexation of Griqualand to the Cape Colony on the 15th
+of October 1880.
+
+  See KIMBERLEY, CAPE COLONY, TRANSVAAL and ORANGE FREE STATE. For the
+  early history of the country and an account of life at the diggings,
+  1871-1875, consult G. M'Call Theal's _Compendium of the History and
+  Geography of South Africa_ (London, 1878), chapters xl. and xli.;
+  Gardner F. Williams, _The Diamond Mines of South Africa_ (New York and
+  London, 1902); and the works bearing on the subject quoted in that
+  book. See also Theal's _History of South Africa ... 1834-1854_
+  (London, 1893); J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1815),
+  _Travels ... A Second journey ..._ (2 vols., London, 1822); the Blue
+  Books C. 459 of 1871 and C. 508 of 1872 (the last-named containing the
+  Keate award, &c.); the Griqualand West report in _Papers relating to
+  Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions_, part ii. (1875), and the Life of
+  _Sir Richard Southey, K.C.M.G._, by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the
+  Griqua people consult G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_,
+  chapters xvii.-xx. (London, 1905).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of
+    1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and
+    Bechuana tribes.
+
+  [2] The order of discovery of the chief mines was:--Dutoitspan, Sept.
+    1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Colesberg Kop
+    (Kimberley), July 1871.
+
+  [3] Sir Richard Southey (1809-1901) was the son of one of the
+    emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He
+    organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of
+    1834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smith at Boomplaats (1848). From 1864
+    to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Cape. He gave up his
+    appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in
+    retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G.
+
+
+
+
+GRISAILLE, a French term, derived from _gris_, grey, for painting in
+monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly used in decoration to
+represent objects in relief. The frescoes of the roof of the Sistine
+chapel have portions of the design in _grisaille_. At Hampton Court the
+lower part of the decoration of the great staircase by Verrio is in
+_grisaille_. The term is also applied to monochrome painting in enamels,
+and also to stained glass; a fine example of _grisaille_ glass is in the
+window known as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in
+York cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+GRISELDA, a heroine of romance. She is said to have been the wife of
+Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the 11th century, and her
+misfortunes were considered to belong to history when they were handled
+by Boccaccio and Petrarch, although the probability is that Boccaccio
+borrowed his narrative from a Provencal _fabliau_. He included it in the
+recitations of the tenth day (_Decamerone_), and must have written it
+about 1350. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his
+translation formed the basis of much of the later literature. The letter
+was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often subsequently. It was
+translated into French as _La Patience de Griselidis_ and printed at
+Brehan-Loudeac in 1484, and its popularity is shown by the number of
+early editions quoted by Brunet (_Manuel du libraire, s.v._ Petrarca).
+The story was dramatized in 1395, and a _Mystere de Griselidis, marquise
+de Saluses par personnaiges_ was printed by Jehan Bonfons (no date).
+Chaucer followed Petrarch's version in the _Canterbury Tales_. Ralph
+Radcliffe, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to have written a
+play on the subject, and the story was dramatized by Thomas Dekker,
+Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603.
+
+  An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. Deloney's
+  _Garland of Good Will_ (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, _The
+  History of Patient Grisel_ (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885)
+  for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary
+  introduction.
+
+
+
+
+GRISI, GIULIA (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter of one of
+Napoleon's Italian officers, was born in Milan. She came of a family of
+musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephina Grassini (1773-1850) being a
+favourite opera-singer both on the continent and in London; her mother
+had also been a singer, and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin
+Carlotta were both exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical
+career, and made her stage debut in 1828. Rossini and Bellini both took
+an interest in her, and at Milan she was the first Adalgisa in Bellini's
+_Norma_, in which Pasta took the title-part. Grisi appeared in Paris in
+1832, as Semiramide in Rossini's opera, and had a great success; and in
+1834 she appeared in London. Her voice was a brilliant dramatic soprano,
+and her established position as a prima donna continued for thirty
+years. She was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her
+association with such singers as Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini and Mario
+was long remembered as the palmy days of Italian opera. In 1854 she
+toured with Mario In America. She had married Count de Melcy in 1836,
+but this ended in a divorce; and in 1856 she married Mario (q.v.). She
+died in Berlin on the 29th of November 1869.
+
+
+
+
+GRISON (_Galictis vittata_), a carnivorous mammal, of the family
+_Mustelidae_, common in Central and South America and Mexico. It is
+about the size of a marten, and has the upper surface of a bluish-grey
+tint, and the under surface is dark brown. The grison lives on small
+mammals and birds, and in settled districts is destructive to poultry.
+Allamand's grison (_G. allamandi_), with the same range, is somewhat
+larger. Another member of the genus is the tayra or taira (_G.
+barbara_), about as large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to
+Argentina. This species hunts in companies (see CARNIVORA).
+
+
+
+
+GRISONS (Ger. _Graubunden_), the most easterly of the Swiss cantons and
+also the largest in extent, though relatively the most sparsely
+populated. Its total area is 2753.2 sq. m., of which 1634.4 sq. m. are
+classed as "productive" (forests covering 503.1 sq. m. and vineyards 1.3
+sq. m.), but it has also 138.6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this
+respect next after the Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is
+mountainous, the principal glacier groups being those of the Todi, N.
+(11,887 ft.), of Medels, S.W. (Piz Medel, 10,509 ft.), of the Rheinwald
+or the Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorn, 11,149 ft.), with the chief
+source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.), the
+most extensive, of the Albula, E. (Piz Kesch, 11,228 ft.), and of the
+Silvretta, N.E. (Piz Linard, 11,201 ft.). The principal valleys are
+those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or Engadine, q.v.). The
+three main sources of the Rhine are in the canton. The valley of the
+Vorder Rhine is called the Bundner Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhine
+the Val Medels, and that of the Hinter Rhine (the principal), in
+different parts of its course, the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the
+Domleschg valley, while the upper valley of the Julia is named the
+Oberhalbstein. The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canton are the
+Glenner (flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the
+Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur (Schanfigg
+valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prattigau). The Rhine and the
+Inn flow respectively into the North and the Black Seas. Of other
+streams that of Val Mesocco joins the Ticino and so the Po, while the
+Maira or Mera (Val Bregaglia) and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the
+Rambach (Munster valley) the Adige, all four thus ultimately reaching
+the Adriatic Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe,
+and among the loftiest villages are Juf, 6998 ft. (the highest
+permanently inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers
+glen, and St Moritz, 6037 ft., in the Upper Engadine. The lower courses
+of the various streams are rent by remarkable gorges, such as the Via
+Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those in the Avers, Medels and Lugnetz
+glens, as well as that of the Zuge in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire,
+near Malans, good wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, &c., maize
+and chestnuts flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are
+the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine breed of
+cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Bergamasque shepherds.
+There are many mineral springs, such as those of St Moritz, Schuls,
+Alvaneu, Fideris, Le Prese and San Bernardino. The climate and
+vegetation, save on the southern slope of the Alps, are alpine and
+severe. But yearly vast numbers of strangers visit different spots in
+the canton, especially Davos (q.v.), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet
+there are comparatively few railways. There is one from Maienfeld
+(continued north to Constance and north-west to Zurich) to Coire (11
+m.), which sends off a branch line from Landquart, E., past Klosters to
+Davos (31 m.). From Coire the line bears west to Reichenau (6 m.),
+whence one branch runs S.S.E. beneath the Albula Pass to St Moritz (50
+m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine valley to Ilanz (20-1/2 m.).
+There are, however, a number of fine carriage roads across the passes
+leading to or towards Italy. Besides those leading to the Engadine may
+be noted the roads from Ilanz past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719
+ft.) to Andermatt, from Disentis over the Lukmanier Pass (6289 ft.) to
+Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Reichenau past Thusis and
+Splugen over the San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.) to Bellinzona on the
+same railway line, and from Splugen over the Splugen Pass (6946 ft.) to
+Chiavenna. The Septimer Pass (7582 ft.) from the Julier route to the
+Maloja route has now only a mule path, but was probably known in Roman
+times (as was possibly the Splugen), and was much frequented in the
+middle ages.
+
+The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. Of this number 55,155
+(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the Schanfigg
+valley) were Protestants, while 49,142 (mainly in the Bundner Oberland,
+the Val Mesocco and the Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were
+also 114 Jews (81 of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762
+(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the Schanfigg
+valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (mostly in the Val Mesocco,
+the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo, but including a number of
+Italian labourers engaged on the construction of the Albula railway)
+were Italian-speaking. But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a
+survival of an ancient Romance language (the _lingua rustica_ of the
+Roman Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty
+printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the 38,651
+persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer than 36,472
+are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two dialects: the Romonsch
+(sometimes wrongly called Romansch), which prevails in the Bundner
+Oberland and in the Hinter Rhine valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the
+Ladin (closely related to the tongue spoken in parts of the South
+Tyrol), that survives in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of
+Bergun, Oberhalbstein and Munster. (See F. Rausch's _Geschichte der
+Literatur des rhaeto-romanischen Volkes_, Frankfort, 1870, and Mr
+Coolidge's bibliography of this language, given on pp. 22-23 of Lorria
+and Martel's _Le Massif de la Bernina_, Zurich, 1894.) Yet in the midst
+of this Romance-speaking population are islets (mostly, if not entirely,
+due to immigration in the 13th century from the German-speaking Upper
+Valais) of German-speaking inhabitants, so in the Vals and Safien glens,
+and at Obersaxen (all in the Bundner Oberland), in the Rheinwald (the
+highest part of the Hinter Rhine valley), and in the Avers glen (middle
+reach of the Hinter Rhine valley), as well as in and around Davos
+itself.
+
+There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A considerable
+portion of the population is engaged in attending to the wants of the
+foreign visitors, but there is a considerable trade with Italy,
+particularly in the wines of the Valtellina, while many young men seek
+their fortunes abroad (returning home after having accumulated a small
+stock of money) as confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers.
+A certain number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are
+now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (q.v.).
+
+The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and includes 224
+communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a popular vote) to the Federal
+_Standerath_, and 5 members (also elected by a popular vote) to the
+Federal _Nationalrath_. The existing cantonal constitution was accepted
+by the people in 1892, and came into force on 1st January 1894. The
+legislature (_Grossrath_--no numbers fixed by the constitution) is
+elected for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the
+executive (_Kleinrath_) for 3 years. The "obligatory referendum" obtains
+in the case of all laws and important matters of expenditure, while 3000
+citizens can demand ("facultative referendum") a popular vote as to
+resolutions and ordinances made by the legislature. Three thousand
+citizens also have the right of "initiative" as to legislative projects,
+but 5000 signatures are required for a proposed revision of the cantonal
+constitution. In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are
+never counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to the
+capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the
+constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount of
+the land tax varies annually according to the amount that _must_ be
+provided. In the pre-1799 constitution of the three Raetian Leagues the
+system of the "referendum" was in working as early as the 16th century,
+not merely as between the three Leagues themselves, but as between the
+bailiwicks (_Hochgerichte_), the sovereign units within each League, and
+sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages composing each
+bailiwick.
+
+The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the inhabitants
+speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Grisons formed the southern
+part of the province of Raetia (probably the aboriginal inhabitants, the
+Raeti, were Celts rather than, as was formerly believed, Etruscans), set
+up by the Romans after their conquest of the region in 15 B.C. The
+Romanized inhabitants were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin
+tongue is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the
+Ostrogoths (A.D. 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537 onwards).
+Governors called _Praesides_ are mentioned in the 7th and 8th centuries,
+while members of the same family occupied the episcopal see of Coire
+(founded 4th-5th centuries). About 806 Charles the Great made this
+region into a county, but in 831 the bishop procured for his dominions
+exemption ("immunity") from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before
+847 his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the
+German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from Italy to be
+joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united with the duchy of
+Alamannia, but the bishop still retained practical independence, and his
+wide-spread dominions placed him even above the abbots of Disentis and
+Pfafers, who likewise enjoyed "immunity." In the 10th century the bishop
+obtained fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia
+in 960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who struggled
+for power in the region. He became a prince of the empire in 1170 and
+later allied himself with the rising power (in the region) of the
+Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the foundation of the League of God's
+House or the _Gotteshausbund_ (composed of the city and chapter of
+Coire, and of the bishop's subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val
+Bregaglia, Domleschg and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising
+power, the bishop entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis,
+the men of the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Razuns and
+Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another League,
+called the _Ober Bund_ (as comprising the highlands in the Vorder Rhine
+valley) and also wrongly the "Grey League" (as the word interpreted
+"grey" is simply a misreading of _graven_ or counts, though the false
+view has given rise to the name of Grisons or Graubunden for the whole
+canton), their alliance being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free
+men of the Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco
+also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded, that of
+the _Zehngerichtenbund_ or League of the Ten Jurisdictions, by the
+former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose dynasty then became
+extinct; they include the inhabitants of the Prattigau, Davos,
+Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Churwalden, and the lordship of Belfort
+(i.e. the region round Alvaneu), and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the
+name of the League. In 1450 the _Zehngerichtenbund_ concluded an
+alliance with the _Gotteshausbund_ and in 1471 with the _Ober Bund_; but
+of the so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels,
+there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though
+diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496) nearly
+all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of Toggenburg
+in the Prattigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese line of the
+Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they passed to the elder
+line, the head of which, Maximilian, was already emperor-elect and
+desired to maintain the rights of his family there and in the Lower
+Engadine. Hence in 1497 the Ober Bund and in 1498 the _Gotteshausbund_
+became allies of the Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was
+ended by the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the
+Calven gorge (above Mals) which, added to another Swiss victory at
+Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize the _practical_
+independence of the Swiss and their allies of the Empire. The religious
+Reformation brought disunion into the three Leagues, as the _Ober Bund_
+clung in the main to the old faith, and for this reason their connexion
+with the Swiss Confederation was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles
+of Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction of the
+bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1486 Poschiavo had at last been
+secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was bought in 1509, while
+in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the _Ober Bund_ since 1480)
+purchased its freedom of its lords, the Trivulzio family of Milan. In
+1512 the three Leagues conquered from Milan the rich and fertile
+Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, and held these districts as
+subject lands till in 1797 they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic.
+The struggle for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the
+long rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis (Val
+Bregaglia), while in the 17th century this rivalry was complicated by
+political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the Spanish side and the
+Salis that of France during the long struggle (1620-1639) for the
+Valtellina (see JENATSCH and VALTELLINA). Troubles arose (1622) also in
+the Prattigau through the attempts of the Habsburgers to force the
+inhabitants to give up Protestantism. Finally, after the emperor had
+_formally_ recognized, by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the
+independence of the Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers
+in the Prattigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 and 1652).
+But the Austrian _enclaves_ of Tarasp (Lower Engadine) and of Razuns
+(near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Grisons in 1809 and 1815
+respectively, in each case France holding the lordship for a short time
+after its cession by Austria. In 1748 (finally in 1762) the three
+Leagues secured the upper portion of the valley of Munster. In 1799 the
+French invaded the canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict
+(1799-1800) between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in
+the course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent of
+Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the provisional
+government agreed to the incorporation of the three Leagues in the
+Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June 1801 that the canton of
+Raetia became formally part of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by
+Napoleon's Act of Mediation, it entered, under the name of Canton of the
+Grisons or Graubunden, the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which
+it then first became a full member.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901);
+  _Bundnergeschichte in 11 Vortragen_, by various writers (Coire, 1902);
+  _Codex diplomaticus Raetiae_ (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe,
+  _Travels in Switzerland_, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition; E.
+  Dunant, _La Reunion des Grisons a la Suisse_ (1798-1799) (Basel,
+  1899); G. Fient, _Das Prattigau_ (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa,
+  _Das bundnerische Munsterthal_ (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, _Codice
+  diplomatico della Rezia_ (originally published in the _Periodico_ of
+  the _Societa storica a Comense_ at Como; separate reprint, Como,
+  1901); R. A. Ganzoni, _Beitrage zur Kenntnis d. bundnerischen
+  Referendums_ (Zurich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, _A Summer Tour in
+  the Grisons_ (London, 1862); C. and F. Jecklin, _Der Anteil
+  Graubundens am Schwabenkrieg_ (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor,
+  _Geschichte von Curraetien_ (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874), and
+  _Wegweiser_ (Coire, 1873); E. Lechner, _Das Thal Bergell_ (2nd ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1874); G. Leonhardi, _Das Poschiavinothal_ (Leipzig, 1859);
+  A. Lorria and E. A. Martel, _Le Massif de la Bernina_ (Upper Engadine
+  and Val Bregaglia) (Zurich, 1894); P. C. von Planta, _Das alte
+  Raetien_ (Berlin, 1872); _Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d.
+  Feudalzeit_ (Bern, 1881); _Geschichte von Graubunden_ (Bern, 1892);
+  and _Chronik d. Familie von Planta_ (Zurich, 1892); W. Plattner, _Die
+  Entstehung d. Freistaates der 3 Bunde_ (Davos, 1895), R. von
+  Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799_ (Stans,
+  1895); N. Salis-Soglio, _Die Familie von Salis_ (Lindau, 1891); G.
+  Theobald, _Das Bundner Oberland_ (Coire, 1861), and _Naturbilder aus
+  den rhatischen Alpen_ (3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, _Johannes von
+  Planta_ (d. 1572) (Zurich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis,
+  _Rechtsquellen d. Cant. Graubunden_ (Basel, 1877-1892); F. Jecklin,
+  _Materialen zur Standes- und Landesgeschichte Gem. iii. Bunde_
+  (Graubunden), _1464-1803_ (pt. i., _Regesten_, was published at Basel
+  in 1907). See also COIRE, ENGADINE, JENATSCH and VALTELLINA.
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT (1815-1857), American editor and compiler, was
+born in Benson, Vermont, on the 15th of February 1815. He travelled
+extensively, worked in newspaper offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a
+time, and finally became a journalist in New York City, where he was
+successively a member of the staffs of _The Brother Jonathan_, _The New
+World_ (1839-1840) and _The New Yorker_ (1840). From 1841 to 1843 he
+edited _Graham's Magazine_ (Philadelphia), and added to its list of
+contributors many leading American writers. From 1850 to 1852 he edited
+the _International Magazine_ (New York), which in 1852 was merged into
+_Harper's Magazine_. He died in New York City on the 27th of August
+1857. He is best known as the compiler and editor of various anthologies
+(with brief biographies and critiques), such as _Poets and Poetry of
+America_ (1842), his most popular and valuable book; _Prose Writers of
+America_ (1846); _Female Poets of America_ (1848); and _Sacred Poets of
+England and America_ (1849). Of his own writings his _Republican Court:
+or American Society in the Days of Washington_ (1854) is the only one of
+permanent value. He edited the first American edition of Milton's prose
+works (1845), and, as literary executor, edited, with James R. Lowell
+and N. P. Willis, the works (1850) of Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold's great
+contemporary reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but
+he rendered a valuable service in making Americans better acquainted
+with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen.
+
+  See _Passages from the Correspondence and Other Papers of Rufus W.
+  Griswold_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William
+  McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899).
+
+
+
+
+GRIVET, a monkey, _Cercopithecus sabaeus_, of the guenon group, nearly
+allied to the green monkey. It is common throughout equatorial Africa.
+The chin, whiskers and a broad band across the forehead, as well as the
+under-parts, are white, and the head and back olive-green. These monkeys
+are very commonly seen in menageries.
+
+
+
+
+GROAT (adapted from the Dutch _groot_, great, thick; cf. Ger.
+_Groschen_; the Med. Lat. _grossus_ gives Ital. _grosso_, Fr. _gros_, as
+names for the coin), a name applied as early as the 13th century on the
+continent of Europe to any large or thick coin. The groat was almost
+universally a silver coin, but its value varied considerably, as well at
+different times as in different countries. The English groat was first
+coined in 1351, of a value somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous
+debasement of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth
+four pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662, but a
+coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although frequently
+referred to as a groat, it had no other official designation than a
+"fourpenny piece." Its issue was again discontinued in 1856. The groat
+was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck by David II. in 1358. In
+Ireland it was first struck by Edward IV. in 1460.
+
+
+
+
+GROCER, literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale dealer; the
+word is derived through the O. Fr. form, _grossia_, from the Med. Lat.
+_grossarius_, defined by du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. _Grossares_, as
+_solidae mercis propola_. The name, as a general one for dealers by
+wholesale, "engrossers" as opposed to "regrators," the retail dealers,
+is found with the commodity attached; thus in the _Munimenta Gildhallae_
+("Rolls" series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) is
+found an allusion to _grossours de vin_, cf. _groser of fysshe_,
+_Surtees Misc._ (1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted _ib._). The
+specific application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale or
+retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all kinds
+of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected with the
+history of the Grocers' Company of London, one of the twelve "great"
+livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and the spicers amalgamated and
+were known as the Fraternity of St Anthony. The name "grocers" first
+appears in 1373 in the records of the company. In 1386 the association
+was granted a right of search over all "spicers" in London, and in 1394
+they obtained the right to inspect or "garble" spices and other "subtil
+wares." Their first charter was obtained in 1428; letters patent in 1447
+granted an extension of the right of search over the whole county, but
+removed the "liberties" of the city of London. They sold all kinds of
+drugs, medicines, ointments, plasters, and medicated and other waters.
+For the separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 1617 see
+APOTHECARY. (See further LIVERY COMPANIES.)
+
+  See _The Grocery Trade_, by J. Aubrey Rees (1910).
+
+
+
+
+GROCYN, WILLIAM (1446?-1519), English scholar, was born at Colerne,
+Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents for the church, he was
+sent to Winchester College, and in 1465 was elected to a scholarship at
+New College, Oxford. In 1467 he became a fellow, and had among his
+pupils William Warham, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 he
+accepted the rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but
+continued to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College
+in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of divinity,
+in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknowledged his skill as
+a debater by the present of a buck and five marks. In 1485 he became
+prebendary of Lincoln cathedral. About 1488 Grocyn left England for
+Italy, and before his return in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and
+Padua, and studied Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and
+Politian. As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of
+indoctrinating his countrymen in the new Greek learning.
+
+Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek at Oxford
+before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College, Thomas Chaundler,
+invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to Oxford, to act as
+praelector. This was about 1475, and as Vitelli was certainly familiar
+with Greek literature, Grocyn may have learnt Greek from him. He seems
+to have lived in Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became
+dean of St Paul's in 1504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by his
+friend to deliver lectures in St Paul's; and in this connexion he gave a
+singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced all who
+impugned the authenticity of the _Hierarchia ecclesiastica_ ascribed to
+Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify his views by further
+investigation, he openly declared that he had been completely mistaken.
+He also counted Linacre, William Lily, William Latimer and More among
+his friends, and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by
+Grocyn in London, and calls him "the friend and preceptor of us all." He
+held several preferments, but his generosity to his friends involved him
+in continual difficulties, and though in 1506 he was appointed on
+Archbishop Warham's recommendation master or warden of All Hallows
+College at Maidstone in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his
+friends, and even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519,
+and was buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted as
+his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts to the poor
+and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With the exception of a few
+lines of Latin verse on a lady who snowballed him, and a letter to Aldus
+Manutius at the head of Linacre's translation of Proclus's _Sphaera_
+(Venice, 1499), Grocyn has left no literary proof of his scholarship or
+abilities. His proposal to execute a translation of Aristotle in company
+with Linacre and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin
+works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus he has been
+described as "vir severissimae castissimae vitae, ecclesiasticarum
+constitutionum observantissimus pene usque ad superstitionem,
+scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus ac natura etiam acerrimi
+judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum genere exacte versatus"
+(_Declarationes ad censuras facultatis theologiae Parisianae_, 1522).
+
+  An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the Oxford
+  Historical Society's _Collectanea_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+GRODNO, one of the Lithuanian governments of western Russia, lying
+between 51 deg. 40' and 52 deg. N. and between 22 deg. 12' and 26 deg.
+E., and bounded N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk, S. by
+Volhynia, and W. by the Polish governments of Lomza and Siedlce. Area,
+14,926 sq. m. Except for some hills (not exceeding 925 ft.) in the N.,
+it is a uniform plain, and is drained chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev
+and Bobr, all navigable. There are also several canals, the most
+important being the Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop
+out along the Bug, Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits
+elsewhere. The soil is mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and
+along the rivers is often drift-sand. Forests, principally of
+_Coniferae_, cover more than one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are
+some of vast extent, e.g. those of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa
+(Bialowice) (376 sq. m.), embracing wide areas of marshy ground. In the
+last mentioned forest the wild ox survives, having been jealously
+preserved since 1803. Peat bogs, sometimes as much as 4 to 7 ft. thick,
+cover extensive districts. The climate is wet and cold; the annual mean
+temperature being 44.5 deg. F., the January mean 22.5 deg. and the July
+mean 64.5 deg. The rainfall amounts to 21-1/2 in.; hail is frequent.
+Agriculture is the predominant industry. The peasants own 42-1/2% of the
+land, that is, about 4,000,000 acres, and of these over 2-1/4 million
+acres are arable. The crops principally grown are potatoes, rye, oats,
+wheat, flax, hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle and sheep are bred in
+fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain amount of
+manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and tobacco.
+In woollens this government ranks second (after Moscow) in the empire,
+the centre of the industry being Byelostok. Other factories produce
+silk, shoddy and leather. The government is crossed by the main lines of
+railway from Warsaw to St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow. The
+population numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of these
+last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906 it was estimated
+at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate (54%), then follow Jews
+(17.4%), Poles (10%), Lithuanians and Germans. The government is divided
+into nine districts, the chief towns, with their populations in 1897,
+being Grodno (q.v.), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1901), Byelsk (7461),
+Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1901), Kobrin (10,365), Pruzhany
+(7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk (10,584). In 1795
+Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was annexed by Russia.
+
+
+
+
+GRODNO, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name in
+53 deg. 40' N. and 23 deg. 50' E., on the right bank of the Niemen, 160
+m. by rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna on the main line to St
+Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly two-thirds Jews. It is an
+episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek church and the headquarters of the
+II. Army Corps. It has two old castles, now converted to other uses, and
+two churches (16th and 17th centuries). Tobacco factories and
+distilleries are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and
+firearms are also made. Built in the 12th century, Grodno was almost
+entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights (1284 and
+1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his capital, and died
+there in 1586. The Polish Estates frequently met at Grodno after 1673,
+and there in 1793 they signed the second partition of Poland. It was at
+Grodno that Stanislaus Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795.
+
+
+
+
+GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801-1876), Dutch politician and
+historian, was born at Voorburg, near the Hague, on the 21st of August
+1801. He studied at Leiden university, and graduated in 1823 both as
+doctor of literature and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary
+to King William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in Dutch
+home politics, and gradually became the leader of the so-called
+anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber, of which he was
+for many years a member, and outside. In Groen the doctrines of Guizot
+and Stahl found an eloquent exponent. They permeate his controversial
+and political writings and historical studies, of which his _Handbook of
+Dutch History_ (in Dutch) and _Maurice et Barnevelt_ (in French, 1875, a
+criticism of Motley's _Life of Van Olden-Barnevelt_) are the principal.
+Groen was violently opposed to Thorbecke, whose principles he denounced
+as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived to see these principles
+triumph, he never ceased to oppose them until his death, which occurred
+at the Hague on the 19th of May 1876. He is best known as the editor of
+the _Archives et correspondance de la maison d'Orange_ (12 vols.,
+1835-1845), a great work of patient erudition, which procured for him
+the title of the "Dutch _Gachard_." J. L. Motley acknowledges his
+indebtedness to Groen's Archives in the preface to his _Rise of the
+Dutch Republic_, at a time when the American historian had not yet made
+the acquaintance of King William's archivist, and also bore emphatic
+testimony to Groen's worth as a writer of history in the correspondence
+published after his death. At the first reception, in 1858, of Motley at
+the royal palace at the Hague, the king presented him with a copy of
+Groen's _Archives_ as a token of appreciation and admiration of the work
+done by the "worthy vindicator of William I., prince of Orange." This
+copy, bearing the king's autograph inscription, afterwards came into the
+possession of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley's son-in-law.
+
+
+
+
+GROIN. (1) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine, from Lat.
+_grunnire_, and so applied to the snout of a pig; it is probably the
+origin of the word, more commonly spelled "groyne," for a small timber
+framework or wall of masonry used on sea coasts as a breakwater to
+prevent the encroachment of sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin;
+from an older form _grynde_ or _grinde_; the derivation from "grain," an
+obsolete word meaning "fork," cannot, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed
+between the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the
+inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle or "arris"
+formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one another,
+occasionally called by workmen "groin point." If the vaults are both of
+the same radius and height, their intersections lie in a vertical plane,
+in other cases they form winding curves for which it is difficult to
+provide centering. In early medieval vaulting this was sometimes
+arranged by a slight alteration in the geometrical curve of the vault,
+but the problem was not satisfactorily solved until the introduction of
+the rib which henceforth ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell
+(see VAULT). The name "Welsh groin" or "underpitch" is generally given
+to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal vault is
+higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the transverse rib (of
+much greater radius than that of the wall rib), projected diagonally in
+front of the latter, the filling-in or web has to be carried back from
+the transverse to the wall rib. The term "groin centering" is used
+where, in groining without ribs, the whole surface is supported by
+centering during the erection of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone
+ribs only are supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work,
+any light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See VAULT.)
+
+
+
+
+GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON (1777-1843), Prussian soldier, was born
+in Berlin on the 30th of July 1777. He entered an infantry regiment when
+scarcely thirteen, became an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797,
+first lieutenant 1804 and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had
+become one of Scharnhorst's intimates, and he was distinguished for his
+energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which he
+served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a staff officer,
+and won the rank of major for distinguished service in action. After the
+peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was one of the most active of
+Scharnhorst's assistants in the work of reorganization (1809), joined the
+_Tugendbund_ and endeavoured to take part in Schill's abortive
+expedition, after which he entered the Austrian service as a major on the
+general staff. Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards
+against Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that
+port against Marshal Victor in 1810. He was present at the battle of
+Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a prisoner of war at the
+surrender of the last-named place. Soon, however, he escaped to
+Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he returned to Prussia as a major on
+the general staff. He served successively under Colonel von Dolffs and
+General von Kleist, and as commissioner at the headquarters of the
+Russian general Barclay de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory
+of Kulm, and recovered from a severe wound received at that action in
+time to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous part
+in the campaign of 1814 in France, after which he was made a
+major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster-general to
+Field Marshal Prince Blucher, and, after his chief and Gneisenau,
+Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the Prussian operations of
+1815. In the decision, on the 18th of June 1815, to press forward to
+Wellington's assistance (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN), Grolmann actively
+concurred, and as the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to
+have overcome the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and the
+chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After the peace of
+1815, Grolmann occupied important positions in the ministry of war and
+the general staff. His last public services were rendered in Poland as
+commander-in-chief, and practically as civil administrator of the
+province of Posen. He was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died
+on the 1st of June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the
+Prussian army. The Prussian 18th infantry regiment bears his name.
+
+General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the material for
+von Damitz's _Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815_ (Berlin, 1837-1838), and _Gesch.
+des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1842-1843).
+
+  See v. Conrady, _Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann_
+  (Berlin, 1894-1896).
+
+
+
+
+GROMATICI (from _groma_ or _gruma_, a surveyor's pole), or
+_Agrimensores_, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans. The art
+of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the augurs, by whom
+it was exercised in all cases where the demarcation of a _templum_ (any
+consecrated space) was necessary. Thus, the boundaries of Rome itself,
+of colonies and camps, were all marked out in accordance with the rules
+of augural procedure. The first professional surveyor mentioned is L.
+Decidius Saxa, who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps
+(Cicero, _Philippics_, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their number
+and reputation increased. The distribution of land amongst the veterans,
+the increase in the number of military colonies, the settlement of
+Italian peasants in the provinces, the general survey of the empire
+under Augustus, the separation of private and state domains, led to the
+establishment of a recognized professional corporation of surveyors.
+During later times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some
+cases were even honoured with the title _clarissimus_. Their duties were
+not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal knowledge for
+consultations or the settlement of disputes. This led to the institution
+of special schools for the training of surveyors and a special
+literature, which lasted from the 1st to the 6th century A.D. The
+earliest of the gromatic writers was Frontinus (q.v.), whose _De agrorum
+qualitate_, dealing with the legal aspect of the art, was the subject of
+a commentary by Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan
+a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his Dacian
+campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for land surveyors
+(_Expositio et ratio omnium formarum_ or _mensurarum_, probably after a
+Greek original by Hero), dedicated to a certain Celsus who had invented
+an improvement in a gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling
+the modern theodolite); for the treatises of Hyginus see that name.
+Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus (_De condicionibus
+agrorum_, extant), while the most curious treatise on the subject,
+written in barbarous Latin and entitled _Casae litterarum_ (long a
+school text-book) is the work of a certain Innocentius (4th-5th
+century). It is doubtful whether Boetius is the author of the treatises
+attributed to him. The _Gromatici veteres_ also contains extracts from
+official registers (probably belonging to the 5th century) of colonial
+and other land surveys, lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and
+extracts from the Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection
+had its origin during the 5th century in the office of a vicarius
+(diocesan governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under him.
+The surveyors were known by various names: _decempedator_ (with
+reference to the instrument used); _finitor_, _metator_ or _mensor
+castrorum_ in republican times; _togati Augustorum_ as imperial civil
+officials; _professor_, _auctor_ as professional instructors.
+
+  The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others (1848)
+  with supplementary volume, _Die Schriften der romischen Feldmesser_
+  (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, _Roman History_, ii., appendix (Eng.
+  trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M. Cantor, _Die
+  romischen Agrimensoren_ (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot, _La Condition
+  des Agrimensores dans l'ancienne Rome_ (1879); G. Rossi, _Groma e
+  squadro_ (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Hultsch in Ersch and Gruber's
+  _Allgem. Encyklopadie_, and by G. Humbert in Daremberg and Saglio's
+  _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman
+  Literature_, 58.
+
+
+
+
+GRONINGEN, the most northerly province of Holland, bounded S. by Drente,
+W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee, N. and N.E. by the North Sea and
+the mouth of the Ems with the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian
+province of Hanover. It includes the islands of Boschplaat and
+Rottumeroog, belonging to the group of Frisian islands (q.v.). Area, 887
+sq. m.; pop. (1900) 299,602. Groningen is connected with the Drente
+plateau by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to
+the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is flat and
+consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except where patches of low
+and high fen occur on the Frisian borders. Low fen predominates to the
+east of the capital, between the Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or
+lakes. The south-eastern portion of the province consists of high fen
+resting on diluvial sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and
+the sandy soil laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas
+of fen still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian
+border was long considered as the natural protection of the eastern
+frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable condition
+neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised here until
+1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of houses was sanctioned
+and the work of reclamation begun. The gradual extension of the seaward
+boundaries of the province owing to the process of littoral deposits may
+be easily traced, a triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the
+successive stages in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending
+from the Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued
+by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through a lock),
+and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south-eastern corner of the
+province is traversed by the Westerwolde Aa, which discharges into the
+Dollart. The railway system belongs to the northern section of the State
+railways, and affords communication with Germany via Winschoten.
+Steam-tramways also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the
+main industry. The proportion of landowners is a very large one, and the
+prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested by the style of
+his home, his dress and his gig. As a result, however, partly of the
+usual want of work on the grasslands in certain seasons, there has been
+a considerable emigration to America. The ancient custom called the
+_beklem-recht_, or lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended
+ownership of the land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath
+his farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity.
+
+The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and in the
+north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South Holland and
+Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing and horse-breeding
+are also practised, together with butter and cheese making. The
+cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds in the south and the fen
+colonies along the Stads-Canal invite general comparison with the
+industries of Drente (q.v.). Hoogezand and Sappemeer, Veendam and
+Wildervank, New and Old Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of
+villages which have extended until they overlap one another and are
+similar in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in
+North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen (q.v.) is
+the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl, which was
+formerly an important fortress for the protection of the ancient sluices
+on the little river Delf (hence its name), has greatly benefited by the
+construction of the Ems (Eems) ship-canal connecting it with Groningen,
+and has a good harbour with a considerable import trade in wood.
+Appingedam and Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle
+and horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out by the
+Society for Public Welfare (_Tot Nut van het Algemeen_) in 1826.
+
+
+
+
+GRONINGEN, a town of Holland, capital of the province of the same name,
+at the confluence of the two canalized rivers the Drentsche Aa and the
+Hunse (which are continued to the Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m.
+N. of Assen and 33 m. E. of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (1900) 67,563.
+Groningen is the centre from which several important canals radiate.
+Besides the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and the Damster Diep,
+connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the Kolonel's Diep with
+Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem's Canal with Assen and the south and the
+Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence steamers ply in all
+directions, and there is a regular service to Emden and the island of
+Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the Lauwers Zee to the island of
+Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is the most important town in the north of
+Holland, with its fine shops and houses and wide clean streets, while
+brick houses of the 16th and 17th centuries help it to retain a certain
+old-world air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the
+former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of which the
+Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares in Holland. Pleasant
+gardens and promenades extend on the north side of the town, together
+with a botanical garden. The chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a
+high tower (432 ft.) dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the
+famous scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near
+Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was founded in
+1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt at the end of the 19th
+century) contains some remarkable pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx
+(1865). There is also a Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in
+classical style), one of the finest public buildings, was built at the
+beginning of the 19th century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial
+government offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid
+front in 1871. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial museum of
+antiquities, containing interesting Germanic antiquities, as well as
+medieval and modern collections of porcelain, pictures, &c.; the courts
+of justice (transformed in the middle of the 18th century); the old
+Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted to the administration of the
+surrounding district, built in 1509 and restored in 1899; the
+weigh-house (1874); the civil and military prison; the arsenal; the
+military hospital; and the concert hall.
+
+The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its present fine
+buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its auxiliary establishments
+are a good natural history museum, an observatory, a laboratory, and a
+library which contains a copy of Erasmus' New Testament with marginal
+annotations by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and
+dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in 1790, a
+gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music. There are learned
+societies for the study of law (1761) and natural science (1830); an
+academy of fine arts (1830); an archaeological society; and a central
+bureau for collecting information concerning the province.
+
+As capital of the province, and on account of the advantages of its
+natural position, Groningen maintains a very considerable trade, chiefly
+in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle, with Great Britain, Germany,
+Scandinavia and Russia. The chief industries are flax-spinning,
+rope-making, sugar refining, book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and
+it also manufactures beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen
+stuffs, furniture, organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil
+and grain mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and
+silversmiths.
+
+_History._--The town of Groningen belonged originally to the _pagus_, or
+_gouw_, of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which was bestowed by the
+emperor Henry II. on the bishop and chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040
+Henry III. gave the church of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and
+in the deed of gift the "villa Cruoninga" is mentioned. Upon this
+charter the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of
+the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the time of the
+donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to have existed, but the
+royal "villa" rapidly developed into a community which strove to assert
+the rights of a free imperial city. At first the bishops were too strong
+for the townsmen; the defences built in 1110 were pulled down by the
+bishop's order two years later; and during the 12th and 13th centuries
+the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in
+maintaining its authority. Down to the 15th century an episcopal
+prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority extending
+over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht. In 1143 Heribert
+of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the office into an hereditary
+fief in favour of his brother Liffert, on the extinction of whose male
+line it was partitioned between the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden)
+and van den Hove. Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the
+neighbouring Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the
+episcopal yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had
+become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of the 14th
+century it was practically a powerful independent republic, which
+exercised an effective control over the Frisian Ommelande between the
+Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the close of the 14th century the heirs of
+the Koevorden and van den Hove families sold their rights, first to the
+town, and then to the bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was
+temporarily worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the
+city the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht.
+
+The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of Utrecht, was
+aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none; and the craft gilds were
+without direct influence on the city government, which held them in
+subjection. Membership of the governing council, which selected from its
+own body the four _rationales_ or burgomasters, was confined to men of
+approved "wisdom," and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This
+_Raad_ of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power. The bishop's
+bailiff (_schout_), with his nominated assessors (_scabini_), continued
+to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the Raad sat on the bench with
+him, and an appeal lay from his court to the Raad itself. The council
+was, in fact, supreme in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 it
+decreed that no one might trade in all the district between the Ems and
+the Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the
+_burwal_ (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the gilds.
+Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony, hereditary
+podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred to accept the
+protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when Albert's son George
+attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they recognized the lordship of
+Edzart of East Frisia. On George's renewal of hostilities they
+transferred their allegiance to Duke Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In
+1536 the city passed into the hands of Charles V., and in the great
+wars of the 16th century suffered all the miseries of siege and military
+occupation. From 1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards,
+was constantly at war with the "Ommelanden" which had declared against
+the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the capture of the
+city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree of the States in 1597
+which was intended to set them at rest. In 1672 the town was besieged by
+the bishop of Munster, but it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its
+fortifications were improved under Coehoorn's direction. The French
+Republicans planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the
+14th of February 1795, and they continued in authority till the 16th of
+November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed to destruction
+by the law of the 18th of April 1874.
+
+  See C. Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, _Manuel
+  d'histoire_, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.v. in Chevalier,
+  _Repertoire des sources hist. du moyen age_ (_Topo-bibliographie_).
+
+
+
+
+GRONLUND, LAURENCE (1846-1899), American socialist, was born in
+Copenhagen, Denmark, on the 13th of July 1846. He graduated from the
+university of Copenhagen in 1865, began the study of law, removed to the
+United States in 1867, taught German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the
+bar in 1869, and practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer
+on socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist
+Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost exclusively
+to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the bureau of labour
+statistics. He again returned to the lecture field, and was an editorial
+writer for the New York and Chicago _American_ from 1898 until his death
+in New York City on the 15th of October 1899. His principal works are:
+_The Coming Revolution_ (1880); _The Co-operative Commonwealth in its
+Outlines, An Exposition of Modern Socialism_ (1884); _Ca Ira, or Danton
+in the French Revolution_ (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton; _Our
+Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion_ (1890); and
+_The New Economy_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+GRONOVIUS (the latinized form of GRONOV), JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1611-1671),
+German classical scholar and critic, was born at Hamburg on the 8th of
+September 1611. Having studied at several universities, he travelled in
+England, France and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of
+rhetoric and history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at
+Leiden, where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also FABRETTI,
+RAPHAEL.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy, Tacitus,
+Aulus Gellius and Seneca's tragedies, Gronovius was the author, amongst
+numerous other works, of _Commentarius de sestertiis_ (1643) and of an
+edition of Hugo Grotius' De jure belli et pacis (1660). His
+_Observationes_ contain a number of brilliant emendations. His son,
+JAKOB GRONOVIUS (1645-1716), is chiefly known as the editor of the
+_Thesaurus antiquitatum Graecarum_ (1697-1702, in 13 volumes).
+
+  See J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ ii. (1908); F. A. Eckstein
+  in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+GROOM, in modern usage a male servant attached to the stables, whose
+duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding, currying and care
+generally of horses. The earliest meaning of the word appears to be that
+of a boy, and in 16th and 17th century literature it frequently occurs,
+in pastorals, for a shepherd lover. Later it is used for any male
+attendant, and thus survives in the name for several officials in the
+royal household, such as the grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the
+great chamber. The groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George
+III., saw to the preparation of the sovereign's apartment, and, during
+the 16th and 17th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and
+was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of gaming within
+the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The O. Fr. _gromet_, shop
+boy, is taken by French etymologists to be derived from the English.
+From the application of this word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant's
+shop, is derived _gourmet_, an epicure. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_, though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic
+languages, the word may be ultimately connected with the root of "to
+grow." In "bridegroom," a newly married man, "grom" in the 16th century
+took the place of an older _gome_, a common old Teutonic word meaning
+"man," and connected with the Latin _homo_. The Old English word was
+_brydguma_, later _bridegome_. The word survives in the German
+_Brautigam_.
+
+
+
+
+GROOT, GERHARD (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert Groet, in Latin
+Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of the society of Brothers of
+Common Life (q.v.), was born in 1340 at Deventer in the diocese of
+Utrecht, where his father held a good civic position. He went to the
+university of Paris when only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic
+philosophy and theology under a pupil of Occam's, from whom he imbibed
+the nominalist conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon
+law, medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some Hebrew.
+After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and possibly became
+master in 1363. He pursued his studies still further in Cologne, and
+perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited the papal court at Avignon. About
+this time he was appointed to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly
+becoming luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change
+passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every worldly
+enjoyment. This conversion, which took place In 1374, appears to have
+been due partly to the effects of a dangerous illness and partly to the
+influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned and pious prior of the
+Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen near Arnhem, who had remonstrated
+with him on the vanity of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this
+monastery and there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study,
+without, however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received
+ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher throughout the
+diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his labours not only in
+the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle, Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam,
+Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden, Delft, Zutphen and elsewhere, was immense;
+according to Thomas a Kempis the people left their business and their
+meals to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the
+crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop of Utrecht
+supported him warmly, and got him to preach against concubinage in the
+presence of the clergy assembled in synod. The impartiality of his
+censures, which he directed not only against the prevailing sins of the
+laity, but also against heresy, simony, avarice, and impurity among the
+secular and regular clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and
+accusations of heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that
+Groot emitted a _Publica Protestatio_, in which he declared that Jesus
+Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all of them he
+believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic doctrine, and that he
+willingly subjected them to the candid judgment of the Roman Church. The
+bishop was induced to issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all
+who were not in priest's orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without
+effect. There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either
+it was only a few months before Groot's death, or else it must have been
+removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached in public in the
+last year of his life. At some period (perhaps 1381, perhaps earlier) he
+paid a visit of some days' duration to the famous mystic Johann
+Ruysbroeck, prior of the Augustinian canons at Groenendael near
+Brussels; at this visit was formed Groot's attraction for the rule and
+life of the Augustinian canons which was destined to bear such notable
+fruit. At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who
+attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, and
+Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St Augustine. No
+time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, but Groot died
+before a foundation could be made. In 1387, however, a site was secured
+at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of Deventer, and here was established
+the monastery that became the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of
+canons regular, embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses,
+and leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the 15th
+century by all the religious orders in Germany. The initiation of this
+movement was the great achievement of Groot's life; he lived to preside
+over the birth and first days of his other creation, the society of
+Brothers of Common Life. He died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at
+the age of 44.
+
+  The chief authority for Groot's life is Thomas a Kempis, _Vita Gerardi
+  Magni_ (translated into English by J. P. Arthur, _The Founders of the
+  New Devotion_, 1905); also the _Chronicon Windeshemense_ of Johann
+  Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these sources, will
+  be found in S. Kettlewell, _Thomas a Kempis and the Brothers of Common
+  Life_ (1882). i. c. 5; and a shorter account in F. R. Cruise, _Thomas
+  a Kempis_, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch, with an account of
+  Groot's writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot's
+  theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in
+  his day, and that the attempts to make him "a reformer before the
+  Reformation" are unhistorical.     (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL, a large and brilliantly coloured Bornean
+squirrel, _Rhithrosciurus macrotis_, representing a genus by itself
+distinguished from all other members of the family _Sciuridae_ by having
+numerous longitudinal grooves on the front surface of the incisor teeth;
+the molars being of a simpler type than in other members of the family.
+The tail is large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks
+marked by black and white bands.
+
+
+
+
+GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, BARON (1771-1835), French painter, was born at Paris
+in 1771. His father, who was a miniature painter, began to teach him to
+draw at the age of six, and showed himself from the first an exacting
+master. Towards the close of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the
+studio of David, which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same
+time to follow the classes of the College Mazarin. The death of his
+father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolution,
+threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now devoted himself
+wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792 for the _grand prix_, but
+unsuccessfully. About this time, however, on the recommendation of the
+Ecole des Beaux Arts, he was employed on the execution of portraits of
+the members of the Convention, and when--disturbed by the development of
+the Revolution--Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported himself
+at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity of miniatures and
+_fixes_. He visited Florence, but returning to Genoa made the
+acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to Milan, where he was well
+received by her husband. On November 15, 1796, Gros was present with the
+army near Arcola when Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros
+seized on this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had
+found his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of "inspecteur
+aux revues," which enabled him to follow the army, and in 1797 nominated
+him on the commission charged to select the spoils which should enrich
+the Louvre. In 1799, having escaped from the besieged city of Genoa,
+Gros made his way to Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his
+quarters in the Capucins. His "esquisse" (Musee de Nantes) of the
+"Battle of Nazareth" gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls,
+but was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt
+by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him to paint his
+own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. "Les Pestiferes de Jaffa" (Louvre)
+was followed by the "Battle of Aboukir" 1806 (Versailles), and the
+"Battle of Eylau," 1808 (Louvre). These three subjects--the popular
+leader facing the pestilence unmoved, challenging the splendid instant
+of victory, heart-sick with the bitter cost of a hard-won field--gave to
+Gros his chief title to fame. As long as the military element remained
+bound up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and
+energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the events
+which he depicted; but as the army and its general separated from the
+people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes representative only of
+the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased to find the nourishment
+necessary to his genius, and the defect of his artistic position became
+evident. Trained in the sect of the Classicists, he was shackled by
+their rules, even when--by his naturalistic treatment of types, and
+appeal to picturesque effect in colour and tone--he seemed to run
+counter to them. In 1810 his "Madrid" and "Napoleon at the Pyramids"
+(Versailles) show that his star had deserted him. His "Francis I." and
+"Charles V.," 1812 (Louvre), had considerable success; but the
+decoration of the dome of St Genevieve (begun in 1811 and completed in
+1824) is the only work of Gros's later years which shows his early force
+and vigour, as well as his skill. The "Departure of Louis XVIII."
+(Versailles), the "Embarkation of Madame d'Angouleme" (Bordeaux), the
+plafond of the Egyptian room in the Louvre, and finally his "Hercules
+and Diomedes," exhibited in 1835, testify only that Gros's efforts--in
+accordance with the frequent counsels of his old master David--to stem
+the rising tide of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant
+reputation. Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure,
+Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 25th of June
+1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near Sevres. From a
+paper which he had placed in his hat it became known that "las de la
+vie, et trahi par les dernieres facultes qui la lui rendaient
+supportable, il avait resolu de s'en defaire." The number of Gros's
+pupils was very great, and was considerably augmented when, in 1815,
+David quitted Paris and made over his own classes to him. Gros was
+decorated and named baron of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of
+1808, at which he had exhibited the "Battle of Eylau." Under the
+Restoration he became a member of the Institute, professor at the Ecole
+des Beaux Arts, and was named chevalier of the order of St Michel.
+
+  M. Delecluze gives a brief notice of his life in _Louis David et son
+  temps_, and Julius Meyer's _Geschichte der modernen franzosischen
+  Malerei_ contains an excellent criticism on his works.
+
+
+
+
+GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1827-1899), Scottish divine and literary
+editor, the son of a building contractor, was born at Stirling on the
+18th of June 1827. He was educated at Edinburgh University, and in 1856
+became a Presbyterian minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool,
+and three years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in
+1892, and died at Dublin on the 16th of March 1899. Dr Grosart is
+chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare Elizabethan
+literature, a work which he undertook in the first instance from his
+strong interest in Puritan theology. Among the first writers whose works
+he edited were the Puritan divines, Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and
+Herbert Palmer. Editions of Michael Bruce's _Poems_ (1865) and Richard
+Gilpin's _Demonologia sacra_ (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a
+bibliography of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year until
+1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers the "Fuller
+Worthies Library," a series of thirty-nine volumes which included the
+works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies, Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan,
+Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir
+Philip Sidney. The last four volumes of the series were devoted to the
+works of many little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His
+_Occasional Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books_ (1875-1881) is of the
+utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other things the
+_Annalia Dubrensia_ of Robert Dover. In 1876 still another series, known
+as the "Chertsey Worthies Library," was begun. It included editions of
+the works of Nicholas Breton, Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont,
+Abraham Cowley, Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was
+untiring in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two
+last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881, and no
+sooner had they been completed than Grosart began the "Huth Library," so
+called from the bibliophile Henry Huth, who possessed the originals of
+many of the reprints. It included the works of Robert Greene, Thomas
+Nash, Gabriel Harvey, and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also
+edited the complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From the
+Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and edited Sir John
+Eliot's works, Sir Richard Boyle's _Lismore Papers_, and various
+publications for the Chetham Society, the Camden Society and the
+Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart's faults of style and occasional inaccuracy
+do not seriously detract from the immense value of his work. He was
+unwearied in searching for rare books, and he brought to light much
+interesting literature, formerly almost inaccessible.
+
+
+
+
+GROSBEAK (Fr. _Grosbec_), a name very indefinitely applied to many birds
+belonging to the families _Fringillidae_ and _Ploceidae_ of modern
+ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the _Emberizidae_ and
+_Tanagridae_, but always to birds distinguished by the great size of
+their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a synonym of hawfinch (q.v.), but
+a prefix is usually added to indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak,
+cardinal-grosbeak and the like. By early writers the word was generally
+given as an equivalent of the Linnaean _Loxia_, but that genus has been
+found to include many forms not now placed in the same family.
+
+The Pine-grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_) inhabits the conifer-zone of
+both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe and probably
+elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches--often journeying in
+large flocks; stragglers have occasionally reached the British Islands
+(Yarrell, _Br. Birds_, ed. 4, ii. 177-179). In structure and some of its
+habits much resembling a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in
+size, it has the plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same
+changes as do the members of the restricted genus _Loxia_--the young
+being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black, the adult
+hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing with crimson-red on
+nearly all the body-feathers, this last colour being replaced after
+moulting in confinement by bright yellow. Nests of this species were
+found in 1821 by Johana Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjarwi in Swedish
+Lapland, but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855,
+when John Wolley, after two years' ineffectual search, succeeded in
+obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish frontier,
+well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of which are like
+exaggerated bullfinches'. The food of this species seems to consist of
+the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees, though the staple may very
+possibly be those of some kind of pine.
+
+Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller size, but
+its equals in beauty of plumage.[1] They have been referred to several
+genera, such as _Carpodacus_, _Propasser_, _Bycanetes_, _Uragus_ and
+others; but possibly _Carpodacus_ is sufficient to contain all. Most of
+them are natives of the Old World, and chiefly of its eastern division,
+but several inhabit the western portion of North America, and one, _C.
+githagineus_ (of which there seem to be at least two local races), is an
+especial native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North
+Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands--a singular
+modification in the _habitat_ of a form which one would be apt to
+associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers.
+
+The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, _Cardinalis
+virginianus_, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained as to
+the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable for its
+bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same colour, than
+for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confinement has made it a
+popular cage-bird on both sides of the Atlantic. The hen is not so good
+a songster as the cock bird. Her plumage, with exception of the wings
+and tail, which are of a dull red, is light-olive above and
+brownish-yellow beneath. This species inhabits the eastern parts of the
+United States southward of 40 deg. N. lat., and also occurs in the
+Bermudas. It is represented in the south-west of North America by other
+forms that by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern parts
+of South America by the _C. phoeniceus_, which would really seem
+entitled to distinction. Another kindred bird placed from its short and
+broad bill in a different genus, and known as _Pyrrhuloxia sinuata_ or
+the Texan cardinal, is found on the southern borders of the United
+States and in Mexico; while among North American "grosbeaks" must also
+be named the birds belonging to the genera _Guiraca_ and
+_Hedymeles_--the former especially exemplified by the beautiful blue _G.
+caerulea_, and the latter by the brilliant rose-breasted _H.
+ludovicianus_, which last extends its range into Canada.
+
+The species of the Old World which, though commonly called "grosbeaks,"
+certainly belong to the family _Ploceidae_, are treated under
+WEAVER-BIRD.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Many of them are described and illustrated in the _Monographie
+    des loxiens_ of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850),
+    though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call
+    "grosbeaks."
+
+
+
+
+GROSE, FRANCIS (c. 1730-1791), English antiquary, was born at Greenford
+in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His father was a wealthy Swiss
+jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey. Grose early showed an interest in
+heraldry and antiquities, and his father procured him a position in the
+Heralds' College. In 1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his
+tabard, and shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the
+Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed, the only
+account-books he kept were his right and left pockets, into the one of
+which he received, and from the other of which he paid. This
+carelessness exposed him to serious financial difficulties; and after a
+vain attempt to repair them by accepting a captaincy in the Surrey
+militia, the fortune left him by his father being squandered, he began
+to turn to account his excellent education and his powers as a
+draughtsman. In 1757 he had been elected fellow of the Society of
+Antiquaries. In 1773 he began to publish his _Antiquities of England and
+Wales_, a work which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its
+supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not completed
+till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour through Scotland,
+and in the course of this journey met Burns, who composed in his honour
+the famous song beginning "Ken ye aught o' Captain Grose," and in that
+other poem, still more famous, "Hear, land o' cakes, and brither Scots,"
+warned all Scotsmen of this "chield amang them taking notes." In 1790 he
+began to publish the results of what Burns called "his peregrinations
+through Scotland;" but he had not finished the work when he bethought
+himself of going over to Ireland and doing for that country what he had
+already done for Great Britain. About a month after his arrival, while
+in Dublin, he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend,
+on the 12th of June 1791.
+
+Grose was a sort of antiquarian Falstaff--at least he possessed in a
+striking degree the knight's physical peculiarities; but he was a man of
+true honour and charity, a valuable friend, "overlooking little faults
+and seeking out greater virtues," and an inimitable boon companion. His
+humour, his varied knowledge and his good nature were all eminently
+calculated to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him--
+
+    "But wad ye see him in his glee,
+     For meikle glee and fun has he,
+     Then set him down, and twa or three
+             Gude fellows wi' him;
+     And _port, O port!_ shine thou a wee,
+             And THEN ye'll see him!"
+
+  Grose's works include _The Antiquities of England and Wales_ (6 vols.,
+  1773-1787); _Advice to the Officers of the British Army_ (1782), a
+  satire in the manner of Swift's _Directions to Servants; A Guide to
+  Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour_ (1783), a collection of
+  advertisements of the period, with characteristic satiric preface; _A
+  Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue_ (1785); _A Treatise on
+  Ancient Armour and Weapons_ (1785-1789); Darrell's _History of Dover_
+  (1786); _Military Antiquities_ (2 vols., 1786-1788); _A Provincial
+  Glossary_ (1787); _Rules for Drawing Caricatures_ (1788); _The
+  Antiquities of Scotland_ (2 vols., 1789-1791); _Antiquities of
+  Ireland_ (2 vols., 1791), edited and partly written by Ledwich. _The
+  Grumbler_, sixteen humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death;
+  and in 1793 _The Olio_, a collection of essays, jests and small pieces
+  of poetry, highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by
+  him, was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also
+  his executor.
+
+  A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first
+  volume of the _Antiquities of England and Wales_, and another is among
+  Kay's _Portraits_. A versified sketch of him appeared in the
+  _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi. 660. See _Gentleman's Magazine_, lxi.
+  498, 582; Noble's _Hist. of the College of Arms_, p. 434; _Notes and
+  Queries_, 1st ser., ix. 350; 3rd ser., i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser.,
+  xii. 148; 6th ser., ii. 47, 257, 291; Hone, _Every-day Book_, i. 655.
+
+
+
+
+GROSS, properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat. _grossus_.
+The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate with _crassus_, thick,
+but this is now doubted. It also appears not to be connected with the
+Ger. _gross_, a Teutonic word represented in English by "great." Apart
+from its direct meaning, and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar
+or flagrant, the chief uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as
+opposed to "net," or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed
+to "retail" (cf. "grocer" and "engrossing"). As a unit of tale, "gross"
+equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as "small gross," in contrast with
+"great gross," i.e. 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a technical expression in
+English common law, "in gross" is applied to an incorporeal hereditament
+attached to the person of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is
+appendant or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land
+(see COMMONS).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828-1902), German poet, the son of a military
+chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 25th of April 1828. He received his
+early education at the gymnasium in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and
+showing disinclination for the ministry, entered an architect's office.
+But his mind was bent upon literature, and in 1849 he entered the
+university of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he
+devoted himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay
+was with the tragedy _Cola di Rienzi_ (1851), followed in the same year
+by a comedy, _Eine Nachtpartie Shakespeares_, which was at once produced
+on the stage. The success of these first two pieces encouraged him to
+follow literature as a profession, and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he
+joined the circle of young poets of whom Paul Heyse (q.v.) and Hermann
+Lingg (1820-1905) were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was
+dramatic critic of the _Neue Munchener Zeitung_, and was then for a
+while on the staff of the _Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung_, but in 1862
+he returned to Munich as editor of the _Bayrische Zeitung_, a post he
+retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse was
+appointed secretary of the _Schiller-Stiftung_, and lived for the next
+few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich, until, in 1890, he
+took up his permanent residence in Weimar. He was made grand-ducal
+_Hofrat_ and had the title of "professor." He died at Torbole on the
+Lago di Garda on the 9th of May 1902.
+
+Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems. As a
+lyric poet, especially in _Gedichte_ (1857) and _Aus bewegten Tagen_, a
+volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to advantage than in his
+novels, of which latter, however, _Untreu aus Mitleid_ (2 vols., 1868);
+_Vox populi, vox dei_ (1869); _Maria Mancini_ (1871); _Neue Erzahlungen_
+(1875); _Sophie Monnier_ (1876), and _Ein Frauenlos_ (1888) are
+remarkable for a certain elegance of style. His tragedies, _Die
+Ynglinger_ (1858); _Tiberius_ (1876); _Johann von Schwaben_; and the
+comedy _Die steinerne Braut_, had considerable success on the stage.
+
+  Grosse's _Gesammelte dramatische Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. in Leipzig
+  (1870), while his _Erzahlende Dichtungen_ were published at Berlin (6
+  vols., 1871-1873). An edition of his selected works by A. Bartels is
+  in preparation. See also his autobiography, _Literarische Ursachen und
+  Wirkungen_ (1896); R. Prutz, _Die Literatur der Gegenwart_ (1859); J.
+  Ethe, _J. Grosse als epischer Dichter_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSENHAIN, a town In the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N. from Dresden, on
+the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda) to Berlin and at the junction
+of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort-on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 12,015. It
+has an Evangelical church, a modern and a commercial school, a library
+and an extensive public park. The industries are very important, and
+embrace manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather,
+glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settlement. It
+was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom it was strongly
+fortified. It afterwards came into the possession of the margraves of
+Meissen, from whom it was taken in 1312 by the margraves of Brandenburg.
+It suffered considerably in all the great German wars, and in 1744 was
+nearly destroyed by fire. On the 16th of May 1813, a battle took place
+here between the French and the Russians.
+
+  See G. W. Schuberth, _Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain_ (Grossenhain,
+  1887-1892).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. 1175-1253), English statesman, theologian and
+bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents at Stradbrook in Suffolk.
+He received his education at Oxford where he became proficient in law,
+medicine and the natural sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose
+acquaintance he had made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de
+Vere, bishop of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop's
+household, but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself to
+the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris for this
+purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher. His first
+preferment of importance was the chancellorship of the university. He
+gained considerable distinction as a lecturer, and was the first rector
+of the school which the Franciscans established in Oxford about 1224.
+Grosseteste's learning is highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a
+severe critic. According to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or
+Hebrew and paid slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was
+pre-eminent among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural
+sciences. Between 1214 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession the
+archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester. In 1232, after a
+severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and preferments except one
+prebend which he held at Lincoln. His intention was to spend the rest of
+his life in contemplative piety. But he retained the office of
+chancellor, and in 1235 accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook
+without delay the reformation of morals and clerical discipline
+throughout his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with
+more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his own
+chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the right of
+visitation over their community. The dispute raged hotly from 1239 to
+1245. It was conducted on both sides with unseemly violence, and those
+who most approved of Grosseteste's main purpose thought it needful to
+warn him against the mistake of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal
+visit to the papal court at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In
+ecclesiastical politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His
+zeal for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian,
+pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should admit.
+He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry III. upon this
+subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle the question of
+principle in favour of the state. The devotion of Grosseteste to the
+hierarchical theories of his age is attested by his correspondence with
+his chapter and the king. Against the former he upheld the prerogative
+of the bishops; against the latter he asserted that it was impossible
+for a bishop to disregard the commands of the Holy See. Where the
+liberties of the national church came into conflict with the pretensions
+of Rome he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded that
+the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had assaulted the
+legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1247 he submitted patiently to
+papal encroachments, contenting himself with the protection (by a
+special papal privilege) of his own diocese from alien clerks. Of royal
+exactions he was more impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop
+Saint Edmund (q.v.) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical
+estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee which was
+empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy. The committee rejected
+the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an attempt on the king's part to
+separate the clergy from the baronage. "It is written," the bishop said,
+"that united we stand and divided we fall."
+
+It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope were in alliance
+to crush the independence of the English clergy; and from 1250 onwards
+Grosseteste openly criticized the new financial expedients to which
+Innocent IV. had been driven by his desperate conflict with the Empire.
+In the course of a visit which he made to Innocent in this year, the
+bishop laid before the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he
+ascribed all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the
+Curia. It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that
+Grosseteste was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much
+discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In the end,
+however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle. In 1251 he
+protested against a papal mandate enjoining the English clergy to pay
+Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for a crusade; and called
+attention to the fact that, under the system of provisions, a sum of
+70,000 marks was annually drawn from England by the alien nominees of
+Rome. In 1253, upon being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a
+papal nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to the
+pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent, through whom he
+received the mandate. The text of the remonstrance, as given in the
+_Burton Annals_ and in Matthew Paris, has possibly been altered by a
+forger who had less respect than Grosseteste for the papacy. The
+language is more violent than that which the bishop elsewhere employs.
+But the general argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so
+far as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and the
+apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical
+reformer of Grosseteste's time. There is much more reason for suspecting
+the letter addressed "to the nobles of England, the citizens of London,
+and the community of the whole realm," in which Grosseteste is
+represented as denouncing in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its
+branches. But even in this case allowance must be made for the
+difference between modern and medieval standards of decorum.
+
+Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the Franciscan
+teacher, Adam Marsh (q.v.). Through Adam he came into close relations
+with Simon de Montfort. From the Franciscan's letters it appears that
+the earl had studied a political tract by Grosseteste on the difference
+between a monarchy and a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm
+the bishop's projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as
+early as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a
+reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no reason to
+suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured before the
+death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy himself overmuch with
+secular politics, except in so far as they touched the interest of the
+Church. Grosseteste realized that the misrule of Henry III. and his
+unprincipled compact with the papacy largely accounted for the
+degeneracy of the English hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical
+discipline. But he can hardly be termed a constitutionalist.
+
+Grosseteste died on the 9th of October 1253. He must then have been
+between seventy and eighty years of age. He was already an elderly man,
+with a firmly established reputation, when he became a bishop. As an
+ecclesiastical statesman he showed the same fiery zeal and versatility
+of which he had given proof in his academical career; but the general
+tendency of modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and
+ecclesiastical services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist
+and scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew Paris
+and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries, while admitting
+the excellence of his intentions as a statesman, lay stress upon his
+defects of temper and discretion. But they see in him the pioneer of a
+literary and scientific movement; not merely a great ecclesiastic who
+patronized learning in his leisure hours, but the first mathematician
+and physicist of his age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in
+these fields of thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger
+Bacon subsequently gave a wider currency.
+
+  See the _Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste_ (Rolls Series, 1861) edited
+  with a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste's famous
+  memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown's
+  _Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum_ (1690). A tract _De
+  phisicis, lineis, angulis et figuris_ was printed at Nuremberg in
+  1503, A French poem, _Le Chastel d'amour_, sometimes attributed to
+  him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts, the
+  "De moribus pueri ad mensam" (printed by Wynkyn de Worde) and the
+  "Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste" (printed by J. S. Brewer in
+  _Monumenta Franciscana_, i. 582), may be from his pen; but the editor
+  of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh. There is less doubt
+  respecting the _Reules Seynt Robert_, a tract giving advice for the
+  management of the household of the countess of Lincoln. For
+  Grosseteste's life and work see Roger Bacon's _Opus majus_ (ed. J. H.
+  Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and _Opera quaedam inedita_ (ed. J. S. Brewer,
+  Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris's _Chronica majora_ (ed. H. R. Luard,
+  Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the _Lives_ by S. Pegge (1793)
+  and F. S. Stevenson (1899).     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GROSSETO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of the province
+of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop. (1901) 5856 (town), 8843
+(commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level, and is almost circular in
+shape; it is surrounded by fortifications, constructed by Francis I.
+(1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587-1609), which form a hexagonal
+enceinte with projecting bastions, with two gates only. The small
+cathedral, begun in 1294, is built of red and white marble alternating,
+in the Italian Gothic style; it was restored in 1855. The citadel was
+built in 1311 by the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to
+Rome, and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is
+the exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and Siena.
+
+The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal see was
+transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the rest of the
+Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the dominion of Siena.
+By the peace of 1559, however, it passed to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In
+1745 the malaria had grown to such an extent, owing to the neglect of
+the drainage works, that Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in
+1224 it had 3000 men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage
+operations, and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is
+not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters of
+the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.), 20 m. to
+the S.E. by road.
+
+
+
+
+GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (?-1699), one of the greatest Italian singers
+of the age of _bel canto_, better known as Siface, was born at Pescia in
+Tuscany about the middle of the 17th century. He entered the papal
+chapel in 1675, and later sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of
+Siface from his impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli.
+It has generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro
+Scarlatti's _Mitridate_, but the confusion is due to his having sung the
+part of Mitridate in Scarlatti's _Pompeo_ at Naples in 1683. In 1687 he
+was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become a member of the
+chapel of James II. He probably did much for the introduction of Italian
+music into England, but soon left the country on account of the climate.
+Among Purcell's harpsichord music is an air entitled "Sefauchi's
+Farewell." He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and
+Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife he had a
+_liaison_.
+
+  See Corrado Ricci's _Vita Barocca_ (Milan, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GROSSI, TOMMASO (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist, was born at
+Bellano, on the Lake of Como, on the 20th of January 1791. He took his
+degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded thence to Milan to
+exercise his profession; but the Austrian government, suspecting his
+loyalty, interfered with his prospects, and in consequence Grossi was a
+simple notary all his life. That the suspicion was well grounded he soon
+showed by writing in the Milanese dialect the battle poem _La Prineide_,
+in which he described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina,
+chief treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated
+by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through the
+streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous, was first
+attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of his own accord
+acknowledged himself the author. In 1816 he published other two poems,
+written likewise in Milanese--_The Golden Rain_ (La Pioggia d'oro) and
+_The Fugitive_ (La Fuggitiva). These compositions secured him the
+friendship of Porta and Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort
+of romantic literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the
+popularity of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he
+sought to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction
+in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful
+with his poem _Ildegonda_ (1814). He next wrote an epic poem, entitled
+_The Lombards in the First Crusade_, a work of which Manzoni makes
+honourable mention in _I Promessi Sposi_. This composition, which was
+published by subscription (1826), attained a success unequalled by that
+of any other Italian poem within the century. The example of Manzoni
+induced Grossi to write an historical novel entitled _Marco Visconti_
+(1834)--a work which contains passages of fine description and deep
+pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, _Ulrico and
+Lida_, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased. After
+his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as a notary in Milan
+till his death on the 10th of December 1853.
+
+  His _Life_ by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854.
+
+
+
+
+GROSSMITH, GEORGE (1847-   ), English comedian, was born on the 9th of
+December 1847, the son of a law reporter and entertainer of the same
+name. After some years of journalistic work he started about 1870 as a
+public entertainer, with songs and recitations; but in 1877 he began a
+long connexion with the Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy
+Theatre, London, in _The Sorcerer_. For twelve years he had the leading
+part, his capacity for "patter-songs," and his humorous acting, dancing
+and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the Gilbert
+and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original
+individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an
+entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United
+States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote _The
+Reminiscences of a Society Clown_ (1888); and, with his brother Weedon,
+_The Diary of a Nobody_ (1894). His humorous songs and sketches numbered
+over six hundred. His younger brother, Weedon Grossmith, who was
+educated as a painter and exhibited at the Academy, also took to the
+stage, his first notable success being in the _Pantomime Rehearsal_; in
+1894 he went into management on his own account, and had much success as
+a comedian. George Grossmith's two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George
+Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well-known
+figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre, London.
+
+
+
+
+GROS VENTRES (Fr. for "Great Bellies"), or Atsina, a tribe of North
+American Indians of Algonquian stock. The name is said to have reference
+to the greediness of the people, but more probably originated from their
+prominent tattooing. They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana.
+The name has also been given to other tribes, e.g. the Hidatsa or
+Minitari, now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota.
+
+
+
+
+GROTE, GEORGE (1794-1871), English historian of Greece, was born on the
+17th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near Beckenham in Kent. His
+grandfather, Andreas, originally a Bremen merchant, was one of the
+founders (1st of January 1766) of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott &
+Company in Threadneedle Street, London (the name of Grote did not
+disappear from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married
+(1793) Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747-1787), minister of the
+countess of Huntingdon's chapel in Westminster (descended from a
+Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine on the
+revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter and ten sons,
+of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated at first by his mother,
+George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks grammar school (1800-1804) and
+afterwards to Charterhouse (1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine
+in company with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and Henry
+Havelock. In spite of Grote's school successes, his father refused to
+send him to the university and put him in the bank in 1810. He spent all
+his spare time in the study of classics, history, metaphysics and
+political economy, and in learning German, French and Italian. Driven by
+his mother's Puritanism and his father's contempt for academic learning
+to outside society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who
+strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W. Norman,
+through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin (see below). After
+various difficulties the marriage took place on the 5th of March 1820,
+and was in all respects a happy union.
+
+In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic and political
+attitude. In 1817 he came under the influence of David Ricardo, and
+through him of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a
+house attached to the bank in Threadneedle Street, where his only child
+died a week after its birth. During Mrs Grote's slow convalescence at
+Hampstead, he wrote his first published work, the _Statement of the
+Question of Parliamentary Reform_ (1821), in reply to Sir James
+Mackintosh's article in the _Edinburgh Review_, advocating popular
+representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments. In 1822 he
+published in the _Morning Chronicle_ (April) a letter against Canning's
+attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or rather re-wrote, some
+discursive papers of Bentham, which he published under the title
+_Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion on the Temporal Happiness
+of Mankind by Philip Beauchamp_ (1822). The book was published in the
+name of Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a member
+of J. S. Mill's Utilitarian Society (1822-1823). he took a great
+interest in a society for reading and discussion, which met (from 1823)
+in a room at the bank before business hours twice a week. From the
+_Posthumous Papers_ (pp. 22, 24) it is clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in
+asserting that she first in 1823 (autumn) suggested the _History of
+Greece_; the book was already in preparation in 1822, though what was
+then written was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in
+the _Westminster Review_ (April) a criticism of Mitford's _History of
+Greece_, which shows that his ideas were already in order. From 1826 to
+1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and Henry Brougham in the
+organization of the new "university" in Gower Street. He was a member of
+the council which organized the faculties and the curriculum; but in
+1830, owing to a difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the
+philosophical chairs, he resigned his position.
+
+In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis, spent
+some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders. Recalled by
+his father's death (6th of July), he not only became manager of the
+bank, but took a leading position among the city Radicals. In 1831 he
+published his important _Essentials of Parliamentary Reform_ (an
+elaboration of his previous _Statement_), and, after refusing to stand
+as parliamentary candidate for the city in 1831, changed his mind and
+was elected head of the poll, with three other Liberals, in December
+1832. After serving in three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which
+time his party ("the philosophic Radicals") had dwindled away. During
+these years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and
+philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he severed
+his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to literature. In 1846
+the first two volumes of the _History_ appeared, and the remaining ten
+between 1847 and the spring of 1856. In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes
+Currie he gave monetary assistance to Auguste Comte (q.v.), then in
+financial difficulties. The formation of the Sonderbund (20th of July
+1847) led him to visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of
+things in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states. This
+visit resulted in the publication in the _Spectator_ of seven weekly
+letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a letter to de
+Tocqueville in Mrs Grote's reprint of the _Seven Letters_, 1876).
+
+In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and Aristotle. _Plato
+and the Other Companions of Sokrates_ (3 vols.) appeared in 1865, but
+the work on Aristotle he was not destined to complete. He had finished
+the _Organon_ and was about to deal with the metaphysical and physical
+treatises when he died on the 18th of June 1871, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey. He was a man of strong character and self-control,
+unfailing courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the
+best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates alike, he
+was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming, trustworthy in the
+smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive in thought, energetic and
+conscientious in action. Yet, hidden under his calm exterior there was a
+burning enthusiasm and a depth of passion of which only his intimate
+friends were aware.
+
+His work may best be considered under the following heads:
+
+1. _Grote's Services to Education._--He took, as already stated, an
+important part in the foundation and organization of the original
+university of London, which began its public work in Gower Street on the
+28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the incorporation of the
+university of London proper, became known as University College. In 1849
+he was re-elected to the council, in 1860 he became treasurer, and on
+the death of Brougham (1868) president. He took a keen interest in all
+the work of the college, presented to it the _Marmor Homericum_, and
+finally bequeathed the reversion of L6000 for the endowment of a chair
+of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum were,
+however, to be held over and added to the principal if at any time the
+holder of the chair should be "a minister of the Church of England or of
+any other religious persuasion." In 1850 the senate of the university
+was reconstituted, and Grote was one of seven eminent men who were added
+to it. Eventually he became the strongest advocate for open
+examinations, for the claims not only of philosophy and classics but
+also of natural science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the
+admission of women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in
+1868. He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British
+Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the departments
+of antiquities and natural science.
+
+The honours which he received in recognition of these services were as
+follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge (1861); F.R.S. (1857);
+honorary professor of ancient history in the Royal Academy (1859). By
+the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences he was made
+correspondent (1857) and foreign associate (the first Englishman since
+Macaulay) (1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone's offer of a peerage.
+
+2. _Political Career._--In politics Grote belonged to the "philosophic
+Radicals" of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose chief
+principles were representative government, vote by ballot, the abolition
+of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered to these principles
+throughout, and refused to countenance any reforms which were
+incompatible with them. By this uncompromising attitude, he gradually
+lost all his supporters save a few men of like rigidity. As a speaker,
+he was clear, logical and impressive, and on select committees his
+common sense was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the
+_Minor Works_; see also BALLOT.
+
+3. _The History of Greece._--It is on this work that Grote's reputation
+mainly rests. Though half a century has passed since its production, it
+is still in some sense the text-book. It consists of two parts, the
+"Legendary" and the "Historical" Greece. The former, owing to the
+development of comparative mythology, is now of little authority, and
+portions of part ii. are obsolete owing partly to the immense
+accumulations of epigraphic and archaeological research, partly to the
+subsequent discovery of the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_, and
+partly also to the more careful weighing of evidence which Grote himself
+misinterpreted. The interest of the work is twofold. In the first place
+it contains a wonderful mass of information carefully collected from all
+sources, arranged on a simple plan, and expressed in direct forcible
+language. It is in this respect one of the few great comprehensive
+histories in our possession, great in scope, conception and
+accomplishment. But more than this it is interesting as among the first
+works in which Greek history became a separate study, based on real
+evidence and governed by the criteria of modern historical science.
+Further Grote, a practical man, a rationalist and an enthusiast for
+democracy, was the first to consider Greek political development with a
+sympathetic interest (see GREECE: _History, Ancient_, section
+"Authorities"), in opposition to the Tory attitude of John Gillies and
+Mitford, who had written under the influence of horror at the French
+Revolution. On the whole his work was done with impartiality, and more
+recent study has only confirmed his general conclusions. Much has been
+made of his defective accounts of the tyrants and the Macedonian empire,
+and his opinion that Greek history ceased to be interesting or
+instructive after Chaeronea. It is true that he confined his interest to
+the fortunes of the city state and neglected the wider diffusion of the
+Greek culture, but this is after all merely a criticism of the title of
+the book. The value of the _History_ consists to-day primarily in its
+examination of the Athenian democracy, its growth and decline, an
+examination which is still the most inspiring, and in general the most
+instructive, in any language. In the description of battles and military
+operations generally Grote was handicapped by the lack of personal
+knowledge of the country. In this respect he is inferior to men like
+Ernst Curtius and G. B. Grundy.
+
+4. _In Philosophy_ Grote was a follower of the Mills and Bentham. J. S.
+Mill paid a tribute to him in the preface to the third edition of his
+_Examination of Sir Wm. Hamilton's Philosophy_, and there is no doubt
+that the empirical school owed a great deal to his sound, accurate
+thinking, untrammelled by any reverence for authority, technique and
+convention. In dealing with Plato he was handicapped by this very common
+sense, which prevented him from appreciating the theory of ideas in its
+widest relations. His _Plato_ is important in that it emphasizes the
+generally neglected passages of Plato in which he seems to indulge in
+mere Socratic dialectic rather than to seek knowledge; it is, therefore,
+to be read as a corrective to the ordinary criticism of Plato. The more
+congenial study of Aristotle, though incomplete, is more valuable in the
+positive sense, and has not received the attention it deserves. Perhaps
+Grote's most distinctive contribution to the study of Greek philosophy
+is his chapter in the _History of Greece_ on the Sophists, of whom he
+took a view somewhat more favourable than has been accepted before or
+since.
+
+His wife, HARRIET LEWIN (1792-1878), was the daughter of Thomas Lewin, a
+retired Indian civilian, settled in Southampton. After her marriage with
+Grote in 1820 she devoted herself to the subjects in which he was
+interested and was a prominent figure in the literary, political and
+philosophical circle in which he lived. She carefully read the proofs of
+his work and relieved him of anxiety in connexion with his property.
+Among her writings are: _Memoir of Ary Scheffer_ (1860); _Collected
+Papers_ (1862); and her biography of her husband (1873). Another
+publication, _The Philosophical Radicals of 1832_ (privately circulated
+in 1866), is interesting for the light it throws on the Reform movement
+of 1832 to 1842, especially on Molesworth.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The History of Greece_ passed through five editions
+  the fifth (10 vols., 1888) being final. An edition covering the period
+  from Solon to 403, with new notes and excursuses, was published by J.
+  M. Mitchell and M. O. B. Caspari in 1907. The _Plato_ was finally
+  edited by Alexander Bain in 4 vols. See Mrs Grote's _Personal Life of
+  George Grote_, and article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ by G. Croom
+  Robertson.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1775-1853), German epigraphist, was born at
+Munden in Hanover on the 9th of June 1775. He was educated partly in his
+native town, partly at Ilfeld, where he remained till 1795, when he
+entered the university of Gottingen, and there became the friend of
+Heyne, Tychsen and Heeren. Heyne's recommendation procured for him an
+assistant mastership in the Gottingen gymnasium in 1797. While there he
+published his work _De pasigraphia sive scriptura universali_ (1799),
+which led to his appointment in 1803 as prorector of the gymnasium of
+Frankfort-on-Main, and shortly afterwards as conrector. Grotefend was
+best known during his lifetime as a Latin and Italian philologist,
+though the attention he paid to his own language is shown by his
+_Anfangsgrunde der deutschen Poesie_, published in 1815, and his
+foundation of a society for investigating the German tongue in 1817. In
+1821 he became director of the gymnasium at Hanover, a post which he
+retained till his retirement in 1849. In 1823-1824 appeared his revised
+edition of Wenck's Latin grammar, in two volumes, followed by a smaller
+grammar for the use of schools in 1826; in 1835-1838 a systematic
+attempt to explain the fragmentary remains of the Umbrian dialect,
+entitled _Rudimenta linguae Umbricae ex inscriptionibus antiquis
+enodata_ (in eight parts); and in 1839 a work of similar character upon
+Oscan (_Rudimenta linguae Oscae_). In the same year he published an
+important memoir on the coins of Bactria, under the name of _Die Munzen
+der griechischen, parthischen, und indoskythischen Konige von Bactrien
+und den Landern am Indus_. He soon, however, returned to his favourite
+subject, and brought out a work in five parts, _Zur Geographie und
+Geschichte von Altitalien_ (1840-1842). Previously, in 1836, he had
+written a preface to Wagenfeld's translation of the spurious
+_Sanchoniathon_ of Philo Byblius, which was alleged to have been
+discovered in the preceding year in the Portuguese convent of Santa
+Maria de Merinhao. But it was in the East rather than in the West that
+Grotefend did his greatest work. The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia
+had for some time been attracting attention in Europe; exact copies of
+them had been published by the elder Niebuhr, who lost his eyesight over
+the work; and Grotefend's friend, Tychsen of Rostock, believed that he
+had ascertained the characters in the column, now known to be Persian,
+to be alphabetic. At this point Grotefend took the matter up. His first
+discovery was communicated to the Royal Society of Gottingen in 1800,
+and reviewed by Tychsen two years afterwards. In 1815 he gave an account
+of it in Heeren's great work on ancient history, and in 1837 published
+his _Neue Beitrage zur Erlauterung der persepolitanischen Keilschrift_.
+Three years later appeared his _Neue Beitrage zur Erlauterung der
+babylonischen Keilschrift_. His discovery may be summed up as follows:
+(1) that the Persian inscriptions contain three different forms of
+cuneiform writing, so that the decipherment of the one would give the
+key to the decipherment of the others; (2) that the characters of the
+Persian column are alphabetic and not syllabic; (3) that they must be
+read from left to right; (4) that the alphabet consists of forty
+letters, including signs for long and short vowels; and (5) that the
+Persepolitan inscriptions are written in Zend (which, however, is not
+the case), and must be ascribed to the age of the Achaemenian princes.
+The process whereby Grotefend arrived at these conclusions is a
+prominent illustration of persevering genius (see CUNEIFORM). A solid
+basis had thus been laid for the interpretation of the Persian
+inscriptions, and all that remained was to work out the results of
+Grotefend's brilliant discovery, a task ably performed by Burnouf,
+Lassen and Rawlinson. Grotefend died on the 15th of December 1853.
+
+
+
+
+GROTESQUE, strictly a form of decorative art, in painting or sculpture,
+consisting of fantastic shapes of human beings, animals and the like,
+joined together by wreaths of flowers, garlands or arabesques. The word
+is also applied to any whimsical design or decorative style, if
+characterized by unnatural distortion, and, generally, to anything
+ludicrous or extravagantly fanciful. "Grotesque" comes through the
+French from the Ital. _grottesco_, an adjective formed from _grotta_,
+which has been corrupted in English to "grotto." The commonly accepted
+explanation of the special use of the term "grotesque" is that this
+particular form of decorative art was most frequently found in the
+excavated ancient Roman and Greek dwellings found in Italy, to which was
+applied the name _grotte_. The derivation of _grotta_ is through popular
+Lat. _crupta_ or _grupta_ (cf. "crypt"), from Gr. [Greek: kypte], a
+vault, [Greek: kryptein], to hide. Such a term would be applicable both
+to the buried dwellings of ancient Italy, and to a cavern, artificial or
+natural, the ordinary sense of the word. An interesting parallel with
+this origin of the word is found in that of "antic," now meaning a
+freak, a jest, absurd fancy, &c. This word is the same as "antique," and
+was, like "grotesque," first applied to the fanciful decorations of
+ancient art.
+
+
+
+
+GROTH, KLAUS (1819-1899), Low German poet, was born at Heide in
+Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After studying at the
+seminary in Tondern (1838-1841), he became a teacher at the girls'
+school in his native village, but in 1847 went to Kiel to qualify for a
+higher educational post. Ill-health interrupted his studies and it was
+not until 1853 that he was able to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took
+the degree of doctor of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as
+_privatdocent_ in German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in
+1866, he was made professor, and where he lived until his death on the
+1st of June 1899. In his Low German (_Plattdeutsch_) lyric and epic
+poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (q.v.), Groth
+gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern home; and
+though his descriptions may not always reflect the peculiar
+characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully as those of
+F. Reuter (q.v.), yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine inspiration. His
+chief works are _Quickborn, Volksleben in plattdeutschen Gedichten
+Ditmarscher Mundart_ (1852; 25th ed. 1900; and in High German
+translations, notably by M. J. Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes
+of stories, _Vertelln_ (1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also _Voer de Goern_
+(1858) and _Ut min Jungsparadies_ (1875).
+
+  Groth's _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 4 vols. (1893). His
+  _Lebenserinnerungen_ were edited by E. Wolff in 1891; see also K.
+  Eggers, _K. Groth und die plattdeutsche Dichtung_ (1885); and
+  biographies by A. Bartels (1899) and H. Siercks (1899.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON (1843-   ), German mineralogist, was born at
+Magdeburg on the 23rd of June 1843. He was educated at Freiberg, Dresden
+and Berlin, and took the degree of Ph.D. in 1868. After holding from
+1872 the chair of mineralogy at Strasburg, he was in 1883 appointed
+professor of mineralogy and curator of minerals in the state museum at
+Munich. He carried on extensive researches on crystals and minerals, and
+also on rocks; and published _Tabellarische Ubersicht der einfachen
+Mineralien_ (1874-1898), and _Physikalische Krystallographie_
+(1876-1895, ed. 4, 1905). He edited for some years the _Zeitschrift fur
+Krystallographie und Mineralogie_.
+
+
+
+
+GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645), in his native country Huig van Groot, but
+known to the rest of Europe by the latinized form of the name, Dutch
+publicist and statesman, was born at Delft on Easter day, the 10th of
+April 1583. The Groots were a branch of a family of distinction, which
+had been noble in France, but had removed to the Low Countries more than
+a century before. Their French name was de Cornets, and this cadet
+branch had taken the name of Groot on the marriage of Hugo's
+great-grandfather with a Dutch heiress. The father of Hugo was a lawyer
+in considerable practice, who had four times served the office of
+burgomaster of Leiden, and was one of the three curators of the
+university of that place.
+
+In the annals of precocious genius there is no greater prodigy on record
+than Hugo Grotius, who was able to make good Latin verses at nine, was
+ripe for the university at twelve, and at fifteen edited the
+encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella. At Leiden he was much noticed
+by J. J. Scaliger, whose habit it was to engage his young friends in the
+editing of some classical text. At fifteen Grotius accompanied Count
+Justin of Nassau, and the grand pensionary J. van Olden Barneveldt on
+their special embassy to the court of France. After a year spent in
+acquiring the language and making acquaintance with the leading men of
+France, Grotius returned home. He took the degree of doctor of law at
+Leiden, and entered on practice as an advocate.
+
+Notwithstanding his successes in his profession, his inclination was to
+literature. In 1600 he edited the remains of Aratus, with the versions
+of Cicero, Germanicus and Avienus. Of the _Germanicus_ Scaliger says--"A
+better text than that which Grotius has given, it is impossible to
+give"; but it is probable that Scaliger had himself been the reviser.
+Grotius vied with the Latinists of his day in the composition of Latin
+verses. Some lines on the siege of Ostend spread his fame beyond the
+circle of the learned. He wrote three dramas in Latin:--_Christus
+patiens; Sophomphaneas_, on the story of Joseph and his brethren; and
+_Adamus exul_, a production still remembered as having given hints to
+Milton. The _Sophomphaneas_ was translated into Dutch by Vondel, and
+into English by Francis Goldsmith (1652); the _Christus patiens_ into
+English by George Sandys (1640).
+
+In 1603 the United Provinces, desiring to transmit to posterity some
+account of their struggle with Spain, determined to appoint a
+historiographer. The choice of the states fell upon Grotius, though he
+was but twenty years of age, and had not offered himself for the post.
+There was some talk at this time in Paris of calling Grotius to be
+librarian of the royal library. But it was a ruse of the Jesuit party,
+who wished to persuade the public that the opposition to the appointment
+of Isaac Casaubon did not proceed from theological motives, since they
+were ready to appoint a Protestant in the person of Grotius.
+
+His next preferment was that of advocate-general of the fisc for the
+provinces of Holland and Zeeland. This was followed by his marriage, in
+1608, to Marie Reigersberg, a lady of family in Zeeland, a woman of
+great capacity and noble disposition.
+
+Grotius had already passed from occupation with the classics to studies
+more immediately connected with his profession. In the winter of 1604 he
+composed (but did not publish) a treatise entitled _De jure praedae_.
+The MS. remained unknown till 1868, when it was brought to light, and
+printed at the Hague under the auspices of Professor Fruin. It shows
+that the principles and the plan of the celebrated _De jure belli_,
+which was not composed till 1625, more than twenty years after, had
+already been conceived by a youth of twenty-one. It has always been a
+question what it was that determined Grotius, when an exile in Paris in
+1625, to that particular subject, and various explanations have been
+offered; among others a casual suggestion of Peiresc in a letter of
+early date. The discovery of the MS. of the _De jure praedae_ discloses
+the whole history of Grotius's ideas, and shows that from youth upwards
+he had steadily read and meditated in one direction, that, namely, of
+which the famous _De jure belli_ was the mature product. In the _De jure
+praedae_ of 1604 there is much more than the germ of the later treatise
+_De jure belli_. Its main principles, and the whole system of thought
+implied in the later, are anticipated in the earlier work. The
+arrangement even is the same. The chief difference between the two
+treatises is one which twenty years' experience in affairs could not but
+bring--the substitution of more cautious and guarded language, less
+dogmatic affirmation, more allowance for exceptions and deviations. The
+_Jus pacis_ was an addition introduced first in the later work, an
+insertion which is the cause of not a little of the confused arrangement
+which has been found fault with in the _De jure belli_.
+
+The _De jure praedae_ further demonstrates that Grotius was originally
+determined to this subject, not by any speculative intellectual
+interest, but by a special occasion presented by his professional
+engagements. He was retained by the Dutch East India Company as their
+advocate. One of their captains, Heemskirk, had captured a rich
+Portuguese galleon in the Straits of Malacca. The right of a private
+company to make prizes was hotly contested in Holland, and denied by the
+stricter religionists, especially the Mennonites, who considered all war
+unlawful. Grotius undertook to prove that Heemskirk's prize had been
+lawfully captured. In doing this he was led to investigate the grounds
+of the lawfulness of war in general. Such was the casual origin of a
+book which long enjoyed such celebrity that it used to be said, with
+some exaggeration indeed, that it had founded a new science.
+
+A short treatise which was printed in 1609, Grotius says without his
+permission, under the title of _Mare liberum_, is nothing more than a
+chapter--the 12th--of the _De jure praedae_. It was necessary to
+Grotius's defence of Heemskirk that he should show that the Portuguese
+pretence that Eastern waters were their private property was untenable.
+Grotius maintains that the ocean is free to all nations. The occasional
+character of this piece explains the fact that at the time of its
+appearance it made no sensation. It was not till many years afterwards
+that the jealousies between England and Holland gave importance to the
+novel doctrine broached in the tract by Grotius, a doctrine which Selden
+set himself to refute in his _Mare clausum_ (1632).
+
+Equally due to the circumstances of the time was his small contribution
+to constitutional history entitled _De antiquitate reipublicae Batavae_
+(1610). In this he vindicates, on grounds of right, prescriptive and
+natural, the revolt of the United Provinces against the sovereignty of
+Spain.
+
+Grotius, when he was only thirty, was made pensionary of the city of
+Rotterdam. In 1613 he formed one of a deputation to England, in an
+attempt to adjust those differences which gave rise afterwards to a
+naval struggle disastrous to Holland. He was received by James with
+every mark of distinction. He also cultivated the acquaintance of the
+Anglican ecclesiastics John Overall and L. Andrewes, and was much in the
+society of the celebrated scholar Isaac Casaubon, with whom he had been
+in correspondence by letter for many years. Though the mediating views
+in the great religious conflict between Catholic and Protestant, by
+which Grotius was afterwards known, had been arrived at by him by
+independent reflection, yet it could not but be that he would be
+confirmed in them by finding in England a developed school of thought of
+the same character already in existence. How highly Casaubon esteemed
+Grotius appears from a letter of his to Daniel Heinsius, dated London,
+13th of April 1613. "I cannot say how happy I esteem myself in having
+seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius. A wonderful man! This I
+knew him to be before I had seen him; but the rare excellence of that
+divine genius no one can sufficiently feel who does not see his face,
+and hear him speak. Probity is stamped on his features; his conversation
+savours of true piety and profound learning. It is not only upon me that
+he has made this impression; all the pious and learned to whom he has
+been here introduced have felt the same towards him; the king especially
+so!"
+
+After Grotius's return from England the exasperation of theological
+parties in Holland rose to such a pitch that it became clear that an
+appeal to force would be made. Grotius sought to find some mean term in
+which the two hostile parties of Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, or
+as they were subsequently called Arminians and Gomarists (see
+Remonstrants), might agree. A form of edict drawn by Grotius was
+published by the states, recommending mutual toleration, and forbidding
+ministers in the pulpit from handling the disputed dogmas. To the
+orthodox Calvinists the word toleration was insupportable. They had the
+populace on their side. This fact determined the stadtholder, Maurice of
+Nassau, to support the orthodox party--a party to which he inclined the
+more readily that Olden Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the man whose
+uprightness and abilities he most dreaded, sided with the Remonstrants.
+
+In 1618 Prince Maurice set out on a sort of pacific campaign, disbanding
+the civic guards in the various cities of Guelders, Holland and Zeeland,
+and occupying the places with troops on whom he could rely. The states
+of Holland sent a commission, of which Grotius was chairman, to Utrecht,
+with the view of strengthening the hands of their friends, the
+Remonstrant party, in that city. Feeble plans were formed, but not
+carried into effect, for shutting the gates upon the stadtholder, who
+entered the city with troops on the night of the 26th of July 1618.
+There were conferences in which Grotius met Prince Maurice, and taught
+him that Olden Barneveldt was not the only man of capacity in the ranks
+of the Remonstrants whom he had to fear. On the early morning of the
+31st of July the prince's _coup d'etat_ against the liberties of Utrecht
+and of Holland was carried out; the civic guard was disarmed--Grotius
+and his colleagues saving themselves by a precipitate flight. But it was
+only a reprieve. The grand pensionary, Olden Barneveldt, the leader of
+the Remonstrant party, Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, brought to
+trial, and condemned--Olden Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to
+imprisonment for life and confiscation of his property. In June 1619 he
+was immured in the fortress of Louvestein near Gorcum. His confinement
+was rigorous, but after a time his wife obtained permission to share his
+captivity, on the condition that if she came out, she should not be
+suffered to return.
+
+Grotius had now before him, at thirty-six, no prospect but that of a
+life-long captivity. He did not abandon himself to despair, but sought
+refuge in returning to the classical pursuits of his youth. Several of
+his translations (into Latin) from the Greek tragedians and other
+writers, made at this time, have been printed. "The Muses," he writes to
+Voss, "were now his consolation, and appeared more amiable than ever."
+
+The ingenuity of Madame Grotius at length devised a mode of escape. It
+had grown into a custom to send the books which he had done with in a
+chest along with his linen to be washed at Gorcum. After a time the
+warders began to let the chest pass without opening it. Madame Grotius,
+perceiving this, prevailed on her husband to allow himself to be shut up
+in it at the usual time. The two soldiers who carried the chest out
+complained that it was so heavy "there must be an Arminian in it."
+"There are indeed," said Madame Grotius, "Arminian books in it." The
+chest was carried to the house of a friend, where Grotius was released.
+He was then dressed like a mason with hod and trowel, and so conveyed
+over the frontier. His first place of refuge was Antwerp, from which he
+proceeded to Paris, where he arrived in April 1621. In October he was
+joined by his wife. There he was presented to the king, Louis XIII., and
+a pension of 3000 livres conferred upon him. French pensions were easily
+granted, all the more so as they were never paid. Grotius was now
+reduced to great straits. He looked about for any opening through which
+he might earn a living. There was talk of something in Denmark; or he
+would settle in Spires, and practise in the court there. Some little
+relief he got through the intervention of Etienne d'Aligre, the
+chancellor, who procured a royal mandate which enabled Grotius to draw,
+not all, but a large part of his pension. In 1623 the president Henri de
+Meme lent him his chateau of Balagni near Senlis (dep. Oise), and there
+Grotius passed the spring and summer of that year. De Thou gave him
+facilities to borrow books from the superb library formed by his father.
+
+In these circumstances the _De jure belli et pacis_ was composed. That a
+work of such immense reading, consisting in great part of quotation,
+should have been written in little more than a year was a source of
+astonishment to his biographers. The achievement would have been
+impossible, but for the fact that Grotius had with him the first draft
+of the work made in 1604. He had also got his brother William, when
+reading his classics, to mark down all the passages which touched upon
+law, public or private. In March 1625 the printing of the _De jure
+belli_, which had taken four months, was completed, and the edition
+despatched to the fair at Frankfort. His own honorarium as author
+consisted of 200 copies, of which, however, he had to give away many to
+friends, to the king, the principal courtiers, the papal nuncio, &c.
+What remained he sold for his own profit at the price of a crown each,
+but the sale did not recoup him his outlay. But though his book brought
+him no profit it brought him reputation, so widely spread, and of such
+long endurance, as no other legal treatise has ever enjoyed.
+
+Grotius hoped that his fame would soften the hostility of his foes, and
+that his country would recall him to her service. Theological rancour,
+however, prevailed over all other sentiments, and, after fruitless
+attempts to re-establish himself in Holland, Grotius accepted service
+under Sweden, in the capacity of ambassador to France. He was not very
+successful in negotiating the treaty on behalf of the Protestant
+interest in Germany, Richelieu having a special dislike to him. He never
+enjoyed the confidence of the court to which he was accredited, and
+frittered away his influence in disputes about precedence. In 1645 he
+demanded and obtained his recall. He was honourably received at
+Stockholm, but neither the climate nor the tone of the court suited him,
+and he asked permission to leave. He was driven by a storm on the coast
+near Dantzig. He got as far as Rostock, where he found himself very ill.
+Stockman, a Scottish physician who was sent for, thought it was only
+weakness, and that rest would restore the patient. But Grotius sank
+rapidly, and died on the 29th of August 1645.
+
+Grotius combined a wide circle of general knowledge with a profound
+study of one branch of law. History, theology, jurisprudence, politics,
+classics, poetry,--all these fields he cultivated. His commentaries on
+the Scriptures were the first application on an extensive scale of the
+principle affirmed by Scaliger, that, namely, of interpretation by the
+rules of grammar without dogmatic assumptions. Grotius's philological
+skill, however, was not sufficient to enable him to work up to this
+ideal.
+
+As in many other points Grotius inevitably recalls Erasmus, so he does
+in his attitude towards the great schism. Grotius was, however, animated
+by an ardent desire for peace and concord. He thought that a basis for
+reconciliation of Protestant and Catholic might be found in a common
+piety, combined with reticence upon discrepancies of doctrinal
+statement. His _De veritate religionis Christianae_ (1627), a
+presentment of the evidences, is so written as to form a code of common
+Christianity, irrespective of sect. The little treatise became widely
+popular, gaining rather than losing popularity in the 18th century. It
+became the classical manual of apologetics in Protestant colleges, and
+was translated for missionary purposes into Arabic (by Pococke, 1660),
+Persian, Chinese, &c. His _Via et votum ad pacem ecclesiasticam_ (1642)
+was a detailed proposal of a scheme of accommodation. Like all men of
+moderate and mediating views, he was charged by both sides with
+vacillation. An Amsterdam minister, James Laurent, published his
+_Grotius papizans_ (1642), and it was continually being announced from
+Paris that Grotius had "gone over." Hallam, who has collected all the
+passages from Grotius's letters in which the prejudices and narrow
+tenets of the Reformed clergy are condemned, thought he had a "bias
+towards popery" (_Lit. of Europe_, ii. 312). The true interpretation of
+Grotius's mind appears to be an indifference to dogmatic propositions,
+produced by a profound sentiment of piety. He approached parties as a
+statesman approaches them, as facts which have to be dealt with, and
+governed, not suppressed in the interests of some one of their number.
+
+His editions and translations of the classics were either juvenile
+exercises prescribed by Scaliger, or "lusus poetici," the amusement of
+vacant hours. Grotius read the classics as a humanist, for the sake of
+their contents, not as a professional scholar.
+
+His _Annals of the Low Countries_ was begun as an official duty while he
+held the appointment of historiographer, and was being continued and
+retouched by him to the last. It was not published till 1657, by his
+sons Peter and Cornelius.
+
+Grotius was a great jurist, and his _De jure belli et pacis_ (Paris,
+1625), though not the first attempt in modern times to ascertain the
+principles of jurisprudence, went far more fundamentally into the
+discussion than any one had done before him. The title of the work was
+so far misleading that the _jus belli_ was a very small part of his
+comprehensive scheme. In his treatment of this narrower question he had
+the works of Alberico Gentili and Ayala before him, and has acknowledged
+his obligations to them. But it is in the larger questions to which he
+opened the way that the merit of Grotius consists. His was the first
+attempt to obtain a principle of right, and a basis for society and
+government, outside the church or the Bible. The distinction between
+religion on the one hand and law and morality on the other is not indeed
+clearly conceived by Grotius, but he wrestles with it in such a way as
+to make it easy for those who followed him to seize it. The law of
+nature is unalterable; God Himself cannot alter it any more than He can
+alter a mathematical axiom. This law has its source in the nature of man
+as a social being; it would be valid even were there no God, or if God
+did not interfere in the government of the world. These positions,
+though Grotius's religious temper did not allow him to rely unreservedly
+upon them, yet, even in the partial application they find in his book,
+entitle him to the honour of being held the founder of the modern
+science of the law of nature and nations. The _De jure_ exerted little
+influence on the practice of belligerents, yet its publication was an
+epoch in the science. De Quincey has said that the book is equally
+divided between "empty truisms and time-serving Dutch falsehoods." For a
+saner judgment and a brief abstract of the contents of the _De jure_,
+consult J. K. Bluntschli, _Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts_
+(Munich, 1864). A fuller analysis, and some notice of the predecessors
+of Grotius, will be found in Hely, _Etude sur le droit de la guerre de
+Grotius_ (Paris, 1875). The writer, however, had never heard of the _De
+jure praedae_, published in 1868. Hallam, _Lit. of Europe_, ii. p. 543,
+has an abstract done with his usual conscientious pains. Dugald Stewart
+(_Collected Works_, i. 370) has dwelt upon the confusion and defects of
+Grotius's theory. Sir James Mackintosh (_Miscell. Works_, p. 166) has
+defended Grotius, affirming that his work "is perhaps the most complete
+that the world has yet owed, at so early a stage in the progress of any
+science, to the genius and learning of one man."
+
+  The chief writings of Grotius have been named. For a complete
+  bibliography of his works, see Lehmann, _Hugonis Grotii manes
+  vindicati_ (Delft, 1727), which also contains a full biography. Of
+  this Latin life De Burigny published a rechauffee in French (2 vols.,
+  8vo, Paris, 1752). Other lives are: Van Brandt, _Historie van het
+  Leven H. de Groot_ (2 vols., 8vo, Dordrecht, 1727); Von Luden, _Hugo
+  Grotius nach seinen Schicksalen und Schriften dargestellt_ (8vo,
+  Berlin, 1806); _Life of Hugo Grotius_, by Charles Butler of Lincoln's
+  Inn (8vo, London, 1826). The work of the Abbe Hely contains a life of
+  Grotius. See also _Hugo Grotius_, by L. Neumann (Berlin, 1884);
+  _Opinions of Grotius_, by D. P. de Bruyn (London, 1894).
+
+  Grotius's theological works were collected in 3 vols. fol. at
+  Amsterdam (1644-1646; reprinted London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1679; and
+  again Amsterdam, 1698). His letters were printed first in a selection,
+  _Epistolae ad Gallos_ (12mo, Leiden, 1648), abounding, though an
+  Elzevir, in errors of the press. They were collected in _H. Grotii
+  epistolae quotquot reperiri poluerunt_ (fol., Amsterdam, 1687). A few
+  may be found scattered in other collections of _Epistolae_.
+  Supplements to the large collection of 1687 were published at Haarlem,
+  1806; Leiden, 1809; and Haarlem, 1829. The _De jure belli_ was
+  translated into English by Whewell (3 vols., 8vo, Cambridge, 1853);
+  into French by Barbeyrac (2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1724); into German
+  in Kirchmann's _Philosophische Bibliothek_ (3 vols. 12mo, Leipzig,
+  1879).     (M. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GROTTAFERRATA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, from which
+it is 13 m. S.E. by electric tramway, and 2-1/2 m. S. of Frascati, 1080
+ft. above sea-level, in the Alban Hills. Pop. (1901) 2645. It is
+noticeable for the Greek monastery of Basilians founded by S. Nilus in
+1002 under the Emperor Otho III., and which occupies the site of a large
+Roman villa, possibly that of Cicero. It was fortified at the end of the
+15th century by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (afterwards Pope Julius
+II.), whose arms may be seen about it. The massive towers added by him
+give it a picturesque appearance. The church belongs to the 12th
+century, and the original portal, with a mosaic over it, is still
+preserved; the interior was restored in 1574 and in 1754, but there are
+some remains of frescoes of the 13th century. The chapel of S. Nilus
+contains frescoes by Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino) of 1610,
+illustrating the life of the saint, which are among his most important
+works. The abbot's palace has a fine Renaissance portico, and contains
+an interesting museum of local antiquities. The library contains
+valuable MSS., among them one from the hand of S. Nilus (965); and a
+palaeographical school, for the copying of MSS. in the ancient style, is
+maintained. An _omophorion_ of the 11th or 12th century, with scenes
+from the Gospel in needlework, and a chalice of the 15th century with
+enamels, given by Cardinal Bessarion, the predecessor of Giuliano della
+Rovere as commendatory of the abbey, are among its treasures. An
+important exhibition of Italo-Byzantine art was held here in 1905-1906.
+
+  See A. Rocchi, _La Badia di Grottaferrata_ (Rome, 1884); A. Munoz,
+  _L'Art byzantin a l'exposition de Grottaferrata_ (Rome, 1905); T.
+  Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iv. (1907).
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GROUCHY, EMMANUEL, MARQUIS DE (1766-1847), marshal of France, was born
+in Paris on the 23rd of October 1766. He entered the French artillery in
+1779, transferred to the cavalry in 1782, and to the _Gardes du corps_
+in 1786. In spite of his aristocratic birth and his connexions with the
+court, he was a convinced supporter of the principles of the Revolution,
+and had in consequence to leave the Guards. About the time of the
+outbreak of war in 1792 he became colonel of a cavalry regiment, and
+soon afterwards, as a _marechal de camp_, he was sent to serve on the
+south-eastern frontier. In 1793 he distinguished himself in La Vendee,
+and was promoted general of division. Grouchy was shortly afterwards
+deprived of his rank as being of noble birth, but in 1795 he was again
+placed on the active list. He served on the staff of the Army of Ireland
+(1796-1797), and took a conspicuous part in the Irish expedition. In
+1798 he administered the civil and military government of Piedmont at
+the time of the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and in 1799 he
+distinguished himself greatly as a divisional commander in the campaign
+against the Austrians and Russians. In covering the retreat of the
+French after the defeat of Novi, Grouchy received fourteen wounds and
+was taken prisoner. On his release he returned to France. In spite of
+his having protested against the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Brumaire
+he was at once re-employed by the First Consul, and distinguished
+himself again at Hohenlinden. It was not long before he accepted the new
+regime in France, and from 1801 onwards he was employed by Napoleon in
+military and political positions of importance. He served in Austria in
+1805, in Prussia in 1806, Poland in 1807, Spain in 1808, and commanded
+the cavalry of the Army of Italy in 1809 in the Viceroy Eugene's advance
+to Vienna. In 1812 he was made commander of one of the four cavalry
+corps of the Grand Army, and during the retreat from Moscow Napoleon
+appointed him to command the escort squadron, which was composed
+entirely of picked officers. His almost continuous service with the
+cavalry led Napoleon to decline in 1813 to place Grouchy at the head of
+an army corps, and Grouchy thereupon retired to France. In 1814,
+however, he hastened to take part in the defensive campaign in France,
+and he was severely wounded at Craonne. At the Restoration he was
+deprived of the post of colonel-general of _chasseurs a cheval_ and
+retired. He joined Napoleon on his return from Elba, and was made
+marshal and peer of France. In the campaign of Waterloo he commanded the
+reserve cavalry of the army, and after Ligny he was appointed to command
+the right wing to pursue the Prussians. The march on Wavre, its
+influence on the result of the campaign, and the controversy to which
+Grouchy's conduct on the day of Waterloo has given rise, are dealt with
+briefly in the article WATERLOO CAMPAIGN, and at length in nearly every
+work on the campaign of 1815. Here it is only necessary to say that on
+the 17th Grouchy was unable to close with the Prussians, and on the
+18th, though urged to march towards the sound of the guns of Waterloo,
+he permitted himself, from whatever cause, to be held up by a Prussian
+rearguard while the Prussians and English united to crush Napoleon. On
+the 19th Grouchy won a smart victory over the Prussians at Wavre, but it
+was then too late. So far as resistance was possible after the great
+disaster, Grouchy made it. He gathered up the wrecks of Napoleon's army,
+and retired, swiftly and unbroken, to Paris, where, after interposing
+his reorganized forces between the enemy and the capital, he resigned
+his command into the hands of Marshal Davout. The rest of his life was
+spent in defending himself. An attempt to have him condemned to death by
+a court-martial failed, but he was exiled and lived in America till
+amnestied in 1821. On his return to France he was reinstated as general,
+but not as marshal nor as peer of France. For many years thereafter he
+was equally an object of aversion to the court party, as a member of
+their own caste who had followed the Revolution and Napoleon, and to his
+comrades of the Grand Army as the supposed betrayer of Napoleon. In 1830
+Louis Philippe gave him back the marshal's baton and restored him to the
+Chamber of Peers. He died at St-Etienne on the 29th of May 1847.
+
+  See Marquis de Grouchy, _Memoires du marechal Marquis de Grouchy_
+  (Paris, 1873-1874); General Marquis de Grouchy, _Le General Grouchy en
+  Irlande_ (Paris, 1866), and _Le Marechal Grouchy du 16 au 18 juin,
+  1815_ (Paris, 1864); _Appel a l'histoire sur les faites de l'aile
+  droite de l'armee francaise_ (Paris, n.d.); _Severe Justice sur les
+  faits ... du 28 juin au 3 juillet, 1815_ (Paris, 1866); and the
+  literature of the Waterloo campaign. Marshal Grouchy himself wrote the
+  following: _Observations sur la relation de la campagne de 1815 par le
+  general de Gourgaud_ (Philadelphia and Paris, 1818); _Refutation de
+  quelques articles des memoires de M. le Duc de Rovigo_ (Paris, 1829);
+  _Fragments historiques relatifs a la campagne et a la bataille de
+  Waterloo_ (Paris, 1829-1830, in reply to Barthelemy and Mery, and to
+  Marshal Gerard); _Reclamation du marechal de Grouchy_ (Paris, 1834);
+  _Plainte contre le general Baron Berthezene_ (Berthezene, formerly a
+  divisional commander under Gerard, stated in reply to this defence
+  that he had no intention of accusing Grouchy of ill faith).
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-ICE,[1] ice formed at the bottom of streams while the temperature
+of the water is above freezing-point. Everything points to radiation as
+the prime cause of the formation of ground-ice. It is formed only under
+a clear sky, never in cloudy weather; it is most readily formed on dark
+rocks, and never under any covering such as a bridge, and rarely under
+surface-ice. Professor Howard T. Barnes of McGill University concludes
+that the radiation from a river bed in cold and clear nights goes
+through the water in long rays that penetrate much more easily from
+below upwards than the sun's heat rays from above downwards, which are
+mostly absorbed by the first few feet of water. On a cold clear night,
+therefore, the radiation from the bottom is excessive, and loosely-grown
+spongy masses of anchor-ice form on the bottom, which on the following
+bright sunny day receive just sufficient heat from the sun to detach the
+mass of ice, which rises to the surface with considerable force. It is
+probable that owing to surface tension a thin film of stationary water
+rests upon the boulders and sand over which a stream flows, and that
+this, becoming frozen owing to radiation, forms the foundation for the
+anchor-ice and produces a surface upon which the descending frazil-ice
+(see below) can lodge. The theory of radiation from the boulders is
+supported by the fact that as the ice is formed upon them in response to
+a sudden fall in the air temperature, it is only released under the
+influence of a strong rise of temperature during the morning. It may not
+rise for several days, but the advent of bright sunlight is followed by
+the appearance on the surface of masses of ground-ice. This ice has a
+spongy texture and frequently carries gravel with it when it rises. It
+is said that the bottom of Lake Erie is strewn with gravel that has been
+floated down in this way. This "anchor-ice," as it was called by
+Canadian trappers, frequently forms dams across narrow portions of the
+river where the floating masses are caught. Dr H. Landor pointed out
+that the Mackenzie and Mississippi rivers, which rise in the same region
+and flow in opposite directions, carry ground-ice from their head-waters
+for a considerable distance down stream, and suggested that here and in
+Siberia many forms of vegetable and animal life may be distributed from
+a centre by this agency, since the material carried by the floating ice
+would contain the seeds and eggs or larvae of many forms.
+
+Besides ground-ice and anchor-ice this formation is called also
+bottom-ice, ground-gru and lappered ice, the two last names being
+Scottish. In France it is called _glace du fond_, in Germany _Grundeis_,
+and in French Canada _moutonne_ from the appearance of sheep at rest,
+since the ice formed at the bottom grows in woolly, spongy masses upon
+boulders or other projections.
+
+"Frazil-ice" is a Canadian term from the French for "forge-cinders." It
+is surface ice formed in spicules and carried downwards in water
+agitated by winds or rapids. The frazil-ice may render swiftly moving
+water turbid with ice crystals, it may be swirled downwards and
+accumulated upon the ground ice, or it may be swept under the sheet of
+surface-ice, coating the under surface of the sheet to a thickness as
+great as 80 ft. of loose spicular ice.
+
+  See W. G. Thompson, in _Nature_, i. 555 (1870); H. Landor, in
+  _Geological Magazine_, decade II., vol. iii., p. 459 (1876); H. T.
+  Barnes, _Ice Formation with special Reference to Anchor-ice and
+  Frazil_ (1906).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The O. Eng. word _grund_, ground, is common to Teutonic
+    languages, cf. Du. _grond_, Ger. _Grund_, but has no cognates outside
+    Teutonic. The suggestion that the origin is to be found in "grind,"
+    to crush small, reduce to powder, is plausible, but the primary
+    meaning seems to be the lowest part or bottom of anything rather than
+    grit, sand or gravel. The main branches in sense appear to be, first,
+    bottom, as of the sea or a river, cf. the use, in the plural, for
+    dregs; second, base or foundation, actual, as of the first or main
+    surface of a painting, fabric, &c., or figurative, as of a principle
+    or reason; third, the surface of the earth, or a particular part of
+    that surface.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND NUT (Earth Nut, Pistache de Terre, Monkey Nut, Pea Nut, Manilla
+Nut), in botany, the fruit or pod of _Arachis hypogaea_ (nat. ord.
+Leguminosae). The plant is an annual of diffuse habit, with hairy stem,
+and two-paired, abruptly pinnate leaflets. The pods or legumes are
+stalked, oblong, cylindrical, about 1 in. in length, the thin
+reticulated shell containing one or two irregularly ovoid seeds. After
+the flower withers, the stalk of the ovary has the peculiarity of
+elongating and bending down, forcing the young pod underground, and thus
+the seeds become matured at some distance below the surface. Hence the
+specific and vernacular names of the plant. Originally a native of South
+America, it is extensively cultivated in all tropical and subtropical
+countries. The plant affects a light sandy soil, and is very prolific,
+yielding in some instances 30 to 38 bushels of nuts per acre. The pods
+when ripe are dug up and dried. The seeds when fresh are largely eaten
+in tropical countries, and in taste are almost equal to almonds; when
+roasted they are used as a substitute for chocolate. In America they are
+consumed in large quantities as the "pea-nut"; but are not much
+appreciated in England except by the poorer children, who know them as
+"monkey-nuts." By expression the seeds yield a large quantity of oil,
+which is used by natives for lamps, as a fish or curry oil and for
+medicinal purposes. The leaves form an excellent food for cattle, being
+very like clover.
+
+Large quantities of seeds are imported to Europe, chiefly to Marseilles,
+London and Hamburg, for the sake of their contained oil. The seeds yield
+from 42 to 50% of oil by cold expression, but a larger quantity is
+obtained by heat, although of an inferior quality. The seeds being soft
+facilitate mechanical expression, and where bisulphide of carbon or
+other solvent is used, a very pure oil is obtained.
+
+The expressed oil is limpid, of a light yellowish or straw colour,
+having a faint smell and bland taste; it forms an excellent substitute
+for olive oil, although in a slight degree more prone to rancidity than
+the latter. Its specific gravity is 0.916 to 0.918; it becomes turbid at
+3 deg. C., concretes at +3 deg. to -4 deg. C., and hardens at +7 deg. C.
+It is a non-drying oil. Ground nut oil consists of (1) oleic acid
+(C18H34O2); (2) hypogaeic acid (C16H30O2), by some supposed to be
+identical with a fatty acid found in whale oil; (3) palmitic acid
+(C16H32O2); and (4) arachic acid (C20H40O2). The oil is used in the
+adulteration of gingelly oil.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-PEARL, the glassy secretion forming the pupacase of coccid
+insects of the genus _Margarodes_, belonging to the homopterous division
+of the Hemiptera.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND RENT. In Roman law, ground rent (_solarium_) was an annual rent
+payable by the lessee of a _superficies_ or perpetual lease of building
+land. In English law, it appears that the term was at one time popularly
+used for the houses and lands out of which ground rents issue as well as
+for the rents themselves (cf. _Maundy_ v. _Maundy_, 2 Strange, 1020);
+and Lord Eldon observed in 1815 that the context in which the term
+occurred may materially vary its meaning (_Stewart_ v. _Alliston_, 1
+Mer. 26). But at the present time the accepted meaning of ground rent is
+the rent at which land is let for the purpose of improvement by
+building, i.e. a rent charged in respect of the land only and not in
+respect of the buildings to be placed thereon. It thus conveys the idea
+of something lower than a rack rent (see RENT); and accordingly if a
+vendor described property as property for which he paid a "ground rent,"
+without any further explanation of the term, a purchaser would not be
+obliged to accept the property if it turned out to be held at a rack
+rent. But while a rack rent is generally higher in amount than a ground
+rent, the latter is usually better secured, as it carries with it the
+reversionary interest in buildings and improvements put on the ground
+_after_ the date at which the ground rent was fixed, and accordingly
+ground rents have been regarded as a good investment. Trustees empowered
+to invest money on the security of freehold or copyhold hereditaments,
+may invest upon freehold ground rents reserved out of house property. In
+estimating the amount that may be so invested, account may be taken of
+the value of the houses, as, if the ground rents are not paid, the
+landlord can re-enter. Again, where a settlement authorizes trustees to
+purchase lands or hereditaments in fee-simple or possession, a purchase
+of freehold ground rents has been held to be proper. A devise of "ground
+rent" carries not only the rent but the reversion. Where a tenant is
+compelled, in order to protect himself in the enjoyment of the land in
+respect of which his rent is payable, to pay ground rent to a superior
+landlord (who is of course in a position to distrain on him for it), he
+is considered as having been authorized by his immediate landlord to
+apply his rent, due or accruing due, in this manner, and the payment of
+the ground rent will be held to be payment of the rent itself or part of
+it. A lodger should make any payment of this character under the Law of
+Distress Amendment Act 1908 (s. 3; and see RENT). Ground rents are
+apportionable (see APPORTIONMENT).
+
+  In Scots law, the term "ground rent" is not employed, but its place is
+  taken, for practical purposes, by the "ground-annual," which bears a
+  double meaning. (i.) At the time of the Reformation in Scotland, the
+  lands of the Church were parcelled out by the crown into various
+  lordships--the grantees being called Lords of Erection. In the 17th
+  century these Lords of Erection resigned their superiorities to the
+  crown, with the exception of the feu-duties, which were to be retained
+  till a price agreed upon for their redemption had been paid. This
+  reserved power of redemption was, however, resigned by the crown on
+  the eve of the Union and the feu-duties became payable in perpetuity
+  to the Lords of Erection as a "ground-annual." (ii.) Speculators in
+  building ground usually grant sub-feus to builders at a high feu-duty.
+  But where sub-feus are prohibited--as they might be, prior to the
+  Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874--and there is much demand for
+  building ground, the feuars frequently stipulate for an annual rent
+  from the builders rather than for a price payable at once. This annual
+  rent is called a "ground-annual." Interest is not due on arrears of
+  ground-annuals. Like other real burdens, ground-annuals may now be
+  freely assigned and conveyed (Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874, s.
+  30).
+
+The term "ground rent" in the English sense does not seem to be
+generally used in the United States, but is applied in Pennsylvania to a
+kind of tenure, created by a grant in fee simple, the grantor reserving
+to himself and his heirs a certain rent, which is the interest of the
+money value of the land. These "ground rents" are real estate, and, in
+cases of intestacy, go to the heir. They are rent services and not rent
+charges--the statute _Quia Emptores_ never having been in force in
+Pennsylvania, and are subject to all the incidents of such rents (see
+RENT). The grantee of such a "ground rent" may mortgage, sell, or
+otherwise dispose of the grant as he pleases; and while the rent is paid
+the land cannot be sold or the value of the improvements lost.
+
+A ground rent being a freehold estate, created by deed and perpetual in
+duration, no presumption could, at common law, arise from lapse of time,
+that it had been released. But now, by statute (Act of 27th of April
+1855, s. 7), a presumption of release or extinguishment is created where
+no payment, claim or demand has been made for the rent, nor any
+declaration or acknowledgment of its existence made or given by the
+owner of the premises subject to it, for the period of 21 years. Ground
+rents were formerly irredeemable after a certain time. But the creation
+of irredeemable ground rents is now forbidden (Pennsylvania Act 7
+Assembly, 22nd of April 1850).
+
+  For English Law see Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed., London,
+  1901); Scots Law, Bell's _Principles_ (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899);
+  American Law, Bouvier, _Law Dict._ (Boston and London, 1897).
+       (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GROUNDSEL (Ger. _Kreuzkraut_; Fr. _senecon_), _Senecio vulgaris_, an
+annual, glabrous, or more or less woolly plant of the natural order
+Compositae, having a branched succulent stem 6 to 15 in. in height,
+pinnatifid irregularly and coarsely-toothed leaves, and small
+cylindrical heads of yellow tubular florets enveloped in an involucre of
+numerous narrow bracts; the ribbed fruit bears a soft, feathery, hoary
+tuft of hairs (_pappus_). The plant is indigenous to Europe, whence it
+has been introduced into all temperate climates. It is a troublesome
+weed, flowering throughout the year, and propagating itself rapidly by
+means of its light feathery fruits; it has its use, however, as a food
+for cage-birds. _Senecio Jacobaea_, ragwort, is a showy plant with heads
+of bright yellow flowers, common in pastures and by roadsides. The genus
+_Senecio_ is a very large one, widely distributed in temperate and cold
+climates. The British species are all herbs, but the genus also includes
+shrubs and even arborescent forms, which are characteristic features of
+the vegetation of the higher levels on the mountains of tropical Africa.
+Many species of the genus are handsome florists' plants. The groundsel
+tree, _Baccharis halimifolia_, a native of the North American sea-coast
+from Massachusetts southward, is a Composite shrub, attaining 6 to 12
+ft. in height, and having angular branches, obovate or oblong-cuneate,
+somewhat scurfy leaves, and flowers larger than but similar to those of
+common groundsel. The long white pappus of the female plant renders it a
+conspicuous object in autumn. The groundsel tree has been cultivated in
+British gardens since 1683.
+
+  The Old English word, represented by "groundsel," appears in two
+  forms, _grundeswylige_ and _gundaeswelgiae_; of the first form the
+  accepted derivation is from _grund_, ground, and _swelgau_, to
+  swallow; a weed of such rapid growth would not inaptly be styled a
+  "ground-swallower." If the form without the r be genuine, the word
+  might mean "pus-absorber" (O.E. _gund_, filth, matter), with reference
+  to its use in poultices for abscesses and the like.
+
+
+
+
+GROUND-SQUIRREL, one of the names for a group of (chiefly) North
+American striped terrestrial squirrel-like rodents, more generally known
+as chipmunks. They are closely allied to squirrels, from which they are
+distinguished by the possession of cheek-pouches for the storage of
+food. The sides, or the sides and back, are marked with light stripes
+bordered by dark bands; the ears are small, and without tufts; and the
+tail is relatively short. With the exception of one Siberian species
+(_Tamias asiaticus_), ground-squirrels are confined to North America,
+where they are represented by a large number of species and races, all
+referable to the genus _Tamias_. In North America ground-squirrels are
+migratory, and may be abundant in a district one year, and absent the
+next. They feed on nuts, beechmast, corn and roots, and also on grubs.
+With the assistance of their cheek-pouches they accumulate large
+supplies of food for the winter, during which season they lie dormant in
+holes. Although generally keeping to the ground, when hunted they take
+to trees, which they climb in search of food. One of the longest known
+American species is _T. striatus_.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38202.txt or 38202.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/2/0/38202/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/38202.zip b/38202.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..181e9e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38202.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c61b2e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #38202 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/38202)