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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:45 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:45 -0700 |
| commit | b6ce4ad8bf58d8cb54072ca335a9b3654c588a28 (patch) | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5 + "Greek Law" to "Ground-Squirrel" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38202] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE V<br /><br /> +Greek Law to Ground-Squirrel</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GREEK LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GREY, SIR GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GREEK LITERATURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GREY, HENRY GREY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GREEK RELIGION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GREY, LADY JANE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GREELEY, HORACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GREY DE WILTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GREELEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GREYMOUTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GREYTOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GREEN, DUFF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GREYWACKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GREEN, JOHN RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GREEN, MATTHEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GREEN, THOMAS HILL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GREEN, VALENTINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GRIESBACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GREENAWAY, KATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GRIFFE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GREENBACKS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GREEN BAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GRIFFIN, GERALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GREENCASTLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GRIFFIN</a> (Georgia, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GRIFFIN</a> (creature)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GREENE, MAURICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GREENE, NATHANAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GRILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GREENE, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GRILLPARZER, FRANZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GREENFIELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GRIMALD, NICHOLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GREENFINCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GREENHEART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GRIMALDI, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GREENLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GRIMKÉ, SARAH MOORE and ANGELINA EMILY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GREENLAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GREENLEAF, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GREEN MONKEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GRIMM, WILHELM CARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GREENOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GRIMMA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GREENOCKITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GREENORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GRIMSBY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GREENOUGH, HORATIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GREEN RIBBON CLUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GRINDAL, EDMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GREENSAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GRINDELWALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GREENSBORO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GRINGOIRE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GREENSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GRINNELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GREENSHANK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GREENVILLE</a> (Mississippi, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GRISAILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GREENVILLE</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GRISELDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GREENVILLE</a> (South Carolina, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GRISI, GIULIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GREENVILLE</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GRISON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GREENWICH</a> (Connecticut, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GRISONS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GREENWICH</a> (England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GREENWOOD, FREDERICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GRIVET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GREENWOOD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GROAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GROCER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GREGARINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GROCYN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GRÉGOIRE, HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GRODNO</a> (government of Russia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GRODNO</a> (town of Russia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GREGORY, ST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GROIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GROMATICI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GRONINGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GRONINGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GREGORY</a> (popes)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GRONLUND, LAURENCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GREGORY</a> (Scottish family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GRONOVIUS, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GROOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GROOT, GERHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GREIFENBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GREIFENHAGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GROS, ANTOINE JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GREIFSWALD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GREISEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GROSBEAK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GREIZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GROSE, FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GRENADA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GROSS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GRENADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GRENADIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GROSSENHAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GRENADINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GROSSETESTE, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GRENOBLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GROSSETO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GRENVILLE, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GROSSI, TOMMASO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD</a> (naval commander)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GROSSMITH, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GRENVILLE, SIR RICHARD</a> (English royalist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GROS VENTRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GROTE, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GROTESQUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GRESHAM’S LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GROTH, KLAUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GRETNA GREEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GROTIUS, HUGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GRÉTRY, ANDRÉ ERNEST MODESTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GROTTAFERRATA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GROUCHY, EMMANUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GROUND-ICE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GRÉVIN, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GROUND NUT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GRÈVY, FRANÇOIS PAUL JULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GROUND-PEARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GREW, NEHEMIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GROUND RENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GREY, CHARLES GREY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GROUNDSEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GREY, SIR EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GROUND-SQUIRREL</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GREEK LAW.<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative +jurisprudence the importance of which has been long ignored. +Jurists have commonly left its study to scholars, who +have generally refrained from comparing the institutions +<span class="sidenote">Greek law and comparative jurisprudence.</span> +of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek +law has, however, been partially compared with +Roman law, and has been incidentally illustrated +with the aid of the primitive institutions of the Germanic +nations. It may now be studied in its earlier stages in the +laws of Gortyn; its influence may be traced in legal documents +preserved in Egyptian papyri; and it may be recognized +as a consistent whole in its ultimate relations to Roman law in +the eastern provinces of the Roman empire.</p> + +<p>The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law is implied +by the custom of settling a difference between two Greek states, +or between members of a single state, by resorting to external +arbitration. The general unity of Greek law is mainly to be +seen in the laws of inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce +and contract, and in the publicity uniformly given to legal +agreements.</p> + +<p>No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to +us. Our knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject +is derived from the Homeric poems. For the details +of Attic law we have to depend on <i>ex parte</i> statements +<span class="sidenote">Original authorities.</span> +in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are sometimes +enabled to check those statements by the +trustworthy, but often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental +illustrations of the laws of Athens may be found in the Laws +of Plato, who deals with the theory of the subject without +exercising any influence on actual practice. The Laws of +Plato are criticized in the <i>Politics</i> of Aristotle, who, besides +discussing laws in their relation to constitutions, reviews the +work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The treatise on the +<i>Constitution of Athens</i> includes an account of the jurisdiction of +the various public officials and of the machinery of the law courts, +and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand testimony +of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information +from that treatise (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constitution of Athens</a></span>). The works +of Theophrastus <i>On the Laws</i>, which included a recapitulation of +the laws of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now +represented by only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106, ed. Wimmer).</p> + +<p>Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems. +In the primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato) +written laws were necessarily unknown; for, “in +<span class="sidenote">Law in Homer.</span> +that early period, they had no letters; they lived +by habit and by the customs of their ancestors” (<i>Laws</i>, +680 A). We find a survival from a still more primitive time in +the savage Cyclops, who is “unfamiliar with dooms of law, or +rules of right” (<span class="grk" title="oute dikas eu eidota oute themistas">οὔτε δικας εὖ εἰδότα οὔτε θέμιστας</span>, <i>Od.</i> ix. 215 +and 112 f.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Dikē</i> (<span class="grk" title="dikê">δίκη</span>), assigned by Curtius (<i>Etym.</i> 134) to the same root as +<span class="grk" title="deiknymi">δείκνυμι</span>, primarily means a “way pointed out,” a “course prescribed +by usage,” hence “way” or “fashion,” “manner” +<span class="sidenote">Dikē.</span> +or “precedent.” In the Homeric poems it sometimes +signifies a “doom” of law, a legal “right,” a “lawsuit”; while it +is rarely synonymous with “justice,” as in <i>Od.</i> xiv. 84, where +“the gods honour justice,” <span class="grk" title="tiousi dikên">τίουσι δίκην</span>.</p> + +<p>Various senses of “right” are expressed in the same poems by +<i>themis</i> (<span class="grk" title="themis">θἐμις</span>), a term assigned (<i>ib.</i> 254) to the same root as <span class="grk" title="tithêmi">τίθημι</span>. +In its primary sense <i>themis</i> is that which “has been laid +down”; hence a particular decision or “doom.” The +<span class="sidenote">Themis.</span> +plural <i>themistes</i> implies a body of such precedents, “rules of right,” +which the king receives from Zeus with his sceptre (<i>Il.</i> ix. 99). +<i>Themis</i> and <i>dikē</i> have sometimes been compared with the Roman <i>fas</i> +and <i>jus</i> respectively, the former being regarded as of divine, the +latter of human origin; and this is more satisfactory than the latest +view (that of Hirzel), which makes “counsel” the primary meaning +of <i>themis</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Thesmos</i> (<span class="grk" title="thesmos">θεσμός</span>), an ordinance (from the same root as themis), is +not found in “Homer,” except in the last line of the +<span class="sidenote">Thesmos. Nomos.</span> +original form of the <i>Odyssey</i> (xxiii. 296), where it probably +refers to the “ordinance” of wedlock. The common +term for law, <span class="grk" title="nomos">νόμος</span>, is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially +legal sense (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Op.</i> 276).</p> +</div> + +<p>A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the +shield of Achilles (<i>Il.</i> xviii. 497-508). The folk are here to be +seen thronging the market-place, where a strife has +arisen between two men as to the price of a man that +<span class="sidenote">The trial scene.</span> +has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all +(<span class="grk" title="eucheto pant' apodounai">εὔχετο πάντ᾽ ἀποδοῦναι</span>), the kinsman of the slain protests +that he has received nothing (<span class="grk" title="anaineto mêden helesthai">ἀναίνετο μηδὲν ἑλέσθαι</span>); both +are eager to join issue before an umpire, and both are favoured +by their friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds. +The cause is tried by the elders, who are seated on polished +stones in a sacred circle, and in the midst there lie two talents +of gold, “to give to him who, among them all, sets forth the +cause most rightly” (<span class="grk" title="tô domen hos meta toisi dikên ithyntata eipoi">τῷ δόμεν ὃς μετὰ τοῖσι δίκην ἰθύντατα εἴποι</span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned on two +points: (1) the legal questions at issue; and (2) the destination of +the “two talents.” (1) In the ordinary view (<i>a</i>), it is solely a question +whether the fine or blood-money, corresponding to the <i>Wergeld</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wergeld</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic Peoples</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>: <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>) of the old +Germanic law (Grimm, <i>Rechtsalterthümer</i>, 661 f.), has been paid or +not. (This is accepted by Thonissen, Lipsius, Sidgwick and Ridgeway.) +In the other view (<i>b</i>), it is held that the slayer “claimed to +pay” the fine, and the kinsman of the slain “refused to accept any +compensation” (so Passow and Leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The +“two talents” (shown by Ridgeway to be a small sum, equal in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> +value to two oxen) are awarded either (<i>a</i>) to the litigant who “pleads +his cause most justly before them” (so Thonissen, Shilleto and +Lipsius, in accordance with the Attic use of phrases like <span class="grk" title="dikên eipein">δίκην εἰπεῖν</span>), +or (<i>b</i>) to the judge “who, among all the elders, gives the most +righteous judgment” (so Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock, +Leaf and Ridgeway).</p> + +<p>On this controversy, cf. Maine’s <i>Ancient Law</i>, chap. x. pp. 385 f., +405 f., ed. Pollock; Thonissen, <i>Droit pénal</i> (1875), 27; P. M. +Laurence (on Shilleto’s view) in <i>Journal of Philology</i>, viii. (1879), +125 f.; Ridgeway, <i>ib.</i> x. (1882), 30 f., and <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, +viii. (1887), 133 f.; and Leaf, <i>ib.</i> viii. 122 f., and in his Commentary +on <i>Iliad</i>, ii. (1902), 610-614; also J. H. Lipsius in <i>Leipziger Studien</i>, +xii. (1890), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick in <i>Classical Review</i>, +viii. (1894), 1-4.</p> +</div> + +<p>We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted +blood-money from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that +the slayer remained in the land after paying this penalty (<i>Il.</i> ix. +633). As a rule the slayer found it safest to flee (<i>Od.</i> xxiii. +118 f.), but even so, he might be pursued by the friends of the +slain (<i>Od.</i> xv. 272-278). If he remained, the land was not (as +in later ages) deemed to be polluted by his presence. In Homer, +Orestes does not slay Clytaemestra, and he needs no “purification” +for slaying Aegisthus.</p> + +<p>The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus, +whose traditional date is 884 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Written laws are said to have +been expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch, +<i>Lycurgus</i>, 13); hence the “laws of Sparta” are simply +<span class="sidenote">Greek lawgivers: Lycurgus at Sparta.</span> +a body of traditional observances. We learn that all +trials for homicide came before the Council of Elders +and lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried +by the ephors (<i>q.v.</i>). We are also told that originally the land +was equally divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this +equality was enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the +4th century the ephor Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with +his son, enacted that every Spartan should be allowed to transfer +his estate and his allotment to any other person (Plutarch, <i>Agis</i>, +5), while Aristotle, in a much-debated passage of the <i>Politics</i> +(ii. 9. 14-15), criticizes the Spartan constitution for allowing the +accumulation of property in a few hands, an evil aggravated by +the large number of “heiresses”; “a man (he adds) may +bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies intestate, +this privilege descends to his heir.”</p> + +<p>Law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A +written code is a necessary condition of just judgment, and +<span class="sidenote">Era of written laws.</span> +such a code was the first concession which the people +in the Greek cities extorted from the ruling aristocracies. +The change was generally effected with the aid of a +single legislator entrusted with complete authority +to draw up a code.</p> + +<p>The first communities to reach this stage of progress were +the Greek colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian Locrians, +near the extreme south of Italy, received the earliest +written code from Zaleucus (663 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose strict +<span class="sidenote">Zaleucus at Locri Epizephyrii.<br /> +Charondas at Catana, etc.</span> +and severe legislation put an end to a period of strife +and confusion, though we know little of his laws, +except that they attached definite penalties to each offence, +and that they strictly protected the rights of property. Two +centuries later, his code was adopted even by the +Athenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Charondas, the “disciple” of Zaleucus, became the +lawgiver, not only of his native town of Catana on the +east coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian colonies in +Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a +<span class="sidenote">Androdamas of Rhegium.<br /> +Philolaus of Corinth.</span> +singular precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle) +that he could claim as his own except the special +procedure against false witnesses (<i>Politics</i>, ii. 12. 11). +In the case of judges who neglected to serve in the +law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small fine +on the poor (<i>ib.</i> vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdamas of Rhegium gave +laws on homicide and on heiresses to the Chalcidians +of Thrace, while Philolaus of Corinth provided the +Thebans with “laws of adoption” with a view to +preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land +(<i>ib.</i> ii. 12. 8-14).</p> + +<p>Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the +important city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a +plain watered by the Lethaeus. Part of that stream +forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or near this mill +<span class="sidenote">The laws of Gortyn.</span> +some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French +archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to +which most of our knowledge of the laws is due, was not discovered +until 1884. It had been preserved on a wall 27 ft. +long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of which was buried in the +ground, while its farthest extremity passed obliquely athwart +the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert the water +before the last four columns could be transcribed by the Italian +scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the +same year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight +columns by the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the following +year Halbherr discovered more than eighty small fragments on +the neighbouring site of a former temple of the Pythian +Apollo.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription +above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They +precede the introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties +being reckoned, not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the +powers of the magistrates and the observances of religion, but are +mainly concerned with private matters of barter and sale, dowry +and adoption, inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and +questions of blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a +fixed scale of penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and ranging +from one to a hundred caldrons.</p> + +<p>The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (<i>c.</i> 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +It consists of a number of amendments or additions to an earlier code, +and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and +family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely +oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted; there are +no documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the +memory of the judge or of his “remembrancer.” All the causes are +tried before a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the +suit. Where the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judgment +(<span class="grk" title="dikadden">δικάδδεν</span>) in accordance with the law and the “witnesses or +oaths,” but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide +(<span class="grk" title="krinein">κρίνειν</span>) in view of “the contentions of the parties,” as distinguished +from “the declarations of the witnesses.” Offences against the +person are treated as matters of private compensation according to +a carefully graduated tariff. In certain cases the defendant may +clear himself by an “oath of purgation” with the support of “cojurors” +(<span class="grk" title="homômotai">ὁμωμόται</span>), the <i>Eideshelfer</i> of old Germanic law (Grimm +859 f.), who have no necessary knowledge of the facts. There is no +interference with the exposure of infants, except in the interest of +the father (if the child is free-born) or of the lord (in the case of serfs). +The law of debt is primitive, though less severe than that of the early +Romans. In contrast with these primitive elements we have others +which are distinctly progressive. The estates of husband, wife and +sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wills are unknown, even +in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions are made to +secure with all speed the marriage of an “heiress”; she is bound to +marry the eldest of her paternal uncles or to surrender part of her +estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles that she is +permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their sons. Adoption +is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of stone in the +market-place and making a public announcement at a time when the +citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any larger +share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate his +adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person +repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the gift of a +small number of staters. In these later “laws of Gortyn” we have +reached the time when payments are made, not in “caldrons,” but +in coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as +“these writings.”</p> + +<p>The text of the great inscription was first published by E. Fabricius +in <i>Ath. Mitth.</i> ix. (1885), 362-384; there is a cast of the whole in +the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Comparetti’s +<i>Leggi di Gortyna</i> (1893); Bücheler and Zittelmann in <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> +xl. (1885); Dareste, Haussoullier and Th. Reinach, <i>Inscr. juridiques +grecques</i>, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with the literature there quoted). +Eng. trans. by Roby in <i>Law Quarterly Review</i> (1886), 135-152; see +also E. S. Roberts, <i>Gk. Epigraphy</i>, i. 39 f., 52 f., 325-332; J. W. +Headlam in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xiii. (1892-1893), 48-69; +P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, <i>Greek Antiquities</i> (1895), 560-574; +W. Wyse in Whibley’s <i>Companion to Greek Studies</i> (1905), 378-383; +and Hermann Lipsius, <i>Zum Recht von Gortyns</i> (Leipzig, 1909).</p> +</div> + +<p>A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention +of lawsuits (Aelian, <i>Var. Hist.</i> iii. 38), and the Athenians +themselves regarded their tribunals of homicide as +institutions of immemorial antiquity (Isocr. <i>Paneg.</i> 40). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span> +<span class="sidenote">Athens.<br /> +The three senior archons.</span> +On the abolition of the single decennial archon<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in 683 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, his +duties were distributed over several officials holding office for +one year only. The judicial duties thenceforth discharged by +the chief archon (<i>the</i> archon), in the case of citizens, +were discharged by the polemarch in the case of foreign +settlers or metics (<span class="grk" title="metoikoi">μέτοικοι</span>); while the king-archon, +who succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient +kings, decided cases connected with religious observances (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>). He also presided over the primitive council of the +state, which was identical with the council of the Areopagus. +It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the rights of the +lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the +three archons were raised to the number of nine by the institution +<span class="sidenote">The thesmothetae.</span> +of the joint board of the six <i>thesmothetae</i>, who superintended +the judicial system in general, kept a record +of all legal decisions, and drew attention to any defects +in the laws. It is probable that in their title we have +the earliest example in Attic Greek of the use of <i>thesmos</i> in the +sense of “law.”</p> + +<p>The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical. +With a view, however, to providing a remedy for the conflict +between the several orders of the state, the first code +of Athenian law was drawn up and published by Draco +<span class="sidenote">Draco.</span> +(strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a <i>thesmothetēs</i> +(621). His laws were known as <i>thesmoi</i>. The distinctive part +of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in +such high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of +Solon and in the democratic restoration of 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is partly +preserved in an inscription of 409, which has been restored with +the aid of quotations from the orators (<i>C.I.A.</i> i. 61; <i>Inscr. jurid. +grecques</i>, ii. 1. 1-24; and Hicks, <i>Gk. Hist. Inscr.</i> No. 59). It drew +a careful distinction between different kinds of homicide. Of +the rest of Draco’s legislation we only know that Aristotle +(<i>Politics</i>, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the severity of the penalties, +and that the creditor was permitted to seize the person of the +debtor as security for his debt.</p> + +<p>The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties +agreed in choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Solon cancelled all mortgages and debts secured on +the person of the debtor, set free all who had become +<span class="sidenote">Solon.</span> +slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>). Thenceforth every citizen had also “the right of appeal +to the law-courts,” and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction +on behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional +law (<i>inter alia</i>) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds +of jurors, and the power of voting in these law-courts made the +people masters of the constitution (Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of +Athens</i>, c. 9). Solon’s legislation also had an important effect +on the law of property. In primitive times, on a man’s death, his +money or lands remained in the family, and, even in the absence +of direct descendants, the owner could not dispose of his property +by will. Permission to execute a will was first given to Athenian +citizens by the laws of Solon. But “the Athenian Will was only +an inchoate Testament” (Maine’s <i>Ancient Law</i>, c. vi.); for this +permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no +direct male descendants (Dem. <i>Lept.</i> 102; Plutarch, <i>Solon</i>, 21; +cf. Wyse on Isaeus, p. 325).</p> + +<p>The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in +[Dem.] 43, § 51 (cf. Wyse, <i>ib.</i> p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct +male descendants, a daughter who survived her father was +known as an <span class="grk" title="epiklêros">ἐπίκληρος</span>, not an “heiress,” but a “person who +went with the estate”; and, in the absence of a will, the right +or duty of marrying the daughter followed (with certain obvious +exceptions) the same rules as the right of succession to the +estate (cf. Wyse, <i>ib.</i> p. 348 f.).</p> + +<p>Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (508) was the law of +ostracism (<i>q.v.</i>). The privileges of the Areopagus were +<span class="sidenote">Cleisthenes, Ephialtes.<br /> +Pericles, Cleon.</span> +curtailed (while its right to try certain cases of homicide +was left untouched) by the reforms of Ephialtes (462), +and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty “local justices” +(453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood +by both parents (451), and was the first to assign to +jurors a fee for their services in the law-courts, which +was raised to three obols by Cleon (425).</p> + +<p>In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers +entrusted with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and +<span class="sidenote">Ordinary course of legislation.</span> +Cleisthenes, there was the regular and normal course +of public legislation. The legislative power was not +exercised directly by the popular assembly (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>), but the preliminary consent of that body +was necessary for the appointment of a legislative commission.</p> + +<p>In the 5th century (<i>e.g.</i> in 450 and 446 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) certain commissioners +called <span class="grk" title="syngrapheis">συγγραφεῖς</span> were appointed to draw up laws +which, after approval by the council, were submitted +<span class="sidenote">Syngrapheis. Nomothetae.</span> +to the assembly. The same term was still in use +in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 61). But in October, on +the overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners +are for the first time called <i>nomothetae</i> (<i>ib.</i> 97).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first +meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it +would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the +existing laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were granted, +any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effect was +required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand +them to the secretary of the council (Boulē) to be read aloud at more +than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the +people appointed the legislative commissioners, who were drawn by +lot from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors. +The number, and the duration of the commission, were determined in +each case by the people. The proceedings before the commission +were conducted exactly in the manner of a lawsuit. Those who +desired to see old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws +came forward as <i>accusers</i> of those laws; those of the contrary opinion, +as <i>defenders</i>; and the defence was formally entrusted to public +advocates specially appointed for the purpose (<span class="grk" title="sunêgoroi">συνήγοροι</span>). The +number of the commissioners varied with the number or importance +of the laws in question; there is evidence for the number 1001 (Dem. +xxiv. 27). If a law approved by the commission was deemed to be +unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a +<span class="grk" title="graphê paranomôn">γραφὴ παρανόμων</span>), just as in the case of the proposer of an unconstitutional +decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings might +also be instituted against laws on the sole ground of their inexpediency +(see note on Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, p. 219, ed. +Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment of +Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000 +<i>drachmae</i> (£40), and lost the right to adopt this procedure in future. +When a year had elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was free +from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines, but +the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five advocates +were appointed to defend it (<span class="grk" title="sundikoi">σύνδικοι</span>), cf. Dem. <i>Lept.</i> 144, 146.</p> +</div> + +<p>Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present +article any survey of the purport of the extant remains of the +laws of Athens. Such a survey would begin with the +laws of the family, including laws of marriage, adoption +<span class="sidenote">The laws of Athens.</span> +and inheritance, followed by the law of property +and contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the +protection of the person, and the protection of the constitution. +The texts have been collected and classified in Télfy’s <i>Corpus +juris Attici</i> (1867), a work which can be supplemented or +corrected with the aid of Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>; +while some of the recent expositions of the subject are mentioned +in the bibliography at the end of this article. We now proceed +to notice the law of homicide, but solely in connexion with +jurisdiction.</p> + +<p>The general term for a tribunal is <span class="grk" title="dikastêrion">δικαστήριον</span> (from <span class="grk" title="dikazô">δικάζω</span>), +Anglicized “dicastery.” Of all the tribunals of Athens those +for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive +<span class="sidenote">Jurisdiction; the five primitive tribunals for the trial of homicide.</span> +and the least liable to suffer change through lapse +of time. In the old Germanic law all trials whatsoever +were held in the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At Athens +this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive +courts of homicide, the object being to prevent the +prosecutor and the judges from coming under the +same roof as one who was charged with the shedding of blood +(Antiphon, <i>De caede Herodis</i>, 11). The place where the trial +was held depended on the nature of the charge.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. The rock of the Acropolis, outside the earliest of the city-walls, +was the proper place for the trial of persons charged with premeditated +homicide, or with wounding with intent to kill. +<span class="sidenote">On the Areopagus.</span> +The penalty for the former crime was death; for the latter +exile; and, in either case, the property was confiscated. +If the votes were equal, the person accused was acquitted. The +proceedings lasted for three days, and each side might make two +speeches. After the first speech the person accused of premeditated +homicide was mercifully permitted to go into exile, in which case his +property was confiscated, and in the ordinary course he remained in +exile for the rest of his life.</p> + +<p>2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another +to inflict bodily harm on a third person, or of killing a slave or a +resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion, +<span class="sidenote">At the Palladion.</span> +the ancient shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The +punishment for unpremeditated homicide was exile +(without confiscation) until such time as the criminal had propitiated +the relatives of the person slain, or (failing that) for some +definite time. The punishment for instigating a crime was the same +as for actually committing it.</p> + +<p>3. Trials at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo +<span class="sidenote">At the Delphinion.<br /> +At Phreatto.</span> +Delphinios, in the same quarter, were reserved for special +cases of either accidental or justifiable homicide.</p> + +<p>4. If a man already in exile for unpremeditated homicide were +accused of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to +kill, provision was made for this rare contingency by permitting +him to approach the shore of Attica and conduct +his defence on board a boat, while his judges heard the +cause on shore, at a “place of pits” called Phreatto, near the +harbour of Zea. If the accused were found guilty, he incurred the +proper penalty; if acquitted, he remained in exile.</p> + +<p>5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaneum, to the north of the +Acropolis, was only of ceremonial importance. It “solemnly heard +and condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or +<span class="sidenote">At the Prytaneum.</span> +inanimate objects that had caused the loss of life.”<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +The writ ran “against the doer of the deed,” and any +instrument of death that was found guilty was thrown across the +frontier. The trial was held by the four “tribe-kings” (<span class="grk" title="phylobasileis">φυλοβασιλεῖς</span>), +an archaic survival from before the time of Cleisthenes. (On these +five courts see Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, c. 57, and Dem. +<i>Aristocr.</i> 65-79.)</p> + +<p>In all the courts of homicide the president was the archon-basileus, +or king-archon, who on these occasions laid aside his crown. +Originally all these courts were under the jurisdiction of +an ancient body of judges called the ephetae (<span class="grk" title="ephetai">ἐφέται</span>), +<span class="sidenote">Ephetae.</span> +whose institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer of the first +of the above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed +to Solon. In practice the jurisdiction of the ephetae (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Areopagus</a></span>) was probably confined to the courts at the Palladion +and Delphinion; but even there the rights of this primitive body +became obsolete, for trials “at the Palladion” sometimes came before +an ordinary tribunal of 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. <i>c. Callim.</i> 52, 54; +[Dem.] <i>c. Neaeram</i>, 10).</p> +</div> + +<p>Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the +right of jurisdiction was entrusted to the several archons until +the date of Solon (594). When the direct jurisdiction +of the archons was impaired by Solon’s institution +<span class="sidenote">The presidents of the tribunals.<br /> +The chief archon.<br /> +The king-archon.</span> +of the “right of appeal to the law-courts,” the +dignity of those officials was recognized by their having +the privilege of presiding over the new tribunals (<span class="grk" title="hêgemonia +dikastêriou">ἡγεμονία δικαστηρίου</span>). A similar position was assigned to the other +executive officers, such as the strategi (generals), the +board of police called the “Eleven,” and the financial +officers, all of whom presided over cases connected +with their respective departments. In their new position +as presidents of the several courts, the archons received +plaints, obtained from both parties the evidence which +they proposed to present, formally presided at the +trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the +sentence. The choice of the presiding magistrate in each case +was determined by the normal duties of his office. Thus the +chief archon, the official guardian of orphans and +<span class="sidenote">The polemarch.<br /> +The strategi.<br /> +The thesmothetae.</span> +widows, presided in all cases, public or private, connected +with the family property of citizens (Aristotle, +<i>u.s.</i> c. 56). The king-archon had charge of all offences against +religion, <i>e.g.</i> indictments for impiety, disputes within +the family as to the right to hold a particular priesthood, +and all actions for homicide (c. 57). The third +archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to resident aliens +all such legal duties as were discharged by the chief archon in +relation to citizens (c. 58). The trial of military offences +was under the presidency of the strategi, who were +assisted by the other military officers in preparing +the case for the court. The six junior archons, the <i>thesmothetae</i>, +acted as a board which was responsible for all cases not specially +assigned to any other officials (details in c. 59).</p> + +<p>The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the +ten tribes, acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages +claimed did not exceed ten <i>drachmae</i>. Claims beyond +that amount they handed over to the arbitrators. +<span class="sidenote">The Forty.</span> +The four representatives of any given tribe received +notice of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It +seems probable that they dealt with all private suits not otherwise +assigned, but, unlike the archons, they did not prepare any +case for the court but referred it, in the first instance, to a public +arbitrator appointed by lot (c. 53).<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The public arbitrators (<span class="grk" title="diaitêtai">διαιτηταί</span>) were a body including all +Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator, +on receiving the case from the four representatives +of the Forty, first endeavoured to bring the parties +<span class="sidenote">The public arbitrators.</span> +to an agreement. If this failed, he heard the evidence +and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted, +the case was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted +on appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets +(one for each party) copies of all the depositions, oaths and +challenges, and of all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up, +and, after attaching a copy of his own decision, handed them +over to the four representatives of the Forty, who brought the +case into court and presided over the trial. Documents which +had not been brought before the arbitrator could not be produced +in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors where the sum in +question was not more than 1000 <i>drachmae</i> (£40); in other +cases the number of jurors was 401 (c. 53).</p> + +<p>A small board of five appointed by lot, one for each pair of +tribes, and known as the “introducers” (<span class="grk" title="eisagôgeis">εἰσαγωγεῖς</span>), brought +<span class="sidenote">Eisagōgeis.</span> +up certain of the cases that had to be decided within +a month (<span class="grk" title="emmênoi dikai">ἔμμηνοι δίκαι</span>), such as actions for restitution +of dowry, repayment of capital for setting up a business, +and cases connected with banking.</p> + +<p>The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the +“dicastery” (<i>par excellence</i>), was known as the <i>heliaea</i>. The +name, which is of uncertain origin,<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> denotes not only +the place where the court was held but also the members +<span class="sidenote">Heliaea.</span> +of the court,—the <i>heliastae</i> of Aristophanes, the <i>dicastae</i>, or +<span class="grk" title="andres dikastai">ἄνδρες δικασταί</span>, of the Attic orators. During the palmy days +of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the Persian +and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve +as jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, <i>u.s.</i> c. 24. 3), +and this number was never exceeded (Aristoph. <i>Vesp.</i> 661 f.). +Any Athenian citizen in full possession of his rights, and over +thirty years of age, was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle, +<i>u.s.</i> c. 63. 3). At the beginning of the year the whole body of +jurors assembled on the hill of Ardēttos looking down on the +Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a solemn oath to the +effect that they would judge according to the laws and decrees +of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five Hundred +(Boulē), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would +decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both +sides impartially, and vote on the case actually before the court.</p> + +<p>It has been suggested that, as the normal number of a court +was 500, the maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably +divided into ten sections of 500 each, with 1000 reserves. There +is evidence in the 4th century for courts of 200, 400, 500, 700 and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> +(in important political trials) various multiples of 500, namely, +1000, 1500, 2000 or 2500. To some of these numbers one juror +is added; it was probably added to all, to obviate the risk of +the votes being exactly equal.</p> + +<p>The evidence as to the organization of the jurors in the early +part of the 4th century is imperfect. Passages in Aristophanes +(<i>Ecclesiazusae</i>, 682-688; <i>Plutus</i>, 1166 f.) imply that in 392-388 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the total number was divided into ten sections distinguished +by the first ten letters of the Greek alphabet, A to K. Every +juror, on his first appointment, received a ticket of boxwood +(or of bronze) bearing his name with that of his father and his +deme, and with one of the above letters in the upper left-hand +corner. Of the bronze tickets many have been found (see +notes on Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, c. 63, and fig. 1 in +frontispiece, ed. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the +machinery for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To +guard against the possibility of bribery or other undue influence, +the allotment did not take place until immediately before the +hearing of the case. Each court contained an equal number +of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and thus represented the +whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the court +assigned him, received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece, <i>u.s.</i>), +on presenting which at the end of the day he received his fee. +The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is +minutely described at the end of Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of +Athens</i> (for details, cf. Gilbert, 397-399, Eng. trans., or Wyse +in Whibley’s <i>Companion to Greek Studies</i>, 387 f.).</p> + +<p>The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient +judicial functions of the council and the assembly, but the +council continued to hold a strict scrutiny (<span class="grk" title="dokimasia">δοκιμασία</span>) +of candidates for office or for other privileges, while +<span class="sidenote">Jurisdiction of the council and assembly.<br /> +Eisangelia.</span> +the council itself, as well as all other officials, had to +give account (<span class="grk" title="euthyna">εὔθυνα</span>) on ceasing to hold office. The +council also retained the right to deal with extraordinary +crimes against the state. It was open to any +citizen to bring such crimes to the knowledge of the council in +writing. The technical term for this information, denunciation +or impeachment was <i>eisangelia</i> (<span class="grk" title="eisangelia">εἰσαγγελία</span>). The +council could inflict a fine of 500 <i>drachmae</i> (£20), or, +in important cases, refer the matter either to a law-court, +as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuc. viii. 68), or to the +ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and the strategi in +command at Arginusae (406; Xen. <i>Hell.</i> i. 7. 19). The term +<span class="grk" title="eisangelia">εἰσαγγελία</span> was also applied to denunciations brought against +persons who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public +arbitrator who had neglected his duty (Dem. <i>Meidias</i>, 86 f.).</p> + +<p>A “presentation” of criminal information (<span class="grk" title="probolê">προβολή</span>) might +be laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its preliminary +sanction for bringing the case before a +judicial tribunal. Such was the mode of procedure +<span class="sidenote">Probolē.</span> +adopted against persons who had brought malicious, groundless +or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of +certain public festivals. The leading example of the former +is the trial of the accusers who prompted the people to put to +death the generals who had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen. +<i>Hell.</i> i. 7. 34); and, of the latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes +against Meidias.</p> + +<p>Legal actions (<span class="grk" title="dikai">δίκαι</span>) were classified as private (<span class="grk" title="idiai">ἴδιαι</span>) or +public (<span class="grk" title="dêmosiai">δημόσιαι</span>). The latter were also described as <span class="grk" title="graphai">γραφαί</span> or +“prosecutions,” but some <span class="grk" title="graphai">γραφαί</span> were called “private,” +when the state was regarded as only indirectly injured +<span class="sidenote">Classes of legal actions.</span> +by a wrong done to an individual citizen (Dem. xxi. 47). +A private suit could only be brought by the man +directly interested, or, in the case of a slave, a ward or an alien, +by the master, guardian or patron respectively; and, if the suit +were successful, the sum claimed generally went to the plaintiff. +Public actions may be divided into ordinary criminal cases, and +offences against the state. As a rule they could be instituted +by any person who possessed the franchise, and the penalty +was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain one-fifth +of the votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 <i>drachmae</i> (£40), and +lost the right of ever bringing a similar action.</p> + +<p>Lawsuits, whether public or private, were also distinguished +as <span class="grk" title="dikai kata tinos">δίκαι κατά τινος</span> or <span class="grk" title="pros tina">πρός τινα</span>, according as the defeated +party could or could not be personally punished. Actions +(<span class="grk" title="agônes">ἀγῶνες</span>) were also distinguished as <span class="grk" title="agônes timêtoi">ἀγῶνες τιμητοί</span> (“to be +assessed”), in which the amount of damages had to be determined +by the court, because it had not been fixed by law, and +<span class="grk" title="atimêtoi">ἀτίμητοι</span> (“not to be assessed”), in which the damages had <i>not</i> +to be determined by the court, because they had already been +fixed by law or by special agreement.</p> + +<p>Among special kinds of action were <span class="grk" title="apagôgê">ἀπαγωγή</span>, <span class="grk" title="ephêgêsis">ἐφήγησις</span> and +<span class="grk" title="endeixis">ἔνδειξις</span>. These could only be employed when the offence +was patent and could not be denied. In the first, the person +accused was summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled +into the presence of the proper official. In the second, the +accuser took the officer with him to arrest the culprit (Dem. +xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an information with the +official, and left the latter to effect the capture. <span class="grk" title="Phasis">Φάσις</span>, a general +term for many kinds of legal “information,” was a form of +procedure specially directed against those who injured the fiscal +interests of the state, and against guardians who neglected +the pecuniary interests of their wards. <span class="grk" title="Apographê">Ἀπογραφή</span> was an action +for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed +as belonging to the state, the term being derived from the +claimants’ written inventory of the property in question.</p> + +<p>The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private, +began with a personal summons (<span class="grk" title="prosklêsis">πρόσκλησις</span>) of the +<span class="sidenote">Ordinary legal procedure.</span> +defendant by the plaintiff accompanied by two +witnesses (<span class="grk" title="klêtêres">κλητῆρες</span>). If the defendant failed to +appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the +summons, and judgment went by default.</p> + +<p>The action was begun by presenting a written statement of +the case to the magistrate who presided over trials of the class +in question. If the statement were accepted, court-fees were +paid by both parties in a private action, and by the prosecutor +alone in a public action. The magistrate fixed a day for the +preliminary investigation (<span class="grk" title="anakrisis">ἀνάκρισις</span>), and, whenever several +causes were instituted at the same time, he drew lots to determine +the order in which they should be taken. Hence the plaintiff +was said “to have a suit assigned him by lot” (<span class="grk" title="lanchanein dikên">λαγχάνειν δίκην</span>), +a phrase practically equivalent to “obtaining leave to bring an +action.” At the <span class="grk" title="anakrisis">ἀνάκρισις</span> the plaintiff and defendant both +swore to the truth of their statements. If the defendant raised +no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular course (<span class="grk" title="euthydikia">εὐθυδικία</span>), +but he might contend that the suit was inadmissible, and, to +prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront those on the +side of the plaintiff (<span class="grk" title="diamartyria">διαμαρτυρία</span>), or he might rely on argument +without witnesses by means of a written statement traversing +that of the plaintiff (<span class="grk" title="paragraphê">παραγραφή</span>). The person who submitted the +special plea in bar of action naturally spoke first, and, if he +gained the verdict, the main suit could not come on, or, at any +rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A +cross-action (<span class="grk" title="antigraphê">ἀντιγραφή</span>) might be brought by the defendant, +but the verdict did not necessarily affect that of the original +suit.</p> + +<p>In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other +documents bearing on the case were produced. If any such +document were in the hands of a third person, he +could be compelled to produce it by an action for that +<span class="sidenote">Documents.</span> +purpose (<span class="grk" title="eis emphanôn katastasin">εἰς ἐμφανῶν κατάστασιν</span>). The depositions +were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were +taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to +be absent, a certified copy of his deposition might be sent +(<span class="grk" title="ekmartyria">ἐκμαρτυρία</span>). The depositions of slaves were not accepted, +unless made under torture, and for receiving such evidence +the consent of both parties was required. Either party could +challenge the other to submit his slaves to the +<span class="sidenote">Challenges.</span> +test (<span class="grk" title="proklêsis eis basanon">πρόκλησις εἰς βάσανον</span>), and, in the event of the +challenge being refused, could comment on the fact +when the case came before the court. Either party could also +challenge the other to take an oath (<span class="grk" title="proklêsis eis horkon">πρόκλσις εἰς ὄρκον</span>), +and, if the oath were declined, could similarly comment on the +fact.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span></p> + +<p>Mercantile cases had to be decided within the interval of a +month; others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the +day of trial, one of the parties was absent, his +representative had to show cause under oath (<span class="grk" title="hupômosia">ὑπωμοσία</span>); +<span class="sidenote">The trial.</span> +if the other party objected, he did so under oath +(<span class="grk" title="anthupômosia">ἀνθυπωμοσία</span>). If the plea for delay were refused by the court, +and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went +by default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given +in favour of the defendant.</p> + +<p>The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry +also presided at the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn +sacrifice. The plea of the plaintiff and the formal reply of the +defendant were then read by the clerk. The court was next +addressed first by the plaintiff, next by the defendant; in some +cases there were two speeches on each side. Every litigant was +legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were +often composed by professional experts for delivery by the +parties to the suit, who were required to speak in person, though +one or more unprofessional supporters (<span class="grk" title="synhêgoroi">συνήγοροι</span>) might subsequently +speak in support of the case. The length of the speeches +was in many cases limited by law to a fixed time recorded by +means of a water-clock (clepsydra). Documents were not +regarded as part of the speech, and, while these were being read, +the clock was stopped (Goethe found a similar custom in force +in Venice in October 1786). The witnesses were never cross-examined, +but one of the litigants might formally interrogate +the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally +supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and +friends.</p> + +<p>When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the +5th century mussel-shells (<span class="grk" title="choirinai">χοιρῖναι</span>) were used for the purpose. +Each of the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the +two urns, in that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that +to the back if he voted for condemnation. If a second vote had +to be taken to determine the amount of the penalty, wax tablets +were used, on which the juror drew a long line, if he gave the +heavy penalty demanded by the plaintiff; a short one, if he decided +in favour of the lighter penalty proposed by the defendant.</p> + +<p>In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks +of bronze. Each disk (inscribed with the words <span class="grk" title="PSÊPHOS +DÊMOSIA">ΨΗΦΟΣ ΔΗΜΟΣΙΑ</span>) was about 1 in. in diameter, with a short tube running +through the centre. This tube was either perforated or closed +(see figs. 6 and 7 in frontispiece to Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, +ed. Sandys). One of each kind was given to every juror, who +was required to use the perforated or the closed disk, according +as he voted for the plaintiff or for the defendant. On the +platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of wood. +The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he +proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the +tube, so that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk +or not, and then deposited it in the bronze urn, and (with the +same precaution to ensure secrecy) dropped the unused disk into +the wooden urn. The votes were sorted by persons appointed +by lot, and counted by the president of the court, and the +result announced by the herald. For any second vote the same +procedure was adopted (Aristotle, <i>u.s.</i>, c. 68 of Kenyon’s Berlin +text).</p> + +<p>Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in +private suits; personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal +penalties included sentences of death or exile, or +different degrees of disfranchisement (<span class="grk" title="atimia">ἀτιμία</span>) with or +<span class="sidenote">Penalties.</span> +without confiscation. Imprisonment <i>before</i> trial was common, +and persons mulcted in penalties might be imprisoned +until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never +inflicted as the <i>sole</i> penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone +could be sold into slavery. Sentences of death were carried +out under the supervision of the board of police called the +“Eleven.” In ancient times a person condemned was hurled +into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western suburb of +Athens. In later times he was compelled to drink the fatal +draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to +death with clubs. Fines were collected and confiscated property +sold by special officials, called <span class="grk" title="praktores">πράκτορες</span> and <span class="grk" title="pôlêtai">πωληταί</span> respectively. +In private suits the sentence was executed by the state +if the latter had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprisonment +were part of the penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the +sentence was left to the plaintiff, who had the right of distraint, +or, if this failed, could bring an action of ejectment (<span class="grk" title="dikê hexougês">δίκη ἐξούγης</span>).</p> + +<p>From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But, +if judgment had been given by default, the person condemned +might bring an action to prove that he was not responsible for +such default, <span class="grk" title="tên erêmon">τὴν ἔρημον</span> (<i>sc.</i> <span class="grk" title="dikên">δίκην</span>) <span class="grk" title="antilanchanein">ἀντιλαγχάνειν</span>. The corresponding +term for challenging the award of an arbitrator was +<span class="grk" title="tên mê ousan antilanchanein">τὴν μὴ οὖσαν ἀντιλαγχάνειν</span>. He might also bring an action for +false evidence (<span class="grk" title="dikê pseudomartyrion">δίκη ψευδομαρτυριῶν</span>) against his opponent’s +witnesses, and, on their conviction, have the sentence annulled. +This “denunciation” of false evidence was technically called +<span class="grk" title="episkêpsis">ἐπίσκηψις</span> and <span class="grk" title="episkêptesthai">ἐπισκήπτεσθαι</span>.</p> + +<p>The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but, +as was first proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also +diminished the feeling of personal responsibility, while +it increased the influence of political motives. In +<span class="sidenote">Character of the Athenian tribunals.</span> +addressing such a court, the litigants were not above +appealing to the personal interests of the general +public. We have a striking example of this in the terms +in which Lysias makes one of his clients close a speech in +prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who have incurred the +penalty of death by buying more than 75 bushels of wheat at +one time: “If you <i>condemn</i> these persons, you will be doing +what is right, and will pay <i>less</i> for the purchase of your corn; +if you <i>acquit</i> them, you will pay <i>more</i>” (xxii. § 22).</p> + +<p>Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular +ignorance by misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the +jurors could look for no aid from the officials who formally +presided over the courts. The latter were not necessarily experts, +for they owed their own original appointment to the caprice of +the lot. Almost the only officials specially elected as experts +were the strategi, and these presided only in their own courts. +Again, there was every temptation for the informer to propose +the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who would +naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having +his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every +temptation to decide in the interests of the treasury. In conclusion +we may quote the opinions on the judicial system of +Athens which have been expressed by two eminent classical +scholars and English lawyers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion +“that it would be difficult to devise a judicial system less adapted +for the due administration of justice” (Preface to <i>Wasps</i>, xxxv. f.), +while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. R. Kennedy, observes that +the Athenian jurors “were persons of no legal education or learning; +taken at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly +belonging to the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the +Athenians were naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the +world. Their wits were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an +active part in important debates, and hearing the most splendid +orators. There was so much litigation at Athens that they were +constantly either engaged as jurors, or present as spectators in courts +of law” (<i>Private Orations</i>, p. 361).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—1. <b>Greek Law.</b> B. W. Leist, <i>Gräco-italische +Rechtsgeschichte</i> (Jena, 1884); L. Mitteis, <i>Reichsrecht und Volksrecht +in den östlichen Provinzen des römischen Kaiserreichs, mit Beiträgen zur +Kenntnis des griechischen Rechts</i> (Leipzig, 1891); J. H. Lipsius, <i>Von +der Bedeutung des griechischen Rechts</i> (Leipzig, 1893); G. Gilbert, “Zur +Entwickelungsgeschichte des ... griechischen Rechtes” in <i>Jahrb. +für kl. Philologie</i> (Leipzig, 1896); H. J. Hitzig, <i>Die Bedeutung des +altgriechischen Rechtes für die vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft</i> (Stuttgart, +1906); R. Hirzel, <i>Themis, Dike und Verwandtes</i> (Leipzig, 1907); +J. J. Thonissen, <i>Le Droit criminel de la Grèce légendaire</i>, followed by +<i>Le Droit pénal de la république athénienne</i> (Brussels, 1875).</p> + +<p>2. <b>Attic Law.</b> (<i>a</i>) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. Télfy, <i>Corpus +juris Attici</i> (Pest and Leipzig, 1868); Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of +Athens</i>, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, &c., and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903); +ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig, 1903); text with critical and explanatory notes, +ed. Sandys (London, 1893); Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig, 1866-1871); +Isaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, <i>Private +Orations</i>, ed. Paley and Sandys, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898); +<i>Against Midias</i>, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906); Dareste, Haussoullier, +Th. Reinach, <i>Inscr. juridiques grecques</i> (Paris, 1891-1904). +(<i>b</i>) Modern treatises: K. F. Hermann, <i>De vestigiis institutorum</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span> +<i>... Atticorum per Platonis de legibus libros indagandis</i> (Marburg, +1836); <i>Staatsaltertümer</i>, ed. 6, Thumser (Freiburg, 1892); <i>Rechtsaltertümer</i>, +ed. 3, Thalheim (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt, <i>Staatsund +Rechtsaltertümer</i>, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, +<i>Aristoteles und Athen</i> (Berlin, 1893); G. Gilbert, <i>Gk. +Constitutional Antiquities</i> (vol. i., Eng. trans., pp. 376-416, London, +1895); J. H. Lipsius, (1) new ed. of Meier and Schömann, <i>Der +attische Process</i> (Berlin, 1883-1887); (2) ed. 4 of Schömann, <i>Gr. +Altertümer</i> (Berlin, 1897-1902); (3) <i>Das attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren</i> +(Leipzig, 1905); Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des +antiquités</i> (Paris, 1877); G. Glotz, <i>La Solidarité de la famille dans le +droit criminel en Grèce</i> (Paris, 1904); L. Beauchet, <i>Droit privé de la +rép. athén.</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C. R. Kennedy, <i>Appendices to +transl. of Dem.</i> vols. iii. and iv. (1856-1861); Smith’s <i>Dictionary of +... Antiquities</i>, ed. 3 (1891); F. B. Jevons, in Gardner and Jevons, +<i>Greek Antiquities</i> (1895, pp. 526-597); W. Wyse, in Whibley’s +<i>Companion to Greek Studies</i> (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. E. S.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian +constitution see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Areopagus</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boulē</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>, +and articles on all the chief legislators.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In the case of “animals,” we may compare the Mosaic law of +Exod. xxxi. 28 and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664); and in that +of “inanimate objects,” the English law of deodands (Blackstone i. +300), repealed in 1846. See also Frazer on Pausanias, i. 28. 10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cf. R. J. Bonner, in <i>Classical Philology</i> (Chicago, 1907), 407-418, +who urges that only cases belonging to the Forty were subject to +public arbitration.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Connected either with <span class="grk" title="halizesthai">ἁλίζεσθαι</span>, “to assemble,” or <span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>, or +<span class="grk" title="Hêlis">Ἥλις</span> (cf. Curt Wachsmuth, <i>Stadt Athen</i>, ii. (1) 359-364). The first is +possibly right (cf. Rogers on Aristoph. <i>Wasps</i>, xvii. f.); the second +implies that this large court was held in the open air (Lipsius, <i>Att. +Recht</i>, 172).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEK LITERATURE.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span>—The literature of the Greek language +is broadly divisible into three main sections: (1) Ancient, (2) +Byzantine, (3) Modern. These are dealt with below in that +order.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">1. The Ancient Greek Literature</p> + +<p>The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) <i>The +Early Literature</i>, to about 475 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; epic, elegiac, iambic and +lyric poetry; the beginnings of literary prose. (B) <i>The Attic +Literature</i> 475-300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; tragic and comic drama; historical, +oratorical and philosophical prose. (C) <i>The Literature of the +Decadence</i>, 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529; which may again be divided +into the Alexandrian period, 300-146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the Graeco-Roman +period, 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529.</p> + +<p>For details regarding particular works or the lives of their +authors reference should be made to the separate articles devoted +to the principal Greek writers. The object of the following +pages is to sketch the literary development as a whole, to show +how its successive periods were related to each other, and to +mark the dominant characteristics of each.</p> + +<p>(A) <i>The Early Literature.</i>—A process of natural growth may +be traced through all the best work of the Greek genius. The +Greeks were not literary imitators of foreign models; the forms +of poetry and prose in which they attained to such unequalled +excellence were first developed by themselves. Their literature +had its roots in their political and social life; it is the spontaneous +expression of that life in youth, maturity and decay; and the +order in which its several fruits are produced is not the result +of accident or caprice. Further, the old Greek literature has a +striking completeness, due to the fact that each great branch of +the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its development. +Ionians, Aeolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their share. +Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life +and character. Each found its appropriate work.</p> + +<p>The Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor—a lively and genial +people, delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to everything +bright and joyous—created artistic epic poetry +out of the lays in which Aeolic minstrels sang of the old +<span class="sidenote">The dialects.</span> +Achaean wars. And among the Ionians arose elegiac +poetry, the first variation on the epic type. These found a +fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible +utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of +Lesbos next created the lyric of personal passion, in which the +traits of their race—its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous +fancy—found a fitting voice in the fiery strength and tenderness +of Aeolic speech. The Dorians of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and +Magna Graecia then perfected the choral lyric for festivals and +religious worship; and here again an earnest faith, a strong +pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter in +the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of +the Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all +the other kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in +history, oratory and philosophy. It is in the Attic literature +that the Greek mind receives its most complete interpretation.</p> + +<p>A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and +that species of composition for which it had been specially used. +Hence the dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted +with more or less thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who +were not Ionians. Thus the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the +Dorian Theognis in elegy, though not without alloy. Similarly, +the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in Aeolic. All the +faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually brought +out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature +has an essential unity—the unity of a living organism; and this +unity comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which +is complete in its own kind.</p> + +<p>Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems. +These are works of art which imply a long period of antecedent +poetical cultivation. Of the pre-Homeric poetry we +have no remains, and very little knowledge. Such +<span class="sidenote">Pre-Homeric poetry.</span> +glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different +stages in the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes. The +first of these stages is that in which the agencies or forms of +external nature were personified indeed, yet with the consciousness +that the personal names were only symbols. Some very +ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may +<span class="sidenote">Songs of the seasons.</span> +have belonged to this stage—as the songs of Linus, +Ialemus and Hylas. Linus, the fair youth killed by +dogs, seems to be the spring passing away before +Sirius. Such songs have been aptly called “songs of the seasons.” +The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now definitively +personified the powers which they worship. Apollo, +Demeter, Dionysus, Cybele, have now become to them beings +with clearly conceived attributes. To this second stage belong +<span class="sidenote">Hymns.</span> +the hymns connected with the names of the legendary +bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who are +themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses and +the Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred +poetry are not only “Thracian”—<i>i.e.</i> on the borders of northern +Greece—but also “Phrygian” and “Cretan.” It belongs, +that is, presumably to an age when the ancestors of the Hellenes +had left the Indo-European home in central Asia, but had not +yet taken full possession of the lands which were afterwards +Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others were +settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through +the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when +the Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a +religious ritual, it may be conjectured that it was not of long +duration. Already in the <i>Iliad</i> a secular character belongs to the +marriage hymn and to the dirge for the dead, which in ancient +India were chanted by the priest. The bent of the Greeks was +to claim poetry and music as public joys; they would not long +have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries. And among +the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was employed +were probably war-ballads, sung by minstrels in the houses of +the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated.</p> + +<p>Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest +epic poetry of Greece was constructed. By an “epic” poem +the Greeks meant a narrative of heroic action in +hexameter verse. The term <span class="grk" title="epê">ἔπη</span> meant at first simply +<span class="sidenote">Epos.</span> +“verses”; it acquired its special meaning only when <span class="grk" title="melê">μέλη</span>, +lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished from <span class="grk" title="epê">ἔπη</span> +verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic poetry is the +only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about +700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The early epos of Greece is represented by the <i>Iliad</i> +and the <i>Odyssey</i>, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by +some fragments of the “Cyclic” poets.</p> + +<p>After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian +emigrants who settled in the north-west of Asia Minor brought +with them the warlike legends of their chiefs, the +Achaean princes of old. These legends lived in the +<span class="sidenote">The “Iliad” and the “Odyssey.”</span> +ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed +southward into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually +shaped them into higher artistic forms. Among the seven +places which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer, that which +has the best title is Smyrna. Homer himself is called “son of +Meles”—the stream which flowed through old Smyrna, on the +border between Aeolia and Ionia. The tradition is significant in +regard to the origin and character of the <i>Iliad</i>, for in the <i>Iliad</i> we +have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. A preponderance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> +of evidence is in favour of the view that the <i>Odyssey</i> also, at +least in its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast +of Asia Minor. According to the Spartan account, Lycurgus +was the first to bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric +poems, which he had obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or +gild of poets in Samos. A better authenticated tradition connects +Athens with early attempts to preserve the chief poetical treasure +of the nation. Peisistratus is said to have charged some learned +men with the task of collecting all “the poems of Homer”; +but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended under +this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission +went beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be determined +what exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respectively +did for the Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought, +enacted that the poems should be recited from an authorized +text (<span class="grk" title="ex hypobolês">ἐξ ὑποβολῆς</span>); Hipparchus, that they should be recited +in a regular order (<span class="grk" title="ex hypolêpseôs">ἐξ ὑπολήψεως</span>). At any rate, we know that +in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a recitation of the poems of Homer was +one of the established competitions at the Panathenaea, held +once in four years. The reciter was called a <i>rhapsodist</i>—properly +one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing chant, then +an epic poet who chants his own or another’s poem. The +rhapsodist did not, like the early minstrel, use the accompaniment +of the harp; he gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing +in his hand a branch of laurel, the symbol of Apollo’s inspiration. +In the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we find that various Greek cities had +their own editions (<span class="grk" title="hai politikai, kata poleis">αἱ πολιτικαί, κατὰ πόλεις</span> or <span class="grk" title="ek poleôn +ekdoseis">ἐκ πόλεων ἐκδόσεις</span>) of the poems, for recitation at their festivals. Among +these were the editions of Massilia, of Chios and of Argolis. +There were also editions bearing the name of the individual +editor (<span class="grk" title="hai kat’ andra">αἱ κατ᾽ ἄνδρα</span>)—the best known being that which +Aristotle prepared for Alexander. The recension of the poems +by Aristarchus (156 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) became the standard one, and is +probably that on which the existing text is based. The oldest +Homeric MS. extant, Venetus A of the <i>Iliad</i>, is of the 10th +century; the first printed edition of Homer was that edited +by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondyles (Florence, 1488).</p> + +<p>The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the +<i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom +they also ascribed some extant hymns, and probably +much more besides. Aristotle and Aristarchus seem +<span class="sidenote">The Homeric question.</span> +to have put Homer’s date about 1044 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Herodotus +about 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It is not till about 170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the +grammarians Hellanicus and Xenon put forward the view that +Homer was the author of the <i>Iliad</i>, but not of the <i>Odyssey</i>. +Those who followed them in assigning different authors to the +two poems were called the Separators (<i>Chorizontes</i>). Aristarchus +combated “the paradox of Xenon,” and it does not seem to +have had much acceptance in antiquity. Giovanni Battista +Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first +modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition +of the Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support +of his theory that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are +often mere symbols. F. A. Wolf, in the <i>Prolegomena</i> to his +edition (1795), was the founder of a scientific scepticism. The +<i>Iliad</i>, he said (for he recognized the comparative unity and +consistency of the <i>Odyssey</i>), was pieced together from many +small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first committed +to writing in the time of Peisistratus. This view was in harmony +with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed +as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing +from fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at +once found enthusiastic adherents. For the course of Homeric +controversy since Wolf the reader is referred to the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homer</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems +founded on the legends of the Trojan war, and intended as +introductions or continuations to the <i>Iliad</i> and the +<i>Odyssey</i>. The grammarian Proclus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140) has +<span class="sidenote">Cyclic poems.</span> +preserved the names and subjects of some of these; +but the fragments are very scanty. The <i>Nostoi</i> or <i>Homeward +Voyages</i>, by Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of +ten years between the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i>; the <i>Lay of Telegonus</i>, +by Eugammon of Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey +to the death of Odysseus by the hand of Telegonus, the son +whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the <i>Cyprian Lays</i> by Stasinus +of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or Hegesinus) of +Salamis or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the <i>Iliad</i>; the +<i>Aethiopis</i> and the <i>Sack of Troy</i>, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the +<i>Little Iliad</i>, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it. +These and many other names of lost epics—some taken also +from the Theban myths (<i>Thebaïs</i>, <i>Epigoni</i>, <i>Oedipodea</i>)—serve +to show how prolific was that epic school of which only two great +examples remain. The name of <i>epic cycle</i> was properly applied +to a prose compilation of abstracts from these epics, pieced +together in the order of the events. The compilers were called +“cyclic” writers; and the term has now been transferred to +the epic poets whom they used.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes +in the old wars. But in Greece proper there arose another +school of epos, which busied itself with religious lore +and ethical precepts, especially in relation to the rural +<span class="sidenote">Hesiodic epos.</span> +life of Boeotia. This school is represented by the name +of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer +in a poetical contest of Chalcis in Euboea; and it expresses the +fact that, to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two +contrasted epic types. Nothing is certainly known of his date, +except that it must have been subsequent to the maturity of +Ionian epos. He is conjecturally placed about 850-800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; +but some would refer him to the early part of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +His home was at Ascra, a village in a valley under Helicon, +whither his father had migrated from Cyme in Aeolis on the +coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod’s <i>Works and Days</i> we have the +earliest example of a didactic poem. The seasons and the labours +of the Boeotian farmer’s year are followed by a list of the days +which are lucky or unlucky for work. The <i>Theogony</i>, or “Origin +of the Gods,” describes first how the visible order of nature arose +out of chaos; next, how the gods were born. Though it never +possessed the character of a sacred book, it remained a standard +authority on the genealogies of the gods. So far as a corrupt +and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was piecing +together—not always intelligently—the fragments of a very old +cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns +preserved in the temples and the myths which lived in folklore. +The epic lay in 480 lines called the <i>Shield of Heracles</i>—partly +imitated from the 18th book of the <i>Iliad</i>—is the work of an +author or authors later than Hesiod. In the Hesiodic poetry, +as represented by the <i>Works and Days</i> and the <i>Theogony</i>, we +see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod recognizes +the existence of <span class="grk" title="daimones">δαίμονες</span>—spirits of the departed who haunt +the earth as the invisible guardians of justice; and he connects +the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is one +whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical +duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic +of the Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as +relics of a sacred history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner, +as subjects of idealizing art. Such titles as the <i>Maxims of +Cheiron</i> and the <i>Lay of Melampus</i>, the seer—lost poems of the +Hesiodic school—illustrate its ethical and its mystic tendencies.</p> + +<p>The <i>Homeric Hymns</i> are a collection of pieces, some of them +very short, in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is—<i>Hymns</i> +or <i>Preludes of Homer and the Homeridae</i>. The +second of the alternative designations is the true one. +<span class="sidenote">The Homeric hymns.</span> +The pieces are not “hymns” used in formal worship, +but “preludes” or prefatory addresses (<span class="grk" title="prooimia">προοίμια</span>) +with which the rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic +poetry. The “prelude” might be addressed to the presiding +god of the festival, or to any local deity whom the reciter wished +to honour. The pieces (of which there are 33) range in date +perhaps from 750 to 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (though some authorities assign +dates as late as the 3rd and 4th centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span>; see ed. by Sikes +and Allen, <i>e.g.</i> p. 228), and it is probable that the collection was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span> +formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that +of the Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces +of the Hesiodic or Boeotian school. The principal “hymns” +are (1) to Apollo (generally treated as two or more hymns +combined in one); (2) to Hermes; (3) to Aphrodite; and (4) +to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by Thucydides (iii. +104) as Homer’s, is of peculiar interest on account of the lines +describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces +of a sportive kind passed under Homer’s name. The <i>Margites</i>—a +comic poem on one “who knew many things but knew them +all badly”—is regarded by Aristotle as the earliest germ of +comedy, and was possibly as old as 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Only a few lines +remain. The <i>Batracho</i>(<i>myo</i>)<i>machia</i>, or <i>Battle of the Frogs and +Mice</i> probably belongs to the decline of Greek literature, perhaps +to the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span><a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> About 300 verses of it are extant.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Iliad</i> and the <i>Odyssey</i> the personal opinions or sympathies +of the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are +not declared or even hinted. Hesiod, indeed, sometimes +gives us a glimpse of his own troubles or views. +<span class="sidenote">Transition from epos to elegy.</span> +Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet. +The message which he delivers is not from himself; +the truths which he imparts have not been discovered +by his own search. He is the mouthpiece of the Delphian +Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his utterance, +but they do not determine its general complexion. The egotism +is a single thread; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry +was in Greece the foundation of all other poetry; for many +centuries no other kind was generally cultivated, no other could +speak to the whole people. Politically, the age was monarchical +or aristocratic; intellectually, it was too simple for the analysis +of thought or emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the +great deeds of their ancestors; common men loved to hear of +them too, for they had no other interest. The mind of Greece +found no subject of contemplation so attractive as the warlike +past of the race, or so useful as that lore which experience and +tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the 8th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear. Monarchy +gave place to oligarchy, and this—often after the intermediate +phase of a tyrannis—to democracy. Such a change was necessarily +favourable to the growth of reflection. The private citizen +is no longer a mere cipher, the Homeric <span class="grk" title="tis">τις</span>, a unit in the dim +multitude of the king-ruled folk; he gains more power of +independent action, his mental horizon is widened, his life +becomes fuller and more interesting. He begins to feel the need +of expressing the thoughts and feelings that are stirred in him. +But as yet a prose literature does not exist; the new thoughts, +like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse. The forms +of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic.</p> + +<p>The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic +metre, obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as +to make it a verse of five feet or measures. But the +poetical capabilities of the elegiac couplet are of a +<span class="sidenote">Elegy.</span> +wholly different kind from those of heroic verse. <span class="grk" title="elegos">ἔλεγος</span> seems +to be the Greek form of a name given by the Carians and Lydians +to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by the soft +music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated with +Greek elegy. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by +this very fact. The flute was to the Greeks an Asiatic instrument—string +instruments were those which they made their own—and +it would hardly have been wedded by them to a species of +poetry which had arisen among themselves. The early elegiac +poetry of Greece was by no means confined to mourning for the +dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, were in turn +its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of the poet +and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the +direct expression of the poet’s own thoughts, addressed to a +sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The +second is that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it +still preserves, on the whole, the tone of conversation or of +narrative. Greek elegy stops short of lyric passion. English +elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and Pope, or reflective +as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type. Roman +elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on +the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or +sentimental; and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early +Greek elegists, not Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian +elegists, such as Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced +the metre to Latin literature, and used it with more fidelity than +his followers to its genuine Greek inspiration.</p> + +<p>Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from +epos. But almost at the same time another species arose which +had nothing in common with epos, either in form or in +spirit. This was the iambic. The word <span class="grk" title="iambos">ἴαμβος</span>, +<span class="sidenote">Iambic verse.</span> +<i>iambus</i> (<span class="grk" title="iaptein">ἰάπτειν</span>, to dart or shoot) was used in reference +to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter; it was the +maiden Iambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from +the mourning goddess. The iambic metre was at first used for +satire; and it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed +by its earliest master of note, Archilochus of Paros (670 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +But it was adapted to the expression generally of any pointed +thought. Thus it was suitable to fables. Elegiac and iambic +poetry both belong to the borderland between epic and lyric. +While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic stands +nearer to the lyric. Iambic poetry can express the personal +feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on +the other hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-abandonment +or glow. As we see in the case of Solon, iambic verse could +serve for the expression of that deeper thought, that more +inward self-communing, for which the elegiac form would have +been inappropriate.</p> + +<p>But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and +the iambic, belong essentially to the same stage of the literature. +They stand between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the +Aeolians and Dorians. The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus +and Tyrtaeus, use elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking +hearts. Archilochus too wrote warlike elegy, but used it also +in other strains, as in lament for the dead. The elegy of Mimnermus +of Smyrna or Colophon is the plaintive farewell of an ease-loving +Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In Solon elegy +takes a higher range; it becomes political and ethical.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Theognis +represents the maturer union of politics with a proverbial +philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylides of Miletus; +an admonitory poem extant under his name is probably the +work of an Alexandrine Jewish Christian. Xenophanes gives +a philosophic strain to elegy. With Simonides of Ceos it reverts, +in an exquisite form, to its earliest destination, and becomes +the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the Persian Wars. +Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of Amorgus, +as by Archilochus, for satire—but satire directed against classes +rather than persons. Solon’s iambics so far preserve the old +associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or +controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus +was another iambic satirist—using the <span class="grk" title="skazôn">σκάζων</span> (“limping”) or +choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an +iambus in the last place. But it was not until the rise of the +Attic drama that the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen.</p> + +<p>The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final +form of that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and +iambic is still incomplete. The lyric expression is +deeper and more impassioned. Its intimate union +<span class="sidenote">Lyric poetry.</span> +with music and with the rhythmical movement of +the dance gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same +time the continuity of the music permits pauses to the voice—pauses +necessary as reliefs after a climax. Before lyric poetry +could be effective, it was necessary that some progress should +have been made in the art of music. The instrument used by +the Greeks to accompany the voice was the four-stringed lyre, +and the first great epoch in Greek music was when Terpander +of Lesbos (660 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), by adding three strings, gave the lyre the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span> +compass of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to +Olympus and Thaletas. By 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greek music had probably +acquired all the powers of expression which the lyric poet could +demand. The period of Greek lyric poetry may be roughly +defined as from 670 to 440 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Two different parts in its +development were taken by the Aeolians and the Dorians.</p> + +<p>The lyric poetry of the Aeolians—especially of Lesbos—was +essentially the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually +intended for a single voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos, +in the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had attained some naval +<span class="sidenote">Aeolian school.</span> +and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy +and democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often +driven by revolution to exchange their luxurious home-life +for the hardships of exile. It is such a life of contrasts and +excitements, working on a sensuous and fiery temperament, +that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In these glimpses +of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state and of +careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if Archilochus +is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be +compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the +Aeolian lyric is Sappho, the only woman of Greek race who is +known to have possessed poetical genius of the first order. +Intensity and melody are the characteristics of the fragments +that remain to us.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Probably no poet ever surpassed Sappho +as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of +form and sound. Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, may be classed +with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his +work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which he wrote was +mainly the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns +to the gods, from love-poems and festive songs. The collection +of sixty short pieces which passes current under his name date +only from the 10th century. The short poems which it comprises +are of various age and authorship, probably ranging in date +from <i>c.</i> 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 or 500. They have not the pure style, +the flexible grace, or the sweetness of the classical fragments; +but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty.</p> + +<p>The Dorian lyric poetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had +more of a public than of a personal character, and was for the +most part choral. Hymns or choruses for the public +worship of the gods, and odes to be sung at festivals on +<span class="sidenote">Dorian school.</span> +occasions of public interest, were its characteristic +forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the Dorians in +the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government and +social usage. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not +present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like +those of Alcaeus and Sappho, but rather with a series of artists +whose names are associated with improvements of form. Thus +Alcman (the Doric form of Alcmaeon; 660 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is said to have +introduced the balanced movement of strophe and antistrophe. +Stesichorus, of Himera in Sicily, added the epode, sung by the +chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion of +Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn +(“dithyramb”) in honour of Dionysus, and organized the +“cyclic” or circular chorus which sang it at the altar. Ibycus +of Rhegium (<i>c.</i> 540) wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and +glowing love-songs in the Aeolic style.</p> + +<p>The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great +names, Simonides and Pindar. Simonides (556-468) was an +Ionian of the island of Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by +form to the choral Dorian school. Many of his subjects +<span class="sidenote">Simonides and Pindar.</span> +were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his +epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis +were celebrated. In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted +by Ionian genius, and Athens—where part of his life was passed—is +the point at which they meet. Simonides is the first Greek +lyrist whose significance is not merely Aeolian or Dorian but +Panhellenic. The same character belongs even more completely +to his younger contemporary. Pindar (518-<i>c.</i> 443) was born +in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian +elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements +meet in Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and +most exquisite of the lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the +most fervid and the most sublime. His extant fragments<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +represent almost every branch of the lyric art. But he is known +to us mainly by forty-four <i>Epinicia</i>, or odes of victory, for the +Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian festivals. The +general characteristic of the treatment is that the particular +victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends +connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating +the moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry +can be completely appreciated apart from the music, now lost, +to which it was set. Pindar’s odes were, further, essentially +occasional poems; they abound in allusions of which the effect +is partly or wholly lost on us; and the glories which they celebrate +belong to a life which we can but imperfectly realize. +Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the one to whom +it is hardest for us to do justice; yet we can at least recognize +his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his soaring +flight.</p> + +<p>Bacchylides of Ceos (<i>c.</i> 504-430), the youngest of the three +great lyric poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by +scanty fragments until the discovery of nineteen poems on an +Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They consist of thirteen (or fourteen) +epinicia, two of which celebrate the same victories as two odes +of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes for the festivals +of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable information on +the court life of the time and legendary history. Bacchylides, +the little “Cean nightingale,” is inferior to his great rival Pindar, +“the Swan of Dirce,” in originality and splendour of language, +but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent <span class="grk" title="gnômai">γνῶμαι</span> +attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind, amongst them +the emperor Julian.</p> + +<p>Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus +(d. 357), musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven-stringed +lyre, were increased by the discovery in 1902 of some +250 lines of his “nome” the <i>Persae</i>, written after the manner of +Terpander. The beginning is lost; the middle describes the +battle of Salamis; the end is of a personal nature. The papyrus +is the oldest Greek MS. and belongs to the age of Alexander the +Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and the whole +is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline.</p> + +<p>(B) <i>The Attic Literature.</i>—The Ionians of Asia Minor, the +Aeolians and the Dorians had now performed their special parts +in the development of Greek literature. Epic poetry had interpreted +the heroic legends of warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished +kings and chiefs. Then, as the individual life became more and +more elegiac and iambic poetry had become the social expression +of that life in all its varied interests and feelings. Lastly, lyric +poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold need—to be the more +intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give choral voice, at +stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or the sorrow, +of a city or a race. A new form of poetry was now to be created, +with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be +achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and +language the distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were +tempered with some of the best qualities of the Dorian stock.</p> + +<p>The drama (<i>q.v.</i>) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the +god of wine, which were held at intervals from the beginning of +winter to the beginning of spring. A troop of rustic +<span class="sidenote">Origin of drama.<br /> +Tragedy.</span> +worshippers would gather around the altar of the god, +and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his victories +or sufferings in his progress over the earth. “Tragedy” meant +“the goat-song,” a goat (<span class="grk" title="tragos">τράγος</span>) being sacrificed to Dionysus +before the hymn was sung. “Comedy,” “the village-song,” +is the same hymn regarded as an occasion for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span> +rustic jest. Then the leader of the chorus would assume the +part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the god +himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made +choral response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between +the leader (<span class="grk" title="koryphaios">κορυφαῖος</span>, <i>coryphaeus</i>) and one chosen member of the +chorus, hence called “the answerer” (<span class="grk" title="hypokritês">ὑποκριτής</span>, <i>hypocritēs</i>, +afterwards the ordinary word for “actor”). This last improvement +is ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The +elements of drama were now ready. The choral hymn to +Dionysus (the “dithyramb”) had received an artistic form +from the Dorians; dialogue, though only between the leader +of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced in Attica. +Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some events +of the Persian Wars; but in his “drama” there was still only +one actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Phlius, who +belonged to the same period, developed the satyric drama; +Pratinas also wrote tragedies, dithyrambs, and <i>hyporchemata</i> +(lively choral odes chiefly in honour of Apollo).</p> + +<p>Aeschylus (born 525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) became the real founder of tragedy +by introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue +independent of the chorus. At the same time the +choral song—hitherto the principal part of the performance—became +<span class="sidenote">Aeschylus.</span> +subordinate to the dialogue; and drama +was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various +improvements of detail in costume and the like; and it was +early in his career that the theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis +was commenced—the first permanent home of Greek drama, in +place of the temporary wooden platforms which had hitherto +been used. The system of the “trilogy” and the “tetralogy” +is further ascribed to Aeschylus,—the “trilogy” being properly +a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the +<i>Agamemnon</i>, <i>Choëphori</i>, <i>Eumenides</i>, which together form the +<i>Oresteia</i>, or Story of Orestes. The “tetralogy” is such a triad +with a “satyric drama” added—that is, a drama in which +“satyrs,” the grotesque woodland beings who attended on +Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the earlier dithyramb from +which drama sprang. The <i>Cyclops</i> of Euripides is the only +extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies +which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to +have composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur +which is truly Homeric; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriotism +such as the Persian Wars in which he fought might well +quicken in a soldier-poet; and, pervading all, there is a strain +of speculative thought which seeks to reconcile the apparent +conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the underworld by +the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity, are working +<span class="sidenote">Sophocles.</span> +out the law of righteousness. Sophocles, who was +born thirty years after Aeschylus (495 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), is the +most perfect artist of the ancient drama. No one before or after +him gave to Greek tragedy so high a degree of ideal beauty, +or appreciated so finely the possibilities and the limitations of its +sphere. He excels especially in drawing character; his <i>Antigone</i>, +his <i>Ajax</i>, his <i>Oedipus</i>—indeed, all the chief persons of his dramas—are +typical studies in the great primary emotions of human +nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by adding a +third actor; and in one of his later plays, the <i>Oedipus at Colonus</i>, +a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the +tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +he was the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not +only a great dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative +of the age of Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of +<span class="sidenote">Euripides.</span> +another kind. He was only fifteen years younger than +Sophocles; but when he entered on his poetical career, +the old inspirations of tragedy were already failing. Euripides +marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and is, in fact, the +mediator between the classical and the romantic drama. The +myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt +no longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself +was imbued with the new intellectual scepticism of the day; +and the speculative views which were conflicting in his own mind +are reflected in his plays. He had much picturesque and pathetic +power; he was a master of expression; and he shows ingenuity +in devising fresh resources for tragedy—especially in his management +of the choral songs. Aeschylus is Panhellenic, Sophocles +is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands nearer to the +modern world than either of his predecessors; and though with +him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new +elements of familiar human interest.</p> + +<p>In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years +sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The +two distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its originality +and its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the +only inventors of drama, but they were the first people who +made drama a complete work of art. And the great tragic poets +of Attica were remarkably prolific. Aeschylus was the reputed +author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 113, Euripides of 92; and +there were others whose productiveness was equally great.</p> + +<p>Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver +side, of the Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following +the gloom of winter. The process of growth was +nearly the same as in tragedy; but the Dorians, not +<span class="sidenote">Comedy.</span> +the Ionians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to the +comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about +580 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, pieces of the kind known as “Megarian farces.” +Epicharmus of Cos (who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form +to the Doric farce, and treated in burlesque style the stories of +gods and heroes, and subjects taken from everyday life. His +Syracusan contemporary Sophron (<i>c.</i> 450) was a famous writer +of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The most artistic +form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in +Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of +Cratinus and Eupolis; but from about 470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> there seems to +have been a continuous succession of comic dramatists, amongst +them Plato Comicus, the author of 28 comedies, political satires +<span class="sidenote">Aristophanes.</span> +and parodies after the style of the Middle Comedy. +Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and retained his popularity for about forty years. He +presents a perhaps unique union of bold fancy, exquisite humour, +critical acumen and lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may +be divided into three groups, according as the licence of political +satire becomes more and more restricted. In the <i>Acharnians</i>, +<i>Knights</i>, <i>Clouds</i>, <i>Wasps</i> and <i>Peace</i> (425-421) the poet uses +unrestrained freedom. In the <i>Birds</i>, <i>Lysistrata</i>, <i>Thesmophoriazusae</i> +and <i>Frogs</i> (414-405) a greater reserve may be perceived. +Lastly, in the <i>Ecclesiazusae</i> and the <i>Plutus</i> (392-388) personal +satire is almost wholly avoided. The same general tendency +continued. The so-called “Middle Comedy” (390-320) represents +the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to +satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Antiphanes +of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The “New Comedy” +(320-250) resembled the modern “comedy of manners.”</p> + +<p>Its chief representative was Menander (342-291), the author of +105 comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of +these, of sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action. +His plays were produced on the stage as late as the time of +Plutarch, and his <span class="grk" title="gnômai">γνῶμαι</span>, distinguished by worldly wisdom, +were issued in the form of anthologies, which enjoyed great +popularity. Other prominent writers of this class were Diphilus, +Philemon, Posidippus and Apollodorus of Carystus. About +330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Rhinthon of Tarentum revived the old Doric farce in +his <i>Hilarotragoediae</i> or travesties of tragic stories. These +successive periods cannot be sharply or precisely marked off. +The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was +simply the reflection of the change which passed over the political +and social life of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the +earlier plays of Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful +engine of public criticism that has ever existed in any community. +Unsparing personality was its essence. The comic poet used +this recognized right on an occasion at once festive and sacred, +in a society where every man of any note was known by name +and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a policy +or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be +required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or in +the courts of law.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span></p> + +<p>The development of Greek poetry had been completed before +a prose literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in +extant Greek prose literature is that of Herodotus; +and, when he wrote, the Attic drama had already +<span class="sidenote">Literary prose.</span> +passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of +prose before Herodotus; but there had not been, in the proper +sense of the term, a prose literature. The causes of this comparatively +late origin of Greek literary prose are independent of +the question as to the time at which the art of writing began to +be generally used for literary purposes. Epic poetry exercised +for a very long period a sovereign spell over the Greek mind. +In it was deposited all that the race possessed of history, theology, +philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection had begun, +elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic verse, +the vehicle of much which among other races would have been +committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially +poetical. A political cause worked in the same direction. In +the Eastern monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the +royal records afforded the elements of history from a remote date. +The Greek nation was broken up into small states, each busied +with its own affairs and its own men. It was the collision +between the Greek and the barbarian world which first provided +a national subject for a Greek historian. The work of Herodotus, +in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous to the <i>Iliad</i> +in its relation to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest work of art, +and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp.</p> + +<p>The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original +may be inferred from what is known of earlier prose-writers. +For about a century before Herodotus there had been +a series of writers in philosophy, mythology, geography +<span class="sidenote">Early prose writers.</span> +and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of +the philosophical writers were Pherecydes of Syros +(550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the Ionian Anaximenes and Anaximander. It +is doubtful whether Cadmus of Miletus, supposed to have been +the first prose writer, was an historical personage. The Ionian +writers, especially called <span class="grk" title="logographoi">λογογράφοι</span>, “narrators in prose” +(as distinguished from <span class="grk" title="epopoioi">ἐποποιοί</span>, makers of verse), were those +who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or who +described foreign countries, their physical features, usages +and traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is the best-known +representative of the <i>logographi</i> in both these branches. +Hellanicus of Mytilene (450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), among whose works was a +history of Attica, appears to have made a nearer approach to +the character of a systematic historian. Other logographi were +Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of Leros, who wrote on +the myths of early Attica; Hippys of Rhegium, the oldest writer +on Italy and Sicily; and Acusilaus of Argos in Boeotia, author +of genealogies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logographi</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>, +“Authorities”).</p> + +<p>Herodotus was born in 484 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and his history was probably +not completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War +(431 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). His subject is the struggle between Greece +and Asia, which he deduces from the legendary rape +<span class="sidenote">Herodotus.</span> +of the Argive Io by Phoenicians, and traces down to the +final victory of the Greeks over the invading host of Xerxes. +His literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers +who had preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First, +though he draws a line between the mythological and the +historical age, he still holds that myths, as such, are worthy to +be reported, and that in certain cases it is part of his duty to +report them. Secondly, he follows the example of such writers +as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features of +countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or +intelligent traveller with his proper part as historian. But when +we turn from these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work, +Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose +method were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various +as are the subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and +complete; and the unity is due to this, that Herodotus refers all +events of human history to the principle of divine Nemesis. +If Sophocles had told the story of Oedipus in the <i>Oedipus +Tyrannus</i> alone, and had not added to it the <i>Oedipus at Colonus</i>, +it would have been comparable to the story of Xerxes as told by +Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the largeness of his +historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lack of insight +into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in regard +to the history of political institutions. Both his strength and +his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with +that other historian who was strictly his contemporary and +who yet seems divided from him by centuries.</p> + +<p>Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus; +but the intellectual space between the men is so great that they +seem to belong to different ages. Herodotus is the +first artist in historical writing; Thucydides is the +<span class="sidenote">Thucydides.</span> +first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of +causation—human agency, represented by the good or bad +qualities of men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance +of the gods on behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his +attention on the human agency (without, however, denying the +other), and strives to trace its exact course. The subject of +Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In resolving to write +its history, he was moved, he says, by these considerations. It +was probably the greatest movement which had ever affected +Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary +to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was +likely to have a general value, over and above its particular +interest as a record, seeing that the political future was likely +to resemble the political past. This is what Thucydides means +when he calls his work “a possession for ever.” The speeches +which he ascribes to the persons of the history are, as regards +form, his own essays in rhetoric of the school to which Antiphon +belongs. As regards matter, they are always so far dramatic +that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived +possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a +rule, from moral comment; but he tells his story as no one +could have told it who did not profoundly feel its tragic force; +and his general claim to the merit of impartiality is not invalidated +by the possible exceptions—difficult to estimate—in the +cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus.</p> + +<p>Strong as is the contrast between Herodotus and Thucydides, +their works have yet a character which distinguish both alike +from the historical work of Xenophon in the <i>Anabasis</i> +and the <i>Hellenica</i>. Herodotus gives us a vivid drama +<span class="sidenote">Xenophon.</span> +with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great +chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which +are at work throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific +unity. Xenophon has not the grasp either of the dramatist +or of the philosopher. His work does not possess the higher +unity either of art or of science. The true distinction of Xenophon +consists in his thorough combination of the practical with +the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier, who +had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could +make a story both clear and lively. But the several parts of +the story are not grouped around any central idea, such as a +divine Nemesis is for Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds +in the nature of political man. The seven books of the <i>Hellenica</i> +form a supplement to the history of Thucydides, beginning in +411 and going down to 362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The chief blot on the <i>Hellenica</i> +is the author’s partiality to Sparta, and in particular to Agesilaus. +Some of the greatest achievements of Epaminondas and Pelopidas +are passed over in silence. On the whole, Xenophon is perhaps +seen at his best in his narrative of the <i>Retreat of the Ten Thousand</i>—a +subject which exactly suits him. The <i>Cyropaedeia</i> is a +romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages. +<i>The Recollections of Socrates</i>, on the other hand, derive their +principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his +minor pieces on various subjects Xenophon appears as the +earliest essayist. It may be noted that one of the essays erroneously +ascribed to him—that <i>On the Athenian Polity</i>—is probably +the oldest specimen in existence of literary Attic prose.</p> + +<p>His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse +wrote histories of Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the +4th century a number of histories were compiled by literary +men of little practical knowledge, who had been trained in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span> +rhetorical schools. Such were Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus +of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and the writers of <i>Atthides</i> +(chronicles of Attic history), the chief of whom were Androtion +and Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the author of +a great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning +by Olympiads.</p> + +<p>The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the +principal forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly +in the Attic orators. Every Athenian citizen who +aspired to take part in the affairs of the city, or even +<span class="sidenote">Oratory.</span> +to be qualified for self-defence before a law-court, required +to have some degree of skill in public speaking; and an +Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political +or forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art. +Hence the speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a +student of finished expression; and oratory had a more direct +influence on the general structure of literary prose than has ever +perhaps been the case elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took +its rise in Sicily, where Corax of Syracuse (466 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) devised his +<i>Art of Words</i> to assist those who were pleading before the law-courts; +and it was brought to Athens by his disciple Tisias. +The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed attention, though +in a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of grammar +and logic; and Gorgias of Leontini—whose declamation, however +turgid, must have been striking—gave an impulse at Athens +to the taste for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy.</p> + +<p>Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called +the grand, style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are +a grave, dignified movement, a frequent emphasis +on verbal contrasts, and a certain austere elevation. +<span class="sidenote">The Attic orators.</span> +The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but +he has graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the “plain +style,” breaks through the rigid mannerism of the elder school, +and uses the language of daily life with an ease and grace which, +though the result of study, do not betray their art. He is, in his +own way, the canon of an Attic style; and his speeches, written +for others, exhibit also a high degree of dramatic skill. Isocrates, +whose manner may be regarded as intermediate between that +of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for readers rather than +for hearers. The type of literary prose which he founded is +distinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by +the temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle +of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Isocratic style of prose became +general in Greek literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which +it became more florid, it passed to Cicero, and through him it +has helped to shape the literary prose of the modern world. The +speeches of Isaeus in will-cases are interesting,—apart from +their bearing on Attic life,—because in them we see, as Dionysius +says, “the seeds and the beginnings” of that technical mastery +in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to perfection. +<span class="sidenote">Demosthenes.</span> +Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of +Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of +Greek prose not only in power but in variety; his +political speeches, his orations in public or private causes, show +his consummate and versatile command over all the resources +of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is +completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are +united. The modern world can more easily appreciate Demosthenes +as a great natural orator than as an elaborate artist. +But, in order to apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose, +we must remember that the ancients felt him to be both; and +that he was even reproached by detractors with excessive study +of effect. Aeschines is the most theatrical of the Greek orators; +he is vehement, and often brilliant, but seldom persuasive. +Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the most effective; +he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a fire and a +pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches, +found in Egypt between 1847 and 1890, are extant. The one +oration of Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and stately, +reminding us both of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus +was merely a bad imitator of Demosthenes. There seems more +reason to regret that Demades is not represented by larger +fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be dated from +Demetrius of Phalerum (318 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the pupil of Aristotle, and the +first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginary +subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero names him +as the first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence, +“preferring his own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his +predecessors.” He forms a connecting link between Athens and +Alexandria, where he found refuge after his downfall and promoted +the foundation of the famous library.</p> + +<p>In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and +island settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a +new, florid style of oration arose, called the “Asiatic,” which +owed its origin to Hegesias of Magnesia (<i>c.</i> 250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> + +<p>The place of Plato in the history of Greek literature is as +unique as his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary +genius shown in the dialogues is many-sided: it +includes dramatic power, remarkable skill in parody, +<span class="sidenote">Philosophical prose—Plato and Aristotle.</span> +a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command +over the finer tones of language. In passages of +continuous exposition, where the argument rises into +the higher regions of discussion, Plato’s prose takes a more +decidedly poetical colouring—never florid or sentimental, +however, but lofty and austere. In Plato’s later works—such, +for instance, as the <i>Laws</i>, <i>Timaeus</i>, <i>Critias</i>—we can perceive +that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary +prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle’s +influence on the form of Attic prose literature would probably +have been considerable if his <i>Rhetoric</i> had been published while +Attic oratory had still a vigorous life before it. But in this, +as in other departments of mental effort, it was Aristotle’s +lot to set in order what the Greek intellect had done in that +creative period which had now come to an end. His own chief +contribution to the original achievements of the race was the +most fitting one that could have been made by him in whose +lifetime they were closed. He bequeathed an instrument by +which analysis could be carried further, he founded a science +of reasoning, and left those who followed him to apply it in all +those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped out.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens +the new age of research and scientific classification with his +extant works on botany, but is better known to modern readers +by his lively <i>Characters</i>, the prototypes of such sketches in +English literature as those of Hall, Overbury and Earle.</p> + +<p>(C) <i>The Literature of the Decadence.</i>—The period of decadence +in Greek literature begins with the extinction of free political +life in the Greek cities. So long as the Greek commonwealths +were independent and vigorous, Greek life +<span class="sidenote">Character of the creative age.</span> +rested on the identity of the man with the citizen. +The city state was the highest unit of social organization; +the whole training and character of the man were viewed +relatively to his membership of the city. The market-place, +the assembly, the theatre were places of frequent meeting, where +the sense of citizenship was quickened, where common standards +of opinion or feeling were formed. Poetry, music, sculpture, +literature, art, in all their forms, were matters of public interest. +Every citizen had some degree of acquaintance with them, and +was in some measure capable of judging them. The poet and the +musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live a life of +studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were, +as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their +time. Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concentrated +and ennobled expression of their political existence. +Aeschylus breathed into tragedy the inspiration of one who had +himself fought the great fight of national liberation. Sophocles +was the colleague of Pericles in a high military command. +Thucydides describes the operations of the Peloponnesian War +with the practical knowledge of one who had been in charge of +a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere +visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span> +real and vivid, perceptions which had been quickened in them +by a living communion with the Athenian spirit, by a daily +contemplation of Athenian greatness, in the theatre where +tragic poets idealized the legends of the past, in the ecclesia +where every citizen had his vote on the policy of the state, or in +that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet exempt from +vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles. +The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was +such as was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions +under which they arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a +literary clique or of a social caste. The influence of jealousy or +malevolence, and the more fatal influence of affectation, had +little power to affect the verdict. The verdict was pronounced +by the whole body of the citizens. The success or failure of a +tragedy was decided, not by the minor circumstance that it +gained the first or second prize, but by the collective opinion of +the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus. A work of +architecture or sculpture was approved or condemned, not by +the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but +by the general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each +of whom was in some degree qualified by education and by habit +to form an independent estimate. The artist worked for all his +fellow-citizens, and knew that he would be judged by all. The +soul of his work was the fresh and living inspiration of nature; +it was the ennobled expression of his own life; and the public +opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and sincere.</p> + +<p>Philip of Macedon did not take away the municipal independence +of the Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the +old political life. The Athenian poet, historian, artist +might still do good work, but he could never again have +<span class="sidenote">The transition to Hellenism.</span> +that which used to be the very mainspring of all such +activity—the daily experience and consciousness of +participation in the affairs of an independent state. He could +no longer breathe the invigorating air of constitutional freedom, +or of the social intercourse to which that freedom lent dignity as +well as grace. Then came Alexander’s conquests; Greek civilization +was diffused over Asia and the East by means of Greek +colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements were mingled. +The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which +Alexander’s empire broke up, could not be animated by the spirit +of the Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom. +But the externals of Greek life were there—the temples, the +statues, the theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals +were conducted in the Greek manner. In private life Greek +usages prevailed. Greek was the language most used; Greek +books were in demand. The mixture of races would always in +some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a community +from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility with +which Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different +places. Syria, for example, was rapidly and completely Hellenized. +Judaea resisted the process to the last. In Egypt a Greek +aristocracy of office, birth and intellect existed side by side with +a distinct native life. But, viewed in its broadest aspect, this +new civilization may be called Hellenism. Hellenism (<i>q.v.</i>) +means the adoption of Hellenic ways; and it is properly applied +to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external things, pervading +people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. What the +Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature +was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic +form without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was +creative; the literature of Hellenism is derivative.</p> + +<p>Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from +Alexander to Augustus. Its “Museum,” or college, and its +library, both founded by the first Ptolemy (Soter), +gave it such attractions for learned men as no other +<span class="sidenote">The Alexandrian period.<br /> +Poetry.</span> +city could rival. The labours of research or arrangement +are those which characterize the Alexandrian +period. Even in its poetry spontaneous motive was replaced by +erudite skill, as in the hymns, epigrams and elegies of Callimachus, +in the enigmatic verses of Lycophron, in +the highly finished epic of Apollonius Rhodius, and +in the versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and +Nicander. The mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Cos (<i>c.</i> 200 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), written in the Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent +scenes from everyday life. The papyrus (published in 1891) +contains seven complete poems and fragments of an eighth. +They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd observations, but +at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the age—Dorian by +origin—was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to please at all, +must have its spring in the contemplation of nature. Theocritus +is not exempt from the artificialism of the Hellenizing literature; +but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place in +the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of +Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of +their bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of +Asclepius at Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter +poems and a paean (in Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by +a local poet named Isyllus, who flourished about 280. Tragedy +was represented by the poets known as the Alexandrian <i>Pleiad</i>. +But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this period of Greek +<span class="sidenote">Erudition and science.</span> +literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition +and science. Aristarchus (156 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the greatest in a +long line of Alexandrian critics, set the example of a +more thorough method in revising and interpreting the +ancient texts, and may in this sense be said to have become +the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical studies of +Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus, gradually +formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek +grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born <i>c.</i> 166), a pupil of +Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which +employed the learned of Alexandria—where the Septuagint +version of the Old Testament was begun, probably about 300-250 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> Chronology was treated scientifically by Eratosthenes, +and was combined with history by Manetho in his chronicles +of Egypt, and by Berossus in his chronicles of Chaldaea. Euclid +was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. Herophilus +and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and anatomists, +and the authors of several medical works. The general results +<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span> +of the Alexandrian period might perhaps be stated +thus. Alexandria produced a few eminent men of +science, some learned poets (in a few cases, of great literary +merit) and many able scholars. The preservation of the best +Greek literature was due chiefly to the unremitting care of the +Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it partly compensated +for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in literature and art, +and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form as free as +possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the patronage +of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of +success as was possible under the existing conditions; and it was +afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true +literary tradition might die out of the world.</p> + +<p>The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may +be dated from the Roman subjugation of Greece. “Greece +made a captive of the rough conqueror,” but it did +not follow from this intellectual conquest that Athens +<span class="sidenote">The Graeco-Roman period.</span> +became once more the intellectual centre of the world. +Under the empire, indeed, the university of Athens +long enjoyed a pre-eminent reputation. But Rome gradually +became the point to which the greatest workers in every kind +were drawn. Greek literature had already made a home there +before the close of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Sulla brought a Greek +library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus +were indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The +power of speaking and writing the Greek language became an +indispensable accomplishment for highly educated Romans. +The library planned by Julius Caesar and founded by Augustus +had two principal departments, one for Latin, the other for Greek +works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and Trajan contributed +to enlarge the collection. Rome became more and more the +rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but +also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found +appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especially +in its higher forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and +philosophy, were all cultivated by Greek writers at Rome.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span></p> + +<p>The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined +as extending from 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the close of the Roman republic. +At its commencement stands the name of one who +had more real affinity than any of his contemporaries +<span class="sidenote">First part: 146-30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></span> +with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the +same time, saw most clearly how the empire of the +world was passing to Rome. The subject of Polybius (<i>c.</i> 205-120) +was the history of Roman conquest from 264 to 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His +style, plain and straightforward, is free from the florid rhetoric +of the time. But the distinction of Polybius is that he is the +last Greek writer who in some measure retains the spirit of the +old citizen-life. He chose his subject, not because it gave scope +to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that which +prompted the history of Thucydides—namely, because, as a +Greek citizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those +wars which had given Rome the mastery of the world. The +chief historical work which the following century produced—the +<i>Universal History</i> of Diodorus Siculus (fl. <i>c.</i> 50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)—resembled +that of Polybius in recognizing Rome as the political +centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier series of +events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new +age in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical +knowledge and insight of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman, +but only the diligence, and usually the <span class="correction" title="amended from dulness">dullness</span>, of a laborious +compiler.</p> + +<p>The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus +to Justinian, was enormously prolific. The area over which +the Greek language was diffused—either as a medium +of intercourse or as an established branch of the higher +<span class="sidenote">Second part: 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529.</span> +education—was co-extensive with the empire itself. +An immense store of materials had now been +accumulated, on which critics, commentators, compilers, +imitators, were employed with incessant industry. In very +many of its forms, the work of composition or adaptation had +been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one characteristic +which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these +five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in +matter. Lucian is, in his way, a rare exception; and his great +popularity—he is the only Greek writer of this period, except +Plutarch, who has been widely popular—illustrates the flatness +of the arid level above which he stands out. The sustained +abundance of literary production under the empire was partly +due to the fact that there was no open political career. Never, +probably, was literature so important as a resource for educated +men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or obsequious +audiences swelled the number of writers whose taste had been +cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought +not to write.</p> + +<p>In the manifold prose work of this period, four principal +departments may be distinguished. (1) <i>History</i>, with <i>Biography</i>, +and <i>Geography</i>. History is represented by Dionysius +of Halicarnassus—also memorable for his criticisms on +<span class="sidenote">Departments of prose literature.</span> +the orators and his effort to revive a true standard +of Attic prose—by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian, +Appian, Herodian, Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the +foremost names are Plutarch, Diogenes Laërtius and Philostratus; +in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaea, Strabo, Ptolemy +and Pausanias. (2) <i>Erudition</i> and <i>Science.</i> The learned labours +of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their various +fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works +as the lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocration and Hesychius, +Hephaestion’s treatise on metre, and Herodian’s system of +accentuation; the commentaries of Galen on Plato and on +Hippocrates; the learned miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian +and Stobaeus; and the <i>Stratagems</i> of Polyaenus. (3) <i>Rhetoric</i> +and <i>Belles-Lettres</i>. The most popular writers on the theory +of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hermogenes, Aphthonius and +Cassius Longinus—the last the reputed author of the essay +<i>On Sublimity</i>. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric—now +distinctively called “Sophists,” or rhetoricians—were +Dio Chrysostom, Aelius Aristides, Themistius, Himerius, Libanius +and Herodes Atticus. Akin to the rhetorical exercises were +various forms of ornamental or imaginative prose—dialogues, +letters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his dialogues, exhibits +more of the classical style and of the classical spirit than any +writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable affinity with +the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His Attic +prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that +had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was +the author both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief +of the Greek novelists (the forerunner of whom was Aristides +of Miletus, <i>c.</i> 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in his <i>Milesian Tales</i>) are Xenophon of +Ephesus and Longus, representing a purely Greek type of +romance, and Heliodorus—with his imitators Achilles Tatius +and Chariton—representing a school influenced by Oriental +fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek, +usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron’s fictitious <i>Letters</i>—founded +largely on the New Comedy of Athens—represent the +same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phalaris, +Aristaenetus and similar collections. (4) <i>Philosophy</i> is represented +chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of +whom the Stoic element is the prevailing one; by the Neoplatonists, +such as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus; and by +Proclus, of that eclectic school which arose at Athens in the +5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p> + +<p>The Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high +merit. Babrius versified the Aesopic <i>Fables</i>; Oppian (or two +poets of this name) wrote didactic poems on fishing +<span class="sidenote">Verse.</span> +and hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smyrnaeus made +elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired +some poems and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called +<i>Sibylline Oracles</i>, in hexameter verse, range in date from about +170 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700, and are partly the expression of the Jewish +longings for the restoration of Israel, partly predictions of the +triumph of Christianity. By far the most pleasing compositions +in verse which have come to us from this age +<span class="sidenote">The Anthology.</span> +are some of the short poems in the Greek Anthology, +which includes some pieces as early as the beginning of +the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and some as late as the 6th century of the +Christian era.</p> + +<p>The 4th century may be said to mark the beginning of the +last stage in the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point +the decline was rapid and nearly continuous. The attitude +of the church towards it was no longer that which had been held +by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin Martyr or by Origen. +There was now a Christian Greek literature, and a Christian +Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. The laity became +more and more estranged from the Greek literature—however +intrinsically pure and noble—of the pagan past. At the same +time the Greek language—which had maintained its purity in +Italian seats—was becoming corrupted in the new Greek Rome +of the East. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529 Justinian put forth an edict by which +the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The +act had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard +against the supposition that such assumed landmarks in political +or literary history always mark a definite transition from one +order of things to another. But it is practically convenient, +or necessary, to use such landmarks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The first attempt at a connected history of +Greek literature was the monumental and still indispensable work +of J. A. Fabricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols. by +G. C. Harless, 1790-1809); this was followed by F. Schöll’s <i>Hist. +de la littérature grecque</i> (1813). Both these works begin with the +earliest times and go down to the latest period of the Byzantine +empire. Of more modern and recent works the following may be +mentioned: G. Bernhardy, <i>Grundriss der griechischen Literatur</i> +(1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880; 5th ed. of vol. i., by R. Volkmann, +1892), chiefly confined to the poets; C. O. Müller, <i>History of Greek +Literature</i> (unfinished), written for the London Society for the +Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and published in English in 1840, +the translation being by G. Cornewall Lewis and J. W. Donaldson +(the latter completed the work to the end of the Byzantine period +for the edition of 1858; the German text was published by E. +Müller in 1841; 4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882-1884); W. Mure, <i>Critical +History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece</i> (1850-1857); +T. Bergk, <i>Griechische Literaturgeschichte</i> (1872-1894, vols. +2, 3, ed. G. Hinrichs, vol. 4 by R. Peppmüller) containing epos, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span> +lyric, drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose; R. +Nicolai, <i>Griechische Literaturgeschichte</i> (2nd ed., 1873-1878), useful +for bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J. P. Mahaffy, +<i>Hist. of Classical Greek Literature</i> (4th ed., 1903); A. and M. Croiset, +<i>Hist. de la littérature grecque</i> (1887-1899, 2nd ed. 1896); W. +Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur bis auf die Zeit Justinians</i> +(4th ed., 1905; 5th ed., pt. i., by O. Stählin and W. Schmid, 1908), +by far the most serviceable handbook for the student. F. Susemihl’s +<i>Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der Alexandrinerzeit</i> (1891-1892) +is especially valuable for its notes. Of smaller manuals the +following will be found most useful: G. G. Murray, <i>History of +Ancient Greek Literature</i> (1897); F. B. Jevons, <i>History of Greek +Literature</i> (3rd ed., 1900) down to the time of Demosthenes; A. and +M. Croiset, <i>Manuel d’hist. de la littérature grecque</i> (1900; Eng. trans., +by G. F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904); also the general sketches by +U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff in <i>Die Kultur der Gegenwart</i>, i. 8 +(1905), by A. Gercke in the <i>Sammlung Göschen</i> (Leipzig, 2nd ed., +1905), and by R. C. Jebb in <i>Companion to Greek Studies</i> (Cambridge, +1905). Other works generally connected with the subject are: +E. Hübner, <i>Bibliographie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i> +(2nd ed., 1889), pp. 161-17l; W. Engelmann, <i>Bibliotheca scriptorum +classicorum</i> (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880); J. B. Mayor, <i>Guide to +the Choice of Classical Books</i> (1896), p. 86; W. Kroll, <i>Die Altertumswissenschaft +im letzten Vierteljahrhundert</i> 1875-1900 (1905), +p. 465 foll.; J. E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (1906-1908); +“Bibliotheca philologica classica,” in C. Bursian’s <i>Jahresbericht +über die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>; +articles in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie der klassischen +Altertumswissenschaft</i> (1894—).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. C. J.; X.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Byzantine Literature</p> + +<p>By “Byzantine literature” is generally meant the literature, +written in Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no +justification whatever for the inclusion of Latin works +of the time of the East Roman empire. The close of +<span class="sidenote">Definition.</span> +the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year +1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern empire, the +peculiar culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an +end. It is only as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period +that any doubts exist. There are no sufficient grounds for dating +it from Justinian, as was formerly often done. In surveying the +whole development of the political, ecclesiastical and literary +life and of the general culture of the Roman empire, and particularly +of its eastern portion, we arrive, on the contrary, at the +conclusion that the actual date of the beginning of this new era—<i>i.e.</i> +the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to the Pagan-Greek +and Pagan-Roman—falls within the reign of Constantine +the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Constantinople +(which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the +establishment of the Christian faith as the state religion, Constantine +finally broke with the Roman-Pagan tradition, and +laid the foundation of the Christian-Byzantine period of development. +Moreover, in the department of language, so closely +allied with that of literature, the 4th century marks a new epoch. +About this time occurred the final disappearance of a characteristic +of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry +and in rhythmic prose, the difference of “quantity.” Its place +was henceforth taken by the accent, which became a determining +principle in poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the +prose sentence. Thus the transition from the old musical +language to a modern conversational idiom was complete.</p> + +<p>The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the +beginning of a new period in the most important spheres of +national life, but it is equally certain that in most of +them ancient tradition long continued to exercise an +<span class="sidenote">Transitional period.</span> +influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less +common in the general culture and literary life of the +world than in its political or ecclesiastical development. This +is true of the transition from pagan antiquity to the Christian +middle ages. Many centuries passed before the final victory of +the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public and private +intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of +paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The +last great educational establishment which rested upon pagan +foundations—the university of Athens—was not abolished till +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529. The Hellenizing of the seat of empire and of the state, +which was essential to the independent development of Byzantine +literature, proceeds yet more slowly. The first purely <i>Greek</i> +emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but the complete Hellenizing +of the character of the state had not been accomplished +until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the period +from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between +ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with +the rise of a new power in the world’s history—Islam. But +though, in this transitional period, the old and the new elements +are both to a large extent present and are often inextricably +interwoven, yet it is certain that the new elements are, both as +regards their essential force and their influence upon the succeeding +period, of infinitely greater moment than the decrepit and +mostly artificial survivals of the antique.</p> + +<p>In order to estimate rightly the character of Byzantine +literature and its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction +to ancient Greek, it is imperative to examine the great +difference between the civilizations that produced +<span class="sidenote">Mixed character of Byzantine culture.</span> +them. The Byzantine did not possess the homogeneous, +organically constructed system of the ancient +civilization, but was the outcome of an amalgamation +of which Hellenism formed the basis. For, although the Latin +character of the empire was at first completely retained, even +after its final division in 395, yet the dominant position of Greek +in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing of the +state. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the codification, +in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565). +But it is significant that the <i>Novels</i> of Justinian were composed +partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period. +Of the emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of +course were foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others; but in +language and education they were all Greeks. In the last five +centuries of the empire, under the Comneni and the Palaeologi, +court and state are purely Greek.</p> + +<p>In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern +empire, a linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the +foundation of the old Latin <i>Imperium Romanum</i> never existed +there. In the West, with the expansion of Rome’s political +supremacy, the Latin language and Latin culture were everywhere +introduced—first into the non-Latin provinces of Italy, +later into Spain, Gaul and North Africa, and at last even into +certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so +thorough that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries +affected by it, was the parent of new and vigorous nationalities, +the French, the Spaniards, the Portuguese and the Rumanians. +Only in Africa did “Latinism” fail to take root permanently. +From the 6th century that province relapsed into the hands of +the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both the +Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength +during the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with +Christianity, swept away without leaving a trace behind. It +might have been expected that the Hellenizing of the political +system of the Eastern empire would have likewise entailed the +Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the empire. Such, +however, was not the case; for all the conditions precedent +to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions +of the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually +incorporated into the state from a Greek centre, as were the +provinces in the West from a Latin centre. They had been +acquired in the old period of the homogeneous Latin <i>Imperium</i>. +In the centuries immediately following the division of the empire, +the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces could not take +root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least in +principle, as the state language. During the later centuries, +in the non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive +inroads of barbarians began on all sides; and the government +was too much occupied with the all but impossible task of +preserving the political unity of the empire to entertain seriously +the wider aim of an assimilation of language and culture. Moreover, +the Greeks did not possess that enormous political energy +and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate foreign races; +and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental, mostly +Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span> +were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their +impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly +judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even +the Romans were within a short period driven back and overwhelmed +by the North African Semites who for centuries had +been subjected to an apparently thorough process of Latinization.</p> + +<p>The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how +little indeed it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the +fact that, after the violent Arab invasion in the south-east +corner of the Mediterranean, the Copts and Syrians were able +to retain their language and their national characteristics, +while Greek culture almost completely disappeared. The one +great instance of assimilation of foreign nationalities by the +Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from the 6th century +had migrated into central Greece and the Peloponnese. All +other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether +for longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern +empire and its civilization—such as the Copts, Syrians, +Armenians, Georgians, Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians—one +and all retained their nationality and language. The +complete Latinizing of the West has, accordingly, no counterpart +in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This is clearly shown during +the Byzantine period in the progress of Christianity. Everywhere +in the West, even among the non-Romanized Anglo-Saxons, +Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the +church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical +system; down to the Reformation the church remained a +complete organic unity. In the East, at the earliest period of +its conversion to Christianity, several foreign tongues competed +with Greek, <i>i.e.</i> Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, Gothic, +Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books were translated +into these languages and the church services were held in them +and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic division +in the church was the formation of various sects and national +churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites, +the Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national +churches). The Church of the West was characterized by +uniformity in language and in constitution. In the Eastern +Church parallel to the multiplicity of languages developed also +a corresponding variety of doctrine and constitution.</p> + +<p>Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek, +and Byzantine literature is attached by countless threads to +ancient Greek literature, yet the Roman element +forms a very essential part of it. The whole political +<span class="sidenote">Roman influence.</span> +character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its +Greek form and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and +administration, the military and naval traditions, are old Roman +work, and as such, apart from immaterial alterations, they +continued to exist and operate, even when the state in head and +limbs had become Greek. It is strange, indeed, how strong +was the political conception of the Roman state (<i>Staatsgedanke</i>), +and with what tenacity it held its own, even under the most +adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The +Greeks even adopted the name “Romans,” which gradually +became so closely identified with them as to supersede the name +“Hellenes”; and thus a political was gradually converted into +an ethnographical and linguistic designation. <i>Rhomaioi</i> was +the most common popular term for Greeks during the Turkish +period, and remains so still. The old glorious name “Hellene” +was used under the empire and even during the middle ages +in a contemptuous sense—“Heathen”—and has only in quite +modern times, on the formation of the kingdom of “Hellas,” +been artificially revived. The vast organization of the Roman +political system could not but exercise in various ways a profound +influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it often seemed +as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved the +unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The +Roman influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language, +Greek of the Byzantine and modern period is rich in Latin +terms for conceptions connected with the departments of justice, +administration and the imperial court. In literature such +“barbarisms” were avoided as far as possible, and were replaced +by Greek periphrases.</p> + +<p>But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought +on the old Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet +the transition was, in fact, by no means so abrupt as +one might be led to believe by comparing the Pagan-Hellenic +<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span> +culture of Plato’s day with the Christian-Byzantine +of the time of Justinian. For the path had been +most effectually prepared for the new religion by the crumbling +away of the ancient belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine +of the Stoics, and, finally, by the mystic intellectual tendencies +of Neoplatonism. Moreover, in many respects Christianity met +paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular usages and +ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan literature. +The whole educational system especially, even in Christian times, +was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the +methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the +influences of Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of +importance in developing the Byzantine civilization, and in +<span class="sidenote">The Orient.</span> +lending Byzantine literature its distinctive character. +Much that was oriental in the Eastern empire dates +back to ancient times, notably to the period of Alexander +the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had +at that period Hellenized the East to the widest extent, and +had already founded everywhere flourishing cities, they themselves +fell under the manifold influences of the soil they occupied. +In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in Asia Minor as far inland +as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental characteristics were often +blended. In respect of the wealth and the long duration of +its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It covers +a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of +Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +643). The real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during +this long period can be properly estimated only if a practical +attempt be made to eliminate from the history of Greek literature +and science in pagan and in Christian times all that owed its +origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of Egypt proved itself +especially productive of Greek literature under the Cross (Origen, +Athanasius, Arius, Synesius), in the same way as the soil of +North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian, +Cyprian, Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one +of the chief characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine +civilization, had its birth in Egypt.</p> + +<p>Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civilization +at a later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and +culture attained their highest development between the 3rd and +the 8th centuries of the Christian era. Antioch rose to great +influence, owing at first to its pagan school of rhetoric and +later to its Christian school of exegesis. Gaza was renowned for +its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of law. It is +no mere accident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most +valuable class of Byzantine literature, was born in Syria and +Palestine.</p> + +<p>In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna, +Ephesus, Nicopolis, &c., were all influential centres of Greek +culture and literature. For instance, the three great fathers +of Cappadocia, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus +all belonged to Asia Minor.</p> + +<p>If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries +of the Christian era, <i>i.e.</i> the period of the complete development +of Byzantine culture, be classified according to the countries +of their birth, the significant fact becomes evident that nine-tenths +come from the African and Asiatic districts, which were +for the most part opened up only after Alexander the Great, +and only one-tenth from European Greece. In other words, +the old original European Greece was, under the emperors, +completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the +newly founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide +of conquest which surged from Greece over African and Syrian +territories occupied largely by foreign races and ancient +civilizations, could not fail to be fraught with serious consequences +for the Greeks themselves. The experience of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span> +Romans in their conquest of Greece (<i>Graecia capta ferum victorem +cepit</i>) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece, +though to a minor extent and in a different way. The whole +literature of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite +its international and cosmopolitan character, disavow the +influence of the Oriental soil on which it was nourished. Yet the +growth of too strong a local colouring in its literature was +repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek +tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled +all national distinctions. Even more clearly and unmistakably +is Oriental influence shown in the province of Byzantine art, +as Joseph Strzygowski has conclusively proved.</p> + +<p>The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of +ancient times down to the threshold of modern history was +written in a language identical in its principal features +with the common literary language, the so-called +<span class="sidenote">Language.</span> +Koinē, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This is the +literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form +that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction +down to one that approaches the language of everyday life +such as we have, for instance, in the New Testament. From +what has been already said, it follows that this stable literary +language cannot always have remained a language of ordinary +life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular Greek continually +changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in vocabulary +and grammar, and thus the living language surely and gradually +separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf was, +moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there +took place in the written language a retrograde movement, +the so-called “Atticism.” Introduced by Dionysius of Halicarnassus +in the 1st century before Christ, this linguistic-literary +fashion attained its greatest height in the 2nd century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but still continued to flourish in succeeding centuries, and, +indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine period. It is true +that it often seemed as though the living language would be +gradually introduced into literature; for several writers, such +as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis +(the author of <i>Lives of Saints</i>) in the 7th century, the chronicler +Theophanes at the beginning of the 9th century, and the emperor +Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in +their writings numerous concessions to the living language. +This progressive tendency might well have led, in the 11th and +12th centuries, to the founding in the Greek vernacular of a new +literary language similar to the promising national languages +and literature which, at that period, in the Romance countries, +developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of the +Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change never took +place. All attempts in the direction of a popular reform of the +literary language, which were occasionally made in the period +from the 6th to the 10th centuries, were in turn extinguished +by the resuscitation of classical studies, a movement which, +begun in the 9th century by Photius and continued in the 11th +by Psellus, attained its full development under the Comneni +and the Palaeologi. This classical renaissance turned back the +literary language into the old ossified forms, as had previously +happened in the case of the Atticism of the early centuries of +the empire. In the West, humanism (so closely connected +with the Byzantine renaissance under the Comneni and the +Palaeologi) also artificially reintroduced the “Ciceronian” +Latin, but was unable seriously to endanger the development +of the national languages, which had already attained to full +vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic movement came +prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had fairly +established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers +of the 11th-15th centuries is almost Old Greek in colour; artificially +learnt by grammar, lexicon and assiduous reading, it +followed Attic models more and more slavishly; to such an +extent that, in determining the date of works, the paradoxical +principle holds good that the more ancient the language, the +more recent the author.</p> + +<p>Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast +that had long existed with the vernacular was now for the first +time fully revealed. The gulf between the two forms of language +could no longer be bridged; and this fact found its expression +in literature also. While the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-10th +centuries, like the Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of +Tours), still attempted a compromise between the language of +the schools and that of conversation, we meet after the 12th +century with authors who freely and naturally employed the +vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form the +Greek counterpart of the oldest writers in Italian, French and +other Romance languages. That they could not succeed like +their Roman colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of +Greek literature, is due to the all-powerful philological-antiquarian +tendency which existed under the Comneni and the +Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular attempt to assert +its literary rights, <i>i.e.</i> in Crete and some other islands in the +16th and 17th centuries. But this attempt also was foiled by +the classical reaction of the 19th century. Hence it comes about +that Greek literature even in the 20th century employs grammatical +forms which were obsolete long before the 10th century. +Thus the Greeks, as regards their literary language, came into +a <i>cul de sac</i> similar to that in which certain rigidly conservative +Oriental nations find themselves, <i>e.g.</i> the Arabs and Chinese, who, +not possessing a literary language suited to modern requirements, +have to content themselves with the dead Old-Arabic or the +ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of the written and +spoken languages is the most prominent and also the most fatal +heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their +Byzantine forefathers.</p> + +<p>The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western +medieval period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology +accordingly, in literature too, occupies the chief place, +in regard to both quantity and quality. Next to it +<span class="sidenote">General character of Byzantine literature.</span> +comes the writing of history, which the Byzantines +cultivated with great conscientiousness until after +the fall of the empire. All other kinds of prose writing, +<i>e.g.</i> in geography, philosophy, rhetoric and the technical sciences, +were comparatively neglected, and such works are of value for +the most part only in so far as they preserve and interpret old +material. In poetry, again, theology takes the lead. The poetry +of the Church produced works of high aesthetic merit and enduring +value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams especially +was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In popular +literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of +notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with.</p> + +<p>The great classical period of Greek theological literature is +that of the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this +result—some of them positive, particularly the +establishment of Christianity as the official religion +<span class="sidenote">Theology.</span> +and the protection accorded to it by the state, others negative, +<i>i.e.</i> the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at this +period arose in the east of the empire and threatened the unity +of the doctrine and organization of the church. It was chiefly +against these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed +his attacks. The learned Eusebius founded a new department +of literature, church history. In Egypt, Antonius (St Anthony) +founded the Greek monastic system; Synesius of Cyrene, like +his greater contemporary Augustine in the West, represents +both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition from +Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great +intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great +Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother +Gregory of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the +Christian faith, and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished +orator and poet. Closely allied to them was St Chrysostom, +the courageous champion of ecclesiastical liberty and of moral +purity. To modern readers the greater part of this literature +appears strange and foreign; but, in order to be appreciated +rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of the period in +which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by religious +emotions. For the times in which they lived and for their +readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable; +though, of course, they produced nothing of such general human +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span> +interest, nothing so deep and true, as the <i>Confessions</i> of St +Augustine, with which the poetical autobiography of Gregory +of Nazianzus cannot for a moment be compared.</p> + +<p>The glorious bloom of the 4th century was followed by a +perceptible decay in theological intellectual activity. Independent +production was in succeeding centuries almost solely +prompted by divergent dogmatical views and heresies, for the +refutation of which orthodox authors were impelled to take up +the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious literature +was called into existence by the Monophysites, who maintained +that there was but <i>one</i> nature in Christ; in the 7th century by +the Monothelites, who acknowledged but <i>one</i> will in Christ; +in the 8th century by the Iconoclasts and by the new teaching +of Mahomet. One very eminent theologian, whose importance +it has been reserved for modern times to estimate aright—Leontius +of Byzantium (6th century)—was the first to introduce +Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus be called +the first scholastic. In his works he attacked the heretics of +his age, particularly the Monophysites, who were also assailed +by his contemporary Anastasius of Antioch. The chief adversaries +of the Monothelites were Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem +(whose main importance, however, is due to his work in other +fields, in hagiography and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor, +and Anastasius Sinaïtes, who also composed an interpretation +of the <i>Hexaëmeron</i> in twelve books. Among writers in the +departments of critical interpretation and asceticism in this +period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who devoted +himself principally to the exegesis of the Old Testament; +Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read +ascetic work <i>Klimax</i> (Jacob’s ladder); and Johannes Moschus +(d. 619), whose chief work <i>Leimon</i> (“spiritual pasture”) describes +monastic life in the form of statements and narratives of their +experiences by monks themselves. The last great heresy, which +shook the Greek Church to its very foundations, the Iconoclast +movement, summoned to the fray the last great Greek theologian, +John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). Yet his chief merit +lies not so much in his polemical speeches against the Iconoclasts, +and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his great +dogmatic work, <i>The Fountain of Knowledge</i>, which contains the +first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma. It has +remained the standard work on Greek theology down to the +present day. Just as the internal development of the Greek +Church in all essentials reached its limit with the Iconoclasts, +so also its productive intellectual activity ceased with John of +Damascus. Such theological works as were subsequently +produced, consisted mostly in the interpretation and revision +of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful, literature +was produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek +and Roman Churches. Of a more independent character is the +literature which in the 14th century centred round the dissensions +of the Hesychasts.</p> + +<p>Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned: +the emperor Leo VI., the Wise (886-911), who wrote numerous +homilies and church hymns, and Theodorus of Studium (759-826), +who in his numerous writings affords us instructive glimpses +of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the figure of the patriarch +Photius. Yet his importance consists less in his writings, which +often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of thought +and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church. +For he it was who carried the differences which had already +repeatedly arisen between Rome and Constantinople to a point +at which reconciliation was impossible, and was mainly instrumental +in preparing the way for the separation of the Greek and +Latin Churches accomplished in 1054 under the patriarch +Michael Cerularius. In the 11th century the polyhistor Michael +Psellus also wrote polemics against the Euchites, among whom +the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, including +theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni. +In the reign of Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118), Euthymius +Zigabenus wrote his great dogmatic work, the <i>Dogmatic Panoply</i>, +which, like <i>The Fountain of Knowledge</i> of John of Damascus in +earlier times, was partly positive, furnishing an armoury of +theology, partly negative and directed against the sects. In +addition to attacking the dead and buried doctrines of the +Monothelites, Iconoclasts, &c., to fight which was at this time +a mere tilting at windmills, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic +against the heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils +and Saracens. Zigabenus’s <i>Panoply</i> was continued and enlarged +a century later by the historian Nicetas Acominatus, who +published it under the title <i>Treasure of Orthodoxy</i>. To the +writings against ancient heresies were next added a flood of +tracts, of all shapes and sizes, “against the Latins,” <i>i.e.</i> against +the Roman Church, and among their authors must also be +enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore II. Lascaris (1254-1258). +The chief champion of the union with the Roman Church +was the learned Johannes Beccus (patriarch of Constantinople +1275-1282). Of his opponents by far the most eminent was +Gregory of Cyprus, who succeeded him on the patriarchal throne. +The fluctuations in the fortunes of the two ecclesiastical parties +are reflected in the occupation of the patriarchal throne. The +battles round the question of the union, which were waged with +southern passion, were for a while checked by the dissensions +aroused by the mystic tendency of the Hesychasts. The impetus +to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam, +a native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an +opponent of the Latins and was in 1339 entrusted by Andronicus +III. with a mission to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon. He +condemned the doctrine of the Hesychasts, and attacked them +both orally and in writing. Among those who shared his views +are conspicuous the historian Nicephorus Gregoras and Gregorius +Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas Aquinas +in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesychasts was +essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and +dreamy Graeco-Oriental mysticism. On the side of the Hesychasts +fought Gregorius Palamas, who tried to give a dogmatic foundation +to the mysticism of the Hesychasts, Cabasilas, and the +emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus who, after his deposition, +sought, in the peaceful retreat of a monastery, consolation in +theological studies, and in his literary works refuted the Jews +and the Mahommedans. For the greatest Byzantine “apologia” +against Islamism we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II. +Palaeologus (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to +make up for the deficiency in martial prowess shown by the +Byzantines in their struggle with the Turks. On the whole, +theological literature was in the last century of the empire +almost completely occupied with the struggles for and against +the union with Rome. The reason lay in the political conditions. +The emperors saw more and more clearly that without the aid +of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground +against the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent; +while the majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the +assistance of the West would force the Greeks to unite with +Rome, and thereby to forfeit their ecclesiastical independence. +Considering the supremacy of the theological party in Byzantium, +it was but natural that religious considerations should gain the +day over political; and this was the view almost universally +held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of the empire; +in the words of the chronicler Ducas: “it is better to fall into +the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks.” The +chief opponent of the union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan +of Ephesus, who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced +the union with Rome accomplished by John VIII. Palaeologus. +Conspicuous there among the partisans of the union, by reason +of his erudition and general literary merit, was Bessarion, afterwards +cardinal, whose chief activity already falls under the +head of Graeco-Italian humanism.</p> + +<p>Hagiography, <i>i.e.</i> the literature of the acts of the martyrs +and the lives of the saints, forms an independent group and +one comparatively unaffected by dogmatic struggles. +The main interest centres here round the objects +<span class="sidenote">Hagiography.</span> +described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints +themselves. The authors, on the other hand—the <i>Acts of the +Martyrs</i> are mostly anonymous—keep more in the background +than in other branches of literature. The man whose name is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> +mainly identified with Greek hagiography, Symeon Metaphrastes, +is important not as an original author, but only as an editor. +Symeon revised in the 10th century, according to the rhetorical +and linguistic principles of his day, numerous old <i>Acts of the +Martyrs</i>, and incorporated them in a collection consisting of +several volumes, which was circulated in innumerable copies, +and thus to a great extent superseded the older original texts. +These <i>Acts of the Martyrs</i>, in point of time, are anterior to our +period; but of the <i>Lives of Saints</i> the greater portion belong +to Byzantine literature. They began with biographies of monks +distinguished for their saintly living, such as were used by +Palladius about 420 in his <i>Historia Lausiaca</i>. The most famous +work of this description is that by Athanasius of Alexandria, +viz. the biography of St Anthony, the founder of monachism. +In the 6th century Cyril of Scythopolis wrote several lives of +saints, distinguished by a simple and straightforward style. +More expert than any one else in reproducing the naïve popular +style was Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus who, in the 7th century, +wrote, among other works, a life of St John the Merciful, archbishop +of Alexandria, which is very remarkable as illustrating +the social and intellectual conditions of the time. From the +popular <i>Lives of Saints</i>, which for the reading public of the +middle ages formed the chief substitute for modern “belles +lettres,” it is easy to trace the transition to the religious novel. +The most famous work of this class is the history of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barlaam +and Josaphat</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The religious poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from +the influence of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to +original development. The oldest work of this class is +the hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers and +<span class="sidenote">Religious poetry.</span> +dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts +with the <i>Paedagogus</i> of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215), +but was probably not his work. The next piece of this class +is the famous “Maidens’ Song” in the <i>Banquet</i> of St Methodius +(d. about 311), in which many striking violations of the old +rules of quantity are already apparent. More faithful to the +tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus. But, owing +to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification +and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people +or to find a place in the services of the church. Just as little +could the artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the +younger Apollinaris, or the subtle poems of Synesius, become +popular. It became more and more patent that, with the archaic +metre which was out of keeping with the character of the living +language, no genuine poetry suited to the age could possibly be +produced. Fortunately, an entirely new form of poetical art +was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the +blessings of an intelligible religious poetry—the rhythmic poem. +This no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables, +which had disappeared from the living language, but on the +accent. Yet the transition was not effected by the substitution +of accent for the old long syllables; the ancient verse form was +entirely abandoned, and in its stead new and variously constructed +lines and strophes were formed. In the history of the +rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly marked—the +preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the <i>Canones</i>. +About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively +little. It appears that in it church music was in the main confined +to the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other +portions of Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation. +The oldest rhythmic songs date from Gregory of Nazianzus—his +“Maidens’ Song” and his “Evening Hymn.” Church +poetry reached its highest expression in the second period, in +the grand development of the hymns, <i>i.e.</i> lengthy songs comprising +from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each +connected with the next in acrostic fashion. Hymnology, +again, attained its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th +century with Romanos, who in the great number and excellence +of his hymns dominated this species of poetry, as Homer did +the Greek epic. From this period dates, moreover, the most +famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called <i>Acathistus</i>, an +anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin Mary, which has +sometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch +Sergius.</p> + +<p>Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an +increase in artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour, +with the composition of the <i>Canones</i>, songs artfully +built up out of eight or nine lyrics, all differently +<span class="sidenote">Canones.</span> +constructed. Andreas, archbishop of Crete (<i>c.</i> 650-720), is +regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His chief +work, “the great Canon,” comprises no less than 250 strophes. +The most celebrated writers of <i>Canones</i> are John of Damascus +and Cosmas of Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first +half of the 8th century. The “vulgar” simplicity of Romanos +was regarded by them as an obsolete method; they again +resorted to the classical style of Gregory of Nazianzus, and John +of Damascus even took a special delight in the most elaborate +tricks of expression. In spite of this, or perhaps on that very +account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times, +were much read, and—as was very necessary—much commentated. +Later, sacred poetry was more particularly cultivated +in the monastery of the Studium at Constantinople by the abbot +Theodorus and others. Again, in the 9th century, Joseph, “the +hymn-writer,” excelled as a writer of songs, and, finally, John +Mauropus (11th century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras +(12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century), +were also distinguished as authors of sacred poems, <i>i.e.</i> <i>Canones</i>. +The Basilian Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in +1004, and still existing, was also a nursery of religious poetry. +As regards the rhythmic church poetry, it may now be regarded +as certain that its origin was in the East. Old Hebrew and +Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos (<i>q.v.</i>) was +especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great Syrian +father Ephraem (d. about 373).</p> + +<p>In profane literature the writing of history takes the first +place, as regards both form and substance. The Greeks have +always been deeply interested in history, and they have +never omitted, amid all the vicissitudes of their +<span class="sidenote">Profane literature; historical accounts.</span> +existence, to hand down a record to posterity. Thus, +they have produced a literature extending from the +Ionian logographers and Herodotus down to the times of +Sultan Mahommed II. In the Byzantine period all historical +accounts fall under one of two groups, entirely different, both in +form and in matter, (1) historical works, the authors of which +described, as did most historians of ancient times, a period of +history in which they themselves had lived and moved, or one +which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2) +chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world. This +latter class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature. The +most clearly marked stage in the development of a Christian-Byzantine +universal history was the chronicle (unfortunately +lost) written by the Hellenized Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the +beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era; this work +began with the story of Moses.</p> + +<p>Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ +substantially from ancient historical works, except in their +Christian colouring. Yet even this is often very faint and blurred +owing to close adherence to ancient methods. Apart from this, +neither a new style nor a new critical method nor any radically +new views appreciably altered the main character of Byzantine +historiography. In their style most Byzantine compilers of +contemporary history followed the beaten track of older historians, +<i>e.g.</i> Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also +Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to +imitation, they displayed considerable power in the delineation +of character and were not wanting in independent judgment. +As regards the selection of their matter, they adhered to the +old custom of beginning their narrative where their predecessors +left off.</p> + +<p>The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which +after the close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is +reflected in historiography also. After Constantine the Great, +the history of the empire, although its Latin character was +maintained until the 6th century, was mostly written by Greeks; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span> +<i>e.g.</i> Eunapius (<i>c.</i> 400), Olympiodorus (<i>c.</i> 450), Priscus (<i>c.</i> 450), +Malchus (<i>c.</i> 490), and Zosimus, the last pagan historian (<i>c.</i> 500), +all of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately +preserved to us only in fragments. Historiography received a +great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful Procopius and +Agathias (<i>q.v.</i>), tinged with poetical rhetoric, described the +stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of +Byzantium, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and +Theophylactus of Simocatta described the second half of the +6th century. Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished +the last independent ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who +wrote the history of the church from 431 to 593. There now +followed, however, a lamentable falling off in production. +From the 7th to the 10th century the historical side is +represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the 10th +century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies, +the art of writing history showed some signs of life. Several +historical works are associated with the name of the emperor +Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle belonged +also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor’s instance +compiled the history of the period from 813 to 886. A little work, +interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical +science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan +Corsairs (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 904), which a priest, Johannes Cameniata, an +eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity. There +is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the +period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of +the Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians. +A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael +Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077. A +valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from +1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attaliata. +The history of the Eastern empire during the Crusades was +written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus Bryennius, +his learned consort Anna Comnena, the “honest Aetolian,” +Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an +exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the +4th Crusade. The melancholy conditions and the ever increasing +decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (13th-15th centuries) +are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer +following of classical models. The events which took place +between the taking of Constantinople by the Latins and the +restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted by +Georgius Acropolita, who emphasizes his own share in them. +The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius +Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus +Gregoras, and the emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus. Lastly, +the death-struggle between the East Roman empire and the +mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three +historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus Chalcocondyles, +Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be +classed a fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period), +Critobulus, a high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style +of the age of Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan +Mahommed II. (down to 1467).</p> + +<p>The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly +chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists +in the fact that they in part replace older lost works, +and thus fill up many gaps in our historical survey +<span class="sidenote">Chronicles.</span> +(<i>e.g.</i> for the period from about 600 to 800 of which +very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit, +but are often serviceable for the history of language. Many such +chronicles were furnished with illustrations. The remains of +one such illustrated chronicle on papyrus, dating from the +beginning of the 5th century, has been preserved for us by the +soil of Egypt.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks, +who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their +brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong +clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it is due to +these two qualities that the chronicles obtained a circulation +abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christianized +from Byzantium, <i>e.g.</i> the Slavs, and in all of them sowed the +seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles, +despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment +of material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far +greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories +designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium. +The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved +to us is that of Malalas (6th century), which is also the purest +type of this class of literature. In the 7th century was completed +the famous <i>Easter</i> or <i>Paschal Chronicle</i> (<i>Chronicon Paschale</i>). +About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century +Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began +with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284. +At the request of the author, when on his death-bed, the continuation +of this work was undertaken by Theophanes Confessor, +who brought down the account from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 284 to his own times +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 813). This exceedingly valuable work of Theophanes +was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous +chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch +Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a <i>Short History</i> of the period +from 602 to 769, a chronological sketch from Adam down to the +year of his own death in 829. Of great influence on the age that +followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance +as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who compiled a +chronicle of the world’s history (from Adam until the year 843, +the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and +monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among +later chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously. +His work (covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the +range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal +and a contemporary history. Georgius Cedrenus (<i>c.</i> 1100) +embodied the whole of Scylitza’s work, almost unaltered, in +his <i>Universal Chronicle</i>. In the 12th century the general increase +in literary production was evident also in the department of +chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for instance, +the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the great +universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century +Michael Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world’s history, a +work written in the old popular style and designed for the +widest circles of readers. Lastly, in the 12th century, Constantine +Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called +“political” verse. With this verse-chronicle must be classed +the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters +at the beginning of the 14th century.</p> + +<p>Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected +with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by +their political forerunners, the Romans. Of purely +practical importance are a few handbooks of navigation, +<span class="sidenote">Geography.</span> +itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of +provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics. The +geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates +from Justinian’s time, has been lost. To the same period belongs +the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us, +the <i>Christian Topography</i> of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the +topography of Constantinople a work entitled <i>Ancient History</i> +(<i>Patria</i>) <i>of Constantinople</i>, which may be compared to the +medieval <i>Mirabilia urbis Romae</i>, and in late manuscripts has +been wrongly attributed to a certain Codinus, is of great importance.</p> + +<p>Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two +new shoots—Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was +the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to +stem the advancing tide of Christianity. The last great +<span class="sidenote">Philosophy.</span> +exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens +(d. 485). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school +of philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous +system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it +a living force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity +was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy, +<i>e.g.</i> that of Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span> +doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with +copious commentaries and paraphrases. Leontius of Byzantium +had already introduced Aristotelian definitions into Christology; +but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was +John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early attained +to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical +philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this +respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West. +Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas. +In the 11th century philosophical studies experienced a satisfactory +revival, mainly owing to Michael Psellus, who brought +Plato as well as Aristotle again into fashion.</p> + +<p>Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with +greater ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an +indispensable aid to instruction. It would be difficult +to imagine anything more tedious than the numerous +<span class="sidenote">Rhetoric.</span> +theoretical writings on the subject and the examples of their +practical application: mechanical school essays, which here +count as “literature,” and innumerable letters, the contents of +which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects of this were +felt beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention +paid to the laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its +withered flowers were detrimental to a great part of the rest of +Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development +of any individuality and simplicity of style. None the less, +among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a +few interesting pieces, such as the <i>Philopatris</i>, in the style of +Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of +Nicephorus Phocas (10th century). In two other smaller works +a journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the +pattern of Lucian’s <i>Nekyomanteia</i>, viz. in <i>Timarion</i> (12th century) +and in Mazaris’ <i>Journey to the Underworld</i> (<i>c.</i> 1414). A very +charming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael +Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote +numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems.</p> + +<p>In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted +literature in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited +sense, Byzantium was dominated to an extravagant +and even grotesque extent by the rules of what in +<span class="sidenote">The sciences.</span> +modern times is termed “classical scholarship.” +The numerous works which belong to this category, such as +grammars, dictionaries, commentaries on ancient authors, +extracts from ancient literature, and metrical and musical +treatises, are of little general interest, although of great value +for special branches of philological study, <i>e.g.</i> for tracing the +influences through which the ancient works handed down to +us have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emendation; +for information about ancient authors now lost; for the +history of education; and for the underlying principles of intellectual +life in Byzantium. The most important monument of +Byzantine philology is, perhaps, the <i>Library</i> of the patriarch +Photius. The period from about 650 to 850 is marked by a +general decay of culture. Photius, who in the year 850 was +about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable +energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most +part dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries, +thus contributing to its preservation. He gave an account +of all that he read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which +were collected in what is commonly known as the <i>Library</i> +or <i>Myriobiblon</i>. The character of the individual sketches is +somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or less complete +account of the contents is followed by critical discussion, which +is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With this +work may be compared in importance the great <i>Lexikon</i> of +Suidas, which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclopaedia, +of which the main feature was its articles on the history +of literature. A truly sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the +famous archbishop of Thessalonica (12th century). His voluminous +commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the attention less +than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic action +on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity, +and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had +nothing in it of the Byzantine. If, on the other hand, acquaintance +with a caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is +afforded by Johannes Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius, +a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular, +superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously +coarse in his polemics. The transition to Western humanism +was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi, +such as Maximus Planudes, whose translations of numerous +works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the +West; Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical works and +commentaries were, down to the 16th century, used as school +text-books; Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual +critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others.</p> + +<p>Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language +of Roman law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his +<i>Corpus juris</i>, the Hellenizing of the legal language +also began. The <i>Institutes</i> and the <i>Digest</i> were translated +<span class="sidenote">Jurisprudence.</span> +into Greek, and the <i>Novels</i> also were issued in +a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after +a long stagnation, the resuscitation of the code of Justinian. +The emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the +existing law, and made preparations for the codifying of all laws. +But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI. +the Wise (886-912), and Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus +(912-959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from +the <i>Digests</i>, the <i>Codex</i>, and the <i>Novels</i>, and is commonly known +as the <i>Basilica</i> (<span class="grk" title="Ta basilika">Τὰ βασιλικά</span>). In the East it completely superseded +the old Latin <i>Corpus juris</i> of Justinian. More that was +new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law +than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of +law, the <i>Canones</i>, were blended with those of civil law, and thus +arose the so-called <i>Nomocanon</i>, the most important edition of +which is that of Theodorus Bestes in 1090. The alphabetical +handbook of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about +the year 1335 also exercised a great influence.</p> + +<p>In the province of mathematics and astronomy the remarkable +fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of +these long-forgotten studies was primarily due to +Perso-Arabian influence. The <i>Great Syntaxis</i> of +<span class="sidenote">Mathematics and astronomy.</span> +Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the <i>Almagest</i>. +The most important direct source of this intellectual +loan was not Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close +of the 13th century the Greeks became acquainted with Persian +astronomy. At the beginning of the 14th century Georgius +Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises +based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves, +notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at +last had recourse to the original Greek sources.</p> + +<p>The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of +<span class="sidenote">Military science.</span> +military science. The most valuable work of the +period on this subject is one on tactics, which has +come down to posterity associated with the name of +Leo VI., the Wise.</p> + +<p>Of profane poetry—in complete contrast to sacred poetry—the +general characteristic was its close imitation of the antique +in point of form. All works belonging to this category +<span class="sidenote">Profane poetry.</span> +reproduce the ancient style and are framed after +ancient models. The metre is, for the most part, +either the Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the +“political” verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic +measures.</p> + +<p>Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with +the vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the +literary works of the period there are several which can +be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age. +<span class="sidenote">Epic.</span> +Nonnus (<i>c.</i> 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the +triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a +Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John. +In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy +iambic poems the martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while +the deacon Theodosius (10th century) immortalized in extravagant +language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span></p> + +<p>From the 11th century onwards, religious, grammatical, +astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed +partly in duodecasyllables and partly in “political” +<span class="sidenote">Didactic poems.</span> +verse, made their appearance in large quantities. +Didactic religious poems were composed, for example, +by Philippus (<span class="grk" title="ho Monotropos">ὁ Μονότροπος</span>, Solitarius, <i>c.</i> 1100), grammatico-philological +poems by Johannes Tzetzes, astrological by Johannes +Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel +Philes (14th century) and a great moral, allegorical, didactic +epic by Georgius Lapithes (14th century).</p> + +<p>To these may be added some voluminous poems, which in +style and matter must be regarded as imitations of the ancient +Greek romances. They all date from the 12th century, +a fact evidently connected with the general revival of +<span class="sidenote">Romances.</span> +culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two +of these romances are written in the duodecasyllable metre, +viz. the story of Rodanthe and Dosicles by Theodorus Prodromus, +and an imitation of this work, the story of Drusilla and Charicles +by Nicetas Eugenianus; one in “political” verse, the love story +of Aristander and Callithea by Constantine Manasses, which has +only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in prose, the +story of Hysmine and Hysminias, by Eustathius (or Eumathius) +Macrembolita, which is the most insipid of all.</p> + +<p>The objective point of view which dominated the whole +Byzantine period was fatal to the development of a profane +lyrical poetry. At most a few poems by Johannes +<span class="sidenote">Lyrics.</span> +Geometres and Christophorus of Mytilene and others, +in which personal experiences are recorded with some show of +taste, may be placed in this category. The dominant form +for all subjective poetry was the epigram, which was employed +in all its variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and +narrative poems. Georgius Pisides (7th century) treated the +most diverse themes. In the 9th century Theodorus of Studium +had lighted upon the happy idea of immortalizing +<span class="sidenote">The epigram.</span> +monastic life in a series of epigrams. The same +century produced the only poetess of the Byzantine +period, Casia, from whom we have several epigrammatic productions +and church hymns, all characterized by originality. +Epigrammatic poetry reached its highest development in the +10th and 11th centuries, in the productions of Johannes Geometres, +Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus. Less +happy are Theodorus Prodromus (12th century) and Manuel +Philes (14th century). From the beginning of the 10th century +also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byzantine +epigrammatic poems, the <i>Anthologia Palatina</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anthology</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Dramatic poetry, in the strict sense of the term, was as +completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was the +condition precedent to its existence, namely, public +performance. Apart from some moralizing allegorical +<span class="sidenote">Drama.</span> +dialogues (by Theodorus Prodromus, Manuel Philes and others), +we possess only a single work of the Byzantine period that, at +least in external form, resembles a drama: the <i>Sufferings of +Christ</i> (<span class="grk" title="Christos Paschôn">Χριστὸς Πάσχων</span>). This work, written probably in the +12th century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, <i>i.e.</i> is in great +measure composed of verses culled from ancient writers, <i>e.g.</i> +Aeschylus, Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly +not written with a view to the dramatic production.</p> + +<p>The vernacular literature stands alone, both in form and in +contents. We have here remarkable originality of conception +and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval +matter. While in the artificial literature prose is +<span class="sidenote">Vernacular Greek literature.</span> +pre-eminent, in the vernacular literature, poetry, +both in quantity and quality, takes the first place, as +was also the case among the Latin nations, where the vulgar +tongue first invaded the field of poetry and only later that of +prose. Though a few preliminary attempts were made (proverbs, +acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &c.), the +Greek vernacular was employed for larger works only from the +12th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the major +portion were cast in “political” verse, but some in the trochaic +eight-syllabled line. Towards the close of the 15th century +rhyme came into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular +poetry are exceedingly diverse. In the capital city a mixture +of the learned and the popular language was first used in poems +of admonition, praise and supplication. In this oldest class +of “vulgar” works must be reckoned the <i>Spaneas</i>, an admonitory +poem in imitation of the letter of Pseudo-Isocrates addressed +to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in prison by the +chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of Theodorus +Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period +erotic poems are met with, such as the Rhodian love songs +preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner, +Leipzig, 1879), fairy-tale like romances such as the <i>Story of +Ptocholeon</i>, oracles, prayers, extracts from Holy Writ, lives of +saints, &c. Great epic poems, in which antique subjects are +treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form a +separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after +the manner of the works written in the artificial classical +language, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Callimachus and Chrysorrhoë</i>, <i>Belthandrus and +Chrysantza</i>, <i>Lybistrus and Rhodamne</i>, also romances in verse +after the Western pattern, such as <i>Phlorius</i> and <i>Platziaphlora</i> +(the old French story of <i>Flore et Blanchefleur</i>). Curious are +also sundry legends connected with animals and plants, such +as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables +of the <i>Physiologus</i>, a history of quadrupeds, and a book +of birds, both written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a +rendering of the story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar +originality also are several legendary and historical poems, in +which famous heroes and historical events are celebrated. +There are, for instance, poems on the fall of Constantinople, the +taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating campaign of +Timur, the plague in Rhodes in 1498, &c. In respect of importance +and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas +stands pre-eminent.</p> + +<p>Among prose works written in the vulgar tongue, or at least +in a compromise with it, may be mentioned the Greek rendering +of two works from an Indian source, the <i>Book of the +Seven Wise Masters</i> (as <i>Syntipas the Philosopher</i> by +<span class="sidenote">“Vulgar” prose works.</span> +Michael Andreopulus), and the <i>Hitopadera</i> or <i>Mirror +of Princes</i> (through the Arabic <i>Kalilah and Dimnah</i> +by Simeon Sethus as <span class="grk" title="Stephanitês kai Iknêlatês">Στεφανίτης καὶ Ἰκνηλάτης</span>), a fish book, a +fruit book (both skits on the Byzantine court and official circles). +To these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of +Cyprus of the 12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite +of many individual successes, the literature written in the +vulgar tongue succumbed, in the race for existence, to its elder +sister, the literature written in classical and polished Greek. +This was mainly due to the continuous employment of the +ancient language in the state, the schools and the church.</p> + +<p>The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the +history of the world is beyond dispute. The Christians of the +East Roman empire guarded for more than a thousand +years the intellectual heritage of antiquity against the +<span class="sidenote">General significance of Byzantine literature.</span> +violent onslaught of the barbarians. They also called +into life a peculiar medieval culture and literature. +They communicated the treasures of the old pagan +as well as of their own Christian literature to neighbouring +nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the Armenians, +the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the Serbs +and the Russians. Through their teaching they created a new +East European culture, embodied above all in the Russian +empire, which, on its religious side, is included in the Orthodox +Eastern Church, and from the point of view of nationality +touches the two extremes of Greek and Slav. Finally the learned +men of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing from the barbarism +of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old Hellenic wisdom +to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples with +rich germs of culture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—1. General sources: K. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte +der byzantinischen Literatur</i> (2nd ed., 1897), supplemented in <i>Die +byzantinische Zeitschrift</i> (1892 seq.), and the <i>Byzantinisches Archiv</i> +(1898 seq.), which is intended for the publication of more exhaustive +matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised in +the <i>Vizantiisky Vremennik</i> (1894 seq.).</p> + +<p>2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), <i>An</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span> +<i>Historical Greek Grammar</i> (1897); A. Dieterich, “Untersuchungen +zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit +bis zum 10ten Jahrhundert,” in <i>Byzant. Archiv</i>, i. (1898). Glossary: +Ducange, <i>Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis</i> +(1688), in which particular attention is paid to the “vulgar” +language; E. A. Sophocles, <i>Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine +Periods</i> (3rd ed., 1888).</p> + +<p>3. Theology: Chief work, A. Ehrhard in Krumbacher’s <i>Geschichte +der byz. Lit.</i> pp. 1-218. For the ancient period, cf. the works on +Greek patrology (under article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fathers of the Church</a></span>). Collective +edition of the Fathers (down to the 15th century); <i>Patrologia, +series Graeca</i> (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry: +A collection of Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ +and M. Paranikas, entitled <i>Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum</i> +(1871). Many unedited texts, particularly the songs of +Romanos, were published by Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the title +<i>Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata</i> (1876). A complete +edition of the hymns is edited by K. Krumbacher.</p> + +<p>4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine +historians and chroniclers was begun under Louis XIV., and continued +later (1648-1819), called the <i>Paris Corpus</i>. This whole +collection was on B. G. Niebuhr’s advice republished with some +additions (Bonn, 1828-1878), under the title <i>Corpus scriptorum +historiae Byzantinae</i>. The most important authors have also +appeared in the <i>Bibliotheca Teubneriana</i>. A few Byzantine and +oriental historical works are also contained in the collection edited +by J. B. Bury (1898 seq.).</p> + +<p>5. Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective +editions are: W. Wagner, <i>Medieval Greek Texts</i> (1870), <i>Carmina +Graeca Medii Aevi</i> (1874), <i>Trois Poèmes grecs du moyen âge</i> (1881); +E. Legrand, <i>Collection de monuments pour servir à l’étude de la langue +néo-hellénique</i> (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), <i>Bibliothèque grecque vulgaire</i> +(in 8 vols., 1880-1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. Kr.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Modern Greek Literature (1453-1908)</p> + +<p>After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek +national life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization +naturally involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek +literary production in the regions subjected to the rule of a +barbarous conqueror. Learned Greeks found a refuge away +from their native land; they spoke the languages of foreign +people, and when they wrote books they often used those +languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The +fall of Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating +a break in the continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had +that event so decisive an influence as has been supposed on the +revival of learning in western Europe. The crusades had +already brought the Greeks and Westerns together, and the rule +of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant had rendered +the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed the +dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; +some Greeks had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured +to reconcile the two communions, some had attained preferment +in the Roman Church. Many had become connected by marriage +or other ties with the Italian nobles who ruled in the Aegean +or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to settle in Italy. +Of the writers who thus found their way to the West before the +taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or +Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and +John Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and +Cardinal Bessarion.</p> + +<p>The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in +the plains to a condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty +continued to breathe in the mountains, where groups +of desperate men, the Klephts and the Haiduks, +<span class="sidenote">The Klephtic poetry.</span> +maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The +adventurous and romantic life of these champions +of freedom, spent amid the noblest solitudes of nature and often +tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally produced a poetry +of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely indigenous. The +Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the language +of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine +Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the +forests and mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, +which peopled nature with a thousand forms, they lend a voice +to the trees, the rocks, the rivers and to the mountains themselves, +which sing the prowess of the Klepht, bewail his death and +comfort his disconsolate wife or mother. Olympia boasts to +Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never desecrated its +valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs; there +is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on its +summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying +Klepht bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb +that he may stand therein and load his musket: “Make a +window in the side that the swallows may tell me that spring has +come, that the nightingales may sing me the approach of flowery +May.” The wounded Vervos is addressed by his horse: “Rise, +my master, let us go and find our comrades.” “My bay horse, +I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod +hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms +to my companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that +she may see it and lament me.” Another type of the popular +poetry is presented by the folk-songs of the Aegean islanders +and the maritime population of the Asiatic coast. In many of +the former the influence of the Frankish conquest is apparent. +Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be found in the +popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who +struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as +a rule he triumphs in the conflict.</p> + +<p>In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of +Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek +poetry arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. +The language employed is the dialect of the Candiotes, +<span class="sidenote">Cretan poets.</span> +with its large admixture of Venetian words. The +first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was <i>Erotocritos</i>, +an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story of Aretē, +daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son +of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of +Greece under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing +to describe an episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding +some tedious passages, it possesses considerable merit and +contains some charming scenes. The metre is the rhymed +alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who lived in the +middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he probably +belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso +was descended. The second poem is the <i>Erophile</i> of George +Chortakis, a Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is +a tragic drama, the scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue +is poor, but there are some fine choral interludes, which perhaps +are by a different hand. Chortakis, who was brought up at +Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th +centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of notice is the +<i>Shepherdess</i>, a charming and graceful idyll written by Nicolas +Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century. +Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos +(1500), who wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who +endeavoured to write Pindaric odes.</p> + +<p>Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a knowledge +of Greek in Europe after the fall of Constantinople were +John Argyropulos, Demetrius Chalcondyles, Constantine +and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a +<span class="sidenote">Literary activity after the fall of Constantinople.</span> +Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary +language; in general, however, they were rather +employed about literature than engaged in producing +it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek +grammars; they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, +and they collected manuscripts. Their stores enriched the +newly founded libraries of St Mark at Venice, of the Escorial, +of the Vatican and of the National Library in Paris. But none +of them accomplished much in literature strictly so called. The +question which most deeply interested them was that of the rival +merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, over which +a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards the +close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality theological +rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed +by the advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western +Churches, that of Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, +and all the fury of the old Byzantine dogmatic controversies +was revived. The patriarch, George Kurtesios or Gennadius, +whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the capture of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span> +Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and excommunicated +Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among +the Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who +attacked Pletho with unmeasured virulence, was compelled +to resign his post of secretary to Pope Nicholas V. and was +imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was not wholly extinct +in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time after the +Turkish conquest. Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of +Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and +Euripides; his father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek +proverbs. Aemilius Portos, a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650) +of Chios edited a number of works of the classical and +later periods with commentaries and translations; Allatios +also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness. Constantine +Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote +verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the +time of the fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers +who wrote poems in the spoken dialect on historical subjects; +among these were Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas +Limenitis (1450-1500) and Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the +16th century); their poems have little merit, but are interesting +as specimens of the popular language of the day and as illustrating +the manners and ideas of contemporary Greeks.</p> + +<p>Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number +of chroniclers. At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros, +who had been private secretary of Mahommed II., +wrote the history of his master, Emmanuel Melaxos +<span class="sidenote">Historical works.</span> +a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history +of the Palaeologi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a +history of Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the 17th +century Demetrius Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a +history of the Ottoman empire, and G. Kontares tales of ancient +Athens. Others composed chronicles of Cyprus and Crete, +narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most of these +works are written in the literary language, the study of which +was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it +maintained at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theological +and philosophical works, grammars and dictionaries +were written during this period, but elegant literature practically +disappears.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<p>A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor +of the national uprising which resulted in the independence of +Greece. The efforts of the great Phanariote families +at Constantinople, the educational zeal of the higher +<span class="sidenote">The literary revival.</span> +Greek clergy and the munificence of wealthy Greeks +in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired +fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of +education among a people always eager for instruction. The +Turks, indifferent to educational matters, failed to discern the +significance of the movement. Schools were established in +every important Greek town, and school-books and translations +from Western languages issued from the presses of Venice, Triest, +Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed colonies. +Young men completed their studies in the Western universities +and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization. +For the greater part of the 18th century the literature was +mainly theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch +were Elias Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are +written in the popular language, and Meletios of Iannina, +metropolitan of Athens, whose principal works were an ecclesiastical +history, written in ancient Greek, and a descriptive +geography of Greece in the modern language, composed, like the +work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works of two +distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent +partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731?-1800) and +Eugenios Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the +national and literary renaissance. They wrote much in defence +of Greek orthodoxy against Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous +as a preacher, wrote, besides theological and controversial works, +treatises on mathematics, geography and physics. Bulgares +was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous translations and +works on theology, archaeology, philosophy, mathematics, +physics and astronomy; he translated the <i>Aeneid</i> and <i>Georgics</i> +of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II. His +writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries.</p> + +<p>The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were +Constantinos Rhigas (<i>q.v.</i>), the Alcman of the revolutionary +movement, whose songs fired the spirit of his fellow-countrymen; +Christopoulos (1772-1847), a Phanariote, +<span class="sidenote">Poets of the Greek revival.</span> +who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos +Rizos Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author +of tragedies, comedies and lyrics, and of a work in French on +modern Greek literature. They are followed in the epoch of +Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes and Alexander +Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos +Rhangabēs (Rhankaves, 1810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both +Soutzos had a rich command of musical language, were highly +ideal in their conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an +ardent love of liberty. Both imitated to some extent Byron, +Lamartine and Béranger; they tried various forms of poetry, +but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially lyrical, that of +Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek revival, +Alexander Rizos Rhangabē, was a writer with a fine poetic +feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of +thought and sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns, +ballads, narrative poems, tragedies and comedies, he wrote +several prose works, including a history of ancient Greece, a +history of modern Greek literature, several novels and works on +ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous dramatic +works of this time may be mentioned the <span class="grk" title="Maria Doxipatrê">Μαρία Δοξιπατρῆ</span> of +Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is laid in +the Morea at the time of the crusades.</p> + +<p>In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was +marked by an abundant output. Among the historians the +greatest is Spiridon Trikoupis, whose <i>History of the +Revolution</i> is a monumental work. It is distinguished +<span class="sidenote">Prose writers of the revival.</span> +by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an +impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the +author played a leading part in the events which he narrates. +Almost all the chiefs of the revolutionary movement left their +memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who was illiterate, dictated his +recollections. John Philemon, of Constantinople, wrote a history +of the revolution in six volumes. He was an ardent partisan +of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who was +attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos’s <i>History +of the Greek Nation</i> is especially valuable in regard to the later +periods; in regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and +Grote. With him may be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu, +who wrote on Greek history and literature; Sakellarios, who +dealt with the topography and history of Cyprus; N. Dragoumes, +whose historical memoirs treat of the period which followed +the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature +and history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied +by Miniates in the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones +is well known by his <i>History of Patristic Literature of the First +Three Centuries</i> and his <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, and Philotheos +Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by his elaborate edition of <i>Clemens +Romanus</i>. Kastorches wrote well on Latin literature. Great +literary activity in the domains of law, political economy, mathematics, +the physical sciences and archaeology displayed itself +in the generation after the establishment of the Greek kingdom.</p> + +<p>But the writer who at the time of the national revival not +only exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries +but even to a large extent shaped the future course +of Greek literature was Adamantios Coraës (Korais) +<span class="sidenote">Coraës.</span> +of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to +philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, +and in the prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span> +writers, written In Greek or French, he strove to awake the +interest of his countrymen in the past glories of their race or +administered to them sage counsels, at the same time addressing +ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their behalf. The great +importance of Coraës, however, lies in the fact that he was +practically the founder of the modern literary language.</p> + +<p>In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the +modern language present themselves—the vernacular (<span class="grk" title="hê +kathomiloumenê">ἡ καθομιλουμένη</span>) and the purified (<span class="grk" title="hê kathareuousa">ἡ καθαρεὐουσα</span>). +The former is the oral language, spoken by the whole +<span class="sidenote">The modern literary language.</span> +Greek world, with local dialectic variations; the +latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers, +modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the +popular speech. At the time of the War of Independence the +enthusiasm of the Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the +memory of an illustrious past, and at its close a classical reaction +followed: the ancient nomenclature was introduced in every +department of the new state, towns and districts received their +former names, and children were christened after Greek heroes +and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In the literary +revival which attended the national movement, two schools +of writers made their appearance—the purists, who, rejecting +the spoken idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the +restoration of the classical language, and the vulgarists, who +regarded the vernacular or “Romaic” as the genuine and +legitimate representative of the ancient tongue. A controversy +which had existed in former times was thus revived, with the +result that a state of confusion still prevails in the national +literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted +with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical +or newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language, +which he can read with ease side by side with poems or even +prose in the vernacular which he will be altogether unable to +interpret.</p> + +<p>The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is universally +spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by +a natural and regular process, similar to that which +has produced the Romance languages from the Latin, +<span class="sidenote">Reforms of Coraës.</span> +or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the +old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with +the modern European languages, and in obedience to the same +laws; like them, it might have grown into a literary language +had any great writers arisen in the middle ages to do for it what +Dante and his successors of the <i>trecento</i> did for Italian. But +the effort to adapt it to the requirements of modern literature +could hardly prove successful. In the first place, the national +sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to imitate the classical +writers, and so far as possible to appropriate their diction. +The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses such an +attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly to +adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom. +In the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has +already been formed which cannot easily be broken down. For +more than half a century the generally accepted written language, +half modern half ancient, has been in use in the schools, the +university, the parliament, the state departments and the +pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the more educated +classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present form—though +a fixed standard is still lacking—to the influence and +teaching of Coraës. As in the time of the decadence a <span class="grk" title="koinê +dialektos">κοινὴ διάλεκτος</span> stood midway between the classical language and the +popular speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there +existed a common literary dialect, largely influenced by the +vernacular, but retaining the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, +from which it was derived by an unbroken literary tradition. +This written language Coraës took as the basis of his reforms, +purging it of foreign elements, preserving its classical remnants +and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from the +ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with +a fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing +alike the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident +optimism of the vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular +speech all the material for a <i>langue savante</i>. The language +which he thus endeavoured to shape and reconstruct is, of +course, conventional and artificial. In course of time it will +probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter +will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The +spoken and written languages, however, will always be separated +by a wide interval.</p> + +<p>Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the +vernacular, which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous +expression of the feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798-1857), +the greatest of them all, employed the dialect +<span class="sidenote">Poetical writers in the vernacular.</span> +of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are full of +poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his +“Ode to Liberty.” Other poets, of what may be +described as the Ionic school, such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-1869), +Julius Typaldos (1814-1883), John Zampelios (1787-1856), +and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his example in +using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios +Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and +Gerasimos Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, +adopted in their lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads—in +other words, the vernacular of the Pindus range and the +mountainous district of Epirus. This dialect had at least the +advantage of being generally current throughout the mainland, +while it derived distinction from the heroic exploits of the +champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites, which are +characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have made +a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely +employed the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from +the Klephtic songs were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George +Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules, +a Cretan (d. 1893). With the poems of this group may +be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835). The popular +language has been generally adopted by the younger generation +of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios +(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes +Palamas (b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and +Jacob Polylas (d. 1896).</p> + +<p>Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there +existed at Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the +accepted literary language, and whose writings serve +as models for the later group which gathered at Athens +<span class="sidenote">Poetical writers in the conventional language.</span> +after the emancipation of Greece. The literary +traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabēs +(1810-1892) and the brothers Alexander and Panagiotis +Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who belonged +to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion +Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Karasoutzas +(1824-1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873), +and Achilles Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling, +has also employed the popular language. In general the practice +of versification in the conventional literary language has declined, +though sedulously encouraged by the university of Athens, and +fostered by annual poetic competitions with prizes provided by +patriotic citizens. Greek lyric poetry during the first half of +the century was mainly inspired by the patriotic sentiment +aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the present +generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic +and contemplative mood under the influence of Western models.</p> + +<p>There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature +in recent years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabēs, John +Zampelios and the two Soutzos, who belong to the +past generation, Kleon Rhangabēs, Angelos Vlachos, +<span class="sidenote">Dramatists, translators and satirists.</span> +Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes +are the most prominent among modern dramatic +writers. Numerous translations of foreign masterpieces +have appeared, among which the metrical versions of +<i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, <i>King Lear</i>, <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Macbeth</i> and <i>The +Merchant of Venice</i>, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as +examples of artistic excellence. Goethe’s <i>Faust</i> has been +rendered into verse by Probelegios, and <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Antony and +Cleopatra</i>, <i>Coriolanus and Julius Caesar</i>, into prose by Damiroles. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span> +Among recent satirists, George Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique +position. He reviews social and political events in the <span class="grk" title="Rhômêos">Ῥωμῇος</span>, +a witty little newspaper written entirely in verse, which is read +with delight by all classes of the population.</p> + +<p>Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary +language. In historical research the Greeks continue to display +much activity and erudition, but no great work +comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis’s +<span class="sidenote">Recent prose writers.</span> +<i>History of the +Revolution</i> has appeared in the present generation. +A history of the Greek nation from the earliest times +to the present day, by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history +of the 19th century by Karolides, have recently been published. +The valuable <span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia">Μνημεῖα</span> of Sathas, the <span class="grk" title="meletai Byzantinês historias">μελέται Βυζαντινῆς ἱστορίας</span> +of Spiridion Zampelios and Mavrogiannes’s <i>History of the +Ionian Islands</i> deserve special mention, as well as the essays +of Bikelas, which treat of the Byzantine and modern epochs of +Greek history. Some of the last-named were translated into +English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the writers on +jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios +Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and +John Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have +written philosophical works. The <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of +Diomedes Kyriakos and the <i>Theological Treatises</i> of Archbishop +Latas should be noted. The best-known writers of philological +works are Constantine Kontos, a strong advocate of literary +purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore Papademetrakopoulos +and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen Koumanoudes, +Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a +recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high +authority on numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes +on mathematics, Anast. Christomanos on chemistry, and +Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well known.</p> + +<p>The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding +the emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign +influence. Modern Greece has not produced any great +novelist. The <span class="grk" title="Krêtikoi gamoi">Κρητικοὶ γάμοι</span> of Spiridion Zampelios, +<span class="sidenote">Fiction.</span> +the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the <i>Thanos Blechas</i> +of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of +historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the +mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much +cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In +later times the short story has come into vogue through the +example of D. Bikelas, whose tales have acquired great popularity; +one of them, <i>Loukis Laras</i>, has been translated into +many languages. The example of Bikelas has been followed by +Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many +others.</p> + +<p>The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the +vernacular in prose is John Psichari, professor of the École des +Hautes Études in Paris. He is the recognized leader of +the vulgarists. Among the best known of his works +<span class="sidenote">Prose writers in the vernacular.</span> +are <span class="grk" title="To taxeidi mou">Τὸ ταξεῖδι μου</span>, a narrative of a journey in Greek +lands, <span class="grk" title="Toneiro tou Giannirê">Τὄνειρο τοῦ Γιαννίρη</span>, <span class="grk" title="Hê Zoulea">Ἡ Ζούλεα</span>, and <span class="grk" title="ho Magos">ὁ Μάγος</span>. +The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in +the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari’s followers +is M. Palli, who has recently published a translation of the <i>Iliad</i>. +Owing to the limited resources of the popular language, the +writers of this school are sometimes compelled to employ strange +and little-known words borrowed from the various dialects. +The vernacular has never been adopted by writers on scientific +subjects, owing to its inherent unsuitability and the incongruity +arising from the introduction of technical terms derived from +the ancient language. Notwithstanding the zeal of its adherents, +it seems unlikely to maintain its place in literature outside the +domain of poetry; nor can any other result be expected, unless +its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public instruction +in Greece.</p> + +<p>Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which +may be mentioned the <i>Athena</i>, edited by Constantine Kontos, +the <i>Ethniké Agoge</i>, a continuation of the old <i>Hestia</i>, the +<i>Harmonia</i> and the <span class="grk" title="Diaplasis tôn paidôn">Διάπλασις τῶν παίδων</span>, an educational +<span class="sidenote">Periodicals and Journals.</span> +review. The Parnassos, the Archaeological Society and other +learned bodies issue annual or quarterly reports. The Greek +journals are both numerous and widely read. They contain +much clever writing, which is often marred by inaccuracy +and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their +tendency to exaggerated patriotic sentiment sometimes +borders on the ludicrous. For many years the Nea +<i>Heméra</i> of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the Greek +world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, Anastasios +Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and +judgment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Constantine Sathas, <span class="grk" title="Neoellênikê philologia">Νεοελληνικὴ φιλολογία</span> (Athens, +1868); D. Bikelas, <span class="grk" title="Peri neoellênikês philologias dokimion">Περὶ νεοελληνικῆς φιλολογίας δοκίμιον</span> (London, 1871), +reprinted in <span class="grk" title="Dialexeis kai anamnêseis">Διαλέξεις καὶ ἀναμνήσεις</span> (Athens, 1893); J. S. Blackie, +<i>Horae Hellenicae</i> (London, 1874); R. Nicolai, <i>Geschichte der neugriechischen +Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangabé, <i>Histoire littéraire +de la Grèce moderne</i> (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, <i>Études sur la +littérature grecque moderne</i> (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, <i>Bibliothèque +grecque vulgaire</i> (vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, <i>Poètes grecs contemporains</i> +(Paris, 1881); Kontos, <span class="grk" title="Glôssikai paratêrêseis">Γλωσσικαὶ παρατηρήσεις</span> (Athens, +1882); Rhangabé and Sanders, <i>Geschichte der neugriechischen +Literatur von ihren Anfängen bis auf die neueste Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1885); +J. Psichari, <i>Essais de grammaire historique néo-grecque</i> (2 vols., +Paris, 1886 and 1889); <i>Études de philologie néo-grecque</i> (Paris, +1892); F. Blass, <i>Die Aussprache des Griechischen</i> (3rd ed., Berlin, +1888); Papademetrakopoulos, <span class="grk" title="Basanos hellênikês prophoras">Βάσανος ἑλληνικῆς προφορᾶς</span> (Athens, +1889); M. Konstantinides, <i>Neo-hellenica</i> (<i>Dialogues in Modern Greek, +with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect</i>) (London, 1892); Rhoïdes, +<span class="grk" title="Ta Eidôla. Glôssikê meletê">Τἁ Εἴδωλα. Γλωσσικὴ μελέτη</span> (Athens, 1893); Polites, <span class="grk" title="Meletai peri tou +biou kai tês glôssês Hellênikou laou">Μελεταὶ περὶ τοῦ βίου καὶ τῆς γλώσσης Ἑλληνικοῦ λάου</span> (2 vols., Athens, 1899).</p> + +<p>For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, <i>Chants +populaires de la Grèce moderne</i> (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow, <i>Popularia +carmina Graeciae recentioris</i> (Leipzig, 1860); von Hahn, +<i>Griechische und albanesische Märchen</i> (Leipzig, 1864); <span class="grk" title="Tepharikês, +Lianotragouda">Τεφαρίκης, Λιανοτράγουδα</span> (2nd ed., Athens, 1868); E. Legrand, <i>Recueil de chansons +populaires grecques</i> (Paris, 1874); <i>Recueil de contes populaires grecs</i> +(Paris, 1881); Paul de Lagarde, <i>Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien</i> +(Göttingen, 1886); A. Jannaris, <span class="grk" title="Asmata Krêtika">Ἄσματα Κρητικά</span> (<i>Kreta’s Volkslieder</i>) +(Leipzig, 1876); A. Sakellariou, <span class="grk" title="Ta Kypriaka">Τὰ Κυπριακά</span> (Athens, +1891); <span class="grk" title="Zôgrapheios Hagôn">Ζωγραφεῖος Ἁγών</span>, published by the <span class="grk" title="Hellênikos philologikos +syllogos">Ἑλληνικὸς φιλολογικὸς σύλλογος</span> (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, <i>Greek +Folksongs from the Turkish Provinces of Greece</i> (London, 1885); +E. M. Geldart, <i>Folklore of Modern Greece</i> (London, 1884). Lexicons: +A. N. Jannaris, <i>A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern +Greek Languages</i> (English-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios +(Skarlatos D.), <span class="grk" title="Lexikon tês Hellênikês glôssês">Λεξικὸν τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς γλώσσης</span> (Athens, 1895); +A. Sakellario, <span class="grk" title="Lexikon tês Hellênikês glôssês">Λεξικὸν τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς γλώσσης</span> (5th ed., Athens, 1898); +S. Koumanoudes, <span class="grk" title="Synagôgê neôn lexeôn">Συναγωγὴ νέων λέξεων</span> (Athens, 1900). Grammars: +Mitsotakes, <i>Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und +Umgangssprache</i> (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, <i>A Practical Modern +Greek Grammar</i> (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, <i>Einleitung in +die neugriechische Grammatik</i> (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G. +Dickson, <i>Handbook to Modern Greek</i> (London, 1893); A. Thumb, +<i>Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache</i> (Strassburg, 1895); +C. Wied, <i>Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch +Selbstunterricht schnell und leicht zu lernen</i> (2nd ed., undated, +Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, <i>Historical Greek Grammar</i> (London, +1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Allen in <i>Classical +Quarterly</i> (Jan. and April 1908).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Others attribute it, as well as the <i>Margites</i>, to Pigres of Halicarnassus, +the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia, +who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy +quotations in the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Since the above was written, four considerable fragments +generally assigned to Sappho have been discovered: a prayer to +the Nereids for the safe return of her brother Charaxus; the leave-taking +of a favourite pupil; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends, +in Lydia; the fourth, much mutilated, addressed to another pupil, +Gongyla. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light +on the personality of Sappho and the language and metre of her +poems.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Recently increased by specimens of the <i>Partheneia</i> (choral +songs for maidens) and paeans.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> His Constitution of Athens (<i>q.v.</i>), of which a papyrus MS. was +found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms part of a larger work +on the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, “Eine alexandrinische +Weltchronik” (1905) (<i>Denkschrift der kaiserlich. Akademie der +Wissenschaften</i>, li.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for +a time in England and whose sympathies with Protestantism made +him many enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constantinople, +from which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning +the faith of Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the +Jesuits, and his printing-press was suppressed.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEK RELIGION.<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> The recent development of anthropological +science and of the comparative study of religions has +enabled us at last to assign to ancient Greek religion its proper +place in the classification of creeds and to appreciate its importance +for the history of civilization. In spite of all the diversities +of local cults we may find a general definition of the theological +system of the Hellenic communities, and with sufficient accuracy +may describe it as an anthropomorphic polytheism, preserving +many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period, unchecked by +any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and therefore +pliantly adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of the +social and political history of the race, and easily able to assimilate +alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole or +in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more +capable of progress than others, possibly higher, that have +crystallized at an early period into a fixed dogmatic type; and +as, owing to its essential character, it could not be convulsed +by any inner revolution that might obliterate the deposits of +its earlier life, it was likely to preserve the imprints of the successive +ages of culture, and to reveal more clearly than any other +testimony the evolution of the race from savagery to civilization. +Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with incongruities, +the highest forms of religious life being often confronted with the +most primitive. And for this reason the student of savage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span> +anthropology and the student of the higher religions of the +world are equally rewarded by its study.</p> + +<p>Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the +Hellenic nation, like others that have played great parts in +history, was the product of a blend of populations, the conquering +tribes of Aryan descent coming from the north and settling among +and upon certain pre-Hellenic Mediterranean stocks. The conclusion +that is naturally drawn from this is that Hellenic religion +is also the product of a blend of early Aryan or Indo-Germanic +beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the Mediterranean +area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which the +later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two component +parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first +problem for the history of the development of this religion, is +by no means an easy task; we may advance further towards +its solution, when the mysterious pre-Hellenic Mediterranean +language or group of languages, of which traces remain in +Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying uninterpreted +on the brick-tablets of the palace of Cnossus, has found its +interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language. +But the comparative study of the Indo-European speech-group, +great as its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre +in its contributions to our positive knowledge of the original +belief of the primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct +a common Indo-European religion. The greater part of the +separate Aryan cult-systems may have developed after the +diffusion and may have been the result of contact in prehistoric +days with non-Aryan peoples. And many old religious etymological +equations, such as <span class="grk" title="Ouranos">Οὐρανός</span> = Sanskrit Varuna, <span class="grk" title="Hermês">Ἑρμῆς</span> = +Sarameyās, Athena = Ahana, were uncritically made and have +been abandoned. The chief fact that philology has revealed +concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is that +many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word +derived from a root meaning “bright,” and which appears in +Zeus, Jupiter, Sanskrit <i>Dyaus</i>. This is important enough, +but we should not exaggerate its importance, nor draw the +unwarranted inference that therefore the primitive Indo-Europeans +worshipped one supreme God, the Sky-Father. +Besides the word “Zeus,” the only other names of the Hellenic +pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of +Aryan formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus +(whose name and cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the +Thraco-Phrygians) and probably Pan. But other names, such +as Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis, Hera, Hermes, have no +discovered affinities with other Aryan speech-groups; and yet +there is nothing suspiciously non-Aryan in the formation of these +words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest Hellenic-Aryan +vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea, +Hephaestus and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that +they belonged to an older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in +Crete and other islands, and here and there on the mainland; +while we know that Zeus derived certain unintelligible titles +in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan speech.</p> + +<p>A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence justifies +the conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes, +pushing down from the north, already possessed certain deities +in common such as Zeus, Poseidon and Apollo with whom they +associated certain goddesses, and that they maintained the cult +of Hestia or “Holy Hearth.” Further, a comparison of the +developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples suggests +that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity, +although we have equally good reason to assert that the cult of +goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is a genuinely +“Aryan” product. But when the tribes of this family poured +into the Greek peninsula, it is probable that they would find +in certain centres of a very ancient civilization, such as Argolis +and Crete, the dominant cult of a female divinity.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The recent +excavations on the site of the Hera temple at Argos prove that a +powerful goddess was worshipped here many centuries before it +is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He may have +even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with +him and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are +certain that the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by +Dr Arthur Evans, is the ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek +“Mother of the gods”: and it is a reasonable conjecture that +she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis and perhaps for +Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in assuming +as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult, +as that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non-Hellenic +religious phenomenon. The very name “Demeter” +and the study of other Aryan religions prove the prominence +of the worship of the earth-goddess in our own family of the +nations. Finally, we must reckon with the possibility that the +other great nations which fringed the Mediterranean, Hittite, +Semitic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress on early Greek +religion, although former scholars may have made rash use of +this hypothesis.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems +concerning the ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at +least reduce the tangle of facts to some order by +distinguishing its lower from its higher forms, and +<span class="sidenote">Animism.</span> +thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We +may collect and sift the phenomena that remain over from a +pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past, +the beliefs and practices that belong to the animistic or even the +pre-animistic period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human +sacrifice. We shall at once be struck with the contrast between +such civilized cults as those of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal +divinities to whom the attributes of a progressive morality could +be attached, and practices that long survived in backward +communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the thunder and +the winds, the cult of Zeus <span class="grk" title="Keraunos">Κεραυνός</span> “the thunder” at Mantinea +and Zeus <span class="grk" title="Kappôtas">Καππώτας</span> in Laconia, who is none other than the +mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These +are examples of a religious view in which certain natural phenomena +or objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred +in their own right and a personal divinity has not yet emerged +or been separated from them. A noteworthy product of primitive +animistic feeling is the universally prevalent cult of Hestia, +who is originally “Holy Hearth” pure and simple, and who +even under the developed polytheism, in which she played no +small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic +personage.</p> + +<p>The animistic belief that certain material objects can be +charged with a divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism, +a term which properly denotes the worshipful or +superstitious use of objects made by art and invested +<span class="sidenote">Fetishism</span> +with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for +the purposes of protective magic or for higher purposes of +communion with the divinity. From the earliest discoverable +period down to the present day fetishism has been a powerful +factor in the religion of the Graeco-Roman world. The importance +of the sacred stone and pillar in the “Mycenaean” or +“Minoan” period which preceded Homer has been impressively +shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship +continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the +rude aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often +by the side of the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable conjecture +that the earliest anthropomorphic images of divinities, +which were beginning to make their appearance by the time of +Homer, were themselves evolved by slow transformation from +the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may have +arisen as another form of this; the simple heap of stones, such +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> +as those erected to Hermes by the way-side and called <span class="grk" title="Hermaioi +lophoi">Ἑρμαῖοι λόφοι</span>, may have served both as a place of worship and as an +<i>agalma</i> that could attract and absorb a divine potency into +itself. Hence the fetishistic power of the altar was fully +recognized in Greek ritual, and hence also in the cult of +Apollo Agyieus the god and the altar are called by the same +name.</p> + +<p>It has been supposed that the ancestors of the historic Greeks, +before they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as in +human form, may have been accustomed to invest them with +animal attributes and traits. We must not indeed suppose it +to be a general law of religious evolution that “theriomorphism” +must always precede anthropomorphism and that the latter +transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems can +exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can +conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at +another bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was +devotedly anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its +weakness; nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine +his Dionysus entering temporarily into the body of the sacrificial +bull or goat, and the men of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to +their horse-headed Demeter, and the primitive Laconians +possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Theriolatry in itself, <i>i.e.</i> the +worship of certain animals as of divine power in their own right, +apart from any association with higher divinities, can scarcely +be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They +are not found to have paid reverence to any species, though +individual animals could acquire temporarily a divine character +through communion with the altar or with the god. The wolf +might at one time have been regarded as the incarnation of +Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there we find faint traces of +a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for wolves. But the +occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of actual +worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptuous +funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolf’s +relatives, yet the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf’s +head. Nor did any Greek individual or state worship flies as a +class, although a small oblation might be thrown to the flies +before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the Leucadian rock, to +please them and to persuade them not to worry the worshippers +at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would be +likely to attract them.</p> + +<p>Theriolatry suggests totemism; and though we now know +that the former can arise and exist quite independently of the +latter, recent anthropologists have interpreted the +apparent sanctity or prestige of certain animals in +<span class="sidenote">Totemism.</span> +parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit +of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation, +originated and maintained with great acumen by Andrew Lang +and W. Robertson Smith, appears now somewhat hazardous; +and as a scientific hypothesis there are many flaws in it. The +more observant study of existing totem-tribes has weakened +our impression of the importance of totemism as a primitive +religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a +social than as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard +totemism as a mere system of nomenclature, by which a tribe +names itself after some animal or plant, then we might quote a +few examples of Hellenic tribes totemistic in this sense. But +totemism is a fact of importance only when it affects the tribal +marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the tribal marriage +laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray no clear +mark of totemistic arrangements; nor does the totemism of +contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such +way as to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar +phenomena of early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we +have traces of a snake-tribe in Greece, the <span class="grk" title="Ophieis">Ὀφιεῖς</span> in Aetolia, +the <span class="grk" title="Ophiogeneis">Ὀφιογενεῖς</span> in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that +these worshipped the snake, though the latter clan were on terms +of intimacy with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped +in Hellenic cult—the cases are few and doubtful—it may have +been regarded as the incarnation of the ancestor or as the <i>avatar</i> +of the under-world divinity.</p> + +<p>Finally, among the primitive or savage phenomena the +practice of human sacrifice looms large. Encouraged at one +time by the Delphic oracle, it was becoming rare and +<span class="sidenote">Human sacrifice.</span> +repellent to the conscience by the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; +but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even +by the time of Porphyry. The facts are very complex +and need critical handling, and a satisfying scientific explanation +of them all is still to be sought.</p> + +<p>We can now observe the higher aspects of the advanced +polytheism. And at the outset we must distinguish between +mythology and religion strictly understood, between the stories +about the divinities and the private or public religious service. +No doubt the former are often a reflection of the latter, in many +cases being suggested by the ritual which they may have been +invented to interpret, and often envisaging important cult-ideas. +Such for example are the myths about the purification and trial +of Orestes, Theseus, Ixion, the story of Demeter’s sorrow, of the +sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition +of human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irresponsible, +without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal +prohibition; and frequently it sank below the level of the +current religion, which was almost free from the impurities +which shock the modern reader of Hellenic myths. Nor again +did any one feel himself called upon to believe any particular +myth; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in which the term +is used in Christian theology, as the will to believe certain +dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity, +is a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic +ethics or religious doctrine; only, if a man proclaimed his +disbelief in the existence of the gods and refused to join in the +ritual of the community, he would become “suspect,” and +might at times be persecuted by his fellows. Greek religion +was not so much an affair of doctrine as of ritual, religious +formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities were an important +component, and prayer; and the most illuminative +sources of our knowledge of it are the ritual-inscriptions and +other state-documents, the private dedications, the monuments +of religious art and certain passages in the literature, philology +and archaeology being equally necessary to the equipment of +the student.</p> + +<p>We are tempted to turn to Homer as the earliest authority. +And though Homer is not primitive and does not present even +an approximately complete account of Greek religion, +we can gather from his poems a picture of an advanced +<span class="sidenote">Religion in Homer.</span> +polytheism which in form and structure at least is +that which was presented to the world of Aeschylus. +We discern a pantheon already to some extent systematized, +a certain hierarchy and family of divinities in which the +supremacy of Zeus is established as incontestable. And the +anthropomorphic impulse, the strongest trend in the Greek +religious imagination, which filled the later world with fictitious +personages, generating transparent shams such as an Ampidromus +for the ritual of the Ampidromia, Amphiction for the +Amphictiones, a hero <span class="grk" title="Keramos">Κέραμος</span> for the gild of potters, is already +at its height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already +clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically +shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could +work upon, not vaguely conceived <i>numina</i> like the forms of the +old Roman religion. Nor can we call them for the most part +nature-deities like the personages of the Vedic system, thinly +disguised “personifications” of natural phenomena. Athena +is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun; they are simply Athena +and Apollo, divine personages with certain powers and character, +as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for Christendom. +By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate position, +we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may +properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river-deities, +forms descending probably from a remote animistic +period, but maintaining themselves within the popular religion +till the end of Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and +think at times with levity and <i>banalité</i> about his deities, his +deeper utterances impute an advanced morality to the supreme +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span> +God. His Zeus is on the whole a power of righteousness, dealing +with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never being himself the +author of evil—an idea revealed in the opening passage of the +<i>Odyssey</i>—but protecting the good and punishing the wicked. +Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both +for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as it is in +Judaic and Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides +protested strongly against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus +is equally a god of pity and mercy, and the man who neglects +the prayers of the sorrowful and afflicted, who violates the +sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or oppresses the poor or +the wanderer, may look for divine punishment. Though not +regarded as the physical author of the universe or the Creator, +he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though +the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed +in the Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men that +they reveal are on the whole genial and social; the deity sits +unseen at the good man’s festal sacrifice, and there is a simple +apprehension of the idea of divine communion. There is also +indeed a glimmering of the dark background of the nether +world, and the chthonian powers that might send up the Erinys +to fulfil the curse of the wronged. Yet on the whole the religious +atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that of +the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition; nor is +Homer troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely +recognizes the cult of the dead,<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and is not oppressed by fear +of the ghost-world.</p> + +<p>If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek +public and private worship of the historic period we find much +in it that agrees with Homeric theology. His +“Olympian” system retains a certain life almost to +<span class="sidenote">The post-Homeric period.</span> +the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to +suppose that it had lost its hold upon the people of +the 5th and 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> We find it, indeed, enriched in +the post-Homeric period with new figures of prestige and power; +Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly heard, becomes a +high god with a worship full of promise for the future. Demeter +and Kore, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well +enough but could not use for his epic purposes, attract the ardent +affections and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the +old poet did not recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place +in the later shrines. But much that has been said of the Homeric +may be said of the later classical theology. The deities remain +anthropomorphic, and appear as clearly defined individuals. +A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is supreme, even in +the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities played +many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the departmental +system of divine functions; certain members of the +pantheon had a preference for the life of the fields, but as the +<i>polis</i> emerged from the village communities, Demeter, Hermes, +Artemis and others, the gods and goddesses of the husbandmen +and shepherds, become powers of the council-chamber and the +market-place. The moral ideas that we find in the Homeric +religion are amply attested by cult-records of the later period. +The deities are regarded on the whole as beneficent, though +revengeful if wronged or neglected; the cult-titles used in prayer, +which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and +wish of the worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the +doubtful title of Demeter Erinys being possibly an exception. +The important cults of Zeus <span class="grk" title="Hikesios">Ἱκέσιος</span> and <span class="grk" title="Prostropaios">Προστρόπαιος</span>, the +suppliant’s protecting deity, embody the ideas of pity and mercy +that mark advanced religion; and many momentous steps in +the development of morality and law were either suggested or +assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity of +the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness, +was originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may +have been prone to perjury, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic +religious ethics regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of +family duties, the sacredness of the life of the kinsman, were +ideas fostered by early Hellenic religion before they generated +principles of secular ethics. In the post-Homeric period, the +development of the doctrine of purity, which was associated +with the Apolline religion, combining with a growing dread of +the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many important +ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +And the beginnings of international law and morality were +rooted in religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state-life +was indebted in manifold ways to Greek religion, and the +study of the Greek oracles would alone supply sufficient testimony +of this. In many cases the very origin of the state was religious, +the earliest <i>polis</i> sometimes having arisen under the shadow +of the temple.</p> + +<p>Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state, +and the priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic. +Secular advance, moral progress and the march of science, +could never long be thwarted by religious tradition; on the +contrary, speculative thought and artistic creation were considered +as attributes of divinity. We may say that the religion +of Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people, but rather +as a servant than as a master.</p> + +<p>Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of +the clan and family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania +and Samothrace, and the private services of the mystic brotherhoods. +The latter were scattered broadcast over Hellas, and +the influence of the former was strengthened and their significance +intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread at first from +the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards, and +derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic +brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the +religious consciousness, and we find a strong Salvationist tendency, +the promise of salvation relying on mystic communion with +the deity. Also a new and vital principle is at work; Orphism +is the only force in Greek religion of a clear apostolic purpose, +for it broke the barriers of the old tribal and civic cults, and +preached its message to bond and free, Hellene and barbarian.</p> + +<p>The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned +with its gradual penetration by Oriental ideas and worships, +and the results of this <span class="grk" title="theokrasia">θεοκρασία</span> are discerned in an ever increasing +mysticism and a tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated +as the old Hellenic religion appeared to be by Christianity, it +nevertheless retained a certain life, though transformed, under +the new creed to which it lent much of its hieratic organization +and religious terminology. The indebtedness of Christianity +to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of comparative +religion; and for an adequate estimate a minute +knowledge of the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of +the essential conditions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Older Authorities: A. Maury, <i>Histoire des +religions de la Grèce antique</i> (3 vols., 1857-1859); Welcker, <i>Griechische +Götterlehre</i> (3 vols., 1857-1863); Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>, +2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887), all antiquated in regard to +theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent +Literature—(<i>a</i>) General Treatises: O. Gruppe, “Griechische +Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte” in Iwan von Müller’s <i>Handbuch +der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, v. 2. 2 (1902-1906); L. +R. Farnell’s <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, 4 vols. (1896-1906, vol. 5, +1908); Miss Jane Harrison’s <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek +Religion</i> (ed. 1908); Chantepie de la Saussaye’s <i>Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte</i> +(Greek section, 1904); (<i>b</i>) Special Works or Dissertations: +articles in Roscher’s <i>Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und +römischen Mythologie</i>, and Pauly-Wissowa <i>Encyklopädie</i> (1894-  ); +Immerwahr, <i>Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens</i> (1891); Wide, <i>Lakonische +Kulte</i> (1893); de Visser, <i>De Graecorum diis non referentibus speciem +humanam</i> (Leiden, 1900). Greek Ritual and Festivals—A. Mommsen, +<i>Feste der Stadt Athen</i> (1898); P. Stengel, “Die griechischen Sacralaltertümer” +in Iwan von Müller’s <i>Handbuch</i>, v. 3 (1898); +W. H. D. Rouse, <i>Greek Votive Offerings</i> (1902). Greek Religious +Thought and Speculation—L. Campbell’s <i>Religion in Greek Literature</i> +(1898); Ducharme, <i>La Critique des traditions religieuses chez les +Grecs des origines au temps de Plutarque</i> (Paris, 1904). See also +articles on individual deities, and cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Religion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mysteries</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mithras</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. R. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This has often been explained as a result of <i>Mutterrecht</i>, or +reckoning descent through the female: for reasons against this +hypothesis see L. R. Farnell in <i>Archiv für vergleichende Religionswissenschaft</i> +(1904); cf. A. J. Evans, “Mycenaean Tree and Pillar +Cult,” in <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i> (1901).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> V. Bérard has recently revived the discredited theory of a +prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical +work, <i>L’Origine des cultes arcadiens</i>. M. P. Foucart believes in +very early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion +of Demeter and Dionysus; see <i>Les Grands Mystères d’Éleusis</i> and +<i>Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> This became very powerful from the 7th century onward, and +there are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric, +or Mycenaean, period; <i>vide</i> Rohde’s <i>Psyche</i> (new edition), Tsountas +and Manatt, <i>The Mycenaean Age</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See L. R. Farnell, <i>Evolution of Religion</i> (Hibbert Lectures, +1905), pp. 139-152.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREELEY, HORACE<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1811-1872), American statesman and +man of letters, was born at Amherst, New Hampshire, on the +3rd of February 1811. His parents were of Scottish-Irish descent, +but the ancestors of both had been in New England for several +generations. He was the third of seven children. His father, +Zaccheus Greeley, owned a farm of 50 acres of stony, sterile +land, from which a bare support was wrung. Horace was a +feeble and precocious lad, taking little interest in the ordinary +sports of childhood, learning to read before he was able to talk +plainly, and the prodigy of the neighbourhood for accurate +spelling. Before Horace was ten years old (1820), his father +became bankrupt, his home was sold by the sheriff, and Zaccheus +Greeley himself fled the state to escape arrest for debt. The +family soon removed to West Haven, Vermont, where, all +working together, they made a scanty living as day labourers. +Horace from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely +eleven years old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office +at Whitehall, New York, but was rejected on account of his +youth. After three years more with the family as a day labourer +at West Haven, he succeeded, with his father’s consent, in being +apprenticed in the office of <i>The Northern Spectator</i>, at East +Poultney, Vermont. Here he soon became a good workman, +developed a passion for politics and especially for political +statistics, came to be depended upon for more or less of the +editing of the paper, and was a figure in the village debating +society. He received only $40 a year, but he sent most of his +money to his father. In June 1830 <i>The Northern Spectator</i> was +suspended. Meantime his father had removed to a small tract +of wild land in the dense forests of Western Pennsylvania, +30 m. from Erie. The released apprentice now visited his parents, +and worked for a little time with them on the farm, meanwhile +seeking employment in various printing offices, and, when he +got it, giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last, with +no further prospect of work nearer home, he started for New +York. He travelled on foot and by canal-boat, entering New +York in August 1831, with all his clothes in a bundle carried +over his back with a stick, and with but $10 in his pocket. +More than half of this sum was exhausted while he made vain +efforts to find employment. Many refused to employ him, in +the belief that he was a runaway apprentice, and his poor, +ill-fitting apparel and rustic look were everywhere greatly against +him. At last he found work on a 32mo New Testament, set +in agate, double columns, with a middle column of notes in +pearl. It was so difficult and so poorly paid that other printers +had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded in making enough +to pay his board bill, but he finished the task, and thus found +subsequent employment easier to get.</p> + +<p>In January 1833 Greeley formed a partnership with Francis +V. Story, a fellow-workman. Their combined capital amounted +to about $150. Procuring their type on credit, they opened a +small office, and undertook the printing of the <i>Morning Post</i>, the +first cheap paper published in New York. Its projector, Dr +Horatio D. Shepard, meant to sell it for one cent, but under the +arguments of Greeley he was persuaded to fix the price at two +cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the printers +losing only $50 or $60 by the experiment. They still had a <i>Bank +Note Reporter</i> to print, and soon got the printing of a tri-weekly +paper, the <i>Constitutionalist</i>, the organ of some lottery dealers. +Within six months Story was drowned, but his brother-in-law, +Jonas Winchester, took his place in the firm. Greeley was now +asked by James Gordon Bennett to go into partnership with him +in starting <i>The Herald</i>. He declined the venture, but recommended +the partner whom Bennett subsequently took. On the 2nd of +March 1834, Greeley and Winchester issued the first number of +<i>The New Yorker</i>, a weekly literary and news paper, the firm then +supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of the first number +they sold about 100 copies; of the second, nearly 200. There +was an average increase for the next month of about 100 copies +per week. The second volume began with a circulation of about +4550 copies, and with a loss on the first year’s publication of +$3000. The second year ended with 7000 subscribers and a +further loss of $2000. By the end of the third year <i>The New +Yorker</i> had reached a circulation of 9500 copies, and had sustained +a total loss of $7000. It was published seven years (until the +20th of September 1841), and was never profitable, but it was +widely popular, and it gave Greeley, who was its sole editor, +much prominence. On the 5th of July 1836 Greeley married +Miss Mary Y. Cheney, a Connecticut school teacher, whom he had +met in a Grahamite (vegetarian) boarding-house in New York.</p> + +<p>During the publication of <i>The New Yorker</i> he added to the +scanty income which the job printing brought him by supplying +editorials to the short-lived <i>Daily Whig</i> and various other publications. +In 1838 he had gained such standing as a writer that he +was selected by Thurlow Weed, William H. Seward, and other +leaders of the Whig Party, for the editorship of a campaign paper +entitled <i>The Jeffersonian</i>, published at Albany. He continued +<i>The New Yorker</i>, and travelled between Albany and New York +each week to edit the two papers. The <i>Jeffersonian</i> was a quiet and +instructive rather than a vehement campaign sheet, and the +Whigs believed that it had a great effect upon the elections of +the next year. When, on the 2nd of May 1840, some time after +the nomination by the Whig party of William Henry Harrison +for the Presidency, Greeley began the publication of a new +weekly campaign paper, <i>The Log Cabin</i>, it sprang at once into a +great circulation; 40,000 copies of the first number were sold, +and it finally rose to 80,000. It was considered a brilliant +political success, but it was not profitable, and in September +1841 was merged in the <i>Weekly Tribune</i>. On the 3rd of April +1841, Greeley announced that on the following Saturday (April +10th) he would begin the publication of a daily newspaper of the +same general principles, to be called <i>The Tribune</i>. He was now +entirely without money. From a personal friend, James Coggeshall, +he borrowed $1000, on which capital and the editor’s reputation +<i>The Tribune</i> was founded. It began with 500 subscribers. +The first week’s expenses were $525 and the receipts $92. By +the end of the fourth week it had run up a circulation of 6000, and +by the seventh reached 11,000, which was then the full capacity +of its press. It was alert, cheerful and aggressive, was greatly +helped by the attacks of rival papers, and promised success +almost from the start.</p> + +<p>From this time Greeley was popularly identified with <i>The +Tribune</i>, and its share in the public discussion of the time is his +history. It soon became moderately prosperous, and his assured +income should have placed him beyond pecuniary worry. His +income was long above $15,000 per year, frequently as much as +$35,000 or more. But he lacked business thrift, inherited a +disposition to endorse for his friends, and was often unable to +distinguish between deserving applicants for aid and adventurers. +He was thus frequently straitened, and, as his necessities pressed, +he sold successive interests in his newspaper. At the outset he +owned the whole of it. When it was already firmly established +(in July 1841), he took in Thomas McElrath as an equal partner, +upon the contribution of $2000 to the common fund. By the +1st of January 1849 he had reduced his interest to 31½ shares out +of 100; by July 2nd, 1860, to 15 shares; in 1868 he owned only +9; and in 1872, only 6. In 1867 the stock sold for $6500 per +share, and his last sale was for $9600. He bought wild lands, +took stock in mining companies, desiccated egg companies, +patent looms, photo-lithographic companies, gave away profusely, +lent to plausible rascals, and was the ready prey of every +new inventor who chanced to find him with money or with +property that he could readily convert into money.</p> + +<p>In September 1841 Greeley merged his weekly papers, <i>The +Log Cabin</i> and <i>The New Yorker</i>, into <i>The Weekly Tribune</i>, which +soon attained as wide circulation as its predecessors, and was +much more profitable. It rose in a time of great political excitement +to a total circulation of a quarter of a million, and it sometimes +had for successive years 140,000 to 150,000. For several +years it was rarely much below 100,000. Its subscribers were +found throughout all quarters of the northern half of the Union +from Maine to Oregon, large packages going to remote districts +beyond the Mississippi or Missouri, whose only connexion with +the outside world was through a weekly or semi-weekly mail. +The readers of this weekly paper acquired a personal affection for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span> +its editor, and he was thus for many years the American writer +most widely known and most popular among the rural classes. +The circulation of <i>The Daily Tribune</i> was never proportionately +great—its advocacy of a protective tariff, prohibitory liquor +legislation and other peculiarities, repelling a large support +which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It +rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation of +20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and +thereafter ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a +semi-weekly edition was also printed, which ultimately reached +a steady circulation of from 15,000 to 25,000.</p> + +<p>From the outset it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to +hear all sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas. +In March 1842 <i>The Tribune</i> began to give one column daily to a +discussion of the doctrines of Charles Fourier, contributed by +Albert Brisbane. Gradually Greeley came to advocate some of +these doctrines editorially. In 1846 he had a sharp discussion +upon them with a former subordinate, Henry J. Raymond, then +employed upon a rival journal. It continued through twelve +articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book +form. Greeley became personally interested in one of the +Fourierite associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red +Bank, N. J. (1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions +doubtless led to or gave encouragement to other socialistic +experiments, such as that at Brook Farm. When this was +abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one or two other +members, sought employment from Greeley upon <i>The Tribune</i>. +Greeley dissented from many of Fourier’s propositions, and in +later years was careful to explain that the principle of association +for the common good of working men and the elevation of labour +was the chief feature which attracted him. Co-operation among +working men he continued to urge throughout his life. In 1850 +the Fox Sisters, on his wife’s invitation, spent several weeks in his +house. His attitude towards their “rappings” and “spiritual +manifestations” was one of observation and inquiry; and in his +<i>Recollections</i> he wrote concerning these manifestations: “That +some of them are the result of juggle, collusion or trick I am +confident; that others are <i>not</i>, I decidedly believe.”</p> + +<p>From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and +throughout his active life he was its most trenchant advocate +and propagandist. Besides constantly urging it in the columns +of <i>The Tribune</i>, he appeared as early as 1843 in a public debate +on “The Grounds of Protection,” with Samuel J. Tilden and +Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular essays +on the subject were published over his own signature in <i>The +Tribune</i> in 1869, and subsequently republished in book form, +with a title-page describing protection to home industry as a +system of national co-operation for the elevation of labour. +He opposed woman suffrage on the ground that the majority +of women did not want it and never would, and declared that +until woman should “emancipate herself from the thraldom +to etiquette,” he “could not see how the ‘woman’s rights +theory’ is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible +abstraction.” He aided practical efforts, however, for extending +the sphere of woman’s employments. He opposed the +theatres, and for a time refused to publish their advertisements. +He held the most rigid views on the sanctity of marriage and +against easy divorce, and vehemently defended them in controversies +with Robert Dale Owen and others. He practised +and pertinaciously advocated total abstinence from spirituous +liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always wise. +He denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to +pay interest on them. He was zealous for Irish repeal, once +held a place in the “Directory of the Friends of Ireland,” and +contributed liberally to its support. He used the occasion of +Charles Dickens’s first visit to America to urge international +copyright, and was one of the few editors to avoid alike the +flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and the +ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his +<i>American Notes</i>. On the occasion of Dickens’s second visit to +America, Greeley presided at the great banquet given him +by the press of the country. He made the first elaborate reports +of popular scientific lectures by Louis Agassiz and other authorities. +He gave ample hearing to the advocates of phonography +and of phonographic spelling. He was one of the most conspicuous +advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many other internal +improvements.</p> + +<p>But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief +agency in educating the mass of the Northern people to that +opposition through legal forms to the extension of slavery +which culminated in the election of Abraham Lincoln and the +Civil War, that Greeley’s main work was done. Incidents in +it were his vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a scheme +for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in Washington +by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indictment +in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary +documents, perpetual denunciation of him in Southern newspapers +and speeches, and the hostility of the Abolitionists, +who regarded his course as too conservative. His anti-slavery +work culminated in his appeal to President Lincoln, entitled +“The Prayer of Twenty Millions,” in which he urged “that all +attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time uphold +its inciting cause” were preposterous and futile, and that +“every hour of deference to slavery” was “an hour of added +and deepened peril to the Union.” President Lincoln in his +reply said: “My paramount object is to save the Union, +and not either to save or destroy slavery.... What I do +about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it +helps to save this Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because +I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... I have here +stated my purpose according to my views of official duty; and +I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish +that all men everywhere could be free.” Precisely one month +after the date of this reply the Emancipation Proclamation was +issued.</p> + +<p>Greeley’s political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one +of the founders of the Republican party, was incessant; but he +held few offices. In 1848-1849 he served a three months’ term +in Congress, filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for +giving small tracts of government land free to actual settlers, +and published an exposure of abuses in the allowance of mileage +to members, which corrected the evil, but brought him much +personal obloquy. In the National Republican Convention in +1860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state on +account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate, +he was made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to +Seward did much to prevent the success of that statesman, +and to bring about instead the nomination of Abraham Lincoln. +This was attributed by his opponents to personal motives, and +a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication of which he +challenged, was produced, to show that in his struggling days +he had been wounded at Seward’s failure to offer him office. In +1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal +opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that +Evarts could not be elected, his supporters threw their votes +for a third candidate, Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over +Greeley by a small majority. At the outbreak of the war he +favoured allowing the Southern states to secede, provided a +majority of their people at a fair election should so decide, +declaring “that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof +one section was pinned to the other by bayonets.” When the +war began he urged the most vigorous prosecution of it. The +“On to Richmond” appeal, which appeared day after day in +<i>The Tribune</i>, was incorrectly attributed to him, and it did not +wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in the first battle +of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he urged +negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern +Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to +confer with them. They were found to have no sufficient +authority. In 1864 he was one of the Lincoln Presidential +electors for New York. At the close of the war, contrary to +the general feeling of his party, he urged universal amnesty and +impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction. In 1867 his +friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the United +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span> +States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he refused +to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and +with what his friends thought unnecessary candour re-stated +his obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before +the time for the election, with the certainty that this would prevent +his success. Some months later he signed the bail bond of +Jefferson Davis, and this provoked a torrent of public indignation. +He had written a popular history of the late war, the first +volume having an immense sale and bringing him unusually +large profits. The second was just issued, and the subscribers, +in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An unsuccessful +attempt was also made to expel him from the Union +League Club of New York.</p> + +<p>In 1867 he was a delegate-at-large to the convention for the +revision of the state constitution, and in 1869 and 1870 he was +the Republican candidate for controller of the state and member +of Congress respectively, but in each case was defeated.</p> + +<p>He was dissatisfied with General Grant’s administration, and +became its sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to +develop ended in the organization of the Liberal Republican +party, which held its National Convention at Cincinnati in +1872, and nominated Greeley for the presidency. For a time +the tide of feeling ran strongly in his favour. It was first checked +by the action of his life-long opponents, the Democrats, who +also nominated him at their National Convention. He expected +their support, on account of his attitude toward the South +and hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him +their formal nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many +Republicans who had sympathized with his criticisms of the +administration, and with the declaration of principles adopted +at the first convention, were repelled by the coalition. This +feeling grew stronger until the election. His old party associates +regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a half-hearted +support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual +bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August, +on representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took +the field in person, and made a series of campaign speeches, +beginning in New England and extending throughout Pennsylvania, +Ohio and Indiana, which aroused great enthusiasm, +and were regarded at the time by both friends and opponents +as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied intellectual +power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass. +General Grant received in the election 3,597,070 votes, Greeley +2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia, +Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas.</p> + +<p>He had resigned his editorship of <i>The Tribune</i> immediately +after the nomination; he now resumed it cheerfully; but it +was soon apparent that his powers had been overstrained. +For years he had suffered greatly from sleeplessness. During +the intense excitement of the campaign the difficulty was +increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went immediately +to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had +practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation +of the upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He +expired on the 29th of November 1872. His funeral was a +simple but impressive public pageant. The body lay in state +in the City Hall, where it was surrounded by crowds of many +thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the President +and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief-Justice of +the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men +of both parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession, +preceded by the mayor and other civic authorities, down +Broadway. He had been the target of constant attack during +his life, and his personal foibles, careless dress and mental +eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But his +death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held +as a leader of opinion and faithful public servant. “Our later +Franklin” Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his +countrymen remember him.</p> + +<p>In 1851 Greeley visited Europe for the first time, serving +as a juryman at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before +a committee of the House of Commons on newspaper taxes, +and urging the repeal of the stamp duty on advertisements. +In 1855 he made a second trip to Europe. In Paris he was +arrested on the suit of a sculptor, whose statue had been injured +in the New York World’s Fair (of which he had been a director), +and spent two days in Clichy, of which he gave an amusing +account. In 1859 he visited California by the overland route, +and had numerous public receptions. In 1871 he visited Texas, +and his trip through the southern country, where he had once +been so hated, was an ovation. About 1852 he purchased a +farm at Chappaqua, New York, where he afterwards habitually +spent his Saturdays, and experimented in agriculture. He +was in constant demand as a lecturer from 1843, when he made +his first appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences, +and, in spite of his bad management in money matters, received +considerable sums, sometimes $6000 or $7000 for a single +winter’s lecturing. He was also much sought for as a contributor, +over his own signature, to the weekly newspapers, +and was sometimes largely paid for these articles. In religious +faith he was from boyhood a Universalist, and for many years +was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalist church +in New York.</p> + +<p>His published works are: <i>Hints Toward Reforms</i> (1850); +<i>Glances at Europe</i> (1851); <i>History of the Struggle for Slavery +Extension</i> (1856); <i>Overland Journey to San Francisco</i> (1860); +<i>The American Conflict</i> (2 vols., 1864-1866); <i>Recollections of a +Busy Life</i> (1868; new edition, with appendix containing an +account of his later years, his argument with Robert Dale Owen +on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873); <i>Essays +on Political Economy</i> (1870); and <i>What I know of Farming</i> +(1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland, +in editing <i>A Political Text-book</i> (1860), and supervised for many +years the annual issues of <i>The Whig Almanac</i> and <i>The Tribune +Almanac</i>, comprising extensive political statistics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Parton (New York, +1855; new ed., Boston, 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y. 1903). Lives +have also been written by L. U. Reavis (New York, 1872), and L. +D. Ingersoll (Chicago, 1873); and there is a <i>Memorial of Horace +Greeley</i> (New York, 1873).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREELEY,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Weld county, +Colorado, U.S.A., about 50 m. N. by E. of Denver. Pop. (1890) +2395; (1900) 3023 (286 foreign-born); (1910) 8179. It is +served by the Union Pacific and the Colorado & Southern railways. +In 1908 a franchise was granted to the Denver & Greeley Electric +railway. The city is the seat of the State Normal School of +Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the city. The +county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its agricultural +importance is due to an elaborate system of irrigation. In +1899 Weld county had under irrigation 226,613 acres, representing +an increase of 102.2% since 1889, and a much larger +irrigated area than in any other county of the state. Irrigation +ditches are supplied with water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre, +Big Thompson and South Platte rivers, near the foothills. +The principal crops are potatoes, sugar beets, onions, cabbages +and peas; in 1899 Weld county raised 2,821,285 bushels of +potatoes on 23,195 acres (53% of the potato acreage for the +entire state). The manufacture of beet sugar is a growing +industry, a large factory having been established at Greeley +in 1902. Beets are also grown as food for live stock, especially +sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages and onions are canned here. +Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Cook Meeker (1817-1879), +agricultural editor of the New York <i>Tribune</i>. With the +support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named), +he began in 1869 to advocate in <i>The Tribune</i> the founding of an +agricultural colony in Colorado. Subsequently President Hayes +appointed him Indian agent at White River, Colorado, and he +was killed at what is now Meeker, Colorado, in an uprising of the +Ute Indians. Under Meeker’s scheme, which attracted mainly +people from New England and New York state, most of whom +were able to contribute at least a little capital, the Union Colony +of Colorado was organized and chartered, and bought originally +11,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from it +one residence lot, one business lot, and a tract of farm land. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span> +The funds thus acquired were, to a large extent, expended +in making public improvements. A clause inserted in all deeds +forbade the sale of intoxicating liquors on the land concerned, +under pain of the reversion of such property to the colony. +The initiation fees ($5) were used for the expenses of locating the +colony, and the membership certificate fees ($150) were expended +in the construction of irrigating ditches, as was the +money received from the sale of town lots, except about $13,000 +invested in a school building (now the Meeker Building). Greeley +was organized as a town in 1871, and was chartered as a city of the +second class in 1886. The “Union Colony of Colorado” still exists +as an incorporated body and holds reversionary rights in streets, +alleys and public grounds, and in all places “where intoxicating +liquors are manufactured, sold or given away, as a beverage.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Richard T. Ely, “A Study of a ‘Decreed’ Town,” <i>Harper’s +Magazine</i>, vol. 106 (1902-1903), p. 390 sqq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1832-1896), English geologist, +son of the Rev. Thomas Sheldon Green, master of the +Ashby Grammar School, was born at Maidstone on the 10th of +October 1832. He was educated partly at his father’s school, +Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and afterwards at Gonville and Caius +College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixth wrangler +in 1855 and was elected a fellow of his college. In 1861 he +joined the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and surveyed +large areas of the midland counties, Derbyshire and Yorkshire. +He wrote (wholly or in part) memoirs on the Geology of Banbury +(1864), of Stockport (1866), of North Derbyshire (1869, 2nd ed. +1887), and of the Yorkshire Coal-field (1878). In 1874 he retired +from the Geological Survey, having been appointed professor +of geology in the Yorkshire College at Leeds; in 1885 he became +also professor of mathematics, while for many years he held +the lectureship on geology at the school of military engineering +at Chatham. He was elected F.R.S. in 1886, and two years later +was chosen professor of geology in the university of Oxford. +His manual of <i>Physical Geology</i> (1876, 3rd ed. 1882) is an excellent +book. He died at Boar’s Hill, Oxford, on the 19th of August 1896.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A portrait of him, with brief memoir, was published in <i>Proc. +Yorksh. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc.</i> xiii. 232.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN, DUFF<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1791-1875), American politician and journalist, +was born in Woodford county, Kentucky, on the 15th of August +1791. He was a school teacher in his native state, served during +the War of 1812 in the Kentucky militia, and then settled in +Missouri, where he worked as a schoolmaster and practised law. +He was a member of the Missouri Constitutional Convention +of 1820, and was elected to the state House of Representatives +in 1820 and to the state Senate in 1822, serving one term in each +house. Becoming interested in journalism, he purchased and +for two years edited the St Louis <i>Enquirer</i>. In 1825 he bought +and afterwards edited in Washington, D.C., <i>The United States +Telegraph</i>, which soon became the principal organ of the Jackson +men in opposition to the Adams administration. Upon Andrew +Jackson’s election to the presidency, the <i>Telegraph</i> became the +principal mouthpiece of the administration, and received printing +patronage estimated in value at $50,000 a year, while Green +became one of the coterie of unofficial advisers of Jackson +known as the “Kitchen Cabinet.” In the quarrel between +Jackson and John C. Calhoun, Green supported the latter, and +through the columns of the <i>Telegraph</i> violently attacked the +administration. In consequence, his paper was deprived of the +government printing in the spring of 1831. Green, however, +continued to edit it in the Calhoun interest until 1835, and gave +vigorous support to that leader’s nullification views. From 1835 +to 1838 he edited <i>The Reformation</i>, a radically partisan publication, +devoted to free trade and the extreme states’ rights theory. +In 1841-1843 he was in Europe on behalf of the Tyler administration, +and he is said to have been instrumental in causing the +appointment of Lord Ashburton to negotiate in Washington +concerning the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada. +In January 1843 Green established in New York City a short-lived +journal, <i>The Republic</i>, to combat the spoils system and to +advocate free trade. In September 1844 Calhoun, then secretary +of state, sent Green to Texas ostensibly as consul at Galveston, +but actually, it appears, to report to the administration, then +considering the question of the annexation of Texas, concerning +the political situation in Texas and Mexico. After the close of +the war with Mexico Green was sent to that country in 1849 +by President Taylor to negotiate concerning the moneys which, +by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had +agreed to pay; and he saved his country a considerable sum by +arranging for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subsequently +Green was engaged in railway building in Georgia and +Alabama. On the 10th of June 1875 he died in Dalton, Georgia, +a city which in 1848 he had helped to found.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN, JOHN RICHARD<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1837-1883), English historian, +was born at Oxford on 12th December 1837, and educated at +Magdalen College School and at Jesus College, where he obtained +an open scholarship. On leaving Oxford he took orders and +became the incumbent of St Philip’s, Stepney. His preaching +was eloquent and able; he worked diligently among his poor +parishioners and won their affection by his ready sympathy. +Meanwhile he studied history in a scholarly fashion, and wrote +much for the <i>Saturday Review</i>. Partly because his health was +weak and partly because he ceased to agree with the teaching +of the Church of England, he abandoned clerical life and devoted +himself to history; in 1868 he took the post of librarian at +Lambeth, but his health was already breaking down and he +was attacked by consumption. His <i>Short History of the English +People</i> (1874) at once attained extraordinary popularity, and +was afterwards expanded in a work of four volumes (1877-1880). +Green is pre-eminently a picturesque historian; he had a vivid +imagination and a keen eye for colour. His chief aim was to +depict the progressive life of the English people rather than to +write a political history of the English state. In accomplishing +this aim he worked up the results of wide reading into a series +of brilliant pictures. While generally accurate in his statement +of facts, and showing a firm grasp of the main tendency of a +period, he often builds more on his authorities than is warranted +by their words, and is apt to overlook points which would have +forced him to modify his representations and lower the tone of +his colours. From his animated pages thousands have learned +to take pleasure in the history of their own people, but could +scarcely learn to appreciate the complexity inherent in all +historical movement. His style is extremely bright, but it +lacks sobriety and presents some affectations. His later histories, +<i>The Making of England</i> (1882) and <i>The Conquest of England</i> +(1883), are more soberly written than his earlier books, and are +valuable contributions to historical knowledge. Green died at +Mentone on the 7th of March 1883. He was a singularly attractive +man, of wide intellectual sympathies and an enthusiastic +temperament; his good-humour was unfailing and he was a +brilliant talker; and his work was done with admirable courage +in spite of ill-health. It is said that Mrs Humphry Ward’s +<i>Robert Elsmere</i> is largely a portrait of him. In 1877 Green +married Miss Alice Stopford; and Mrs Green, besides writing +a memoir of her husband, prefixed to the 1888 edition of his +<i>Short History</i>, has herself done valuable work as an historian, +particularly in her <i>Henry II.</i> in the “English Statesmen” +series (1888), her <i>Town Life in the 15th Century</i> (1894), and <i>The +Making of Ireland and its Undoing</i> (1908).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Letters of J. R. Green</i> (1901), edited by Leslie Stephen.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Hu.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN, MATTHEW<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1696-1737), English poet, was born of +Nonconformist parents. He had a post in the custom house, +and the few anecdotes that have been preserved of him show him +to have been as witty as his poems would lead one to expect. +He died unmarried at his lodging in Nag’s Head Court, Gracechurch +Street, in 1737. His <i>Grotto</i>, a poem on Queen Caroline’s +grotto at Richmond, was printed in 1732; and his chief poem, +<i>The Spleen</i>, in 1737 with a preface by his friend Richard Glover. +These and some other short poems were printed in Dodsley’s +collection (1748), and subsequently in various editions of the +British poets. They were edited In 1796 with a preface by Dr +Aikin and in 1883 by R. E. A. Willmott with the poems of Gray +and others. <i>The Spleen</i> is an epistle to Mr Cuthbert Jackson, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> +advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet content as remedies. +It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of it: “There +is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have formed +his judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-notes +often break out into strains of real poetry and music.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN, THOMAS HILL<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1836-1882), English philosopher, +the most typical English representative of the school of thought +called <i>Neo-Kantian</i>, or <i>Neo-Hegelian</i>, was born on the 7th of +April 1836 at Birkin, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, +of which his father was rector. On the paternal side he was descended +from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest, sturdy independence +of character he seemed to have inherited. His education was +conducted entirely at home until, at the age of fourteen, he +entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In 1855 he +became an undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford, +of which society he was, in 1860, elected fellow. His life henceforth, +was devoted to teaching (mainly philosophical) in the +university—first as college tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his +death (at Oxford on the 26th of March 1882) as Whyte’s Professor +of Moral Philosophy. The lectures he delivered as professor form +the substance of his two most important works, viz. the <i>Prolegomena +to Ethics</i> and the <i>Lectures on the Principles of Political +Obligation</i>, which contain the whole of his positive constructive +teaching. These works were not published until after his death, +but Green’s views were previously known indirectly through the +<i>Introduction</i> to the standard edition of Hume’s works by Green +and T. H. Grose (d. 1906), fellow of Queen’s College, in which +the doctrine of the “English” or “empirical” philosophy +was exhaustively examined.</p> + +<p>Hume’s empiricism, combined with a belief in biological +evolution (derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature +in English thought during the third quarter of the 19th century. +Green represents primarily the reaction against doctrines which, +when carried out to their logical conclusion, not only “rendered +all philosophy futile,” but were fatal to practical life. By +reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated atomic sensations, +this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge, and +further, by representing man as a “being who is simply the result +of natural forces,” it made conduct, or any theory of conduct, +unmeaning; for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a +personal self which (1) <i>knows</i> what to do, (2) has <i>power</i> to do it. +Green was thus driven, not theoretically, but as a practical +necessity, to raise again the whole question of man in relation +to nature. When (he held) we have discovered what man in himself +is, and what his relation to his environment, we shall then +know his function—what he is fitted to do. In the light of this +knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral code, which, +in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and social institutions. +These form, naturally and necessarily, the objective +expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social whole +that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape.</p> + +<p>To ask “What is man?” is to ask “What is experience?” +for experience means that of which I am conscious. The facts +of consciousness are the only facts which, to begin with, we are +justified in asserting to exist. On the other hand, they are valid +evidence for whatever is necessary to their own explanation, +<i>i.e.</i> for whatever is logically involved in them. Now the +most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks him +specially, as contrasted with other animals, is <i>self</i>-consciousness. +The simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations +of the human mind—the act of sense-perception—is never +merely a <i>change</i>, physical or psychical, but is the <i>consciousness</i> of +a change. Human experience consists, not of processes in an +animal organism, but of these processes recognized as such. +That which we perceive is from the outset an apprehended fact—that +is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated elements (so-called +sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of consciousness +at all, but exists from the first as a synthesis of relations +in a consciousness which keeps distinct the “self” and the various +elements of the “object,” though holding all together in the +unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental +structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with +its most complex constituents, of the “work of the mind.” Locke +and Hume held that the work of the mind was <i>eo ipso</i> unreal +because it was “made by” man and not “given to” man. +It thus represented a subjective creation, not an objective fact. +But this consequence follows only upon the assumption that the +work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to be unjustified +by the results of exact science, with the distinction, +universally recognized, which such science draws between truth +and falsehood, between the real and “mere ideas.” This +(obviously valid) distinction logically involves the consequence +that the object, or content, of knowledge, viz. reality, is an +intelligible ideal reality, a system of thought relations, a spiritual +cosmos. How is the existence of this ideal whole to be accounted +for? Only by the existence of some “principle which renders all +relations possible and is itself determined by none of them”; an +eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what we know +in part. To God the world <i>is</i>, to man the world <i>becomes</i>. Human +experience is God gradually made manifest.</p> + +<p>Carrying on the same analytical method into the special +department of moral philosophy, Green held that ethics applies +to the peculiar conditions of social life that investigation into +man’s nature which metaphysics began. The faculty employed +in this further investigation is no “separate moral faculty,” +but that same reason which is the source of all our knowledge—ethical +and other. Self-reflection gradually reveals to us human +capacity, human function, with, consequently, human responsibility. +It brings out into clear consciousness certain potentialities +in the realization of which man’s true good must consist. As +the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into +the surroundings man lives in, a “content”—a moral code—becomes +gradually evolved. Personal good is perceived to be +realizable only by making actual the conceptions thus arrived at. +So long as these remain potential or ideal, they form the motive +of action; motive consisting always in the idea of some “end” +or “good” which man presents to himself as an end in the attainment +of which he would be satisfied, that is, in the realization of +which he would find his true self. The determination to realize +the self in some definite way constitutes an “act of will,” which, as +thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally determined. +For the motive which may be said to be its cause lies <i>in</i> the man +himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive +is a <i>self</i>-determination, which is at once both rational and free. +The “freedom of man” is constituted, not by a supposed ability +to do anything he may choose, but in the power to identify himself +with that true good which reason reveals to him as <i>his</i> true +good. This good consists in the realization of personal character; +hence the final good, <i>i.e.</i> the moral ideal, as a whole, can be +realized only in some society of persons who, while remaining ends +to themselves in the sense that their individuality is not lost but +rendered more perfect, find this <span class="correction" title="amended from prefection">perfection</span> attainable only when +the separate individualities are integrated as part of a social +whole. Society is as necessary to form persons as persons are +to constitute society. Social union is the indispensable condition +of the development of the special capacities of the individual +members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in isolation; +it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens +in the social community.</p> + +<p>The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or +political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less +constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but consists +in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which +self-analysis has revealed to us as <i>our</i> ideal. From this fact +arises the ground of political obligation, for the institutions of +political or civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral +ideas in terms of our day and generation. But, as society exists +only for the proper development of persons, we have a criterion +by which to test these institutions, viz. do they, or do they not, +contribute to the development of moral character in the individual +citizens? It is obvious that the final moral ideal is not realized +in any body of civic institutions actually existing, but the same +analysis which demonstrates this deficiency points out the +direction which a true development will take. Hence arises the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span> +conception of rights and duties which <i>should</i> be maintained by +law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the further +consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to +rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself, that is, +in order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes +the <i>raison d’être</i> of the state. The state does not consist in any +definite concrete organization formed once for all. It represents +a “general will” which is a desire for a common good. Its +basis is not a coercive authority imposed upon the citizens from +without, but consists in the spiritual recognition, on the part of +the citizens, of that which constitutes their true nature. “Will, +not force, is the basis of the state.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Green’s teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent +philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the +19th century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and +his personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of +the effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the +universities more into touch with the people, and to break down +the rigour of class distinctions.</p> + +<p>Of his philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking characteristic +is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in +thought and in reality. “That which is” is a <i>whole</i>, not an <i>aggregate</i>; +an organic complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a “whole” +too not material but spiritual, a “world of thought-relations.” +On the critical side this teaching is now admittedly valid against +the older empiricism, and the cogency of the reasoning by which +his constructive theory is supported is generally recognized. Nevertheless, +Green’s statement of his conclusions presents important +difficulties. Even apart from the impossibility of conceiving a +whole of relations which are relations and nothing else (this objection +is perhaps largely verbal), no explanation is given of the +fact (obvious in experience) that the spiritual entities of which the +Universe is composed <i>appear</i> material. Certain elements present +themselves in feeling which seem stubbornly to resist any attempt +to explain them in terms of thought. While, again, legitimately +insisting upon personality as a fundamental constituent in any +true theory of reality, the relation between human individualities +and the divine Person is left vague and obscure; nor is it easy to +see how the existence of several individualities—human or divine—in +one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the solution of these +two questions that philosophy in the immediate future may be +expected to work.</p> + +<p>Green’s most important treatise—the <i>Prolegomena to Ethics</i>—practically +complete in manuscript at his death—was published +in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley (4th ed., +1899). Shortly afterwards R. L. Nettleship’s standard edition of +his <i>Works</i> (exclusive of the <i>Prolegomena</i>) appeared in three volumes: +vol. i. containing reprints of Green’s criticism of Hume, Spencer, +Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the Principles of +Political Obligation; vol. iii. Miscellanies, preceded by a full <i>Memoir</i> +by the Editor. The <i>Principles of Political Obligation</i> was afterwards +published in separate form. A criticism of <i>Neo-Hegelianism</i> will be +found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison), <i>Hegelianism and Personality</i>. +See also articles in <i>Mind</i> (January and April 1884) by A. J. +Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the <i>Academy</i> (xxviii. 242 and xxv. +297) by S. Alexander, and in the <i>Philosophical Review</i> (vi., 1897) +by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, <i>Philosophy of T. H. Green</i> +(London and New York, 1896); D. G. Ritchie, <i>The Principles of +State Interference</i> (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick, <i>Lectures on the +Philosophy of Kant</i> (London, 1905); J. H. Muirhead, <i>The Service of +the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of T. H. Green</i> +(1908); A. W. Benn, <i>English Rationalism in the XIXth Century</i> +(1906), vol. ii., pp. 401 foll.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. H. F.,* X.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN, VALENTINE<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1739-1813), British engraver, was +born at Halesowen. He was placed by his father in a solicitor’s +office at Evesham, where he remained for two years; but ultimately +he decided, on his own responsibility, to abandon the +legal profession and became a pupil of a line engraver at Worcester. +In 1765 he migrated to London and began work as a mezzotint +engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of this art, and +quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of British +engravers. He became a member of the Incorporated Society of +Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy +in 1775, and for some forty years he followed his profession with +the greatest success. The exclusive right of engraving and +publishing plates from the pictures in the Düsseldorf gallery was +granted him by the duke of Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had +issued more than twenty of these plates, the siege of that city by +the French put an end to this undertaking and caused him +serious financial loss. From this cause, and through the failure +of certain other speculations, he was reduced to poverty; and in +consequence he took the post of keeper of the British Institution +in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of his +life. During his career as an engraver he produced some +four hundred plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney, +and other British artists, after the compositions of Benjamin +West, and after pictures by Van Dyck, Rubens, Murillo, and +other old masters. It is claimed for him that he was one of the +first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be applied +to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as portraits, +but at the present time it is to his portraits that most attention +is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by +exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious +management of relations of light and shade; and they have, +almost without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Valentine Green</i>, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1825-1900), American Hebrew +scholar, was born in Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey, +on the 27th of January 1825. He was descended in the sixth +generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first president of the +College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and his +ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian +church. He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he +was tutor in mathematics (1840-1842) and adjunct professor +(1843-1844). In 1846 he graduated from Princeton Theological +Seminary, and was instructor in Hebrew there in 1846-1849. He +was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the Central Presbyterian +church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August 1851 until +his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February +1900, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in +Princeton Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair +was Oriental and Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused +the presidency of Princeton College; as senior professor he was +long acting head of the Theological Seminary. He was a great +Hebrew teacher: his <i>Grammar of the Hebrew Language</i> (1861, +revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on Gesenius, +Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic +languages he used in a “conservative Higher Criticism,” which is +maintained in the following works: <i>The Pentateuch Vindicated +from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso</i> (1863), <i>Moses and the +Prophets</i> (1883), <i>The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent +Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch</i> (1885), <i>The Unity of +the Book of Genesis</i> (1895), <i>The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch</i> +(1895), and <i>A General Introduction to the Old Testament</i>, vol. i. +Canon (1898), vol. ii. <i>Text</i> (1899). He was the scholarly leader of +the orthodox wing of the Presbyterian church in America, and was +moderator of the General Assembly of 1891. Green was chairman +of the Old Testament committee of the Anglo-American +Bible revision committee.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the articles by John D. Davis in <i>The Biblical World</i>, new +series, vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and <i>The Presbyterian +and Reformed Review</i>, vol. xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENAWAY, KATE<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1846-1901), English artist and book +illustrator, was the daughter of John Greenaway, a well-known +draughtsman and engraver on wood, and was born in London on +the 17th of March 1846. After a course of study at South +Kensington, at “Heatherley’s” life classes, and at the Slade +School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour +drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable +early work, however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by +reason of their quaint beauty of design and charm of draughtsmanship, +enjoyed an extraordinary vogue. Her subjects were, +in the main, young girls, children, flowers, and landscape; and +the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and purity of +these little works so appealed to public and artists alike that the +enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be attributed +to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had +struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks, +R.A., and she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to +return to a more conventional manner. Thenceforward her +illustrations for children (such as for <i>Little Folks</i>, 1873, <i>et seq.</i>) +attracted much attention. In 1877 her drawings at the Dudley +Gallery were sold for £54, and her Royal Academy picture for +eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to draw for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span> +<i>Illustrated London News</i>. In the year 1879 she produced <i>Under +the Window</i>, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold, +and of which French and German editions were also issued. +Then followed <i>The Birthday Book</i>, <i>Mother Goose</i>, <i>Little Ann</i>, and +other books for children which were appreciated not less by +adults, and were to be found on sale in the bookshops of every +capital in Europe and in the cities of America. The extraordinary +success achieved by the young girl may be estimated by the +amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for <i>Under the +Window</i> she received £1130; for <i>The Birthday Book</i>, £1250; +for <i>Mother Goose</i>, £905; and for <i>Little Ann</i>, £567. These four +books alone produced a clear return of £8000. “Toy-books” +though they were, these little works created a revolution in +illustration, and so were of real importance; they were loudly +applauded by John Ruskin (<i>Art of England</i> and <i>Fors Clavigera</i>), +by Ernest Chesneau and Arsène Alexandre in France, by Dr +Muther in Germany, and by leading art-critics throughout the +world. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the +Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, and in 1891, 1894 and +1898 she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations +for her books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a representative +selection was exhibited in 1902), where they surprised +the world by the infinite delicacy, tenderness, and grace which they +displayed. A leading feature in Miss Greenaway’s work was her +revival of the delightfully quaint costume of the beginning of the +19th century; this lent humour to her fancy, and so captivated +the public taste that it has been said, with poetic exaggeration, +that “Kate Greenaway dressed the children of two continents.” +Her drawings of children have been compared with Stothard’s +for grace and with Reynolds’s for naturalness, and those of flowers +with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to +1897, with a break only in 1896, she issued a series of <i>Kate +Greenaway’s Almanacs</i>. Although she illustrated <i>The Pied +Piper of Hamelin</i> and other works, the artist preferred to provide +her own text; the numerous verses which were found among +her papers after her death prove that she might have added to her +reputation with her pen. She had great charm of character, but +was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest in private +life. She died at Hampstead on the 6th of November 1901.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life</i>, by M. H. Spielmann and G. S. Layard (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. H. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENBACKS,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a form of paper currency in the United +States, so named from the green colour used on the backs of +the notes. They are treasury notes, and were first issued by +the government in 1862, “as a question of hard necessity,” +to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The government, +following the example of the banks, had suspended specie payment. +The new notes were therefore for the time being an +inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal +tender, were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing +for the issue of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that +of the 25th February 1862; the acts of 11th July 1862 and +3rd March 1863 each authorized further issues of $150,000,000. +The notes soon depreciated in value, and at the lowest were +worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of 12th April 1866 +authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six +months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter; this was discontinued +by act of 4th February 1868. On 1st January 1879 +specie payment was resumed, and the nominal amount of notes +then stood at $346,681,000, which is still outstanding.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The so-called <i>Greenback party</i> (also called the <i>Independent</i>, and the +<i>National</i> party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in 1876, +when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,740 votes. It advocated +increasing the volume of greenbacks, forbidding bank issues, +and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government +bonds not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various +fusions, cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen; and +in 1880 there was fusion with labour reformers and it cast 308,578 +votes for its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver, and elected 8 +Congressmen. In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the +candidate of the Anti-Monopoly party) received 175,370 votes. +Subsequently the party went out of existence.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN BAY,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Brown county, +Wisconsin, U.S.A., at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at the +mouth of the Fox river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) +9069; (1900) 18,684, of whom 4022 were foreign-born and 33 +were negroes; (1910 census) 25,236. The city is served +by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee +& St Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay & Western, and the +Green Bay & Western railways, by an inter-urban electric +railway connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, and +by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay lies on high +level ground on both sides of the river, which is here crossed +by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library, +the Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business +college, several academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum +and the State Odd Fellows’ Home. It is the seat of a Roman +Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being the earliest established +in the North-west. The so-called “Tank Cottage,” now in +Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in Wisconsin; +it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by Joseph +Roy, a French-Canadian <i>voyageur</i>, in 1766, was subsequently +somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to +its present site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway +between Green Bay and De Pere (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay) +is the state reformatory, opened in 1899-1901. Green Bay’s +fine harbour accommodates a considerable lake commerce, and +the city is the most important railway and wholesale distributing +centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber +and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm +implements and machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick +and tile and dairy products; and it has lumber yards, grain +elevators, fish warehouses and railway repair shops. The +total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,873,027, an +increase of 79.9% since 1900. The first recorded visit of a +European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of +Jean Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and +found, probably at the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present +city, a village of Winnebago Indians, who he thought at first +were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658 Radisson and Groseilliers +and other <i>coureurs des bois</i> were at Green Bay. Claude Jean +Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission on the W. +shore of the bay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later +he removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter +of 1671-1672 established it permanently 5 m. above the present +city, at Rapides des Pères, on the E. shore of the Fox river. +In 1673 Joliet and Marquette visited the spot. In 1683-1685 +Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with the Indians here. +In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth of the +river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted +was permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin +de Langlade established a trading post at La Baye and later +brought his family there from Mackinac. This was the first +permanent settlement at Green Bay and in Wisconsin. The +British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to 1763, +during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward +Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac’s rising, and the +fort was never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short +time during the War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye +were, however, acknowledged subjects of Great Britain, the +jurisdiction of the United States being practically a dead letter +until the American fort (Fort Howard) was garrisoned in 1816. +As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob Astor, +were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse +and other buildings; and for many years Green Bay consisted +of two distinct settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were +finally united in 1839 as Green Bay. The city was chartered +in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was consolidated with it. The +Green Bay <i>Intelligencer</i>, the first newspaper in Wisconsin, +began publication here in 1833.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Neville and Martin, <i>Historic Green Bay</i> (Green Bay, 1893); +and Martin and Beaumont, <i>Old Green Bay</i> (Green Bay, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENCASTLE,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Putnam +county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis +and on the Big Walnut river. Pop. (1900) 3661; (1910) 3790. +It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span> +the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Vandalia, and the +Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric) railways. It has +manufactures of some importance, including lumber, pumps, +kitchen-cabinets, drag-saws, lightning-rods and tin-plate, is in +the midst of a blue grass region, and is a shipping point for beef +cattle. The city has a Carnegie library and is the seat of the +de Pauw University (co-educational), a Methodist Episcopal +institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837, +and renamed in 1884 in honour of Washington Charles de Pauw +(1822-1887), a successful capitalist, banker and glass manufacturer. +The total gifts of Mr de Pauw and his family to the +institution amount to about $600,000. Among the presidents +of the university have been Bishop Matthew Simpson, Bishop +Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes +(b. 1866), all of the Methodist Episcopal church. The university +comprises the Asbury College of Liberal Arts, a School of Music, +a School of Art and an Academy, and had in 1909-1910 +43 instructors, a library of 37,000 volumes, and 1017 students. +Greencastle was first settled about 1820, and was chartered +as a city in 1861.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1811-1883), American +historian, was born at East Greenwich, Rhode Island, on the +8th of April 1811, the grandson of Major-General Nathanael +Greene. He entered Brown University in 1824, left in his junior +year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during the next +twenty years, except in 1833-1834, when he was principal +of Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States +consul at Rome from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in +modern languages in Brown University from 1848 to 1852; +and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer in American history +in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich, Rhode +Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. His published works +include French and Italian text-books; <i>Historical Studies</i> +(1850); <i>Biographical Studies</i> (1860); <i>Historical View of the +American Revolution</i> (1865); <i>Life of Nathanael Greene</i> (3 vols., +1867-1871); <i>The German Element in the War of American +Independence</i> (1876); and a <i>Short History of Rhode Island</i> (1877).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENE, MAURICE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1695-1755) English musical composer, +was born in London. He was the son of a clergyman in the +city, and soon became a chorister of St Paul’s cathedral, where +he studied under Charles King, and subsequently under Richard +Brind, organist of the cathedral from 1707 to 1718, whom, on +his death in the last-named year, he succeeded. Nine years +later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal, +on the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair +of music in the university of Cambridge, and had the degree +of doctor of music conferred on him. Dr Greene was a +voluminous composer of church music, and his collection of +<i>Forty Select Anthems</i> became a standard work of its kind. He +wrote a “Te Deum,” several oratorios, a masque, <i>The Judgment +of Hercules</i>, and a pastoral opera, <i>Phoebe</i> (1748); also glees and +catches: and a collection of <i>Catches and Canons for Three and +Four Voices</i> is amongst his compositions. In addition he composed +many occasional pieces for the king’s birthday, having +been appointed master of the king’s band in 1735. But it is +as a composer of church music that Greene is chiefly remembered. +It is here that his contrapuntal skill and his sound musical +scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was +originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for +Buononcini, Handel’s rival, estranged the German master’s +feelings from him, and all personal intercourse between them +ceased. Greene, in conjunction with the violinist Michael +Christian Festing (1727-1752) and others, originated the Society +of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and their families. +He died on the 1st of December 1755.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENE, NATHANAEL<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1742-1786), American general, son +of a Quaker farmer and smith, was born at Potowomut, in +the township of Warwick, Rhode Island, on the 7th of August +(not, as has been stated, 6th of June) 1742. Though his father’s +sect discouraged “literary accomplishments,” he acquired a +large amount of general information, and made a special study +of mathematics, history and law. At Coventry, R.I., whither +he removed in 1770 to take charge of a forge built by his father +and his uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a +public school; and in the same year he was chosen a member +of the legislature of Rhode Island, to which he was re-elected +in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He sympathized strongly with the +Whig, or Patriot, element among the colonists, and in 1774 +joined the local militia. At this time he began to study the art +of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee appointed +by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in attending +to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of Friends.</p> + +<p>In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island, +he joined the American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd +of June was appointed a brigadier by Congress. To him +Washington assigned the command of the city of Boston after +it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene’s letters of +October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate +from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a +declaration of independence. On the 9th of August 1776 he +was promoted to be one of the four new major-generals and was +put in command of the Continental troops on Long Island; +he chose the place for fortifications (practically the same as that +picked by General Charles Lee) and built the redoubts and +entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe +illness prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island. +He was prominent among those who advised a retreat from New +York and the burning of the city, so that the British might not +use it. Greene was placed in command of Fort Lee, and on the +25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam in command +of Fort Washington. He received orders from Washington to +defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the 11th of +October Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect; but +later Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. Greene +ordered Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend +the place until he should hear from him again, and reinforced +it to meet General Howe’s attack. Nevertheless, the blame for +the losses of Forts Washington and Lee was put upon Greene, +but apparently without his losing the confidence of Washington, +who indeed himself assumed the responsibility. At Trenton +Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own, +accompanied by Washington, arriving first; and after the +victory here he urged Washington to push on immediately to +Princeton, but was over-ruled by a council of war. At the +Brandywine Greene commanded the reserve. At Germantown +Greene’s command, having a greater distance to march than the +right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time—a failure +which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him +Washington’s regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington, +Bancroft based his unfavourable estimate of Greene’s ability. +But on their arrival, Greene and his troops distinguished themselves +greatly.</p> + +<p>At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March +1778, at Valley Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster-general +(succeeding Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this +difficult work, which Washington heartily approved, a modern +critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington, has said that it was “as good +as was possible under the circumstances of that fluctuating +uncertain force.” He had become quartermaster-general on +the understanding, however, that he should retain the right to +command troops in the field; thus we find him at the head of +the right wing at Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August +Greene and Lafayette commanded the land forces sent to Rhode +Island to co-operate with the French admiral d’Estaing, in an +expedition which proved abortive. In June 1780 Greene commanded +in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In August +he resigned the office of quartermaster-general, after a long and +bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army +administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions +appointed by Congress. Before his resignation became effective +it fell to his lot to preside over the court which, on the 29th of +September, condemned Major John André to death.</p> + +<p>On the 14th of October he succeeded Gates as commander-in-chief +of the Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span> +on the 2nd of December. The army was weak and badly +equipped and was opposed by a superior force under Cornwallis. +Greene decided to divide his own troops, thus forcing the division +of the British as well, and creating the possibility of a strategic +interplay of forces. This strategy led to General Daniel Morgan’s +victory of Cowpens (just over the South Carolina line) on the +17th of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court +House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the +British troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforcements +for his own army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only +at such cost to the victor that Tarleton called it “the pledge of +ultimate defeat.” Three days after this battle Cornwallis +withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene’s generalship and judgment +were again conspicuously illustrated in the next few weeks, +in which he allowed Cornwallis to march north to Virginia and +himself turned swiftly to the reconquest of the inner country +of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord +Rawdon’s hands at Hobkirk’s Hill (2 m. N. of Camden) on the +25th of April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring +to the coast. Greene then gave his forces a six weeks’ rest on +the High Hills of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with +2600 men, engaged the British under Lieut.-Colonel James +Stuart (who had succeeded Lord Rawdon) at Eutaw Springs; +the battle, although tactically drawn, so weakened the British +that they withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them +during the remaining months of the war. Greene’s Southern +campaign showed remarkable strategic features that remind one +of those of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as his +model in his studies before the war. He excelled in dividing, +eluding and tiring his opponent by long marches, and in actual +conflict forcing him to pay for a temporary advantage a price +that he could not afford. He was greatly assisted by able +subordinates, including the Polish engineer, Tadeusz Kosciusko, +the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry (“Light-Horse Harry”) +Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thomas +Sumter and Francis Marion.</p> + +<p>South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberal grants of +lands and money. The South Carolina estate, Boone’s Barony, +S. of Edisto in Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills for the +rations of his Southern army. On the Georgia estate, Mulberry +Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on the river, he settled in 1785, +after twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the post of secretary of war, +and there he died of sunstroke on the 19th of June 1786. Greene +was a singularly able, and—like other prominent generals on +the American side—a self-trained soldier, and was second +only to Washington among the officers of the American army +in military ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of +using small means to the utmost advantage. His attitude +towards the Tories was humane and even kindly, and he +generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly intrigued +against him, when Gates’s conduct of the campaign in the South +was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah +(1829). His statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the +state of Rhode Island in the National Hall of Statuary in the +Capitol at Washington; in the same city there is a bronze +equestrian statue of him by H. K. Brown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life of Nathanael Greene</i> (3 vols., 1867-1871), by his grandson, +George W. Greene, and the biography (New York, 1893), by +Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in the “Great Commanders Series.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENE, ROBERT<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1560-1592), English dramatist and +miscellaneous writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The +identity of his father has been disputed, but there is every +reason to believe that he belonged to the tradesmen’s class and +had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert Greene attended +Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man +(to one of whose plays, <i>Friar Bacon</i>, the Norfolk and Suffolk +borderland owes a lasting poetic commemoration) he naturally +found his way to Cambridge, where he entered St John’s College +as a sizar in 1575 and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding +M.A. in 1583 from Clare Hall. His life at the university was, +according to his own account, spent “among wags as lewd as +himself, with whom he consumed the flower of his youth.” In +1588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so that on some of his title-pages +he styles himself “utriusque Academiae in Artibus +Magister”; and Nashe humorously refers to him as “utriusque +Academiae Robertus Greene.” Between the years 1578 and +1583 he had travelled abroad, according to his own account +very extensively, visiting France, Germany, Poland and Denmark, +besides learning at first-hand to “hate the pride of Italie” +and to know the taste of that poet’s fruit, “Spanish mirabolones.” +The grounds upon which it has been suggested that he took holy +orders are quite insufficient; according to the title-page of a +pamphlet published by him in 1585 he was then a “student in +phisicke.” Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he +had according to his own account begun his London life, and his +earliest extant literary production was in hand as early as 1580. +He now became “an author of playes and a penner of love-pamphlets, +so that I soone grew famous in that qualitie, that +who for that trade growne so ordinary about London as Robin +Greene?” “Glad was that printer,” says Nashe, “that might +bee so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit.” +By his own account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries +of the town, though Nashe declares that he never knew him +guilty of notorious crime. He was not without passing impulses +towards a more righteous and sober life, and was derided in +consequence by his associates as a “Puritane and Presizian.” +It is possible that he, as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel Harvey, +exaggerated the looseness of his conduct. His marriage, which +took place in 1585 or 1586, failed to steady him; if Francesco, +in Greene’s pamphlet <i>Never too late to mend</i> (1590), is intended +for the author himself, it had been a runaway match; but the +fiction and the autobiographical sketch in the <i>Repentance</i> agree +in their account of the unfaithfulness which followed on the part +of the husband. He lived with his wife, whose name seems to +have been Dorothy (“Doll”; and cf. Dorothea in <i>James IV.</i>), +for a while; “but forasmuch as she would perswade me from my +wilful wickednes, after I had a child by her, I cast her off, having +spent up the marriage-money which I obtained by her. Then +left I her at six or seven, who went into Lincolnshire, and I to +London,” where his reputation as a playwright and writer of +pamphlets of “love and vaine fantasyes” continued to increase, +and where his life was a feverish alternation of labour and +debauchery. In his last years he took it upon himself to make +war on the cutpurses and “conny-catchers” with whom he came +into contact in the slums, and whose doings he fearlessly exposed +in his writings. He tells us how at last he was friendless “except +it were in a fewe alehouses,” where he was respected on account +of the score he had run up. When the end came he was a +dependant on the charity of the poor and the pitying love of the +unfortunate. Henri Murger has drawn no picture more sickening +and more pitiful than the story of Greene’s death, as told by his +Puritan adversary, Gabriel Harvey—a veracious though a far +from unprejudiced narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels +provided by the Harvey brothers on their intervention in the +Marprelate controversy, and made an attack (immediately +suppressed) upon Gabriel’s father and family in the prose-tract +<i>A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute between +Velvet Breeches and Cloth Breeches</i> (1592). After a banquet +where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe—an old associate +and perhaps a college friend of Greene’s, any great intimacy with +whom, however, he seems to have been anxious to disclaim—Greene +had fallen sick “of a surfeit of pickle herringe and +Rennish wine.” At the house of a poor shoemaker near Dowgate, +deserted by all except his compassionate hostess (Mrs Isam) and +two women—one of them the sister of a notorious thief named +“Cutting Ball,” and the mother of his illegitimate son, Fortunatus +Greene—he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before +his death he wrote under a bond for £10 which he had given to +the good shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long-forsaken +wife: “Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth +and by my soules rest, that thou wilte see this man paide; for +if hee and his wife had not succoured me, I had died in the +streetes.—Robert Greene.”</p> + +<p><i>Four Letters and Certain Sonnets</i>, Harvey’s attack on Greene, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span> +appeared almost immediately after his death, as to the circumstances +of which his relentless adversary had taken care to inform +himself personally. Nashe took up the defence of his dead friend +and ridiculed Harvey in <i>Strange News</i> (1593); and the dispute +continued for some years. But, before this, the dramatist Henry +Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the unhappy +man, entitled <i>Greene’s Groat’s-worth of Wit bought with a Million +of Repentance</i> (1592), containing the story of Roberto, who may +be regarded, for practical purposes, as representing Greene +himself. This ill-starred production may almost be said to have +done more to excite the resentment of posterity against Greene’s +name than all the errors for which he professed his repentance. +For in it he exhorted to repentance three of his <i>quondam</i> acquaintance. +Of these three Marlowe was one—to whom and to whose +creation of “that Atheist Tamberlaine” he had repeatedly +alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe. +But the passage addressed to Peele contained a transparent +allusion to a fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as +“an vpstart crow beautified with our feathers, that with his +<i>Tygres heart wrapt in a player’s hyde</i> supposes hee is as well able +to bombast out a blanke-verse as the best of you; and being an +absolute Iohannes-fac-totum, is in his owne conceyt the onely +shake-scene in a countrey.” The phrase italicized parodies +a passage occurring in <i>The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of +York</i>, &c., and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene +(as many eminent critics have thought) had a hand in <i>The True +Tragedie</i>, he must here have intended a charge of plagiarism +against Shakespeare. But while it seems more probable that +(as the late R. Simpson suggested) the upstart crow beautified +with the feathers of the three dramatists is a sneering description +of the actor who declaimed their verse, the <i>animus</i> of the whole +attack (as explained by Dr Ingleby) is revealed in its concluding +phrases. This “shake-scene,” <i>i.e.</i> this <i>actor</i> had ventured to +intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights—their +monopoly was in danger!</p> + +<p>Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were +issued posthumously. Of these, <i>The Repentance of Robert +Greene, Master of Arts</i> (1592), must originally have been written +by him on his death-bed, under the influence, as he says, of +Father Parsons’s <i>Booke of Resolution</i> (<i>The Christian Directorie, +appertayning to Resolution</i>, 1582, republished in an enlarged +form, which became very popular, in 1585); but it bears traces +of having been improved from the original; while <i>Greene’s +Vision</i> was certainly not, as the title-page avers, written during +his last illness.</p> + +<p>Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed +to Greene’s prolific pen. Nearly all of them are interspersed +with verses; in their themes they range from the “misticall” +wonders of the heavens to the familiar but “pernitious sleights” +of the sharpers of London. But the most widely attractive of +his prose publications were his “love-pamphlets,” which brought +upon him the outcry of Puritan censors. The earliest of his +novels, as they may be called, <i>Mamillia</i>, was licensed in 1583. +This interesting story may be said to have accompanied Greene +through life; for even part ii., of which, though probably completed +several years earlier, the earliest extant edition bears the +date 1593, had a sequel, <i>The Anatomie of Love’s Flatteries</i>, which +contains a review of suitors recalling Portia’s in <i>The Merchant +of Venice</i>. <i>The Myrrour of Modestie</i> (the story of Susanna) +(1584); <i>The Historie of Arhasto, King of Denmarke</i> (1584); +<i>Morando, the Tritameron of Love</i> (a rather tedious imitation of the +<i>Decameron</i> (1584); <i>Planetomachia</i> (1585) (a contention in story-telling +between Venus and Saturn); <i>Penelope’s Web</i> (1587) +(another string of stories); <i>Alcida</i>, <i>Greene’s Metamorphosis</i> +(1588), and others, followed. In these popular productions he +appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lyly; indeed, the +first part of <i>Mamillia</i> was entered in the Stationers’ Registers +in the year of the appearance of <i>Euphues</i>, and two of Greene’s +novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the +parent romance: <i>Euphues his Censure to Philautus</i> (1587), +<i>Menaphon. Camilla’s Alarum to Slumbering Euphues</i> (1589), +named in some later editions <i>Greene’s Arcadia</i>. This pastoral +romance, written in direct emulation of Sidney’s, with a heroine +called Samila, contains St Sephestia’s charming lullaby, with +its refrain “Father’s sorowe, father’s joy.” But, though Greene’s +style copies the balanced oscillation, and his diction the ornateness +(including the proverbial philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives +to interest by the matter as well as to attract attention by the +manner of his narratives. Of his highly moral intentions he +leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are exposed on the +title-pages. The full title of the <i>Myrrour of Modestie</i> for instance +continues: “wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how the +Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and +plagueth the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punishments,” +&c. On his <i>Pandosto, The Triumph of Time</i> (1588) +Shakespeare founded <i>A Winter’s Tale</i>; in fact, the novel contains +the entire plot of the comedy, except the device of the living +statue; though some of the subordinate characters in the play, +including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare, together with +the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes.</p> + +<p>In Greene’s <i>Never too Late</i> (1590), announced as a “Powder +of Experience: sent to all youthfull gentlemen” for their +benefit, the hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for +Greene himself, the sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction. +This episodical narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of +manner which savour of an 18th century novel rather than of +an Elizabethan tale concerning the days of “Palmerin, King +of Great Britain.” Philador, the prodigal of <i>The Mourning +Garment</i> (1590), is obviously also in some respects a portrait of +the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of <i>Greene’s Groat’s-worth +of Wit</i> (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of +the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn—for a +born rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins. +Besides these and the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance, +Greene left realistic pictures of the very disreputable society +to which he finally descended, in his pamphlets on “conny-catching”: +<i>A Notable Discovery of Coosnage</i> (1591), <i>The Blacke +Bookes Messenger, Laying open the Life and Death of Ned +Browne, one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbiters, and +Conny-catchers that ever lived in England</i> (1592). Much in +Greene’s manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of +low life, anticipated what proved the slow course of the actual +development of the English novel; and it is probable that his +true <i>métier</i>, and that which best suited the bright fancy, ingenuity +and wit of which his genius was compounded, was pamphlet-spinning +and story-telling rather than dramatic composition. +It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his +contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like +his resemble Shakespeare’s in their native freshness.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out, +Greene, except in the two pamphlets written just before his +death, never refers to his having written plays; and before 1592 +his contemporaries are equally silent as to his labours as a +playwright. Only four plays remain to us of which he was +indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these seems to +have been the <i>Comicall History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon</i>, +of which Henslowe’s <i>Diary</i> contains no trace. But it can hardly +have been first acted long after the production of Marlowe’s +<i>Tamburlaine</i>, which had, in all probability, been brought on the +stage in 1587. For this play, “comical” only in the negative +sense of having a happy ending, was manifestly written in +emulation as well as in direct imitation of Marlowe’s tragedy. +While Greene cannot have thought himself capable of surpassing +Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably wished to outdo him +in “business,” and to equal him in the rant which was sure to +bring down at least part of the house. <i>Alphonsus</i> is a <i>history</i> +proper—a dramatized chronicle or narrative of warlike events. +Its fame could never equal that of Marlowe’s tragedy; but its +composition showed that Greene could seek to rival the most +popular drama of the day, without falling very far short of his +model.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i> +(not known to have been acted before February, 1592, but +probably written in 1589) Greene once more attempted to emulate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span> +Marlowe; and he succeeded in producing a masterpiece of his +own. Marlowe’s <i>Doctor Faustus</i>, which doubtless suggested the +composition of Greene’s comedy, reveals the mighty tragic +genius of its author; but Greene resolved on an altogether +distinct treatment of a cognate theme. Interweaving with the +popular tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming +idyl (so far as we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince +Edward’s love for the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a +comedy brimful of amusing action and genial fun. <i>Friar Bacon</i> +remains a dramatic picture of English Elizabethan life with +which <i>The Merry Wives</i> alone can vie; and not even the ultra-classicism +in the similes of its diction can destroy the naturalness +which constitutes its perennial charm. <i>The History of Orlando +Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France</i> has on unsatisfactory +evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have been +acted on the 21st of February 1592. It is a free dramatic +adaptation of Ariosto, Harington’s translation of whom appeared +in 1591, and who in one passage is textually quoted; and it +contains a large variety of characters and a superabundance oí +action. Fairly lucid in arrangement and fluent in style, the +treatment of the madness oí Orlando lacks tragic power. Very +few dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare have succeeded +in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the tragic; +and Greene is not to be included in the list.</p> + +<p>In <i>The Scottish Historie of James IV.</i> (acted 1592, licensed +for publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax +of his dramatic powers. The “historical” character of this play +is pure pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi +Cinthio’s tales. Its theme is the illicit passion of King James for +the chaste lady Ida, to obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the +suggestion of a villain called Ateukin, to make away with his own +wife. She escapes in doublet and hose, attended by her faithful +dwarf; but, on her father’s making war upon her husband to +avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation between +them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked +out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Ateukin +there is a touch of Iago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the +piece, is unexceptionable; and, lest even so the play should hang +heavy on the audience, its action is carried off by a “pleasant +comédie”—<i>i.e.</i> a prelude and some dances between the acts—“presented +by Oboram, King of Fayeries,” who is, however, a +very different person from the Oberon of <i>A Midsummer Night’s +Dream</i>.</p> + +<p><i>George-a-Greene the Pinner of Wakefield</i> (acted 1593, printed +1599), a delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the +author of <i>Friar Bungay</i>, has been attributed to him; but the +external evidence is very slight, and the internal unconvincing. +Of the comedy of <i>Fair Em</i>, which resembles <i>Friar Bacon</i> in more +than one point, Greene cannot have been the author; the +question as to the priority between the two plays is not so easily +solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays on +which the second and third parts of <i>Henry VI.</i> are founded has +been already referred to. He was certainly joint author with +Thomas Lodge of the curious drama called <i>A Looking Glasse for +London and England</i> (acted in 1592 and printed in 1594)—a +dramatic apologue conveying to the living generation of Englishmen +the warning of Nineveh’s corruption and prophesied doom. +The lesson was frequently repeated in the streets of London by +the “Ninevitical motions” of the puppets; but there are both +fire and wealth of language in Greene and Lodge’s oratory. The +comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by +Adam, the clown of the piece, who belongs to the family of +Slipper, and of Friar Bacon’s servant, Miles.</p> + +<p>Greene’s dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of +Marlowe’s tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at +his best. On the other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally +animated with the breezy freshness which no artifice can simulate. +He had considerable constructive skill, but he has created no +character of commanding power—unless Ateukin be excepted; +but his personages are living men and women, and marked out +from one another with a vigorous but far from rude hand. His +comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and +graceful dialogue. His diction is overloaded with classical +ornament, but his versification is easy and fluent, and its cadence +is at times singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the +simplest means; and he is indisputably one of the most attractive +of early English dramatic authors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Greene’s dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander +Dyce in 1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued +in one volume in 1858. His complete works were edited for the +Huth Library by A. B. Grosart. This issue (1881-1886) contains a +translation of Nicholas Storojhenko’s monograph on Greene (Moscow, +1878). Greene’s plays and poems were edited with introductions +and notes by J. Churton Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905); the +general introduction to this edition has superseded previous accounts +of Greene and his dramatic and lyrical writings. An account of +his pamphlets is to be found in J. J. Jusserand’s <i>English Novel in +the Time of Shakespeare</i> (Eng. trans., 1890). See also W. Bernhardi, +<i>Robert Greenes Leben und Schriften</i> (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in +<i>Shakespeare’s Zeitgenossen und ihre Werke</i> (1858); and an introduction +by A. W. Ward to <i>Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay</i> (Oxford, +1886, 4th ed., 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENFIELD,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a township and the county-seat of Franklin +county, in N.E. Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of +20 sq. m. of meadow and hill country, watered by the Green +and Deerfield rivers and various small tributaries. Pop. (1890) +5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same name as +the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river, +and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley +street railway (electric). Among Greenfield’s manufactures are +cutlery, machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally +part of Deerfield, was settled about 1682, was established as a +“district” in 1753, and on the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a +general Act, separated from Deerfield and incorporated as a +separate township, although it had assumed full township rights +in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress. In +1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838 +part of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed +a part of Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of +Shays’s Rebellion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. M. Thompson, <i>History of Greenfield</i> (2 vols., Greenfield, +1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENFINCH<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Grünfink</i>), or <span class="sc">Green Linnet</span>, as it is very +often called, a common European bird, the <i>Fringilla chloris</i> of +Linnaeus, ranked by many systematists with one section of hawfinches, +<i>Coccothraustes</i>, but apparently more nearly allied to the +other section <i>Hesperiphona</i>, and perhaps justifiably deemed the +type of a distinct genus, to which the name <i>Chloris</i> or <i>Ligurinus</i> +has been applied. The cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green +and yellow is one of the most finely coloured of common English +birds, but he is rather heavily built, and his song is hardly commended. +The hen is much less brightly tinted. Throughout +Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful birds, +and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the +whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits +Palestine, but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant +in Mauritania, whence specimens are so brightly coloured that +they have been deemed to form a distinct species, the <i>Ligurinus +aurantiiventris</i> of Dr Cabanis, but that view is now generally +abandoned. In the north-east of Asia and its adjacent islands +occur two allied species—the <i>Fringilla sinica</i> of Linnaeus and the +<i>F. kawarahiba</i> of Temminck.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENHEART,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> one of the most valuable of timbers, the +produce of <i>Nectandra Rodiaei</i>, natural order Lauraceae, a large +tree, native of tropical South America and the West Indies. The +Indian name of the tree is <i>sipiri</i> or <i>bibiru</i>, and from its bark and +fruits is obtained the febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart +wood is of a dark-green colour, sap wood and heart wood being so +much alike that they can with difficulty be distinguished from +each other. The heart wood is one of the most durable of all +timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is +proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly +destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other +kinds of wood available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove +Museum, Glasgow, there are two pieces of planking from a wreck +submerged during eighteen years on the west coast of Scotland. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span> +The one specimen—greenheart—is merely slightly pitted on the +surface, the body of the wood being perfectly sound and untouched, +while the other—teak—is almost entirely eaten away. Greenheart, +tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is one of +the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly dense, its +specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second +line of Lloyd’s Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is extensively +used for keelsons, beams, engine-bearers and planking, &c., +as well as in the general engineering arts, but its excessive weight +unfits it for many purposes for which its other properties would +render it eminently suitable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENLAND<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Danish, &c., <i>Grönland</i>), a large continental +island, the greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle, +while the whole is arctic in character. It is not connected with +any portion of Europe or America except by suboceanic ridges; +but in the extreme north it is separated only by a narrow strait +from Ellesmere Land in the archipelago of the American continent. +It is bounded on the east by the North Atlantic, the Norwegian +and Greenland Seas—Jan Mayen, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands +and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and Norway. +Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the +northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from +Spitsbergen. On the west Davis Strait and Baffin Bay separate +it from Baffin Land. The so-called bay narrows northward into +the strait successively known as Smith Sound, Kane Basin, +Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A submarine ridge, +about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland with +Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A +similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula +of Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with +others smaller) lie probably off the north coast, being apparently +divided from it by very narrow channels which are not yet explored. +If they be reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then +the north coast, fronting the polar sea, culminates about 83° 40′ N. +Cape Farewell, the most southerly point (also on a small island), +is in 59° 45′ N. The extreme length of Greenland may therefore +be set down at about 1650 m., while its extreme breadth, which +occurs about 77° 30′ N., is approximately 800 m. The area +is estimated at 827,275 sq. m. Greenland is a Danish colony, +inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern east coast +belong to the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of +Europeans on the southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the +trade is a monopoly of the Danish government.</p> + +<p>The southern and south-western coasts have been known, +as will be mentioned later, since the 10th century, when Norse +settlers appeared there, and the names of many famous arctic +explorers have been associated with the exploration of Greenland. +The communication between the Norse settlements in Greenland +and the motherland Norway was broken off at the end of the 14th +and the beginning of the 15th century, and the Norsemen’s +knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more or +less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then +re-discovered by John Davis in July 1585, though previous explorers, +as Cortereal, Frobisher and others, had seen it, and at the +end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century the work +of Davis (1586-1588). Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the +western seas afforded some knowledge of the west coast. This +was added to by later explorers and by whalers and sealers. +Among explorers who in the 19th century were specially connected +with the north-west coast may be mentioned E. A. +Inglefield (1852) who sailed into Smith’s Sound,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Elisha Kent Kane +(1853-1855)<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> who worked northward through Smith Sound into +Kane Basin, and Charles Francis Hall (1871) who explored the +strait (Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel) to the north of +this.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The northern east coast was sighted by Hudson (1607) in about +73° 30′ N. (C. Hold with Hope), and during the 17th century and +later this northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch +whalers. The first who gave more accurate information was the +Scottish whaler, Captain William Scoresby, jun. (1822), who, +with his father, explored the coast between 69° and 75° N., and +gave the first fairly trustworthy map of it.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Captains Edward +Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast between 72° 5′ and +75° 12′ N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen in this part of +Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870, +under Carl Christian Koldewey<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (1837-1908), reached 77° N. +(Cape Bismarck); and the duke of Orleans, in 1905, ascertained +that this point was on an island (the Dove Bay of the German +expedition being in reality a strait) and penetrated farther north, +to about 78° 16′. From this point the north-east coast remained +unexplored, though a sight was reported in 1670 by a whaler +named Lambert, and again in 1775 as far north as 79° by Daines +Barrington, until a Danish expedition under Mylius Erichsen in +1906-1908 explored it, discovering North-East Foreland, the +easternmost point (see Polar Regions and map). The +southern part of the east coast was first explored by the Dane +Wilhelm August Graah (1829-1830) between Cape Farewell and +65° 16′ N.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> In 1883-1885 the Danes G. Holm and T. V. Garde +carefully explored and mapped the coast from Cape Farewell +to Angmagssalik, in 66° N.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> F. Nansen and his companions +also travelled along a part of this coast in 1888.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> A. E. Nordenskiöld, +in the “Sophia,” landed near Angmagssalik, in 65° 36′ N., +in 1883.<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Captain C. Ryder, in 1891-1892, explored and mapped +the large Scoresby Sound, or, more correctly, Scoresby Fjord.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> +Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 1899, explored the coast from Angmagssalik +north to 67° 22′ N.<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> A part of this coast, about +67° N., had also been seen by Nansen in 1882.<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> In 1899 Professor +A. G. Nathorst explored the land between Franz Josef Fjord +and Scoresby Fjord, where the large King Oscar Fjord, connecting +Davy’s Sound with Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered.<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a> In +1900 Lieutenant Amdrup explored the still unknown east coast +from 690 10′ N. south to 67° N.<a name="fa14d" id="fa14d" href="#ft14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>From the work of explorers in the north-west it had been +possible to infer the approximate latitude of the northward +termination of Greenland long before it was definitely known. +Towards the close of the 19th century several explorers gave +attention to this question. Lieutenant (afterwards Admiral) +L. A. Beaumont (1876), of the Nares Expedition, explored the +coast north-east of Robeson Channel to 82° 20′ N.<a name="fa15d" id="fa15d" href="#ft15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> In 1882 +Lieut. J. B. Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain) +D. L. Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to Lady Franklin +Bay,<a name="fa16d" id="fa16d" href="#ft16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a> explored the north-west coast beyond Beaumont’s farthest +to a promontory in 83° 24′ N. and 40° 46′ E. and they saw +to the north-east Cape Washington, in about 83° 38′ N. and +39° 30′ E., the most northerly point of land till then observed. +In July 1892 R. E. Peary and E. Astrup, crossing by land from +Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound, discovered Independence Bay on +the north-east coast in 81° 37′ N. and 34° 5′ W.<a name="fa17d" id="fa17d" href="#ft17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a> In May 1895 it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span> +was revisited by Peary, who supposed this bay to be a sound communicating +with Victoria Inlet on the north-west coast. To the +north Heilprin Land and Melville Land were seen stretching +northwards, but the probability seemed to be that the coast soon +trended north-west. In 1901 Peary rounded the north point, and +penetrated as far north as 83° 50′ N. The scanty exploration of +the great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted to cover the +whole of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly +from the west coast. In 1751 Lars Dalager, a Danish trader, +took some steps in this direction from Frederikshaab. In 1870 +Nordenskiöld and Berggren walked 35 m. inland from the head +of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an elevation of 2200 ft. +The Danish captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen reached, in +1878, the Jensen Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45 m. +from the western margin, in 62° 50′ N.<a name="fa18d" id="fa18d" href="#ft18d"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Nordenskiöld penetrated +in 1883 about 70 m. inland in 68° 20′ N., and two Lapps of his +expedition went still farther on skis, to a point nearly under 45° +W. at an elevation of 6600 ft. Peary and Maigaard reached in +1886 about 100 m. inland, a height of 7500 ft. in 69° 30′ N. +Nansen with five companions in 1888 made the first complete +crossing of the inland ice, working from the east +coast to the west, about 64° 25′ N., and reached +a height of 8922 ft. Peary and Astrup, as +already indicated, crossed in 1892 the northern +part of the inland ice between 78° and 82° N., +reaching a height of about 8000 ft., and determined +the northern termination of the ice-covering. +Peary made very nearly the same +journey again in 1895. Captain T. V. Garde +explored in 1893 the interior of the inland ice +between 61° and 62° N. near its southern +termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft. +about 60 m. from the margin.<a name="fa19d" id="fa19d" href="#ft19d"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:676px; height:1118px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img543.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed pt2"> +<p><i>Coasts.</i>—The coasts of Greenland are for the +most part deeply indented with fjords, being intensely +glaciated. The coast-line of Melville Bay +(the northern part of the west coast) is to some +degree an exception, though the fjords may here +be somewhat filled with glaciers, and, for another +example, it may be noted that Peary observed +a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward +as far as Cape Morris Jesup there are precipitous +headlands and islands, as elsewhere, with deep +water close inshore. East of the same cape there +is an abrupt change; the coast is unbroken, the +mountains recede inland, and there is shoal-water +for a considerable distance from the coast. +Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they +are indented; but these are in no case large, +excepting those off the north coast, and that of +Disco off the west, which is crossed by the parallel +of 70° N. This island, which is separated by +Waigat Strait from the Nugsuak peninsula, is +lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m. Steenstrup +in 1898 discovered in it the warmest spring known +in Greenland, having a temperature of 66° F.</p> + +<p>The unusual glaciation of the east coast is +evidently owing to the north polar current carrying +the ice masses from the north polar basin +south-westward along the land, and giving it +an entirely arctic climate down to Cape Farewell. +In some parts the interior ice-covering extends +down to the outer coast, while in other parts +its margin is situated more inland, and the ice-bare +coast-land is deeply intersected by fjords extending +far into the interior, where they are blocked +by enormous glaciers or “ice-currents” from the +interior ice-covering which discharge masses of +icebergs into them. The east coast of Greenland +is in this respect highly interesting. All coasts +in the world which are much intersected by deep +fjords have, with very few exceptions, a western +exposure, <i>e.g.</i> Norway, Scotland, British Columbia +and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even +Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, whose west +coasts are far more indented than their east ones. +Greenland forms the most prominent exception, +its eastern coast being quite as much indented as +its western. The reason is to be found in its geographical +position, a cold ice-covered polar current +running south along the land, while not far outside +there is an open warmer sea, a circumstance +which, while producing a cold climate, must also +give rise to much precipitation, the land being +thus exposed to the alternate erosion of a rough +atmosphere and large glaciers. On the east +coast of Baffin Land and Labrador there are +similar conditions. The result is that the east +coast of Greenland has the largest system of typical fjords known +on the earth’s surface. Scoresby Fjord has a length of about +180 m. from the outer coast to the point where it is blocked by the +glaciers, and with its numerous branches covers an enormous +area. Franz Josef Fjord, with its branch King Oscar Fjord, communicating +with Davy’s Sound, forms a system of fjords on a +similar scale. These fjords are very deep; the greatest depth +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span> +found by Ryder in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are +certainly still greater depths; like the Norwegian fjords they have, +however, probably all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow +water, near their mouths. A few soundings made outside this +coast seem to indicate that the fjords continue as deep submarine +valleys far out into the sea. On the west coast there are also +many great fjords. One of the best known from earlier days is +the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north of 64° N. Along +the east coast there are many high mountains, exceeding 6000 and +7000 ft. in height. One of the highest peaks hitherto measured is at +Tiningnertok, on the Lindenov Fjord, in 60° 35′ N., which is 7340 ft. +high. At the bottom of Mogens Heinesen Fjord, 62° 30′ N., the +peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of Umanak, 63° N., they even +exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen began his journey +across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting through the ice-covering +was Gamel’s Nunatak, 6440 ft., in 64° 34′ N. In the +region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the mountains +rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf’s Fjeld, in +66° 20′ N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out at sea, and forms +an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk (<i>i.e.</i> Blue +Sark or blue shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first landmark on +their way from Iceland to the Öster Bygd, the present Julianehaab +district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little farther +north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000 ft., +and just north of 67° 10′ N. only to 500 ft. or less.<a name="fa20d" id="fa20d" href="#ft20d"><span class="sp">20</span></a> The highest +mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about +7000 ft. The Petermann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef +Fjord, measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto +been considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but +according to Nathorst it “is probably only two-thirds as high as +Payer supposed,” perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft.</p> + +<p>Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally +not quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not +uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and +Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there +is no other known land of such a size so filled along its coasts on all +sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys.</p> + +<p><i>The Inland Ice.</i>—The whole interior of Greenland is completely +covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a +regular shield-shaped expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying +all valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about +715,400 sq. m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern +hemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but +not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks are known as +<i>nunataks</i> (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to +a level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends +gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coasts or the +bottom of the fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its +yearly drainage or surplus of precipitation in the form of icebergs +in the fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on +the west and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are +gradually melted in the sea, the temperature of which is thus lowered +by cold stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of +these icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of Newfoundland. +The surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the +west to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approaching +an arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen’s route has its highest +ridge somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also +seems to be the case farther south. The curve shows, however, +slight irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the +slope decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where +it may be 1° or more, towards the interior, where it is 0°. In the +interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which +never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the +winds. It extends as a completely even plain of snow, with long, +almost imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to +10,000 ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the +mountains and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the +deepest valleys of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at +least 6000 or 7000 ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from +the interior, the snow of the surface gradually changes its structure. +At first it becomes more coarse-grained, like the <i>Firn Schnee</i> of the +Alps, and is moist by melting during the summer. Nearer the coast, +where the melting on the surface is more considerable, the wet +snow freezes hard during the winter and is more or less transformed +into ice, on the surface of which rivers and lakes are formed, the +water of which, however, soon finds its way through crevasses and +holes in the ice down to its under surface, and reaches the sea as a +sub-glacial river. Near its margin the surface of the inland ice is +broken up by numerous large crevasses, formed by the outward +motion of the glacier covering the underlying land. The steep ice-walls +at the margin of the inland ice show, especially where the +motion of the ice is slow, a distinct striation, which indicates the +strata of annual precipitation with the intervening thin seams of +dust (Nordenskiöld’s kryokonite). This is partly dust blown on +to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare coast-land and partly the +dust of the atmosphere brought down by the falling snow and +accumulated on the surface of the glacier’s covering by the melting +during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of the ice-fjords +this striation is not distinctly visible, being evidently +obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses.</p> + +<p>The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a +viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is pressed +outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass of +pitch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of time +flow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the outwards-creeping +inland ice will naturally be more independent of the configurations +of the underlying land in the interior, where its thickness +is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner. Here the +ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing velocity +in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off as icebergs. +The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly +given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the +snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its western +margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced on +its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor +Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great +velocity, up to 64¾ ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the glaciers +of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice and its +glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. Steenstrup +during several years, Captain Hammer in 1879-1880, Captain Ryder +in 1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in 1891-1893,<a name="fa21d" id="fa21d" href="#ft21d"><span class="sp">21</span></a> and several American +expeditions in later years, all examined the question closely. The +highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by Ryder in the +Upernivik glacier (in 73° N.), where, between the 13th and 14th of +August of 1886, he found a velocity of 125 ft. in twenty-four hours, +and an average velocity during several days of 101 ft. (Danish).<a name="fa22d" id="fa22d" href="#ft22d"><span class="sp">22</span></a> +It was, however, ascertained that there is a great difference between +the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in summer. For instance, +Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an average velocity +of only 33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be periodical oscillations +in the extension of the glaciers and the inland ice similar to those +that have been observed on the glaciers of the Alps and elsewhere. +But these interesting phenomena have not hitherto been subject to +systematic observation, and our knowledge of them is therefore +uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as polished +striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the whole +of Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the coast, +has once been covered by the inland ice.</p> + +<p>Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine +mollusca, &c., occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate +that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has +sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now ice-bare +outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these +traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are +very marked; but they are also very distinct in the south, although +not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the +upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord +(72° 20′ N.) the highest terrace is 480 ft. above the sea.<a name="fa23d" id="fa23d" href="#ft23d"><span class="sp">23</span></a> On Manitsok +(65° 30′ N.) the highest raised beach was 360 ft. above the sea.<a name="fa24d" id="fa24d" href="#ft24d"><span class="sp">24</span></a> +In the Isortok Fjord (67° 11′ N.) the highest raised beach is 380 ft. +above sea-level.<a name="fa25d" id="fa25d" href="#ft25d"><span class="sp">25</span></a> In the Ameralik Fjord (64° 14′ N.) the highest +marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, and at Ilivertalik +(63° 14′ N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest terrace is about 325 ft. +above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the Björnesund (62° 50′ N.), +a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the sea, but it is doubtful whether +this is of marine origin.<a name="fa26d" id="fa26d" href="#ft26d"><span class="sp">26</span></a> In the Julianehaab district, between 60° +and 61° N., the highest marine terraces are found at about 160 ft. +above the sea.<a name="fa27d" id="fa27d" href="#ft27d"><span class="sp">27</span></a> The highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby +Fjord, on the east coast, was 240 ft. above sea-level.<a name="fa28d" id="fa28d" href="#ft28d"><span class="sp">28</span></a> There is a +common belief that during quite recent times the west and south-west +coast, within the Danish possessions, has been sinking. Although +there are many indications which may make this probable, +none of them can be said to be quite decisive.<a name="fa29d" id="fa29d" href="#ft29d"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p> + +<p>[<i>Geology.</i>—So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland +is as follows:</p> + +<p>1. <i>Laurentian gneiss</i> forms the greatest mass of the exposed +rocks of the country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of +Smith Sound, rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene +and Cretaceous rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span> +Oolites of Pendulum Island in East Greenland. Ancient schists +occur on the east coast south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and +schists are found in Scoresby Fjord. It is possible that some of +these rocks are also of Huronian age, but it is doubtful whether the +rocks so designated by the geologists of the “Alert” and “Discovery” +expedition are really the rocks so known in Canada, or +are a continuous portion of the fundamental or oldest gneiss of the +north-west of Scotland and the western isles.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Silurian.</i>—Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the +Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American facies, and Lower +Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North +America, are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has +discovered them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south +as the Danish possessions.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Devonian</i> rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnudiorbik +Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous +sandstone, rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is, +however, likely that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in +Dana Bay, Captain Feilden found a species of <i>Spirifera</i> and <i>Productus +mesolobus</i> or <i>costatus</i>, though it is possible that these fossils +represent the “Ursa stage” (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous. +A few Devonian forms have also been recorded from the Parry +Archipelago, and Nathorst has shown the existence of Old Red +Sandstone facies of Devonian in Traill Island, Geographical Society +Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Carboniferous.</i>—In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the +Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a <i>Sigillaria</i> and a +species of either <i>Pecopteris</i> or <i>Gleichenia</i>, perhaps of this age; and +probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land, +and therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore, +contains a clearly developed Carboniferous Limestone fauna, +identical with that so widely distributed over the North American +continent, and referable also to British and Spitsbergen species. +Of the Coal Measures above these, if they occur, we know nothing +at present. Capt. Feilden notes as suggestive that, though the +explorers have not met with this formation on the northern shores +of Greenland, yet it was observed that a continuation of the direction +of the known strike of the limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried +over the polar area, passes through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen, +where the formation occurs, and contains certain species identical +with those of the Grinnell Land rocks of this horizon. The facies of +the fossils is, according to Mr Etheridge, North American and +Canadian, though many of the species are British. The corals are +few in number, but the <i>Molluscoida</i> (<i>Polyzoa</i>) are more numerous +in species and individuals. No Secondary rocks have been discovered +in the extreme northern parts of West Greenland, but they +are present on the east and west coasts in more southerly latitudes +than Smith Sound.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Jurassic.</i>—These do not occur on the west coast, but on the +east coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones +on Kuhn Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, characterized +by the presence of the genus <i>Aucella</i>, <i>Olcostephanus Payeri</i>, +<i>O. striolaris</i>, <i>Belemnites Panderianus</i>, <i>B. volgensis</i>, <i>B. absolutus</i>, +and a <i>Cyprina</i> near to <i>C. syssolae</i>. On the south coast of the same +island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured +calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render +it probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic +rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire. +There is also coal on Kuhn Island.</p> + +<p>The Danish expeditions of 1899-1900 have added considerably to +our knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. Rhaetic-Lias +plants have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Stewart +and Vardeklöft. Dr Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond +with those from the Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of +England. Upper Kimmeridge and Portlandian beds also occur.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Cretaceous.</i>—Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and +coal, are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the +southern side of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former +locality, “the Kome strata” of Nordenskiöld, being the oldest. +They reach 1000 ft. in thickness, occupying undulating hollows in +the underlying gneiss, and dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at +20°, when the overlying Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these +series contain numerous plant remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias, +aralias, &c., and seams of lignite (coal), which is burnt; but in +neither occur the marine beds of the United States. Still, the +presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as <i>Magnolia alternans</i>, in the +Atanakerdluk strata, proves their close alliance with the Dakota +series of the United States. The underlying Kome beds are not +present in the American series. They are characterized by fine +cycads (<i>Zamites arcticus</i> and <i>Glossozamites Hoheneggeri</i>), which also +occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Miocene.</i>—This formation, one of the most widely spread in +polar lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best +known feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and +perhaps to a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neighbouring +country, and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone, +shale and coal—the sideritic shale containing immense quantities +of leaves, stems, fruit, &c., as well as some insects, and the coal +pieces of retinite. The study of these plant and insect remains +shows that forests containing a vegetation very similar to that of +California and the southern United States, in some instances even +the species of trees being all but identical, flourished in 70° N. +during geological periods comparatively recent. These beds, as +well as the Cretaceous series, from which they are as yet only imperfectly +distinguished, are associated with sheets of basalt, which +penetrate them in great dikes, and in some places, owing to the +wearing away of the softer sedimentary rocks, stand out in long +walls running across the beds. These Miocene strata have not been +found farther north on the Greenland shore than the region +mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay, on the Grinnell Land side +of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that the chances are they +will be found on the opposite coast, though doubtless the great +disintegration Greenland has undergone and is undergoing has +destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous rocks. On the +east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland, the Miocene +beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of them +even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at +the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since early +Tertiary times there has been a great change in the climate of +Greenland.</p> + +<p>Nathorst has suggested that the whole of Greenland is a “horst,” +in the subordinate folds of which, as well as in the deeper “graben,” +the younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary +or later lava flows.<a name="fa30d" id="fa30d" href="#ft30d"><span class="sp">30</span></a>—J. A. H.]</p> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—Native iron was found by Nordenskiöld at Ovifak, +on Disco Island, in 1870, and brought to Sweden (1871) as meteorites. +The heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has +later been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the +west coast enclosed as smaller or larger nodules in the basalt. This +iron has very often beautiful Widmannstätten figures like those of +iron meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin.<a name="fa31d" id="fa31d" href="#ft31d"><span class="sp">31</span></a> In 1895 +Peary found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross’s voyage +in 1818 it has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got +iron for their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule +to New York; it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This +iron is considered by several of the first authorities on the subject +to be of meteoric origin,<a name="fa32d" id="fa32d" href="#ft32d"><span class="sp">32</span></a> but no evidence hitherto given seems to +prove decisively that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found +were lying on gneissic rock, with no basaltic rocks in the neighbourhood, +does not prove that the iron may not originate from basalt, +for the nodules may have been transported by the glaciers, like +other erratic blocks, and will stand erosion much longer than the +basalt, which may long ago have disappeared. This iron seems, +however, in several respects to be unlike the celebrated large nodules +of iron found by Nordenskiöld at Ovifak, but appears to resemble +much more closely the softer kind of iron nodules found by Steenstrup +in the basalt;<a name="fa33d" id="fa33d" href="#ft33d"><span class="sp">33</span></a> it stands exposure to the air equally well, and has +similar Widmannstätten figures very sharp, as is to be expected in +such a large mass. It contains, however, more nickel and also +phosphorus. A few other minerals may be noticed, and some have +been worked to a small extent—graphite is abundant, particularly +near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost exclusively at Ivigtut; +copper has been observed at several places, but only in nodules and +laminae of limited extent; and coal of poor quality is found in the +districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord. Steatite or soapstone +has long been used by the natives for the manufacture of lamps and +vessels.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing +suddenly from bright sunshine (when <span class="correction" title="amended from mosquitos">mosquitoes</span> often swarm) to +dense fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab +in the extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that +of Norway and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean temperature +for the whole year probably approximates to that on the +Norwegian coast 600 m. farther north. The climate of the interior +has been found to be of a continental character, with large ranges +of temperature, and with an almost permanent anti-cyclonic region +over the interior of the inland ice, from which the prevailing winds +radiate towards the coasts. On the 64th parallel the mean annual +temperature at an elevation of 6560 ft. is supposed to be −13° F., +or reduced to sea-level 5° F. The mean annual temperature in the +interior farther north is supposed to be −10° F. reduced to sea-level. +The mean temperature of the warmest month, July, in the interior +should be, reduced to sea-level, on the 64th parallel 32° F., and +that of the coldest month, January, about −22° F., while in North +Greenland it is probably −40° reduced to sea-level. Here we may +probably find the lowest temperatures of the northern hemisphere. +The interior of Greenland contains both summer and winter a pole +of cold, situated in the opposite longitude to that of Siberia, with +which it is well able to compete in extreme severity. On Nansen’s +expedition temperatures of about −49° F. were experienced during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span> +the nights in the beginning of September, and the minimum during +the winter may probably sink to −90° F. in the interior of the inland +ice. These low temperatures are evidently caused by the radiation +of heat from the snow-surface in the rarefied air in the interior. +The daily range of temperature is therefore very considerable, +sometimes amounting to 40°. Such a range is elsewhere found only +in deserts, but the surface of the inland ice may be considered to be +an elevated desert of snow.<a name="fa34d" id="fa34d" href="#ft34d"><span class="sp">34</span></a> The climate of the east coast is on the +whole considerably more arctic than that of the west coast on +corresponding latitudes; the land is much more completely snow-covered, +and the snow-line goes considerably lower. The probability +also is that there is more precipitation, and that the mean temperatures +are lower.<a name="fa35d" id="fa35d" href="#ft35d"><span class="sp">35</span></a> The well-known strangely warm and dry <i>föhn</i>-winds +of Greenland occur both on the west and the east coast; +they are more local than was formerly believed, and are formed by +cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the outer +slope of the inland ice.<a name="fa36d" id="fa36d" href="#ft36d"><span class="sp">36</span></a> Mirage and similar phenomena and the +aurora are common.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna and Flora.</i>—It was long a common belief that the fauna +and flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance +which would make it probable that Greenland has been separated +by sea from America during a longer period of time than from +Europe. The correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be +doubted. The land mammals of Greenland are decidedly more +American than European; the musk-ox, the banded lemming +(<i>Cuniculus torquatus</i>), the white polar wolf, of which there seems to +have been a new invasion recently round the northern part of the +country to the east coast, the Eskimo and the dog—probably also +the reindeer—have all come from America, while the other land +mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare, the stoat +(<i>Mustela erminea</i>), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The species of +seals and whales are, if anything, more American than European, +and so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal +(<i>Cystophora cristata</i>), for instance, may be said to be a Greenland-American +species, while a Scandinavian species, such as the grey +seal (<i>Halichoerus grypus</i>), appears to be very rare both in Greenland +and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in Greenland, +eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest +circumpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their distribution.<a name="fa37d" id="fa37d" href="#ft37d"><span class="sp">37</span></a> +About 310 species of vascular plants are found, of which +about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic, +fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe +or Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic +elements of the flora are nearly equivalent; and if the flora of +Arctic North America were better known, the number of plants +common to America might be still more enlarged.<a name="fa38d" id="fa38d" href="#ft38d"><span class="sp">38</span></a></p> + +<p>In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have been introduced. +The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west +coast but decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The +white whale fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing +is important; walruses are also caught and sometimes narwhal. +There are also important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish +(<i>Sebastes</i>) and <i>nepisak</i> (<i>Cyclopterus lumpus</i>); a shark (<i>Somniosus +microcephalus</i>) is taken for the oil from its liver; and sea-trout are +found in the streams and small lakes of the south. On land reindeer +were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south, +but in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg +there are still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other +sea-birds are in some parts valuable for food in winter, and so is +the ptarmigan. Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down. +Valuable fur is obtained from the white and blue fox, the skin of +the eider-duck and the polar bear.</p> + +<p>At Tasiusak (73° 22′ N.), the most northern civilized settlement +in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but +several plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70° 40′ N.) +is the most northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes +grow well, turnips (but not every year), lettuce and chervil succeed +sometimes, but parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn +(69° 12′ N.), only some 15 m. from the inland ice, gardening succeeds +very well; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly; the spinach produces +large leaves; chervil, pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips +grow very well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during +the summer (June to August). In the south, in the Julianehaab +district, even flowering plants, such as aster, nemophilia and +mignonette, are cultivated, and broccoli, spinach, sorrel, chervil, +parsley, rhubarb, turnips, lettuce, radishes grow well. Potatoes +give fair results when they are taken good care of, carrots grow to +a thickness of 1½ in., while cabbage does poorly. Strawberries +and cucumbers have been ripened in a forcing frame. In the +“Kongespeil” (King’s mirror) of the 13th century it is stated +that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley.</p> + +<p>The wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable +situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species. +The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied +to those found in Lapland or on the summits of the highest British +hills. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where +the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground +is covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willows, crow-berries +and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the +andromeda, the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &c. besides the +flowering mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in +the shape of bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very +sheltered places, the willows may grow higher than a man, and the +vegetation is less arctic and more abundant.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government and Trade.</i>—The trade of Greenland is a monopoly +of the Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in +Copenhagen by a government board (<i>Kongelige Grönlandske +Handel</i>) and in the country by various government officials. +In order to meet the double purposes of government and trade +the west coast, up to nearly 74° N., is divided into two inspectorates, +the southern extending to 67° 40′ N., the northern comprising +the rest of the country; the respective seats of government +being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates +are ruled by two superior officials or governors responsible to +the director of the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspectorates +is divided into districts, each district having, in addition +to the chief settlement or <i>coloni</i>, several outlying posts and +Eskimo hunting stations, each presided over by an <i>udligger</i>, +who is responsible to the <i>coloni-bestyrer</i>, or superintendent of the +district. These trading settlements, which dot the coast for +a distance of 1000 m., are about sixty in number. From the +Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is the chief article +received, and is forwarded in casks to the <i>coloni</i>, where it is boiled +into oil, and prepared for being despatched to Copenhagen by +means of the government ships which arrive and leave between +May and November. For the rest of the year navigation is +stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing +season. The principle upon which the government acts is to +give the natives low prices for their produce, but to sell them +European articles of necessity at prime cost, and other stores, +such as bread, at prices which will scarcely pay for the purchase +and freight, while no merchandise is charged, on an average, +more than 20% over the cost price in Denmark. In addition +the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from private dealers +on paying freight for them at the rate of 2½d. per 10 ℔, or 1s. 6d. +per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and native +articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and +Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government. +Out of the payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-sixth +devoted to the Greenlanders’ public fund, spent in “public +works,” in charity, and on other unforeseen contingencies. +The object of the monopoly is solely for the good of the Greenlanders—to +prevent spirits being sold to them, and the vice, +disease and misery which usually attend the collision between +natives and civilization of the trader’s type being introduced +into the primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition +to being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious +crime is very rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local +councils or <i>parsissaet</i> were organized in 1857 in every district. +To these parish parliaments delegates are sent from every station. +These <i>parsissoks</i>, elected at the rate of about one representative +to 120 voters, wear a cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid +the European members of the council in distributing the surplus +profit apportioned to each district, and generally in advising as +to the welfare of that part of Greenland under their partial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span> +control. The municipal council has the disposal of 20% of the +annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines +of each district. It holds two sessions every year, and the +discussions are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition +to their functions as guardians of the poor, the parish members +have to investigate crimes and punish misdemeanours, settle +litigations and divide inheritances. They can impose fines for +small offences not worth sending before the inspector, and, in +cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of inflicting corporal +punishment.</p> + +<p>A Danish <i>coloni</i> in Greenland might seem to many not to be +a cheerful place at best; though in the long summer days they +would certainly find some of those on the southern fjords comparatively +pleasant. The fact is, however, that most people +who ever lived some time in Greenland always long to go back. +There are generally in a <i>coloni</i> three or four Danish houses, +built of wood and pitched over, in addition to storehouses and +a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents may +include, besides a <i>coloni-bestyrer</i> and his assistant, a <i>missionair</i> +or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a +carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally +from twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built +of stone and turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their +houses in the <i>colonis</i> have also to some extent been built of +imported wood. Following the west coast northward, the +trading centres are these: in the south inspectorate, Julianehaab, +near which are remains of the early Norse settlements of +Eric the Red and his companions (the <i>Öster-Bygd</i>); Frederikshaab, +in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut; Godthaab, +the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of +which are also early Norse remains (the <i>Vester-Bygd</i>); Sukkertoppen, +a most picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the +north inspectorate the centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet +at the mouth of Disco Bay; Christianshaab, one of the +pleasantest settlements in the north, and Jacobshavn, on the +inner shores of the same bay; Godhavn (or Lievely) on the +south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of +the whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly +of all, Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni, +Angmagssalik, in 65º 30′ N., only established in 1894. For +ecclesiastical purposes Danish Greenland is reckoned in the +province of the bishop of Zeeland. The Danish mission in +Greenland has a yearly grant of £2000 from the trading revenue +of the colony, besides a contribution of £880 from the state. +The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a +century and a half, retired from the country in 1900. The +trade of Greenland has on the whole much decreased in modern +times, and trading and missions cost the Danish state a comparatively +large sum (about £11,000 every year), although this +is partly covered by the income from the royalty of the cryolite +mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of more +than £6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was +formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought +about by the fall in the price of seal-oil. It might be expected +that there should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries, +caused by the European and American sealers catching larger +quantities every year, especially along the coasts of Newfoundland +and Labrador, and so actually diminishing the number of the +animals in the Greenland seas. The statistics of South Greenland, +however, do not seem to demonstrate any such decrease. The +average number of seals killed annually is about 33,000.<a name="fa39d" id="fa39d" href="#ft39d"><span class="sp">39</span></a> The +annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured goods, +foodstuffs, &c., may be taken somewhat to exceed £40,000. +The chief articles of export (together with those that have +lapsed) have been already indicated; but they may be summarized +as including seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins, +fish products and eiderdown, with some quantity of worked +skins. Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which in the days of the +old Norse settlements were the chief articles of export, are now +of little importance.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated +at 45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 11,893. The +Europeans number about 300. The Eskimo population of +Danish Greenland (west coast) seems to have decreased since +the middle of the 18th century. Hans Egede estimated the +population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large over-estimate. +The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious +diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During +the last half of the 19th century there was on the whole a slight +increase of the native population. The population fluctuates +a good deal, owing, to some extent, to an immigration of natives +from the east to the west coast. The population of the east +coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in number, several +hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north part of +the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef +Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in +1823 Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either +completely died out or have wandered south. A little tribe of +Eskimo living in the region of Cape York near Smith Sound—the +so-called “Arctic Highlanders” or Smith Sound Eskimo—number +about 240.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—In the beginning of the 10th century the Norwegian +Gunnbjörn, son of Ulf Kráka, is reported to have found some +islands to the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without +landing upon it, the southern part of the east coast of Greenland. +In 982 the Norwegian Eric the Red sailed from Iceland to find +the land which Gunnbjörn had seen, and he spent three years +on its south-western coasts exploring the country. On his return +to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in order to make +people more willing to go there, and reported so favourably on +its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining followers. +In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only +14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on +the south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric +built his house at Brattalid, near the inner end oí the fjord +Tunugdliarfik, just north of the present Julianehaab. Other +settlers followed and in a few years two colonies had been formed, +one called Österbygd in the present district of Julianehaab +comprising later about 190 farms, and another called Vesterbygd +farther north on the west coast in the present district +of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins +in the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where +these colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped +in coarse hairy cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones +with runic inscriptions have been found. On a voyage from +Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red) discovered +America in the year 1000, and a few years later Torfinn +Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from Greenland +to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years +later (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vinland</a></span>).</p> + +<p>When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various +remains indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been +people of a similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in +America, whom they called <i>Skraeling</i> (the meaning of the word +is uncertain, it means possibly weak people); but the sagas +do not report that they actually met the natives then. But +somewhat later they have probably met with the Eskimo +farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco +Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &c. +The Norse colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at +least to 73º N., where a small runic stone from the 14th century +has been found. On a voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still +farther north into the Melville Bay.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span></p> + +<p>Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance +of Olaf Trygvasson, king of Norway, in 1000 and following years. +In the beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own +bishop, who resided at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station +Igoliko, on an isthmus between two fjords, Igaliksfjord (the old +Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarfik (the old Eriksfjord), inside the +present colony Julianehaab. The Norse colonies had twelve +churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the Österbygd, +and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland, +had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261, +when the Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the +king of Norway. Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown +till 1814, when, at the dissolution of the union between Denmark +and Norway, neither it nor Iceland and the Faeroes were mentioned, +and they, therefore, were kept by the Danish king and +thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called respectively +<i>Öster Bygd</i> (or eastern settlement) and <i>Vester</i> (western) <i>Bygd</i>, +both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the +districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though +for long the view was persistently held that the first was on the +east coast, and numerous expeditions have been sent in search +of these “lost colonies” and their imaginary survivors. These +settlements at the height of their prosperity are estimated to have +had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however, is an over-estimate, the +number having probably been nearer one-half or one-third of +that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in +1540, but long before that date those appointed had never +reached their sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland +died there in 1377. After the middle of the 14th century very +little is heard of the settlements, and their communication with +the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually ceased. This +may have been due in great part to the fact that the shipping +and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of +Norway, who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of +years) to Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade +of Norway came more and more in the hands of the Hanseatic +League, which took no interest in Greenland. The last ship that +is known to have visited the Norse colony in Greenland returned +to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the settlements +seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they +were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period +seem to have become more numerous and to have extended +southwards along the coast from the north. This seems a less +feasible explanation; it is more probable that the Norse settlers +intermarried with the Eskimo and were gradually absorbed. +About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century +it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically +disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no +sign of any people save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a +few directly relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of +Norse influence.<a name="fa40d" id="fa40d" href="#ft40d"><span class="sp">40</span></a> For more than two hundred years Greenland +seems to have been neglected, almost forgotten. It was visited +by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing in the form of permanent +European settlements was established until the year 1721, when +the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans Egede, +landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid +many hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at +the present day the native race is civilized and Christianized. +Many of the colonists of the 18th century were convicts and +other offenders; and in 1750 the trade became a monopoly in +the hands of a private company. In 1733-1734 there was a +dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number +of the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a +private monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the +government took it over. Julianehaab was founded in the +following year. In 1807-1814, owing to the war, communication +was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but subsequently the +colony prospered in a languid fashion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Authorities.</i>—As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen +and its early history see Konrad Maurer’s excellent paper, “Geschichte +der Entdeckung Ostgrönlands” in the report of <i>Die zweite +deutsche Nordpolarfahrt 1869-1870</i> (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i.; G. Storm, +<i>Studies on the “Vineland” Voyages</i> (Copenhagen, 1889); <i>Extraits +des Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord</i> (1888); +K. J. V. Steenstrup, “Om Österbygden,” <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, +part ix. (1882), pp. 1-51; Finnur Jônsson, “Grönlands gamle +Topografi efter Kilderne” in <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part xx. +(1899), pp. 265-329; Joseph Fischer, <i>The Discoveries of the Norsemen +in America</i>, translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London, +1903). As to the general literature on Greenland, a number of the +more important modern works have been noticed in footnotes. +The often-quoted <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i> is of especial value; it +is published in parts (Copenhagen) since 1879, and is chiefly written +in Danish, but each part has a summary in French. In part xiii. +there is a most valuable list of literature about Greenland up to +1880. See also <i>Geographical Journal</i>, passim.</p> + +<p>Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned: +Hans Egede, <i>Description of Greenland</i> (London, 1745); Crantz, +<i>History of Greenland</i> (2 vols., London, 1820); <i>Grönlands historiske +Mindesmerker</i> (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1838-1845); H. Rink, <i>Danish +Greenland</i> (London, 1877); H. Rink, <i>Tales of the Eskimo</i> (London, +1875); (see also same, “Eskimo Tribes” in <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, +part xi.); Johnstrup, <i>Giesecke’s Mineralogiske Reise i Grönland</i> +(Copenhagen, 1878).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Inglefield, <i>Summer Search for Franklin</i> (London, 1853).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Second Grinnell Expedition</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Davis, Polaris (<i>Hall’s</i>) <i>North Polar Expedition</i> (Washington, +1876). See also Bessels, <i>Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition</i> +(Leipzig, 1879).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery</i> (1823).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt</i> (1873-1875).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Reise til Östkysten af Grönland</i> (1832; trans. by G. Gordon +Macdougall, 1837).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>The First Crossing of Greenland</i>, vol. i. (London, 1890), H. Mohn +and F. Nansen; “Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen +Durchquerung von Grönland” (1888). Ergänzungsheft No. 105 zu +<i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (Gotha, 1892).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> A. F. Nordenskiöld, <i>Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen til +Grönland</i> (Stockholm, 1885).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, pts. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen, 1895-1896).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Geografisk Tidskrift</i>, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>The Geographical Journal</i>, xiv. 534 (1899); xvii. 48 (1901); +<i>Två Somrar i Norra Ishafvet</i> (Stockholm, 1901).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14d" id="ft14d" href="#fa14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, parts xxvi.-xxvii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15d" id="ft15d" href="#fa15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Nares, <i>Voyage to the Polar Sea</i> (2 vols. London, 1877). See +also Blue Book, journals, &c., (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London, +1877).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16d" id="ft16d" href="#fa16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> A. W. Greely, <i>Report on the Proceedings of the United States +Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land</i>, vols. i. and ii. +(Washington, 1885); <i>Three Years of Arctic Service</i> (2 vols. London, +1886).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17d" id="ft17d" href="#fa17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> R. E. Peary, <i>Northward over the “Great Ice”</i> (2 vols. New York, +1898); E. Astrup, <i>Blandt Nordpolen’s Naboer</i> (Christiania, 1895).</p> + +<p><a name="ft18d" id="ft18d" href="#fa18d"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).</p> + +<p><a name="ft19d" id="ft19d" href="#fa19d"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896).</p> + +<p><a name="ft20d" id="ft20d" href="#fa20d"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See C. Kruuse in <i>Geografisk Tidskrift</i>, xv. 64 (Copenhagen, +1899). See also F. Nansen, “Die Ostküste Grönlands,” Ergänzungsheft +No. 105 zu <i>Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and +pl. iv., sketch No. 11.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21d" id="ft21d" href="#fa21d"><span class="fn">21</span></a> E. v. Drygalski, <i>Grönland-Expedition der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde +zu Berlin, 1891-1893</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).</p> + +<p><a name="ft22d" id="ft22d" href="#fa22d"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen, +1889).</p> + +<p><a name="ft23d" id="ft23d" href="#fa23d"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv. pp. +317 et seq., 323.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24d" id="ft24d" href="#fa24d"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft25d" id="ft25d" href="#fa25d"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881).</p> + +<p><a name="ft26d" id="ft26d" href="#fa26d"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).</p> + +<p><a name="ft27d" id="ft27d" href="#fa27d"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. +150-154 (1896).</p> + +<p><a name="ft28d" id="ft28d" href="#fa28d"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, part xix. p. 175 (1896).</p> + +<p><a name="ft29d" id="ft29d" href="#fa29d"><span class="fn">29</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347; +part iv. p. 237; part viii. p. 26.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30d" id="ft30d" href="#fa30d"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See A. G. Nathorst, “Bidrag till nordöstra Grönlands geologi,” +with map <i>Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar</i>, +No. 257, Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, <i>Flora fossilis Arctica</i> +(7 vols., 1868-1883), and especially <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i> for +numerous papers on the geology and palaeontology.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31d" id="ft31d" href="#fa31d"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>Medd. om Grönl.</i>, part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).</p> + +<p><a name="ft32d" id="ft32d" href="#fa32d"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See Peary, <i>Northward over the “Great Ice,”</i> ii. 604 et seq. +(New York, 1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft33d" id="ft33d" href="#fa33d"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See <i>loc. cit.</i> pp. 127-128.</p> + +<p><a name="ft34d" id="ft34d" href="#fa34d"><span class="fn">34</span></a> H. Mohn, “The Climate of the Interior of Greenland,” <i>The +Scott. Geogr. Magazine</i>, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; +H. Mohn and F. Nansen, “Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,” &c. +Ergänzungsheft No. 105 <i>zu Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (1892), p. 51.</p> + +<p><a name="ft35d" id="ft35d" href="#fa35d"><span class="fn">35</span></a> On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V. Willaume-Jantzen, +<i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part ix. (1889), pp. 285-310, +part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180.</p> + +<p><a name="ft36d" id="ft36d" href="#fa36d"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See A. Paulsen, <i>Meteorolog. Zeitschrift</i> (1889), p. 241; F. Nansen, +<i>The First Crossing of Greenland</i> (London, 1890), vol. ii. pp. 496-497; +H. Mohn and F. Nansen, “Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,” &c. +Ergänzungsheft No. 105 <i>zu Petermanns Mitteilungen</i> (1892), p. 51.</p> + +<p><a name="ft37d" id="ft37d" href="#fa37d"><span class="fn">37</span></a> H. Winge, “Grönlands Fugle,” <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, +part xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).</p> + +<p><a name="ft38d" id="ft38d" href="#fa38d"><span class="fn">38</span></a> See J. Lange, “Conspectus florae Groenlandicae,” <i>Meddelelser +om Grönland</i>, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming, +“Om Grönlands Vegetation,” <i>Meddelelser om Grönland</i>, part xii. +(Copenhagen, 1888); and in <i>Botanische Jahrbücher</i>, vol. x. (1888-1889). +See also A. Blytt, <i>Englers Jahrbücher</i>, ii. (1882), pp. 1-50; +A. G. Nathorst, <i>Ötversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl.</i> (Stockholm, +1884); “Kritische Bemerkungen über die Geschichte der +Vegetation Grönlands,” <i>Botanische Jahrbücher</i>, vol. xiv. (1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft39d" id="ft39d" href="#fa39d"><span class="fn">39</span></a> Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874 +as to the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Greenland, +and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation, +the Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for +the establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in +question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to +put its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships +or subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned +in the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar provisions +with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in council +under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of April in +each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February 15, +1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still operative.</p> + +<p><a name="ft40d" id="ft40d" href="#fa40d"><span class="fn">40</span></a> Cf. F. Nansen, <i>Eskimo Life</i> (London, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENLAW<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (a “grassy hill”), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62¼ m. +S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway company’s branch +line from Reston Junction to St Boswells. The town was built +towards the end of the 17th century, to take the place of an older +one, which stood about a mile to the S.E. It was the county town +from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it shared this dignity +with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital. The chief +manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About +3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the 13th +century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English +in 1547, in spite of Lady Home’s gallant defence, it was retaken +two years afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its +surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards +the close of the 18th century the 3rd earl of Marchmont had the +walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle, though a mere +shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque ruin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENLEAF, SIMON<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1783-1853), American jurist, was +born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, on the 5th of December +1783. When a child he was taken by his father to Maine, where +he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise at Standish. He +soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve years, and +in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme +court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of +<i>Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine</i> (1822-1835). +In 1833 he became Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded +Judge Joseph Story as Dane professor of law in Harvard University; +in 1848 he retired from his active duties, and became +professor emeritus. After being for many years president of the +Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge, Mass., on +the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf’s principal work is a <i>Treatise +on the Law of Evidence</i> (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also published +<i>A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or Limited +in their Application, taken from American and English Reports</i> +(1821), and <i>Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists +by the Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice, +with an account of the Trial of Jesus</i> (1846; London, 1847). He +revised for the American courts William Cruise’s <i>Digest of Laws +respecting Real Property</i> (3 vols., 1849-1850).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN MONKEY,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a west African representative of the typical +group of the guenon monkeys technically known as <i>Cercopithecus +callitrichus</i>, taking its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur +of the back, which forms a marked contrast to the white whiskers +and belly.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENOCK,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh and seaport of +Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of +Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of Glasgow by the Caledonian and the +Glasgow & South-Western railways, 21 m. by the river and +firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water frontage of +nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town in +which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch +Gryfe, from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic +use, and for driving several mills and factories. The streets are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span> +laid out on the comparatively level tract behind the firth, the +older thoroughfares and buildings lying in the centre. The west +end contains numerous handsome villas and a fine esplanade, 1½ m. +long, running from Prince’s Pier to Fort Matilda, which is supplied +with submarine mines for the defence of the river. The capacious +bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence from a religious +house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank that ends +here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway +between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and +the southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper +firth. There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting +with Port Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total +distance of 7½ m. The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and +Greenock thus has the reputation of being the wettest town in +Scotland.</p> + +<p>Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The municipal +buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with +a tower 244 ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on +the old steamboat quay, in classic style with a Doric portico, +dates from 1818. The county buildings (1867) have a tower and +spire 112 ft. high. The Watt Institution, founded in 1837 by a +son of the famous engineer, James Watt, contains the public +library (established in 1783), the Watt scientific library (presented +in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble statue of James +Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the museum and +lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other +buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library, +founded by the widow of William Spence the mathematician. +In addition to numerous board schools there are the Greenock +academy for secondary education, the technical college (1900), +the school of art, and a school of navigation and engineering. +The charitable institutions include the infirmary; the cholera +hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception house; Sir +Gabriel Wood’s mariners’ asylum, an Elizabethan building +erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant seamen; +and the Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built +beyond the southern boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour +stands the old west now the north parish church (a Gothic +edifice dating from 1591) containing some stained-glass windows +by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns’s “Highland Mary” +was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson Street +(1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile. +The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the +Classic style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the +infirmary and attached to a few of the older churches, a beautiful +cemetery, 90 acres in extent, has been laid out in the south-western +district. The parks and open spaces include Wellington +Park, Well Park in the heart of the town (these were the gift of +Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle Road—a broad drive +winding over the heights towards Gourock, constructed as a +“relief work” in the severe winter of 1879-1880.</p> + +<p>Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with +provost and bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by +one member. The corporation owns the supplies of water (the +equipment of works and reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas, +electric light and power, and the tramways (leased to a company). +The staple industries are shipbuilding (established in 1760) and +sugar refining (1765). Greenock-built vessels have always been +esteemed, and many Cunard, P. & O. and Allan liners have been +constructed in the yards. The town has been one of the chief +centres of the sugar industry. Other important industries +include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives, +anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and +worsted goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium +factory, a flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The +seal and whale fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct, +but the fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland +grounds are considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first +harbour (finished in 1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but +acquired it in that and the following year, and a graving dock +was opened in 1786. Since then additions and improvements +have been periodically in progress, and there are now several +tidal harbours—among them Victoria harbour, Albert harbour, +the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour, +the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt +dock (completed in 1886 at a cost of £650,000 with an area of +2000 ft. by 400 ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel +graving dock and other dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100 +acres in area and the quay walls are over 3 m. in length. Both +the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways +(in Prince’s Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage +nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last +the outlay on the harbour has exceeded £1,500,000.</p> + +<p>In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing +village, consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century +later there were only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it +was erected by Charles I. into a burgh of barony under a charter +granted to John Shaw, the government being administered by a +baron-bailie, or magistrate, appointed by the superior. Its +commercial prosperity received an enormous impetus from the +Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with America and the +West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of Independence +suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in +in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in +amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw—to whom and to whose +descendants, the Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been +indebted—by charter (dated 1741 and 1751) had empowered the +householders to elect a council of nine members, which proved to +be the most liberal constitution of any Scots burgh prior to the +Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the status of +a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to +parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt, +William Spence (1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898), +principal of Glasgow University, who died in the town and was +buried in Greenock cemetery. John Galt, the novelist, was +educated in Greenock, where he also served some time in the +custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided the +town in 1715.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENOCKITE,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a rare mineral composed of cadmium +sulphide, CdS, occurring as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals +or as a canary-yellow powder. Crystals are hexagonal with +hemimorphic development, being differently terminated at the +two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the numerous +hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The crystals +are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine +to resinous lustre; hardness 3-3½; specific gravity 4.9. Crystals +have been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the +neighbourhood of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite +in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic igneous rocks—a rather +unusual mode of occurrence for a metallic sulphide. The first, +and largest crystal (about ½ in. across) was found, about the +year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at Bowling in Dumbartonshire, +but this was thought to be blende. A larger number of crystals, +but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the cutting of the +Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they +were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of +Cathcart, after whom the mineral was named. A third locality +is the Boyleston quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities—Przibram +in Bohemia, Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.—the +mineral is represented only as a powder dusted over the +surface of zinc minerals, especially blende and calamine, which +contain a small amount of cadmium replacing zinc.</p> + +<p>Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide +(ZnS) known as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared +artificially, and are not uncommon as furnace products. Previous +to the recent discovery in Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small +octahedral crystals, greenockite was the only known mineral +containing cadmium as an essential constituent.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENORE,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a seaport and watering-place of county Louth, +Ireland, beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on +its western shore. It was brought to importance by the action +of the London & North-Western railway company of England, +which owns the pier and railways joining the Great Northern +system at Dundalk (12½ m.) and Newry (14 m.). A regular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> +service of passenger steamers controlled by the company runs +to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses the Lough +to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places of +county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out +the golf links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach, +some 10 ft. above present sea-level, is to be seen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1778-1855), English geologist, +was born in London on the 18th of January 1778. He +was educated at Eton, and afterwards (1795) entered Pembroke +College, Oxford, but never graduated. In 1798 he proceeded +to Göttingen to prosecute legal studies, but having +attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the +study of natural history, and, coming into the possession of a +fortune, he abandoned law and devoted his attention to science. +He studied mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in +various parts of Europe and the British Isles, and worked at +chemistry at the Royal Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused +deep interest in political questions, and he was in 1807 elected +member of parliament for the borough of Gatton, continuing to +hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his interest in geology +increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was the chief +founder with others of the Geological Society of London in 1807. +He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it +was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and +in this capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and +did much to promote the advancement of geology. In 1819 +he published <i>A Critical Examination of the First Principles of +Geology</i>, a work which was useful mainly in refuting erroneous +theories. In the same year was published his famous <i>Geological +Map of England and Wales</i>, in six sheets; of which a second +edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based +on the original map of William Smith; but much new information +was embodied. In 1843 he commenced to prepare a geological +map of India, which was published in 1854. He died at +Naples on the 2nd of April 1855.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENOUGH, HORATIO<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1805-1852), American sculptor, +son of a merchant, was born at Boston, on the 6th of September +1805. At the age of sixteen he entered Harvard, but he devoted +his principal attention to art, and in the autumn of 1825 he went +to Rome, where he studied under Thorwaldsen. After a short +visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed busts of John Quincy +Adams and other people of distinction, he returned to Italy and +took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first commissions +was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chanting +Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government +to execute the colossal statue of Washington for the national +capital. It was unveiled in 1843, and was really a fine piece of +work for its day; but in modern times it has been sharply +criticized as unworthy and incongruous. Shortly afterwards +he received a second government commission for a colossal +group, the “Rescue,” intended to represent the conflict between +the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to +Washington to superintend its erection, and in the autumn of +1852 he was attacked by brain fever, of which he died in Somerville +near Boston on the 18th of December. Among other works +of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of Lafayette, the Medora +and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston Athenaeum. +Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in +prose and verse.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. T. Tuckerman, <i>Memoir of Horatio Greenough</i> (New York, +1853).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1833-1901), American +classical scholar, was born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May +1833. He graduated at Harvard in 1856, studied one year at +the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the Michigan bar, +and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he was +appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became +assistant professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which +he resigned hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge, +Massachusetts, on the 11th of October 1901. Following the +lead of Goodwin’s <i>Moods and Tenses</i> (1860), he set himself to +study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870 published <i>Analysis +of the Latin Subjunctive</i>, a brief treatise, privately printed, of +much originality and value, and in many ways coinciding with +Berthold Delbrück’s <i>Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und Optativs in +Sanskrit und Griechischen</i> (1871), which, however, quite overshadowed +the Analysis. In 1872 appeared <i>A Latin Grammar +for Schools and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar</i>, +by Joseph A. Allen and James B. Greenough, a work of great +critical carefulness. His theory of <i>cum</i>-constructions is that +adopted and developed by William Gardner Hale. In 1872-1880 +Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and comparative +philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced +scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen +and Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occasionally +contributed to <i>Harvard Studies in Classical Philology</i> +(founded in 1889 and endowed at his instance by his own class) +papers on Latin syntax, prosody and etymology—a subject +on which he planned a long work—on Roman archaeology and +on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy. He assisted +largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able English +scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with +Professor George L. Kittredge on <i>Words and their Ways in +English Speech</i> (1901), one of the best books on the subject in +the language. He wrote clever light verse, including <i>The Blackbirds</i>, +a comedietta, first published in <i>The Atlantic Monthly</i> +(vol. xxxix. 1877); <i>The Rose and the Ring</i> (1880), a pantomime +adapted from Thackeray; <i>The Queen of Hearts</i> (1885), a dramatic +fantasia; and <i>Old King Cole</i> (1889), an operetta.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in <i>Harvard Studies in +Classical Philology</i>, vol. xiv. (1903). pp. 1-17 (also printed in <i>Harvard +Graduates’ Magazine</i>, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEN RIBBON CLUB,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> one of the earliest of the loosely +combined associations which met from time to time in London +taverns or coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century. +It had its meeting-place at the King’s Head tavern at Chancery +Lane End, and was therefore known as the “King’s Head Club.” +It seems to have been founded about the year 1675 as a resort +for members of the political party hostile to the court, and as +these associates were in the habit of wearing in their hats a bow, +or “bob,” of green ribbon, as a distinguishing badge useful +for the purpose of mutual recognition in street brawls, the name +of the club became changed, about 1679, to the Green Ribbon +Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction of the +country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who +were concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth’s rebellion. +Roger North tells us that “they admitted all strangers that were +confidingly introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions +to make proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly +come to town.” According to Dryden (<i>Absalom and Achitophel</i>) +drinking was the chief attraction, and the members talked and +organized sedition over their cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied +the court with a list of forty-eight members of the Green Ribbon +Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield’s numerous perjuries +make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives confirmation +as regards several names from a list given to James II. by +Nathan Wade in 1885 (<i>Harleian MSS.</i> 6845), while a number +of more eminent personages are mentioned in <i>The Cabal</i>, a satire +published in 1680, as also frequenting the club. From these +sources it would appear that the duke of Monmouth himself, +and statesmen like Halifax, Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Macclesfield, +Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of Warke, Herbert of Cherbury, +were among those who fraternized at the King’s Head Tavern +with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and Shadwell, +with remnants of the Cromwellian régime like Falconbridge, +Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard +of Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the +type of Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield, +notorious among his other crimes and treacheries for a seditious +paper found in a meal-tub, is found in connexion with the club +in <i>The Loyal Subjects’ Litany</i>, one of the innumerable satires +of the period, in which occur the lines:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club</p> +<p class="i05">From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub,</p> + <p class="i5"><i>Libera nos, Domine</i>.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span></p> + +<p>The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the +court, and its members were active promoters of conspiracy and +sedition. The president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir +Robert Peyton, M.P. for Middlesex, who afterwards turned +informer. The Green Ribbon Club served both as a debating +society and an intelligence department for the Whig faction. +Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed +out by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news +from Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, “for +some or others were continually coming and going,” says Roger +North, “to import or export news and stories.” Slander of the +court or the Tories was invented in the club and sedulously +spread over the town, and measures were there concerted for +pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting the pretensions +of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to Catholic +outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the +scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk +armour, supposed to be bullet proof, “in which any man dressed +up was as safe as a house,” says North, “for it was impossible +to strike him for laughing”; while in their pockets, “for street +and crowd-work,” they carried the weapon of offence invented +by Stephen College and known as the “Protestant Flail.”</p> + +<p>The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club +the means of constructing the first systematized political organization +in England. North relates that “every post conveyed +the news and tales legitimated there, as also the malign constructions +of all the good actions of the government, especially to +places where elections were depending, to shape men’s characters +into fit qualifications to be chosen or rejected.” In the general +election of January and February 1679 the Whig interest +throughout the country was managed and controlled by a +committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club’s +organizing activity was also notably effective in the agitation +of the Petitioners in 1679. This celebrated movement was +engineered from the Green Ribbon Club with all the skill and +energy of a modern caucus. The petitions were prepared in +London and sent down to every part of the country, where paid +canvassers took them from house to house collecting signatures +with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The great +“pope-burning” processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary +of Queen Elizabeth’s accession, were also organized by the club. +They ended by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club +windows; and as they proved an effective means of inflaming +the religious passions of the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon +Club that the <i>mobile vulgus</i> first received the nickname of “the +mob.” The activity of the club was, however, short-lived. +The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of the favourite +projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence, which declined +rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation of the +city of London’s charter, and the discovery of the Rye House +Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685 +John Ayloffe, who was found to have been “a clubber at the +King’s Head Tavern and a green-ribon man,” was executed +in front of the premises on the spot where the “pope-burning” +bon-fires had been kindled; and although the tavern was still +in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green Ribbon Club +which made it famous did not survive the accession of James II. +The precise situation of the King’s Head Tavern, described by +North as “over against the Inner Temple Gate,” was at the +corner of Fleet Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the +latter thoroughfare.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir George Sitwell, <i>The First Whig</i> (Scarborough, 1894), +containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-burning +procession; Roger North, <i>Examen</i> (London, 1740); +Anchitell Grey, <i>Debates of the House of Commons</i>, 1667-1684, vol. +viii. (10 vols., London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, <i>Autobiography</i> +(Camden Soc., London, 1845).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENSAND,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in geology, the name that has been applied to +no fewer than three distinct members of the Cretaceous System, +viz. the Upper Greensand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gault</a></span>), the Lower Greensand +and the so-called Cambridge Greensand, a local phase of the base +of the Chalk (<i>q.v.</i>). The term was introduced by the early +English geologists for certain sandy rocks which frequently +exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of minute +grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of these +rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion +between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian) +and the Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention +to the latter.</p> + +<p>The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H. +Fitton (<i>Q.J.G.S.</i> iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name +“Vectine” for the formation. The name was revived under the +form “Vectian” in 1885 by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because, +although sands and sandstones prevail, the green colour has +often changed by oxidation of the iron to various shades of red +and brown, and other lithological types, clays and limestones +represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand +is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of +Wight, in Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again +beneath the northern outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxfordshire +and Bedfordshire, and thence it is traceable through +Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east Yorkshire. It rests conformably +upon the Wealden formation in the south of England, but +it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the occurrence +of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked overlap +of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived +pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft. +thick at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly +westward. It is usually clearly marked off from the overlying +Gault.</p> + +<p>In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been subdivided +as follows, although the several members are not everywhere +recognizable:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Isle of Wight.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Carstone and Sand rock series.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.)</td> <td class="tcl">Atherfield Clay.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The +basal portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the “Perna bed” from the +abundance of <i>Perna Mulleti</i>; other fossils are <i>Hoplites Deshayesii</i>, +<i>Exogyra sinuata</i>, <i>Ancyloceras Mathesonianum</i>. The Hythe beds +are interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former +are bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain +amount of quartz and glauconite. The limestone is known +locally as “rag”; the Kentish Rag has been largely employed +as a building stone and roadstone; it frequently contains layers +of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that town). The sandy +portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey and calcareous +and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone; +locally it is called “hassock” (or Calkstone). The two stones +are well exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so +called from the discovery of the bones of that reptile). Southwest +of Dorking sandstone and grit become more prevalent, and +it is known there as “Bargate stone,” much used around Godalming. +Pulborough stone is another local sandstone of the Hythe +beds. Fuller’s earth occurs in parts of this formation in +Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand and +clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst, +Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller’s +earth deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near +Maidstone, at Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds +are light-coloured, rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous +limestone (Folkestone stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found +near the top. These beds are well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone +and near Reigate. At Ightham there is a fine, hard, white sandstone +along with a green, quartzitic variety (Ightham stone). In +Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking, but a ferruginous +grit, “carstone,” occurs in lenticular masses and layers, +which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c.</p> + +<p>The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy +country, as about Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at +Woburn, or at Shanklin and Sandown in the Isle of Wight. +Outside the southern area the Lower Greensand is represented by +the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in Berkshire, the Sandy and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span> +Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron sands of Oxfordshire, +the sands and fuller’s earth of Woburn, the Leighton +Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the +Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county +and Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the +Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along +with the upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands +of the Lower Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture +of glass, for which purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone, +near Reigate, Hartshill, near Aylesbury and other places; the +ferruginous sand is worked as an iron ore at Seend.</p> + +<p>This formation is continuous across the channel into France, +where it is well developed in Boulonnais. According to the +continental classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the +Urgonian or Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to +the Aptian (<i>q.v.</i>); while the upper part of the Folkestone beds +would fall within the lower Albian (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Memoirs of the Geological Survey</i>, “Geology of the Weald” +(1875), “Geology of the Isle of Wight” (2nd ed., 1889), “Geology +of the Isle of Purbeck” (1898); and the <i>Record of Excursions</i>, +Geologists’ Association (London, 1891).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENSBORO,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Guilford county, +North Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. +(1890) 3317, (1900) 10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes; +(1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is served by several lines +of the Southern railway. It is situated in the Piedmont region +of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is the seat of +the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of the +Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; +chartered in 1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles +F. Deems was president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the +burning of its buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of +two institutions for negroes—a State Agricultural and Mechanical +College, and Bennett College (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, +1873). Another school for negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College +(Evangelical Lutheran, co-educational), was opened at Concord, +N.C., in 1903, was removed to Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907 +was established at Lutherville, E. of Greensboro. About 6 m. W. +of Greensboro is Guilford College (co-educational; Friends), +founded as “New Garden Boarding School” in 1837 and rechartered +under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a +Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is +the shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking +region, among whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton +are especially important; is an important insurance centre; has +a large wholesale trade; and has various manufactures, including +cotton goods<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (especially blue denim), tobacco and cigars, +lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds, machinery, foundry +products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory products +increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or 97.6%. +The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro +was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the +15th of March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford +Court House, about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a +Battle-Ground Park of 100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this +park contains a Revolutionary museum, and twenty-nine monuments, +including a Colonial Column, an arch (1906) in memory +of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North Carolina, +who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and +Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-1781), +a brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed +at Catawba and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson, +N.C., was named. Greensboro was founded and became the +county-seat in 1808, was organized as a town in 1829, and was +first chartered as a city in 1870.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the +first in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed +about 20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three +very large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill +villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these +three mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population +was estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools +for the children of operatives and carry on “welfare work” in these +villages.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENSBURG,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a borough and the county-seat of Westmoreland +county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg. +Pop. (1890) 4202; (1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420. +It is served by two lines of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an +important coal centre, and manufactures engines, iron and brass +goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In addition to its public school +system, it has several private schools, including St Mary’s +Academy and St Joseph’s Academy, both Roman Catholic. About +3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of Hanna’s +Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed +by the Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to +have been the first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on +the 6th of April 1773, and the county courts continued to be held +here until 1787. Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, immediately +after the opening of the state road, not far from the trail +followed by General John Forbes on his march to Fort Duquesne +in 1758; it was made the county-seat in 1787, and was incorporated +in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick (pop. in 1900, +901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg (620) +were merged with Greensburg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John N. Boucher’s <i>History of Westmoreland County, Pa.</i> +(3 vols., New York, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENSHANK,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> one of the largest of the birds commonly +known as sandpipers, the <i>Totanus glottis</i> of most ornithological +writers. Some exercise of the imagination is however needed to +see in the dingy olive-coloured legs of this species a justification +of the English name by which it goes, and the application of that +name, which seems to be due to Pennant, was probably by way +of distinguishing it from two allied but perfectly distinct species +of <i>Totanus</i> (<i>T. calidris</i> and <i>T. fuscus</i>) having red legs and usually +called redshanks. The greenshank is a native of the northern +parts of the Old World, but in winter it wanders far to the south, +and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope, in India and +thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia. +It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance +there must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a +woodcock, it is of a much more slender build, and its long legs +and neck give it a graceful appearance, which is enhanced by +the activity of its actions. Disturbed from the moor or marsh, +where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the air, conspicuous +by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries flies round +the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree, +if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits +all the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many +other <i>Limicolae</i> indulge during the breeding-season—with +certain variations, however, that are peculiarly its own. It +breeds in no small numbers in the Hebrides, and parts of the +Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to Sutherland, as well as +in the more elevated or more northern districts of Norway, +Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kamchatka. +In North America it is represented by two species, +<i>Totanus semipalmatus</i> and <i>T. melanoleucus</i>, there called willets, +telltales or tattlers, which in general habits resemble the greenshank +of the Old World.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Washington +county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi +river, about 75 m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900) +7642 (4987 negroes); (1910) 9610. Greenville is served by the +Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by +various passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Mississippi +river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta, a rich +cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost exclusively +connected with that staple. There are large warehouses, compresses +and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills. +Old Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county +seat of Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it), +and later became the county-seat of Washington county. Much +of the old town caved into the river, and during the Civil War it +was burned by the Federal forces soon after the capture of +Memphis. The present site was then adopted. The town of +Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was chartered +as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Darke county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton. +Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237. It is served by the Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Cincinnati Northern +railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is situated +about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a large +and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco. +It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and +creamery products and has grain elevators and tobacco warehouses. +In the city is a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there +is a county Children’s Home and Infirmary. The municipality +owns and operates its water-works. Greenville occupies the site +of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville (built by General +Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on the +3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory +over the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the +treaty of Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of +hostilities and ceding to the United States a considerable portion +of Ohio and a number of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and +Michigan (including the sites of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance, +Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and Chicago), and the +United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000 worth of +goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500, +for ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Delawares, +the Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawatomies, +the Miamis, the Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas, +the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river tribe. Tecumseh lived at +Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second Indian treaty was +negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H. Harrison and +Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the Shawnees, +the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United +States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white +settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town +was laid out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of +the newly erected county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in +1838 and chartered as a city in 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Greenville +county, South Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m. +N.W. of Columbia, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) +8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom 5414 were negroes; (1910, census) +15,741. It is served by the Southern, the Greenville & +Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina railways. +It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue Ridge +Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors. +It is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing +district. Greenville’s chief interest is in cotton, but it has +various other manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron +and fertilizers. The total value of the factory products of the +city in 1905 was $1,676,774, an increase of 73.5% since 1900. +The city is the seat of Furman University, Chicora College for +girls (1893; Presbyterian), and Greenville Female College (1854; +Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379 students, and which, +besides the usual departments, has a conservatory of music, +a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture and +a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University +(Baptist; opened in 1852) grew out of the “Furman Academy +and Theological Institution,” opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827, +and named in honour of Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-known +Baptist clergyman of South Carolina, whose son, James +C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of the University. +In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250 students, +of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville +was laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and +was first chartered as a city in 1868.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENVILLE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hunt county, +Texas, U.S.A., near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m. +N.E. of Dallas. Pop. (1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-born +and 1751 were negroes; (1910) 8850. It is served by the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South-Western and the +Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton market, +has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery, +and other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agricultural +district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting +plant. It is the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in +1893, and 1 m. from the city limits, in the village of Peniel +(pop. 1908, about 500), a community of “Holiness” people, are +the Texas Holiness University (1898), a Holiness orphan asylum +and a Holiness press. Greenville was settled in 1844, and was +chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas legislature +granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission +government similar to that of Galveston.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENWICH,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut, +U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the +state, about 28 m. N.E. of New York City. It contains a borough +of the same name and the villages of Cos Cob, Riverside and +Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford +Railway; the township has steamboat and electric railway +connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900) +12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of +the borough (1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort, +principally for New Yorkers. Among the residents have been +Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman, the landscape +painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder +of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches +in the township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H. +Murray (1840-1904), called “Adirondack Murray,” from his +<i>Camp Life in the Adirondack Mountains</i> (1868), was once pastor. +In the borough are a public library, Greenwich Academy (1827; +co-educational), the Brunswick School for boys (1901), with +which Betts Academy of Stamford was united in 1908, and a +hospital. The principal manufactures are belting, woollens, +tinners’ hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are shipped +from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven +Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the exploration +of Long Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid +claim to Greenwich, and as New Haven did nothing to assist +the settlers, they consented to union with New Netherland in +1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty +of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and +the New Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to +Greenwich, but the inhabitants of the town refused to submit +to the New Haven Colony until October 1656. Six years later +Greenwich was one of the first towns of the New Haven Colony +to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered severely +during the War of Independence on account of the frequent +quartering of American troops within its borders, the depredations +of bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York +by the British in 1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779 +(February 25) and 1781 (December 5). There was also a strong +loyalist sentiment. On the old post-road in Greenwich is the +inn, built about 1729, at which Israel Putnam was surprised in +February 1779 by a force under General Tryon; according to +tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone steps. +The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American +Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial. +The township government of Greenwich was instituted in the +colonial period. The borough of Greenwich was incorporated in +1858.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D. M. Mead, <i>History of the Town of Greenwich</i> (New York, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENWICH,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a south-eastern metropolitan borough of +London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by +Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Deptford. Pop. (1901) +95,770. Area, 3851.7 acres. It has a river-frontage of 4½ m., +the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing the Isle of Dogs +on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich side. +Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the +Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs +(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street +traffic, crossing to a point between the East and West India +Docks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poplar</a></span>). The main thoroughfares from W. to E. +are Woolwich and Shooter’s Hill Roads, the second representing +the old high road through Kent, the Roman Watling Street. +Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, when it was +a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span></p> + +<p>The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the +observatory. Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became +in 1873 a Royal Naval College. Upon it or its site centre nearly +all the historical associations of the place. The noble buildings, +contrasting strangely with the wharves adjacent and opposite +to it, make a striking picture, standing on the low river-bank with +a background formed by the wooded elevation of Greenwich +Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal palace called +Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as +early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort, +duke of Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of +Gloucester, who largely improved the property and named it +<i>Placentia</i>. It did not revert to the crown till his death in 1447. +It was the birthplace of Henry VIII., Queen Mary and Queen +Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building was enlarged +by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief +residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the +“Queen’s House” for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land +from the crown “as of the manor of East Greenwich” became at +this time a recognized formula, and occurs in a succession of +American colonial charters from those of Virginia in 1606, 1609 +and 1612 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along with other royal +palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by the +Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of +Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of +the present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design +which was not further carried out. In its unfinished state it +was assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain of +the great officers of state, as commissioners for its conversion +into a hospital for seamen; and it was opened as such in 1705. +The building consists of four blocks. Behind a terrace 860 ft. +in length, stretching along the river side, are the buildings +erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones’s designs, and +in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren; +and behind these buildings are on the west those of King William +and on the east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren’s designs. +In the King William range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the +remains of Nelson lay in state before their burial in St Paul’s +Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling were painted by Sir James +Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and it is hung with +portraits of the most distinguished admirals and paintings of +the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range is +the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson +and of Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal +quadrangle of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by +Rysbrack, sculptured out of a single block of marble taken from +the French by Admiral Sir George Rooke. In the upper quadrangle +is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey, and there are various +other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the building was +in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was +erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endowments +of the hospital were increased at various periods from +bequests and forfeited estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen +were boarded within it, and 5000 or 6000 others, called out-pensioners, +received stipends at various rates out of its funds; +but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the Admiralty to +grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such of the +inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another +act was passed making their leaving on these conditions compulsory. +It was then devoted to the accommodation of the +students of the Royal Naval College, the Infirmary being granted +to the Seamen’s Hospital Society. Behind the College is the +Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons of petty officers +and seamen, are boarded.</p> + +<p>To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres), +lying high, and commanding extensive views over London, the +Thames and the plain of Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey, +duke of Gloucester, and laid out by Charles II., and contains +a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in his time. In it is +situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the advancement +of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact +time is conveyed each day at one o’clock by electric signal to +the chief towns throughout the country; British and the majority +of foreign geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A +standard clock and measures are seen at the entrance. A new +building was completed in 1899, the magnetic pavilion lying +some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to avoid the disturbance +of instruments which would be occasioned by the iron used in +the principal building. South of the park lies the open common +of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in +the east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich +Common.</p> + +<p>At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known +as the whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony +arose out of a dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex +shore of the Thames, by the commissioners for engineering +works carried out there in 1705-1720—a remarkable achievement +for this period—to save the lowlands from flooding. To one of +these dinners Pitt was invited, and was subsequently accompanied +by some of his colleagues. Early in the 19th century the +venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial function, +was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always +held here, was later celebrated regularly at the “Ship,” an +hotel of ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet +continued till 1868, was revived in 1874-1880, and was held for +the last time in 1894.</p> + +<p>The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated +to St Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the +Danes in 1012. In the church Wolfe, who died at Quebec +(1759), and Tallis, the musician, are buried. A modern stained-glass +window commemorates Wolfe.</p> + +<p>The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member. +Two burgesses were returned in 1577, but it was not again represented +till the same privilege was conferred on it in 1832. +The borough council consists of a mayor, five aldermen and +thirty councillors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENWOOD, FREDERICK<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1830-1909), English journalist +and man of letters, was born in April 1830. He was one of three +brothers—the others being James and Charles—who all gained +reputation as journalists. Frederick started life in a printing +house, but at an early age began to write in periodicals. In +1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a volume +called <i>The Napoleon Dynasty</i> (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote +several novels: <i>The Loves of an Apothecary</i> (1854), <i>The Path +of Roses</i> (1859) and (with his brother James) <i>Under a Cloud</i> +(1860). To the second number of the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> he +contributed “An Essay without End,” and this led to an introduction +to Thackeray. In 1862, when Thackeray resigned the +editorship of the <i>Cornhill</i>, Greenwood became joint editor with +G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole editor, a post +which he held until 1868. While at the <i>Cornhill</i> he wrote an +article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray +might have intended to conclude his unfinished work <i>Denis +Duval</i>, and in its pages appeared <i>Margaret Denzil’s History</i>, +Greenwood’s most ambitious work of fiction, published in +volume form in 1864. At that time Greenwood had conceived +the idea of an evening newspaper, which, while containing “all +the news proper to an evening journal,” should, for the most +part, be made up “of original articles upon the many things +which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse +the leisure of mankind.” Public affairs, literature and art, +“and all the influences which strengthen or dissipate society” +were to be discussed by men whose independence and authority +were equally unquestionable. Canning’s <i>Anti-Jacobin</i> and the +<i>Saturday Review</i> of 1864 were the joint models Greenwood had +before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and +the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i> (so named after Thackeray’s imaginary +paper in <i>Pendennis</i>) was launched in February 1865, with +Greenwood as editor. Within a few years he had come to +exercise a great influence on public affairs. His views somewhat +rapidly ripened from what was described as philosophic Liberalism +into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain, Mr +Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a +more effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span> +had in Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood +that Beaconsfield purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the +Khedive Ismail; the British government being ignorant, until +informed by Greenwood, that the shares were for sale and likely +to be bought by France. It was characteristic of Greenwood +that he declined to publish the news of the purchase of the shares +in the <i>Pall Mall</i> before the official announcement was made.</p> + +<p>Early in 1880 the <i>Pall Mall</i> changed owners, and the new +proprietor required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood +at once resigned his editorship, but in May a new paper, the +<i>St James’s Gazette</i>, was started for him by Mr Henry Hucks +Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and Greenwood proceeded +to carry on in it the tradition which he had established in the +<i>Pall Mall</i>. At the <i>St James’s</i> Greenwood remained for over +eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon +political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone +administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of +Lord Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August +1888, owing to disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E. +Steinkopff, who had bought the <i>St James’s</i> at Greenwood’s +own suggestion. In January 1891 Greenwood brought out a +weekly review which he named the <i>Anti-Jacobin</i>. It failed, +however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in +January 1892. In 1893 he published <i>The Lover’s Lexicon</i> and +in 1894 <i>Imagination in Dreams</i>. He continued to express his +views on political and social questions in contributions to +newspapers and magazines, writing frequently in the <i>Westminster +Gazette</i>, the <i>Pall Mall</i>, <i>Blackwood</i>, the <i>Cornhill</i>, &c. Towards +the end of his life his political views reverted in some respects +to the Liberalism of his early days.</p> + +<p>In the words of George Meredith “Greenwood was not only a +great journalist, he had a statesman’s head. The national +interests were always urgent at his heart.” He was remarkable +for securing for his papers the services of the ablest writers of +the day, and for the gift of recognizing merit in new writers, +such, for instance, as Richard Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His +instinct for capacity in others was as sure as was his journalistic +judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, a +dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, journalists, +and men of letters (with John Morley—who had succeeded him +as editor of the <i>Pall Mall</i>—in the chair). In May 1907 he +contributed to <i>Blackwood</i> an article on “The New Journalism,” +in which he drew a sharp contrast between the old and the new +conditions under which the work of a newspaper writer is conducted. +He died at Sydenham on the 14th of December 1909.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Honouring Frederick Greenwood</i>, being a report of the speeches +at the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed, +1905); “Birth and Infancy of the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>,” an article +contributed by Greenwood to the <i>Pall Mall</i> of the 14th of April +1897; “The Blowing of the Trumpet” in the introduction to the +<i>St James’s</i> (May 31, 1880); obituary notices in the <i>Athenaeum</i> +(Dec. 25, 1909) and <i>The Times</i> (Dec. 17, 1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREENWOOD, JOHN<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (d. 1593), English Puritan and +Separatist (the date and place of his birth are unknown), entered +as a sizar at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, on the 18th of +March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A. 1581. Whether he was +directly influenced by the teaching of Robert Browne (<i>q.v.</i>), +a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case he held +strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism +of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich, +at Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been +made deacon by John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest +by Thomas Cooper, bishop of Lincoln; but ere long he renounced +this ordination as “wholly unlawful.” Details of the +next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the recognized +leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable number +had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood +was arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was +committed to the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default +of bail for conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some +controversial tracts in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner +Henry Barrowe (<i>q.v.</i>). He is understood to have been at liberty +in the autumn of 1588; but this may have been merely “the +liberty of the prison.” However, he was certainly at large in +September 1592, when he was elected “teacher” of the +Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) “An +Answer to George Gifford’s pretended Defence of Read Prayers.” +On the 5th of December he was again arrested; and the following +March was tried, together with Barrowe, and condemned to +death on a charge of “devising and circulating seditious books.” +After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he was hanged +on the 6th of April 1593.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—H. M. Dexter, <i>Congregationalism during the last +three hundred years</i>; <i>The England and Holland of the Pilgrims</i>; +F. J. Powicke, <i>Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam</i>; +B. Brook, <i>Lives of the Puritans</i>; C. H. Cooper, <i>Athenae Cantabrigienses</i>, +vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1809-1881), English essayist, +the son of a merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was +educated at the university of Edinburgh and for a time managed +a mill of his father’s at Bury, and in 1832 began business on his +own account. He entered with ardour into the struggle for +free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize offered by the Anti-Corn +Law League for the best essay on “Agriculture and the +Corn Laws.” He was too much occupied with political, economical +and theological speculations to give undivided attention to +his business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. +His <i>Creed of Christendom</i> was published in 1851, and in 1852 he +contributed no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies. +Disraeli praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed +a Commissionership of Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864 +he was made Comptroller of the Stationery Office. Besides +contributions to periodicals he produced several volumes of +essays on political and social philosophy. The general spirit +of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best known, +<i>The Enigmas of Life</i> (1872) and <i>Rocks Ahead</i> (1874). They +represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author’s youth, +when wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every +public ill. Greg was a man of deep moral earnestness of character +and was interested in many philanthropic works. He died at +Wimbledon on the 15th of November 1881. His brother, +<span class="sc">Robert Hyde Greg</span> (1795-1875), was an economist and +antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, <span class="sc">Samuel Greg</span> +(1804-1876), became well known in Lancashire by his philanthropic +efforts on behalf of the working-people. <span class="sc">Percy Greg</span> +(1836-1889), son of William Rathbone Greg, also wrote, like his +father, on politics, but his views were violently reactionary. +His <i>History of the United States to the Reconstruction of the Union</i> +(1887) is a polemic rather than a history.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGARINES<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (mod. Lat. <i>Gregarina</i>, from <i>gregarius</i>, collecting +in a flock or herd, <i>grex</i>) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa +Ectospora, in which a very high degree of morphological specialization +and cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently +found. On the other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly +simple. Other principal characters which distinguish Gregarines +from allied Sporozoan parasites are as follows:—The fully-grown +adult (trophozoite) is always “free” in some internal +cavity, <i>i.e.</i> it is extracellular; in nearly all cases prior to sporulation +two Gregarines (associates) become attached to one another, +forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a common +cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes +segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes, +primary sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the +resulting copula (zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually +a spore by the secretion of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its +protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up to form the germs (sporozoites).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:590px" src="images/img556a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewswi’s <i>Sporozoenkunde</i>, after Pfeiffer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—<i>a</i>, Transverse Section of Intestine of +Mealworm, infected with <i>Gregarina</i> (<i>Clepsydrina</i>) +<i>polymorpha</i>;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>b</i>, Part of <i>a</i> highly magnified.</td></tr></table> + +<p>F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a +Gregarine parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no +means certain. Much later (1787) Cavolini described +and figured an indubitable Gregarine (probably the +<span class="sidenote">Historical.</span> +form now known as <i>Aggregata conformis</i>) from a Crustacean +(<i>Pachygrapsus</i>), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm. +Leon Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came +across several species of these parasites, also considered them as +allied to the worms and proposed the generic name of <i>Gregarina</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span> +The unicellular nature of Gregarines was first realized by A. von +Kölliker, who from 1845-1848 added considerably to our knowledge +of the frequent occurrence and wide distribution of these +organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein who demonstrated +about this +time the relation +of the “pseudo-navicellae” +(spores) to the reproduction +of the +parasites.</p> + +<p>Apart from the +continually increasing +number +of known species, +matters remained +at about this +stage for many +years. It is, in +fact, only since +the closing years +of the 19th +century that the +complete life-history +has been +fully worked out; +this has now been +done in many +cases, thanks to +the researches of +M. Siedlecki, L. +Cuénot, L. Léger, +O. Duboscq, A. +Laveran, M. +Caullery, F. +Mesnil and +others, to whom +also we owe most +of our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the +cells of their host during their early development.</p> + +<p>Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are +not known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in +Ascidians. By far the greatest number of hosts is +furnished by the Arthropods. Many members of the +<span class="sidenote">Occurrence; mode of infection.</span> +various groups of worms (especially the Annelids) +also harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting +forms are found in Echinoderms; in the other classes, they +either occur only sporadically or else are absent. Infection +is invariably of the accidental (casual) type, by way of the alimentary +canal, the spores being usually swallowed by the host +when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been +described by Woodcock (<b>31</b>) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic +in Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca +into the respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:524px; height:135px" src="images/img556b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a +larva of <i>Tipula</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its +diverticula (<i>e.g.</i> the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity. +In the latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated +germs at once traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may +<span class="sidenote">Habitat and effects on host.</span> +come to rest in the connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remaining, +however, extracellular), grow considerably in that situation, +and ultimately fall into the body-cavity (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplocystis</i>); or +they may pass straightway into the body-cavity and +there come into relation with some organ or tissue (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Monocystis</i>) of the earthworm, which is for a time intracellular +in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, <i>c</i>). In the case +of intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite +with respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly. +The parasite may remain only attached to the host-cell, never +becoming actually intracellular (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pterocephalus</i>); more +usually it penetrates partially into it, the extracellular portion +of the Gregarine, however, giving rise subsequently to most of +the adult (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Gregarina</i>); or lastly, in a few forms, the early +development is entirely intracellular (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Lankesteria</i>, <i>Stenophora</i>).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:151px; height:658px" src="images/img556c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:264px; height:738px" src="images/img556d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Lankester.</td> +<td class="tcl f80">From Lankester, after various authors.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—<i>Porospora gigantea f</i>, +(E. van Ben.), from the intestine +of the lobster. <i>a</i>, Nucleus.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.</p> + +<p><i>a-c</i>, Trophozoites of <i>Monocystis agilis</i>.</p> + +<p><i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, Young individuals showing +changes of body-form.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Older individual, still enveloped +in a coat of spermatozoa.</p> + +<p><i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, Trophozoites of <i>M. magna</i> attached +to seminal funnel of +<i>Lumbricus</i>.</p> + +<p>Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in +which the extremity of the +parasite is inserted.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells. +These generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and alteration +in character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy, +when the substance of the cell becomes in one way or another +practically absorbed by the +growing parasite (cf. also +<span class="sc">Coccidia</span>). Since, however, +the Gregarines never overrun +their hosts in the way +that many other Sporozoa +do (because of their lack, in +general, of the power of endogenous +multiplication), the +number of cells of any tissue +attacked, even in the case of +a strong infection, is only a +very small percentage of the whole. In short the hosts do not, +as a rule, suffer any appreciable inconvenience from the presence +of the parasites.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:302px; height:303px" src="images/img557a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Siedlecki, from Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Part of a section through the +apparatus of fixation of a <i>Pterocephalus</i>, +showing root-like processes extending +from the Gregarine between the epithelial +cells. <i>g</i>, Head of Gregarine; <i>r</i>, Root-like +processes; <i>ep</i>, Epithelial cells.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:329px" src="images/img557b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—<i>Corycella armata</i>, +Léger. <i>a</i>, Cephalont; <i>b</i>, Epimerite +in host-cell; <i>c</i>, Sporont.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span> +or elongated; in one or two instances (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina</i>) it is spherical, +and, on the other hand, in <i>Porospora</i> (fig. 3) it is greatly +drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines, +<span class="sidenote">Morphology.</span> +the body is divided into two distinct but unequal regions +or halves, the anterior part being known as the <i>protomerite</i>, the +hinder, generally the larger, as the <i>deutomerite</i>. This feature is +closely associated with another important morphological character, +one which is observable, however, only during the earlier stages of +growth and development, +namely, the presence of +a definite organ, the <i>epimerite</i>, +which serves for +the attachment of the +parasite to the host-cell +(fig. 6).</p> + +<p>In those Gregarines +(most intestinal forms) +which become attached to +an epithelial cell, the +attachment occurs by +means of a minute projection +or beak (rostrum) +at the anterior end of the +sporozoite, which pushes +its way into the cell, +followed by the first part +of the growing germ. This +portion of the body increases +in size much +quicker at first than the +rest (the extracellular +part), more or less fills up +the host-cell, and forms +the well-developed epimerite +or secondary +attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next +grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short +distance away from (outside) the point where the body penetrates +into the cell (fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite +posteriorly (distally). Léger thinks that this partition most likely +owes its origin to trophic considerations, <i>i.e.</i> to the slightly different +manner in which the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal, +largely intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be +supposed to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the +host-cell supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal +liquid; and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting +limit between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer +does not think that mechanical considerations should be altogether +left out of account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an +adaption for strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against +lateral thrusts or strains, due to +the impact of foreign bodies (food, +&c.) in the intestine.</p> + +<p>At the point where the body +becomes actually intracellular, it is +constricted, and this constriction +marks off the epimerite (internally) +from the middle portion (between +this point and the septum), which +is the protomerite. Further +growth is restricted, practically, +to the extracellular regions, and the +epimerite often comes to appear +ultimately as a small appendage +at the anterior end of the protomerite. +A Gregarine at this stage +is known as a cephalont. Later +on, the parasite breaks loose from +the host-cell and becomes free in +the lumen, the separation taking +place at the constriction between +the protomerite and the epimerite; +the latter is left behind in the +remains of the host-cell, the former +becomes the anterior part of the +free trophozoite.</p> + +<p>In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards, +ultimately becoming “coelomic,” as well as those which become +entirely intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further, +the body remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include, +for instance, <i>Monocystis</i> (fig. 4), <i>Lankesteria</i>, <i>Diplocystis</i>, are distinguished, +as <i>Acephalina</i> or <i>Aseptata</i> (<i>Haplocyta</i>, <i>Monocystida</i>), according +to which character is referred to, from the others, termed +<i>Cephalina</i> or <i>Septata</i> (<i>Polycystida</i>).</p> + +<p>The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or +interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite, +but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and +are hence known as <i>Pseudomonocystida</i>; this condition may be +primitive (<i>Doliocystis</i>) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having +in course of time disappeared. Again, <i>Stenophora</i> is a septate form +which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the +young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of +an epimerite.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:517px; height:211px" src="images/img557c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Forms of Epimerites.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1, <i>Gregarina longa</i>.</p> +<p>2, <i>Sycia inopinata</i>.</p> +<p>3, <i>Pileocephalus heerii</i>.</p> +<p>4, <i>Stylorhynchus longicollis</i>.</p> +<p>5, <i>Beloides firmus</i>.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>6, <i>Cometoides crinitus</i>.</p> +<p>7, <i>Geneiorhynchus monnieri</i>.</p> +<p>8, <i>Echinomera hispida</i>.</p> +<p>9, <i>Pterocephalus nobilis</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety +of form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In +one or two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is +met with. Thus in <i>Pterocephalus</i>, only the rostrum of the sporozoite +penetrates into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a +number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the +anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus +anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious <i>Schizogregarinae</i>, +the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a number of stiff, +irregular processes, which perform the same function (fig. 8). It is +to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and not in any way +comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly likened.</p> + +<p>A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has +been recently described by Léger (<b>18</b>) in the case of a new Gregarine, +<i>Taeniocystis</i>. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically +segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozoites +possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding +to the septum between the proto- and deuto-merite in an ordinary +Polycystid), which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal +compartments. Léger thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus +segmented, the protomerite remaining small and undivided. The +nucleus remains single, so that there is no question as to the unicellular +or individual nature of the entire animal.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:292px; height:247px" src="images/img557d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Léger and Hagenmüller, from Lankester’s +<i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Three Individuals (G) of +<i>Ophryocystis schneideri</i>, attached to +wall of Malpighian tubule of <i>Blaps</i> sp. +<i>p</i>, Syncytial protoplasm of the tubule; +<i>c</i>, Cilia lining the lumen.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and +endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte), +secreted by the former. The cuticle varies considerably +in thickness, being well developed in active, intestinal +<span class="sidenote">Minute structure.</span> +forms, but very thin and delicate in non-motile coelomic +forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina</i>). In the former case it may show longitudinal +striations. The cuticle also forms the hooks or spines +of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. 9A) a differentiation +into two layers, +an outer, firmer layer, clear +and hyaline, the sarcocyte, +and an inner layer, the +myocyte, which is formed +of a network of muscle-fibrillae +(mainly longitudinal +and transverse, fig. +9<span class="scs">B</span>). The sarcocyte alone +constitutes the septum, +traversing the endoplasm, +in septate Gregarines. The +myonemes are undoubtedly +the agents responsible for +the active “gregarinoid” +movements (of flexion and +contraction) to be observed +in many forms. The +peculiar gliding movements +were formerly thought to +be produced by the extrusion +of a gelatinous thread +posteriorly, but Crawley (<b>8</b>) +has recently ascribed them +to a complicated succession of wave-like contractions of the +myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact that certain +coelomic forms, like <i>Diplodina</i> and others, which either lack +muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at all, +are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a +semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains +and spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an +accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to +reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are of a substance +termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span> +lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and +highly-refringent +granules often occur.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:225px; height:256px" src="images/img558a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:126px; height:237px" src="images/img558b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f80">After Schewiakoff, from Lankester’s +<i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td> +<td> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 9a.</span>—Longitudinal +section of a Gregarine in the +region of the septum between +protomerite and deutomerite.</p> + +<p><i>Pr</i>, Protomerite.</p> +<p><i>De</i>, Deutomerite.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Septum.</p> +<p><i>en</i>, Endoplasm.</p> +<p><i>sc</i>, Sarcocyte.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Cuticle.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, <i>f</i>, Myocyte fibrils (cut across).</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Gelatinous layer.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig. 9b.</span>—<i>Gregarina munieri</i>, showing +the network of myocyte fibrillae.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate +forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical +and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often +contains chromatin. The most characteristic +feature of the nucleus is +the deeply-staining, more or less +vacuolated spherical karyosome +(consisting of chromatin intimately +bound up with a plastinoid basis) +which is invariably present. In one +or two instances (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplocystis +schneideri</i>) the nucleus has more +than one karyosome. All the chromatin +of the nucleus is not, however, +confined to the karyosome, +some being in the form of grains +in the nuclear sap; and in some +cases at any rate (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina, +Lankesteria</i>) there is a well-marked +nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and dots of +chromatin.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:326px; height:413px" src="images/img558c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after A. Schneider.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Schizogony in <i>Ophryocystis +francisci</i>. <i>a</i>, Rosette of small individuals, +produced from a schizont which has just +divided; <i>b</i>, A later stage, the daughter-individuals +about to separate and assuming +the characters of the adult.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:312px; height:408px" src="images/img558d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—<i>Eirmocystis spp. a</i>, <i>b</i>, Associations +of two and three Gregarines; <i>c</i>, +Chain of five parasites; <i>p</i>, Primite; <i>s</i>, +Satellites.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to +occur in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of +<i>Gonospora</i>, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery +and Mesnil [<b>4</b>]), the rest among the <i>Schizogregarinae</i>, so +<span class="sidenote">Life-history.</span> +named for this reason, in which schizogonous fission takes +place regularly during the free, trophic condition. Usually, the body +divides up, by a process of multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to +eight) daughter-individuals; +but in a new +genus (<i>Eleutheroschizon</i>), +Brasil (<b>3</b>) finds +that a great number +of little merozoites are +formed, and a large +amount of vacuolated +cytoplasm is left over +unused.</p> + +<p>In the vast majority +of Gregarines, however, +the life-cycle is limited +to gametogony and +sporogony. A very +general, if not indeed +universal, prelude to +gametogony is the +characteristic and important +feature of the +order, known as association, +the biological significance +of which has +only lately been fully +brought out (see H. M. +Woodcock [<b>31</b>]). In +normal association, two +individuals which are +to be regarded as of +opposite sex, come into +close contact with each +other and remain thus +attached. The manner +in which the parasites +join varies in different +forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by +like or by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral) +(fig. 12). The couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith +to encystment and sporoblast-formation (<i>Lankesteria, Monocystis</i>), +or may continue in the trophic phase for some time longer (<i>Gregarina</i>). +In one or two instances (<i>Zygocystis</i>), association occurs as soon as the +trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting phenomenon +of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile, +coelomic Gregarines (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Cystobia</i>, <i>Diplodina</i> and <i>Diplocystis</i>), in +which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (<i>loc. cit.</i>) has described +and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a +permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these +forms. Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition +(seen, for instance, in <i>Diplodina minchinii</i>) the union takes place very +early in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than +sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm +of the two associates joining. +In such cases, there +is absolutely nothing to +indicate the “double” +nature of the growing trophozoite, +but the presence +of the two nuclei which +remain quite distinct.</p> + +<p>There can be little doubt +that, in the great majority, +if not in all Gregarines, +association is necessary +for subsequent sporulation +to take place; <i>i.e.</i> +that the cytotactic attraction +imparts a developmental +stimulus to both +partners, which is requisite +for the formation of primary +sporoblasts (gametes). +This association is usually +permanent; but in one or +two cases (perhaps <i>Gonospora +sp.</i>) temporary association +may suffice. +While association has +fundamentally a reproductive +(sexual) significance, +in some cases, this +function may be delayed +or, as it were, temporarily +suspended, the cytotactic +attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life. +Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations +and long chains of Gregarines (fig. 11) sometimes met with (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Eirmocystis</i>, <i>Clepsydrina</i>).</p> + +<p>Encystment is nearly always double, <i>i.e.</i> of an associated couple. +Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful +independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the encystment +in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior (temporary) +association. In the case of free parasites, a well-developed cyst is +secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and gradually becomes +spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer cyst-membrane +(<i>ectocyst</i>) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm internal one (endocyst). +The cyst once formed, further development is quite independent +of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside it. In +certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in very +close relation with the host’s tissues, little +or nothing of an encystment-process on +the part of the parasites is recognizable, +the cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing +layer of the host (<i>Diplodina</i>).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:182px; height:211px" src="images/img558e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Wasielewski, after +Léger.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Associations +of <i>Gonospora sparsa</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The nuclear changes and multiplication +which precede sporoblast-formation vary +greatly in different Gregarines and can +only be outlined here. In the formation of +both sets of sexual elements (gametes) there +is always a comprehensive nuclear purification +or maturation. This elimination of a +part of the nuclear material (to be distinguished +as trophic or somatic, from the +functional or germinal portion, which forms +the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely-different +periods. In some cases (<i>Lankesteria</i>, +<i>Monocystis</i>), a large part of the +original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate +is at once got rid of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus, +which is highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other +cases, again, the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and +the distinction between somatic and germinal portions does not +become manifest until after nuclear multiplication has continued +for some little time, when certain of the daughter-nuclei become +altered in character, and ultimately degenerate, the remainder +giving rise to the sporoblast-nuclei (<i>Diplodina</i>, <i>Stylorhynchus</i>). +Even after the actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are constituted, +their nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Clepsydrina ovata</i>); and in <i>Monocystis</i>, indeed, Brasil (<b>2</b>) finds +that what is apparently a similar process is delayed until after +conjugation and formation of the zygote (definitive sporoblast).</p> + +<p>Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span> +rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The +attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes +consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without centrosomic +granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a few +astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and +the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest +nuclear divisions are direct; the daughter-nuclei being formed either +by a process of simple constriction (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Diplodina</i>), or by a kind of +multiple fission or fragmentation (<i>Gregarina</i> and <i>Selenidium spp.</i>). +Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in <i>Diplodina</i>, are indirect.</p> + +<p>By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed, +the bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually +become very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes +and processes. While in some forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Monocystis</i>, <i>Urospora</i>, +<i>Stylorhynchus</i>) the two individuals remain fairly separate and independent +of each other, in others (<i>Lankesteria</i>) they become intertwined +and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent (<i>Diplodina</i>). +The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the processes and +segments, where they take up a position of uniform distribution. +Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes segregated, the +whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from the general +surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut off as the +sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the general +protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused, constituting +two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in <i>Diplodina</i>, +however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in the formation +of the gametes.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:428px; height:450px" src="images/img559a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Léger, from Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in +<i>Stylorhynchus longicollis</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>a</i>, Undifferentiated gamete, +attached to body of parent-individual.</p> + +<p><i>b-d</i>, Stages in development of +motile male gamete.</p> + +<p><i>e</i>, Mature female gamete.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, Stages in conjugation and +nuclear union of the two +elements.</p> + +<p><i>h</i>, Zygote (copula).</p> + +<p><i>i</i>, Spore, still with single +nucleus and undivided +sporoplasm.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition +of marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one +of complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed +in <i>Pterocephalus</i>. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are +minute, elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum +anteriorly and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the +female elements (megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid, +and quite passive. In <i>Stylorhynchus</i> the difference between the +conjugating gametes is not quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male +elements being of about the same bulk as the females, but pyriform +instead of round, and possessing a distinct flagellum; a most interesting +point about this parasite is that certain highly motile and +spermatozoon-like male gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are, +however, quite sterile and have acquired a subsidiary function. In +other cases, again, the two kinds of element exhibit either very slight +differences (<i>Monocystis</i>) or none (<i>Urospora</i>, <i>Gonospora</i>), in size and +appearance, the chief distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male +elements being smaller and chromatically denser than those of the +females.</p> + +<p>Lastly, in <i>Lankesteria</i>, <i>Gregarina</i>, <i>Clepsydrina</i>, <i>Diplocystis</i> and +<i>Diplodina</i> complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent +difference whatever between the conjugating elements. Nevertheless, +these forms are also to be regarded as instances of binary +sexuality and not merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain +that this condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical anisogamy, +through a stage such as is seen in <i>Gonospora</i>, &c. And, +similarly, just as in all instances where the formation of differentiated +gametes has been observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from +different associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising +from the same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case +here.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:465px" src="images/img559b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Cyst of <i>Monocystis agilis</i>, the common Gregarine of the +Earthworm, showing ripe spores and absence of any residual protoplasm +in the cyst. (From Lankester.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known +phenomenon termed the <i>danse des sporoblastes</i>, which is due to various +causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes (<i>Pterocephalus</i>), +the actively motile microgametes rush about here and there, and seek +out the female elements. In <i>Stylorhynchus</i>, Léger has shown that +the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring about, by their +vigorous movements, the <i>mêlée sexuelle</i>. In the forms where the +gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and (probably) +not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing the necessary +commingling. Thus in <i>Gregarina sp.</i> from the mealworm, the +unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out +processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the +cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied +(<i>Urospora</i>) the movements of the host are considered to be sufficient; +and lastly, in <i>Diplodina</i>, owing to the extent to which the intertwining +process is carried, if each gamete is not actually contiguous +to a suitable fellow-conjugant, a very slight movement or mutual +attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact.</p> + +<p>An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation +and conjugation, which occurs in <i>Ophryocystis</i>, must be mentioned. +Here encystment of two associates takes place as usual; the sporont-nucleus +of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-nuclei +resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one +sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original nuclear-material, +persists in each half. Around this some of the cytoplasm +condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or gamete +thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates with +the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote results +which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the ordinary +manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves +of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis +occurs, each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore.</p> + +<p>The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with +cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast +or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that +of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the ectospore. +This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced into rims, +spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic appearance of the +Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another, thinner membrane, +the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes form +the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore have +been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually mitotic, +the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each of which +becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm becomes +split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight sickle-shaped +(falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span> +certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the +spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that +in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporozoites +in the spore is eight; the exception is <i>Selenidium</i>, in many +ways far from typical, where the number is half, viz. four.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:252px" src="images/img560a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Ripe Cyst of <i>Gregarina blattarum</i>, +partially emptied. (From Lankester.) +<i>a</i>, Channels leading to the +sporoducts; <i>b</i>, Mass of spores still left in +the cyst; <i>c</i>, Endocyst; <i>d</i>, The everted +sporoducts; <i>e</i>, Gelatinous ectocyst.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation +has been considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the +<i>Aggregatidae</i> and the <i>Porosporidae</i>. +The spores of +these forms have been +regarded as gymnospores +(naked), lacking the enveloping +membranes +(sporocyst) of the ordinary +spores, and the sporozoites, +consequently, as +developed freely in the +cyst. In the case of the +first-named parasites, +however, what was taken +for sporogony has been +proved to be really schizogony, +and on other +grounds these forms are, +in the present writer’s +opinion, preferably associated +with the Coccidia +(<i>q.v.</i>). With regard to the +<i>Porosporidae</i>, also, it is +quite likely that the +gymnosporous cysts considered +to belong to the +Gregarine <i>Porospora</i> (as known in the trophic condition) have really +no connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of +some other form, similar to <i>Aggregata</i>; in which case the true spores +of <i>Porospora</i> have yet to be identified.</p> + +<p>In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are +liberated. This is usually largely brought about by the swelling of +the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Gregarina</i>) long tubular +outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the +residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior.</p> + +<p>The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several +<span class="sidenote">Classification.</span> +families, characterized, for the most part, by the form +of the spores (fig. 16). The specialized <i>Schizogregarinae</i> are +usually separated off from the rest as a distinct sub-order.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center" style="clear: both;"><span class="sc">Sub-order I.</span>—<i>Schizogregarinae.</i></p> + +<p>Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence +during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera, <i>Ophryocystis</i>, +<i>Schizocystis</i> and <i>Eleutheroschizon</i>, different peculiarities of +which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic in the intestine +or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of parasite, as exemplified +by <i>Ophryocystis</i>, the body was formerly wrongly considered +as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a special order, the +<i>Amoebosporidia</i>.)</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:521px; height:208px" src="images/img560b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Wasielewski, after Léger.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Spores of various Gregarines.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, <i>Eirmocystis, Sphaerocystis</i>, &c.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, <i>Echinomera, Pterocephalus</i>, &c.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, <i>Gregarina</i>, &c.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, <i>Beloides</i>.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, <i>Ancyrophora</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>f</i>, <i>Stylorhynchidae</i> (type of).</p> +<p><i>g</i>, <i>Menosporidae</i>.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, <i>Gonospora terebellae</i>.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, <i>Ceratospora</i>.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, <i>Urospora synaptae</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Sub-order II.</span>—<i>Eugregarinae.</i></p> + +<p>Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular +phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described +as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic), +respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these +two sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is +adopted, the other must be taken into account in estimating the +proper position of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephalont +condition is regarded as the more primary and fundamental.</p> + +<p class="center">Tribe A.—<i>Cephalina</i> (practically equivalent to <i>Septata</i>).</p> + +<p>Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate +during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly +intestinal parasites of Arthropods.</p> + +<p>The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows: +<i>Porosporidae</i>, with <i>Porospora gigantea</i>, at present thought to be +gymnosporous; <i>Gregarinidae</i> (<i>Clepsydrinidae</i>), with <i>Gregarina</i>, +<i>Clepsydrina</i>, <i>Eirmocystis</i>, <i>Hyalospora</i>, <i>Cmenidospora</i>, <i>Stenophora</i>; +<i>Didymophyidae</i>, with <i>Didymophyes</i>; <i>Dactylophoridae</i>, with <i>Dactylophorus</i>, +<i>Pterocephalus</i>, <i>Echinomera</i>, <i>Rhopalonia</i>; <i>Actinocephalidae</i> +with <i>Actinocephalus</i>, <i>Pyxinia</i>, <i>Coleorhynchus</i>, <i>Stephanophora</i>, <i>Legeria</i>, +<i>Stictospora</i>, <i>Pileocephalus</i>, <i>Sciadophora</i>; <i>Acanthosporidae</i> with <i>Acanthospora</i>, +<i>Corycella</i>, <i>Cometoides</i>; <i>Menosporidae</i> with <i>Menospora</i>, +<i>Hoplorhynchus</i>; <i>Stylorhynchidae</i>, with <i>Stylorhynchus</i>, <i>Lophocephalus</i>; +<i>Doliocystidae</i> with <i>Doliocystis</i>; and <i>Taeniocystidae</i>, with <i>Taeniocystis</i>. +The curious genus <i>Selenidium</i> is somewhat apart.</p> + +<p class="center">Tribe B.—<i>Acephalina</i> (practically equivalent to <i>Aseptata</i>, <i>Haplocyta</i>).</p> + +<p>The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly +coelomic parasites of “worms,” Holothurians and insects.</p> + +<p>The <i>Aseptata</i> have not been so completely arranged in families +as the <i>Septata</i>. Léger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but +the remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam. +<i>Gonosporidae</i>, with <i>Gonospora</i>, <i>Diplodina</i>; and <i>Urosporidae</i>, with +<i>Urosopora</i>, <i>Cystobia</i>, <i>Lithocystis</i>, <i>Ceratospora</i>; the genera <i>Monocystis</i>, +<i>Diplocystis Lankesteria</i> and <i>Zygocystis</i> probably constitute another; +<i>Pterospora</i> and, again, <i>Syncystis</i> are distinct; lastly, certain forms, +<i>e.g.</i> <i>Zygosoma</i>, <i>Anchora</i> (<i>Anchorina</i>), are incompletely known.</p> + +<p>There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently +described by J. Nusbaum (<b>24</b>) under the appropriate name of +<i>Schaudinnella henleae</i>, which inhabits the intestine of <i>Henlea leptodera</i>. +Briefly enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as +follows. The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the intestinal +cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is +very primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place +indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of +the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary; at other times +it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a +gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encystment +occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The +female gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and +sickle-like, but with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While +many of the zygotes (“amphionts”) resulting from copulation pass +out to the exterior, to infect a new host, others, possessing a more +delicate investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal +cells, producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous +sporozoites are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that <i>Schaudinnella</i> +is a practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it +recalls the Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs +widely from them in several characteristic features, being primitive +in some respects, but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot +be properly included in the order. <i>Schaudinnella</i> rather represents +a primitive Ectosporan parasite, which has proceeded upon a line +of its own, intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Among the important papers relating to Gregarines +are the following: <b>1.</b> A. Berndt, “Beitrag zur Kenntnis +der ... Gregarinen,” <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> I, p. 375, 3 pls. (1902); +<b>2.</b> L. Brasil, “Recherches sur la reproduction des Grégarines +monocystidées,” <i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> (4) 3, p. 17, pl. 2 (1905), and <i>op. cit.</i> +4, p. 69, 2 pls. (1905); <b>3.</b> L. Brazil, “<i>Eleutheroschizon duboscqi</i>, +parasite nouveau, &c.,” <i>op. cit.</i> (N. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs. (1906); +<b>4.</b> M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, “Sur une Grégarine ... présentant ... une +phase de multiplication asporulée,” <i>C.R. Ac. Sci.</i> 126, +p. 262 (1898); <b>5.</b> M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, “Le Parasitisme intracellulaire +des Grégarines,” <i>op. cit.</i> 132, p. 220 (1901); <b>6.</b> M. Caullery +and F. Mesnil, “Sur une mode particulière de division nucléaire +chez les Grégarines,” <i>Arch. anat. microsc.</i> 3, p. 146, 1 pl. (1900); <b>7.</b> +M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, “Sur quelques parasites internes des +Annélides,” <i>Misc. biol.</i> (<i>Trav. Stat. Wimereux</i>), 9, p. 80, 1 pl. (1899); +<b>7a.</b> J. Cecconi, “Sur l’<i>Anchorina sagittata</i>, &c.,” <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> +6, p. 230, 2 pls. (1905); <b>8.</b> H. Crawley, “Progressive Movement of +Gregarines,” <i>P. Ac. Philad.</i> 54, p. 4, 2 pls. (1902), also <i>op. cit.</i> 57, +p. 89 (1905); <b>9.</b> H. Crawley, “List of the Polycystid Gregarines of +the U.S.,” <i>op. cit.</i> 55, pp. 41, 632, 4 pls. (1903); <b>10.</b> L. Cuénot, +“Recherches sur l’évolution et la conjugaison des Grégarines,” <i>Arch. +biol.</i> 17, p. 581, 4 pls. (1901); <b>11.</b> A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, “Sur +quelques particularités de l’évolution d’une Grégarine et la réaction +de la cellule-hôte,” <i>C.R. Soc. Biol.</i> 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); <b>12.</b> L. +Léger, “Recherches sur les Grégarines,” <i>Tabl. zool.</i> 3, p. i., 22 pls. +(1892); <b>13.</b> L. Léger, “Contribution à la connaissance des Sporozoaires, +&c.,” <i>Bull. Sci. France</i>, 30, p. 240, 3 pls. (1897); <b>14.</b> L. Léger, +“Sur un nouveau Sporozoaire (<i>Schizocystis</i>), &c.,” <i>C.R. Ac. Sci.</i> 131, +p. 722 (1900); <b>15.</b> L. Léger, “La Reproduction sexuée chez les +Ophryocystis,” <i>t. c.</i> p. 761 (1900); <b>16.</b> L. Léger, “Sur une nouvelle +Grégarine (<i>Aggregata coelomica</i>,), &c.” <i>op. cit.</i> 132, p. 1343 (1901); +<b>17.</b> L. Léger, “La Reproduction sexuée chez les Stylorhynchus,” +<i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 3, p. 304, 2 pls. (1904); <b>18.</b> L. Léger, “Etude sur +<i>Taeniocystis mira</i> (Léger), &c.,” <i>op. cit.</i> 7, p. 307, 2 pls. (1906); <b>19.</b> +L. Léger and O. Duboscq, “La Reproduction sexuée chez <i>Pterocephalus</i>,” +<i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, 11 figs. (1903); +<b>20.</b> L. Léger and O. Duboscq, “<i>Aggregata vagans</i>, n. sp., &c.” <i>t. c.</i> +p. 147, 6 figs. (1903); <b>21.</b> L. Léger and O. Duboscq, “Les Grégarines +et l’épithélium intestinal, &c.,” <i>Arch. parasitol.</i> 6, p. 377, 4 pls. +(1902); <b>22.</b> L. Léger and O. Duboscq, “Nouvelles Recherches sur +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span> +les Grégarines, &c.,” <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 4, p. 335, 2 pls. (1904); <b>23.</b> +M. Lühe, “Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen,” <i>t. c.</i> p. 88, +several figs. (1904); <b>24.</b> J. Nusbaum, “Über die ... Fortpflanzung +einer ... Gregarine, <i>Schaudinnella henleae</i>,” <i>Zeit. wiss. Zool.</i> 75, +p. 281, pl. 22 (1903); <b>25.</b> F. Paehler, “Über die Morphologie, +Fortpflanzung ... von <i>Gregarina ovata</i>,” <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 4, +p. 64, 2 pls. (1904); <b>26.</b> S. Prowazek, “Zur Entwickelung der Gregarinen,” +<i>op. cit.</i>, 1, p. 297, pl. 9 (1902); <b>27.</b> A. Schneider (Various +memoirs on Gregarines), <i>Tabl. zool.</i> 1 and 2 (1886-1892); <b>28.</b> +H. Schnitzler, “Über die Fortpflanzung von <i>Clepsydrina ovata</i>,” +<i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 6, p. 309, 2 pls. (1905); <b>29.</b> M. Siedlecki, “Über +die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der <i>Monocystis ascidiae</i>,” <i>Bull. Ac. +Cracovie</i>, p. 515, 2 pls. (1900); <b>30.</b> M. Siedlecki, “Contribution à +l’étude des changements cellulaires provoquées par les Grégarines,” +<i>Arch. anat. microsc.</i> 4, p. 87, 9 figs. (1901); <b>31.</b> H. M. Woodcock, +“The Life-Cycle of <i>Cystobia irregularis</i>, &c.,” <i>Q.J.M. Sci.</i> 50, p. 1. +6 pls. (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. Wo.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Figures 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 16 are redrawn from +Wasielewski’s <i>Sporozoenkunde</i>, by permission of the author and of +the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÉGOIRE, HENRI<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1750-1831), French revolutionist and +constitutional bishop of Blois, was born at Vého near Lunéville, +on the 4th of December 1750, the son of a peasant. Educated +at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he became curé of Emberménil +and a teacher at the Jesuit school at Pont-à-Mousson. In 1783 +he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his <i>Éloge de la +poésie</i>, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an <i>Essai sur la régénération +physique et morale des Juifs</i>. He was elected in 1789 by the +clergy of the <i>bailliage</i> of Nancy to the states-general, where he +soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies +of Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolution. +He was among the first of the clergy to join the third +estate, and contributed largely to the union of the three orders; +he presided at the permanent sitting of sixty-two hours while +the Bastille was being attacked by the people, and made a +vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He subsequently +took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges +of the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution +of the clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath +(December 27, 1790), he was elected bishop by two departments. +He selected that of Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop +of Blois, and for ten years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with +exemplary zeal. An ardent republican, it was he who in the +first session of the National Convention (September 21, 1792) +proposed the motion for the abolition of the kingship, in a speech +in which occurred the memorable phrase that “kings are in the +moral order what monsters are in the natural.” On the 15th of +November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the +king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards +was elected president of the Convention, over which he presided +in his episcopal dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being +absent with other three colleagues on a mission for the union of +Savoy to France, he along with them wrote a letter urging the +condemnation of the king, but omitting the words <i>à mort</i>; and +he endeavoured to save the life of the king by proposing in the +Convention that the penalty of death should be suspended.</p> + +<p>When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris, +was intimidated into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of +the Convention, Grégoire, who was temporarily absent from the +sitting, hearing what had happened, hurried to the hall, and in +the face of a howling mob of deputies refused to abjure either his +religion or his office. He was prepared to face the death which +he expected; but his courage, a rare quality at that time, won +the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of “Let Grégoire +have his way!” Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks +in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the +street corners, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress +and daily read mass in his house. After Robespierre’s fall he +was the first to advocate the reopening of the churches (speech +of December 21, 1794). He also exerted himself to get measures +put in execution for restraining the vandalistic fury against the +monuments of art, extended his protection to artists and men +of letters, and devoted much of his attention to the reorganization +of the public libraries, the establishment of botanic gardens, +and the improvement of technical education. He had taken +during the Constituent Assembly a great interest in Negro +emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour in +the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites. +On the establishment of the new constitution, Grégoire was +elected to the Council of 500, and after the 18th Brumaire he +became a member of the Corps Législatif, then of the Senate +(1801). He took the lead in the national church councils of +1797 and 1801; but he was strenuously opposed to Napoleon’s +policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and after the signature +of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October 8, 1801). +He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted +against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the +creation of the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from +Josephine; but notwithstanding this he was subsequently +created a count of the empire and officer of the Legion of Honour. +During the later years of Napoleon’s reign he travelled in England +and Germany, but in 1814 he had returned to France and was +one of the chief instigators of the action that was taken against +the empire.</p> + +<p>To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme +in the Lower Chamber and in the circles of the court after the +second Restoration, Grégoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic +bishop, was an object of double loathing. He was expelled from +the Institute and forced into retirement. But even in this period +of headlong reaction his influence was felt and feared. In 1814 +he had published a work, <i>De la constitution française de l’an 1814</i>, +in which he commented on the Charter from a Liberal point of +view, and this reached its fourth edition in 1819. In this latter +year he was elected to the Lower Chamber by the department +of Isère. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this event +was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was +even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the +terms of the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. To prevent such +a catastrophe Louis XVIII. decided on a modification of the +franchise; the Dessolle ministry resigned; and the first act of +Decazes, the new premier, was to carry a vote in the chamber +annulling the election of Grégoire. From this time onward the +ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in literary pursuits +and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants of +Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator +he was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support. +He died on the 20th of May 1831.</p> + +<p>To the last Grégoire remained a devout Catholic, exactly +fulfilling all his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but he +refused to budge an inch from his revolutionary principles. +During his last illness he confessed to his parish <i>curé</i>, a priest +of Jansenist sympathies, and expressed his desire for the last +sacraments of the Church. These the archbishop of Paris would +only concede on condition that he would retract his oath to the +civil constitution of the clergy, which he peremptorily refused +to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop, the abbé +Baradère gave him the <i>viaticum</i>, while the rite of extreme unction +was administered by the abbé Guillon, an opponent of the civil +constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish +curé. The attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement +in Paris, and the government had to take precautions to avoid +a repetition of the riots which in the preceding February had +led to the sacking of the church of St Germain l’Auxerrois and +the archiepiscopal palace. On the day after his death Grégoire’s +funeral was celebrated at the church of the Abbaye-aux-Bois; +the clergy of the church had absented themselves in obedience +to the archbishop’s orders, but mass was sung by the abbé +Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated +with the episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the +church the horses were unyoked, and it was dragged by students +to the cemetery of Montparnasse, the cortège being followed by a +sympathetic crowd of some 20,000 people.</p> + +<p>Whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist, +Grégoire’s name lives in history mainly by reason of his wholehearted +effort to prove that Catholic Christianity is not irreconcilable +with modern conceptions of political liberty. In this +effort he was defeated, mainly because the Revolution, for lack +of experience in the right use of liberty, changed into a military +despotism which allied itself with the spiritual despotism of +Rome; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span> +the parties of reaction sought salvation in the “union of altar +and throne.” Possibly Grégoire’s Gallicanism was fundamentally +irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it +made their traditional religion possible for those many French +Catholics who clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution +had brought them; and had it prevailed, it might have spared +France and the world that fatal gulf between Liberalism and +Catholicism which Pius IX.’s Syllabus of 1864 sought to make +impassable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides several political pamphlets, Grégoire was the author of +<i>Histoire des sectes religieuses, depuis le commencement du siècle dernier +jusqu’à l’époque actuelle</i> (2 vols., 1810); <i>Essai historique sur les +libertés de l’église gallicane</i> (1818); <i>De l’influence du Christianisme sur +la condition des femmes</i> (1821); <i>Histoire des confesseurs des empereurs, +des rois, et d’autres princes</i> (1824); <i>Histoire du mariage des prêtres en +France</i> (1826). <i>Grégoireana, ou résumé général de la conduite, des +actions, et des écrits de M. le comte Henri Grégoire</i>, preceded by a +biographical notice by Cousin d’Avalon, was published in 1821; and +the <i>Mémoires ... de Grégoire</i>, with a biographical notice by H. +Carnot, appeared in 1837 (2 vols.). See also A. Debidour, <i>L’Abbé +Grégoire</i> (1881); A. Gazier, Études sur l’histoire religieuse de la +Révolution Française (1883); L. Maggiolo, La Vie et les œuvres de +l’abbé Grégoire (Nancy, 1884), and numerous articles in <i>La Révolution +Française</i>; E. Meaume, <i>Étude hist. et biog. sur les Lorrains révolutionnaires</i> +(Nancy, 1882); and A. Gazier, <i>Études sur l’histoire religieuse +de la Révolution Française</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1295-1360), Byzantine +historian, man of learning and religious controversialist, was +born at Heraclea in Pontus. At an early age he settled at +Constantinople, where his reputation for learning brought him +under the notice of Andronicus II., by whom he was appointed +Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 1326 Gregoras proposed +(in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar, +which the emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances; +nearly two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory +XIII. on almost the same lines. When Andronicus was dethroned +(1328) by his grandson Andronicus III., Gregoras +shared his downfall and retired into private life. Attacked by +Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with difficulty +persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in +which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputation +and brought him a large number of pupils. Gregoras +remained loyal to the elder Andronicus to the last, but after +his death he succeeded in gaining the favour of his grandson, by +whom he was appointed to conduct the unsuccessful negotiations +(for a union of the Greek and Latin churches) with the ambassadors +of Pope John XXII. (1333). Gregoras subsequently took +an important part in the Hesychast controversy, in which +he violently opposed Gregorius Palamas, the chief supporter +of the sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized +at the synod of 1351, Gregoras, who refused to acquiesce, was +practically imprisoned in a monastery for two years. Nothing +is known of the end of his life. His chief work is his <i>Roman +History</i>, in 37 books, of the years 1204 to 1359. It thus partly +supplements and partly continues the work of George Pachymeres. +Gregoras shows considerable industry, but his style is +pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to +religious matters and dogmatic quarrels. This work and that +of John Cantacuzene supplement and correct each other, and +should be read together. The other writings of Gregoras, which +(with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished, attest his great +versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of +the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early +instructor John, metropolitan of Heraclea, and of the martyr +Codratus of Antioch; funeral orations for Theodore Metochita, +and the two emperors Andronicus; commentaries on the wanderings +of Odysseus and on Synesius’s treatise on dreams; +tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful meaning; a +philosophical dialogue called <i>Florentius or Concerning Wisdom</i>; +astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the preparation +of the astrolabe; and an extensive correspondence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Editions</i>: in Bonn <i>Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz.</i>, by L. Schopen +and I. Bekker, with life and list of works by J. Boivin (1829-1855); +J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologia graeca</i>, cxlviii., cxlix.; see also C. Krumbacher, +<i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1821-1891), German historian, +was born at Neidenburg on the 19th of January 1821, and +studied at the university of Königsberg. After spending some +years in teaching he took up his residence in Italy in 1852, +remaining in that country for over twenty years. He was made +a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the 1st of May 1891. +Gregorovius’s interest in and acquaintance with Italy and +Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, <i>Geschichte +der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter</i> (Stuttgart, 1859-1872, and other +editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been +translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1894-1900), +and also into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice, +1874-1876). It deals with the history of Rome from about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 to the death of Pope Clement VII. in 1534, and in the +words of its author it describes “how, from the time of Charles +the Great to that of Charles V., the historic system of the papacy +remained inseparable from that of the Empire.” The other +works of Gregorovius include: <i>Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian +und seiner Zeit</i> (Königsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E. +Robinson (1898); <i>Corsica</i> (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation +by R. Martineau (1855); <i>Lucrezia Borgia</i> (Stuttgart, 1874), +English translation by J. L. Garner (1904); <i>Die Grabdenkmäler +der Päpste</i> (Leipzig, 1881), English translation by R. W. Seton-Watson +(1903); <i>Wanderjahre in Italien</i> (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1892); +<i>Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter</i> (1889); <i>Kleine +Schriften zur Geschichte der Kultur</i> (Leipzig, 1887-1892); and +<i>Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien und dem Kaiser</i> +(Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian +by the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also +something of a poet; he wrote a drama, <i>Der Tod des Tiberius</i> +(1851), and some <i>Gedichte</i> (Leipzig, 1891).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Römische Tagebücher</i> were edited by F. Althaus (Stuttgart, +1892), and were translated into English as the <i>Roman Journals of +F. Gregorovius</i>, by A. Hamilton (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 213-<i>c</i>. 270), surnamed in later ecclesiastical +tradition Thaumaturgus (the miracle-worker), was born of +noble and wealthy pagan parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus, +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 213. His original name was Theodorus. He took +up the study of civil law, and, with his brother Athenodorus, +was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at +Caesarea he met Origen, and became his pupil and then his +convert (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years +after his conversion, it had been his original intention to live +a retired ascetic life (Eus. <i>H.E.</i> vi. 30), but, urged by Origen, +and at last almost compelled by Phaedimus of Amasia, his +metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to see so much +learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the +church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity, +was consecrated bishop of his native town (about 240). His +episcopate, which lasted some thirty years, was characterized by +great missionary zeal, and by so much success that, according +to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement of Gregory +of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were only +seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only +seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity. +This result he achieved in spite of the Decian persecution (250-251), +during which he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself +from his diocese, and notwithstanding the demoralizing effects +of an irruption of barbarians (Goths and Boranians) who laid +waste the diocese in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 253-254. Gregory, although he has +not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism, now holds an +undisputed place among the fathers of the church; and although +the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he +is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal +controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of +Antioch (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 264-265), which investigated and condemned the +heresies of Paul of Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of +a Trinitarianism approaching the Nicene type is attributed in large +measure to the weight of his influence. Gregory is believed to have +died in the reign of Aurelian, about the year 270, though perhaps +an earlier date is more probable. His festival (semiduplex) is observed +by the Roman Catholic Church on the 17th of November.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the facts of his biography we have an outline of his early +years in his eulogy on Origen, and incidental notices in the writings +of Eusebius, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa’s +untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles +of a very startling description; but nothing related by him comes +near the astounding narratives given in the <i>Martyrologies</i>, or even in +the <i>Breviarium Romanum</i>, in connexion with his name.</p> + +<p>The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the <i>Panegyricus +in Origenem</i> (<span class="grk" title="Eis Ôrigenên panêgyrikos logos">Εἰς Ὠριγένην πανηγυρικὸς λόγος</span>), which he wrote when +on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it contains +a valuable minute description of Origen’s mode of instruction), a +<i>Metaphrasis in Ecclesiasten</i>, characterized by Jerome as “short but +useful”; and an <i>Epistola canonica</i>, which treats of the discipline +to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of persecution +had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to the +privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the conditions of +the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf. art <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Penance</a></span>). +The <span class="grk" title="Ekthesis pisteôs">Ἔκθεσις πίστεως</span> (<i>Expositio fidei</i>), a short creed usually attributed +to Gregory, and traditionally alleged to have been received by +him immediately in vision from the apostle John himself, is probably +authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of doubtful authenticity “on +the impassivity and the passivity of God” in Syriac is in the British +Museum.</p> + +<p><i>Editions</i>: Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1604), Fronto Ducäus (Paris, +1622), Migne, Patr. Graec. x. 963.</p> + +<p><i>Translations</i>: S. D. F. Salmond in <i>Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>, vi.; <i>Lives</i>, +by Pallavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. R. +Reynolds (<i>Dict. Chr. Biog.</i> ii.); G. Krüger, <i>Early Chr. Lit.</i> +226; Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk.</i> vii. (where full bibliographies are +given).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (329-389), surnamed +Theologus, one of the four great fathers of the Eastern Church, +was born about the year <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 329, at or near Nazianzus, +Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had lately become +bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a +powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father +and son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas, +Alexandria and Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics, +rhetoric and philosophy; at Athens he had for fellow-students +Basil (<i>q.v.</i>), who afterwards became bishop of Caesarea, and +Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his return to his +father’s house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory +received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of +religion; but for some time, and indeed more or less throughout +his whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which +that service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and +education to a contemplative life spent among books and in the +society of congenial friends, he was continually urged by outward +circumstances, as well as by an inward call, to active pastoral +labour. The spirit of refined intellectual monasticism, which +clung to him through life and never ceased to struggle for the +ascendancy, was about this time strongly encouraged by his +intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the exalted +pleasures of his retirement in Pontus. To this period belongs +the preparation of the <span class="grk" title="Philokalia">Φιλοκαλία</span>, a sort of chrestomathy compiled +by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the +events which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of +Cappadocia, and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career +of learned leisure difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory’s +position and temperament. The emperor Constantius, having +by intrigue and intimidation succeeded in thrusting a semi-Arian +formula upon the Western bishops assembled at Ariminum +in Italy, had next attempted to follow the same course with the +Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of Nazianzus having +yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose among the +monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence +of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was +ordained to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his +new duties and responsibilities by flight, he appears to have +continued to act as a presbyter in his father’s diocese without interruption +for some considerable time; and it is probable that +his two <i>Invectives</i> against Julian are to be assigned to this period. +Subsequently (about 372), under a pressure which he somewhat +resented, he allowed himself to be nominated by Basil as bishop +of Sasima, a miserable little village some 32 m. from Tyana; +but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the duties of this +diocese, for after another interval of “flight” we find him once +more (about 372-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father, +on whose death (374) he retired to Seleucia in Isauria for a period +of some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities +was opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed +remnant of the orthodox party in Constantinople sent him +an urgent summons to undertake the task of resuscitating their +cause, so long persecuted and borne down by the Arians of the +capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the imperial +throne, the prospect of success to the Nicene doctrine had dawned, +if only it could find some courageous and devoted champion. +The fame of Gregory as a learned and eloquent disciple of Origen, +and still more of Athanasius, pointed him out as such a defender; +nor could he resist the appeal made to him, although he took the +step reluctantly. Once arrived in Constantinople, he laboured +so zealously and well that the orthodox party speedily gathered +strength; and the small apartment in which they had been +accustomed to meet was soon exchanged for a vast and celebrated +church which received the significant name of Anastasia, the +Church of the Resurrection. Among the hearers of Gregory +were to be found, not only churchmen like Jerome and Evagrius, +but also heretics and pagans; and it says much for the sound +wisdom and practical tact of the preacher that he set himself +less to build up and defend a doctrinal position than to urge +his flock to the cultivation of the loving Christian spirit which +cherishes higher aims than mere heresy hunting or endless disputation. +Doctrinal, nevertheless, he was, as is abundantly +shown by the famous five discourses on the Trinity, which earned +for him the distinctive appellation of <span class="grk" title="theologos">θεολόγος</span>. These orations +are the finest exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity +as conceived by the orthodox teachers of the East, and they +were directed especially against the Eunomians and Macedonians. +“There is perhaps no single book in Greek patristic literature +to which the student who desires to gain an exact and comprehensive +view of Greek theology can be more confidently +referred.” With the arrival of Theodosius in 380 came the +visible triumph of the orthodox cause; the metropolitan see +was then conferred upon Gregory, and after the assembling +of the second ecumenical council in 381 he received consecration +from Meletius. In consequence, however, of a spirit of discord +and envy which had manifested itself in connexion with this +promotion, he soon afterwards resigned his dignity and withdrew +into comparative retirement. The rest of his days were spent +partly at Nazianzus in ecclesiastical affairs, and partly on his +neighbouring patrimonial estate at Arianzus, where he followed +his favourite literary pursuits, especially poetical composition, +until his death, which occurred in 389 or 390. His festival is +celebrated in the Eastern Church on the 25th and 30th of January, +in the Western on the 9th of May (duplex).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His extant works consist of poems, epistles and orations. The +poems, which include epigrams, elegies and an autobiographical +sketch, have been frequently printed, the <i>editio princeps</i> being the +Aldine (1504). Other editions are those of Tollius (1696) and +Muratori (1709); a volume of <i>Carmina selecta</i> also has been edited +by Dronke (1840). The tragedy entitled <span class="grk" title="Christos paschôn">Χριστὸς πἀσχων</span> usually +included is certainly not genuine. Gregory’s poetry did not absorb +his best energies; it was adopted in his later years as a recreation +rather than as a serious pursuit; thus it is occasionally delicate, +graphic, beautiful, but it is not sustained. Of the hymns none +have passed into ecclesiastical use. The letters are entitled +to a higher place in literature. They are always easy and natural; +and there is nothing forced in the manner in which their acute, witty +and profound sayings are introduced. Those to Basil introduce us +to the story of a most romantic friendship, those to Cledonius have +theological value for their bearing on the Apollinarian controversy. +As an orator he was so facile, vigorous and persuasive, that men +forgot his small stature and emaciated countenance. Forty-five +orations are extant. Gregory was less an independent theologian +than an interpreter. He was influenced by Athanasius in his Christology, +by Origen in his anthropology, for, though teaching original +sin and deriving human mortality from the Fall, he insists on the +ability of the human will to choose the good and to co-operate in the +work of salvation with the will of God. Though possessed neither of +Basil’s gift of government nor of Gregory of Nyssa’s power of speculative +thought, he worthily takes a place in that triumvirate of +Cappadocians whom the Catholic Church gratefully recognizes as +having been, during the critical struggles in the latter half of the +4th century, the best defenders of its faith. The <i>Opera omnia</i> were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span> +first published by Hervagius (Basel, 1550); the subsequent editions +have been those of Billius (Paris, 1609, 1611; aucta ex interpretatione +Morelli, 1630), of the Benedictines (begun in 1778, but +interrupted by the French Revolution and not completed until +1840, Caillau being the final editor) and of Migne. The <i>Theological +Orations</i> (edited by A. J. Mason) were published separately at +Cambridge in 1899.</p> + +<p>Scattered notices of the life of Gregory Nazianzen are to be found +in the writings of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Rufinus, as well +as in his own letters and poems. The data derived from these sources +do not always harmonize with the account of Suidas. The earlier +modern authorities, such as Tillemont (<i>Mem. Eccl.</i> t. ix.) and +Leclerc (<i>Bib. Univ.</i> t. xviii.), were used by Gibbon. See also C. +Ullmann, <i>Gregorius von Nazianz, der Theologe</i> (1825; Eng. trans. by +G. F. Coxe, M.A., 1857); A. Bénoit, <i>St Grégoire de Nazianze; sa vie, +ses œuvres, et son époque</i> (1877); Montaut, <i>Revue critique de quelques +questions historiques se rapportant à St Grégoire de Nazianze</i> (1879); +F. W. Farrar, <i>Lives of the Fathers</i>, i. 491-582, and F. Loofs in +Hauck-Herzog’s <i>Realencyk. für prot. Theologie</i>, vii. 138.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 331-<i>c.</i> 396), one of the four +great fathers of the Eastern Church, designated by one of the +later ecumenical councils as “a father of fathers,” was a younger +brother of Basil (the Great), bishop of Caesarea, and was born +(probably) at Neocaesarea about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 331. For his education +he was chiefly indebted to his elder brother. At a comparatively +early age he entered the church, and held for some time the office +of anagnost or reader; subsequently he manifested a desire to +devote himself to the secular life as a rhetorician, an impulse +which was checked by the earnest remonstrances of Gregory of +Nazianzus. Finally, in 371 or 372 he was ordained by his brother +Basil to the bishopric of Nyssa, a small town in Cappadocia. +Here he is usually said (but on inadequate data) to have adopted +the opinion then gaining ground in favour of the celibacy of the +clergy, and to have separated from his wife Theosebia, who +became a deaconess in the church. His strict orthodoxy on the +subject of the Trinity and the Incarnation, together with his +vigorous eloquence, combined to make him peculiarly obnoxious +to the Arian faction, which was at that time in the ascendant +through the protection of the emperor Valens; and in 375, +the synod of Ancyra, convened by Demetrius the Arian governor +of Pontus, condemned him for alleged irregularities in his +election and in the administration of the finances of his diocese. +In 376 he was deprived of his see, and Valens sent him into exile, +whence he did not return till the publication of the edict of +Gratian in 378. Shortly afterwards he took part in the proceedings +of the synod which met at Antioch in Caria, principally in +connexion with the Meletian schism. At the great ecumenical +council held at Constantinople in 381, he was a conspicuous +champion of the orthodox faith; according to Nicephorus, +indeed, the additions made to the Nicene creed were entirely due +to his suggestion, but this statement is of doubtful authority. +That his eloquence was highly appreciated is shown by the facts +that he pronounced the discourse at the consecration of Gregory +of Nazianzus, and that he was chosen to deliver the funeral +oration on the death of Meletius the first president of the council. +In the following year, moreover (382), he was commissioned +by the council to inspect and set in order the churches of Arabia, +in connexion with which mission he also visited Jerusalem. +The impressions he gathered from this journey may, in part at +least, be gathered from his famous letter <i>De euntibus Hierosolyma</i>, +in which an opinion strongly unfavourable to pilgrimages +is expressed. In 383 he was probably again in Constantinople; +where in 385 he pronounced the funeral orations of the princess +Pulcheria and afterwards of the empress Placilla. Once more +we read of him in 394 as having been present in that metropolis +at the synod held under the presidency of Nectarius to settle +a controversy which had arisen among the bishops of Arabia; +in the same year he assisted at the consecration of the new church +of the apostles at Chalcedon, on which occasion there is reason to +believe that his discourse commonly but wrongly known as that +<span class="grk" title="Eis tên heautou cheirotonian">Εἰς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ χειροτονίαν</span> was delivered. The exact date of his +death is unknown; some authorities refer it to <span class="correction" title="amended from 376">396</span>, others to 400. +His festival is observed by the Greek Church on the 10th of +January; in the Western martyrologies he is commemorated +on the 9th of March.</p> + +<p>Gregory of Nyssa was not so firm and able an administrator +as his brother Basil, nor so magnificent an orator as Gregory of +Nazianzus, but he excelled them both, alike as a speculative +and constructive theologian, and in the wide extent of his +acquirements. His teaching, though strictly trinitarian, shows +considerable freedom and originality of thought; in many +points his mental and spiritual affinities with Origen show +themselves with advantage, as in his doctrine of <span class="grk" title="apokatastasis">ἀποκατάστασις</span> +or final restoration. There are marked pantheistic tendencies, +<i>e.g.</i> the inclusion of sin as a necessary part of the cosmical process, +which make him akin to the pantheistic monophysites and to +some modern thinkers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His style has been frequently praised by competent authorities for +sweetness, richness and elegance. His numerous works may be +classified under five heads: (1) Treatises in doctrinal and polemical +theology. Of these the most important is that <i>Against Eunomius</i> +in twelve books. Its doctrinal thesis (which is supported with +great philosophic acumen and rhetorical power) is the divinity and +consubstantiality of the Word; incidentally the character of +Basil, which Eunomius had aspersed, is vindicated, and the heretic +himself is held up to scorn and contempt. This is the work which, +most probably in a shorter draft, was read by its author when +at Constantinople before Gregory Nazianzen and Jerome in 381 +(Jerome, <i>De vir. ill.</i> 128). To the same class belong the treatise +<i>To Ablavius</i>, against the tritheists; <i>On Faith</i>, against the Arians; +<i>On Common Notions</i>, in explanation of the terms in current employment +with regard to the Trinity; <i>Ten Syllogisms</i>, against the +Manichaeans; <i>To Theophilus</i>, against the Apollinarians; an <i>Antirrhetic</i> +against the same; <i>Against Fate</i>, a disputation with a heathen +philosopher; <i>De anima et resurrectione</i>, a dialogue with his dying +sister Macrina; and the <i>Oratio catechetica magna</i>, an argument for the +incarnation as the best possible form of redemption, intended to +convince educated pagans and Jews. (2) Practical treatises. To +this category belong the tracts <i>On Virginity</i> and <i>On Pilgrimages</i>; as +also the <i>Canonical Epistle</i> upon the rules of penance. (3) Expository +and homiletical works, including the <i>Hexaëmeron</i>, and several series +of discourses <i>On the Workmanship of Man</i>, <i>On the Inscriptions of the +Psalms</i>, <i>On the Sixth Psalm</i>, <i>On the first three Chapters of Ecclesiastes</i>, +<i>On Canticles</i>, <i>On the Lord’s Prayer</i> and <i>On the Eight Beatitudes</i>. +(4) Biographical, consisting chiefly of funeral orations. (5) Letters.</p> + +<p>The only complete editions of the whole works are those by +Fronton le Duc (Fronto Ducäus, Paris, 1615; with additions, 1618 +and 1638) and by Migne. G. H. Forbes began an excellent critical +edition, but only two parts of the first volume appeared (Burntisland, +1855 and 1861) containing the <i>Explicatio apologetica in hexaëmeron</i> +and the <i>De opificio hominis</i>. Of the new edition projected by F. +Oehler only the first volume, containing the <i>Opera dogmatica</i>, has +appeared (1865). There have been numerous editions of several +single treatises, as for example of the <i>Oratio catechetica</i> (J. G. +Krabinger, Munich, 1838; J. H. Crawley, Cambridge, 1903), <i>De +precatione</i> and <i>De anima et resurrectione</i>.</p> + +<p>See F. W. Farrar, <i>Lives of the Fathers</i>, ii. 56-83, the monograph by +J. Rupp (<i>Gregors, des Bischofs von Nyssa, Leben und Meinungen</i>, +Leipzig, 1834), and compare P. Heyns (<i>Disputatio historico-theologica +de Greg. Nyss.</i>, 1835), C. W. Möller (<i>Gregorii Nyss. doctrinam de +hominis natura et illustravit et cum Origeniana comparavit</i>, 1854) and +J. N. Stigler, <i>Die Psychologie des h. Gregors von Nyssa</i> (Regensburg, +1857), and many smaller monographs cited in Hauck-Herzog’s +<i>Realencyk. für prot. Theol.</i> vii. 149.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (538-594), historian of the Franks, +was born in the chief city of the Arverni (the modern Clermont-Ferrand) +on the 30th of November 538. His real name was +Georgius Florentius, Georgius being his grandfather’s name and +Florentius his father’s. He was called Gregory after his maternal +great-grandfather, the bishop of Langres. Gregory belonged to +an illustrious senatorial family, many of whose members held +high office in the church and bear honoured names in the history +of Christianity. He was descended, it is said, from Vettius +Epagathus, who was martyred at Lyons in 177 with St Pothinus; +his paternal uncle, Gallus, was bishop of Clermont; his maternal +grand-uncle, Nicetius (St Nizier), occupied the see of Lyons; +and he was a kinsman of Euphronius, bishop of Tours.</p> + +<p>Gregory lost his father early, and his mother Armentaria +settled in the kingdom of Burgundy on an estate belonging to +her near Cavaillon, where her son often visited her. Gregory was +brought up at Clermont-Ferrand by his uncle Gallus and by his +successor, Avitus, and there he received his education. Among +profane authors he read the first six books of the <i>Aeneid</i> and +Sallust’s history of the Catiline conspiracy, but his education +was mainly religious. The principles of religion he learnt from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span> +the Bible, Sulpicius Severus and some lives of saints, but to +patristic literature and the subtleties of theology he remained +a stranger. In 563, at the age of twenty-five, he was ordained +deacon. Falling seriously ill, he went to Tours to seek a cure at +the tomb of St Martin. At Tours he lived with Euphronius, +and so great was the young man’s popularity that, on the death +of Euphronius in 573, the people unanimously designated him +bishop.</p> + +<p>At that time Tours belonged to Austrasia, and King Sigebert +hastened to confirm Gregory’s election. After the assassination +of Sigebert (575), the province was ruled by Chilperic for nine +years, during which period Gregory displayed the greatest energy +in protecting his town and church from the Frankish king. He +had to contend with Count Leudast, the governor of Tours; +despite all the king’s threats, he refused to give up Chilperic’s +son Meroving, who had sought refuge from his father’s wrath +at the sanctuary of St Martin; and he defended Bishop Pretextatus +against Chilperic, by whom he had been condemned +for celebrating the marriage of Merovech and Queen Brunhilda. +In 580 Gregory was himself accused before a council at Berny of +using abusive language against Queen Fredegond, but he cleared +himself of the charge by an oath and was acquitted. On the +death of Chilperic, Tours remained for two years (584-585) in +the hands of Guntram, but when Guntram adopted his nephew +Childebert, Sigebert’s son, it again became Austrasian. This +change was welcome to Gregory, who often visited the court. +In 586 he was at Coblenz, and on his return to Yvois (the +modern Carignan) visited the stylite Wulfilaic; in 588 we hear +of him at Metz and also at Chalon-sur-Saône, whither he was sent +to obtain from King Guntram the ratification of the pact of +Andelot; in 593 he was at Orleans, where Childebert had just +succeeded his uncle Guntram. In the intervals of these journeys +he governed Tours with great firmness, repressing disorders +and reducing the monks and nuns to obedience. He died on +the 17th of November 594.</p> + +<p>Gregory left many writings, of which he himself gives an +enumeration at the end of his <i>Historia Francorum</i>: “Decem +libros Historiarum, septem Miraculorum, unum de Vita Patrum +scripsi; in Psalterii tractatu librum unum commentatus sum; +de Cursibus etiam ecclesiasticis unum librum condidi.” The +ten books of history are discussed below. The seven books of +miracles are divided into the <i>De gloria martyrum</i>, the <i>De +virtutibus sancti Juliani</i>, four books of <i>Miracula sancti Martini</i>, +and the <i>De gloria confessorum</i>, the last dealing mainly with +confessors who had dwelt in the cities of Tours and Clermont. +The <i>Vitae patrum</i> consists of twenty biographies of bishops, +abbots and hermits belonging to Gaul. The commentary on the +Psalms is lost, the preface and the titles of the chapters alone +being extant. The treatise <i>De cursibus ecclesiasticis</i>, discovered +in 1853, is a liturgical manual for determining the hour of divers +nocturnal offices by the position of the stars. Gregory also left +a life of St Andrew, translated from the Greek, and a history of +the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, translated from Syriac.</p> + +<p>His most important work, however, is the <i>Historia Francorum</i>, +which is divided into three parts. The first four books, which +were composed at one time, cover the period from the creation +of the world to the death of Sigebert in 575. The first book, +which is a mere compilation from the chronicles of St Jerome +and Orosius, is of no value. The second book, from 397 to +511, deals with the invasions of the Franks, and is based on +the histories of Sulpicius Alexander and Renatus Profuturus +Frigeridus, now lost; on the catalogues of the bishops of Clermont +and Tours; on some lives of saints, <i>e.g.</i> Remigius and +Maxentius, now lost; on the annals of Arles and Angers, now +lost; and on legends, either collected by Gregory himself from +oral tradition, or cantilenes or epics written in the Latin and +Germanic languages. In the third and fourth books the earlier +part is based on materials collected from men older than himself; +of the later events he was himself an eye-witness. The fifth and +sixth books, up to the death of Chilperic (584), deal with matters +within his own experience. The first six books are often separate +in the MSS., and it was these alone that were used by the +chronicler Fredegarius in his abridgment of Gregory’s history. +To the first six books Gregory subsequently added chapters on +the bishops Salonius and Sagittarius, and on his quarrels with +Felix of Nantes. The authenticity of these chapters has been +undeservedly attacked by Catholic writers. Books vii. to x., +from 584 to 591, were written in the form of a diary; of each +important event, as it occurred, he inserted an account in his +book. The last six books are of great historical value.</p> + +<p>Gregory had an intimate knowledge of contemporary events. +He was frequently at court, and he found Tours an excellent +place for collecting information. The shrine of St Martin +attracted the sick from all quarters, and the basilica of the saint +was a favourite sanctuary for political refugees. Moreover, +Tours was on the high road between the north and south of +France, and was a convenient stage for travellers, the ambassadors +going to and from Spain frequently halting there. +Gregory plied every one with questions, and in this way gathered +a great mass of detailed information. He was, besides, at great +pains to be an impartial writer, but was not always successful. +His devotion to Austrasia made him very bitter against, and +perhaps unjust to, the sovereigns of Neustria, Chilperic and +Fredegond. As an orthodox Christian, he had no good word +for the Arians. He excuses the crimes of kings who protected +the church, such as Clovis, Clotaire I. and Guntram, but had +no mercy for those who violated ecclesiastical privileges. This +attitude, no doubt, explains his hatred for Chilperic. But if +Gregory’s historical judgments are suspect, he at least concealed +nothing and invented nothing; and we can correct his judgments +by his own narrative. His history is a curious compound of +artlessness and shrewdness. He was ignorant of the rules of +grammar, confused genders and cases, and wrote in the vernacular +Latin of his time, apart from certain passages which are especially +elaborated and filled with poetical and elegant expressions. +But in spite of his shortcomings he is an exceedingly attractive +writer, and his mastery of the art of narrative has earned for him +the name of the Herodotus of the barbarians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>T. Ruinart brought out a complete edition of Gregory’s works at +Paris in 1699. The best modern complete edition is that of W. +Arndt and B. Krusch in <i>Mon. Germ. hist. script. rer. Merov.</i> (vol. i., +1885). Of the many editions of the <i>Historia Francorum</i> may be +mentioned those of Guadet and Taranne in the <i>Soc. de l’hist. de +France</i> (4 vols., with French translation, 1836-1838), of Omont (the +first six books; a reproduction of the Corvey MS.) and of G. Collon +(the last four books; a reproduction of the Brussels MS. No. 9, 403). +Gregory’s hagiographic works were published by H. Bordier in the +<i>Soc. de l’hist. de France</i> (4 vols., with French translation, 1857-1864). +Cf. J. W. Löbell, <i>Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, +1868); G. Monod, “Études critiques sur les sources de l’histoire +mérovingienne” in the <i>Bibl. de l’École des Hautes Études</i> (1872); +G. Kurth, “Grégoire de Tours et les études classiques au VI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle” +in the <i>Revue des questions historiques</i> (xxiv. 586 seq., 1878); Max +Bonnet, <i>Le Latin de Grégoire de Tours</i> (Paris, 1890). For details, see +Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Biobibliographie</i> (2nd ed.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the reputed founder of the +Armenian Church. His legend is briefly as follows. His father +Anak, head of the Parthian clan of Suren, was bribed about +the time of his birth (<i>c.</i> 257) by the Sassanid king of Persia to +assassinate the Armenian king, Chosroes, who was of the old +Arsacid dynasty, and father of Tiridates or Trdat, first Christian +king of Armenia. Anak was slain by his victim’s soldiers; +Gregory was rescued by his Christian nurse, carried to Caesarea +in Cappadocia, and brought up a Christian. Grown to manhood +he took service under Tiridates, now king of Armenia, in order +by his own fidelity to atone for his father’s treachery. Presently +at a feast of Anahite Gregory refused to assist his sovereign in +offering pagan sacrifice, and his parentage being now revealed, +was thrown into a deep pit at Artashat, where he languished +for fourteen years, during which persecution raged in Armenia.</p> + +<p>The scene of the legend now shifts to Rome, where Diocletian +falls in love with a lovely nun named Ripsimé; she, rather than +gratify his passion, flees with her abbess Gaiana and several +priests to Armenia. Diocletian asks her back of Tiridates, who +meanwhile has fallen in love with her himself. He too is flouted, +and in his rage tortures and slays her and her companions. +The traditional date of this massacre is the 5th of October, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span> +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 301. Providence, incensed at such cruelty, turns Tiridates +into a wild boar, and afflicts his subjects with madness; but his +sister, Chosrowidukht, has a revelation to bring Gregory back +out of his pit. The king consents, the saint is acclaimed, the +bodies of the thirty-seven martyrs solemnly interred, and the +king, after fasting five, and listening to Gregory’s homilies for +sixty days, is healed. This all took place at Valarshapat, where +Gregory, anxious to fix a site on which to build shrines for the +relics of Ripsimé and Gaiana, saw the Son of God come down in +a sheen of light, the stars of heaven attending, and smite the +earth with a golden hammer till the nether world resounded +to his blows. Three chapels were built on the spot, and Gregory +raised his cross there and elsewhere for the people to worship, +just as St Nino was doing about the same time in Georgia. There +followed a campaign against the idols whose temples and books +were destroyed. The time had now come for Gregory, who was +still a layman and father of two sons, to receive ordination; +so he went to Caesarea, where Leontius ordained and consecrated +him catholicos or vicar-general of Armenia. This was sometime +about 290, when Leontius may have acceded, though we first +hear of him as bishop in 314.</p> + +<p>Gregory’s ordination at Caesarea is historical. The vision +at Valarshapat was invented later by the Armenians when they +broke with the Greeks, in order to give to their church the +semblance, if not of apostolic, at least of divine origin.</p> + +<p>According to Agathangelus, Tiridates went to Rome with +Gregory, Aristaces, son of Gregory, and Albianos, head of the +other priestly family, to make a pact with Constantine, newly +converted to the faith, and receive a pallium from Silvester. +The better sources make Sardica the scene of meeting and name +Eusebius (of Nicomedia) as the prelate who attended Constantine. +There is no reason to doubt that some such visit was made about +the year 315, when the death of Maximin Daza left Constantine +supreme. Eusebius testifies (<i>H.E.</i> ix. 8) that the Armenians +were ardent Christians, and ancient friends and allies of the +Roman empire when Maximin attacked them about the year +308. The conversion of Tiridates was probably a matter of +policy. His kingdom was honeycombed with Christianity, and +he wished to draw closer to the West, where he foresaw the +victory of the new faith, in order to fortify his realm against +the Sassanids of Persia. Following the same policy he sent +Aristaces in 325 to the council of Nice. Gregory is related to +have added a clause to the creed which Aristaces brought back; +he became a hermit on Mount Sebuh about the year 332, and +died there.</p> + +<p>Is the Ripsimé episode mere legend? The story of the +conversion of Georgia by St Nino in the same age is so full of +local colour, and coheres so closely with the story of Ripsimé +and Gaiana, that it seems over-sceptical to explain the latter +away as a mere doublet of the legend of Prisca and Valeria. +The historians Faustus of Byzant and Lazar of Pharp in the 5th +century already attest the reverence with which their memory +was invested. We know from many sources the prominence +assigned to women prophets in the Phrygian church. Nino’s +story reads like that of such a female missionary, and something +similar must underlie the story of her Armenian companions.</p> + +<p>The history of Gregory by Agathangelus is a compilation of +about 450, which was rendered into Greek 550. Professor Marr +has lately published an Arabic text from a MS. in Sinai which +seems to contain an older tradition. A letter of Bishop George +of Arabia to Jeshu, a priest of the town Anab, dated 714 (edited +by Dashian, Vienna, 1891), contains an independent tradition of +Gregory, and styles him a Roman by birth.</p> + +<p>In spite of legendary accretions we can still discern the true +outlines and significance of his life. He did not really illumine +or convert great Armenia, for the people were in the main already +converted by Syrian missionaries to the Adoptionist or Ebionite +type of faith which was dominant in the far East, and was +afterwards known as Nestorianism. Marcionites and Montanists +had also worked in the field. Gregory persuaded Tiridates +to destroy the last relics of the old paganism, and carried out +in the religious sphere his sovereign’s policy of detaching Great +Armenia from the Sassanid realm and allying it with the Graeco-Roman +empire and civilization. He set himself to Hellenize +or Catholicize Armenian Christianity, and in furtherance of this +aim set up a hierarchy officially dependent on the Cappadocian. +He in effect turned his country into a province of the Greek see +of Cappadocia. This hierarchical tie was soon snapped, but the +Hellenizing influence continued to work, and bore its most +abundant fruit in the 5th century. His career was thus analogous +to that of St Patrick in Ireland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—S. Weber, <i>Die Catholische Kirche in Armenien</i> +(Freiburg, 1903, with bibliography); Bollandii, <i>Acta sanctorum sept.</i> +tom. 8; A. Carrière, <i>Les Huit Sanctuaires de l’Arménie</i> (Paris, 1899); +“Chrysostom” in Migne, <i>P. Gr.</i> tom. 63, col. 943 foll.; C. Fortescue, +<i>The Armenian Church</i> (London, 1872); H. Gelzer, <i>Die Anfänge der +armenischen Kirche</i> (Leipzig, 1895) (<i>Sächs. Gesells. der Wissensch.</i>); +and s.v. “Armenien” in Herzog-Hauck (Leipzig, 1897); v. Gutschmid, +<i>Kleine Schriften</i> (Leipzig, 1892); Himpel, <i>Gregor der +Erleuchter</i>, Kl. v.; Issaverdenz, <i>Hist. of Arm. Church</i> (Venice, +1875); de Lagarde, <i>Agathangelos</i> (Göttingen, 1888); Arshak Ter +Mikelian, <i>Die arm. Kirche</i> (Leipzig, 1892); Palmieri, “La Conversione +ufficiale degli Iberi,” <i>Oriens Christ.</i> (Rome, 1902); Ryssel, +<i>Ein Brief Gregors, übersetzt, Studien und Kritiken</i>, 56, Bd. (1883); +Samuelian, <i>Bekehrung Armeniens</i> (Vienna, 1844); Vetter, “Die arm. +Väter,” in Nischl’s <i>Lehrbuch der Patrol.</i> iii. 215-262, (Mainz, 1881-1885); +Malan, <i>S. Gregory the Illuminator</i> (Rivingtons, 1868).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (<i>Gregorius</i>), the name of sixteen popes and one +anti-pope.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Saint Gregory</span>, surnamed the Great (<i>c.</i> 540-604), the first +pope of that name, and the last of the four doctors of the Latin +Church, was born in Rome about the year 540. His father was +Gordianus “the regionary,” a wealthy man of senatorial rank, +owner of large estates in Sicily and of a palace on the Caelian +Hill in Rome; his mother was Silvia, who is commemorated as +a saint on the 3rd of November. Of Gregory’s early period we +know few details, and almost all the dates are conjectural. He +received the best education to be had at the time, and was noted +for his proficiency in the arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic. +Entering on a public career he held, about 573, the high office of +prefect of the city of Rome; but about 574, feeling irresistibly +attracted to the “religious” life, he resigned his post, founded +six monasteries in Sicily and one in Rome, and in the last—the +famous monastery of St Andrew—became himself a monk. +This grateful seclusion, however, he was not permitted long to +enjoy. About 578 he was ordained “seventh deacon” (or +possibly archdeacon) of the Roman Church, and in the following +spring Pope Pelagius II. appointed him “apocrisiarius,” or +resident ambassador, at the imperial court in Constantinople. +Here he represented the interests of his church till about 586, +when he returned to Rome and was made abbot of St Andrew’s +monastery. His rule, though popular, was characterized by +great severity, as may be inferred from the story of the monk +Justus, who was denied Christian burial because he had secreted +a small sum of money. About this time Gregory completed and +published his well-known exposition of the book of Job, commenced +in Constantinople: he also delivered lectures on the +Heptateuch, the books of Kings, the Prophets, the book of +Proverbs and the Song of Songs. To this period, moreover, +Bede’s incident of the English slave-boys (if indeed it be accepted +as historical) ought to be assigned. Passing one day through +the Forum, Gregory saw some handsome slaves offered for sale, +and inquired their nation. “Angles,” was the reply. “Good,” +said the abbot, “they have the faces of angels, and should be +coheirs with the angels in heaven. From what province do they +come?” “From Deira.” “Deira. Yea, verily, they shall be +saved from God’s ire (<i>de ira</i>) and called to the mercy of Christ. +How is the king of that country named?” “Ælla.” “Then +must Allelulia be sung in Ælla’s land.” Gregory determined +personally to undertake the conversion of Britain, and with the +pope’s consent actually set out upon the mission, but on the +third day of his journey he was overtaken by messengers recalling +him to Rome. In the year 590 Pelagius II. died of the plague +that was raging in the city; whereupon the clergy and people +unanimously chose Gregory as his successor. The abbot did his +best to avoid the dignity, petitioned the emperor Maurice not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span> +to ratify his election, and even meditated going into hiding; +but, “while he was preparing for flight and concealment, he was +seized and carried off and dragged to the basilica of St Peter,” +and there consecrated bishop, on the 3rd of September 590.</p> + +<p>The fourteen years of Gregory’s pontificate were marked +by extraordinary vigour and activity. “He never rested,” +writes a biographer, “he was always engaged in providing for +the interests of his people, or in writing some composition +worthy of the church, or in searching out the secrets of heaven +by the grace of contemplation.” His mode of life was simple +and ascetic in the extreme. Having banished all lay attendants +from his palace, he surrounded himself with clerics and monks, +with whom he lived as though he were still in a monastery. To +the spiritual needs of his people he ministered with pastoral +zeal, frequently appointing “stations” and delivering sermons; +nor was he less solicitous in providing for their physical necessities. +Deaconries (offices of alms) and guest-houses were +liberally endowed, and free distributions of food were made to +the poor in the convents and basilicas. The funds for these +and similar purposes were supplied from the Patrimony of +St Peter—the papal estates in Italy, the adjacent islands, Gaul, +Dalmatia and Africa. These extensive domains were usually +administered by specially appointed agents,—rectors and +defensors,—who resided on the spot; but the general superintendence +devolved upon the pope. In this sphere Gregory +manifested rare capacity. He was one of the best of the papal +landlords. During his pontificate the estates increased in +value, while at the same time the real grievances of the tenants +were redressed and their general position was materially improved. +Gregory’s principal fault as a man of business was that he was +inclined to be too lavish of his revenues. It is said that he even +impoverished the treasury of the Roman Church by his unlimited +charities.</p> + +<p>Within the strict bounds of his patriarchate, <i>i.e.</i> the churches +of the suburbicarian provinces and the islands, it was Gregory’s +policy to watch with particular care over the election and +discipline of the bishops. With wise toleration he was willing +to recognize local deviations from Roman usage (<i>e.g.</i> in the +ritual of baptism and confirmation), yet he was resolute to +withstand any unauthorized usurpation of rights and privileges. +The following rules he took pains to enforce: that clerics +in holy orders should not cohabit with their wives or permit any +women, except those allowed by the canons, to live in their +houses; that clerics accused on ecclesiastical or lesser criminal +charges should be tried only in the ecclesiastical courts; that +clerics in holy orders who had lapsed should “utterly forfeit +their orders and never again approach the ministry of the altar”; +that the revenues of each church should be divided by its bishop +into four equal parts, to be assigned to the bishop, the clergy, +the poor and the repair of the fabric of the church.</p> + +<p>In his relations with the churches which lay outside the strict +limits of his patriarchate, in northern Italy, Spain, Gaul, Africa +and Illyricum and also in the East, Gregory consistently used +his influence to increase the prestige and authority of the Roman +See. In his view Rome, as the see of the Prince of the Apostles, +was by divine right “the head of all the churches.” The decrees +of councils would have no binding force “without the authority +and consent of the apostolic see”: appeals might be made to +Rome against the decisions even of the patriarch of Constantinople: +all bishops, including the patriarchs, if guilty of heresy +or uncanonical proceedings, were subject to correction by the +pope. “If any fault is discovered in a bishop,” Gregory wrote, +“I know of no one who is not subject to the apostolic see.” +It is true that Gregory respected the rights of metropolitans and +disapproved of unnecessary interference within the sphere of +their jurisdiction canonically exercised; also that in his relations +with certain churches (<i>e.g.</i> those in Africa) he found it expedient +to abstain from any obtrusive assertion of Roman claims. But +of his general principle there can be no doubt. His sincere belief +in the apostolic authority of the see of St Peter, his outspoken +assertion of it, the consistency and firmness with which in +practice he maintained it (<i>e.g.</i> in his controversies with the +bishops of Ravenna concerning the use of the pallium, with +Maximus the “usurping” bishop of Salona, and with the +patriarchs of Constantinople in respect of the title “ecumenical +bishops”), contributed greatly to build up the system of papal +absolutism. Moreover this consolidation of spiritual authority +coincided with a remarkable development of the temporal +power of the papacy. In Italy Gregory occupied an almost +regal position. Taking advantage of the opportunity which +circumstances offered, he boldly stepped into the place which +the emperors had left vacant and the Lombard kings had not the +strength to seize. For the first time in history the pope appeared +as a political power, a temporal prince. He appointed governors +to cities, issued orders to generals, provided munitions of war, +sent his ambassadors to negotiate with the Lombard king and +actually dared to conclude a private peace. In this direction +Gregory went farther than any of his predecessors: he laid +the foundation of a political influence which endured for centuries. +“Of the medieval papacy,” says Milman, “the real father is +Gregory the Great.”</p> + +<p>The first monk to become pope, Gregory was naturally a +strong supporter of monasticism. He laid himself out to diffuse +the system, and also to carry out a reform of its abuses by enforcing +a strict observance of the Rule of St Benedict (of whom, +it may be noted, he was the earliest biographer). Two slight +innovations were introduced: the minimum age of an abbess +was fixed at sixty, and the period of novitiate was prolonged +from one year to two. Gregory sought to protect the monks +from episcopal oppression by issuing <i>privilegia</i>, or charters +in restraint of abuses, in accordance with which the jurisdiction +of the bishops over the monasteries was confined to spiritual +matters, all illegal aggressions being strictly prohibited. The +documents are interesting as marking the beginning of a revolution +which eventually emancipated the monks altogether from +the control of their diocesans and brought them under the direct +authority of the Holy See. Moreover Gregory strictly forbade +monks to minister in parish churches, ordaining that any monk +who was promoted to such ecclesiastical cure should lose all +rights in his monastery and should no longer reside there. +“The duties of each office separately are so weighty that no one +can rightly discharge them. It is therefore very improper that +one man should be considered fit to discharge the duties of +both, and that by this means the ecclesiastical order should +interfere with the monastic life, and the rule of the monastic +life in turn interfere with the interests of the churches.”</p> + +<p>Once more, Gregory is remembered as a great organizer of +missionary enterprise for the conversion of heathens and heretics. +<span class="correction" title="amended from Mose">Most</span> important was the two-fold mission to Britain—of St +Augustine in 596, of Mellitus, Paulinus and others in 601; but +Gregory also made strenuous efforts to uproot paganism in Gaul, +Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Arianism in Spain, Donatism +in Africa, Manichaeism in Sicily, the heresy of the Three Chapters +in Istria and northern Italy. In respect of the methods of +conversion which he advocated he was not less intolerant than +his contemporaries. Towards the Jews, however, he acted with +exceptional lenity, protecting them from persecution and +securing them the enjoyment of their legal privileges. The +so-called “simoniacal heresy,” particularly prevalent in Gaul, +Illyricum and the East, be repeatedly attacked; and against the +Gallican abuse of promoting laymen to bishoprics he protested +with vigour.</p> + +<p>The extent and character of Gregory’s works in connexion +with the liturgy and the music of the church is a subject of +dispute. If we are to credit a 9th century biographer, Gregory +abbreviated and otherwise simplified the Sacramentary of +Gelasius, producing a revised edition with which his own name +has become associated, and which represents the groundwork +of the modern Roman Missal. But though it is certain that he +introduced three changes in the liturgy itself (viz. the addition +of some words in the prayer <i>Hanc igitur</i>, the recitation of the +Pater Noster at the end of the Canon immediately before the +fraction of the bread, and the chanting of the Allelulia after the +Gradual at other times besides the season of Easter) and two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span> +others in the ceremonial connected therewith (forbidding +deacons to perform any musical portion of the service except +the chanting of the gospel, and subdeacons to wear chasubles), +neither the external nor the internal evidence appears to warrant +belief that the Gregorian Sacramentary is his work. Ecclesiastical +tradition further ascribes to Gregory the compilation of an +Antiphonary, the revision and rearrangement of the system of +church music, and the foundation of the Roman <i>schola cantorum</i>. +It is highly doubtful, however, whether he had anything to do +either with the Antiphonary or with the invention or revival +of the <i>cantus planus</i>; it is certain that he was not the founder +of the Roman singing-school, though he may have interested +himself in its endowment and extension.</p> + +<p>Finally, as Fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, Gregory +claims the attention of theologians. He is the link between +two epochs. The last of the great Latin Fathers and the first +representative of medieval Catholicism he brings the dogmatic +theology of Tertullian, Ambrose and Augustine into relation +with the Scholastic speculation of later ages. “He connects the +Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of Christianity.” +His teaching, indeed, is neither philosophical, systematic nor +truly original. Its importance lies mainly in its simple, popular +summarization of the doctrine of Augustine (whose works Gregory +had studied with infinite care, but not always with insight), +and in its detailed exposition of various religious conceptions +which were current in the Western Church, but had not hitherto +been defined with precision (<i>e.g.</i> the views on angelology and +demonology, on purgatory, the Eucharistic Sacrifice, and the +efficacy of relics). In his exposition of such ideas Gregory made +a distinct advance upon the older theology and influenced +profoundly the dogmatic development of the future. He imparted +a life and impulse to prevailing tendencies, helping on the +construction of the system hereafter to be completed in Scholasticism. +He gave to theology a tone and emphasis which could not +be disregarded. From his time to that of Anselm no teacher +of equal eminence arose in the Church.</p> + +<p>Gregory died on the 12th of March 604, and was buried the +same day in the portico of the basilica of St Peter, in front of +the sacristy. Translations took place in the 9th, 15th and 17th +centuries, and the remains now rest beneath the altar in the +chapel of Clement VIII. In respect of his character, while most +historians agree that he was a really great man, some deny that +he was also a great saint. The worst blot on his fair fame is his +adulatory congratulation of the murderous usurper Phocas; +though his correspondence with the Frankish queen Brunhilda, +and the series of letters to and concerning the renegade monk +Venantius also present problems which his admirers find difficult +of solution. But while it may be admitted that Gregory was +inclined to be unduly subservient to the great, so that at times +he was willing to shut his eyes to the vices and even the crimes of +persons of rank; yet it cannot fairly be denied that his character +as a whole was singularly noble and unselfish. His life was +entirely dominated by the religious motive. His sole desire was +to promote the glory of God and of his church. At all times he +strove honestly to live up to the light that was in him. “His +goal,” says Lau, “was always that which he acknowledged as the +best.” Physically, Gregory was of medium height and good +figure. His head was large and bald, surrounded with a fringe +of dark hair. His face was well-proportioned, with brown eyes, +aquiline nose, thick and red lips, high-coloured cheeks, and +prominent chin sparsely covered with a tawny beard. His hands, +with tapering fingers, were remarkable for their beauty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Gregory’s Works</i>.—The following are now universally admitted +to be genuine:—<i>Epistolarum libri xiv.</i>, <i>Moralium libri xxxv.</i>, +<i>Regulae pastoralis liber</i>, <i>Dialogorum libri iv.</i>, <i>Homiliarum in +Ezechielem prophetam libri ii.</i>, <i>Homiliarum in Evangelia libri ii.</i> +These are all printed in Migne’s <i>Patrologia Latina</i>. The <i>Epistolae</i>, +however, have been published separately by P. Ewald and L. M. +Hartmann in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i> (Berlin, 1887-1899), +and this splendid edition has superseded all others. The +question of the chronological reconstruction of the <i>Register</i> is dealt +with by Ewald in his celebrated article in the <i>Neues Archiv der +Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i>, iii. pp. 433-625; and +briefly by T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, v. 333-343. For +information about these writings of Gregory, consult especially +G. J. T. Lau, <i>Gregor I. der Grosse</i>, pt. ii. chap. i. <i>Die Schriften Gregors</i> +and F. Homes Dudden, <i>Gregory the Great</i> (see Index II. B.). In +addition to the above-mentioned works there are printed under +Gregory’s name in Migne’s <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, vol. lxxix., the following:—<i>Super +Cantico Canticorum expositio</i>, <i>In librum primum Regum +variarum expositionum libri vi.</i>, <i>In septem psalmos poenitentiales +expositio</i> and <i>Concordia quorundam teslimoniorum s. scripturae</i>. +But (with the possible exception of the first) none of these treatises +are of Gregorian authorship. See the discussions in Migne, Lau +and Dudden.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—(<i>a</i>) The principal ancient authorities for the life +and works of Gregory are given in their chronological order. They +are: Gregory of Tours, <i>Historia Francorum</i>, x. 1; <i>Liber pontificalis</i>, +“Vita Gregorii Magni”; Isidore of Seville, <i>De vir. illustr.</i> 40, and +Ildefonsus of Toledo, <i>De vir. illustr.</i> i.; an anonymous <i>Vita Gregorii</i> +(of English authorship) belonging to the monastery of St Gall, +discovered by Ewald and published by F. A. Gasquet, <i>A Life of +Pope St Gregory the Great</i> (1904); Bede, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i>, ii. c. 1; +Paul the Deacon, <i>Vita Gregorii Magni</i> (770-780); John the Deacon, +<i>Vita Gregorii</i> (872-882). (<i>b</i>) Recent Literature: J. Barmby, +<i>Gregory the Great</i> (1892); T. Bonsmann, <i>Gregor I. der Grosse, ein +Lebensbild</i> (1890); F. Homes Dudden, <i>Gregory the Great: his place +in History and Thought</i> (2 vols., 1905); G. J. T. Lau, <i>Gregor I. der +Grosse nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert</i> (1845); C. +Wolfsgruber, <i>Gregor der Grosse</i> (1897). See also F. Gregorovius, +<i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i> (Eng. trans.) ii. 16-103; T. Hodgkin, +<i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, v. cc. 7-10; H. K. Mann, <i>The Lives of the +Popes</i>, i. 1-250; F. W. Kellett, <i>Pope Gregory the Great and his Relations +with Gaul</i>; L. Pingaud, <i>La Politique de Saint Grégoire le +Grand</i>; W. Wisbaum, <i>Die wichtigsten Richtungen und Ziele der +Tätigkeit des Papstes Gregors des Grossen</i>; W. Hohaus, <i>Die Bedeutung +Gregors des Grossen als liturgischer Schriftsteller</i>; E. G. P. Wyatt, +<i>St Gregory and the Gregorian Music</i>; and the bibliographies of Gregory +in Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen âge</i>, and +A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca historica medii aevi</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. H. D.)</div> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Gregory II.</span>, pope from 715 to 731, succeeded Constantine I., +whom he accompanied from Constantinople in 710. Gregory did +all in his power to promote the spread of Christianity in Germany, +and gave special encouragement to the mission of St Boniface, +whom he consecrated bishop in 722. He was a staunch adherent +of the East Roman empire, which still exercised sovereignty over +Rome, Ravenna and some other parts of Italy, and he impeded +as far as possible the progress of the Lombards. About 726, +however, he became involved in a conflict with the emperor +Leo the Isaurian on account of the excessive taxation of the +Italians, and, later, on the question of image worship, which +had been proscribed by the government of Constantinople. Leo +endeavoured to rid himself of the pope by violence, but Gregory, +supported by the people of Rome and also by the Lombards, +succeeded in eluding the emperor’s attacks, and died peacefully +on the 11th of February 731.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory III.</span>, pope from 731 to 741. He condemned the +iconoclasts at a council convened at Rome in November 731, +and, like his predecessor Gregory II., stimulated the missionary +labours of St Boniface, on whom he conferred the pallium. +Towards the Lombards he took up an imprudent attitude, in +support of which he in vain invoked the aid of the Frankish +prince Charles Martel.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory IV.</span>, pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed +Valentinus in December 827, on which occasion he recognized +the supremacy of the Frankish emperor in the most unequivocal +manner. His name is chiefly associated with the quarrels +between Lothair and Louis the Pious, in which he espoused +the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus Mendacii +(<i>Lügenfeld</i>, field of lies), as it is usually called (833), he secured +by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the +feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died +on the 25th of January 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory V.</span> (Bruno), pope from 996 to 999, a great-grandson +of the emperor Otto the Great, succeeded John XV. when only +twenty-four years of age, and until the council of Pavia (997) +had a rival in the person of the anti-pope John XVI., whom the +people of Rome, in revolt against the will of the youthful emperor +Otto III., had chosen after having expelled Gregory. The most +memorable acts of his pontificate were those arising out of the +contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was ultimately +brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a sentence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span> +of excommunication. Gregory died suddenly, and not without +suspicion of foul play, on the 18th of February 999. His successor +was Silvester II.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory VI.</span>, pope from 1045 to 1046. As Johannes Gratianus +he had earned a high reputation for learning and probity, and in +1045 he bought the Roman pontificate from his godson Benedict +IX. At a council held by the emperor Henry III. at Sutri in +1046, he was accused of simony and deposed. He was banished +into Germany, where he died in 1047. He was accompanied into +exile by his young protégé Hildebrand (afterwards pope as +Gregory VII.), and was succeeded by Clement II.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory VII.</span>, pope from 1073 to 1085. Hildebrand (the +future pope) would seem to have been born in Tuscany—perhaps +Raovacum—early in the third decade of the 11th century. The +son of a plain citizen, Bunicus or Bonizo, he came to Rome at an +early age for his education; an uncle of his being abbot of the +convent of St Mary on the Aventine. His instructors appear +to have included the archpriest Johannes Gratianus, who, by +disbursing a considerable sum to Benedict IX., smoothed his +way to the papal throne and actually ascended it as Gregory VI. +But when the emperor Henry III., on his expedition to Rome +(1046), terminated the scandalous <i>impasse</i> in which three popes +laid claim to the chair of Peter by deposing all three, Gregory VI. +was banished to Germany, and Hildebrand found himself +obliged to accompany him. As he himself afterwards admitted, +it was with extreme reluctance that he crossed the Alps. But +his residence in Germany was of great educative value, and full +of significance for his later official activity. In Cologne he was +enabled to pursue his studies; he came into touch with the circles +of Lorraine where interest in the elevation of the Church and her +life was highest, and gained acquaintance with the political +and ecclesiastical circumstances of that country which was +destined to figure so largely in his career. Whether, on the +death of Gregory VI. in the beginning of 1048, Hildebrand +proceeded to Cluny is doubtful. His brief residence there, if it +actually occurred, is to be regarded as no more than a visit; for +he was never a monk of Cluny. His contemporaries indeed +describe him as a monk; but his entry into the convent must be +assigned to the period preceding or following his German travels +and presumably took place in Rome. He returned to that city +with Bishop Bruno of Toul, who was nominated pope under the +title of Leo IX. (1048-1054). Under him Hildebrand found his +first employment in the ecclesiastical service, becoming a sub-deacon +and steward in the Roman Church. He acted, moreover, +as a legate in France, where he was occupied <i>inter alia</i> with the +question of Berengarius of Tours, whose views on the Lord’s +Supper had excited opposition. On the death of Leo IX. he +was commissioned by the Romans as their envoy to the German +court, to conduct the negotiations with regard to his successor. +The emperor pronounced in favour of Bishop Gebhard of Eichstädt, +who, in the course of his short reign as Victor II. (1055-1057), +again employed Hildebrand as his legate to France. +When Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine) was raised to the +papacy, without previous consultation with the German court, +Hildebrand and Bishop Anselm of Lucca were despatched to +Germany to secure a belated recognition, and he succeeded in +gaining the consent of the empress Agnes. Stephen, however, +died before his return, and, by the hasty elevation of Bishop +Johannes of Velletri, the Roman aristocracy made a last attempt +to recover their lost influence on the appointment to the papal +throne—a proceeding which was charged with peril to the Church +as it implied a renewal of the disastrous patrician régime. That +the crisis was surmounted was essentially the work of Hildebrand. +To Benedict X., the aristocratic nominee, he opposed a rival +pope in the person of Bishop Gerhard of Florence, with whom +the victory rested. The reign of Nicholas II. (1059-1061) was +distinguished by events which exercised a potent influence on +the policy of the Curia during the next two decades—the +<i>rapprochement</i> with the Normans in the south of Italy, and the +alliance with the democratic and, subsequently, anti-German +movement of the Patarenes in the north. It was also under his +pontificate (1059) that the law was enacted which transferred the +papal election to the College of Cardinals, thus withdrawing it +from the nobility and populace of Rome and thrusting the +German influence on one side. It would be too much to maintain +that these measures were due to Hildebrand alone, but it is +obvious that he was already a dominant personality on the Curia, +through he still held no more exalted office than that of archdeacon, +which was indeed only conferred on him in 1059. Again, +when Nicholas II. died and a new schism broke out, the discomfiture +of Honorius II. (Bishop Cadalus of Parma) and the +success of his rival (Anselm of Lucca) must be ascribed principally, +if not entirely, to Hildebrand’s opposition to the former. +Under the sway of Alexander II. (1061-1073) this man loomed +larger and larger in the eye of his contemporaries as the soul of +the Curial policy. It must be confessed the general political +conditions, especially in Germany, were at that period exceptionally +favourable to the Curia, but to utilize them with the sagacity +actually shown was nevertheless no slight achievement, and the +position of Alexander at the end of his pontificate was a brilliant +justification of the Hildebrandine statecraft.</p> + +<p>On the death of Alexander II. (April 21, 1073), Hildebrand +became pope and took the style of Gregory VII. The mode of +his election was bitterly assailed by his opponents. True, many +of the charges preferred are obviously the emanations of scandal +and personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that +they were not raised to impugn his promotion till several years +had elapsed (<i>c.</i> 1076); still it is plain from his own account of +the circumstances of his elevation that it was conducted in +extremely irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed by the +law of 1059 were not observed. But the sequel justified his +election—of which the worst that can be said is that there was +no general suffrage. And this sequel again owed none of its +success to chance, but was the fruit of his own exertions. In his +character were united wide experience and great energy tested +in difficult situations. It is proof of the popular faith in his +qualifications that, although the circumstances of his election +invited assault in 1073, no sort of attempt was then made to set +up a rival pontiff. When, however, the opposition which took +head against him had gone so far as to produce a pretender to the +chair, his long and undisputed possession tended to prove the +original legality of his papacy; and the appeal to irregularities +at its beginning not only lost all cogency but assumed the +appearance of a mere biased attack. On the 22nd of May he +received sacerdotal ordination, and on the 30th of June episcopal +consecration; the empress Agnes and the duchess Beatrice of +Tuscany being present at the ceremony, in addition to Bishop +Gregory of Vercelli, the chancellor of the German king, to whom +Gregory would thus seem to have communicated the result of +the election.</p> + +<p>The focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII. +is to be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death +of Henry III. the strength of the monarchy in that country had +been seriously impaired, and his son Henry IV. had to contend +with great internal difficulties. This state of affairs was of +material assistance to the pope. His advantage was still further +accentuated by the fact that in 1073 Henry was but twenty-three +years of age and by temperament inclined to precipitate action. +Many sharp lessons were needful before he learned to bridle his +impetuosity, and he lacked the support and advice of a disinterested +and experienced statesman. Such being the conditions, +a conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. could have only +one issue—the victory of the former.</p> + +<p>In the two following years Henry was compelled by the Saxon +rebellion to come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost. +Consequently in May 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in +presence of the legates to expiate his continued intimacy with +the members of his council banned by Gregory, took an oath of +obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming +the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him the +confidence of the pope, he abandoned so soon as he gained the +upper hand of the Saxons: this he achieved by his victory at +Hohenburg on the Unstrut (June 9, 1075). He now attempted +to reassert his rights of suzerain in upper Italy without delay. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span> +He sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes; +nominated the cleric Tedaldo to the archbishopric of Milan, +thus settling a prolonged and contentious question; and finally +endeavoured to establish relations with the Norman duke, +Robert Guiscard. Gregory VII. answered with a rough letter, +dated December 8, in which—among other charges—he reproached +the German king with breach of his word and with +his further countenance of the excommunicated councillors; +while at the same time he sent by word of mouth a brusque +message intimating that the enormous crimes which would be +laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the +church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory ventured +on these audacious measures at a time when he himself was +confronted by a reckless opponent in the person of Cencius, who +on Christmas-night did not scruple to surprise him in church +and carry him off as a prisoner, though on the following day +he was obliged to surrender his captive. The reprimands of +the pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented form, +infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily +convened national council in Worms, which met on the 24th +of January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy +Gregory had many enemies, and a Roman cardinal, Hugo +Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but now at variance, +had made a hurried expedition to Germany for the occasion and +appeared at Worms with the rest. All the gross scandals with +regard to the pontiff that this prelate could utter were greedily +received by the assembly, which committed itself to the ill-considered +and disastrous resolution that Gregory had forfeited +his papal dignity. In a document full of accusations the bishops +renounced their allegiance. In another King Henry pronounced +him deposed, and the Romans were required to choose a new +occupant for the vacant chair of St Peter. With the utmost +haste two bishops were despatched to Italy in company with +Count Eberhard under commission of the council, and they succeeded +in procuring a similar act of deposition from the Lombard +bishops in the synod of Piacenza. The communication of these +decisions to the pope was undertaken by the priest Roland of +Parma, and he was fortunate enough to gain an opportunity +for speech in the synod, which had barely assembled in the +Lateran church, and there to deliver his message announcing +the dethronement of the pontiff. For the moment the members +were petrified with horror, but soon such a storm of indignation +was aroused that it was only due to the moderation of Gregory +himself that the envoy was not cut down on the spot. On the +following day the pope pronounced the sentence of excommunication +against the German king with all formal solemnity, divested +him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects from the oaths +they had sworn to him. This sentence purported to eject the +king from the church and to strip him of his crown. Whether +it would produce this effect, or whether it would remain an idle +threat, depended not on the author of the verdict, but on the +subjects of Henry—before all, on the German princes. We +know from contemporary evidence that the excommunication +of the king made a profound impression both in Germany and +Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III. had deposed three popes, +and thereby rendered a great and acknowledged service to the +church. When Henry IV. attempted to copy this summary +procedure he came to grief, for he lacked the support of the +people. In Germany there was a speedy and general revulsion +of sentiment in favour of Gregory, and the particularism of the +princes utilized the auspicious moment for prosecuting their +anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the papal decision. +When at Whitsuntide the king proposed to discuss the measures +to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles at Mainz, +only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the +golden opportunity for renewing their insurrection and the +anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month. The +situation now became extremely critical for Henry. As a result +of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate +Bishop Altmann of Passau, the princes met in October at Tribur +to elect a new German king, and Henry, who was stationed at +Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only saved from +the loss of his sceptre by the failure of the assembled princes +to agree on the question of his successor. Their dissension, +however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry, +they declared, must make reparation to the pope and pledge +himself to obedience; and they settled that, if, on the anniversary +of his excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the +throne should be considered vacant. At the same time they +determined to invite Gregory to Augsburg, there to decide the +conflict. These arrangements showed Henry the course to be +pursued. It was imperative, under any circumstances and at +any price, to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period +named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their +intention to pursue their attack against himself and justify their +measures by an appeal to his excommunication. At first he +attempted to attain his ends by an embassy, but when Gregory +rejected his overtures he took the celebrated step of going to +Italy in person. The pope had already left Rome, and had +intimated to the German princes that he would expect their +escort for his journey on January 8 in Mantua. But this escort +had not appeared when he received the news of the king’s +arrival. Henry, who travelled through Burgundy, had been +greeted with wild enthusiasm by the Lombards, but resisted the +temptation to employ force against Gregory. He chose instead +the unexpected and unusual, but, as events proved, the safest +course, and determined to compel the pope to grant him absolution +by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken +refuge. This occurrence was quickly embellished and inwoven +by legend, and great uncertainty still prevails with regard to +several important points. The reconciliation was only effected +after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part +of the king, and it was with reluctance that Gregory at length +gave way, for, if he conferred his absolution, the diet of princes +in Augsburg, in which he might reasonably hope to act as +arbitrator, would either be rendered purposeless, or, if it met at +all, would wear an entirely different character. It was impossible, +however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the church, and +the politician had in this case to be subordinated to the priest. +Still the removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation, +and no basis was gained for a settlement of the great questions +at issue—notably that of investiture. A new conflict was +indeed inevitable from the very fact that Henry IV. naturally +considered the sentence of deposition repealed with that of +excommunication; while Gregory on the other hand, intent on +reserving his freedom of action, gave no hint on the subject at +Canossa.</p> + +<p>That the excommunication of Henry IV. was simply a pretext—not +a motive—for the opposition of the rebellious German +nobles is manifest. For not only did they persist in their policy +after his absolution, but they took the more decided step of +setting up a rival king in the person of Duke Rudolph of Swabia +(Forchheim, March 1077). At the election the papal legates +present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory +himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following +years. His task was the easier in that the two parties were of +fairly equal strength, each endeavouring to gain the upper hand +by the accession of the pope to their side. But his hopes and +labours, with the object of receiving an appeal to act as arbitrator +in the dynastic strife, were fruitless, and the result of his non-committal +policy was that he forfeited in large measure the +confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolph of +Swabia in consequence of his victory at Flarchheim (January 27, +1080). Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as +to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting +policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition +of King Henry (March 7, 1080), unloosing at the same time +all oaths sworn to him in the past or the future. But the papal +censure now proved a very different thing from the papal censure +four years previously. In wide circles it was felt to be an injustice, +and men began to put the question—so dangerous to the +prestige of the pope—whether an excommunication pronounced +on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect. To make matters +worse, Rudolph of Swabia died on the 16th of October of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span> +same year. True, a new claimant—Hermann of Luxemburg—was +put forward in August 1081, but his personality was ill +adapted for a leader of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the +power of Henry IV. was in the ascendant. The king, who had +now been schooled by experience, took up the struggle thus +forced upon him with great vigour. He refused to acknowledge +the ban on the ground of illegality. A council had been summoned +at Brixen, and on the 25th of June 1080 it pronounced +Gregory deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of +Ravenna as his successor—a policy of anti-king, anti-pope. In +1081 Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The +latter had now fallen on evil days, and he lived to see thirteen +cardinals desert him, Rome surrendered by the Romans to the +German king, Guibert of Ravenna enthroned as Clement III. +(March 24, 1084), and Henry crowned emperor by his rival, +while he himself was constrained to flee from Rome.</p> + +<p>The relations of Gregory to the remaining European states +were powerfully influenced by his German policy; for Germany, +by engrossing the bulk of his powers, not infrequently compelled +him to show to other rulers that moderation and forbearance +which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the +Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions +made to them under Nicholas II. were not only powerless to +stem their advance into central Italy but failed to secure even +the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was +hard pressed by Henry IV., Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, +and only interfered when he himself was menaced with the +German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned +the city to the tender mercies of his warriors, and by the popular +indignation evoked by his act brought about the banishment of +Gregory.</p> + +<p>In the case of several countries, Gregory attempted to establish +a claim of suzerainty on the part of the see of St Peter, and to +secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. +On the ground of “immemorial usage” Corsica and Sardinia +were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain and +Hungary were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was +made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief +from the pope. Philip I. of France, by his simony and the +violence of his proceedings against the church, provoked a +threat of summary measures; and excommunication, deposition +and the interdict, appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory, +however, refrained from translating his menaces into actions, +although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he +wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon +to break out in Germany. In England, again, William the +Conqueror derived no less benefit from this state of affairs. +He felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the +management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, +filled bishoprics and abbeys, and evinced little anxiety when the +pope expatiated to him on the different principles which he +entertained as to the relationship of church and state, or when +he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to +acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory +had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his +ecclesiastical policy, so chose to ignore what he could not approve, +and even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular +affection.</p> + +<p>Gregory, in fact, established relations—if no more—with +every land in Christendom; though these relations did not +invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected +with them. His correspondence extended to Poland, Russia and +Bohemia. He wrote in friendly terms to the Saracen king of +Mauretania in north Africa, and attempted, though without +success, to bring the Armenians into closer contact with Rome. +The East, especially, claimed his interest. The ecclesiastical +rupture between the bishops of Rome and Byzantium was a +severe blow to him, and he laboured hard to restore the former +amicable relationship. At that period it was impossible to +suspect that the schism implied a definite separation, for prolonged +schisms had existed in past centuries, but had always +been surmounted in the end. Both sides, moreover, had an +interest in repairing the breach between the churches. Thus, +immediately on his accession to the pontificate, Gregory sought +to come into touch with the emperor Michael VII. and succeeded. +When the news of the Saracenic outrages on the Christians in the +East filtered to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the +Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived the project of a +great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participation +in the task of recovering the sepulchre of the Lord (1074). +Thus the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land already floated +before Gregory’s vision, and his intention was to place himself +at the head. But the hour for such a gigantic enterprise was +not yet come, and the impending struggle with Henry IV. turned +his energies into another channel.</p> + +<p>In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical +reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but on the contrary found +powerful support. Since the middle of the 11th century the +tendency—mainly represented by Cluny—towards a stricter +morality and a more earnest attitude to life, especially on the +part of the clergy, had converted the papacy; and, from Leo IX. +onward, the popes had taken the lead in the movement. Even +before his election, Gregory had gained the confidence of these +circles, and, when he assumed the guidance of the church, they +laboured for him with extreme devotion. From his letters we see +how he fostered his connexion with them and stimulated their +zeal, how he strove to awake the consciousness that his cause +was the cause of God and that to further it was to render service +to God. By this means he created a personal party, unconditionally +attached to himself, and he had his confidants in every +country. In Italy Bishop Anselm of Lucca, to take an example, +belonged to their number. Again, the duchess Beatrice of +Tuscany and her daughter the Margravine Matilda, who put her +great wealth at his disposal, were of inestimable service. The +empress Agnes also adhered to his cause. In upper Italy the +Patarenes had worked for him in many ways, and all who stood +for their objects stood for the pope. In Germany at the beginning +of his reign the higher ranks of the clergy stood aloof from +him and were confirmed in their attitude by some of his regulations. +But Bishop Altmann of Passau, who has already been +mentioned, and Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg, were among +his most zealous followers. That the convent of Hirschau in +Swabia was held by Gregory was a fact of much significance, +for its monks spread over the land as itinerant agitators and +accomplished much for him in southern Germany. In England +Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury probably stood closest to +him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugo of Dié, who +afterwards ascended the archiepiscopal chair of Lyons.</p> + +<p>The whole life-work of Gregory VII. was based on his conviction +that the church has been founded by God and entrusted +with the task of embracing all mankind in a single society in +which His will is the only law; that, in her capacity as a divine +institution, she outtops all human structures; and that the pope, +<i>qua</i> head of the church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so +that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God—or, in +other words, a defection from Christianity. Elaborating an +idea discoverable in St Augustine, he looked on the worldly +state—a purely human creation—as an unhallowed edifice whose +character is sufficiently manifest from the fact that it abolishes +the equality of man, and that it is built up by violence and +injustice. He developed these views in a famous series of letters +to Bishop Hermann of Metz. But it is clear from the outset +that we are only dealing with reflections of strictly theoretical +importance; for any attempt to interpret them in terms of +action would have bound the church to annihilate not merely +a single definite state, but all states. Thus Gregory, as a +politician desirous of achieving some result, was driven in +practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged +the existence of the state as a dispensation of Providence, +described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, +and emphasized the necessity of union between the <i>sacerdotium</i> +and the <i>imperium</i>. But at no period would he have +dreamed of putting the two powers on an equality; the +superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span> +of no discussion and which he had never doubted. Again, this +very superiority of the church implied in his eyes a superiority +of the papacy, and he did not shrink from drawing the extreme +conclusions from these premises. In other words, he claimed +the right of excommunicating and deposing incapable monarchs, +and of confirming the choice of their successors. This habit of +thought needs to be appreciated in order to understand his +efforts to bring individual states into feudal subjection to the +chair of St Peter. It was no mere question of formality, but the +first step to the realization of his ideal theocracy comprising each +and every state.</p> + +<p>Since this papal conception of the state involved the exclusion +of independence and autonomy, the history of the relationship +between church and state is the history of one continued struggle. +In the time of Gregory it was the question of appointment to +spiritual offices—the so-called <i>investiture</i>—which brought the +theoretical controversy to a head. The preparatory steps had +already been taken by Leo IX., and the subsequent popes had +advanced still further on the path he indicated; but it was +reserved for Gregory and his enactments to provoke the outbreak +of the great conflict which dominated the following decades. +By the first law (1075) the right of investiture for churches was +in general terms denied to the laity. In 1078 neglect of this +prohibition was made punishable by excommunication, and, by +a further decree of the same year, every investiture conferred +by a layman was declared invalid and its acceptance pronounced +liable to penalty. It was, moreover, enacted that every layman +should restore, under pain of excommunication, all lands of the +church, held by him as fiefs from princes or clerics; and that, +henceforward, the assent of the pope, the archbishop, &c., was +requisite for any investiture of ecclesiastical property. Finally +in 1080 the forms regulating the canonical appointment to a +bishopric were promulgated. In case of a vacancy the election +was to be conducted by the people and clergy under the auspices +of a bishop nominated by the pope or metropolitan; after +which the consent of the pope or archbishop was to be procured; +if any violation of these injunctions occurred, the election should +be null and void and the right of choice pass to the pope or +metropolitan. In so legislating, Gregory had two objects: in +the first place, to withdraw the appointment to episcopal offices +from the influence of the king; in the second, to replace that +influence by his own. The intention was not to increase the power +of the metropolitan: he simply desired that the nomination of +bishops by the pope should be substituted for the prevalent +nomination of bishops by the king. But in this course of action +Gregory had a still more ambitious goal before his eyes. If +he could once succeed in abolishing the lay investiture the king +would, <i>ipso facto</i>, be deprived of his control over the great +possessions assigned to the church by himself and his predecessors, +and he could have no security that the duties and services +attached to those possessions would continue to be discharged +for the benefit of the Empire. The bishops in fact were to +retain their position as princes of the Empire, with all the lands +and rights of supremacy pertaining to them in that capacity, +but the bond between them and the Empire was to be dissolved: +they were to owe allegiance not to the king, but to the pope—a +non-German sovereign who, in consequence of the Italian +policy of the German monarchy, found himself in perpetual +opposition to Germany. Thus, by his ecclesiastical legislation, +Gregory attempted to shake the very foundations on which the +constitution of the German empire rested, while completely +ignoring the historical development of that constitution (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Investiture</a></span>).</p> + +<p>That energy which Gregory threw into the expansion of the +papal authority, and which brought him into collision with the +secular powers, was manifested no less in the internal government +of the church. He wished to see all important matters of dispute +referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself, and +he arrogated the right of legislation. The fact that his laws were +usually promulgated by Roman synods which he convened during +Lent does not imply that these possessed an independent position; +on the contrary, they were entirely dominated by his influence, +and were no more than the instruments of his will. The centralization +of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved +a curtailment of the powers of the bishops and metropolitans. +Since these in part refused to submit voluntarily and attempted +to assert their traditional independence, the pontificate of +Gregory is crowded with struggles against the higher ranks of +the prelacy. Among the methods he employed to break their +power of resistance, the despatch of legates proved peculiarly +effective. The regulation, again, that the metropolitans should +apply at Rome in person for the pallium—pronounced essential +to their qualifications for office—served to school them in +humility.</p> + +<p>This battle for the foundation of papal omnipotence within the +church is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy +among the clergy and his attack on simony. Gregory VII. did +not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the church, +for even in antiquity it was enjoined by numerous laws. +He was not even the first pope to renew the injunction in the +11th century, for legislation on the question begins as early as +in the reign of Leo IX. But he took up the struggle with greater +energy and persistence than his predecessors. In 1074 he +published an encyclical, requiring all to renounce their obedience +to those bishops who showed indulgence to their clergy in the +matter of celibacy. In the following year he commanded the +laity to accept no official ministrations from married priests and +to rise against all such. He further deprived these clerics of +their revenues. Wherever these enactments were proclaimed +they encountered tenacious opposition, and violent scenes were +not infrequent, as the custom of marriage was widely diffused +throughout the contemporary priesthood. Other decrees were +issued by Gregory in subsequent years, but were now couched in +milder terms, since it was no part of his interest to increase the +numbers of the German faction. As to the objectionable nature +of simony—the transference or acquisition of a spiritual office +for monetary considerations—no doubt could exist in the mind +of an earnest Christian, and no theoretical justification was +ever attempted. The practice, however, had attained great +dimensions both among the clergy and the laity, and the sharp +campaign, which had been waged since the days of Leo IX., had +done little to limit its scope. The reason was that in many +cases it had assumed an extremely subtle form, and detection +was difficult when the simony took the character of a tax or an +honorarium. The fact, again, that lay investiture was described +as simony, inevitably brought with it an element of confusion, +and, in the case of a charge of simoniacal practices, enormously +accentuates the difficulty of determining the actual state of +affairs. The war against simony in its original form was undoubtedly +necessary, but it led to highly complicated and problematic +issues. Was the priest or bishop, whose ordination was +due to simony, actually in the possession of the sacerdotal or +episcopal power or not? If the answer was in the affirmative, +it would seem possible to buy the Holy Ghost; if in the negative, +then obviously all the official acts of the respective priest or +bishop—which, according to the doctrine of the church, presupposed +the possession of a spiritual quality—were invalid. +And, since the number of simoniacal bishops was at that period +extremely large, incalculable consequences resulted. The difficulty +of the problem accounts for the diversity of solutions +propounded. The perplexity of the situation was aggravated +by the fact that, if the stricter view was adopted, it followed that +the sacrament of ordination must be pronounced invalid, even +in the cases where it had been unconsciously sought at the hands +of a simoniac, for the dispenser was in point of fact no bishop, +although he exercised the episcopal functions and his transgressions +were unknown, and consequently it was impossible for +him to ordain others. In the time of Gregory the conflict was +still swaying to and fro, and he himself in 1078 declared consecration +by a simoniac null and void.</p> + +<p>The pontificate of Gregory VII. came to a melancholy close, +for he died an exile in Salerno; the Romans and a number of his +most trusted coadjutors had renounced him, and the faithful +band in Germany had shrunk to scant proportions. Too much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span> +the politician, too rough in his methods, too exclusively the +representative of the Roman see and its interests, he had gained +more enemies than friends. He was of course a master of statecraft; +he had pursued political ends with consummate skill, +causing them to masquerade as requirements of religion; but +he forgot that incitement to civil war, the preaching of rebellion, +and the release of subjects from their oaths, were methods which +must infallibly lead to moral anarchy, and tend, with justice, to +stifle the confidence once felt in him. The more he accustomed +his contemporaries to the belief that any and every measure—so +long as it opened up some prospect of success—was good in his +sight, no matter how dangerous the fruits it might mature, the +fainter grew their perception of the fact that he was not only a +statesman but primarily the head of the Christian Church. That +the frail bonds of piety and religious veneration for the chair of +St Peter had given way in the struggle for power was obvious +to all, when he himself lost that power and the star of his opponent +was in the ascendant. He had given the rein to his splendid +gifts as a ruler, and in his capacity of pope he omitted to provide +an equivalent counterpoise. We are told that he was once an +impressive preacher, and he could write to his faithful countesses +in terms which prove that he was not wanting in religious feeling; +but in the whirlpool of secular politics this phase of his character +was never sufficiently developed to allow the vice-gerent of +Christ to be heard instead of the hierarch in his official acts.</p> + +<p>But to estimate the pontificate of Gregory by the disasters +of its closing years would be to misconceive its significance for +the history of the papacy entirely. On the contrary, his reign +forms an important chapter in the history of the popedom as an +institution; it contains the germs of far-reaching modifications +of the church, and it gave new impulses to both theory and +practice, the value of which may indeed be differently estimated, +but of which the effects are indubitable. It was he who conceived +and formulated the ideal of the papacy as a structure embracing +all peoples and lands. He took the first step towards the codification +of ecclesiastical law and the definite ratification of the claims +of the apostolic chair as corner-stones in the church’s foundation. +He educated the clergy and the lay world in obedience to Rome; +and, finally, it was due to his efforts that the duty of the priest +with regard to sexual abstinence was never afterwards a matter +of doubt in the Catholic Christianity of the West.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes +of his last years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. <i>Dilexi +justitiam et odivi iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio</i>—are said +to have been his last words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him +into the <i>Martyrologium Romanum</i>; in 1606 he was canonized +by Paul V. The words dedicated to him in the <i>Breviarium +Romanum</i>, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of his pontificate +that in the 18th and 19th centuries they were prohibited +by the governments of several countries with Roman Catholic +populations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—A comprehensive survey of the sources and +literature for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.v. +“Gregor VII.” in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd ed. vol. vii. +pp. 96 sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of +his letters and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the +<i>Registrum</i> (ed. P. Jaffé, <i>Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum</i>, ii., Berlin, +1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official collection +are also reprinted by Jaffé under the title of <i>Epistolae collectae</i>. +The <i>Dictatus Papae</i>—a list of twenty-seven short sentences on the +rights of the pope,—which is given in the <i>Registrum</i>, is not the work +of Gregory VII., but should probably be ascribed to Cardinal Deusdedit. +Further: A. Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca historica medii aevi</i>, i. +(2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii. 1351; P. Jaffé, <i>Regesta pontificum</i> +(2nd ed., 1865), tome i. pp. 594-649, Nr. 4771-5313, tome ii. +p. 751. The most important letters and decrees of Gregory VII. +are reprinted by C. Mirbt, <i>Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums</i> +(2nd ed., Tübingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp. 100 sqq. The oldest +life of Gregory is that by Paul von Bermried, reprinted, <i>e.g.</i> by +Watterich, <i>Vitae pontificum</i>, i. 474-546. Among the historians the +following are of especial importance: Berthold, Bernold, Lambert +von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia, Peter of Marte +Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny, Arnulph and +Landulf of Milan, Donizo—their works being reprinted in the section +“Scriptores” in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, vols. v., vi., +vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory VII. +and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise to +a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their +internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent, +and display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view. +Most of them are printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, under the +title, <i>Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI. et XII. +conscripti</i>, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome iii. (1897). +The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received enormous +benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the <i>Monumenta +Germaniae</i>, so that the old literature is for the most part +antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope—A. +F. Gfrörer, <i>Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter</i> (7 vols., +Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution. +The present state of criticism is represented by the following works: +G. Meyer von Knonau, <i>Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich +IV. und Heinrich V.</i>, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1894), iii. (1900), iv. +(1903); W. Martens, <i>Gregor VII., sein Leben und Werken</i> (2 vols., +Leipzig, 1904); C. Mirbt, <i>Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII.</i> +(Leipzig, 1894); A. Hauck, <i>Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands</i> (3 vols., +Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during +the Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here. +On Gregory’s elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, <i>Die Wahl Gregors +VII.</i> (Marburg, 1892). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., <i>Life and +Times of Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII.</i> (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. M.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory VIII.</span> (<i>Mauritius Burdinus</i>), antipope from 1118 +to 1121, was a native of southern France, who had crossed the +Pyrenees while young and had later been made archbishop of +Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in 1114 on account of a dispute +with the Spanish primate and papal legate, the archbishop of +Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an extent +that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He +opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal +of Gelasius II. to concede the emperor’s claim to investiture, +he was proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V. on the 8th of +March 1118. He was not universally recognized, however, and +never fully enjoyed the papal office. He was excommunicated +by Gelasius II. in April 1118, and by Calixtus II. at the synod +of Reims (October 1119). He was driven from Rome by the +latter in June 1121, and, having been surrendered by the citizens +of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the +triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled +to the convent of La Cava, where he died.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in <i>Baluzii miscellanea</i>, +vol. i, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of +an antipope. The chief sources are in <i>Monumenta Germaniae +historica</i>, <i>Scriptores</i>, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, <i>Pontif. +Roman. vitae</i>, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, <i>Die Publizistik im Zeitalter +Gregors VII</i>. (Leipzig, 1894); J. Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen +Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III</i>. (Bonn, 1893); Jaffé, +<i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i>, 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, +<i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the +Middle Ages</i>, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, +1900-1902); P. B. Gams, <i>Kirchengeschichte von Spanien</i>, vol. 3 +(Regensburg, 1876).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory VIII.</span> (<i>Alberto de Mora</i>), pope from the 21st of +October to the 17th of December 1187, a native of Benevento +and Praemonstratensian monk, successively abbot of St Martin +at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San’ Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest +of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and chancellor of the Roman Church, +was elected to succeed Urban III. Of amiable disposition, he +hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and promised not to +oppose the latter’s claim to Sicily. He addressed general letters +both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to the +Roman Church, especially of their required visits <i>ad limina</i>, +and to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to +recover Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making +peace between the Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the +help of both cities in the crusade. His successor was Clement III.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His letters are in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> vol. 202. Consult also +J. M. Watterich, <i>Pontif. Roman. vitae</i>, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and +Jaffé-Wattenbach, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> (1885-1888). See J. +Langen, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz +III.</i> (Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, <i>Gregors VIII. 57 tägiges Pontifikat</i> +(Basel, 1890); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, <i>Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit +der Kurie</i> (Berlin, 1866); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, +vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory IX.</span> (<i>Ugolino Conti de Segni</i>), pope from the 19th of +March 1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of +Anagni and probably a nephew of Innocent III. He studied +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span> +at Paris and Bologna, and, having been successively archpriest +of St Peter’s, papal chaplain, cardinal-deacon of Sant’ Eustachio, +cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first protector of the Franciscan +order, and papal legate in Germany under Innocent III., and +Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy. He had long +been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but now +excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued +neglect of his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When +Frederick finally set out the following June without making +submission to the pope, Gregory raised an insurrection against +him in Germany, and forced him in 1230 to beg for absolution. +The Romans, however, soon began a very bitter war against the +temporal power and exiled the pope (1st of June 1231). Hardly +had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the papacy +(May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick +II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his +subjects from their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick, +on his side, invaded the Papal States and prevented the assembling +of a general council convoked for Easter 1241. The work +of Gregory, however, was by no means limited to his relations +with emperor and Romans. He systematized the Inquisition +and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against heretics +remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported +Henry III. against the English barons, and protested against +the Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent +monks to Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church +unity, but without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of +Thuringia, Dominic, Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi. +He permitted free study of the Aristotelian writings, and issued +(1234), through his chaplain, Raymond of Pennaforte, an +important new compilation of decretals which he prescribed in +the bull <i>Rex pacificus</i> should be the standard text-book in canon +law at the universities of Bologna and Paris. Gregory was +famed for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his +great strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August +1241, while Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was +succeeded by Celestine IV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters in <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Roman. +selectae</i> (Berlin, 1883); “Les Registres de Grégoire IX,” ed. L. +Auvray in <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i> +(Paris, 1890-1905); A. Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> (Berlin, +1875) and “Registri dei Cardinali Ugolino d’ Ostia et Ottaviano +degli Ubaldini,” ed. G. Levi in <i>Fonti per la storia d’ Italia</i> (1890). +See J. Felten, <i>Papst Gregor IX.</i> (Freiburg i. B., 1886); J. Marx, +<i>Die Vita Gregorii IX. quellenkritisch untersucht</i> (1889); P. Balan, +<i>Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi</i> (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873); +F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. +Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, <i>Latin Christianity</i>, +vol. 5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, <i>Rapporti tra Federico II e +Gregorio IX rispetto alla spedizione in Palestina</i> (1896); P. T. +Masetti, <i>I Pontefici Onorio III, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a +fronte dell’ Imperatore Federico II nel secolo XIII</i> (1884); T. +Frantz, <i>Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit +des Hohenstaufen Friedrich II.</i> (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, <i>Das +Papsttum u. Byzanz</i> (Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography +and an excellent article on Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in +Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd edition.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory X.</span> (<i>Tebaldo Visconti</i>), pope from the 1st of September +1271, to the 10th of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208, +studied for the church, and became archdeacon of Liége. The +eighteen cardinals who met to elect a successor to Clement IV. +were divided into French and Italian factions, which wrangled +over the election for nearly three years in the midst of great +popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the eloquence of St +Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the choice +to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying +Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and +was ordained priest on the 19th of March 1272, and consecrated +on the 27th. He at once summoned the fourteenth general +council of the Catholic Church, which met at Lyons in 1274, +with an attendance of some 1600 prelates, for the purpose of +considering the eastern schism, the condition of the Holy Land, +and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded, +thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for +the time being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the +council all imperial rights in the States of the Church. The +most celebrated among the many reform decrees issued by +Gregory was the constitution determining for the first time the +form of conclave at papal elections, which in large measure has +remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on his +way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great +crusade in company with the kings of England, France, Aragon +and Sicily, when he died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276. +He was a nobleman, fond of peace and actuated by the consciousness +of a great mission. He has been honoured as a saint by the +inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His successor in the +papacy was Innocent V.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud +in the <i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, +1892-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. 5, 2nd +edition (1873-1890); H. Finke, <i>Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des +13ten Jahrhunderts</i> (Münster, 1891); P. Piacenza, <i>Compendia della +storia del b. Gregorio X, papa</i> (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius, +<i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton +(London, 1900-1902); H. Otto, <i>Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von +Habsburgs zu Papst Gregor X.</i> (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Zisterer, +<i>Gregor X. u. Rudolf von Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen</i> +(Freiburg i. B., 1891); F. Walter, <i>Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor +X.</i> (Berlin, 1894); A. Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. Roman.</i> vol. 2 +(Berlin, 1875); W. Norden, <i>Das Papsttum und Byzanz</i> (Berlin, 1903); +J. Loserth, “Akten über die Wahl Gregors X.” in <i>Neues Archiv</i>, +xxi. (1895); A. von Hirsch-Gereuth, “Die Kreuzzugspolitik +Gregors X.” in <i>Studien z. Gesch. d. Kreuzzugsidee nach den Kreuzzügen</i> +(Munich, 1896). There is an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Hauck’s +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, 3rd edition.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory XI.</span> (<i>Pierre Roger de Beaufort</i>), pope from the 30th +of December 1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin +in 1330, created cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his +uncle, Clement VI., was the successor of Urban V. His efforts +to establish peace between France and England and to aid the +Eastern Christians against the Turks were fruitless, but he +prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further encroachments +on the States of the Church. He introduced many +reforms in the various monastic orders and took vigorous +measures against the heresies of the time. His energy was +stimulated by the stirring words of Catherine of Siena, to whom +in particular the transference of the papal see back to Italy +(17th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst at +Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury, +the king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding +an investigation of Wycliffe’s doctrines. Gregory was meditating +a return to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French +popes who for some seventy years had made Avignon their see, +a man learned and full of zeal for the church, but irresolute and +guilty of nepotism. The great schism, which was to endure fifty +years, broke out soon after the election of his successor, Urban VI.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. J. Tomaseth, “Die Register u. Secretäre Urbans V. u. +Gregors XI.” in <i>Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung</i> +(1898); Baluzius, <i>Vitae pap. Avenion.</i> vol. I (Paris, +1693); L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. I, trans. by F. I. Antrobus +(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. 6, +trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J. P. Kirsch, +<i>Die Rückkehr der Päpste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. <span class="correction" title="amended from con">von</span> Avignon nach +Rom</i> (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, <i>Histoire de la papauté +pendant le XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good article +by J. N. Brischar in the <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, 2nd edition.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory XII.</span> (<i>Angelo Coriaro</i>, or <i>Correr</i>), pope from the +30th of November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a +noble family at Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of +Castello, Latin patriarch of Constantinople, cardinal-priest of +San Marco, and papal secretary, he was elected to succeed +Innocent VII., after an interregnum of twenty-four days, under +the express condition that, should the antipope Benedict XIII. +at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also would +renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated. +As pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by +which a general council was to be held at Savona in September, +1408, but King Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from +policy, seized Rome and brought the negotiations to nought. +Gregory had promised not to create any more cardinals, and +when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals deserted him and, +together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the council of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span> +Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in June 1409 +the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V. +Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by +Rupert, king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus, +and in a synod at Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and +Alexander as schismatical, perjured and scandalous. John +XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of Alexander in 1410, +concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by which Gregory was +banished from Naples on the 31st of October 1411. The pope +then took refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through +whom he presented his resignation to the council of Constance +on the 4th of July 1415. A weak and easily-influenced old man, +his resignation was the noblest act of his pontificate. The +rest of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity as cardinal-bishop +of Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at Recanati +on the 18th of October 1417. Some writers reckon Alexander V. +and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accordingly +count Gregory’s pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman +Catholic authorities, however, incline to the other reckoning.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. i., trans. by F. I. Antrobus +(London, 1899); M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i>, vol. 1 +(London, 1899); N. Valois, <i>La France et le grand schisme d’occident</i> +(Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, <i>Le Grand Schisme d’occident</i> +(Paris, 1898); J. von Haller, <i>Papsttum u. Kirchenreform</i> (Berlin, +1903); J. Loserth, <i>Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters</i> (1903); +<i>Theoderici de Nyem de schismate libri tres</i>, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, +1890). There is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> +2nd ed., vol. 5.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory XIII.</span> (<i>Ugo Buoncompagno</i>), pope from 1572 to 1585, +was born on the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he +received his education, and subsequently taught, until called +to Rome (1539) by Paul III., who employed him in various +offices. He bore a prominent part in the council of Trent, 1562-1563. +In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in the +following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the 13th of May +1572 he was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life +had been rather worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but +as pope he gave no occasion of offence. He submitted to the +influence of the rigorists, and carried forward the war upon +heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his predecessor. +However, he received the news of the massacre of St Bartholomew +(23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the +event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists, +that France had been miraculously delivered, and that the +Huguenots had suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse +Spain and Venice against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form +a general coalition against the Protestants. He subsidized +Philip II. in his wars in the Netherlands; aided the Catholic +League in France; incited attacks upon Elizabeth by way of +Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose privileges he multiplied, +he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He established +or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the Collegium +Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the +Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy +achievements are the reform of the calendar on the 24th of +February 1582 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>); the improved edition of the +<i>Corpus juris canonici</i>, 1582; the splendid Gregorian Chapel +in St Peter’s; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the Quirinal +Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses +entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted +to confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing +arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace: +nobles armed in their defence; old feuds revived; the country +became infested with bandits; not even in Rome could order be +maintained. Amid these disturbances Gregory died, on the 10th +of April 1585, leaving to his successor, Sixtus V., the task of +pacifying the state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina, +<i>De vitis pontiff. Rom.</i>; Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum +pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1601-1602); and Ciappi, <i>Comp. dell’ attioni +e santa vita di Gregorio XIII</i> (Rome, 1591). See also Bompiano, +<i>Hist. pontificatus Gregorii XIII.</i> (Rome, 1655); Ranke, <i>Popes</i> +(Eng. trans., Austin), i. 428 seq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom.</i> +iii. 2, 566 seq.; and for numerous references upon Gregory’s relation +to the massacre of St Bartholomew, <i>Cambridge Mod. Hist.</i> iii. 771 seq.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory XIV.</span> (<i>Nicoló Sfondrato</i>), pope 1590-1591, was born +in Cremona, on the 11th of February 1535, studied in Perugia, +and Padua, became bishop of his native place in 1560, and took +part in the council of Trent, 1562-1563. Gregory XIII. made +him a cardinal, 1583, but ill-health forbade his active participation +in affairs. His election to the papacy, to succeed Urban VII., +on the 5th of December 1590, was due to Spanish influence. +Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly ignorant of politics. +During his short pontificate the States of the Church suffered +dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak of brigandage. +Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he +aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and +threatened his adherents with the ban; but the effect of his +intervention was only to rally the moderate Catholics to the +support of Henry, and to hasten his conversion. Gregory died +on the 15th of October 1591, and was succeeded by Innocent IX.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, +1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, <i>De vitis pontiff. Rom.</i> +(both contemporary); Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i> (1880). i. 300; +Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory XV.</span> (<i>Alessandro Ludovisi</i>) was born on the 9th of +January 1554, in Bologna, where he also studied and taught. +He was made archbishop of his native place and cardinal by +Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on the 9th of February 1621. +Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory displayed remarkable +energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years’ War, and +the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims +of Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was +rewarded with the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was +carried off to Rome. Gregory founded the Congregation of the +Propaganda, encouraged missions, fixed the order to be observed +in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, +Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the 8th of July +1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius, +<i>Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom.</i>; Ranke’s excellent +account, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. +der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. 2, 609 seq.; Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i> +(1880), i. 370 seq.; and the extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, s.v. “Gregor XV.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Gregory XVI.</span> (<i>Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari</i>), pope from +1831 to 1846, was born at Belluno on the 18th of September 1765, +and at an early age entered the order of the Camaldoli, among +whom he rapidly gained distinction for his theological and +linguistic acquirements. His first appearance before a wider +public was in 1799, when he published against the Italian +Jansenists a controversial work entitled <i>Il Trionfo della Santa +Sede</i>, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy, +has been translated into several European languages. In 1800 +he became a member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion, +founded by Pius VII., to which he contributed a number of +memoirs on theological and philosophical questions and in 1805 +was made abbot of San Gregorio on the Caelian Hill. When +Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809, Cappellari withdrew +to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other members +of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the restoration +of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received successive +appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of the +Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops. +In March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII., and shortly +afterwards was entrusted with an important mission to adjust +a concordat regarding the interests of the Catholics of Belgium +and the Protestants of Holland. On the 2nd of February 1831 +he was, after sixty-four days’ conclave, unexpectedly chosen to +succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair. The revolution of 1830 +had just inflicted a severe blow on the ecclesiastical party in +France, and almost the first act of the new government there +was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and particularly +the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to +demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the +struggle which ensued it was more than once necessary to call +in the Austrian bayonets. The reactionaries in power put +off their promised reforms so persistently as to anger even +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span> +Metternich; nor did the replacement of Bernetti by Lambruschini +in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal secretary of state +objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and was liberal +chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The embarrassed +financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the +Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in +architectural and engineering works, and his magnificent patronage +of learning in the hands of Mai, Mezzofanti, Gaetano, Moroni +and others, were for the real benefit of his subjects. The years +of his pontificate were marked by the steady development and +diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were ultimately +formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX., by +the council of the Vatican. He died on the 1st of June 1846.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. M. Bernasconi, <i>Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet constitutiones, +bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae</i>, vols. i-4 (Rome, 1901 ff.); +Cardinal Wiseman, <i>Recollections of the Last Four Popes</i> (London, +1858); Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. vii. (Leipzig, 1899), 127 +ff. (gives literature); Frederik Nielsen, <i>History of the Papacy in the +19th Century</i>, ii. (London, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the name of a Scottish family, many members +of which attained high eminence in various departments of science, +fourteen having held professorships in mathematics or medicine. +Of the most distinguished of their number a notice is given +below.</p> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">David Gregory</span> (1627-1720), eldest son of the Rev. John +Gregory of Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, who married Janet +Anderson in 1621. He was for some time connected with a +mercantile house in Holland, but on succeeding to the family +estate of Kinardie returned to Scotland, and occupied most of his +time in scientific pursuits, freely giving his poorer neighbours the +benefit of his medical skill. He is said to have been the first +possessor of a barometer in the north of Scotland; and on +account of his success by means of it in predicting changes in +the weather, he was accused of witchcraft before the presbytery +of Aberdeen, but he succeeded in convincing that body of his +innocence.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">James Gregory</span> (1638-1675), Scottish mathematician, +younger brother of the preceding, was educated at the grammar +school of Aberdeen and at Marischal College of that city. At an +early period he manifested a strong inclination and capacity for +mathematics and kindred sciences; and in 1663 he published his +famous treatise <i>Optica promota</i>, in which he made known his +great invention, the Gregorian reflecting telescope. About 1665 +he went to the university of Padua, where he studied for some +years, and in 1667 published <i>Vera circuli et hyperbolae quadratura</i>, +in which he discussed infinite convergent series for the areas +of the circle and hyperbola. In the following year he published +also at Padua <i>Geometriae pars universalis</i>, in which he gave +a series of rules for the rectification of curves and the mensuration +of their solids of revolution. On his return to England in this +year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1669 he +became professor of mathematics in the university of St Andrews; +and in 1674 he was transferred to the chair of mathematics in +Edinburgh. In October 1675, while showing the satellites of +the planet Jupiter to some of his students through one of his +telescopes, he was suddenly struck with blindness, and he died +a few days afterwards.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He was also the author of <i>Exercitationes geometricae</i> (1668), and, +it is alleged, of a satirical tract entitled <i>The Great and New Art of +Weighing Vanity</i>, intended to ridicule certain fallacies of a contemporary +writer on hydraulics, and published at Glasgow in 1672, +professedly by “Patrick Mathers, archbeadle of the university of +St Andrews.”</p> +</div> + +<p>III. <span class="sc">David Gregory</span> (1661-1708), son of David Gregory +(1627-1720), was born in Aberdeen and educated partly in his +native city and partly in Edinburgh, where he became professor +of mathematics in 1683. From 1691 till his death he was Savilian +professor of astronomy at Oxford. His principal works are +<i>Exercitatio geometrica de dimensione figurarum</i> (1684), <i>Catoptricae +et dioptricae sphaericae elementa</i> (1695), and <i>Astronomiae +physicae et geometricae elementa</i> (1702)—the last a work +highly esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton, of whose system it is an +illustration and a defence. <i>A Treatise on Practical Geometry</i> +which he left in manuscript was translated from the Latin +and published in 1745. He was succeeded in the chair of mathematics +in Edinburgh by bis brother James; another brother, +Charles, was in 1707 appointed professor of mathematics in the +university of St Andrews; and his eldest son, David (1696-1767), +became professor of modern history at Oxford, and canon +and subsequently dean of Christ Church.</p> + +<p>IV. <span class="sc">John Gregory</span> (1724-1773), Scottish physician, grandson +of James Gregory (1638-1675) and youngest son of Dr James +Gregory (d. 1731), professor of medicine in King’s College, +Aberdeen, was born at Aberdeen on the 3rd of June 1724. He +received his early education at the grammar school of Aberdeen +and at King’s College in that city, and in 1741 he attended the +medical classes at Edinburgh university. In 1745 he went to +Leiden to complete his medical studies, and during his stay +there he received without solicitation the degree of doctor of +medicine from King’s College, Aberdeen. On his return from +Holland he was elected professor of philosophy at King’s College, +but in 1749 he resigned his professorship on account of its duties +interfering too much with his private practice. In 1754 he proceeded +to London, where he made the acquaintance of many +persons of distinction, and the same year was chosen fellow of +the Royal Society. On the death in November 1755 of his +brother Dr James Gregory, who had succeeded his father as +professor of medicine in King’s College, Aberdeen, he was +appointed to that office. In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh in +the hope of obtaining a more extended field of practice as a +physician, and in 1766 he was appointed professor of the practice +of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, to whose eminence +as a medical school he largely contributed. He died of gout on +the 10th of February 1773.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He is the author of <i>A Comparative View of the State and Faculties +of Man with those of the Animal World</i> (1765); <i>Observations on the +Duties, Offices and Qualifications of a Physician</i> (1772); <i>Elements +of the Practice of Physic</i> (1772); and <i>A Father’s Legacy to his +Daughters</i> (1774). <i>His Whole Works</i>, with a life by Mr Tytler (afterwards +Lord Woodhouselee), were published at Edinburgh in 1788.</p> +</div> + +<p>V. <span class="sc">James Gregory</span> (1753-1821), Scottish physician, eldest +son of the preceding, was born at Aberdeen in January 1753. +He accompanied his father to Edinburgh in 1764, and after +going through the usual course of literary studies at that university, +he was for a short time a student at Christchurch, +Oxford. It was there probably that he acquired that taste for +classical learning which afterwards distinguished him. He +studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, after graduating doctor of +medicine in 1774, spent the greater part of the next two years +in Holland, France and Italy. Shortly after his return to +Scotland he was appointed in 1776 to the chair his father had +formerly held, and in the following year he also entered on the +duties of teacher of clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary. +On the illness of Dr William Cullen in 1790 he was appointed +joint-professor of the practice of medicine, and he became the +head of the Edinburgh Medical School on the death of Dr Cullen +in the same year. He died on the 2nd of April 1821. As a medical +practitioner Gregory was for the last ten years of his life at the +head of the profession in Scotland. He was at one time president +of the Edinburgh College of Physicians, but his indiscretion in +publishing certain private proceedings of the college led to his +suspension on the 13th of May 1809 from all rights and privileges +which pertained to the fellowship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides his <i>Conspectus medicinae theoreticae</i>, published in 1788 as +a text-book for his lectures on the institutes, Dr Gregory was the +author of “A Theory of the Moods of Verbs,” published in the +<i>Edin. Phil. Trans.</i> (1787), and of <i>Literary and Philosophical Essays</i>, +published in two volumes in 1792.</p> +</div> + +<p>VI. <span class="sc">William Gregory</span> (1803-1858), son of James Gregory +(1753-1821), was born on the 25th of December 1803. In 1837 +he became professor of chemistry at the Andersonian Institution, +Glasgow, in 1839 at King’s College, Aberdeen, and in 1844 at +Edinburgh University. He died on the 24th of April 1858. +Gregory was one of the first in England to advocate the theories +of Justus von Liebig, and translated several of his works. He +is also the author of <i>Outlines of Chemistry</i> (1845), and an <i>Elementary +Treatise on Chemistry</i> (1853).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span></p> + +<p>VII. <span class="sc">Duncan Farquharson Gregory</span> (1813-1844), brother +of the preceding, was born on the 13th of April 1813. After +studying at the university of Edinburgh he in 1833 entered +Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was for a time assistant +professor of chemistry, but he devoted his attention chiefly +to mathematics. He died on the 23rd of February 1844.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Cambridge Mathematical Journal</i> was originated, and for some +time edited, by him; and he also published a <i>Collection of Examples +of Processes in the Differential and Integral Calculus</i> (1841). A +<i>Treatise on the Application of Analysis to Solid Geometry</i>, which he +left unfinished, was completed by W. Walton, and published posthumously +in 1846. His <i>Mathematical Writings</i>, edited by W. Walton, +with a biographical memoir by Robert Leslie Ellis, appeared in 1865.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See A. G. Stewart, <i>The Academic Gregories</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1850-1909), British painter, +born at Southampton, began work at the age of fifteen in the +engineer’s drawing office of the Peninsular and Oriental Company. +Afterwards he studied at South Kensington, and about 1871 +entered on a successful career as an illustrator and as an admirable +painter in oil and water colour. He was elected associate of +the Royal Academy in 1883, academician in 1898, and president +of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1898. +His work is distinguished by remarkable technical qualities, +by exceptional firmness and decision of draughtsmanship and +by unusual certainty of handling. His “Marooned,” a water +colour, is in the National Gallery of British Art. Many of his +pictures were shown at Burlington House at the winter exhibition +of 1909-1910 after his death in June 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1774-1841), English +mathematician, was born on the 29th of January 1774 at Yaxley +in Huntingdonshire. Having been educated by Richard Weston, +a Leicester botanist, he published in 1793 a treatise, Lessons +<i>Astronomical and Philosophical</i>. Having settled at Cambridge +in 1796, Gregory first acted as sub-editor on the <i>Cambridge +Intelligencer</i>, and then opened a bookseller’s shop. In 1802 he +obtained an appointment as mathematical master at Woolwich +through the influence of Charles Hutton, to whose notice he had +been brought by a manuscript on the “Use of the Sliding +Rule”; and when Hutton resigned in 1807 Gregory succeeded +him in the professorship. Failing health obliged him to retire +in 1838, and he died at Woolwich on the 2nd of February 1841.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gregory wrote <i>Hints for the Use of Teachers of Elementary Mathematics</i> +(1840, new edition 1853), and <i>Mathematics for Practical +Men</i> (1825), which was revised and enlarged by Henry Law in 1848, +and again by J. R. Young in 1862. His <i>Letters on the Evidences of +Christianity</i> (1815) have been several times reprinted, and an abridgment +was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1853. He +will probably be longest remembered for his <i>Biography of Robert Hall</i>, +which first appeared in the collected edition of Hall’s works, was +published separately in 1833, and has since passed through several +editions. The minor importance of his <i>Memoir of John Mason Good</i> +(1828) is due to the narrower fame of the subject. Gregory was one +of the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1802 he was +appointed editor of the <i>Gentlemen’s Diary</i>, and in 1818 editor of the +<i>Ladies’ Diary</i> and superintendent of the almanacs of the Stationers’ +Company.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREIFENBERG,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Pomerania, on the Rega, 45 m. N.E. of Stettin on the railway +to Kolberg. Pop. (1905) 7208. It has two Evangelical churches +(among them that of St Mary, dating from 13th century), two +ancient gateways, a powder tower and a gymnasium. The +manufacture of machines, stoves and bricks are the principal +industries. Greifenberg possessed municipal rights as early as +1262, and in the 14th and 15th centuries had a considerable +shipping trade, but it lost much of its prosperity during the +Thirty Years’ War.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Riemann, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Greifenberg</i> (1862).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREIFENHAGEN,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Pomerania, on the Reglitz, 12 m. S.S.W. of Stettin +by rail. Pop. (1905) 6473. Its prosperity depends chiefly on +agriculture and it has a considerable trade in cattle. There are +also felt manufactures and saw mills. Greifenhagen was built +in 1230, and was raised to the rank of a town and fortified about +1250. In the Thirty Years’ War it was taken both by the +imperialists and the Swedes, and in 1675 it was captured by the +Brandenburgers, into whose possession it came finally in 1679.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREIFSWALD,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Pomerania, on the navigable Ryk, 3 m. from its mouth on +the Baltic at the little port of Wyk, and 20 m. S.E. from Stralsund +by rail. Pop. (1875) 18,022, (1905) 23,750. It has wide and +regular streets, flanked by numerous gabled houses, and is +surrounded by pleasant promenades on the site of its old ramparts. +The three Gothic Protestant churches, the Marienkirche, +the Nikolaikirche and the Jakobikirche, and the town-hall +(Rathaus) are the principal edifices, and these with their lofty +spires are very picturesque. There is a statue of the emperor +Frederick III. and a war memorial in the town. The industries +mainly consist in shipbuilding, fish-curing, and the manufacture +of machinery (particularly for agriculture), and the commerce in +the export of corn, wood and fish. There is a theatre, an +orphanage and a municipal library. Greifswald is, however, +best known to fame by reason of its university. This, founded +in 1456, is well endowed and is largely frequented by students +of medicine. Connected with it are a library of 150,000 volumes +and 800 MSS., a chemical laboratory, a zoological museum, a +gynaecological institute, an ophthalmological school, a botanical +garden and at Eldena (a seaside resort on the Baltic) an agricultural +school. In front of the university, which had 775 +students and about 100 teachers in 1904, stands a monument +commemorating its four hundredth anniversary.</p> + +<p>Greifswald was founded about 1240 by traders from the +Netherlands. In 1250 it received a town constitution and +Lübeck rights from Duke Wratislaw of Pomerania. In 1270 it +joined the Hanse towns, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar and +Lübeck, and took part in the wars which they carried on against +the kings of Denmark and Norway. During the Thirty Years’ +War it was formed into a fortress by the imperialists, but they +vacated it in 1631 to the Swedes, in whose possession it remained +after the peace of Westphalia. In 1678 it was captured by the +elector of Brandenburg, but was restored to the Swedes in the +following year; in 1713 it was desolated by the Russians; in +1715 it came into the possession of Denmark; and in 1721 it +was again restored to Sweden, under whose protection it remained +till 1815, when, along with the whole of Swedish Pomerania, +it came into the possession of Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. G. L. Kosegarten, <i>Geschichte der Universität Greifswald</i> +(1856); C. Gesterding, <i>Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald</i> +(3 vols., 1827-1829); and I. Ziegler, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald</i> +(Greifswald, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREISEN<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (in French, <i>hyalomicte</i>), a modification of granite, +consisting essentially of quartz and white mica, and distinguished +from granite by the absence of felspar and biotite. In the hand +specimen the rock has a silvery glittering appearance from the +abundance of lamellar crystals of muscovite, but many greisens +have much of the appearance of granite, except that they are +paler in colour. The commonest accessory minerals are tourmaline, +topaz, apatite, fluorspar and iron oxides; a little felspar +more or less altered may also be present and a brown mica which +is biotite or lithionite. The tourmaline in section is brown, +green, blue or colourless, and often the same crystal shows many +different tints. The white mica forms mostly large plates with +imperfect crystalline outlines. The quartz is rich in fluid +enclosures. Apatite and topaz are both colourless and of +irregular form. Felspar if present may be orthoclase and +oligoclase.</p> + +<p>Greisen occurs typically in belts or veins intersecting granite. +At the centre of each vein there is usually a fissure which may +be open or filled with quartz. The greisen bands are from 1 in. +up to 2 ft. or more in thickness. At their outer edges they pass +gradually into the granite, for they contain felspar crystals more +or less completely altered into aggregates of white mica and +quartz. The transition between the two rocks is perfectly +gradual, a fact which shows that the greisen has been produced +by alteration of the granite. Vapours or fluids rising through +the fissure have been the agents which effected the transmutation. +They must have contained fluorine, boron and probably also +lithium, for topaz, mica and tourmaline, the new minerals of the +granite, contain these elements. The change is a post-volcanic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> +or pneumatolytic one induced by the vapours set free by the +granite magma when it cools. Probably the rock was at a +relatively high temperature at the time. A similar type of +alteration, the development of white mica, quartz and tourmaline, +is found sometimes in sedimentary rocks around granite masses. +Greisen is closely connected with schorl rock both in its mineralogical +composition and in its mode of origin. The latter is a +pneumatolytic product consisting of quartz and tourmaline; +it often contains white mica and thus passes by all stages into +greisen. Both of these rocks carry frequently small percentages +of tin oxide (cassiterite) and may be worked as ores of tin. They +are common in Cornwall, Saxony, Tasmania and other districts +which are centres of tin-mining. Many other greisens occur +in which no tin is found. The analyses show the composition +of Cornish granite and greisen. They make it clear that there +has been an introduction of fluorine and boron and a diminution +in the alkalies during the transformation of the granitic rock +into the greisen.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fl.</td> <td class="tcc allb">B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Granite</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.79</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.73</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.69</td> <td class="tcr rb">.15</td> <td class="tcr rb">tr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Greisen</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">69.42</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15.65</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.25</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.30</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.63</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.02</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.06</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.27</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.36</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.59</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREIZ,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a town of Germany, capital of the principality of +Reuss-Greiz (Reuss the Elder), in a pleasant valley on the right +bank of the White Elster, near the borders of Saxony, and 66 m. +by rail S. from Leipzig. Pop. (1875) 12,657; (1905) 23,114. +It consists of two parts, the old town on the right bank and the +new town on the left bank of the river; it is rapidly growing +and is regularly laid out. The principal buildings are the +palace of the prince of Reuss-Greiz, surrounded by a fine park, +the old château on a rocky hill overlooking the town, the summer +palace with a fine garden, the old town church dating from 1225 +and possessing a beautiful tower, the town hall, the governmental +buildings and statues of the emperor William I. and +of Bismarck. There are classical and modern schools and a +school of textile industry. The industries are considerable, +and include dyeing, tanning and the manufacture of woollen, +cotton, shawls, coverlets and paper. Greiz (formerly <i>Grewcz</i>) is +apparently a town of Slav origin. From the 12th century it +was governed by <i>advocati</i> (<i>Vögte</i>), but in 1236 it came into the +possession of Gera, and in 1550 of the younger line of the house +of Plauen. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1494, and almost +totally in 1802.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wilke, <i>Greiz und seine Umgebung</i> (1875), and <i>Jahresberichte +des Vereins für Greizer Geschichte</i> (1894, seq.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENADA,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the southernmost of the Windward Islands, +British West Indies. It lies between 11º 58′ and 12º 15′ N. +and between 61º 35′ and 61º 50′ W., being 140 m. S.W. of +Barbados and 85 m. N. by W. of Trinidad. In shape oval, it is +21 m. long, 12 m. broad at its maximum and has an area of 133 +sq. m. It owes much of its beauty to a well-wooded range of +mountains traversing the island from N. to S. and throwing off +from the centre spurs which form picturesque and fertile valleys. +These mountains attain their highest elevation in Mount Catharine +(2750 ft.). In the S.E. and N.W. there are stretches of low or +undulating ground, devoted to fruit growing and cattle raising. +The island is of volcanic origin; the only signs of upheaval are +raised limestone beaches in the extreme N. Red and grey +sandstones, hornblende and argillaceous schist are found in the +mountains, porphyry and basaltic rocks also occur; sulphur +and fuller’s earth are worked. In the centre, at the height of +1740 ft. above the sea, is the chief natural curiosity of Grenada, +the Grand Etang, a circular lake, 13 acres in extent, occupying +the site of an ancient crater. Near it is a large sanatorium, +much frequented as a health resort. In the north-east is a larger +lake, Lake Antoine, also occupying a crater, but it lies almost at +the sea level. The island is watered by several short rivers, mainly +on the east and south; there are numerous fresh water springs, +as well as hot chalybeate and sulphurous springs. The south-eastern +coast is much indented with bays. The climate is good, +the temperature equable and epidemic diseases are rare. In the +low country the average yearly temperature is 82° F., but it is +cooler in the heights. The rainfall is very heavy, amounting in +some parts to as much as 200 in., a year. The rainy season lasts +from May to December, but refreshing showers frequently occur +during other parts of the year. The average annual rainfall +at St Georges is 79.07 in., and at Grand Etang 164 in. The +excellent climate and good sea-bathing have made Grenada the +health resort of the neighbouring islands, especially of Trinidad. +Good roads and byeways intersect it in every direction. The soil +is extraordinarily fertile, the chief products being cocoa and +spices, especially nutmegs. The exports, sent chiefly to Great +Britain, are cocoa, spices, wool, cotton, coffee, live stock, hides, +turtles, turtle shell, kola nuts, vanilla and timber. Barbados +is dependent on Grenada for the majority of +its firewood. Sugar is still grown, and rum +and molasses are made, but the consumption +of these is confined to the island.</p> + +<p>Elementary education is chiefly in the +hands of the various denominations, whose +schools are assisted by government grants-in-aid. There are, +however, a few secular schools conducted by the government, +and government-aided secondary schools for girls and a +grammar school for boys. The schools are controlled by a +board of education, the members of which are nominated +by the government, and small fees are charged in all schools. +The governor of the Windward Islands resides in Grenada and +is administrator of it. The Legislative Council consists of 14 +members; 7 including the governor are <i>ex-officio</i> members and +the rest are nominated by the Crown. English is universally +spoken, but the negroes use a French <i>patois</i>, which, however, +is gradually dying out. Only 2% of the inhabitants are white, +the rest being negroes and mulattoes with a few East Indians. +The capital, St George, in the south-west, is built upon a lava +peninsula jutting into the sea and forming one side of its land-locked +harbour. It is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills, +up the sides of which climb the red-brick houses of the town. +At the extremity of the peninsula is Fort St George, with a +saluting battery. The ridge connecting Fort St George with +Hospital Hill is tunnelled to give access to the two parts of the +town lying on either side. The population in 1901 was 5198. +There are four other towns—on the west coast Gouyave, or +Charlotte Town, and 4 m. N. of it Victoria; on the north coast +Sauteurs; and Grenville at the head of a wide bay on the east. +They are all in frequent communication with the capital by +steamer. The population of the entire colony in 1901 was 63,438.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Grenada was discovered in 1498 by Columbus, +who named it Conception. Neither the Spanish nor the British, +to whom it was granted in 1627, settled on the island. The +governor of Martinique, du Parquet, purchased it in 1650, +and the French were well received by the Caribs, whom they +afterwards extirpated with the greatest cruelty. In 1665 +Grenada passed into the hands of the French West India Company, +and was administered by it until its dissolution in 1674, +when the island passed to the French Crown. Cocoa, coffee and +cotton were introduced in 1714. During the wars between Great +Britain and France, Grenada capitulated to the British forces in +1762, and was formally ceded next year by the Treaty of Paris. +The French, under Count d’Estaing, re-captured the island in +1779, but it was restored to Great Britain by the Treaty of +Versailles in 1783. A rebellion against the British rule, instigated +and assisted by the French, occurred in 1795, but was quelled by +Sir Ralph Abercromby in the following year. The emancipation +of the slaves took place in 1837, and by 1877 it was found necessary +to introduce East Indian labour. Grenada, with cocoa as its +staple, has not experienced similar depression to that which +overtook the sugar-growing islands of the West Indies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Grenada Handbook</i> (London, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENADE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (from the French word for a pomegranate, from a +resemblance in shape to that fruit), a small spherical explosive +vessel thrown by hand. Hand-grenades were used in war in +the 16th century, but the word “grenade” was also from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span> +first used to imply an explosive shell fired from a gun; this +survives to the present day in the German <i>Granate</i>. These +weapons were employed after about 1660, by special troops +called “grenadiers” (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the wars of the 17th and 18th +centuries they are continually met with. They became obsolete +in the 19th century, but were given a new lease of life in the 20th, +owing to their employment in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904, +where hand-grenades of a modern type, and containing powerful +modern explosives, proved very effective (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ammunition</a></span>, <i>Shell </i>). +Hand-grenades filled with chemicals and made of glass are used +as a method of fire-extinction, and similar vessels containing a +liquid with a very strong smell are used to discover defects in a +drain or sewer.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENADIER,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> originally a soldier whose special duty it was +to throw hand-grenades. The latter were in use for a considerable +time before any special organization was given to the troops +who were to use them. In 1667 four men per company in the +French <i>Régiment du Roi</i> were trained with grenades (siege of +Lille), and in 1668-1670 grenadier companies were formed in +this regiment and in about thirty others of the French line. +Evelyn, in his <i>Diary</i>, tells us that on the 29th of June 1678 he +saw at Hounslow “a new sort of soldiers called granadiers, who +were dexterous in flinging hand-granades.” As in the case of +the fusiliers, the French practice was therefore quickly copied +in England. Eventually each English battalion had a grenadier +company (see for illustrations <i>Archaeological Journal</i>, xxiii. 222, +and xlvii. 321-324). Besides their grenades and the firelock, +grenadiers carried axes which, with the grenades, were employed +in the assault of fortresses, as we are told in the celebrated song, +“The British Grenadiers.”</p> + +<p>The grenadier companies were formed always of the most +powerful men in the regiment and, when the grenade ceased +to be used, they maintained their existence as the “crack” +companies of their battalions, taking the right of the line on +parade and wearing the distinctive grenadier headdress. This +system was almost universal, and the typical infantry regiment +of the 18th and early 19th century had a grenadier and a light +company besides its “line” companies. In the British and other +armies these <i>élite</i> companies were frequently taken from their +regiments and combined in grenadier and light infantry battalions +for special service, and Napoleon carried this practice still further +in the French army by organizing brigades and divisions of +grenadiers (and correspondingly of <i>voltigeurs</i>). Indeed the +companies thus detached from the line practically never returned +to it, and this was attended with serious evils, for the battalion +at the outbreak of war lost perhaps a quarter of its best men, +the average men only remaining with the line. This special organization +of grenadiers and light companies lasted in the British +army until about 1858. In the Prussian service the grenadiers +became permanent and independent battalions about 1740, and +the gradual adoption of the four-company battalion by Prussia +and other nations tended still further to place the grenadiers by +themselves and apart from the line. Thus at the present day +in Germany, Russia and other countries, the title of “grenadiers” +is borne by line regiments, indistinguishable, except for details +of uniform and often the <i>esprit de corps</i> inherited from the old +<i>élite</i> companies, from the rest. In the British service the only +grenadiers remaining are the Grenadier Guards, originally the +1st regiment of Foot Guards, which was formed in 1660 on the +nucleus of a regiment of English royalists which followed the +fortunes of Charles II. in exile. In Russia a whole army corps +(headquarters Moscow), inclusive of its artillery units, bears the +title.</p> + +<p>The special headdress of the grenadier was a pointed cap, with +peak and flaps, of embroidered cloth, or a loose fur cap of similar +shape; both these were light field service caps. The fur cap +has in the course of time developed into the tall “bearskin” +worn by British guards and various corps of other armies; the +embroidered field cap survives, transformed, however, into a +heavy brass headdress, in the uniform of the 1st Prussian Foot +Guards, the 1st Prussian Guard Grenadiers and the Russian +Paul (Pavlovsky) Grenadier Guards.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENADINES,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a chain of islets in the Windward Islands, +West Indies. They stretch for 60 m. between St Vincent and +Grenada, following a N.E. to S.W. direction, and consist of some +600 islets and rocks. Some are a few square miles in extent, +others are merely rocky cones projecting from the deep. For +purposes of administration they are divided between St Vincent +and Grenada. Bequia, the chief island in the St Vincent group, +is long and narrow, with an area 6 sq. m. Owing to a lack of +water it is only slightly cultivated, but game is plentiful. +Admiralty Bay, on the W. side, is a safe and commodious +harbour. Carriacou, belonging to Grenada, is the largest of the +group, being 7 m. long, 2 m. wide and 13 sq. m. in extent. A ridge +of hills, rising to an altitude of 700 ft., traverses the centre from +N.E. to S.W.; here admirable building stone is found. There +are two good harbours on the west coast, Hillsborough Bay on +which stands Hillsborough, the chief town, and Tyrell Bay, +farther south. The island is thickly populated, the negro +peasantry occupying small lots and working on the <i>metayer</i> +system. Excellent oysters are found along the coast, and cotton +and cattle are the chief exports. Pop. of the group, mostly on +Carriacou (1901) 6497.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENOBLE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> the ancient capital of the Dauphiné in S.E. +France, and now the chief town of the Isère department, 75 m. +by rail from Lyons, 38½ m. from Chambéry and 85½ m. from +Gap. Pop. (1906), town, 58,641; commune, 73,022. It is one +of the most beautifully situated, and also one of the most strongly +fortified, cities in Europe. Built at a height of 702 ft. on both +banks of the river Isère just above its junction with the Drac, +the town occupies a considerable plain at the south-western end +of the fertile Graisivaudan valley. To the north rise the mountains +of the Grande Chartreuse, to the east the range of Belledonne, +and to the south those of Taillefer and the Moucherotte, +the higher summits of these ranges being partly covered with +snow. From the Jardin de Ville and the quays of the banks of +the Isère the summit of Mont Blanc itself is visible. The greater +part of the town rises on the left bank of the Isère, which is +bordered by broad quays. The older portion has the tortuous +and narrow streets usual in towns that have been confined within +fortifications, but in modern times these hindrances have been +demolished. The newer portion of the town has wide thoroughfares +and buildings of the modern French type, solid but not +picturesque. The original town (of but small extent) was built +on the right bank of the Isère at the southern foot of the Mont +Rachais, now covered by a succession of fortresses that rise +picturesquely on the slope of that hill to a very considerable +height (885 ft. above the town).</p> + +<p>Grenoble is the seat of a bishopric which was founded in the +4th century, and now comprises the department of the Isère—formerly +a suffragan of Vienne it now forms part of the ecclesiastical +province of Lyons. The most remarkable building in the +town is the Palais de Justice, erected (late 15th century to 16th +century) on the site of the old palace of the Parlement of the +Dauphiné. Opposite is the most noteworthy church of the city, +that of St André (13th century), formerly the chapel of the +dauphins of the Viennois: in it is the 17th century monument +of Bayard (1476-1524), the <i>chevalier sans peur et sans reproche</i>, +which was removed hither in 1822; but it is uncertain whose +bones are therein. The cathedral church of Notre Dame is a +heavy building, dating in part from the 11th century. The +church of St Laurent, on the right bank of the Isère, is the oldest +in the city (11th century) and has a remarkable crypt, dating +from Merovingian times. The town hall is a mainly modern +building, constructed on the site of the palace of the dauphins, +while the prefecture is entirely modern. The town library +contains a considerable collection of paintings, mainly of the +modern French school, but is more remarkable for its very rich +collection of MSS. (7000) and printed books (250,000 vols.) +which in great part belonged till 1793 to the monastery of the +Grande Chartreuse. The natural history museum houses rich +collections of various kinds, which contain (<i>inter alia</i>) numerous +geological specimens from the neighbouring districts of the +Dauphiné and Savoy. The university, revived in modern times +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span> +after a long abeyance, occupies a modern building, as does also +the hospital, though founded as far back as the 15th century. +There are numerous societies in the town, including the Académie +Delphinale (founded in 1772), and many charitable institutions.</p> + +<p>The staple industry of Grenoble is the manufacture of kid +gloves, most of the so-called <i>gants Jouvin</i> being made here—they +are named after the reviver of the art, X. Jouvin (1800-1844). +There are about 80 glove factories, which employ 18,500 persons +(of whom 15,000 are women), the annual output being about +800,000 dozen pairs of gloves. Among other articles produced +at Grenoble are artificial cements, liqueurs, straw hats and +carved furniture.</p> + +<p>Grenoble occupies the site of Cularo, a village of the Allobroges, +which only became of importance when fortified by Diocletian +and Maximian at the end of the 3rd century. Its present name +is a corruption of Gratianopolis, a title assumed probably in +honour of Gratian (4th century), who raised it to the rank of a +<i>civitas</i>. After passing under the power of the Burgundians +(<i>c.</i> 440) and the Franks (532) it became part of the kingdom +of Provence (879-1032). On the break-up of that kingdom a +long struggle for supremacy ensued between the bishops of +the city and the counts of Albon, the latter finally winning the +day in the 12th century, and taking the title of Dauphins of the +Viennois in the 13th century. In 1349 Grenoble was ceded with +the rest of the Dauphiné to France, but retained various municipal +privileges which had been granted by the dauphins to the town, +originally by a charter of 1242. In 1562 it was sacked by the +Protestants under the baron des Adrets, but in 1572 the firmness +of its governor, Bertrand de Gordes, saved it from a repetition +of the Massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1590 Lesdiguières +(1543-1626) took the town in the name of Henry IV., then still +a Protestant, and during his long governorship (which lasted +to his death) did much for it by the construction of fortifications, +quays, &c. In 1788 the attempt of the king to weaken the power +of the parlement of Grenoble (which, though strictly a judicial +authority, had preserved traditions of independence, since the +suspension of the states-general of the Dauphiné in 1628) roused +the people to arms, and the “day of the tiles” (7th of June 1788) +is memorable for the defeat of the royal forces. In 1790, on the +formation of the department of the Isère, Grenoble became its +capital. Grenoble was the first important town to open its gates +to Napoleon on his return from Elba (7th of March 1815), but +a few months later (July) it was obliged to surrender to the +Austrian army. Owing to its situation Grenoble was formerly +much subject to floods, particularly in the case of the wild Drac. +One of the worst took place in 1219, while that of 1778 was known +as the <i>déluge de la Saint Crépin</i>. Among the celebrities who +have been born at Grenoble are Vaucanson (1709-1782), Mably +(1709-1785), Condillac (1715-1780), Beyle, best known as +Stendhal, his <i>nom de guerre</i> (1783-1842), Barnave (1761-1793) +and Casimir Perier (1777-1832).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Prudhomme, <i>Histoire de Grenoble</i> (1888); X. Roux, <i>La +Corporation des gantiers de Grenoble</i> (1887); H. Duhamel, <i>Grenoble +considéré comme centre d’excursions</i> (1902); J. Marion, <i>Cartulaires +de l’église cathédrale de Grenoble</i> (Paris, 1869).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1596-1643), Royalist soldier in the +English Civil War (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>), was educated at +Exeter College, Oxford. As member of Parliament, first for +Cornwall, then for Launceston, Grenville supported Sir John +Eliot and the opposition, and his intimacy with Eliot was life-long. +In 1639, however, he appears as a royalist going to the Scottish +War in the train of Charles I. The reasons of this change of +front are unknown, but Grenville’s honour was above suspicion, +and he must have entirely convinced himself that he was doing +right. At any rate he was a very valuable recruit to the royalist +cause, being “the most generally loved man in Cornwall.” At +the outbreak of the Civil War he and others of the gentry not +only proclaimed the king’s Commission of Array at Launceston +assizes, but also persuaded the grand jury of the county to +declare their opponents guilty of riot and unlawful assembly, +whereupon the <i>Posse comitatus</i> was called out to expel them. +Under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton, Sir Bevil took a +distinguished part in the action of Bradock Down, and at +Stratton (16 May 1643), where the parliamentary earl of Stamford +was completely routed by the Cornishmen, led one of the storming +parties which captured Chudleigh’s lines (<i>Clarendon</i>, vii. 89). A +month later, the endeavour of Hopton to unite with Maurice and +Hertford from Oxford brought on the battle of Lansdown, near +Bath. Here Grenville was killed at the head of the Cornish +infantry as it reached the top of the hill. His death was a blow +from which the king’s cause in the West never recovered, for +he alone knew how to handle the Cornishmen. Hopton they +revered and respected, but Grenville they loved as peculiarly their +own commander, and after his death there is little more heard +of the reckless valour which had won Stratton and Lansdown. +Grenville is the type of all that was best in English royalism. +He was neither rapacious, drunken nor dissolute, but his loyalty +was unselfish, his life pure and his skill no less than his bravery +unquestionable. A monument to him has been erected on the +field of Lansdown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lloyd, <i>Memoirs of Excellent Personages</i> (1668); S. R. Gardiner, +<i>History of the English Civil War</i> (vol. i. <i>passim</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE, GEORGE<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1712-1770), English statesman, +second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple, afterwards +Countess Temple, was born on the 14th of October 1712. He +was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, and was +called to the bar in 1735. He entered parliament in 1741 as +member for Buckingham, and continued to represent that +borough till his death. In parliament he was a member of +the “Boy Patriot” party which opposed Sir Robert Walpole. +In December 1744 he became a lord of the admiralty in the +Pelham administration. He allied himself with his brother +Richard and with William Pitt in forcing their feeble chief to give +them promotion by rebelling against his authority and obstructing +business. In June 1747 he became a lord of the treasury, and +in 1754 treasurer of the navy and privy councillor. As treasurer +of the navy in 1758 he introduced and carried a bill which +established a less unfair system of paying the wages of the +seamen than had existed before. He remained in office in 1761, +when his brother Lord Temple and his brother-in-law Pitt +resigned upon the question of the war with Spain, and in the +administration of Lord Bute he was entrusted with the leadership +of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he was appointed +secretary of state, and in October first lord of the admiralty; +and in April 1763 he became first lord of the treasury and +chancellor of the exchequer. The most prominent measures +of his administration were the prosecution of Wilkes and the +passing of the American Stamp Act, which led to the first +symptoms of alienation between America and the mother +country. During the latter period of his term of office he was +on a very unsatisfactory footing with the young king George III., +who gradually came to feel a kind of horror of the interminable +persistency of his conversation, and whom he endeavoured to +make use of as the mere puppet of the ministry. The king made +various attempts to induce Pitt to come to his rescue by forming +a ministry, but without success, and at last had recourse to the +marquis of Rockingham, on whose agreeing to accept office +Grenville was dismissed July 1765. He never again held office, +and died on the 13th of November 1770.</p> + +<p>The nickname of “gentle shepherd” was given him because +he bored the House by asking over and over again, during the +debate on the Cider Bill of 1763, that somebody should tell him +“where” to lay the new tax if it was not to be put on cider. +Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune “Gentle Shepherd, tell +me where,” and the House laughed. Though few excelled him +in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of +administrative details, his tact in dealing with men and with +affairs was so defective that there is perhaps no one who has +been at the head of an English administration to whom a lower +place can be assigned as a statesman.</p> + +<p>In 1749 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Wyndham, +by whom he had a large family. His son, the second Earl +Temple, was created marquess, and his grandson duke, of +Buckingham. Another son was William, afterwards Lord +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span> +Grenville. Another, Thomas Grenville (1755-1846), who was, +with one interval, a member of parliament from 1780 to 1818, +and for a few months during 1806 and 1807 president of the +board of control and first lord of the admiralty, is perhaps more +famous as a book-collector than as a statesman; he bequeathed +his large and valuable library to the British Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Grenville Papers, being the Correspondence of Richard Grenville, +Earl Temple, K.G., and the Right Hon. George Grenville, their Friends +and Contemporaries</i>, were published at London in 1852, and afford +the chief authority for his life. But see also H. Walpole’s <i>Memoirs +of the Reign of George II.</i> (London, 1845); Lord Stanhope’s <i>History +of England</i> (London, 1858); Lecky’s <i>History of England</i> (1885); and +E. D. Adams, <i>The Influence of Grenville on Pitt’s Foreign Policy</i> +(Washington, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Greynvile</span>), <b>SIR RICHARD</b> (<i>c.</i> 1541-1591), +British naval commander, was born of an old Cornish family +about 1541. His grandfather, Sir Richard, had been marshal of +Calais in the time of Henry VIII., and his father commanded +and was lost in the “Mary Rose” in 1545. At an early age +Grenville is supposed to have served in Hungary under the +emperor Maximilian against the Turks. In the years 1571 and +1584 he sat in parliament for Cornwall, and in 1583 and 1584 +he was commissioner of the works at Dover harbour. He appears +to have been a man of much pride and ambition. Of his bravery +there can be no doubt. In 1585 he commanded the fleet of seven +vessels by which the colonists sent out by his cousin, Sir Walter +Raleigh, were carried to Roanoke Island in the present North +Carolina. Grenville himself soon returned with the fleet to +England, capturing a Spanish vessel on his way, but in 1586 he +carried provisions to Roanoke, and finding the colony deserted, +left a few men to maintain possession. He then held an important +post in charge of the defences of the western counties of +England. When a squadron was despatched in 1591, under Lord +Thomas Howard, to intercept the homeward-bound treasure-fleet +of Spain, Grenville was appointed as second in command on board +the “Revenge,” a ship of 500 tons which had been commanded +by Drake against the Armada in 1588. At the end of August +Howard with 16 ships lay at anchor to the north of Flores in the +Azores. On the last day of the month he received news from a +pinnace, sent by the earl of Cumberland, who was then off the +Portugal coast, that a Spanish fleet of 53 vessels was then +bearing up to the Azores to meet the treasure-ships. Not being in +a position to fight a fleet more than three times the size of his +own, Howard gave orders to weigh anchor and stand out to +sea. But, either from some misunderstanding of the order, or +from some idea of Grenville’s that the Spanish vessels rapidly +approaching were the ships for which they had been waiting, +the “Revenge” was delayed and cut off from her consorts by +the Spaniards. Grenville resolved to try to break through the +middle of the Spanish line. His ship was becalmed under the lee +of a huge galleon, and after a hand-to-hand fight lasting through +fifteen hours against fifteen Spanish ships and a force of five +thousand men, the “Revenge” with her hundred and fifty men +was captured. Grenville himself was carried on board the Spanish +flag-ship “San Pablo,” and died a few days later. The incident +is commemorated in Tennyson’s ballad of “The Revenge.”</p> + +<p>The spelling of Sir Richard’s name has led to much controversy. +Four different families, each of which claim to be descended from +him, spell it Granville, Grenville, Grenfell and Greenfield. The +spelling usually accepted is Grenville, but his own signature, +in a bold clear handwriting, among the Tanner MSS. in the +Bodleian library at Oxford, is Greynvile.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Granville</span>), <b>SIR RICHARD</b> (1600-1658), +English royalist, was the third son of Sir Bernard Grenville +(1559-1636), and a grandson of the famous seaman, Sir Richard +Grenville. Having served in France, Germany and the Netherlands, +Grenville gained the favour of the duke of Buckingham, +took part in the expeditions to Cadiz, to the island of Rhé and +to La Rochelle, was knighted, and in 1628 was chosen member +of parliament for Fowey. Having married Mary Fitz (1596-1671), +widow of Sir Charles Howard (d. 1622) and a lady of fortune, +Grenville was made a baronet in 1630; his violent temper, +however, made the marriage an unhappy one, and he was ruined +and imprisoned as the result of two lawsuits, one with his wife, +and the other with her kinsman, the earl of Suffolk. In 1633 he +escaped from prison and went to Germany, returning to England +six years later to join the army which Charles I. was collecting +to march against the Scots. Early in 1641, just after the outbreak +of the Irish rebellion, Sir Richard led some troops to Ireland, +where he won some fame and became governor of Trim; then +returning to England in 1643 he was arrested at Liverpool +by an officer of the parliament, but was soon released and sent +to join the parliamentary army. Having, however, secured men +and money, he hurried to Charles I. at Oxford and was despatched +to take part in the siege of Plymouth, quickly becoming the leader +of the forces engaged in this enterprise. Compelled to raise +the siege he retired into Cornwall, where he helped to resist the +advancing Parliamentarians; but he quickly showed signs of +insubordination, and, whilst sharing in the siege of Taunton, +he was wounded and obliged to resign his command. About +this time loud complaints were brought against Grenville. He +had behaved, it was said, in a very arbitrary fashion; he had +hanged some men and imprisoned others; he had extorted +money and had used the contributions towards the cost of the +war for his own ends. Many of these charges were undoubtedly +true, but upon his recovery the councillors of the prince of Wales +gave him a position under Lord Goring, whom, however, he +refused to obey. Equally recalcitrant was his attitude towards +Goring’s successor, Sir Ralph Hopton, and in January 1646 he was +arrested. But he was soon released; he went to France and Italy, +and after visiting England in disguise passed some time in +Holland. He was excepted by parliament from pardon in 1648, +and after the king’s execution he was with Charles II. in France +and elsewhere until some unfounded accusation which he brought +against Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, led to his +removal from court. He died in 1658, and was buried at Ghent. +In 1644, when Grenville deserted the parliamentary party, a +proclamation was put out against him; in this there were attached +to his name several offensive epithets, among them being +<i>skellum</i>, a word probably derived from the German <i>Schelm</i>, +a scoundrel. Hence he is often called “skellum Grenville.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Grenville wrote an account of affairs in the west of England, which +was printed in T. Carte’s <i>Original Letters</i> (1739). To this partisan +account Clarendon drew up an answer, the bulk of which he afterwards +incorporated in his <i>History</i>. In 1654 Grenville wrote his <i>Single +defence against all aspersions of all malignant persons</i>. This is +printed in the <i>Works</i> of George Granville, Lord Lansdowne (London, +1736), where Lansdowne’s <i>Vindication</i> of his kinsman, Sir Richard, +against Clarendon’s charges is also found. See also Clarendon, +<i>History of the Rebellion</i>, edited by W. D. Macray (Oxford, 1888); +and R. Granville, <i>The King’s General in the West</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRENVILLE, WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> +(1759-1834), English statesman, youngest son of George Grenville, +was born on the 25th of October 1759. He was educated +at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining the chancellor’s +prize for Latin verse in 1779. In February 1782 Grenville was +returned to parliament as member for the borough of Buckingham, +and in the following September he became secretary to the +lord lieutenant of Ireland, who at this time was his brother, +Earl Temple, afterwards marquess of Buckingham. He left +office in June 1783, but in the following December he became +paymaster-general of the forces under his cousin, William Pitt, +and in 1786 vice-president of the committee of trade. In 1787 +he was sent on an important mission to the Hague and Versailles +with reference to the affairs of Holland. In January 1789 he +was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, but he vacated the +chair in the same year on being appointed secretary of state for +the home department; about the same time he resigned his other +offices, but he became president of the board of control, and in +November 1790 was created a peer as Baron Grenville. In the +House of Lords he was very active in directing the business of the +government, and in 1791 he was transferred to the foreign office, +retaining his post at the board of control until 1793. He was +doubtless regarded by Pitt as the man best fitted to carry out +his policy with reference to France, but in the succeeding years +he and his chief were frequently at variance on important +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span> +questions of foreign policy. In spite of his multifarious duties +at the foreign office Grenville continued to take a lively interest +in domestic matters, which he showed by introducing various +bills into the House of Lords. In February 1801 he resigned +office with Pitt because George III. would not consent to the +introduction of any measure of Roman Catholic relief, and in +opposition he gradually separated himself from his former leader. +When Pitt returned to power in 1804 Grenville refused to join +the ministry unless his political ally, Fox, was also admitted +thereto; this was impossible and he remained out of office until +February 1806, when just after Pitt’s death he became the +nominal head of a coalition government. This ministry was very +unfortunate in its conduct of foreign affairs, but it deserves to +be remembered with honour on account of the act passed in 1807 +for the abolition of the slave trade. Its influence, however, +was weakened by the death of Fox, and in consequence of a +minute drawn up by Grenville and some of his colleagues the +king demanded from his ministers an assurance that in future +they would not urge upon him any measures for the relief of +Roman Catholics. They refused to give this assurance and in +March 1807 they resigned. Grenville’s attitude in this matter +was somewhat aggressive; his colleagues were not unanimous +in supporting him, and Sheridan, one of them, said “he had +known many men knock their heads against a wall, but he had +never before heard of any man who collected the bricks and built +the very wall with an intention to knock out his own brains +against it.”</p> + +<p>Lord Grenville never held office again, although he was +requested to do so on several occasions. He continued, however, +to take part in public life, being one of the chief supporters of +Roman Catholic emancipation, and during the remaining years of +his active political career, which ended in 1823, he generally voted +with the Whigs, although in 1815 he separated himself from his +colleague, Charles Grey, and supported the warlike policy of +Lord Liverpool. In 1819, when the marquess of Lansdowne +brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of the +distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville +delivered an alarmist speech advocating repressive measures. +His concluding years were spent at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire, +where he died on the 12th of January 1834. His wife, whom he +married in 1792, was Anne (1772-1864), daughter of Thomas Pitt, +1st Baron Camelford, but he had no issue and his title became +extinct. In 1809 he was elected chancellor of Oxford university.</p> + +<p>Though Grenville’s talents were not of the highest order his +straightforwardness and industry, together with his knowledge +of politics and the moderation of his opinions, secured for him +considerable political influence. He may be enrolled among the +band of English statesmen who have distinguished themselves +in literature. He edited Lord Chatham’s letters to his nephew, +Thomas Pitt, afterwards Lord Camelford (London, 1804, and +other editions); he wrote a small volume, <i>Nugae Metricae</i> (1824), +being translations into Latin from English, Greek and Italian, and +an <i>Essay on the Supposed Advantages of a Sinking Fund</i> (1828).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Dropmore MSS. contain much of Grenville’s correspondence, +and on this the Historical Manuscripts Commission has published a +report.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1519-1579), London merchant, +the founder of the Royal Exchange and of Gresham College, +London, was descended from an old Norfolk family; he was the +only son of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading London merchant, +who for some time held the office of lord mayor, and for his +services as agent of Henry VIII. in negotiating loans with foreign +merchants received the honour of knighthood. Though his father +intended him to follow his own profession, he nevertheless sent +him for some time to Caius College, Cambridge, but there is no +information as to the duration of his residence. It is uncertain +also whether it was before or after this that he was apprenticed +to his uncle Sir John Gresham, who was also a merchant, but +we have his own testimony that he served an apprenticeship of +eight years. In 1543, at the age of twenty-four, he was admitted +a member of the Mercers’ Company, and in the same year he +went to the Low Countries, where, either on his own account or +on that of his father or uncle, he both carried on business as a +merchant and acted in various matters as an agent for Henry +VIII. In 1544 he married the widow of William Read, a London +merchant, but he still continued to reside principally in the Low +Countries, having his headquarters at Antwerp. When in 1551 +the mismanagement of Sir William Dansell, “king’s merchant” +in the Low Countries, had brought the English government into +great financial embarrassment, Gresham was called in to give +his advice, and chosen to carry out his own proposals. Their +leading feature was the adoption of various methods—highly +ingenious, but quite arbitrary and unfair—for raising the value +of the pound sterling on the “bourse” of Antwerp, and it was +so successful that in a few years nearly all King Edward’s debts +were discharged. The advice of Gresham was likewise sought +by the government in all their money difficulties, and he was +also frequently employed in various diplomatic missions. He +had no stated salary, but in reward of his services received from +Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which at that +time was ultimately about £400 a year. On the accession of +Mary he was for a short time in disfavour, and was displaced +in his post by Alderman William Dauntsey. But Dauntsey’s +financial operations were not very successful and Gresham was +soon reinstated; and as he professed his zealous desire to serve +the queen, and manifested great adroitness both in negotiating +loans and in smuggling money, arms and foreign goods, not only +were his services retained throughout her reign, but besides his +salary of twenty shillings <i>per diem</i> he received grants of church +lands to the yearly value of £200. Under Queen Elizabeth, +besides continuing in his post as financial agent of the crown, +he acted temporarily as ambassador at the court of the duchess of +Parma, being knighted in 1559 previous to his departure. By +the outbreak of the war in the Low Countries he was compelled +to leave Antwerp on the 19th of March 1567; but, though he +spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued his +business as merchant and financial agent of the government +in much the same way as formerly. Elizabeth also found him +useful in a great variety of other ways, among which was that +of acting as jailer, to Lady Mary Grey, who, as a punishment for +marrying Thomas Keys the sergeant porter, remained a prisoner +in his house from June 1569 to the end of 1572. In 1565 Gresham +made a proposal to the court of aldermen of London to build +at his own expense a bourse or exchange, on condition that they +purchased for this purpose a piece of suitable ground. In this +proposal he seems to have had an eye to his own interest as well +as to the general good of the merchants, for by a yearly rental +of £700 obtained for the shops in the upper part of the building +he received a sufficient return for his trouble and expense. +Gresham died suddenly, apparently of apoplexy, on the 21st +of November 1579. His only son predeceased him, and his +illegitimate daughter Anne he married to Sir Nathaniel Bacon, +brother of the great Lord Bacon. With the exception of a +number of small sums bequeathed to the support of various +charities, the bulk of his property, consisting of estates in various +parts of England of the annual value of more than £2300, was +bequeathed to his widow and her heirs with the stipulation that +after her decease his residence in Bishopsgate Street, as well as +the rents arising from the Royal Exchange, should be vested +in the hands of the corporation of London and the Mercers’ +Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which seven +professors should read lectures—one each day of the week—on +astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music. +The lectures were begun in 1597, and were delivered in the original +building until 1768, when, on the ground that the trustees were +losers by the gift, it was made over to the crown for a yearly rent +of £500, and converted into an excise office. From that time +a room in the Royal Exchange was used for the lectures until in +1843 the present building was erected at a cost of £7000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A notice of Gresham is contained in Fuller’s <i>Worthies</i> and Ward’s +<i>Gresham Professors</i>; but the fullest account of him, as well as of the +history of the Exchange and Gresham College is that by J. M. Burgon +in his <i>Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham</i> (2 vols., 1839). See +also a <i>Brief Memoir of Sir Thomas Gresham</i> (1833); and <i>The Life of +Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange</i> (1845).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GRESHAM, WALTER QUINTON<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1832-1895), American +statesman and jurist, was born near Lanesville, Harrison county, +Indiana, on the 17th of March 1832. He spent two years in an +academy at Corydon, Indiana, and one year at the Indiana State +University at Bloomington, then studied law, and in 1854 was +admitted to the bar. He was active as a campaign speaker for +the Republican ticket in 1856, and in 1860 was elected to the +State House of Representatives as a Republican in a strong +Democratic district. In the House, as chairman of the committee +on military affairs, he did much to prepare the Indiana troops +for service in the Federal army; in 1861 he became colonel +of the 53rd Indiana Volunteer Infantry, and subsequently took +part in Grant’s Tennessee campaign of 1862, and in the operations +against Corinth and Vicksburg, where he commanded a brigade. +In August 1863 he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, +and was placed in command of the Federal forces at Natchez. +In 1864 he commanded a division of the 17th Army Corps +in Sherman’s Atlanta campaign, and before Atlanta, on the +20th of July, he received a wound which forced him to retire +from active service, and left him lame for life. In 1865 he was +brevetted major-general of volunteers. After the war he practised +law at New Albany, Indiana, and in 1869 was appointed by +President Grant United States District Judge for Indiana. +In April 1883 he succeeded Timothy O. Howe (1816-1883) as +postmaster-general in President Arthur’s cabinet, taking an +active part in the suppression of the Louisiana Lottery, and in +September 1884 succeeded Charles J. Folger as secretary of the +treasury. In the following month he resigned to accept an +appointment as United States Judge for the Seventh Judicial +Circuit. Gresham was a candidate for the Republican presidential +nomination in 1884 and 1888, in the latter year leading +for some time in the balloting. Gradually, however, he grew +out of sympathy with the Republican leaders and policy, and in +1892 advocated the election of the Democratic candidate, Grover +Cleveland, for the presidency. From the 7th of March 1893 +until his death at Washington on the 28th of May 1895, he was +secretary of state in President Cleveland’s cabinet.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRESHAM’S LAW,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in economics, the name suggested in 1857 +by H. D. Macleod for the principle of currency which may be +briefly summarized—“bad money drives out good.” Macleod +gave it this name, which has been universally adopted, under the +impression that the principle was first explained by Sir Thomas +Gresham in 1558. In reality it had been well set forth by earlier +economic writers, notably Oresme and Copernicus. Macleod +states the law in these terms: the worst form of currency in +circulation regulates the value of the whole currency and drives +all other forms of currency out of circulation. Gresham’s law +applies where there is under-weight or debased coin in circulation +with full-weight coin of the same metal; where there are two +metals in circulation, and one is undervalued as compared with +the other, and where inconvertible paper money is put into +circulation side by side with a metallic currency. See further +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bimetallism</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Money</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1709-1777), French +poet and dramatist, was born at Amiens on the 29th of August +1709. His poem <i>Vert Vert</i> is his main title to fame. He spent, +however, the last twenty-five years of his life in regretting the +frivolity which enabled him to produce this most charming of +poems. He was brought up by the Jesuits of Amiens. He was +accepted as a novice at the age of sixteen, and sent to pursue his +studies at the Collège Louis le Grand in Paris. After completing +his course he was appointed, being then under twenty years of +age, to a post as assistant master in a college at Rouen. He published +<i>Vert Vert</i> at Rouen in 1734. It is a story, in itself exceedingly +humorous, showing how a parrot, the delight of a convent, +whose talk was all of prayers and pious ejaculations, was +conveyed to another convent as a visitor to please the nuns. On +the way he falls among bad companions, forgets his convent +language, and shocks the sisters on arrival by profane swearing. +He is sent back in disgrace, punished by solitude and plain +bread, presently repents, reforms and is killed by kindness. The +story, however, is nothing. The treatment of the subject, the +atmosphere which surrounds it, the delicacy in which the little +prattling ways of the nuns, their jealousies, their tiny trifles, are +presented, takes the reader entirely by surprise. The poem stands +absolutely unrivalled, even among French <i>contes en vers</i>.</p> + +<p>Gresset found himself famous. He left Rouen, went up to +Paris, where he found refuge in the same garret which had +sheltered him when a boy at the Collège Louis le Grand, and +there wrote his second poem, <i>La Chartreuse</i>. It was followed +by the <i>Carême impromptu</i>, the <i>Lutrin vivant</i> and <i>Les Ombres</i>. +Then trouble came upon him; complaints were made to the +fathers of the alleged licentiousness of his verses, the real cause +of complaint being the ridicule which <i>Vert Vert</i> seemed to throw +upon the whole race of nuns and the anti-clerical tendency of +the other poems. An example, it was urged, must be made; +Gresset was expelled the order. Men of robust mind would have +been glad to get rid of such a yoke. Gresset, who had never been +taught to stand alone, went forth weeping. He went to Paris +in 1740 and there produced <i>Édouard III</i>, a tragedy (1740) +and <i>Sidnei</i> (1745), a comedy. These were followed by <i>Le Méchant</i> +which still keeps the stage, and is qualified by Brunetière +as the best verse comedy of the French 18th century theatre, +not excepting even the <i>Métromanie</i> of Alexis Piron. Gresset +was admitted to the Academy in 1748. And then, still young, +he retired to Amiens, where his relapse from the discipline of the +church became the subject of the deepest remorse. He died +at Amiens on the 16th of June 1777.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of his poems is A. A. Rénouard’s (1811). See Jules +Wogue, <i>J. B. L. Gresset</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRETNA GREEN,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Graitney Green</span>, a village in the south-east +of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, about 8 m. E. of Annan, 9 m. +N.N.W. of Carlisle, and ¾ m. from the river Sark, here the +dividing-line between England and Scotland, with a station on +the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The Caledonian and +North British railways have a station at Gretna on the English +side of the Border. As the nearest village on the Scottish side, +Gretna Green was notorious as the resort of eloping couples, +who had failed to obtain the consent of parents or guardians to +their union. Up till 1754, when Lord Hardwicke’s act abolishing +clandestine marriages came into force, the ceremony had commonly +been performed in the Fleet prison in London. After +that date runaway couples were compelled to seek the hospitality +of a country where it sufficed for them to declare their wish +to marry in the presence of witnesses. At Gretna Green the +ceremony was usually performed by the blacksmith, but the toll-keeper, +ferryman or in fact any person might officiate, and the +toll-house, the inn, or, after 1826, Gretna Hall was the scene of +many such weddings, the fees varying from half a guinea to a +sum as large as impudence could extort or extravagance bestow. +As many as two hundred couples were married at the toll-house +in a year. The romantic traffic was practically, though not +necessarily, put an end to in 1856, when the law required one of +the contracting parties to reside in Scotland three weeks previous +to the event.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÉTRY, ANDRÉ ERNEST MODESTE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1741-1813), French +composer, was born at Liége on the 8th of February 1741, his +father being a poor musician. He was a choir boy at the church +of St Denis. In 1753 he became a pupil of Leclerc and later of +Renekin and Moreau. But of greater importance was the +practical tuition he received by attending the performance of +an Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Galuppi, +Pergolesi and other masters; and the desire of completing his +own studies in Italy was the immediate result. To find the +necessary means he composed in 1759 a mass which he dedicated +to the canons of the Liége cathedral, and it was at the cost of +Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in the March of 1759. In +Rome he went to the Collège de Liége. Here Grétry resided for +five years, studiously employed in completing his musical +education under Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counterpoint +was, however, according to his own confession, at all times +very moderate. His first great success was achieved by <i>La +Vendemmiatrice</i>, an Italian intermezzo or operetta, composed for +the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with universal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span> +applause. It is said that the study of the score of one of Monsigny’s +operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy +in Rome, decided Grétry to devote himself to French comic +opera. On New Year’s day 1767 he accordingly left Rome, +and after a short stay at Geneva (where he made the acquaintance +of Voltaire, and produced another operetta) went to Paris. +There for two years he had to contend with the difficulties +incident to poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not without +friends, and by the intercession of Count Creutz, the Swedish +ambassador, Grétry obtained a libretto from Marmontel, which +he set to music in less than six weeks, and which, on its performance +in August 1768, met with unparalleled success. The name +of the opera was <i>Le Huron</i>. Two others, <i>Lucile</i> and <i>Le Tableau +parlant</i>, soon followed, and thenceforth Grétry’s position as the +leading composer of comic opera was safely established. Altogether +he composed some fifty operas. His masterpieces are +<i>Zémire et Azor</i> and <i>Richard Cœur de Lion</i>,—the first produced in +1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect way became +connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the celebrated +romance, <i>O Richard, ô mon roi, l’univers t’abandonne</i>, which was +sung at the banquet—“fatal as that of Thyestes,” remarks +Carlyle—given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles +garrison on October 3, 1789. The <i>Marseillaise</i> not long afterwards +became the reply of the people to the expression of loyalty +borrowed from Grétry’s opera. The composer himself was not +uninfluenced by the great events he witnessed, and the titles of +some of his operas, such as <i>La Rosière républicaine</i> and <i>La Fête +de la raison</i>, sufficiently indicate the epoch to which they belong; +but they are mere <i>pièces de circonstance</i>, and the republican +enthusiasm displayed is not genuine. Little more successful +was Grétry in his dealings with classical subjects. His genuine +power lay in the delineation of character and in the expression +of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure of his +concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his +instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his +works had to be rewritten by other composers, in order to make +them acceptable to modern audiences. During the revolution +Grétry lost much of his property, but the successive governments +of France vied in favouring the composer, regardless of political +differences. From the old court he received distinctions and +rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an inspector of the +conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the legion of +honour and a pension. Grétry died on the 24th of September +1813, at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house +of Rousseau. Fifteen years after his death Grétry’s heart was +transferred to his birthplace, permission having been obtained +after a tedious lawsuit. In 1842 a colossal bronze statue of the +composer was set up at Liége.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Michael Brenet, <i>Vie de Grétry</i> (Paris, 1884); Joach. le Breton, +<i>Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de Grétry</i> (Paris, 1814); +A. Grétry (his nephew), <i>Grétry en famille</i> (Paris, 1814); Felix van +Hulst, <i>Grétry</i> (Liége, 1842); L. D. S. <i>Notice biographique sur Grétry</i> +(Bruxelles, 1859).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1725-1805), French painter, was +born at Tournus, in Burgundy, on the 21st of August 1725, and +is generally said to have formed his own talent; this is, however, +true only in the most limited sense, for at an early age his inclinations, +though thwarted by his father, were encouraged by a +Lyonnese artist named Grandon, or Grondom, who enjoyed +during his lifetime considerable reputation as a portrait-painter. +Grandon not only persuaded the father of Greuze to give way +to his son’s wishes, and permit the lad to accompany him as his +pupil to Lyons, but, when at a later date he himself left Lyons +for Paris—where his son-in-law Grétry the celebrated composer +enjoyed the height of favour—Grandon carried young Greuze with +him. Settled in Paris, Greuze worked from the living model in +the school of the Royal Academy, but did not attract the attention +of his teachers; and when he produced his first picture, “Le Père +de famille expliquant la Bible à ses enfants,” considerable doubt +was felt and shown as to his share in its production. By other +and more remarkable works of the same class Greuze soon +established his claims beyond contest, and won for himself the +notice and support of the well-known connoisseur La Live de +Jully, the brother-in-law of Madame d’Épinay. In 1755 Greuze +exhibited his “Aveugle trompé,” upon which, presented by +Pigalle the sculptor, he was immediately <i>agréé</i> by the Academy. +Towards the close of the same year he left France for Italy, in +company with the Abbé Louis Gougenot, who had deserted from +the magistrature—although he had obtained the post of “conseillier +au Châtelet”—in order to take the “petit collet.” +Gougenot had some acquaintance with the arts, and was highly +valued by the Academicians, who, during his journey with +Greuze, elected him an honorary member of their body on +account of his studies in mythology and allegory; his acquirements +in these respects are said to have been largely utilized by +them, but to Greuze they were of doubtful advantage, and he +lost rather than gained by this visit to Italy in Gougenot’s +company. He had undertaken it probably in order to silence +those who taxed him with ignorance of “great models of style,” +but the Italian subjects which formed the entirety of his contributions +to the Salon of 1757 showed that he had been put on a +false track, and he speedily returned to the source of his first +inspiration. In 1759, 1761 (“L’Accordée de village”—Louvre), +and 1763 Greuze exhibited with ever-increasing success; in 1765 +he reached the zenith of his powers and reputation. In that year +he was represented with no less than thirteen works, amongst +which may be cited “La Jeune Fille qui pleure son oiseau mort,” +“La Bonne Mère,” “Le Mauvais fils puni” (Louvre) and “La +Malédiction paternelle” (Louvre). The Academy took occasion to +press Greuze for his diploma picture, the execution of which had +been long delayed, and forbade him to exhibit on their walls +until he had complied with their regulations. “J’ai vu la lettre,” +says Diderot, “qui est un modèle d’honnêteté et d’estime; +j’ai vu la réponse de Greuze, qui est un modèle de vanité +et d’impertinence: il fallait appuyer cela d’un chef-d’œuvre, +et c’est ce que Greuze n’a pas fait.” Greuze wished to be +received as a historical painter, and produced a work which he +intended to vindicate his right to despise his qualifications as a +<i>peintre de genre</i>. This unfortunate canvas—“Sevère et Caracalla” +(Louvre)—was exhibited in 1769 side by side with Greuze’s +portrait of Jeaurat (Louvre) and his admirable “Petite Fille au +chien noir.” The Academicians received their new member with +all due honours, but at the close of the ceremonies the Director +addressed Greuze in these words—“Monsieur, l’Académie vous +a reçu, mais c’est comme peintre de genre; elle a eu égard à vos +anciennes productions, qui sont excellentes, et elle a fermé les +yeux sur celle-ci, qui n’est digne ni d’elle ni de vous.” Greuze, +greatly incensed, quarrelled with his <i>confrères</i>, and ceased to +exhibit until, in 1804, the Revolution had thrown open the doors +of the Academy to all the world. In the following year, on the +4th of March 1805, he died in the Louvre in great poverty. He +had been in receipt of considerable wealth, which he had dissipated +by extravagance and bad management, so that during +his closing years he was forced even to solicit commissions which +his enfeebled powers no longer enabled him to carry out with +success. The brilliant reputation which Greuze acquired seems +to have been due, not to his acquirements as a painter—for +his practice is evidently that current in his own day—but to the +character of the subjects which he treated. That return to +nature which inspired Rousseau’s attacks upon an artificial +civilization demanded expression in art. Diderot, in <i>Le Fils +naturel et le père de famille</i>, tried to turn the vein of domestic +drama to account on the stage; that which he tried and failed +to do Greuze, in painting, achieved with extraordinary success, +although his works, like the plays of Diderot, were affected by +that very artificiality against which they protested. The touch +of melodramatic exaggeration, however, which runs through +them finds an apology in the firm and brilliant play of line, in the +freshness and vigour of the flesh tints, in the enticing softness of +expression (often obtained by almost an abuse of <i>méplats</i>), by the +alluring air of health and youth, by the sensuous attractions, in +short, with which Greuze invests his lessons of bourgeois morality. +As Diderot said of “La Bonne Mère,” “ça prêche la population;” +and a certain piquancy of contrast is the result which never +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span> +fails to obtain admirers. “La Jeune Fille à l’agneau” fetched, +indeed, at the Pourtalès sale in 1865, no less than 1,000,200 francs. +One of Greuze’s pupils, Madame Le Doux, imitated with success +the manner of her master; his daughter and granddaughter, +Madame de Valory, also inherited some traditions of his talent. +Madame de Valory published in 1813 a comédie-vaudeville, +<i>Greuze, ou l’accordée de village</i>, to which she prefixed a notice +of her grandfather’s life and works, and the <i>Salons</i> of Diderot also +contain, besides many other particulars, the story at full length +of Greuze’s quarrel with the Academy. Four of the most +distinguished engravers of that date, Massard père, Flipart, +Gaillard and Levasseur, were specially entrusted by Greuze +with the reproduction of his subjects, but there are also excellent +prints by other engravers, notably by Cars and Le Bas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Normand, <i>J. B. Greuze</i> (1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. F. S. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1794-1865), +English diarist, a great-grandson by his father of the 5th earl of +Warwick, and son of Lady Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the +duke of Portland, formerly a leader of the Whig party, and +first minister of the crown, was born on the 2nd of April 1794. +Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather’s house +at Bulstrode. He was one of the pages of George III., and was +educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the +university early, having been appointed private secretary to +Earl Bathurst before he was twenty. The interest of the duke +of Portland had secured for him the secretaryship of the island +of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office, the duties being performed +by a deputy, and the reversion of the clerkship of the +council. Greville entered upon the discharge of the duties of +clerk of the council in ordinary in 1821, and continued to perform +them for nearly forty years. He therefore served under three +successive sovereigns,—George IV., William IV. and Victoria,—and +although no political or confidential functions are attached +to that office, it is one which brings a man into habitual intercourse +with the chiefs of all the parties in the state. Well-born, +well-bred, handsome and accomplished, Greville led the easy +life of a man of fashion, taking an occasional part in the transactions +of his day and much consulted in the affairs of private life. +Until 1855 when he sold his stud he was an active member of +the turf, and he trained successively with Lord George Bentinck, +and with the duke of Portland. But the celebrity which now +attaches to his name is entirely due to the posthumous publication +of a portion of a Journal or Diary which it was his practice to +keep during the greater part of his life. These papers were +given by him to his friend Mr Henry Reeve a short time before +his death (which took place on the 18th of January 1865), with +an injunction that they should be published, as far as was +feasible, at not too remote a period after the writer’s death. The +journals of the reigns of George IV. and William IV. (extending +from 1820 to 1837) were accordingly so published in obedience +to his directions about ten years after that event. Few publications +have been received with greater interest by the public; +five large editions were sold in little more than a year, and the +demand in America was as great as in England. These journals +were regarded as a faithful record of the impressions made on +the mind of a competent observer, at the time, by the events he +witnessed and the persons with whom he associated. Greville +did not stoop to collect or record private scandal. His object +appears to have been to leave behind him some of the materials +of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would +be judged. He records not so much public events as the private +causes which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir-writer +has left behind him a more valuable contribution to the +history of the 19th century. Greville published anonymously, in +1845, a volume on the <i>Past and Present Policy of England to +Ireland</i>, in which he advocated the payment of the Roman +Catholic clergy; and he was also the author of several pamphlets +on the events of his day.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Henry Greville</span> (1801-1872), attaché to the +British embassy in Paris from 1834 to 1844, also kept a diary, +of which part was published by Viscountess Enfield, <i>Leaves from +the Diary of Henry Greville</i> (London, 1883-1884).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the preface and notes to the <i>Greville Memoirs</i> by Henry Reeve. +The memoirs appeared in three sets—one from 1817 to 1837 (London, +1875, 3 vols.), and two for the period from 1837 to 1860, three volumes +in 1885 and two in 1887. When the first series appeared in 1875 some +passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as far as +possible recalled and passages suppressed.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÉVIN, JACQUES<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1539-1570), French dramatist, was born +at Clermont about 1539. He studied medicine at the university +of Paris. He became a disciple of Ronsard, and was one of the +band of dramatists who sought to introduce the classical drama +in France. As Sainte-Beuve points out, the comedies of Grévin +show considerable affinity with the farces and <i>soties</i> that preceded +them. His first play, <i>La Maubertine</i>, was lost, and formed the +basis of a new comedy, <i>La Trésorière</i>, first performed at the +college of Beauvais in 1558, though it had been originally composed +at the desire of Henry II. to celebrate the marriage of +Claude, duchess of Lorraine. In 1560 followed the tragedy of +<i>Jules César</i>, imitated from the Latin of Muret, and a comedy, +<i>Les Ébahis</i>, the most important but also the most indecent of +his works. Grévin was also the author of some medical works +and of miscellaneous poems, which were praised by Ronsard +until the friends were separated by religious differences. Grévin +became in 1561 physician and counsellor to Margaret of Savoy, +and died at her court in Turin in 1570.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Théâtre</i> of Jacques Grévin was printed in 1562, and in the +<i>Ancien Théâtre français</i>, vol. iv. (1855-1856). See L. Pinvert, +<i>Jacques Grévin</i> (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÈVY, FRANÇOIS PAUL JULES<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1813-1891). President +of the French Republic, was born at Mont-sous-Vaudrey in the +Jura, on the 15th of August 1813. He became an advocate in +1837, and, having steadily maintained republican principles +under the Orleans monarchy, was elected by his native department +to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Foreseeing that +Louis Bonaparte would be elected president by the people, he +proposed to vest the chief authority in a president of the Council +elected and removable by the Assembly, or in other words, to +suppress the Presidency of the Republic. After the <i>coup d’état</i> +this proposition gained Grévy a reputation for sagacity, and upon +his return to public life in 1868 he took a prominent place in +the republican party. After the fall of the Empire he was +chosen president of the Assembly on the 16th of February 1871, +and occupied this position till the 2nd of April 1876, when he +resigned on account of the opposition of the Right, which +blamed him for having called one of its members to order in the +session of the previous day. On the 8th of March 1876 he was +elected president of the Chamber of Deputies, a post which he +filled with such efficiency that upon the resignation of Marshal +MacMahon he seemed to step naturally into the Presidency of +the Republic (30th January 1879), and was elected without +opposition by the republican parties (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>). +Quiet, shrewd, attentive to the public interest and his own, +but without any particular distinction, he would have left an +unblemished reputation if he had not unfortunately accepted +a second term (18th December 1885). Shortly afterwards the +traffic of his son-in-law (Daniel Wilson) in the decorations of the +Legion of Honour came to light. Grévy was not accused of +personal participation in these scandals, but he was somewhat +obstinate in refusing to realize that he was responsible indirectly +for the use which his relative had made of the Élysée, and it had +to be unpleasantly impressed upon him that his resignation was +inevitable (2nd December 1887). He died at Mont-sous-Vaudrey +on the 9th of September 1891. He owed both his success and +his failure to the completeness with which he represented the +particular type of the thrifty, generally sensible and patriotic, +but narrow-minded and frequently egoistic <i>bourgeois</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Discours politiques et judiciaires, rapports et messages +... accompagnés de notices historiques et précédés d’une introduction +par L. Delabrousse</i> (2 vols., 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREW, NEHEMIAH<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1641-1712), English vegetable anatomist +and physiologist, was the only son of Obadiah Grew (1607-1688), +Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Michael’s, Coventry, and +was born in Warwickshire in 1641. He graduated at Cambridge +in 1661, and ten years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span> +his thesis being <i>Disputatio medico-physica ... de liquore nervoso</i>. +He began observations on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in +1670 his essay, <i>The Anatomy of Vegetables begun</i>, was communicated +to the Royal Society by Bishop Wilkins, on whose recommendation +he was in the following year elected a fellow. In +1672, when the essay was published, he settled in London, and +soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. In 1673 +he published his <i>Idea of a Phytological History</i>, which consisted +of papers he had communicated to the Royal Society in the +preceding year, and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as +secretary of the society. He edited the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> +in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he published “by request” a +descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved at Gresham +College, with which were printed some papers he had read to +the Royal Society on the <i>Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and +Guts</i>. In 1682 appeared his great work on the <i>Anatomy of +Plants</i>, which also was largely a collection of previous publications. +It was divided into four books, <i>Anatomy of Vegetables begun</i>, +<i>Anatomy of Roots</i>, <i>Anatomy of Trunks</i> and <i>Anatomy of Leaves, +Flowers, Fruits and Seeds</i>, and was illustrated with eighty-two +plates, while appended to it were seven papers mostly of a +chemical character. Among his other publications were <i>Sea-water +made Fresh</i> (1684), the <i>Nature and Use of the Salt contained +in Epsom and such other Waters</i> (1697), which was a rendering +of his <i>Tractatus de salis ... usu</i> (1695), and <i>Cosmologia sacra</i> +(1701). He died suddenly on the 25th of March 1712. Linnaeus +named a genus of trees <i>Grewia</i> (nat. ord. Tiliaceae) in his +honour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREY, CHARLES GREY,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Earl</span> (1764-1845), English +statesman, was the eldest surviving son of General Sir Charles +Grey, afterwards 1st Earl Grey. He was born at his father’s +residence, Fallodon, near Alnwick, on the 13th of March 1764. +General Grey (1729-1807), who was a younger son of the house +of Grey of Howick, one of the most considerable territorial +families in Northumberland, had already begun a career of active +service which, like the political career of his son, covered nearly +half a century. Before the latter was born, General Grey had +served on the staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven +Years’ War and had been wounded at Minden. While the son +was making verses at Eton, the father was serving against the +revolted colonists in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and while +the young member for Northumberland was denouncing Pitt’s +war against the Convention, the veteran soldier was destroying +the remnant of the French colonial empire by the capture of +Martinique and Guadeloupe. When Napoleon threatened an +invasion, General Grey took the command of the southern district, +and at the peace of Amiens he was rewarded with a peerage, +as Baron Grey of Alnwick, being created in 1806 Earl Grey and +Viscount Howick. His elder brother, Sir Henry Grey of Howick, +the head of the family, had supported the government in parliament. +But the political career of young Grey, who was heir-presumptive +to the family estates, took a different complexion.</p> + +<p>Young Grey expected to reoccupy the seat which had been +his uncle’s; and his early years were spent in preparation for +a parliamentary career. He was sent to Eton, and proceeded +thence to Cambridge. William Pitt, a youth five years older, +was then in residence as a master of arts, studiously paying court +to the Whigs of the university; and at the general election of +1780 he came forward as a candidate for the academical seat. +His name stood last on the poll, but he was brought in elsewhere, +and his first speech proved him a man of the first mark. The +unparalleled successes which followed portended grave changes. +Pitt’s elevation to the premiership, his brilliant and hard-fought +battle in the house, and his complete rout of the Whig party at +the general election of 1784, when he came in for Cambridge +at the head of the poll, threatened the great territorial interest +with nothing less than extinction. It was to this interest that +Grey belonged; and hence, when at length returned for Northumberland +in 1786, he at once came forward as a vigorous assailant +of the government of Pitt. He was hailed by the opposition, +and associated with Fox, Burke and Sheridan as a manager in the +Hastings impeachment. During the nineteen years which +remained of the career of Fox, he followed the great Whig +statesman with absolute fidelity, and succeeded him as leader +of the party. The shortcomings of Fox’s statesmanship were +inherited by Grey. Both were equally devoid of political +originality, shunned the severer labours of the politician, and +instinctively feared any deviation from the traditions of their +party. Such men cannot save a party in its decadence, and the +history of Fox and Grey has been aptly termed the history of +the decline and fall of Whiggism.</p> + +<p>The stunning blow of 1784 was the first incident in this history. +Its full significance was not at once perceived. An opposition, +however weak in the beginning, generally has a tendency to +revive, and Grey’s early successes in the house helped to revive +the Foxites. The European situation became favourable to this +revival. The struggle in France for popular rights, culminating +in the great Revolution, was watched by Fox with interested +sympathy. He affected to regard the domination of Pitt as the +domination of the crown, and as leading logically to absolutism, +and saw in that popular sympathy for the French Revolution +which naturally arose in England an instrument which might +be employed to overthrow this domination.</p> + +<p>But Pitt gathered the fruits of the windfall. The spread of +“Jacobinism,” or “French principles,” became the pretext +on which the stronger half of the opposition went over to the +government. Burke led the movement in the Commons, the duke +of Portland and Lord Fitzwilliam in the Lords, and with this +second incident in the Whig decline began the difficulties of +Grey’s career. The domination of the premier had already +stirred the keenest resentment in the younger and more ambitious +members of the Whig party. Freed from the restraint of the +steadier politicians under Burke and Portland, the residuum +under Fox fell into a series of grave mistakes. Of this residuum +Grey became the moving spirit, for though Fox did not check +their activity, he disclaimed the responsibility of their policy. +Fox had refused to condemn “French principles,” and denounced +the war with France; but he would take no part in exciting +agitation in England. It was otherwise with the restless spirits +among whom Grey was found. Enraged by the attitude of Pitt, +which was grounded on the support of the constituencies as they +then stood, the residuum plotted an ill-timed agitation for +parliamentary reform.</p> + +<p>The demand for parliamentary reform was as yet in a rudimentary +stage. Forty years later it had become the demand of +an unenfranchised nation, disabused by a sudden spread of +political and economical knowledge. It was as yet but the +occasional instrument of the scheming politician. Chatham +had employed the cry in this sense. The Middlesex agitators +had done the same; even the premier of the time, after his +accession to power, had sought to strengthen his hands in the +same way. But Pitt’s hands were now strengthened abundantly; +whereas the opposition had nothing to lose and much to gain by +such a measure. The cry for reform thus became their natural +expedient. Powerless to carry reform in the House, they sought +to overawe parliament by external agitation, and formed the +Society of the Friends of the People, destined to unite the forces +of all the “patriotic” societies which already existed in the +country, and to pour their violence irresistibly on a terrified +parliament. Grey and his friends were enrolled in this portentous +association, and presented in parliament its menacing petitions. +Such petitions, which were in fact violent impeachments of +parliament itself, proceeding from voluntary associations having +no corporate existence, had been hitherto unknown in the English +parliament. They had been well known in the French assembly. +They had heralded and furthered the victory of the Jacobins, +the dissolution of the constitution, the calling of the Convention +and the fall of the monarchy.</p> + +<p>The Society of the Friends of the People was originally an +after-dinner folly, extemporized at the house of a man who afterwards +gained an earldom by denouncing it as seditious. Fox +discountenanced it, though he did not directly condemn it; but +Grey was overborne by the fierce Jacobinism of Lauderdale, and +avowed himself the parliamentary mouthpiece of this dangerous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span> +agitation. But Pitt, strong in his position, cut the ground +from under Grey’s feet by suppressing the agitation with a strong +hand. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the Gagging +Acts and the state prosecutions form a painful historical episode. +But the discredit belongs as much to Grey and Lauderdale as to +Pitt. Grey always spoke regretfully of his share in the movement. +“One word from Fox,” he said, “would have kept me out of +all the mess of the Friends of the People. But he never spoke it.”</p> + +<p>It was Grey who moved the impeachment of Pitt, and he next +promoted the equally foolish “Secession.” Since the parliament +did not properly represent the nation, and refused to reform itself +or to impeach the minister, nothing remained but to disown it; +and the opposition announced their intention of “seceding,” +or systematically absenting themselves from their places in +parliament. This futile movement was originated by Grey, +Lauderdale and the duke of Bedford. It obtained a somewhat +wider support. It suited the languor of some dispirited +politicians like Fox, and the avarice of some lawyers in large +practice like Erskine; but sensible politicians at once condemned +it. It directly ignored parliamentary government, and amounted +to nothing but a pettish threat of revolution. “Secession,” +said Lord Lansdowne, with characteristic shrewdness, “either +means rebellion, or it is nonsense.” Pitt easily dashed this feeble +weapon from the hands of his opponents. He roused jealousy +in the absent by praising the parts and the patriotism of the rest, +and thus gradually brought them back. Grey himself reappeared +to protest against the union with Ireland.</p> + +<p>When Pitt died in 1806 nothing could prevent the reunited +opposition from coming into power, and thus the Broad-bottom +ministry was formed under Fox. On his death Grenville became +premier, and Grey, now Lord Howick, foreign secretary, and +leader of the House of Commons. Disunion, always the bane of +English Liberalism, lurked in the coalition, and the Foxites +and Grenvillites were only ostensibly at one. Grey opposed the +war policy of Grenville; and this policy was not more successful +than it had been in the hands of Pitt. And the change from the +leadership of Fox to that of Grenville was only too perceptible. +Both in court and country Grenville affected the role of Pitt, and +assumed a stiff and peremptory attitude which ill became him. +An ill-advised dissolution weakened their majority; they lost +ground by the “delicate investigation” into the conduct of the +princess of Wales; Lord Henry Petty’s budget was too specious +to command confidence; and the king, fully aware of their +weak situation, resolved to get rid of them. When they proposed +to concede a portion of the Catholic claims, George refused +and demanded of them an undertaking never to propose such +a measure again. This was refused, and the Grenville-Grey +cabinet retired in March 1807. In the same year Grey’s father +died, and Grey went to the Upper House. Opposition united +Grey and Grenville for a time, but the parties finally split on +the old war question. When Napoleon returned from Elba +in 1815, and once more seized the government of France, the +same question arose which had arisen in 1792, Was England to go +to war for the restoration of the Bourbons? Grenville followed +the traditions of Pitt, and supported the ministry in at once +renewing hostilities. Grey followed those of Fox, and maintained +the right of France to choose her own governors, and the impossibility +of checking the reaction in the emperor’s favour. +The victory of Waterloo put an end to the dispute, but the +disruption became permanent. The termination of the war, and +the cessation of all action in common, reduced the power of the +opposition to nothing. Grenville retired from public life, and his +adherents reinforced the ministry. Little remained for the Whigs +to do. But the persecution of the queen afforded an opportunity +of showing that the ministry were not omnipotent; and the part +taken on that occasion by Grey won him at once the increased +respect of the nation and the undying aversion of George IV. +It sealed the exclusion of himself and his few friends from office +during the king’s life; and when in 1827 Grey came forth to +denounce the ministry of Canning, he declared that he stood +alone in the political world. His words were soon justified, for +when Lord Goderich resigned, the remnant which had hitherto +supported Grey, hastened to support the ministry of the duke of +Wellington.</p> + +<p>We now reach the principal episode in Grey’s career. In 1827 +he seemed to stand forth the solitary and powerless relic of an +extinct party. In 1832 we find that party restored to its old +numbers and activity, supreme in parliament, popular in the +nation, and Lord Grey at its head. The duke of Wellington’s +foolish declaration against parliamentary reform, made in a +season of great popular excitement, suddenly deprived him of +the confidence of the country, and a coalition of the Whigs and +Canningites became inevitable. The Whigs had in 1827 supported +the Canningites; the latter now supported the Whigs, +of whom Grey remained the traditional head. George IV. was +dead, and no obstacle existed to Grey’s elevation. Grey was +sent for by William IV. in November 1830, and formed a coalition +cabinet, pledged to carry on the work in which the duke of +Wellington had faltered. But Grey himself was the mere instrument +of the times. An old-fashioned Whig, he had little personal +sympathy with the popular cause, though he had sometimes +indicated a certain measure of reform as necessary. When he +took office, he guessed neither the extent to which the Reform +Act would go, nor the means by which it would be carried. That +he procured for the country a measure of constitutional reform +for which he had agitated in his youth was little more than a +coincidence. In his youth he had put himself at the head of a +frantic agitation against parliament, because he there found +himself powerless. In his old age the case was reversed. +Suddenly raised to a position of authority in the country, he +boldly stood between parliament, as then constituted, and the +formidable agitation which now threatened it and by a forced +reform saved it from revolution. In his youth he had assailed +Pitt’s administration because Pitt’s administration threatened +with extinction the political monopoly of that landed interest +to which he belonged. In his old age, on the contrary, unable +to check the progress of the wave, he swam with it, and headed +the movement which compelled that landed interest to surrender +its monopoly.</p> + +<p>The second reading of the first Reform Bill was carried in the +Commons by a majority of one. This was equivalent to a defeat, +and further failures precipitated a dissolution. The confidence +which the bold action of the ministry had won was soon plainly +proved, for the second reading was carried in the new parliament +by a majority of 136. When the bill had at length passed the +Commons after months of debate, it was Grey’s task to introduce +it to the Lords. It was rejected by a majority of 41. The safety +of the country now depended on the prudence and courage of +the ministry. The resignation of Grey and his colleagues was +dreaded even by the opposition, and they remained in office +with the intention of introducing a third Reform Bill in the next +session. The last months of 1831 were the beginning of a political +crisis such as England had not seen since 1688. The two extreme +parties, the Ultra-Radicals and the Ultra-Tories, were ready for +civil war. Between them stood the ministry and the majority of +intelligent peace-loving Englishmen; and their course of action +was soon decided. The bill must be passed, and there were but +two ways of passing it. One was to declare the consent of the +House of Lords unnecessary to the measure, the other to create, +if necessary, new peers in sufficient number to outvote the +opposition. These two expedients did not in reality differ. To +swamp the house in the way proposed would have been to destroy +it. The question whether the ministry should demand the king’s +consent to such a creation, if necessary, was debated in the +cabinet in September. Brougham proposed it, and gradually a +majority of the cabinet were won over. Grey had at first refused +to employ even the threat of so unconstitutional a device as a +means to the proposed end. But his continued refusal would +have broken up the ministry, and the breaking up of the ministry +must now have been the signal for revolution. The second +reading in the Commons was passed in December by a majority +of 162, and on New-Year’s day 1832 the majority of the cabinet +resolved on demanding power to carry it in the Lords by a +creation of peers. Grey carried the resolution to the king. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span> +Some time still remained before the bill could be committed and +read a third time. It was not until the 9th of April that Grey +moved the second reading in the Lords. A sufficient number of +the opposition temporized; and the second reading was allowed +to pass by a majority of nine. Their intention was to mutilate +the bill in committee. The Ultra-Tories, headed by the duke of +Wellington, had entered a protest against the second reading, +but they were now politically powerless. The struggle had +become a struggle on the one hand for the whole bill, to be +carried by a creation of peers, and on the other for some mutilated +measure. Grey’s instinct divined that the crisis was approaching. +Either the king must consent to swamp the House, or the ministry +must cease to stand in the breach between the peers and the +country. The king, a weak and inexperienced politician, had +in the meantime been wrought upon by the temporizing leaders +in the Lords. He was induced to believe that if the Commons +should reject the mutilated bill when it was returned to them, +and the ministry should consequently retire, the mutilated bill +might be reintroduced and passed by a Tory ministry. He was +deaf to all representations of the state of public opinion; and to +the surprise of the ministry, and the terror and indignation of +every man of sense in the country, he rejected their proposal +and accepted their resignation, May 9, 1832. The duke of +Wellington undertook the hopeless task of constructing a +ministry which should pass a restricted or sham Reform Bill. +The only man who could have made the success of such a ministry +even probable was Peel, and Peel’s conscience and good sense +forbade the attempt. He refused, and after a week of the profoundest +agitation throughout the country, the king, beaten +and mortified, was forced to send for Grey and Brougham. On +being told that his consent to the creation of peers was the only +condition on which they could undertake the government, +he angrily and reluctantly yielded. The chancellor, with cool +forethought, demanded this consent in writing. Grey thought +such a demand harsh and unnecessary. “I wonder,” he said +to Brougham, when the interview was over, “you could have had +the heart to press it.” But Brougham was inexorable, and the +king signed the following paper: “The king grants permission +to Earl Grey, and to his chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create +such a number of peers as will be sufficient to ensure the passing +of the Reform Bill, first calling up peers’ eldest sons.—<span class="sc">William</span> +R., Windsor, May 17, 1832.”</p> + +<p>Grey had now won the game. There was no danger that he +would have to resort to the expedient which he was authorized +to employ. The introduction of sixty new peers would have +destroyed the opposition, but it would have been equivalent +to the abolition of the House. The king’s consent made known, +a sufficient number of peers were sure to withdraw to enable the +bill to pass, and thus the dignity of both king and peerage would +be saved. The duke of Wellington headed this movement on +the part of the opposition; and the third reading of the bill was +carried in the Lords by a majority of 84.</p> + +<p>It is well known that in after years both Grey and Brougham +disclaimed any intention of executing their threat. If this were +so, they must have merely pretended to brave a danger which +they secretly feared to face, and intended to avoid; and the +credit of rescuing the country would belong to the duke of +Wellington and the peers who seceded with him. To argue such +cowardice in them from statements made when the crisis was +long past, and when they were naturally willing to palliate the +rough policy which they were forced to adopt, would be to set up +a needless and unjustifiable paradox. Nothing else in the career +of either Grey or Brougham leads us to suppose them capable +of the moral baseness of yielding up the helm of state, in an hour +of darkness and peril, to reckless and unskilled hands. Such +would have been the result if they had lacked the determination +to carry out their programme to the end. The influence of every +statesman in the country would then have been extinguished, +and the United Kingdom would have been absolutely in the +hands of O’Connell and Orator Hunt.</p> + +<p>Grey took but little part in directing the legislation of the +reformed parliament. Never anxious for power, he had executed +the arduous task of 1831-1832 rather as a matter of duty than of +inclination, and wished for an opportunity of retiring. Such an +opportunity very shortly presented itself. The Irish policy of +the ministry had not conciliated the Irish people, and O’Connell +denounced them with the greatest bitterness. On the renewal +of the customary Coercion Bill, the ministry was divided on the +question whether to continue to the lord-lieutenant the power +of suppressing public meetings. Littleton, the Irish secretary, +was for abolishing it; and with the view of conciliating O’Connell, +he informed him that the ministry intended to abandon it. But +the result proved him to have been mistaken, and O’Connell, +with some reason supposing himself to have been duped, called +on Littleton to resign his secretaryship. It had also transpired +in the discussion that Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of +Commons, was privately opposed to retaining those clauses +which it was his duty to push through the house. Lord Althorp +therefore resigned, and Grey, who had lately passed his seventieth +year, took the opportunity of resigning also. It was his opinion, +it appeared, which had overborne the cabinet in favour of the +public meeting clauses; and his voluntary withdrawal enabled +Lord Althorp to return to his post and to proceed with the bill +in its milder form. Grey was succeeded by Lord Melbourne; +but no other change was made in the cabinet. Grey took no +further part in politics. During most of his remaining years he +continued to live in retirement at Howick, where he died on the +17th of July 1845, in his eighty-second year. By his wife Mary +Elizabeth, only daughter of the first Lord Ponsonby, whom he +married on the 18th of November 1794, he became the father of +ten sons and five daughters. Grey’s eldest son Henry (<i>q.v.</i>) became +the 3rd earl, and among his other sons were General Charles +Grey (1804-1870) and Admiral Frederick Grey (1805-1878).</p> + +<p>In public life, Grey could always be upon occasion bold, +strenuous and self-sacrificing; but he was little disposed for the +active work of the politician. He was not one of those who took +the statesman’s duty “as a pleasure he was to enjoy.” A certain +stiffness and reserve ever seemed in the popular eye to hedge him +in; nor was his oratory of the kind which stirs enthusiasm and +delight. A tall, stately figure, fine voice and calm aristocratic +bearing reminded the listener of Pitt rather than of Fox, and his +speeches were constructed on the Attic rather than the Asiatic +model. Though simple and straightforward, they never lacked +either point or dignity; and they were admirably adapted to the +audience to which they were addressed. The scrupulous uprightness +of Grey’s political and private character completed the +ascendancy which he gained; and no politician could be named +who, without being a statesman of the highest class, has left a +name more enviably placed in English history.</p> +<div class="author">(E. J. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREY, SIR EDWARD,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> 3rd Bart. (1862-  ), English +statesman, was educated at Winchester and at Balliol College, +Oxford, and succeeded his grandfather, the 2nd baronet, at the +age of twenty. He entered the House of Commons as Liberal +member for Berwick-on-Tweed in 1885, but he was best known +as a country gentleman with a taste for sport, and as amateur +champion tennis-player. His interest in politics was rather +languid, but he was a disciple of Lord Rosebery, and in the +1892-1895 Liberal ministry he was under-secretary for foreign +affairs. In this position he earned a reputation as a politician +of thorough straightforwardness and grit, and as one who would +maintain British interests independently of party; and he shared +with Mr Asquith the reputation of being the ablest of the +Imperialists who followed Lord Rosebery. Though outside +foreign affairs he played but a small part in the period of Liberal +opposition between 1895 and 1905, he retained public confidence +as one who was indispensable to a Liberal administration. +When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s cabinet was formed +in December 1905 he became foreign minister, and he retained +this office when in April 1908 Mr Asquith became prime +minister.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREY, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1812-1898), British colonial governor +and statesman, only son of Lieutenant-Colonel Grey of the +30th Foot, was born in Lisbon on the 14th of April 1812, eight +days after the death of his father at the storming of Badajoz. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span> +He passed through Sandhurst with credit, and received his commission +in 1829. His lieutenancy was dated 1833, and his +captaincy 1839, in which year he sold out and left the army. +In the early ’thirties he was quartered in Ireland, where the +wretchedness of the poorer classes left a deep impression on his +mind. In 1836 the Royal Geographical Society accepted his +offer to explore the north-west region of West Australia, and +accordingly he landed at Hanover Bay at the end of 1837. +The surrounding country he found broken and difficult, and his +hardships were aggravated by the tropical heat and his ignorance +of the continent. In a skirmish with the natives, in which he +was speared near the hip, he showed great courage, and put the +assailants to flight, shooting the chief, who had wounded him. +After a brave endeavour to continue his journey his wound +forced him to retreat to the coast, whence he sailed to Mauritius +to recruit. Next year he again essayed exploration, this time +on the coast to the north and south of Shark’s Bay. He had +three whale-boats and an ample supply of provisions, but by a +series of disasters his stores were spoilt by storms, his boats +wrecked in the surf, and the party had to tramp on foot from +Gantheaume Bay to Perth, where Grey, in the end, walked in +alone, so changed by suffering that friends did not know him. +In 1839 he was appointed governor-resident at Albany, and +during his stay there married Harriett, daughter of Admiral +Spencer, and also prepared for publication an account, in two +volumes, of his expeditions. In 1840 he returned to England, to +be immediately appointed by Lord John Russell to succeed +Colonel Gawler as governor of South Australia. Reaching the +colony in May 1841, he found it in the depths of a depression +caused by mismanagement and insane land speculation. By +rigorously reducing public expenditure, and forcing the settlers +to quit the town and betake themselves to tilling their lands, +and with the opportune help of valuable copper discoveries, +Grey was able to aid the infant colony to emerge from the slough. +So striking were his energy and determination that when, in +1845, the little settlements in New Zealand were found to be +involved in a native war, and on the verge of ruin, he was sent +to save them. The Maori chiefs in open rebellion were defeated, +and made their submission. Another powerful leader suspected +of fomenting discontent was arrested, and friendly chieftains +were subsidized and honoured. Bands of the natives were +employed in making government roads, and were paid good +wages. The governor gained the veneration of the Maori tribes, +in whose welfare he took a close personal interest, and of whose +legends and myths he made a valuable and scholarly collection, +published in New Zealand in 1855 and reprinted thirty years +afterwards. With peace prosperity came to New Zealand, and +the colonial office desired to give the growing settlements full +self-government. Grey, arguing that this would renew war +with the Maori, returned the constitution to Downing Street. +But though the colonial office sustained him, he became involved +in harassing disputes with the colonists, who organized an active +agitation for autonomy. In the end a second constitution, +partly framed by Grey himself, was granted them, and Grey, +after eight years of despotic but successful rule, was transferred +to Cape Colony. He had been knighted for his services, and had +undoubtedly shown strength, dexterity and humanity in dealing +with the whites and natives. In South Africa his success continued. +He thwarted a formidable Kaffir rebellion in the Eastern +Provinces, and pushed on the work of settlement by bringing out +men from the German Legion and providing them with homes. +He gained the respect of the British, the confidence of the Boers, +the admiration and the trust of the natives. The Dutch of the +Free State and the Basuto chose him as arbitrator of their +quarrels. When the news of the Indian Mutiny reached Cape +Town he strained every nerve to help Lord Canning, despatching +men, horses, stores and £60,000 in specie to Bombay. He persuaded +a detachment, then on its way round the Cape as a reinforcement +for Lord Elgin in China, to divert its voyage to Calcutta. +Finally, in 1859, Grey almost reached what would have been the +culminating point of his career by federating South Africa. +Persuaded by him, the Orange Free State passed resolutions in +favour of this great step, and their action was welcomed by Cape +Town. But the colonial office disapproved of the change, and +when Grey attempted to persevere with it Sir Edward Bulwer +Lytton recalled him. A change of ministry during his voyage to +England displaced Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton. But though the +duke of Newcastle reinstated Grey, it was with instructions to +let federation drop. In 1861 the colonial office sent him, for the +fourth time in succession, to take up a post of exceptional difficulty +by again entrusting him with the governorship of New +Zealand, where an inglorious native war in Taranaki had just +been succeeded by an armed truce. Grey did his best to make +terms with the rebels and to re-establish friendship with the +Maori king and the land league of tribes formed to stop further +sales of land to the whites. But the Maori had got guns and +powder, and were suspicious and truculent. In vain Grey, +supported by Bishop Selwyn and by Fox and the peace party +among the settlers, strove to avert war. It came in 1863, and +spread from province to province. Ten thousand regulars and +as many colonial riflemen were employed to put it down. The +imperial troops were badly handled, and Grey, losing patience, +became involved in bitter disputes with their commanders. +As an example to the former he himself attacked and captured +Weraroa, the strongest of the Maori stockades, with a handful +of militia, a feat which delighted the colonists, but made him as +much disliked at the war office as he now was at Downing Street. +Moreover, Grey had no longer real control over the islands. +New Zealand had become a self-governing colony, and though +he vindicated the colonists generally when libellous imputations +of cruelty and land-grabbing were freely made against them in +London, he crossed swords with his ministers when the latter +confiscated three million acres of tribal land belonging to the +insurgent Maori. Yet through all these troubles progress was +made; many successes were gained in 1866, chiefly by the +colonial militia, and a condition of something like tranquillity +had been reached in 1867, when he received a curt intimation +from the duke of Buckingham that he was about to be superseded. +The colonists, who believed he was sacrificed for upholding their +interests and good name, bade farewell to him in 1868 in an outburst +of gratitude and sympathy; but his career as a colonial +governor was at an end. Returning to England, he tried to enter +public life, delivered many able speeches advocating what later +came to be termed Imperialism, and stood for Newark. Discouraged, +however, by the official Liberals, he withdrew and +turned again to New Zealand. In 1872 he was given a pension +of £1000 a year, and settled down on the island of Kawau, not +far from Auckland, which he bought, and where he passed his +leisure in planting, gardening and collecting books. In 1875, +on the invitation of the Auckland settlers, he became superintendent +of their province, and entered the New Zealand House +of Representatives to resist the abolition of the provincial +councils of the colony, a change then being urged on by Sir Julius +Vogel in alliance with the Centralist Party. In this he failed, +but his eloquence and courage drew round him a strong Radical +following, and gave him the premiership in 1877. Manhood +suffrage, triennial parliaments, a land-tax, the purchase of large +estates and the popular election of the governor, were leading +points of his policy. All these reforms, except the last, he lived +to see carried; none of them were passed by him. A commercial +depression in 1879 shook his popularity, and on the fall of his +ministry in 1879 he was deposed, and for the next fifteen years +remained a solitary and pathetic figure in the New Zealand +parliament, respectfully treated, courteously listened to, but never +again invited to lead. In 1891 he came before Australia as one of +the New Zealand delegates to the federal convention at Sydney, +and characteristically made his mark by standing out almost +alone for “one man one vote” as the federal franchise. This +point he carried, and the Australians thronged to hear him, so +that his visits to Victoria and South Australia were personal +triumphs. When, too, in 1894, he quitted New Zealand for +London, some reparation was at last made him by the imperial +government; he was called to the privy council, and graciously +received by Queen Victoria on his visit to Windsor. Thereafter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span> +he lived in London, and died on the 20th of September 1898. He +was given a public funeral at St Paul’s. Grey was all his life +a collector of books and manuscripts. After leaving Cape +Colony, he gave his library to Cape Town in 1862; his subsequent +collection, which numbered 12,000 volumes, he presented to the +citizens of Auckland in 1887. In gratitude the people of Cape +Town erected a statue of him opposite their library building.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Lives</i> of Sir George Grey have been written by W. L. and L. Rees +(1892), Professor G. C. Henderson (1907) and J. Collier (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. P. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREY, HENRY GREY,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Earl</span> (1802-1894), English +statesman, was born on the 28th of December 1802, the son of +the 2nd Earl Grey, prime minister at the time of the Reform +Bill of 1832. He entered parliament in 1826, under the title of +Viscount Howick, as member for Winchelsea, which constituency +he left in 1831 for Northumberland. On the accession of the +Whigs to power in 1830 he was made under-secretary for the +colonies, and laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance +with colonial questions. He belonged at the time to the more +advanced party of colonial reformers, sharing the views of +Edward Gibbon Wakefield on questions of land and emigration, +and resigned in 1834 from dissatisfaction that slave emancipation +was made gradual instead of immediate. In 1835 he entered +Lord Melbourne’s cabinet as secretary at war, and effected +some valuable administrative reforms, especially by suppressing +malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the partial +reconstruction of the ministry in 1839 he again resigned, disapproving +of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues. +These repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotchetiness, +which he did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his +old colleagues by his action on free trade questions in the session +of 1841. During the exile of the Liberals from power he went +still farther on the path of free trade, and anticipated Lord +John Russell’s declaration against the corn laws. When, on +Sir Robert Peel’s resignation in December 1845, Lord John +Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had +become Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding +July, refused to enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were +foreign secretary (see J. R. Thursfield in vol. i. and Hon. F. H. +Baring in vol. xxiii. of the <i>English Historical Review</i>). He was +greatly censured for perverseness, and particularly when in the +following July he accepted Lord Palmerston as a colleague +without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded Lord +John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation. Becoming +colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere +confronted with arduous problems, which in the main he encountered +with success. His administration formed an epoch. +He was the first minister to proclaim that the colonies were to +be governed for their own benefit and not for the mother-country’s; +the first systematically to accord them self-government +so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce free +trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The +concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from +the mother-country <i>ad libitum</i> was not his; he protested against +it, but was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he +could not overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion; +in New Zealand he suspended the constitution he had himself +accorded, and yielded everything into the masterful hands of +Sir George Grey. The least successful part of his administration +was his treatment of the convict question at the Cape of Good +Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule that the colonies +were to be governed for their own benefit and in accordance with +their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating defeat. +After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his colonial +policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell, a dry but +instructive book (<i>Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell’s Administration</i>, +1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No +room was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and +although during the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed +to him as the fittest man as minister for war, he never again +held office. During the remainder of his long life he exercised +a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In 1858 he wrote a work +(republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in 1888 he wrote +another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the United +States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor +of weighty letters to <i>The Times</i> on land, tithes, currency and +other public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances +were when he moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866, +and when in 1878 he passionately opposed the policy of the +Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He nevertheless supported Lord +Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding Mr Gladstone’s accession +to power with much greater alarm. He was a determined +opponent of Mr Gladstone’s Home Rule policy. He died on the +9th of October 1894. None ever doubted his capacity or his +conscientiousness, but he was generally deemed impracticable +and disagreeable. Prince Albert, however, who expressed +himself as ready to subscribe to all Grey’s principles, and +applauded him for having principles, told Stockmar that, although +dogmatic, he was amenable to argument; and Sir Henry +Taylor credits him with “more freedom from littlenesses of +feeling than I have met before in any public man.” His chief +defect was perceived and expressed by his original tutor and +subsequent adversary in colonial affairs, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, +who wrote, “With more than a common talent for understanding +principles, he has no originality of thought, which +compels him to take all his ideas from somebody; and no power +of working out theory in practice, which compels him to be +always in somebody’s hands as respects decision and action.”</p> + +<p>The earl had no sons, and he was followed as 4th earl by his +nephew Albert Henry George (b. 1851), who in 1904 became +governor-general of Canada.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREY, LADY JANE<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1537-1554), a lady remarkable no +less for her accomplishments than for her misfortunes, was the +great-granddaughter of Henry VII. of England. Her descent +from that king was traced through a line of females. His +second daughter Mary, after being left a widow by Louis XII. +of France, married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, who was +a favourite with her brother King Henry VIII. Of this marriage +came two daughters, the elder of whom, Lady Frances Brandon, +was married to Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset; and their +issue, again, consisted of daughters only. Lady Jane, the +subject of this article, was the eldest of three whom the marquess +had by Lady Frances. Thus it will appear that even if the crown +of England had ever fallen into the female line of descent from +Henry VII., she could not have put in a rightful claim unless the +issue of his elder daughter, Margaret, had become extinct. +But Margaret had married James IV. of Scotland; and, though +her descendant, James VI., was ultimately called to the English +throne, Henry VIII. had placed her family after that of his second +sister in the succession; so that, failing the lawful issue of Henry +himself, Lady Jane would, according to this arrangement, +have succeeded. It was to these circumstances that she owed +her exceptional position in history, and became the victim of an +ambition which was not her own.</p> + +<p>She was born at her father’s seat named Bradgate in Leicestershire +about the year 1537. Her parents, though severe disciplinarians, +bestowed more than ordinary care upon her education, +and she herself was so teachable and delighted so much in study +that she became the marvel of the age for her acquirements. +She not only excelled in needlework and in music, both vocal +and instrumental, but while still very young she had thoroughly +mastered Latin, Greek, French and Italian. She was able to +speak and write both Greek and Latin with an accuracy that +satisfied even such critics as Ascham and her tutor Dr Aylmer, +afterwards bishop of London. She also acquired some knowledge +of at least three Oriental tongues, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic. +In Ascham’s <i>Schoolmaster</i> is given a touching account of the +devotion with which she pursued her studies and the harshness +she experienced from her parents. The love of learning was her +solace; in reading Demosthenes and Plato she found a refuge +from domestic unhappiness. When about ten years old she +was placed for a time in the household of Thomas, Lord Seymour, +who, having obtained her wardship, induced her parents to let +her stay with him, even after the death of his wife, Queen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span> +Catherine Parr, by promising to marry her to his nephew, King +Edward VI. Lord Seymour, however, was attainted of high +treason and beheaded in 1549, and his brother, the duke of +Somerset, made some overtures to the marquess of Dorset to +marry her to his son the earl of Hertford. These projects, +however, came to nothing. The duke of Somerset in his turn +fell a victim to the ambition of Dudley, duke of Northumberland, +and was beheaded three years after his brother. Meanwhile, +the dukedom of Suffolk having become extinct by the deaths +of Charles Brandon and his two sons, the title was conferred +upon the marquess of Dorset, Lady Jane’s father. Northumberland, +who was now all-powerful, fearing a great reverse of fortune +in case of the king’s death, as his health began visibly to decline, +endeavoured to strengthen himself by marriages between his +family and those of other powerful noblemen, especially of the +new-made duke of Suffolk. His three eldest sons being already +married, the fourth, who was named Lord Guilford Dudley, +was accordingly wedded to Lady Jane Grey about the end of +May 1553. The match received the full approval of the king, +who furnished the wedding apparel of the parties by royal +warrant. But Edward’s state of health warned Northumberland +that he must lose no time in putting the rest of his project into +execution. He persuaded the king that if the crown should +descend to his sister Mary the work of the Reformation would +be undone and the liberties of the kingdom would be in danger. +Besides, both Mary and her sister Elizabeth had been declared +illegitimate by separate acts of parliament, and the objections +to Mary queen of Scots did not require to be pointed out. +Edward was easily persuaded to break through his father’s will +and make a new settlement of the crown by deed. The document +was witnessed by the signatures of all the council and of all but +one of the judges; but those of the latter body were obtained +only with difficulty by threats and intimidation.</p> + +<p>Edward VI. died on the 6th July 1553, and it was announced +to Lady Jane that she was queen. She was then but sixteen +years of age. The news came upon her as a most unwelcome +surprise, and for some time she resisted all persuasions to accept +the fatal dignity; but at length she yielded to the entreaties +of her father, her father-in-law and her husband. The better +to mature their plans the cabal had kept the king’s death secret +for some days, but they proclaimed Queen Jane in the city on +the 10th. The people received the announcement with manifest +coldness, and a vintner’s boy was even so bold as to raise a cry +for Queen Mary, for which he next day had his ears nailed to the +pillory and afterwards cut off. Mary, however, had received +early intimation of her brother’s death, and, retiring from +Hunsdon into Norfolk, gathered round her the nobility and +commons of those parts. Northumberland was despatched +thither with an army to oppose her; but after reaching Newmarket +he complained that the council had not sent him forces +in sufficient numbers and his followers began to desert. News +also came that the earl of Oxford had declared for Queen Mary; +and as most of the council themselves were only seeking an +opportunity to wash their hands of rebellion, they procured a +meeting at Baynard’s Castle, revoked their former acts as done +under coercion, and caused the lord mayor to proclaim Queen +Mary, which he did amid the shouts of the citizens. The duke of +Suffolk was obliged to tell his daughter that she must lay aside +her royal dignity and become a private person once more. She +replied that she relinquished most willingly a crown that she +had only accepted out of obedience to him and her mother, +and her nine days’ reign was over.</p> + +<p>The leading actors in the conspiracy were now called to +answer for their deeds. Northumberland was brought up +to London a prisoner, tried and sent to the block, along with +some of his partisans. The duke of Suffolk and Lady Jane were +also committed to the Tower; but the former, by the influence +of his duchess, procured a pardon. Lady Jane and her husband +Lord Guilford Dudley were also tried, and received sentence +of death for treason. This, however, was not immediately +carried out; on the contrary, the queen seems to have wished +to spare their lives and mitigated the rigour of their confinement. +Unfortunately, owing to the general dislike of the queen’s +marriage with Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas Wyat soon after +raised a rebellion in which the duke of Suffolk and his brothers +took part, and on its suppression the queen was persuaded that +it was unsafe to spare the lives of Lady Jane and her husband +any longer. On hearing that they were to die, Lady Jane +declined a parting interview with her husband lest it should +increase their pain, and prepared to meet her fate with Christian +fortitude. She and her husband were executed on the same day, +on the 12th of February 1554, her husband on Tower Hill, and +herself within the Tower an hour afterwards, amidst universal +sympathy and compassion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ascham’s <i>Schoolmaster</i>; Burnet’s <i>History of the Reformation</i>; +Howard’s <i>Lady Jane Grey</i>; Nicolas’s Literary <i>Remains of Lady Jane +Grey</i>; Tytler’s <i>England under Edward VI. and Mary</i>; <i>The Chronicles +of Queen Jane</i>, ed. J. G. Nichols; <i>The Accession of Queen Mary</i> +(Guaras’s narrative), ed. R. Garnett (1892); Foxe’s <i>Acts and +Monuments</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREY DE WILTON<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> and <span class="sc">Grey de Ruthyn</span>. The first Baron +Grey de Wilton was Reginald de Grey, who was summoned to +parliament as a baron in 1295 and who died in 1308. Reginald’s +son John, the 2nd baron (1268-1323), was one of the lords +ordainers in 1310 and was a prominent figure in English politics +during the reign of Edward II. The later barons Grey de Wilton +were descended from John’s eldest son Henry (d. 1342), while a +younger son Roger (d. 1353) was the ancestor of the barons +Grey de Ruthyn.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">William, 13th Lord Grey de Wilton</span> (d. 1562), who succeeded +to the title on the death of his brother Richard, about +1520, won great fame as a soldier by his conduct in France +during the concluding years of Henry VIII.’s reign, and was one +of the leaders of the victorious English army at the battle of +Pinkie in 1547. He was then employed on the Scottish marches +and in Scotland, and in 1549 he rendered good service in suppressing +the rebellion in Oxfordshire and in the west of England; +in 1551 he was imprisoned as a friend of the fallen protector, +the duke of Somerset, and he was concerned in the attempt made +by John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, to place Lady Jane +Grey on the English throne In 1553. However, he was pardoned +by Queen Mary and was entrusted with the defence of Guînes. +Although indifferently supported he defended the town with +great gallantry, but in January 1558 he was forced to surrender +and for some time he remained a prisoner in France. Under +Elizabeth, Grey was again employed on the Scottish border, +and he was responsible for the pertinacious but unavailing +attempt to capture Leith in May 1560. He died at Cheshunt +in Hertfordshire on the 14th/25th of December 1562.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He was described by William Cecil as “a noble, valiant, painful +and careful gentleman,” and his son and successor, Arthur, wrote +<i>A Commentary of the Services and Charges of William, Lord Grey of +Wilton, K.G.</i> This has been edited by Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton +for the Camden Society (1847).</p> +</div> + +<p>Grey’s elder son <span class="sc">Arthur, 14th Lord Grey de Wilton</span> (1536-1593), +was during early life with his father in France and in +Scotland; he fought at the battle of St Quentin and helped to +defend Guînes and to assault Leith. In July 1580 he was +appointed lord deputy of Ireland, and after an initial defeat in +Wicklow was successful in reducing many of the rebels to a +temporary submission. Perhaps the most noteworthy event +during his tenure of this office was the massacre of 600 Italians +and Spaniards at Smerwick in November 1580, an action for +which he was responsible. Having incurred a heavy burden of +debt Grey frequently implored the queen to recall him, and in +August 1582 he was allowed to return to England (see E. +Spenser, <i>View of the State of Ireland</i>, edited by H. Morley, 1890, +and R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland under the Tudors</i>, vol. iii., 1890). While +in Ireland Grey was served as secretary by Edmund Spenser, +and in book v. of the <i>Faerie Queene</i> the poet represents his +patron as a knight of very noble qualities named Artegall. As +one of the commissioners who tried Mary queen of Scots, Grey +defended the action of Elizabeth’s secretary, William Davison, +with regard to this matter, and he took part in the preparations +for the defence of England against the Spaniards in 1588. His +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span> +account of the defence of Guînes was used by Holinshed in his +<i>Chronicles</i>.</p> + +<p>When he died on the 14th of October 1593 he was succeeded +as 15th baron by his son <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (d. 1614), who while serving in +Ireland incurred the enmity of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, +and of Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton; and after +fighting against Spain in the Netherlands he was a member of +the court which sentenced these two noblemen to death in 1601. +On the accession of James I. he was arrested for his share in the +“Bye” plot, an attempt made by William Watson and others +to seize the king. He was tried and sentenced to death, but the +sentence was not carried out and he remained in prison until his +death on the 9th of July 1614. He displayed both ability and +courage at his trial, remarking after sentence had been passed, +“the house of Wilton hath spent many lives in their prince’s +service and Grey cannot beg his.” Like his father Grey was a +strong Puritan. He left no children and his barony became +extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1784 Sir Thomas Egerton, Bart., a descendant in the female +line of the 14th baron, was created Baron Grey de Wilton. He died +without sons in September 1814, when his barony became extinct; +but the titles of Viscount Grey de Wilton and earl of Wilton, which +had been conferred upon him in 1801, passed to Thomas Grosvenor +(1799-1882), the second son of his daughter Eleanor (d. 1846); and +her husband Robert Grosvenor, 1st marquess of Westminster. +Thomas took the name of Egerton and his descendants still hold the +titles.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Roger Grey, 1st Baron Grey de Ruthyn</span>, who was summoned +to parliament as a baron in 1324, saw much service as a +soldier before his death on the 6th of March 1353. The second +baron was his son Reginald, whose son <span class="sc">Reginald</span> (<i>c.</i> 1362-1440) +succeeded to the title on his father’s death in July 1388. In +1410 after a long dispute the younger Reginald won the right to +bear the arms of the Hastings family. He enjoyed the favour +both of Richard II. and Henry IV., and his chief military exploits +were against the Welsh, who took him prisoner in 1402 and only +released him upon payment of a heavy ransom. Grey was a +member of the council which governed England during the +absence of Henry V. in France in 1415; he fought in the French +wars in 1420 and 1421 and died on the 30th of September 1440. +His eldest son, Sir John Grey, K.G. (d. 1439), who predeceased +his father, fought at Agincourt and was deputy of Ireland in 1427. +He was the father of <span class="sc">Edmund Grey</span> (d. 1489), who succeeded +his grandfather as Lord Grey de Ruthyn in 1440 and was created +earl of Kent in 1465.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One of Reginald Grey’s younger sons, Edward (1415-1457), +succeeded his maternal grandfather as Baron Ferrers of Groby in +1445. He was the ancestor of the earls of Stamford and also of the +Greys, marquesses of Dorset and dukes of Suffolk.</p> + +<p>The barony of Grey de Ruthyn was merged in the earldom of +Kent until the death of Henry, the 8th earl, in November 1639. +It then devolved upon Kent’s nephew Charles Longueville (1612-1643), +through whose daughter Susan (d. 1676) it came to the family +of Yelverton, who were earls of Sussex from 1717 to 1799. The next +holder was Henry Edward Gould (1780-1810), a grandson of Henry +Yelverton, earl of Sussex; and through Gould’s daughter Barbara, +marchioness of Hastings (d. 1858), it passed to the last marquess of +Hastings, on whose death in 1868 the barony fell into abeyance, this +being terminated in 1885 in favour of Hastings’s sister Bertha +(d. 1887), the wife of Augustus Wykeham Clifton. Their son, +Rawdon George Grey Clifton (b. 1858), succeeded his mother as 24th +holder of the barony.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREYMOUTH,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a seaport of New Zealand, the principal port +on the west coast of South Island, in Grey county. Pop. (1906) +4569. It stands on the small estuary of the Grey or Mawhera +river, has a good harbour, and railway communication with +Hokitika, Reefton, &c., while the construction of a line to connect +with Christchurch and Nelson was begun in 1887. The district +is both auriferous and coal-bearing. Gold-dredging is a rich +industry, and the coal-mines have attendant industries in coke, +bricks and fire-clay. The timber trade is also well developed. +The neighbouring scenery is picturesque, especially among the +hills surrounding Lake Brunner (15 m. S.E.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREYTOWN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (<span class="sc">San Juan del Norte</span>), the principal seaport on +the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, in the extreme south-eastern +corner of the republic, and at the mouth of the northern channel +of the San Juan river delta. Pop. (1905) about 2500. The town +occupies the seaward side of a narrow peninsula, formed by the +windings of the river. Most of its houses are raised on piles +2 or 3 ft. above the ground. The neighbourhood is unhealthy +and unsuited for agriculture, so that almost all food-stuffs must +be imported, and the cost of living is high. Greytown has +suffered severely from the accumulation of sand in its once fine +harbour. Between 1832 and 1848 Point Arenas, the seaward +end of the peninsula, was enlarged by a sandbank more than +1 m. long; between 1850 and 1875 the depth of water over the +bar decreased from about 25 ft. to 5 ft., and the entrance channel, +which had been nearly ½ m. wide, was almost closed. Subsequent +attempts to improve the harbour by dredging and building +jetties have only had partial success; but Greytown remains +the headquarters of Nicaraguan commerce with Europe and +eastern America. The village called America, 1 m. N., was +built as the eastern terminus of a proposed interoceanic canal.</p> + +<p>The harbour of San Juan, discovered by Columbus, was +brought into further notice by Captain Diego Machuca, who in +1529 sailed down the river from Lake Nicaragua. The date of +the first Spanish settlement on the spot is not known, but in the +17th century there were fortifications at the mouth of the river. +In 1796 San Juan was made a port of entry by royal charter, +and new defences were erected in 1821. In virtue of the protectorate +claimed by Great Britain over the Mosquito Coast +(<i>q.v.</i>), the Mosquito Indians, aided by a British force, seized the +town in 1848 and occupied it until 1860, when Great Britain +ceded its protectorate to Nicaragua by the treaty of Managua. +This treaty secured religious liberty and trial by jury for all +civil and criminal charges in Greytown; its seventh article +declared the port free, but was never enforced.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREYWACKE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Grauwacke</span> (a German word signifying +a grey earthy rock), the designation, formerly more generally +used by English geologists than at the present day, for impure, +highly composite, gritty rocks belonging to the Palaeozoic +systems. They correspond to the sandstones, grits and fine +conglomerates of the later periods. Greywackes are mostly +grey, brown, yellow or black, dull-coloured, sandy rocks which +may occur in thick or thin beds along with slates, limestones, &c., +and are abundant in Wales, the south of Scotland and the Lake +district of England. They contain a very great variety of +minerals, of which the principal are quartz, orthoclase and +plagioclase, calcite, iron oxides and graphitic carbonaceous +matters, together with (in the coarser kinds) fragments of such +rocks as felsite, chert, slate, gneiss, various schists, quartzite. +Among other minerals found in them are biotite and chlorite, +tourmaline, epidote, apatite, garnet, hornblende and augite, +sphene, pyrites. The cementing material may be siliceous or +argillaceous, and is sometimes calcareous. As a rule greywackes +are not fossiliferous, but organic remains may be common in +the finer beds associated with them. Their component particles +are usually not much rounded by attrition, and the rocks have +often been considerably indurated by pressure and mineral +changes, such as the introduction of interstitial silica. In some +districts the greywackes are cleaved, but they show phenomena +of this kind much less perfectly than the slates. Although the +group is so diverse that it is difficult to characterize mineralogically, +it has a well-established place in petrographical +classifications, because these peculiar composite arenaceous +deposits are very frequent among Silurian and Cambrian rocks, +and rarely occur in Secondary or Tertiary systems. Their +essential features are their gritty character and their complex +composition. By increasing metamorphism greywackes frequently +pass into mica-schists, chloride schists and sedimentary +gneisses.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIBEAUVAL, JEAN BAPTISTE DE<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1715-1789), French +artillery general, was the son of a magistrate of Amiens and was +born there on the 15th of September 1715. He entered the +French royal artillery in 1732 as a volunteer, and became an +officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years regimental duty and +scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became captain of a +company of miners. A few years later he was employed in a +military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being then a lieutenant-colonel, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span> +he was lent to the Austrian army on the outbreak of the +Seven Years’ War, and served as a general officer of artillery. +The siege of Glatz and the defence of Schweidnitz were his +principal exploits. The empress Maria Theresa rewarded him +for his work with the rank of lieutenant field-marshal and the +cross of the Maria Theresa order. On his return to France he +was made <i>maréchal de camp</i>, in 1764 inspector of artillery, and +in 1765 lieutenant-general and commander of the order of St +Louis. For some years after this he was in disfavour at court, +and he became first inspector of artillery only in 1776, in which +year also he received the grand cross of the St Louis order. He +was now able to carry out the reforms in the artillery arm which +are his chief title to fame. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>; and for full details +Gribeauval’s own <i>Table des constructions des principaux attirails +de l’artillerie ... de M. de Gribeauval</i>, and the <i>règlement</i> for the +French artillery issued in 1776. He died in 1789.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Puységur in <i>Journal de Paris</i>, supplement of the 8th of July +1789; Chevalier de Passac, <i>Précis sur M. de Gribeauval</i> (Paris, 1816); +Veyrines, <i>Gribeauval</i> (Paris, 1889), and Hennébert, <i>Gribeauval, +lieutenant-général des armées du roy</i> (Paris, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1795-1829), +Russian dramatic author, was born in 1795 at Moscow, where +he studied at the university from 1810 to 1812. He then obtained +a commission in a hussar regiment, but resigned it in 1816. +Next year he entered the civil service, and in 1818 was appointed +secretary of the Russian legation in Persia, whence he was +transferred to Georgia. He had commenced writing early, and +had produced on the stage at St Petersburg in 1816 a comedy +in verse, translated from the French, called <i>The Young Spouses</i>, +which was followed by other pieces of the same kind. But +neither these nor the essays and verses which he wrote would +have been long remembered but for the immense success gained +by his comedy in verse, <i>Goré ot uma</i>, or “Misfortune from +Intelligence” (Eng. trans. by N. Benardaky, 1857). A satire +upon Russian society, or, as a high official styled it, “A pasquinade +on Moscow,” its plot is slight, its merits consisting in its +accurate representation of certain social and official types—such +as Famousoff, the lover of old abuses, the hater of reforms; +his secretary, Molchanin, servile fawner upon all in office; the +aristocratic young liberal and Anglomaniac, Repetiloff; contrasted +with whom is the hero of the piece, Tchatsky, the ironical +satirist, just returned from the west of Europe, who exposes and +ridicules the weaknesses of the rest, his words echoing that outcry +of the young generation of 1820 which reached its climax in the +military insurrection of 1825, and was then sternly silenced by +Nicholas. Griboyedov spent the summer of 1823 in Russia, +completed his play and took it to St Petersburg. There it was +rejected by the censorship. Many copies were made and privately +circulated, but Griboyedov never saw it published. The first +edition was printed in 1833, four years after his death. Only +once did he see it on the stage, when it was acted by the officers +of the garrison at Erivan. Soured by disappointment he returned +to Georgia, made himself useful by his linguistic knowledge to +his relative Count Paskievitch-Erivansky during a campaign +against Persia, and was sent to St Petersburg with the treaty +of 1828. Brilliantly received there, he thought of devoting +himself to literature, and commenced a romantic drama, <i>A +Georgian Night</i>. But he was suddenly sent to Persia as minister-plenipotentiary. +Soon after his arrival at Teheran a tumult +arose, caused by the anger of the populace against some Georgian +and Armenian captives—Russian subjects—who had taken +refuge in the Russian embassy. It was stormed, Griboyedov was +killed (February 11, 1829), and his body was for three days so +ill-treated by the mob that it was at last recognized only by an +old scar on the hand, due to a wound received in a duel. It was +taken to Tiflis, and buried in the monastery of St David. There +a <span class="correction" title="amended from momument">monument</span> was erected to his memory by his widow, to whom +he had been but a few months married.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1843-1907), Norwegian musical +composer, was born on the 15th of June 1843 in Bergen, where +his father, Alexander Grieg (<i>sic</i>), was English consul. The Grieg +family were of Scottish origin, but the composer’s grandfather, +a supporter of the Pretender, left his home at Aberdeen after +Charles Edward’s defeat at Culloden, and went to Bergen, where +he carried on business. The composer’s mother, Gesine Hagerup, +belonged to a pure Norwegian peasant family; and it is from +the mother rather than from the father that Edvard Grieg +derived his musical talent. She had been educated as a pianist +and began to give her son lessons on the pianoforte when he was +six years of age. His first composition, “Variations on a German +melody,” was written at the age of nine. A summer holiday in +Norway with his father in 1858 seems to have exercised a powerful +influence on the child’s musical imagination, which was easily +kindled at the sight of mountain and fjord. In the autumn of +the same year, at the recommendation of Ole Bull, young Grieg +entered the Leipzig Conservatorium, where he passed, like all +his contemporaries, under the influence of the Mendelssohn and +Schumann school of romantics. But the curriculum of academic +study was too narrow for him. He dreamed half his time away +and overworked during the other half. In 1862 he completed +his Leipzig studies, and appeared as pianist and composer +before his fellow-citizens of Bergen. In 1863 he studied in +Copenhagen for a short time with Gade and Emil Hartmann, +both composers representing a sentimental strain of Scandinavian +temperament, from which Grieg emancipated himself in favour +of the harder inspiration of Richard Nordraak. “The scales +fell from my eyes,” says Grieg of his acquaintance with Nordraak. +“For the first time I learned through him to know the northern +folk tunes and my own nature. We made a pact to combat the +effeminate Gade-Mendelssohn mixture of Scandinavism, and +boldly entered upon the new path along which the northern +school at present pursues its course.” Grieg now made a kind of +crusade in favour of national music. In the winter of 1864-1865 +he founded the Copenhagen concert-society Euterpe, +which was intended to produce the works of young Norwegian +composers. During the winters of 1865-1866 and 1869-1870 +Grieg was in Rome. In the autumn of 1866 he settled in +Christiania, where from 1867 till 1880 he conducted a musical +union. From 1880 to 1882 he directed the concerts of the +Harmonic Society in Bergen. In 1872 the Royal Musical +Academy of Sweden made Grieg a member; in 1874 the +Norwegian Storthing granted him an annual stipend of 1600 +kronen. He had already been decorated with the Olaf order in +1873. In 1888 he played his pianoforte concerto and conducted +his “two melodies for strings” at a Philharmonic concert in +London, and visited England again in 1891, 1894 and 1896, +receiving the degree of Mus.D. from the university of Cambridge +in 1894. He died at Bergen on the 4th of September 1907.</p> + +<p>As a composer Grieg’s distinguishing quality is lyrical. +Whether his orchestral works or his songs or his best pianoforte +works are submitted to examination, it is almost always the note +of song that tells. Sometimes, as in the music to Ibsen’s <i>Peer +Gynt</i>, or in the suite for stringed orchestra, <i>Aus Holbergs Zeit</i>, +this characteristic is combined with a strong power for raising +pictures in the listener’s mind, and the romantic “programme” +tendency in Grieg’s music becomes clearer the farther writers +like Richard Strauss carry this movement. Grieg’s songs may +be said to be generally the more spontaneous the more closely +they conform to the simple model of the <i>Volkslied</i>; yet the +much sung “Ich liebe dich” is a song of a different kind, which +has hardly ever been surpassed for the perfection with which it +depicts a strong momentary emotion, and it is difficult to ascribe +greater merits to songs of Grieg even so characteristic as “Solvejg’s +Lied” and “Ein Schwan.” The pianoforte concerto is +brilliant and spontaneous; it has been performed by most +pianists of the first rank, but its essential qualities and the pure +nationality of its themes have been brought out to their perfection +by one player only—the Norwegian pianist Knudsen. The +first and second of Grieg’s violin sonatas are agreeable, so free +and artless is the flow of their melody. In his numerous piano +pieces and in those of his songs which are devoid of a definitely +national inspiration the impression made is less permanent. +Bülow called Grieg the “Chopin of the North.” The phrase +is an exaggeration rather than an expression of the truth, for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span> +the range of the appeal in Chopin is far wider, nor has the national +movement inaugurated by Grieg shown promise of great development. +He is rather to be regarded as the pioneer of a musical +mission which has been perfectly carried out by himself alone.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See La Mara, <i>Edvard Grieg</i> (Leipzig, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1745-1812), German biblical +critic, was born at Butzbach, a small town of Hesse-Darmstadt, +where his father, Konrad Kaspar (1705-1777), was pastor, on +the 4th of January 1745. He was educated at Frankfort-on-the-Main, +and at the universities of Tübingen, Leipzig and Halle, +where he became one of J. S. Semler’s most ardent disciples. +It was Semler who induced him to turn his attention to the +textual criticism of the New Testament. At the close of his +undergraduate career he undertook a literary tour through +Germany, Holland, France and England. On his return to +Halle, he acted for some time as <i>Privatdozent</i>, but in 1773 was +appointed to a professorial chair; in 1775 he was translated to +Jena, where the rest of his life was spent (though he received calls +to other universities). He died on the 24th of March 1812. +Griesbach’s fame rests upon his work in New Testament criticism, +in which he inaugurated a new epoch.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His critical edition of the New Testament first appeared at Halle, +in three volumes, in 1774-1775. The first volume contained the first +three Gospels, synoptically arranged; the second, the Epistles and +the book of Revelation. All the historical books were reprinted +in one volume in 1777, the synoptical arrangement of the Gospels +having been abandoned as inconvenient. Of the second edition, +considerably enlarged and improved, the first volume appeared in +1796 and the second in 1806 (Halle and London). Of a third edition, +edited by David Schulz, only the first volume, containing the four +Gospels, appeared (1827).</p> + +<p>For the construction of his critical text Griesbach took as his basis +the Elzevir edition. Where he differed from it he placed the Elzevir +reading on the inner margin along with other readings he thought +worthy of special consideration (these last, however, being printed +in smaller type). To all the readings on this margin he attached +special marks indicating the precise degree of probability in his +opinion attaching to each. In weighing these probabilities he proceeded +upon a particular theory which in its leading features he had +derived from J. A. Bengel and J. S. Semler, dividing all the MSS. +into three main groups—the Alexandrian, the Western and the +Byzantine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: <i>New Testament</i>, “Textual Criticism”). +A reading supported by only one recension he considered as having +only one witness in its favour; those readings which were supported +by all the three recensions, or even by two of them, especially if +these two were the Alexandrian and the Western, he unhesitatingly +accepted as genuine. Only when each of the three recensions gives +a different reading does he proceed to discuss the question on other +grounds. See his <i>Symbolae criticae ad supplendas et corrigendas +variarum N.T. lectionum collectiones</i> (Halle, 1785, 1793), and his +<i>Commentarius criticus in textum Graecum N.T.</i>, which extends to +the end of Mark, and discusses the more important various readings +with great care and thoroughness (Jena, 1794 ff.). Among the other +works of Griesbach (which are comparatively unimportant) may be +mentioned his university thesis <i>De codicibus quatuor evangelistarum +Origenianis</i> (Halle, 1771) and a work upon systematic theology +(<i>Anleitung zur Kenntniss der populären Dogmatik</i>, Jena, 1779). +His <i>Opuscula</i>, consisting chiefly of university “Programs” and +addresses, were edited by Gabler (2 vols., Jena, 1824).</p> + +<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, and the +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIESBACH,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a watering-place in the grand duchy of Baden, +in the valley of the Rench, 1550 ft. above the sea, 6 m. W. from +Freudenstadt in Württemberg. It is celebrated for its saline +chalybeate waters (twelve springs), which are specific in cases +of anaemia, feminine disorders and diseases of the nervous +system, and were used in the 16th century. The annual number +of visitors is nearly 2000. Pop. (1900) 800. From 1665 to 1805 +Griesbach was part of the bishopric of Strassburg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Haberer, <i>Die Renchbäder Petersthal und Griesbach</i> (Würzburg, +1866).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIFFE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (French for “claw”), an architectural term for the +spur, an ornament carved at the angle of the square base of +columns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (<i>Peder Schumacher</i>) (1635-1699), +Danish statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th +of August 1635, of a wealthy trading family connected with the +leading civic, clerical and learned circles in the Danish capital. +His tutor, Jens Vorde, who prepared him in his eleventh year +for the university, praises his extraordinary gifts, his mastery +of the classical languages and his almost disquieting diligence. +The brilliant way in which he sustained his preliminary examination +won him the friendship of the examiner, Bishop Jasper +Brokman, at whose palace he first met Frederick III. The king +was struck with the lad’s bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous +face; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a +chapter from a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into +Danish, for the entertainment of the scholarly monarch. In 1654 +young Schumacher went abroad for eight years, to complete +his education. From Germany he proceeded to the Netherlands, +staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam, and passing in 1657 +to Queen’s College, Oxford, where he lived three years. The +epoch-making events which occurred in England, while he was +at Oxford, profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the +Revolution in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle +classes, convinced him that his proper sphere was politics. In +the autumn of 1660 Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after +Mazarin’s death, when the young Louis XIV. first seized the +reins of power. Schumacher seems to have been profoundly +impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong centralised +monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew +his own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever +afterwards was his model. The last year of his travels was +spent in Spain, where he obtained a thorough knowledge of the +Castilian language and literature. His travels, however, if they +enriched his mind, relaxed his character, and he brought home +easy morals as well as exquisite manners.</p> + +<p>On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the +monarchy established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager +to buy the services of every man of the middle classes who had +superior talents to offer. Determined to make his way in this +“new Promised Land,” the young adventurer contrived to +secure the protection of Kristoffer Gabel, the king’s confidant, +and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A romantic +friendship with the king’s bastard, Count Ulric Frederick +Gyldenlöve, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher +obtained his first political post as the king’s secretary, and the +same year composed the memorable <i>Kongelov</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: +<i>History</i>). He was now a personage at court, where he won all +hearts by his amiability and gaiety; and in political matters +also his influence was beginning to be felt.</p> + +<p>On the death of Frederick III. (February 9th, 1670) +Schumacher was the most trusted of all the royal counsellors. +He alone was aware of the existence of the new throne of walrus +ivory embellished with three silver life-size lions, and of the new +regalia, both of which treasures he had, by the king’s command, +concealed in a vault beneath the royal castle. Frederick III. +had also confided to him a sealed packet containing the <i>Kongelov</i>, +which was to be delivered to his successor alone. Schumacher +had been recommended to his son by Frederick III. on his death-bed. +“Make him a great man, but do it slowly!” said Frederick, +who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his +minister. Christian V. was, moreover, deeply impressed by the +confidence which his father had ever shown to Schumacher. +When, on the 9th of February 1670, Schumacher delivered +the <i>Kongelov</i> to Christian V., the king bade all those about him +withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with Schumacher, +appointed him his “Obergeheimesekreter.” His promotion +was now almost disquietingly rapid. In May 1670 he received +the titles of excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same +year he was ennobled under the name of Griffenfeldt, deriving +his title from the gold griffin with outspread wings which surmounted +his escutcheon; in November 1673 he was created a +count, a knight of the Elephant and, finally, imperial chancellor. +In the course of the next few months he gathered into his hands +every branch of the government: he had reached the apogee +of his short-lived greatness.</p> + +<p>But if his offices were manifold, so also were his talents. +Seldom has any man united so many and such various gifts in +his own person and carried them so easily—a playful wit, a +vivid imagination, oratorical and literary eloquence and, above +all, a profound knowledge of human nature both male and female, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span> +of every class and rank, from the king to the meanest citizen. +He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III. by his +literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse +and ignorant Christian V. by saving him trouble, by acting and +thinking for him, and at the same time making him believe +that he was thinking and acting for himself. Moreover, his +commanding qualities were coupled with an organizing talent +which made itself felt in every department of the state, and +with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal +diplomatist.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of May 1671 the dignities of count and baron +were introduced into Denmark “to give lustre to the court”; +a few months later the order of the Danebrog was instituted as a +fresh means of winning adherents by marks of favour. Griffenfeldt +was the originator of these new institutions. To him +monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he had also +a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its reverses, +still remained the élite of society; and Griffenfeldt, the son of +a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most +determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing +their existence entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent +into aristocratic circles. Griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the +first at court would be the first everywhere. Much was also done +to promote trade and industry, notably by the revival of the +<i>Kammer Kollegium</i>, or board of trade, and the abolition of some +of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher and the +provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the +view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the +positions and duties of the various magistrates, who now also +received fixed salaries, were for the first time exactly defined. +But what Griffenfeldt could create, Griffenfeldt could dispense +with, and it was not long before he began to encroach upon the +jurisdiction of the new departments of state by private conferences +with their chiefs. Nevertheless it is indisputable that, +under the single direction of this master-mind, the Danish state +was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as it had +never done before.</p> + +<p>In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeldt gave +himself entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark. +It is difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence +was perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second +place, because the force of circumstances compelled him, +again and again, to shift his standpoint; and finally because +personal considerations largely intermingled with his foreign +policy, and made it more elusive and ambiguous than it need have +been. Briefly, Griffenfeldt aimed at restoring Denmark to the +rank of a great power. He proposed to accomplish this by +carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime securing +and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large subsidies +while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a conditional +and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power, +in a period of universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult; +but Griffenfeldt did not regard it as impossible. The first +postulate of such a policy was peace, especially peace with +Denmark’s most dangerous neighbour, Sweden. The second +postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the +wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent +on armaments. Above all things Denmark was to beware of +making enemies of France and Sweden at the same time. An +alliance, on fairly equal terms, between the three powers, would, +in these circumstances, be the consummation of Griffenfeldt’s +“system”; an alliance with France to the exclusion of Sweden +would be the next best policy; but an alliance between France +and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be +avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeldt’s policy succeeded, +Denmark might have recovered her ancient possessions to the +south and east comparatively cheaply. But again and again he +was overruled. Despite his open protests and subterraneous +counter-mining, war was actually declared against Sweden in +1675, and his subsequent policy seemed so obscure and hazardous +to those who did not possess the clue to the perhaps purposely +tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his arrogance +and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to +destroy him.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of March 1676, while on his way to the royal +apartments, Griffenfeldt was arrested in the king’s name and +conducted to the citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny +of his papers, lasting nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treasonable; +but it provided the enemies of the fallen statesman with +a deadly weapon against him in the shape of an entry in his +private diary, in which he had imprudently noted that on one +occasion Christian V. in a conversation with a foreign ambassador +had “spoken like a child.” On the 3rd of May Griffenfeldt was +tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the <i>Höjesteret</i>, or +supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries, +none of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused. +Griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony, bribery, oath-breaking, +malversation and <i>lèse-majesté</i>, conducted his own defence under +every imaginable difficulty. For forty-six days before his +trial he had been closely confined in a dungeon without lights, +books or writing materials. Every legal assistance was illegally +denied him. Nevertheless he proved more than a match for the +forensic ability arrayed against him, and his first plea in defence +is in a high degree dignified and manly. Finally, he was condemned +to degradation and decapitation; though one of the ten +judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but remonstrated +in private with the king against its injustice. And indeed its +injustice was flagrant. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor +was the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could +convert into a capital offence, while the charge of treason had not +been substantiated. Griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold, +at the very moment when the axe was about to descend. On +hearing that the sentence was commuted to life-long imprisonment, +he declared that the pardon was harder than the punishment, +and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the rest +of his life as a common soldier. For the next two and twenty +years Denmark’s greatest statesman lingered out his life in a +lonely state-prison, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, and +finally at Munkholm on Trondhjem fiord. He died at Trondhjem +on the 12th of March 1699. Griffenfeldt married Kitty Nansen, +the granddaughter of the great Burgomaster Hans Nansen, +who brought him half a million rix-dollars. She died in 1672, +after bearing him a daughter.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Danmark’s Riges Histoire</i>, vol. v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); +Jörgenson, <i>Peter Schumacher-Griffenfeldt</i> (Copenhagen, 1893-1894); +O. Vaupell, <i>Rigskansler Grev Griffenfeldt</i> (Copenhagen, 1880-1882); +Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i>, cap. x. (Cambridge, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIFFIN<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> [<span class="sc">O’Griobta</span>, <span class="sc">O’Greeva</span>], <b>GERALD</b> (1803-1840), +Irish novelist and dramatic writer, was born at Limerick of good +family, on the 12th of December 1803. His parents emigrated in +1820 to America, but he was left with an elder brother, who was +a medical practitioner at Adare. As early as his eighteenth +year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a newspaper +in Limerick. Having written a tragedy, <i>Aguire</i>, which was highly +praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for London with the +purpose of “revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by +writing for the stage.” In spite of the recommendations of +John Banim, he had a hard struggle with poverty. It was only +by degrees that his literary work obtained any favour. <i>The +Noyades</i>, an opera entirely in recitative, was produced at the +English Opera House in 1826; and the success of <i>Holland Tide +Tales</i> (1827) led to <i>Tales of the Munster Festivals</i> (3 vols., 1827), +which were still more popular. In 1829 appeared his fine novel, +<i>The Collegians</i>, afterwards successfully adapted for the stage +by Dion Boucicault under the title of <i>The Colleen Bawn</i>. He +followed up this success with <i>The Invasion</i> (1832), <i>Tales of my +Neighbourhood</i> (1835), <i>The Duke of Monmouth</i> (1836), and +<i>Talis Qualis, or Tales of the Jury-room</i> (1842). He also wrote a +number of lyrics touched with his native melancholy. But he +became doubtful as to the moral influence of his writings, and +ultimately he came to the conclusion that his true sphere of duty +was to be found within the Church. He was admitted into a +society of the Christian Brothers at Dublin, in September 1838, +under the name of Brother Joseph, and in the following summer +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span> +he removed to Cork, where he died of typhus fever on the 12th +of June 1840. Before adopting the monastic habit he burned +all his manuscripts; but <i>Gisippus</i>, a tragedy which he had +composed before he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction, +and in 1842 was put on the Drury Lane stage by Macready with +great success.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The collected works of Gerald Griffin were published in 1842-1843 +in eight volumes, with a <i>Life</i> by his brother William Griffin, +M.D.; an edition of his <i>Poetical and Dramatic Works</i> (Dublin, 1895) +by C. G. Duffy; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by George +Sigerson, is included in the <i>Treasury of Irish Poetry</i>, edited by +Stopford A. Brooke and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIFFIN,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Spalding county, +Georgia, U.S.A., 43 m. S. of Atlanta, and about 970 ft. above +the sea. Pop. (1890) 4503; (1900) 6857 (3258 negroes); (1910) +7478. It is served by the Southern and the Central of Georgia +railways, and is the southern terminus of the Griffin & Chattanooga +Division of the latter. The city is situated in a rich +agricultural region, and just outside the corporate limits is an +agricultural experiment station, established by the state but +maintained by the Federal government. Griffin has a large +trade in cotton and fruit. The principal industry is the manufacture +of cotton and cotton-seed oil. Buggies, wagons, chairs +and harness are among the other manufactures. The municipality +owns and operates the water and electric-lighting systems. +Griffin was founded in 1840 and was chartered as a city in 1846.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIFFIN,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> <span class="sc">Griffon</span> or <span class="sc">Gryphon</span> (from Fr. <i>griffon</i>, Lat. +<i>gryphus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="gryps">γρύψ</span>), in the natural history of the ancients, the +name of an imaginary rapacious creature of the eagle species, +represented with four legs, wings and a beak,—the fore part +resembling an eagle and the hinder a lion. In addition, some +writers describe the tail as a serpent. This animal, which was +supposed to watch over gold mines and hidden treasures, and to +be the enemy of the horse, was consecrated to the Sun; and the +ancient painters represented the chariot of the Sun as drawn +by griffins. According to Spanheim, those of Jupiter and +Nemesis were similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is +probably the osprey, and the name is now given to a species of +vulture. The griffin was said to inhabit Asiatic Scythia, where +gold and precious stones were abundant; and when strangers +approached to gather these the creatures leapt upon them and +tore them in pieces, thus chastising human avarice and greed. +The one-eyed Arimaspi waged constant war with them, according +to Herodotus (iii. 16). Sir John de Mandeville, in his <i>Travels</i>, +described a griffin as eight times larger than a lion.</p> + +<p>The griffin is frequently seen as a charge in heraldry (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heraldry</a></span>, fig. 163); and in architectural decoration is usually +represented as a four-footed beast with wings and the head of a +leopard or tiger with horns, or with the head and beak of an +eagle; in the latter case, but very rarely, with two legs. To +what extent it owes its origin to Persian sculpture is not known, +the capitals at Persepolis have sometimes leopard or lion heads +with horns, and four-footed beasts with the beaks of eagles are +represented in bas-reliefs. In the temple of Apollo Branchidae +near Miletus in Asia Minor, the winged griffin of the capitals has +leopards’ heads with horns. In the capitals of the so-called +lesser propylaea at Eleusis conventional eagles with two feet +support the angles of the abacus. The greater number of those +in Rome have eagles’ beaks, as in the frieze of the temple +of Antoninus and Faustina, and their tails develop into +conventional foliage. A similar device was found in the Forum +of Trajan. The best decorative employment of the griffin is +found in the vertical supports of tables, of which there are +two or three examples in Pompeii and others in the Vatican +and the museums in Rome. In some of these cases the head +is that of a lion at one end of the support and an eagle at the +other end, and there is only one strongly developed paw; the +wings circling round at the top form conspicuous features on +the sides of these supports, the surfaces below being filled with +conventional Greek foliage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1784-1878), Irish geologist, +was born in Dublin on the 20th of September 1784. He obtained +in 1799 a commission in the Royal Irish Artillery, but a year +later, when the corps was incorporated with that of England, +he retired, and devoted his attention to civil engineering and +mining. He studied chemistry, mineralogy and mining for two +years in London under William Nicholson (editor of the <i>Journal +of Nat. Phil.</i>), and afterwards examined the mining districts +in various parts of England, Wales and Scotland. While in +Cornwall he discovered ores of nickel and cobalt in material that +had been rejected as worthless. He completed his studies under +Robert Jameson and others at Edinburgh, was elected a Fellow +of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1807, a member of the +newly established Geological Society of London in 1808, and in +the same year he returned to Ireland. In 1809 he was appointed +by the commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of +the bogs in Ireland, and the means of improving them. In 1812 +he was elected professor of geology and mining engineer to the +Royal Dublin Society. During subsequent years he made many +surveys and issued many reports on mineral districts in Ireland, +and these formed the foundation of his first geological map of the +country (1815). In 1822 Griffith became engineer of public +works in Cork, Kerry and Limerick, and was occupied until 1830 +in repairing old roads and in laying out many miles of new roads. +Meanwhile in 1825 he was appointed to carry out the perambulation +or boundary survey of Ireland, the object of which was to +ascertain and mark the boundaries of every county, barony, +parish and townland in preparation for the ordnance survey. +This work was finished in 1844. He was also called upon to assist +in preparing a bill for the general valuation of Ireland; the act +was passed in 1826, and he was appointed commissioner of +valuation, in which capacity he continued to act until 1868. +On “Griffith’s valuation” the various local and public assessments +were made. His extensive investigations furnished him +with ample material for improving his geological map, and the +second edition was published in 1835. A third edition on a +larger scale (1 in. to 4 m.) was issued under the Board of Ordnance +in 1839, and it was further revised in 1855. For this great work +and his other services to science he was awarded the Wollaston +medal by the Geological Society in 1854. In 1850 he was made +chairman of the Irish Board of Works, and in 1858 he was created +a baronet. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of September 1878.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his many geological works the following may be mentioned: +<i>Outline of the Geology of Ireland</i> (1838); <i>Notice respecting the Fossils +of the Mountain Limestone of Ireland, as compared with those of Great +Britain, and also with the Devonian System</i> (1842); <i>A Synopsis of the +Characters of the Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of Ireland</i> (1844) +(with F. McCoy); <i>A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils of Ireland</i> (1846) +(with F. McCoy). See memoirs in <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> xxxv. +39; and <i>Geol. Mag.</i>, 1878, p. 524, with bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRILLE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a French term for an enclosure in either iron or +bronze; there is no equivalent in English, “grating” applying +more to a horizontal frame of bars over a sunk area, and “grate” +to the iron bars of an open fireplace. The finest examples of +the grille are those known as the <i>rejas</i>, which in Spanish churches +form the enclosures of the chapels, such as the <i>reja</i> in the Capilla +Real at Granada in wrought iron partly gilt (1522). Similar +grilles are employed to protect the ground-floor windows of +mansions not only in Spain but in Italy and Germany. In +England the most beautiful example is that in front of Queen +Eleanor’s tomb in Westminster Abbey, in wrought iron. The +finest grilles in Italy are the enclosures of the tombs of the +Della Scalas at Verona (end of 13th century), in Germany the +grille of the cenotaph of Maximilian at Innsbruck (early 16th +century) and in France those which enclose the Place Stanislaus, +the Place de la Carrière and the churches of Nancy, which were +wrought by Jean Lamour in the middle of the 18th century. +Generally, however, throughout Germany the wrought iron +grilles are fine examples of forging, and they are employed for +the enclosures of the numerous fountains, in the tympana of +gateways, and for the protection of windows. At Danzig in the +Marienkirche are some fine examples in brass.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRILLPARZER, FRANZ<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1791-1872), the greatest dramatic +poet of Austria, was born in Vienna, on the 15th of January +1791. His father, severe, pedantic, a staunch upholder of the +liberal traditions of the reign of Joseph II., was an advocate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span> +of some standing; his mother, a nervous, finely-strung woman, +belonged to the well-known musical family of Sonnleithner. +After a desultory education, Grillparzer entered in 1807 the +university of Vienna as a student of jurisprudence; but two +years later his father died, leaving the family in straitened +circumstances, and Franz, the eldest son, was obliged to turn +to private tutoring. In 1813 he received an appointment in the +court library, but as this was unpaid, he accepted after some +months a clerkship that offered more solid prospects, in the +Lower Austrian revenue administration. Through the influence +of Graf Stadion, the minister of finance, he was in 1818 appointed +poet to the Hofburgtheater, and promoted to the <i>Hofkammer</i> +(exchequer); in 1832 he became director of the archives of that +department, and in 1856 retired from the civil service with the +title of <i>Hofrat</i>. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official +career and regarded his office merely as a means of independence.</p> + +<p>In 1817 the first representation of his tragedy <i>Die Ahnfrau</i> +made him famous, but before this he had written a long tragedy +in iambics, <i>Bianca von Castilien</i> (1807-1809), which was obviously +modelled on Schiller’s <i>Don Carlos</i>; and even more promising +were the dramatic fragments <i>Spartacus</i> and <i>Alfred der Grosse</i> +(1809). <i>Die Ahnfrau</i> is a gruesome “fate-tragedy” in the +trochaic measure of the Spanish drama, already made popular +by Adolf Müllner in his <i>Schuld</i>; but Grillparzer’s work is a play +of real poetic beauties, and reveals an instinct for dramatic +as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it +from other “fate-dramas” of the day. Unfortunately its +success led to the poet’s being classed for the best part of his +life with playwrights like Müllner and Houwald. <i>Die Ahnfrau</i> +was followed by <i>Sappho</i> (1818), a drama of a very different type; +in the classic spirit of Goethe’s <i>Tasso</i>, Grillparzer unrolled the +tragedy of poetic genius, the renunciation of earthly happiness +imposed upon the poet by his higher mission. In 1821 appeared +<i>Das goldene Vliess</i>, a trilogy which had been interrupted in 1819 +by the death of the poet’s mother—in a fit of depression she had +taken her own life—and a subsequent visit to Italy. Opening +with a powerful dramatic prelude in one act, <i>Der Gastfreund</i>, +Grillparzer depicts in <i>Die Argonauten</i> Jason’s adventures in his +quest for the Fleece; while <i>Medea</i>, a tragedy of noble classic +proportions, contains the culminating events of the story which +had been so often dramatized before. The theme is similar +to that of <i>Sappho</i>, but the scale on which it is represented is +larger; it is again the tragedy of the heart’s desire, the conflict +of the simple happy life with that sinister power—be it genius, +or ambition—which upsets the equilibrium of life. The end is +bitter disillusionment, the only consolation renunciation. +Medea, her revenge stilled, her children dead, bears the fatal +Fleece back to Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the nothingness +of human striving and earthly happiness.</p> + +<p>For his historical tragedy <i>König Ottokars Glück und Ende</i> +(1823, but owing to difficulties with the censor, not performed +until 1825), Grillparzer chose one of the most picturesque +events in Austrian domestic history, the conflict of Ottokar +of Bohemia with Rudolph von Habsburg. With an almost +modern realism he reproduced the motley world of the old +chronicler, at the same time not losing sight of the needs of the +theatre; the fall of Ottokar is but another text from which the +poet preached the futility of endeavour and the vanity of +worldly greatness. A second historical tragedy, <i>Ein treuer +Diener seines Herrn</i> (1826, performed 1828), attempts to embody +a more heroic gospel; but the subject—the superhuman self-effacement +of Bankbanus before Duke Otto of Meran—proved +too uncompromising an illustration of Kant’s categorical imperative +of duty to be palatable in the theatre. With these historical +tragedies began the darkest ten years in the poet’s life. They +brought him into conflict with the Austrian censor—a conflict +which grated on Grillparzer’s sensitive soul, and was aggravated +by his own position as a servant of the state; in 1826 he paid a +visit to Goethe in Weimar, and was able to compare the enlightened +conditions which prevailed in the little Saxon duchy +with the intellectual thraldom of Vienna. To these troubles +were added more serious personal worries. In the winter of +1820-1821 he had met for the first time Katharina Fröhlich +(1801-1879), and the acquaintance rapidly ripened into love +on both sides; but whether owing to a presentiment of mutual +incompatibility, or merely owing to Grillparzer’s conviction that +life had no happiness in store for him, he shrank from marriage. +Whatever the cause may have been, the poet was plunged into +an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary bears heart-rending +witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in the +fine cycle of poems bearing the significant title <i>Tristia ex Ponto</i> +(1835).</p> + +<p>Yet to these years we owe the completion of two of Grillparzer’s +greatest dramas, <i>Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen</i> (1831) and <i>Der +Traum, ein Leben</i> (1834). In the former tragedy, a dramatization +of the story of Hero and Leander, he returned to the Hellenic +world of <i>Sappho</i>, and produced what is perhaps the finest of all +German love-tragedies. His mastery of dramatic technique +is here combined with a ripeness of poetic expression and with +an insight into motive which suggests the modern psychological +drama of Hebbel and Ibsen; the old Greek love-story of Musaeus +is, moreover, endowed with something of that ineffable poetic +grace which the poet had borrowed from the great Spanish +poets, Lope de Vega and Calderon. <i>Der Traum, ein Leben</i>, +Grillparzer’s technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more +Spanish; it is also more of what Goethe called a “confession.” +The aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are +shadowed forth in the hero’s dream, which takes up nearly three +acts of the play; ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare +to realize the truth of Grillparzer’s own pessimistic doctrine +that all earthly ambitions and aspirations are vanity; the only +true happiness is contentment with one’s lot, “des Innern stiller +Frieden und die schuldbefreite Brust.” <i>Der Traum, ein Leben</i> +was the first of Grillparzer’s dramas which did not end tragically, +and in 1838 he produced his only comedy, <i>Weh’ dem, der lügt</i>. +But <i>Weh’ dem, der lügt</i>, in spite of its humour of situation, its +sparkling dialogue and the originality of its idea—namely, that +the hero gains his end by invariably telling the truth, where his +enemies as invariably expect him to be lying—was too strange +to meet with approval in its day. Its failure was a blow to the +poet, who turned his back for ever on the German theatre. In +1836 Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris and London, in 1843 to +Athens and Constantinople. Then came the Revolution which +struck off the intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and +his contemporaries had groaned in Austria, but the liberation +came too late for him. Honours were heaped upon him; he +was made a member of the Academy of Sciences; Heinrich +Laube, as director of the Burgtheater, reinstated his plays on +the repertory; he was in 1861 elected to the Austrian <i>Herrenhaus</i>; +his eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died +in Vienna, on the 21st of January 1872, the mourning of the +Austrian people was universal. With the exception of a beautiful +fragment, <i>Esther</i> (1861), Grillparzer published no more dramatic +poetry after the fiasco of <i>Weh’ dem, der lügt</i>, but at his death three +completed tragedies were found among his papers. Of these, +<i>Die Jüdin von Toledo</i>, an admirable adaptation from the Spanish, +has won a permanent place in the German classical repertory; +<i>Ein Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg</i> is a powerful historical +tragedy and <i>Libussa</i> is perhaps the ripest, as it is certainly the +deepest, of all Grillparzer’s dramas; the latter two plays prove +how much was lost by the poet’s divorce from the theatre.</p> + +<p>Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, his lyric +poetry is in the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior +to Lenau’s; and the bitterness of his later years found vent in +biting and stinging epigrams that spared few of his greater contemporaries. +As a prose writer, he has left one powerful short +story, <i>Der arme Spielmann</i> (1848), and a volume of critical +studies on the Spanish drama, which shows how completely +he had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point +of view.</p> + +<p>Grillparzer’s brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of +will-power, his pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which +his self-imposed martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly +adapted to express the mood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span> +thraldom that lay between the Napoleonic wars and the Revolution +of 1848; his poetry reflects exactly the spirit of his people +under the Metternich régime, and there is a deep truth behind +the description of <i>Der Traum, ein Leben</i> as the Austrian <i>Faust</i>. +His fame was in accordance with the general tenor of his life; +even in Austria a true understanding for his genius was late in +coming, and not until the centenary of 1891 did the German-speaking +world realize that it possessed in him a dramatic poet +of the first rank; in other words, that Grillparzer was no mere +“Epigone” of the classic period, but a poet who, by a rare +assimilation of the strength of the Greeks, the imaginative +depth of German classicism and the delicacy and grace of the +Spaniards, had opened up new paths for the higher dramatic +poetry of Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Grillparzer’s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> are edited by A. Sauer, in 20 vols., +5th edition (Stuttgart, 1892-1894); also, since the expiry of the +copyright in 1901, innumerable cheap reprints. <i>Briefe und Tagebücher</i>, +edited by C. Glossy and A. Sauer (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1903). +<i>Jahrbuch der Grillparzer-Gesellschaft</i>, edited by K. Glossy (the publication +of the Grillparzer Society) (Vienna, 1891 ff.). See also H. +Laube, <i>Franz Grillparzers Lebensgeschichte</i> (Stuttgart, 1884); +J. Volkelt, <i>Franz Grillparzer als Dichter des Tragischen</i> (Nördlingen, +1888); E. Reich, <i>Franz Grillparzers Dramen</i> (Dresden, 1894); +A. Ehrhard, <i>Franz Grillparzer</i> (Paris, 1900) (German translation by +M. Necker, Munich, 1902); H. Sittenberger, <i>Grillparzer, sein Leben +und Wirken</i> (Berlin, 1904); Gustav Pollak, <i>F. Grillparzer and the +Austrian Drama</i> (New York, 1907). Of Grillparzer’s works, translations +have appeared in English of <i>Sappho</i> (1820, by J. Bramsen; +1846, by E. B. Lee; 1855, by L. C. Cumming; 1876, by E. Frothingham); +and of <i>Medea</i> (1879, by F. W. Thurstan and J. A. Wittmann). +Byron’s warm admiration of <i>Sappho</i> (<i>Letters and Journals</i>, +v. 171) is well known, while Carlyle’s criticism, in his essay on +<i>German Playwrights</i> (1829), is interesting as expressing the generally +accepted estimate of Grillparzer in the first half of the 19th century. +See the bibliography in K. Goedeke’s <i>Grundriss zur Geschichte der +deutschen Dichtung</i>, 2nd ed., vol. viii. (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMALD<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Grimoald</span>), <b>NICHOLAS</b> (1519-1562), English +poet, was born in Huntingdonshire, the son probably of Giovanni +Baptista Grimaldi, who had been a clerk in the service of Empson +and Dudley in the reign of Henry VII. He was educated at +Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in +1540. He then removed to Oxford, becoming a probationer-fellow +of Merton College in 1541. In 1547 he was lecturing on +rhetoric at Christ Church, and shortly afterwards became +chaplain to Bishop Ridley, who, when he was in prison, desired +Grimald to translate Laurentius Valla’s book against the alleged +<i>Donation of Constantine</i>, and the <i>De gestis Basiliensis Concilii</i> +of Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.). His connexion with Ridley brought +him under suspicion, and he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea. +It is said that he escaped the penalties of heresy by recanting +his errors, and was despised accordingly by his Protestant contemporaries. +Grimald contributed to the original edition +(June 1557) of <i>Songes and Sonettes</i> (commonly known as <i>Tottel’s +Miscellany</i>), forty poems, only ten of which are retained in the +second edition published in the next month. He translated +(1553) Cicero’s <i>De officiis as Marcus Tullius Ciceroes thre bokes +of duties</i> (2nd ed., 1556); a Latin paraphrase of Virgil’s <i>Georgics</i> +(printed 1591) is attributed to him, but most of the works assigned +to him by Bale are lost. Two Latin tragedies are extant; +<i>Archipropheta sive Johannes Baptista</i>, printed at Cologne in 1548, +probably performed at Oxford the year before, and <i>Christus redivivus</i> +(Cologne, 1543), edited by Prof. J. M. Hart (for the Modern +Language Association of America, 1886, separately issued 1899). +It cannot be determined whether Grimald was familiar with +Buchanan’s <i>Baptistes</i> (1543), or with J. Schoeppe’s <i>Johannes +decollatus vel Ectrachelistes</i> (1546). Grimald provides a purely +romantic motive for the catastrophe in the passionate attachment +of Herodias to Herod, and constantly resorts to lyrical +methods. As a poet Grimald is memorable as the earliest +follower of Surrey in the production of blank verse. He writes +sometimes simply enough, as in the lines on his own childhood +addressed to his mother, but in general his style is more artificial, +and his metaphors more studied than is the case with the other +contributors to the <i>Miscellany</i>. His classical reading shows itself +in the comparative terseness and smartness of his verses. His +epitaph was written by Barnabe Googe in May 1562.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. H. Herford, <i>Studies in the Literary Relations of England and +Germany</i> (pp. 113-119, 1886). <i>A Catalogue of printed books ... by +writers bearing the name of Grimaldi</i> (ed. A. B. Grimaldi), printed +1883; and Arber’s reprint oí <i>Tottel’s Miscellany</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1606-1680), Italian +architect and painter, named Il Bolognese from the place of his +birth, was a relative of the Caracci family, under whom it is +presumed he studied first. He was afterwards a pupil of Albani. +He went to Rome, and was appointed architect to Pope Paul V., +and was also patronized by succeeding popes. Towards 1648 +he was invited to France by Cardinal Mazarin, and for about +two years was employed in buildings for that minister and for +Louis XIV., and in fresco-painting in the Louvre. His colour +was strong, somewhat excessive in the use of green; his touch +light. He painted history, portraits and landscapes—the last +with predilection, especially in his advanced years—and executed +engravings and etchings from his own landscapes and from +those of Titian and the Caracci. Returning to Rome, he was +made president of the Academy of St Luke; and in that city he +died on the 28th of November 1680, in high repute not only +for his artistic skill but for his upright and charitable deeds. +His son Alessandro assisted him both in painting and in engraving. +Paintings by Grimaldi are preserved in the Quirinal and Vatican +palaces, and in the church of S. Martino a’Monti; there is also +a series of his landscapes in the Colonna Gallery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMALDI, JOSEPH<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1779-1837), the most celebrated of +English clowns, was born in London on the 18th of December +1779, the son of an Italian actor. When less than two years +old he was brought upon the stage at Drury Lane; at the age +of three he began to appear at Sadler’s Wells; and he did not +finally retire until 1828. As the clown of pantomime he was +considered without an equal, his greatest success being in +<i>Mother Goose</i>, at Covent Garden (1806 and often revived). +Grimaldi died on the 31st of May 1837.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Memoirs</i> in two volumes (1838) were edited by Charles +Dickens.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMKÉ, SARAH MOORE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1792-1873) and <b>ANGELINA +EMILY</b> (1805-1879), American reformers, born in Charleston, +South Carolina—Sarah on the 6th of November 1792, and +Angelina on the 20th of February 1805—were daughters of +John Fachereau Grimké (1752-1819), an artillery officer in the +Continental army, a jurist of some distinction, a man of wealth +and culture and a slave-holder.</p> + +<p>Their older brother, <span class="sc">Thomas Smith Grimké</span> (1786-1834), +was born in Charleston; graduated at Yale in 1807; was a +successful lawyer, and in 1826-1830 was a member of the state +Senate, in which he, almost alone of the prominent lawyers of +the state, opposed nullification; he strongly advocated spelling-reform, +temperance and absolute non-resistance, and published +<i>Addresses on Science, Education and Literature</i> (1831). His early +intellectual influence on Sarah was strong.</p> + +<p>In her thirteenth year Sarah was godmother to her sister +Angelina. Sarah in 1821 revisited Philadelphia, whither she +had accompanied her father on his last illness, and there, having +been already dissatisfied with the Episcopal Church and with +the Presbyterian, she became a Quaker; so, too, did Angelina, +who joined her in 1829. Both sisters (Angelina first) soon grew +into a belief in immediate abolition, strongly censured by many +Quakers, who were even more shocked by a sympathetic letter +dated “8th Month, 30th, 1835” written by Angelina to W. L. +Garrison, followed in 1836 by her <i>Appeal to the Christian Women +of the South</i>, and at the end of that year, by an <i>Epistle to the +Clergy of the Southern States</i>, written by Sarah, who now +thoroughly agreed with her younger sister. In the same year, +at the invitation of Elizur Wright (1804-1885), corresponding +secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Angelina, +accompanied by Sarah, began giving talks on slavery, first in +private and then in public, so that in 1837, when they set to +work in Massachusetts, they had to secure the use of large halls. +Their speaking from public platforms resulted in a letter issued +by some members of the General Association of Congregational +Ministers of Massachusetts, calling on the clergy to close their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span> +churches to women exhorters; Garrison denounced the attack +on the Grimké sisters and Whittier ridiculed it in his poem +“The Pastoral Letter.” Angelina pointedly answered <i>Miss +Beecher on the Slave Question</i> (1837) in letters in the <i>Liberator</i>. +Sarah, who had never forgotten that her studies had been +curtailed because she was a girl, contributed to the Boston +<i>Spectator</i> papers on “The Province of Woman” and published +<i>Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes</i> +(1838)—the real beginning of the “woman’s rights” movement +in America, and at the time a cause of anxiety to Whittier and +others, who urged upon the sisters the prior importance of the +anti-slavery cause. In 1838 Angelina married Theodore Dwight +Weld (1803-1895), a reformer and abolition orator and pamphleteer, +who had taken part in the famous Lane Seminary +debates in 1834, had left the Seminary for the lecture platform +when the anti-slavery society was broken up by the Lane trustees, +but had lost his voice in 1836 and had become editor of the +publications of the American Anti-Slavery Society.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They +lived, with Sarah, at Fort Lee, New Jersey, in 1838-1840, then +on a farm at Belleville, New Jersey, and then conducted a school +for black and white alike at Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy, +New Jersey, from 1854 to 1864. Removing to Hyde Park, +Massachusetts, the three were employed in Dr Lewis’s school. +There Sarah died on the 23rd of December 1873, and Angelina +on the 26th of October 1879. Both sisters indulged in various +“fads”—Graham’s diet, bloomer-wearing, absolute non-resistance. +Angelina did no public speaking after her marriage, +save at Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia), destroyed by a mob +immediately after her address there; but besides her domestic +and school duties she was full of tender charity. Sarah at the +age of 62 was still eager to study law or medicine, or to do something +to aid her sex; at 75 she translated and abridged Lamartine’s +life of Joan of Arc.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Catherine H. Birney, <i>The Grimké Sisters</i> (Boston, 1885).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Weld was the author of several anti-slavery books which had +considerable influence at the time. Among them are <i>The Bible +against Slavery</i> (1837), <i>American Slavery as It Is</i> (1839), a collection +of extracts from Southern papers, and <i>Slavery and the Internal Slave +Trade in the U.S.</i> (1841).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1723-1807), +French author, the son of a German pastor, was born at Ratisbon +on the 26th of December 1723. He studied at the University +of Leipzig, where he came under the influence of Gottsched and +of J. A. Ernesti, to whom he was largely indebted for his critical +appreciation of classical literature. When nineteen he produced +a tragedy, <i>Banise</i>, which met with some success. After two years +of study he returned to Ratisbon, where he was attached to the +household of Count Schönberg. In 1748 he accompanied August +Heinrich, Count Friesen, to Paris as secretary, and he is said +by Rousseau to have acted for some time as reader to Frederick, +the young hereditary prince of Saxe-Gotha. His acquaintance +with Rousseau, through a mutual sympathy in regard to musical +matters, soon ripened into intimate friendship, and led to a close +association with the encyclopaedists. He rapidly obtained a +thorough knowledge of the French language, and acquired so +perfectly the tone and sentiments of the society in which he +moved that all marks of his foreign origin and training seemed +effaced. A witty pamphlet entitled <i>Le Petit Prophète de Boehmischbroda</i> +(1753), written by him in defence of Italian as against +French opera, established his literary reputation. It is possible +that the origin of the pamphlet is partly to be accounted for by +his vehement passion<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> for Mlle Fel, the <i>prima donna</i> of the +Italian company. In 1753 Grimm, following the example of the +abbé Raynal, began a literary correspondence with various +German sovereigns. Raynal’s letters, <i>Nouvelles littéraires</i>, ceased +early in 1755. With the aid of friends, especially of Diderot +and Mme d’Épinay, during his temporary absences from France, +Grimm himself carried on the correspondence, which consisted +of two letters a month, until 1773, and eventually counted among +his subscribers Catherine II. of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski, +king of Poland, and many princes of the smaller German States. +It was probably in 1754 that Grimm was introduced by Rousseau +to Madame d’Épinay, with whom he soon formed a <i>liaison</i> +which led to an irreconcilable rupture between him and Rousseau. +Rousseau was induced by his resentment to give in his <i>Confessions</i> +a wholly mendacious portrait of Grimm’s character. In 1755, +after the death of Count Friesen, who was a nephew of Marshal +Saxe and an officer in the French army, Grimm became <i>secrétaire +des commandements</i> to the duke of Orleans, and in this capacity +he accompanied Marshal d’Estrées on the campaign of Westphalia +in 1756-57. He was named envoy of the town of Frankfort +at the court of France in 1759, but was deprived of his office for +criticizing the comte de Broglie in a despatch intercepted by +Louis XV. He was made a baron of the Holy Roman Empire +in 1775. His introduction to Catherine II. of Russia took place +at St Petersburg in 1773, when he was in the suite of Wilhelmine +of Hesse-Darmstadt on the occasion of her marriage to the +czarevitch Paul. He became minister of Saxe-Gotha at the +court of France in 1776, but in 1777 he again left Paris on a visit +to St Petersburg, where he remained for nearly a year in daily +intercourse with Catherine. He acted as Paris agent for the +empress in the purchase of works of art, and executed many +confidential commissions for her. In 1783 and the following +years he lost his two most intimate friends, Mme d’Épinay and +Diderot. In 1792 he emigrated, and in the next year settled +in Gotha, where his poverty was relieved by Catherine, who in +1796 appointed him minister of Russia at Hamburg. On the +death of the empress Catherine he took refuge with Mme +d’Épinay’s granddaughter, Émilie de Belsunce, comtesse de +Bueil. Grimm had always interested himself in her, and had +procured her dowry from the empress Catherine. She now +received him with the utmost kindness. He died at Gotha on +the 19th of December 1807.</p> + +<p>The correspondence of Grimm was strictly confidential, and +was not divulged during his lifetime. It embraces nearly the +whole period from 1750 to 1790, but the later volumes, 1773 to +1790, were chiefly the work of his secretary, Jakob Heinrich +Meister. At first he contented himself with enumerating the +chief current views in literature and art and indicating very +slightly the contents of the principal new books, but gradually +his criticisms became more extended and trenchant, and he +touched on nearly every subject—political, literary, artistic, +social and religious—which interested the Parisian society of +the time. His notices of contemporaries are somewhat severe, +and he exhibits the foibles and selfishness of the society in which +he moved; but he was unbiassed in his literary judgments, and +time has only served to confirm his criticisms. In style and +manner of expression he is thoroughly French. He is generally +somewhat cold in his appreciation, but his literary taste is delicate +and subtle; and it was the opinion of Sainte-Beuve that the +quality of his thought in his best moments will compare not +unfavourably even with that of Voltaire. His religious and +philosophical opinions were entirely negative.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Grimm’s <i>Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique ..., +depuis 1753 jusqu’en 1769</i>, was edited, with many excisions, by +J. B. A. Suard and published at Paris in 1812, in 6 vols. 8vo; +<i>deuxième partie, de 1771 à 1782</i>, in 1812 in 5 vols. 8vo; and <i>troisième +partie, pendant une partie des années 1775 et 1776, et pendant les années +1782 à 1790 inclusivement</i>, in 1813 in 5 vols. 8vo. A supplementary +volume appeared in 1814; the whole correspondence was collected +and published by M. Jules Taschereau, with the assistance of A. +Chaudé, in a <i>Nouvelle Edition, revue et mise dans un meilleur ordre, avec +des notes et des éclaircissements, et où se trouvent rétablies pour la +première fois les phrases supprimées par la censure impériale</i> (Paris, +1829, 15 vols. 8vo); and the <i>Correspondance inédite, et recueil de +lettres, poésies, morceaux, et fragments retranchés par la censure +impériale en 1812 et 1813</i> was published in 1829. The standard +edition is that of M. Tourneux (16 vols., 1877-1882). Grimm’s +<i>Mémoire historique sur l’origine et les suites de mon attachement pour +l’impératrice Catherine II jusqu’au décès de sa majesté impériale</i>, +and Catherine’s correspondence with Grimm (1774-1796) were published +by J. Grot in 1880, in the <i>Collection</i> of the Russian Imperial +Historical Society. She treats him very familiarly, and calls him +Héraclite, Georges Dandin, &c. At the time of the Revolution she +begged him to destroy her letters, but he refused, and after his death +they were returned to St Petersburg. Grimm’s side of the correspondence, +however, is only partially preserved. He signs himself +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span> +“Pleureur.” Some of Grimm’s letters, besides the official correspondence, +are included in the edition of M. Tourneux; others are +contained in the <i>Erinnerungen einer Urgrossmutter</i> of K. von Bechtolsheim, +edited (Berlin, 1902) by Count C. Oberndorff. See also Mme +d’Épinay’s <i>Mémoires</i>; Rousseau’s <i>Confessions</i>; the notices contained +in the editions quoted; E. Scherer, <i>Melchior Grimm</i> (1887); +Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. vii. For further works bearing +on the subject, see K. A. Georges, <i>Friedrich Melchior Grimm</i> (Hanover +and Leipzig, 1904).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Rousseau’s account of this affair (<i>Confessions</i>, 2nd part, 8th +book) must be received with caution.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1785-1863), German +philologist and mythologist, was born on the 4th of January +1785 at Hanau, in Hesse-Cassel. His father, who was a lawyer, +died while he was a child, and the mother was left with very +small means; but her sister, who was lady of the chamber to +the landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and educate her +numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm +(born on the 24th of February 1786), was sent in 1798 to the +public school at Cassel. In 1802 he proceeded to the university +of Marburg, where he studied law, a profession for which he had +been destined by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg +a year later, having just recovered from a long and severe illness, +and likewise began the study of law. Up to this time Jacob +Grimm had been actuated only by a general thirst for knowledge +and his energies had not found any aim beyond the practical one +of making himself a position in life. The first definite impulse +came from the lectures of Savigny, the celebrated investigator +of Roman law, who, as Grimm himself says (in the preface to +the <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>), first taught him to realize what it +meant to study any science. Savigny’s lectures also awakened +in him that love for historical and antiquarian investigation +which forms the basis of all his work. Then followed personal +acquaintance, and it was in Savigny’s well-provided library that +Grimm first turned over the leaves of Bodmer’s edition of the +Old German minnesingers and other early texts, and felt an eager +desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and half-revealed +mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 1805 he received +an invitation from Savigny, who had removed to Paris, +to help him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very happy +time in Paris, strengthening his taste for the literatures of the +middle ages by his studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the +close of the year he returned to Cassel, where his mother and +Wilhelm had settled, the latter having finished his studies. +The next year he obtained a situation in the war office with +the very small salary of 100 thalers. One of his grievances was +that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform +and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution of his +studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was +appointed superintendent of the private library of Jerome +Buonaparte, king of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Cassel had +been incorporated by Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an +auditor to the state council, while he retained his other post. +His salary was increased in a short interval from 2000 to 4000 +francs, and his official duties were hardly more than nominal. +After the expulsion of Jerome and the reinstalment of an elector, +Grimm was appointed in 1813 secretary of legation, to accompany +the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. +In 1814 he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books +carried off by the French, and in 1814-1815 he attended the +congress of Vienna as secretary of legation. On his return he +was again sent to Paris on the same errand as before. Meanwhile +Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Cassel library, and +in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Völkel. On the +death of Völkel in 1828 the brothers expected to be advanced +to the first and second librarianships respectively, and were +much dissatisfied when the first place was given to Rommel, +keeper of the archives. So they removed next year to Göttingen, +where Jacob received the appointment of professor and librarian, +Wilhelm that of under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on +legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and +diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on +the <i>Germania</i> of Tacitus. At this period he is described as small +and lively in figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian +dialect. His powerful memory enabled him to dispense with the +manuscript which most German professors rely on, and he spoke +extempore, referring only occasionally to a few names and dates +written on a slip of paper. He himself regretted that he had begun +the work of teaching so late in life; and as a lecturer he was not +successful: he had no idea of digesting his facts and suiting +them to the comprehension of his hearers; and even the brilliant, +terse and eloquent passages which abound in his writings lost much +of their effect when jerked out in the midst of a long array of dry +facts. In 1837, being one of the seven professors who signed a +protest against the king of Hanover’s abrogation of the constitution +established some years before, he was dismissed from his +professorship, and banished from the kingdom of Hanover. +He returned to Cassel together with his brother, who had also +signed the protest, and remained there till, in 1840, they accepted +an invitation from the king of Prussia to remove to Berlin, +where they both received professorships, and were elected +members of the Academy of Sciences. Not being under any +obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together with his +brother worked at the great dictionary. During their stay at +Cassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy, +where he read papers on the most varied subjects. The best +known of these are those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother +Wilhelm (who died in 1859), on old age, and on the origin of +language. He also described his impressions of Italian and +Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more general observations +with linguistic details, as is the case in all his works.</p> + +<p>Grimm died in 1863, working up to the last. He was never ill, +and worked on all day, without haste and without pause. He was +not at all impatient of interruption, but seemed rather to be +refreshed by it, returning to his work without effort. He wrote +for the press with great rapidity, and hardly ever made corrections. +He never revised what he had written, remarking with +a certain wonder of his brother, “Wilhelm reads his manuscripts +over again before sending them to press!” His temperament +was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused. Outside his +own special work he had a marked taste for botany. The +spirit which animated his work is best described by himself at the +end of his autobiography. “Nearly all my labours have been +devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our +earlier language, poetry and laws. These studies may have +appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they +have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and +inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated +to foster the love of it. My principle has always been in +these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the +small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for +the elucidation of the written monuments.”</p> + +<p>The purely scientific side of Grimm’s character developed +slowly. He seems to have felt the want of definite principles of +etymology without being able to discover them, and indeed even +in the first edition of his grammar (1819) he seems to be often +groping in the dark. As early as 1815 we find A. W. Schlegel +reviewing the <i>Altdeutsche Wälder</i> (a periodical published by the +two brothers) very severely, condemning the lawless etymological +combinations it contained, and insisting on the necessity of strict +philological method and a fundamental investigation of the laws +of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds. This +criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the direction +of Grimm’s studies.</p> + +<p>The first work he published, <i>Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang</i> +(1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in +this essay Grimm showed that <i>Minnesang</i> and <i>Meistersang</i> +were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented +different stages of development, and also announced his important +discovery of the invariable division of the <i>Lied</i> into three strophic +parts.</p> + +<p>His text-editions were mostly prepared in common with +his brother. In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments +of the <i>Hildebrandslied</i> and the <i>Weissenbrunner Gebet</i>, Jacob +having discovered what till then had never been suspected—the +alliteration in these poems. However, Jacob had little taste for +text-editing, and, as he himself confessed, the evolving of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span> +critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore left this +department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned +his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical +philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. +Both brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national +poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales. +They published in 1816-1818 an analysis and critical sifting of +the oldest epic traditions of the Germanic races under the title of +<i>Deutsche Sagen</i>. At the same time they collected all the popular +tales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people, +partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812-1815 +the first edition of those <i>Kinder- und Hausmärchen</i> which have +carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household +of the civilized world, and founded the science of folk-lore. The +closely allied subject of the satirical beast epic of the middle ages +also had a great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an +edition of the <i>Reinhart Fuchs</i> in 1834. His first contribution to +mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, +undertaken conjointly with his brother, published in 1815, which, +however, was not followed by any more. The first edition of his +<i>Deutsche Mythologie</i> appeared in 1835. This great work covers +the whole range of the subject, tracing the mythology and +superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct +evidence, and following their decay and loss down to the popular +traditions, tales and expressions in which they still linger.</p> + +<p>Although by the introduction of the Code Napoléon into +Westphalia Grimm’s legal studies were made practically barren, +he never lost his interest in the scientific study of law and +national institutions, as the truest exponents of the life and +character of a people. By the publication (in 1828) of his +<i>Rechtsalterthümer</i> he laid the foundations of that historical study +of the old Teutonic laws and constitutions which was continued +with brilliant success by Georg L. Maurer and others. In this +work Grimm showed the importance of a linguistic study of the +old laws, and the light that can be thrown on many a dark +passage in them by a comparison of the corresponding words and +expressions in the other old cognate dialects. He also knew +how—and this is perhaps the most original and valuable part of +his work—to trace the spirit of the laws in countless allusions +and sayings which occur in the old poems and sagas, or even +survive in modern colloquialisms.</p> + +<p>Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching +is his <i>Geschichte der deutschen Sprache</i>, where at the same time +the linguistic element is most distinctly brought forward. The +subject of the work is, indeed, nothing less than the history which +lies hidden in the words of the German language—the oldest +national history of the Teutonic tribes determined by means of +language. For this purpose he laboriously collects the scattered +words and allusions to be found in classical writers, and endeavours +to determine the relations in which the German language stood +to those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, and many other +nations whose languages are known only by doubtfully identified, +often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and +Latin authors. Grimm’s results have been greatly modified +by the wider range of comparison and improved methods of +investigation which now characterize linguistic science, and +many of the questions raised by him will probably for ever +remain obscure; but his book will always be one of the most +fruitful and suggestive that have ever been written.</p> + +<p>Grimm’s famous <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> was the outcome of his +purely philological work. The labours of past generations—from +the humanists onwards—had collected an enormous +mass of materials in the shape of text-editions, dictionaries +and grammars, although most of it was uncritical and often +untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the way +of comparison and the determination of general laws, and the +conception of a comparative Teutonic grammar had been clearly +grasped by the illustrious Englishman George Hickes, at the +beginning of the 18th century, and partly carried out by him +in his <i>Thesaurus</i>. Ten Kate in Holland had afterwards made +valuable contributions to the history and comparison of the +Teutonic languages. Even Grimm himself did not at first intend +to include all the languages in his grammar; but he soon found +that Old High German postulated Gothic, that the later stages +of German could not be understood without the help of the Low +German dialects, including English, and that the rich literature +of Scandinavia could as little be ignored. The first edition of the +first part of the <i>Grammar</i>, which appeared in 1819, and is now +extremely rare, treated of the inflections of all these languages, +together with a general introduction, in which he vindicated the +importance of an historical study of the German language against +the a priori, quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue.</p> + +<p>In 1822 this volume appeared in a second edition—really a +new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, it cost him +little reflection to mow down the first crop to the ground. The +wide distance between the two stages of Grimm’s development +in these two editions is significantly shown by the fact that while +the first edition gives only the inflections, in the second volume +phonology takes up no fewer than 600 pages, more than half of the +whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened to the full +conviction that all sound philology must be based on rigorous +adhesion to the laws of sound-change, and he never afterwards +swerved from this principle, which gave to all his investigations, +even in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and +that force of conviction which distinguish science from dilettanteism; +up to Grimm’s time philology was nothing but a more or +less laborious and conscientious dilettanteism, with occasional +flashes of scientific inspiration; he made it into a science. His +advance must be attributed mainly to the influence of his +contemporary R. Rask. Rask was born two years later than +Grimm, but his remarkable precocity gave him somewhat the +start. Even in Grimm’s first editions his Icelandic paradigms are +based entirely on Rask’s grammar, and in his second edition he +relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to +Rask can only be estimated at its true value by comparing his +treatment of Old English in the two editions; the difference +is very great. Thus in the first edition he declines <i>dæg</i>, <i>dæges</i>, +plural <i>dægas</i>, not having observed the law of vowel-change +pointed out by Rask. There can be little doubt that the appearance +of Rask’s Old English grammar was a main inducement +for him to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask also +belongs the merit of having first distinctly formulated the laws +of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially +in the vowels, those more fleeting elements of speech which had +hitherto been ignored by etymologists.</p> + +<p>This leads to a question which has been the subject of much +controversy,—Who discovered what is known as <i>Grimm’s law</i>? +This law of the correspondence of consonants in the older Indo-germanic, +Low and High German languages respectively was +first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first +part of his grammar. The correspondence of single consonants +had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his predecessors; +but the one who came nearest to the discovery of the +complete law was the Swede J. Ihre, who established a considerable +number of “literarum permutationes,” such as <i>b</i> for <i>f</i>, +with the examples <i>bæra = ferre</i>, <i>befwer = fiber</i>. Rask, in his essay +on the origin of the Icelandic language, gives the same comparisons, +with a few additions and corrections, and even the very +same examples in most cases. As Grimm in the preface to his +first edition expressly mentions this essay of Rask, there is every +probability that it gave the first impulse to his own investigations. +But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations +of his predecessors and the comprehensive generalizations under +which he himself ranged them. The extension of the law to +High German is also entirely his own. The only fact that +can be adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished +to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is that he does not +expressly mention Rask’s results in his second edition. But +this is part of the plan of his work, viz. to refrain from all +controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first +edition he expressly calls attention to Rask’s essay, and praises +it most ungrudgingly. Rask himself refers as little to Ihre, +merely alluding in a general way to Ihre’s permutations, although +his own debt to Ihre is infinitely greater than that of Grimm to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span> +Rask or any one else. It is true that a certain bitterness of +feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but this +was the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and +irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of +Grimm’s views when they involved modification of his own. +The importance of Grimm’s generalization in the history of +philology cannot be overestimated, and even the mystic completeness +and symmetry of its formulation, although it has proved +a hindrance to the correct explanation of the causes of the +changes, was well calculated to strike the popular mind, and +give it a vivid idea of the paramount importance of law, and the +necessity of disregarding mere superficial resemblance. The +most lawless etymologist bows down to the authority of Grimm’s +law, even if he honours it almost as much in the breach as in the +observance.</p> + +<p>The grammar was continued in three volumes, treating +principally of derivation, composition and syntax, which last +was left unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which +only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his +time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary. The +grammar stands alone in the annals of science for comprehensiveness, +method and fullness of detail. Every law, every letter, +every syllable of inflection in the different languages is illustrated +by an almost exhaustive mass of material. It has served as a +model for all succeeding investigators. Diez’s grammar of the +Romance languages is founded entirely on its methods, which +have also exerted a profound influence on the wider study of the +Indo-Germanic languages in general.</p> + +<p>In the great German dictionary Grimm undertook a task for +which he was hardly suited. His exclusively historical tendencies +made it impossible for him to do justice to the individuality of a +living language; and the disconnected statement of the facts +of language in an ordinary alphabetical dictionary fatally +mars its scientific character. It was also undertaken on so large +a scale as to make it impossible for him and his brother to complete +it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was worked out +by Grimm himself, may be described as a collection of disconnected +antiquarian essays of high value.</p> + +<p>Grimm’s scientific character is notable for its combination +of breadth and unity. He was as far removed from the narrowness +of the specialist who has no ideas, no sympathies beyond +some one author, period or corner of science, as from the shallow +dabbler who feverishly attempts to master the details of half-a-dozen +discordant pursuits. Even within his own special studies +there is the same wise concentration; no Mezzofanti-like parrot +display of useless polyglottism. The very foundations of his +nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of historical +investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the study of the +language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his own +countrymen and their nearest kindred. But from this centre +his investigations were pursued in every direction as far as his +unerring instinct of healthy limitation would allow. He was +equally fortunate in the harmony that subsisted between his +intellectual and moral nature. He made cheerfully the heavy +sacrifices that science demands from its disciples, without feeling +any of that envy and bitterness which often torment weaker +natures; and although he lived apart from his fellow men, he +was full of human sympathies, and no man has ever exercised +a profounder influence on the destinies of mankind. His was +the very ideal of the noblest type of German character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is a complete list of his separately published works, +those which he published in common with his brother being marked +with a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, &c., see vol. v. of +his <i>Kleinere Schriften</i>, from which the present list is taken. His life is +best studied in his own “Selbstbiographie,” in vol. i. of the <i>Kleinere +Schriften</i>. There is also a brief memoir by K. Gödeke in <i>Göttinger +Professoren</i> (Gotha (Perthes), 1872): <i>Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang</i> +(Göttingen, 1811); *<i>Kinder- und Hausmärchen</i> (Berlin, +1812-1815) (many editions); *<i>Das Lied von Hildebrand und das +Weissenbrunner Gebet</i> (Cassel, 1812); <i>Altdeutsche Wälder</i> (Cassel, +Frankfort, 1813-1816, 3 vols.); *<i>Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann +von der Aue</i> (Berlin, 1815); *<i>Irmenstrasse und Irmensäule</i> (Vienna, +1815); *<i>Die Lieder der allen Edda</i> (Berlin, 1815), <i>Silva de romances +viejos</i> (Vienna, 1815); *<i>Deutsche Sagen</i> (Berlin, 1816-1818, 2nd ed., +Berlin, 1865-1866); <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> (Göttingen, 1819, 2nd ed., +Göttingen, 1822-1840) (reprinted 1870 by W. Scherer, Berlin); <i>Wuk +Stephanovitsch’s kleine serbische Grammatik, verdeutscht mit einer +Vorrede</i> (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824); <i>Zur Recension der deutschen +Grammatik</i> (Cassel, 1826); *<i>Irische Elfenmärchen, aus dem Englischen</i> +(Leipzig, 1826); <i>Deutsche Rechtsaltertümer</i> (Göttingen, 1828, 2nd +ed., 1854); <i>Hymnorum veteris ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio theodisca</i> +(Göttingen, 1830); <i>Reinhart Fuchs</i> (Berlin, 1834); <i>Deutsche +Mythologie</i> (Göttingen, 1835, 3rd ed., 1854, 2 vols.); <i>Taciti Germania +edidit</i> (Göttingen, 1835); <i>Über meine Entlassung</i> (Basel, 1838); +(together with Schmeller) <i>Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI. +Jahrhunderts</i> (Göttingen, 1838); <i>Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann +über Reinhart Fuchs</i> (Berlin, 1840); <i>Weistümer</i>, Th. i. (Göttingen, +1840) (continued, partly by others, in 5 parts, 1840-1869); <i>Andreas +und Elene</i> (Cassel, 1840); <i>Frau Aventure</i> (Berlin, 1842); <i>Geschichte +der deutschen Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.); <i>Das +Wort des Besitzes</i> (Berlin, 1850); *<i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>, Bd. i. +(Leipzig, 1854); <i>Rede auf Wilhelm Grimm und Rede über das Alter</i> +(Berlin, 1868, 3rd ed., 1865); <i>Kleinere Schriften</i> (Berlin, 1864-1870, +5 vols.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Sw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMM, WILHELM CARL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1786-1859). For the chief events +in the life of Wilhelm Grimm see article on Jacob Grimm above. +As Jacob himself said in his celebrated address to the Berlin +Academy on the death of his brother, the whole of their lives +were passed together. In their schooldays they had one bed +and one table in common, as students they had two beds and +two tables in the same room, and they always lived under one +roof, and had their books and property in common. Nor did +Wilhelm’s marriage in any way disturb their harmony. As +Cleasby said (“Life of Cleasby,” prefixed to his <i>Icelandic +Dictionary</i>, p. lxix.), “they both live in the same house, and in +such harmony and community that one might almost imagine +the children were common property.” Wilhelm’s character +was a complete contrast to that of his brother. As a boy he was +strong and healthy, but as he grew up he was attacked by a long +and severe illness, which left him weak all his life. His was a less +comprehensive and energetic mind than that of his brother, and +he had less of the spirit of investigation, preferring to confine +himself to some limited and definitely bounded field of work; +he utilized everything that bore directly on his own studies, and +ignored the rest. These studies were almost always of a literary +nature. It is characteristic of his more aesthetic nature that he +took great delight in music, for which his brother had but a +moderate liking, and had a remarkable gift of story-telling. +Cleasby, in the account of his visit to the brothers, quoted above, +tells that “Wilhelm read a sort of farce written in the Frankfort +dialect, depicting the ‘malheurs’ of a rich Frankfort tradesman +on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and he read +it admirably.” Cleasby describes him as “an uncommonly +animated, jovial fellow.” He was, accordingly, much sought in +society, which he frequented much more than his brother.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His first work was a spirited translation of the Danish <i>Kæmpeviser, +Altdänische Heldenlieder</i>, published in 1811-1813, which made his +name at first more widely known than that of his brother. The +most important of his text editions are—<i>Ruolandslied</i> (Göttingen, +1838); <i>Konrad von Würzburg’s Goldene Schmiede</i> (Berlin, 1840); +<i>Grave Ruodolf</i> (Göttingen, 1844, 2nd ed.); <i>Athis und Prophilias</i> +(Berlin, 1846); <i>Altdeutsche Gespräche</i> (Berlin, 1851); <i>Freidank</i> +(Göttingen, 1860, 2nd ed.). Of his other works the most important is +<i>Deutsche Heldensage</i> (Berlin, 1868, 2nd ed.). His <i>Deutsche Runen</i> +(Göttingen, 1821) has now only an historical interest.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Sw.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMMA,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank +of the Mulde, 19 m. S.E. of Leipzig on the railway Döbeln-Dresden. +Pop. (1905) 11,182. It has a Roman Catholic and +three Evangelical churches, and among other principal buildings +are the Schloss built in the 12th century, and long a residence of +the margraves of Meissen and the electors of Saxony; the town-hall, +dating from 1442, and the famous school Fürstenschule +(<i>Illustre Moldanum</i>), erected by the elector Maurice on the site +of the former Augustinian monastery in 1550, having provision +for 104 free scholars and a library numbering 10,000 volumes. +There are also a modern school, a teachers’ seminary, a commercial +school and a school of brewing. Among the industries of +the town are ironfounding, machine building and dyeworks, +while paper and gloves are manufactured there. Gardening +and agriculture generally are also important branches of industry. +In the immediate neighbourhood are the ruins of the Cistercian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span> +nunnery from which Catherine von Bora fled in 1523, and the +village of Döben, with an old castle. Grimma is of Sorbian +origin, and is first mentioned in 1203. It passed then into +possession of Saxony and has remained since part of that +country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lorenz, <i>Die Stadt Grimma, historisch beschrieben</i> (Leipzig, 1871); +Rössler, <i>Geschichte der königlich sächsischen Fürsten- und Landesschule +Grimma</i> (Leipzig, 1891); L. Schmidt, <i>Urkundenbuch der +Stadt Grimma</i> (Leipzig, 1895); and Fraustadt, <i>Grimmenser Stammbuch</i> +(Grimma, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> +(<i>c.</i> 1625-1676), German author, was born at Gelnhausen in or +about 1625. At the age of ten he was kidnapped by Hessian +soldiery, and in their midst tasted the adventures of military +life in the Thirty Years’ War. At its close, Grimmelshausen +entered the service of Franz Egon von Fürstenberg, bishop +of Strassburg and in 1665 was made <i>Schultheiss</i> (magistrate) +at Renchen in Baden. On obtaining this appointment, he +devoted himself to literary pursuits, and in 1669 published +<i>Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus, Teutsch, d.h. die Beschreibung +des Lebens eines seltsamen Vaganten, genannt Melchior Sternfels +von Fuchsheim</i>, the greatest German novel of the 17th century. +For this work he took as his model the picaresque romances of +Spain, already to some extent known in Germany. <i>Simplicissimus</i> +is in great measure its author’s autobiography; he begins +with the childhood of his hero, and describes the latter’s adventures +amid the stirring scenes of the Thirty Years’ War. The +realistic detail with which these pictures are presented makes the +book one of the most valuable documents of its time. In the +later parts Grimmelshausen, however, over-indulges in allegory, +and finally loses himself in a Robinson Crusoe story. Among +his other works the most important are the so-called <i>Simplicianische +Schriften: Die Erzbetrügerin und Landstörtzerin Courasche</i> +(<i>c.</i> 1669); <i>Der seltsame Springinsfeld</i> (1670) and <i>Das wunderbarliche +Vogelnest</i> (1672). His satires, such as <i>Der teutsche Michel</i> +(1670), and “gallant” novels, like <i>Dietwald und Amelinde</i> +(1670) are of inferior interest. He died at Renchen on the +17th of August 1676, where a monument was erected to him in +1879.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions of <i>Simplicissimus</i> and the <i>Simplicianische Schriften</i> have +been published by A. von Keller (1854), H. Kurz (1863-1864), +J. Tittmann (1877) and F. Bobertag (1882). A reprint of the first +edition of the novel was edited by R. Kögel for the series of <i>Neudrucke +des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts</i> (1880). See the introductions to these +editions; also F. Antoine, <i>Étude sur le Simplicissimus de Grimmelshausen</i> +(1882) and E. Schmidt in his <i>Charakteristiken</i>, vol. i. (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1753-1815), +French soldier and military writer, entered the royal army at +the age of sixteen, and in 1775 published his <i>Essai théorique et +practique sur les batailles</i>. Shortly afterwards Louis XVI. +placed him in his own military cabinet and employed him +especially in connexion with schemes of army reform. By the +year of the Revolution he had become one of Louis’s most +valued counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and +was marked out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of +War. In 1791 Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation +of the scheme of defence for France, which proved two years +later of great assistance to the Committee of Public Safety. +The events of 1792 put an end to his military career, and the +remainder of his life was spent in writing military books.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained +some importance: <i>Histoire des dernières campagnes de Turenne</i> +(Paris, 1780), <i>Lettres et mémoires de Turenne</i> (Paris, 1780), <i>Troupes +légères et leur emploi</i> (Paris, 1782), <i>Conquêtes de Gustave-Adolphe</i> +(Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1782-1791); <i>Mémoires de Gustave +Adolphe</i> (Paris, 1790), Correspondence of Marshal Richelieu (Paris, +1789), St Germain (1789), and Bernis (1790), <i>Vie et règne de Frédéric +le Grand</i> (London, 1788), <i>Lettres et mémoires du maréchal de Saxe</i> +(Paris, 1794), <i>L’Expédition de Minorque en 1756</i> (Paris, 1798), +<i>Recherches sur la force de l’armée française depuis Henri IV jusqu’en +1805</i> (Paris, 1806), <i>Mémoires du maréchal de Tessé</i> (Paris, 1806), +<i>Lettres de Bolingbroke</i> (Paris, 1808), <i>Traité, sur le service d’état-major</i> +(Paris, 1809), and (with Servan) <i>Tableau historique de la guerre de +la Révolution 1792-1794</i> (Paris, 1808).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMSBY,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Great Grimsby</span>, a municipal, county and +parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire, England; an important +seaport near the mouth of the Humber on the south shore. +Pop. (1901) 63,138. It is 155 m. N. by E. from London by the +Great Northern railway, and is also served by the Great Central +railway. The church of St James, situated in the older part of the +town, is a cruciform Early English building, retaining, in spite +of injudicious restoration, many beautiful details. The chief +buildings are that containing the town hall and the grammar +school (a foundation of 1547), the exchange, a theatre, and the +customs house and dock offices. A sailors’ and fishermen’s +Harbour of Refuge, free library, constitutional club and technical +school are maintained. The duke of York public gardens were +opened in 1894. Adjacent to Grimsby on the east is the coastal +watering-place of Cleethorpes.</p> + +<p>The dock railway station lies a mile from the town station. +In 1849 the Great Central (then the Manchester, Sheffield +and Lincolnshire) railway initiated a scheme of reclamation +and dock-construction. This was completed in 1854, and subsequent +extensions were made. There are two large fish-docks, +and, for general traffic, the Royal dock, communicating with the +Humber through a tidal basin, the small Union dock, and the +extensive Alexandra dock, together with graving docks, timber +yards, a patent slip, &c. These docks have an area of about +104 acres, but were found insufficient for the growing traffic of +the port, and in 1906 the construction of a large new dock, of +about 40 acres’ area and 30 to 35 ft. depth, was undertaken by +the Great Central Company at Immingham, 5 m. above Grimsby +on the Humber. The principal imports are butter, woollens, +timber, cereals, eggs, glass, cottons, preserved meat, wool, +sugar and bacon. The exports consist chiefly of woollen yarn, +woollens, cotton goods, cotton yarn, machinery, &c. and coal. +It is as a fishing port, however, that Grimsby is chiefly famous. +Two of the docks are for the accommodation of the fishing fleet, +which, consisting principally of steam trawlers, numbers upwards +of 500 vessels. Regular passenger steamers run from +Grimsby to Dutch and south Swedish ports, and to Esbjerg +(Denmark), chiefly those of the Wilson line and the Great Central +railway. The chief industries of Grimsby are shipbuilding, +brewing, tanning, manufactures of ship tackle, ropes, ice for +preserving fish, turnery, flour, linseed cake, artificial manure; +and there are saw mills, bone and corn mills, and creosote works. +The municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 +councillors. Area, 2852 acres.</p> + +<p>Grimsby (<i>Grimesbi</i>) is supposed to have been the landing-place +of the Danes on their first invasion of Britain towards the close +of the 8th century. It was a borough by prescription as early +as 1201, in which year King John granted the burgesses a charter +of liberties according to the custom of the burgesses of Northampton. +Henry III. in 1227 granted to “the mayor and good +men” of Grimsby, that they should hold the town for a yearly +rent of £111, and confirmed the same in 1271. These charters +were confirmed by later sovereigns. A governing charter, +under the title of mayor and burgesses, was given by James II. +in 1688, and under this the appointment of officers and other of +the corporation, arrangements are to a great extent regulated. +In 1201 King John granted the burgesses an annual fair for +fifteen days, beginning on the 25th of May. Two annual fairs +are now held, namely on the first Monday in April and the second +Monday in October. No early grant of a market can be found, +but in 1792 the market-day was Wednesday. In 1888 it had +ceased to exist. Grimsby returned two members to the parliament +of 1298, but in 1833 the number was reduced to one.</p> + +<p>In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was an important seaport, +but the haven became obstructed by sand and mud deposited +by the Humber, and so the access of large vessels was prevented. +At the beginning of the 19th century a subscription was raised +by the proprietors of land in the neighbourhood for improving +the harbour, and an act was obtained by which they were +incorporated under the title “The Grimsby Haven Co.” The +fishing trade had become so important by 1800 that it was +necessary to construct a new dock.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1603-1685), English politician, +second son of Sir Harbottle Grimston, Bart. (d. 1648), was born +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span> +at Bradfield Hall, near Manningtree, on the 27th of January +1603. Educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he became +a barrister of Lincoln’s Inn, then recorder of Harwich and +recorder of Colchester. As member for Colchester, Grimston +sat in the Short Parliament of 1640, and he represented the same +borough during the Long Parliament, speedily becoming a +leading member of the popular party. He attacked Archbishop +Laud with great vigour; was a member of the important +committees of the parliament, including the one appointed +in consequence of the attempted seizure of the five members; +and became deputy-lieutenant of Essex after the passing of the +militia ordinance in January 1642. He disliked taking up arms +against the king, but remained nominally an adherent of the +parliamentary party during the Civil War. In the words of +Clarendon, he “continued rather than concurred with them.” +Grimston does not appear to have taken the Solemn League +and Covenant, but after the conclusion of the first period of the +war he again became more active. He was president of the +committee which investigated the escape of the king from +Hampton Court in 1647, and was one of those who negotiated +with Charles at Newport in 1648, when, according to Burnet, +he fell upon his knees and urged the king to come to terms. +From this time Grimston’s sympathies appear to have been with +the Royalists. Turned out of the House of Commons when the +assembly was “purged” by colonel Pride, he was imprisoned; +but was released after promising to do nothing detrimental to +the parliament or the army, and spent the next few years in +retirement. Before this time, his elder brother having already +died, he had succeeded his father as 2nd baronet. In 1656 +Sir Harbottle was returned to Cromwell’s second parliament +as member for Essex; but he was not allowed to take his seat; +and with 97 others who were similarly treated he issued a +remonstrance to the public. He was among the secluded members +who re-entered the Long Parliament in February 1660, was then +a member of the council of state, and was chosen Speaker of +the House of Commons in the Convention Parliament of 1660. +As Speaker he visited Charles II. at Breda, and addressed him +in very flattering terms on his return to London; but he refused +to accede to the king’s demand that he should dismiss Burnet +from his position as chaplain to the Master of the Rolls, and in +parliament he strongly denounced any relaxation of the laws +against papists. Grimston did not retain the office of Speaker +after the dissolution of the Convention Parliament, but he was +a member of the commission which tried the regicides, and in +November 1660 he was appointed Master of the Rolls. Report +says he paid Clarendon £8000 for the office, while Burnet declares +he obtained it “without any application of his own.” He died +on the 2nd of January 1685. His friend and chaplain, Burnet, +speaks very highly of his piety and impartiality, while not +omitting the undoubted fact that he was “much sharpened +against popery.” He translated the law reports of his father-in-law, +the judge, Sir George Croke (1560-1642), which were written +in Norman-French, and five editions of this work have appeared. +Seven of his parliamentary speeches were published, and he +also wrote <i>Strena Christiana</i> (London, 1644, and other editions). +Grimston’s first wife, Croke’s daughter Mary, bore him six sons +and two daughters; and by his second wife, Anne, daughter +and heiress of Sir Nathaniel Bacon, K.B., a grandson of Sir +Nicholas Bacon, he had one daughter.</p> + +<p>Of his sons one only, Samuel (1643-1700), survived his father, +and when he died in October 1700 the baronetcy became extinct. +Sir Harbottle’s eldest daughter, Mary, married Sir Capel Luckyn, +Bart., and their grandson, William Luckyn, succeeded to the +estates of his great-uncle, Sir Samuel Grimston, and took the +name of Grimston in 1700. This William Luckyn Grimston +(1683-1756) was created Baron Dunboyne and Viscount Grimston +in the peerage of Ireland in 1719. He was succeeded as 2nd +viscount by his son James (1711-1773), whose son James Bucknall +(1747-1808) was made an English peer as baron Verulam of +Gorhambury in 1790. Then in 1815 his son James Walter (1775-1845), +2nd baron Verulam, was created earl of Verulam, and the +present peer is his direct descendant. Sir Harbottle Grimston +bought Sir Nicholas Bacon’s estate at Gorhambury, which is +still the residence of his descendants.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Burnet, <i>History of My Own Time</i>, edited by O. Airy (Oxford, +1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1816-1905), +son of Sir Edmund Beckett Denison, was born on the 12th of +May 1816. He was educated at Doncaster and Eton, whence he +proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated thirtieth +wrangler in 1838. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn +in 1841. Upon succeeding to the baronetcy in 1874 he dropped +the name of Denison, which his father had assumed in 1816. +From 1877 to 1900 he was chancellor and vicar-general of York, +and he was raised to the peerage in 1886. He was made a Q.C. +in 1854, and was for many years a leader of the Parliamentary +Bar. He devoted himself to the study of astronomy, horology +and architecture, more especially Gothic ecclesiastical architecture. +As early as 1850 he had become a recognized authority +on clocks, watches and bells, and in particular on the construction +of turret clocks, for he had designed Dent’s Great Exhibition +clock, and his <i>Rudimentary Treatise</i> had gone through many +editions. In 1851 he was called upon, in conjunction with the +astronomer royal (Mr, afterwards Sir, G. B. Airy) and Mr Dent, +to design a suitable clock for the new Houses of Parliament. +The present tower clock, popularly known as “Big Ben,” was +constructed after Lord Grimthorpe’s designs. In a number +of burning questions during his time Lord Grimthorpe took +a prominent part. It is, however, in connexion with the restoration +of St Albans Abbey that he is most widely known. The +St Albans Abbey Reparation Committee, which had been in +existence since 1871, and for which Sir Gilbert Scott had carried +out some admirable repairs, obtained a faculty from the Diocesan +Court in 1877 to repair and restore the church and fit it for +cathedral and parochial services. Very soon, however, the +committee found itself unable to raise the necessary funds, +and it was at this juncture that a new faculty was granted to +Lord Grimthorpe (then Sir Edmund Beckett) to “restore, repair +and refit” the abbey at his own expense. Lord Grimthorpe +made it an express stipulation that the work should be done +according to his own designs and under his own supervision. +His public spirit in undertaking the task was undeniable, but +his treatment of the roof, the new west front, and the windows +inserted in the terminations of the transepts, excited a storm of +adverse criticism, and was the subject of vigorous protests from +the professional world of architecture. He died on the 29th +of April 1905, being succeeded as 2nd baron by his nephew, +E. W. Beckett (b. 1856), who had sat in parliament as conservative +member for the Whitby division of Yorkshire from 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRINDAL, EDMUND<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1519-1583), successively bishop of +London, archbishop of York and archbishop of Canterbury, +born about 1519, was son of William Grindal, a farmer of Hensingham, +in the parish of St Bees, Cumberland. He was educated at +Magdalene and Christ’s Colleges and then at Pembroke Hall, +Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was elected fellow in +1538. He proceeded M.A. in 1541, was ordained deacon in 1544 +and was proctor and Lady Margaret preacher in 1548-1549. +Probably through the influence of Ridley, who had been master +of Pembroke Hall, Grindal was selected as one of the Protestant +disputants during the visitation of 1549. He had a considerable +talent for this work and was often employed on similar occasions. +When Ridley became bishop of London, he made Grindal one +of his chaplains and gave him the precentorship of St Paul’s. +He was soon promoted to be one of Edward VI.’s chaplains +and prebendary of Westminster, and in October 1552 was one +of the six divines to whom the Forty-two articles were submitted +for examination before being sanctioned by the Privy Council. +According to Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of +the court preachers in 1553 by denouncing the worldliness of +the courtiers and foretelling the evils to follow on the king’s +death.</p> + +<p>That event frustrated Grindal’s proposed elevation to the +episcopal bench and he did not consider himself bound to await +the evils which he had foretold. He abandoned his preferments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span> +on Mary’s accession and made his way to Strassburg. Thence, +like so many of the Marian exiles, he proceeded to Frankfurt, +where he endeavoured to compose the disputes between the +“Coxians” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cox, Richard</a></span>), who regarded the 1552 Prayer +Book as the perfection of reform, and the Knoxians, who wanted +further simplification. He returned to England in January 1559, +was appointed one of the committee to revise the liturgy, and +one of the Protestant representatives at the Westminster conference. +In July he was also elected Master of Pembroke Hall +in succession to the recusant Dr Thomas Young (1514-1580) +and Bishop of London in succession to Bonner.</p> + +<p>Grindal himself was, however, inclined to be recalcitrant from +different motives. He had qualms about vestments and other +traces of “popery” as well as about the Erastianism of Elizabeth’s +ecclesiastical government. His Protestantism was robust +enough; he did not mind recommending that a priest “might +be put to some torment” (<i>Hatfield MSS.</i> i. 269); and in October +1562 he wrote to Cecil begging to know “if that second Julian, +the king of Navarre, is killed; as he intended to preach at St +Paul’s Cross, and might take occasion to mention God’s judgements +on him” (<i>Domestic Cal.</i>, 1547-1580, p. 209). But he was +loth to execute judgments upon English Puritans, and modern +high churchmen complain of his infirmity of purpose, his opportunism +and his failure to give Parker adequate assistance in +rebuilding the shattered fabric of the English Church. Grindal +lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of uniformity +and autocracy which enabled Whitgift to persecute with a clear +conscience nonconformists whose theology was indistinguishable +from his own. Perhaps he was as wise as his critics; at any +rate the rigour which he repudiated hardly brought peace or +strength to the Church when practised by his successors, and +London, which was always a difficult see, involved Bishop Sandys +in similar <span class="correction" title="amended from tronbles">troubles</span> when Grindal had gone to York. As it was, +although Parker said that Grindal “was not resolute and severe +enough for the government of London,” his attempts to enforce +the use of the surplice evoked angry protests, especially in 1565, +when considerable numbers of the nonconformists were suspended; +and Grindal of his own motion denounced Cartwright +to the Council in 1570. Other anxieties were brought upon him +by the burning of his cathedral in 1561, for although Grindal +himself is said to have contributed £1200 towards its rebuilding, +the laity of his diocese were niggardly with their subscriptions +and even his clergy were not liberal.</p> + +<p>In 1570 Grindal was translated to the archbishopric of York, +where Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly +for Roman Catholics. His first letter from Cawood to Cecil +told that he had not been well received, that the gentry were not +“well-affected to godly religion and among the common people +many superstitious practices remained.” It is admitted by his +Anglican critics that he did the work of enforcing uniformity +against the Roman Catholics with good-will and considerable +tact. He must have given general satisfaction, for even before +Parker’s death two persons so different as Burghley and Dean +Nowell independently recommended Grindal’s appointment as +his successor, and Spenser speaks warmly of him in the <i>Shepherd’s +Calendar</i> as the “gentle shepherd Algrind.” Burghley wished +to conciliate the moderate Puritans and advised Grindal to +mitigate the severity which had characterized Parker’s treatment +of the nonconformists. Grindal indeed attempted a reform of +the ecclesiastical courts, but his metropolitical activity was cut +short by a conflict with the arbitrary temper of the queen. +Elizabeth required Grindal to suppress the “prophesyings” +or meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the +Puritan clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching; +she would have no doctrine that was not inspired by her authority. +Grindal remonstrated, claiming some voice for the Church, and +in June 1577 was suspended from his jurisdictional, though not +his spiritual, functions for disobedience. He stood firm, and +in January 1578 Secretary Wilson informed Burghley that the +queen wished to have the archbishop deprived. She was dissuaded +from this extreme course, but Grindal’s sequestration +was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 1581 +for his reinstatement. Elizabeth then suggested that he should +resign; this he declined to do, and after making an apology to the +queen he was reinstated towards the end of 1582. But his +infirmities were increasing, and while making preparations for +his resignation, he died on the 6th of July 1583 and was buried in +Croydon parish church. He left considerable benefactions to +Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, Queen’s College, Oxford, and +Christ’s College, Cambridge; he also endowed a free school at +St Bees, and left money for the poor of St Bees, Canterbury, +Lambeth and Croydon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Strype’s <i>Life of Grindal</i> is the principal authority; see also <i>Dict. +Nat. Biogr.</i> and, besides the authorities there cited, Gough’s General +Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. of +Hatfield MSS.; Dixon’s <i>Hist. of the Church of England</i>; Frere’s +volume in Stephens’ and Hunt’s series; <i>Cambridge Mod. Hist.</i> +vol. iii.; Gee’s <i>Elizabethan Clergy</i>; Birt’s <i>Elizabethan Religious +Settlement</i>; and Pierce’s <i>Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts</i> (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRINDELWALD,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a valley in the Bernese Oberland, and one +of the chief resorts of tourists in Switzerland. It is shut in on +the south by the precipices of the Wetterhorn, Mettenberg +and Eiger, between which two famous glaciers flow down. On +the north it is sheltered by the Faulhorn range, while on the +east the Great Scheidegg Pass leads over to Meiringen; and on +the south-west the Little Scheidegg or Wengern Alp (railway +11½ m. across) divides it from Lauterbrunnen. The main village +is connected with Interlaken by a rack railway (13 m.). The +valley is very green, and possesses excellent pastures, as well as +fruit trees, though little corn is grown. It is watered by the +Black Lütschine, a tributary of the Aar. The height of the +parish church above the sea-level is 3468 ft. The population +in 1900 was 3346, practically all Protestant and German-speaking, +and living in 558 houses. The glacier guides are among the best +in the Alps. The valley was originally inhabited by the serfs +of various great lords in summer for the sake of pasturage. A +chapel in a cave was superseded about 1146 by a wooden church, +replaced about 1180 by a stone church, which was pulled down +in 1793 to erect the present building. Gradually the Austin +canons of Interlaken bought out all the other owners in the +valley, but when that house was suppressed in 1528 by the town +of Bern the inhabitants gained their freedom. The houses near +the hotel Adler bear the name of Gydisdorf, but there is no +village of Grindelwald properly speaking, though that name is +usually given to the assemblage of hotels and shops between +Gydisdorf and the railway station. Grindelwald is now very +much frequented by visitors in winter.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. A. B. Coolidge, <i>Walks and Excursions in the Valley of +Grindelwald</i> (also in French and German) (Grindelwald, 1900); +Emmanuel Friedli, <i>Bärndütsch als Spiegel bernischen Volkstums</i>, +vol. ii. (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); E. F. von Mülinen, <i>Beiträge zur +Heimatkunde des Kantons Bern, deutschen Teils</i>, vol. i. (Bern, 1879), +pp. 24-26; G. Strasser, <i>Der Gletschermann</i> (Grindelwald, 1888-1890). +Scattered notices may be found in the edition (London, 1899) of the +“General Introduction” (entitled “Hints and Notes for Travellers +in the Alps”) to John Ball’s <i>Alpine Guide</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRINGOIRE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Gringore</span>), <b>PIERRE</b> (<i>c.</i> 1480-1539), French +poet and dramatist, was born about the year 1480, probably at +Caen. In his first work, <i>Le Chasteau de labour</i> (1499), a didactic +poem in praise of diligence, he narrates the troubles following +on marriage. A young couple are visited by Care, Need, Discomfort, +&c.; and other personages common to medieval allegories +take part in the action. In November 1501 Gringoire +was in Paris directing the production of a mystery play in honour +of the archduke Philip of Austria, and in subsequent years +he received many similar commissions. The fraternity of the +<i>Enfans sans Souci</i> advanced him to the dignity of <i>Mère Sotte</i> +and afterwards to the highest honour of the gild, that of +<i>Prince des Sots</i>. For twenty years Gringoire seems to have been +at the head of this illustrious confrérie. As <i>Prince des Sots</i> he +exercised an extraordinary influence. At no time was the stage, +rude and coarse as it was, more popular as a true exponent of +the popular mind. Gringoire’s success lay in the fact that he +followed, but did not attempt to lead; on his stage the people +saw exhibited their passions, their judgments of the moment, +their jealousies, their hatreds and their ambitions. Brotherhoods +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span> +of the kind existed all over France. In Paris there were the +<i>Enfans sans Souci</i>, the <i>Basochiens</i>, the <i>Confrérie de la Passion</i> +and the <i>Souverain Empire de Galilée</i>; at Dijon there were the +<i>Mère Folle</i> and her family; in Flanders the <i>Société des Arbalétriers</i> +played comedies; at Rouen the <i>Cornards</i> or <i>Conards</i> yielded +to none in vigour and fearlessness of satire. On Shrove Tuesday +1512 Gringoire, who was the accredited defender of the policy +of Louis XII., and had already written many political poems, +represented the <i>Jeu du Prince des Sots et Mère Sotte</i>. It was at +the moment when the French dispute with Julius II. was at its +height. <i>Mère Sotte</i> was disguised as the Church, and disputed +the question of the temporal power with the prince. The political +meaning was even more thinly veiled in the second part of the +entertainment, a morality named <i>L’Homme obstiné</i>, the principal +personage representing the pope. The performance concluded +with a farce. Gringoire adopted for his device on the frontispiece +of this trilogy, <i>Tout par Raison</i>, <i>Raison par Tout</i>, <i>Par tout +Raison</i>. He has been called the <i>Aristophane des Halles</i>. In one +respect at least he resembles Aristophanes. He is serious in his +merriment; there is purpose behind his extravagances. The +Church was further attacked in a poem printed about 1510, +<i>La Chasse du cerf des cerfs</i> (<i>serf des serfs</i>, i.e. <i>servus servorum</i>), +under which title that of the pope is thinly veiled. About 1514 +he wrote his mystery of the <i>Vie de Monseigneur Saint-Louis +par personnages</i> in nine books for the <i>confrérie</i> of the masons and +carpenters. He became in 1518 herald at the court of Lorraine, +with the title of Vaudemont, and married Catherine Roger, +a lady of gentle birth. During the last twenty years of a long +life he became orthodox, and dedicated a <i>Blason des hérétiques</i> +to the duke of Lorraine. There is no record of the payment +of his salary as a herald after Christmas 1538, so that he died +probably in 1539.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works were edited by C. d’Héricault and A. de Montaiglon +for the <i>Bibliothèque elzévirienne</i> in 1858. This edition was incomplete, +and was supplemented by a second volume in 1877 by Montaiglon +and M. James de Rothschild. These volumes include the +works already mentioned, except <i>Le Chasteau de labour</i>, and in +addition, <i>Les Folles Entreprises</i> (1505), a collection of didactic and +satirical poems, chiefly ballades and rondeaux, one section of which +is devoted to the exposition of the tyranny of the nobles, and another +to the vices of the clergy; <i>L’Entreprise de Venise</i> (<i>c.</i> 1509), a poem +in seven-lined stanzas, giving a list of the Venetian fortresses which +belonged, according to Gringoire, to other powers; <i>L’Espoir de paix</i> +(1st ed. not dated; another, 1510), a verse treatise on the deeds of +“certain popes of Rome,” dedicated to Louis XII.; and <i>La Coqueluche</i> +(1510), a verse description of an epidemic, apparently influenza. +For details of his other satires, <i>Les Abus du monde</i> (1509), <i>Complainte +de trop tard marié, Les Fantasies du monde qui règne</i>; of his religious +verse, <i>Chants royaux</i> (on the Passion, 1527), <i>Heures de Notre Dame</i> +(1525); and a collection of tales in prose and verse, taken from +the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i>, entitled <i>Les Fantasies de Mère Sotte</i> (1516), +see G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire</i> (<i>s.v.</i> Gringore). Most of Gringoire’s +works conclude with an acrostic giving the name of the author. +The <i>Chasteau de labour</i> was translated into English by Alexander +Barclay and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1506. Barclay’s +translation was edited (1905) with his original for the Roxburghe +Club by Mr A. W. Pollard, who provided an account of Gringoire, and +a bibliography of the book. See also, for the <i>Jeu du Prince des Sots</i>, +Petit de Julleville, <i>La Comédie et les mœurs en France au moyen âge</i>, +pp. 151-168 (Paris, 1886); for <i>Saint Louis</i>, the same author’s +<i>Les Mystères</i>, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further bibliographical +references; and E. Picot, <i>Gringore et les comédiens +italiens</i> (1877). The real Gringoire cannot be said to have many +points of resemblance with the poet described in Victor Hugo’s +<i>Notre-Dame de Paris</i>, nor is there more foundation in fact for the one-act +prose comedy of Théodore de Banville.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRINNELL,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a city in Poweshiek county, Iowa, U.S.A., 55 m. +E. by N. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 3860, of whom 274 were +foreign-born; (1905) 4634; (1910) 5036. Grinnell is served by +the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Iowa Central railways. +It is the seat of Iowa College (co-educational), founded +in 1847 by the Iowa Band (Congregationalists and graduates +of New England colleges and Andover Theological Seminary, +who had devoted themselves to home missionary educational +work in Iowa, and who came to Iowa in 1843), and by a few +earlier pioneers from New England. The college opened in 1848 +at Davenport, and in 1859 removed to Grinnell, where there was +a school called Grinnell University, which it absorbed. Closely +affiliated with the college are the Grinnell Academy and the +Grinnell School of Music. In 1907-1908 the College had 463 +students, the Academy had 129 students, and the School of +Music had 141 students. Among the manufactures are carriages +and gloves. The city was named in honour of one of its founders, +Josiah Bushnell Grinnell (1821-1891), a Congregational clergyman, +friend of and sympathizer with John Brown, and from +1863 to 1867 a member of the National House of Representatives. +Grinnell was settled in 1854, was incorporated as a town in 1865, +and in 1882 was chartered as a city of the second class. In 1882 +it suffered severely from a cyclone.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIQUALAND EAST<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> and <b>GRIQUALAND WEST,</b> territorial +divisions of the Cape Province of the Union of South Africa. +Griqualand East, which lies south of Basutoland and west of +Natal, is so named from the settlement there in 1862 of Griquas +under Adam Kok. It forms part of the Transkeian Territories +of the Cape, and is described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kaffraria</a></span>. Griqualand +West, formerly Griqualand simply, also named after its Griqua +inhabitants, is part of the great tableland of South Africa. +It is bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by Bechuanaland, +E. by the Transvaal and Orange Free State Province, and has +an area of 15,197 sq. m. It has a general elevation of 3000 to +4000 ft. above the sea, low ranges of rocky hills, the Kaap, +Asbestos, Vansittart and Langeberg mountains, traversing its +western portion in a general N.E.-S.W. direction. The only +perennial rivers are in the eastern district, through which the +Vaal flows from a point a little above Fourteen Streams to its +junction with the Orange (160 m.). In this part of its course the +Vaal receives the Harts river from the north and the Riet from +the east. The Riet, 4 m. within the Griqualand frontier, is +joined by the Modder. The banks of the rivers are shaded by +willows; elsewhere the only tree is the mimosa. The greater +part of the country is barren, merging N.W. into absolute +desert. The soil is, however, wherever irrigated, extremely +fertile. The day climate is hot and dry, but the nights are frequently +cold. Rain rarely falls, though thunderstorms of great +severity occasionally sweep over the land, and sandstorms are +prevalent in the summer. A portion of the country is adapted +for sheep-farming and the growing of crops, horse-breeding is +carried on at Kimberley, and asbestos is worked in the south-western +districts, but the wealth of Griqualand West lies in its +diamonds, which are found along the banks of the Vaal and in the +district between that river and the Riet. From the first discovery +of diamonds in 1867 up to the end of 1905 the total +yield of diamonds was estimated at 13½ tons, worth £95,000,000.</p> + +<p>The chief town is Kimberley (<i>q.v.</i>), the centre of the diamond +mining industry. It is situated on the railway from Cape Town +to the Zambezi, which crosses the country near its eastern +border. Three miles south of Kimberley is Beaconsfield (<i>q.v.</i>). +On the banks of the Vaal are Barkly West (<i>q.v.</i>), Windsorton +(pop. 800) and Warrenton (pop. 1500); at all these places are +river diggings, diamonds being found along the river from +Fourteen Streams to the Harts confluence. Warrenton is 44 m. +N. by rail from Kimberley. Douglas (pop. 300), on the south +bank of the Vaal, 12 m. above its confluence with the Orange, +is the centre of an agricultural district, a canal 9½ m. long serving +to irrigate a considerable area. Thirty-five miles N.W. of +Douglas is Griquatown (pop. 401), the headquarters of the +first Griqua settlers. Campbell (pop. 250) is 30 m. E. of Griquatown, +and Postmasburg 42 m. N. by W. A census taken in 1877 +showed the population of Griqualand West to be 45,277, of whom +12,347 were whites. At the census of 1891 the population was +83,215, of whom 29,602 were whites, and in 1904 the population +was 108,498, of whom 32,570 were whites.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Before the settlement in it of Griqua clans the +district was thinly inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots. +At the end of the 18th century a horde known as Bastaards, +descendants of Dutch farmers and Hottentot women, led a +nomadic life on the plains south of the Orange river. In 1803 +a missionary named Anderson induced a number of the Bastaards +with their chief Barend Barends to settle north of the river, and +a mission station was formed at a place where there was a strong +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span> +flowing fountain, which has now disappeared, which gave the +name of Klaarwater to what is now known as Griquatown or +Griquastad. Klaarwater became a retreat for other Bastaards, +Hottentot refugees, Kaffirs and Bechuanas. From Little +Namaqualand came a few half-breeds and others under the +leadership of Adam Kok, son of Cornelius Kok and grandson +of Adam Kok (<i>c.</i> 1710-1795), a man of mixed white and Hottentot +blood who is regarded as the founder of the modern Griquas. +The settlement prospered, and in 1813, at the instance of the +Rev. John Campbell, who had been sent by the London Missionary +Society to inspect the country, the tribesmen abandoned +the name of Bastaards in favour of that of Griquas,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> some +of them professing descent from a Hottentot tribe, originally +settled near Saldanha Bay, called by the early Dutch settlers +at the Cape Chariguriqua or Grigriqua. Under the guidance +of missionaries the Griquas made some progress in civilization, +and many professed Christianity. Adam Kok and Barends +having moved eastward in 1820, those who remained behind +elected as their head man a teacher in the mission school named +Andries Waterboer, who successfully administered the settlement, +and by defeating the Makololo raiders greatly increased +the prestige of the tribe. Meanwhile Adam Kok and his companions +had occupied part of the country between the Modder +and Orange rivers. In 1825 Kok settled at the mission station +of Philippolis (founded two years previously), and in a short time +had exterminated the Bushmen inhabiting that region. He +died about 1835, and after a period of civil strife was succeeded +by his younger son, Adam Kok III. This chief in November +1843 signed a treaty placing himself under British protection. +Many Dutch farmers were settled on the land he claimed. In +1845 he received British military aid in a contest with the white +settlers, and in 1848 helped the British under Sir Harry Smith +against the Boers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange Free State</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Eventually +finding himself straitened by the Boers of the newly established +Orange Free State, he removed in 1861-1863 with his +people, some 3000 in number, to the region (then depopulated +by Kaffir wars) now known as Griqualand East. His sovereign +rights to all territory north of the Orange he sold to the Free +State for £4000. He founded Kokstad (<i>q.v.</i>) and died in 1876. +Waterboer, the principal Griqua chief, had entered into treaty +relations with the British government as early as 1834, and he +received a subsidy of £150 a year. He proved a stanch ally of +the British, and kept the peace on the Cape frontier to the day +of his death in 1852. He was succeeded by his son Nicholas +Waterboer, under whom the condition of the Griquas declined—a +decline induced by the indolence of the people and intensified +by the drying up of the water supplies, cattle plague and brandy +drinking. During this period white settlers acquired farms in +the country, and the loss of their independence by the Griquas +became inevitable. The discovery of diamonds along the banks +of the Vaal in 1867 entirely altered the fortunes of the country, +and by the end of 1869 the rush to the alluvial diggings had begun. +At the diggers’ camps the Griquas exercised no authority, but +over part of the district the South African Republic and the +Orange Free State claimed sovereignty. At Klip Drift (now +Barkly West) the diggers formed a regular government and +elected Theodore Parker as their president. Most of the diggers +being British subjects, the high commissioner of South Africa +interfered, and a Cape official was appointed magistrate at +Klip Drift, President Parker resigning office in February 1871. +At this time the “dry diggings,” of which Kimberley is the +centre, had been discovered,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and over the miners there the +Orange Free State asserted jurisdiction. The land was, however, +claimed by Nicholas Waterboer, who, on the advice of his agent, +David Arnot, petitioned the British to take over his country. +This Great Britain consented to do, and on the 27th of October +1871 proclamations were issued by the high commissioner +receiving Waterboer and his Griquas as British subjects and +defining the limits of his territory. In addition to the Kimberley +district this territory included that part of the diamondiferous +area which had been claimed by the Transvaal, but which had +been declared, as the result of the arbitration of R. W. Keate, +lieutenant-governor of Natal, part of Waterboer’s land. On the +4th of November a small party of Cape Mounted Police took +possession of the dry diggings and hoisted the British flag. +Shortly afterwards the representative of the Orange Free State +withdrew. The Free State was greatly incensed by the action +of the British government, but the dispute as to the sovereignty +was settled in 1876 by the payment of £90,000 by the British +to the Free State as compensation for any injury inflicted on the +state.</p> + +<p>The diggers, who under the nominal rule of the Transvaal and +Free State had enjoyed practical independence, found the +new government did little for their benefit, and a period of disorder +ensued, which was not put an end to by the appointment +in January 1873 of Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard Southey<a name="fa3j" id="fa3j" href="#ft3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> as +sole administrator, in place of the three commissioners who +had previously exercised authority. In the July following the +territory was made a crown colony and Southey’s title changed +to that of lieutenant-governor. The government remained +unpopular, the diggers complaining of its unrepresentative +character, the heavy taxation exacted, and the inadequate +protection of property. They formed a society for mutual +protection, and the discontent was so great that an armed force +was sent (early in 1875) from the Cape to overawe the agitators. +At the same time measures were taken to render the government +more popular. The settlement of the dispute with the Free +State paved the way for the annexation of Griqualand to the Cape +Colony on the 15th of October 1880.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kimberley</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange Free +State</a></span>. For the early history of the country and an account of life +at the diggings, 1871-1875, consult G. M‘Call Theal’s <i>Compendium +of the History and Geography of South Africa</i> (London, 1878), chapters +xl. and xli.; Gardner F. Williams, <i>The Diamond Mines of South +Africa</i> (New York and London, 1902); and the works bearing on the +subject quoted in that book. See also Theal’s <i>History of South +Africa ... 1834-1854</i> (London, 1893); J. Campbell, <i>Travels in +South Africa</i> (London, 1815), <i>Travels ... A Second journey ...</i> +(2 vols., London, 1822); the Blue Books C. 459 of 1871 and C. 508 of +1872 (the last-named containing the Keate award, &c.); the Griqualand +West report in <i>Papers relating to Her Majesty’s Colonial +Possessions</i>, part ii. (1875), and the Life of <i>Sir Richard Southey, +K.C.M.G.</i>, by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the Griqua people +consult G. W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i>, chapters xvii.-xx. +(London, 1905).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of +1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and +Bechuana tribes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The order of discovery of the chief mines was:—Dutoitspan, +Sept. 1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Colesberg +Kop (Kimberley), July 1871.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3j" id="ft3j" href="#fa3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Sir Richard Southey (1809-1901) was the son of one of the +emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He +organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of +1834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smith at Boomplaats (1848). From +1864 to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Cape. He gave up his +appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in +retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRISAILLE,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a French term, derived from <i>gris</i>, grey, for +painting in monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly +used in decoration to represent objects in relief. The frescoes +of the roof of the Sistine chapel have portions of the design in +<i>grisaille</i>. At Hampton Court the lower part of the decoration +of the great staircase by Verrio is in <i>grisaille</i>. The term is also +applied to monochrome painting in enamels, and also to stained +glass; a fine example of <i>grisaille</i> glass is in the window known +as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in York +cathedral.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRISELDA,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a heroine of romance. She is said to have been +the wife of Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the 11th +century, and her misfortunes were considered to belong to +history when they were handled by Boccaccio and Petrarch, +although the probability is that Boccaccio borrowed his narrative +from a Provençal <i>fabliau</i>. He included it in the recitations +of the tenth day (<i>Decamerone</i>), and must have written it about +1350. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his +translation formed the basis of much of the later literature. +The letter was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often +subsequently. It was translated into French as <i>La Patience de</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span> +<i>Griselidis</i> and printed at Bréhan-Loudéac in 1484, and its +popularity is shown by the number of early editions quoted by +Brunet (<i>Manuel du libraire, s.v.</i> Petrarca). The story was +dramatized in 1395, and a <i>Mystère de Griselidis, marquise de +Saluses par personnaiges</i> was printed by Jehan Bonfons (no date). +Chaucer followed Petrarch’s version in the <i>Canterbury Tales</i>. +Ralph Radcliffe, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to +have written a play on the subject, and the story was dramatized +by Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. Deloney’s +<i>Garland of Good Will</i> (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, <i>The +History of Patient Grisel</i> (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885) +for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary introduction.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRISI, GIULIA<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter +of one of Napoleon’s Italian officers, was born in Milan. She +came of a family of musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephina +Grassini (1773-1850) being a favourite opera-singer both on the +continent and in London; her mother had also been a singer, +and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin Carlotta were both +exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical career, +and made her stage début in 1828. Rossini and Bellini both +took an interest in her, and at Milan she was the first Adalgisa +in Bellini’s <i>Norma</i>, in which Pasta took the title-part. Grisi +appeared in Paris in 1832, as Semiramide in Rossini’s opera, +and had a great success; and in 1834 she appeared in London. +Her voice was a brilliant dramatic soprano, and her established +position as a prima donna continued for thirty years. She +was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her association +with such singers as Lablache, Rubini, Tamburini and Mario +was long remembered as the palmy days of Italian opera. In +1854 she toured with Mario In America. She had married Count +de Melcy in 1836, but this ended in a divorce; and in 1856 she +married Mario (<i>q.v.</i>). She died in Berlin on the 29th of November +1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRISON<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (<i>Galictis vittata</i>), a carnivorous mammal, of the +family <i>Mustelidae</i>, common in Central and South America and +Mexico. It is about the size of a marten, and has the upper +surface of a bluish-grey tint, and the under surface is dark +brown. The grison lives on small mammals and birds, and in +settled districts is destructive to poultry. Allamand’s grison +(<i>G. allamandi</i>), with the same range, is somewhat larger. Another +member of the genus is the tayra or taira (<i>G. barbara</i>), about as +large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to Argentina. This +species hunts in companies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRISONS<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Graubünden</i>), the most easterly of the Swiss +cantons and also the largest in extent, though relatively the +most sparsely populated. Its total area is 2753.2 sq. m., of +which 1634.4 sq. m. are classed as “productive” (forests +covering 503.1 sq. m. and vineyards 1.3 sq. m.), but it has also +138.6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this respect next after the +Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is mountainous, the +principal glacier groups being those of the Tödi, N. (11,887 ft.), +of Medels, S.W. (Piz Medel, 10,509 ft.), of the Rheinwald or the +Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorn, 11,149 ft.), with the chief +source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.), +the most extensive, of the Albula, E. (Piz Kesch, 11,228 ft.), +and of the Silvretta, N.E. (Piz Linard, 11,201 ft.). The principal +valleys are those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or +Engadine, <i>q.v.</i>). The three main sources of the Rhine are in +the canton. The valley of the Vorder Rhine is called the Bündner +Oberland, that of the Mittel Rhine the Val Medels, and that of +the Hinter Rhine (the principal), in different parts of its course, +the Rheinwald, the Schams valley and the Domleschg valley, +while the upper valley of the Julia is named the Oberhalbstein. +The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canton are the Glenner +(flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the +Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur +(Schanfigg valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prättigau). +The Rhine and the Inn flow respectively into the North +and the Black Seas. Of other streams that of Val Mesocco joins +the Ticino and so the Po, while the Maira or Mera (Val Bregaglia) +and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the Rambach (Münster +valley) the Adige, all four thus ultimately reaching the Adriatic +Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe, and +among the loftiest villages are Juf, 6998 ft. (the highest permanently +inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers +glen, and St Moritz, 6037 ft., in the Upper Engadine. The +lower courses of the various streams are rent by remarkable +gorges, such as the Via Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those +in the Avers, Medels and Lugnetz glens, as well as that of the +Züge in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire, near Malans, good +wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco, &c., maize and chestnuts +flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are +the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine +breed of cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Bergamasque +shepherds. There are many mineral springs, such as +those of St Moritz, Schuls, Alvaneu, Fideris, Le Prese and San +Bernardino. The climate and vegetation, save on the southern +slope of the Alps, are alpine and severe. But yearly vast numbers +of strangers visit different spots in the canton, especially Davos +(<i>q.v.</i>), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet there are comparatively +few railways. There is one from Maienfeld (continued north +to Constance and north-west to Zürich) to Coire (11 m.), which +sends off a branch line from Landquart, E., past Klosters to +Davos (31 m.). From Coire the line bears west to Reichenau +(6 m.), whence one branch runs S.S.E. beneath the Albula Pass +to St Moritz (50 m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine +valley to Ilanz (20½ m.). There are, however, a number of fine +carriage roads across the passes leading to or towards Italy. +Besides those leading to the Engadine may be noted the roads +from Ilanz past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719 ft.) to +Andermatt, from Disentis over the Lukmanier Pass (6289 ft.) to +Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Reichenau past +Thusis and Splügen over the San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.) to +Bellinzona on the same railway line, and from Splügen over the +Splügen Pass (6946 ft.) to Chiavenna. The Septimer Pass (7582 ft.) +from the Julier route to the Maloja route has now only a mule +path, but was probably known in Roman times (as was possibly +the Splügen), and was much frequented in the middle ages.</p> + +<p>The population of the canton in 1900 was 104,520. Of this +number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prättigau +and in the Schanfigg valley) were Protestants, while 49,142 +(mainly in the Bündner Oberland, the <span class="correction" title="amended from Vall">Val</span> Mesocco and the +Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were also 114 Jews +(81 of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762 +(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prättigau and in the +Schanfigg valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (mostly +in the Val Mesocco, the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiavo, +but including a number of Italian labourers engaged on the +construction of the Albula railway) were Italian-speaking. +But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a survival of an +ancient Romance language (the <i>lingua rustica</i> of the Roman +Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty +printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the +38,651 persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer +than 36,472 are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two +dialects: the Romonsch (sometimes wrongly called Romansch), +which prevails in the Bündner Oberland and in the Hinter Rhine +valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the Ladin (closely related +to the tongue spoken in parts of the South Tyrol), that survives +in the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of Bergün, +Oberhalbstein and Münster. (See F. Rausch’s <i>Geschichte der +Literatur des rhaeto-romanischen Volkes</i>, Frankfort, 1870, +and Mr Coolidge’s bibliography of this language, given on +pp. 22-23 of Lorria and Martel’s <i>Le Massif de la Bernina</i>, Zürich, +1894.) Yet in the midst of this Romance-speaking population +are islets (mostly, if not entirely, due to immigration in the +13th century from the German-speaking Upper Valais) of +German-speaking inhabitants, so in the Vals and Safien glens, +and at Obersaxen (all in the Bündner Oberland), in the Rheinwald +(the highest part of the Hinter Rhine valley), and in the +Avers glen (middle reach of the Hinter Rhine valley), as well as +in and around Davos itself.</p> + +<p>There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span> +considerable portion of the population is engaged in attending +to the wants of the foreign visitors, but there is a considerable +trade with Italy, particularly in the wines of the Valtellina, +while many young men seek their fortunes abroad (returning +home after having accumulated a small stock of money) as +confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers. A certain +number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are +now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and +includes 224 communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a +popular vote) to the Federal <i>Ständerath</i>, and 5 members (also +elected by a popular vote) to the Federal <i>Nationalrath</i>. The +existing cantonal constitution was accepted by the people in 1892, +and came into force on 1st January 1894. The legislature +(<i>Grossrath</i>—no numbers fixed by the constitution) is elected +for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the +executive (<i>Kleinrath</i>) for 3 years. The “obligatory referendum” +obtains in the case of all laws and important matters of expenditure, +while 3000 citizens can demand (“facultative referendum”) +a popular vote as to resolutions and ordinances made by the +legislature. Three thousand citizens also have the right of +“initiative” as to legislative projects, but 5000 signatures are +required for a proposed revision of the cantonal constitution. +In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are never +counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to +the capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the +constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount +of the land tax varies annually according to the amount that +<i>must</i> be provided. In the pre-1799 constitution of the three +Raetian Leagues the system of the “referendum” was in +working as early as the 16th century, not merely as between +the three Leagues themselves, but as between the bailiwicks +(<i>Hochgerichte</i>), the sovereign units within each League, and +sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages +composing each bailiwick.</p> + +<p>The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the +inhabitants speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Grisons +formed the southern part of the province of Raetia (probably the +aboriginal inhabitants, the Raeti, were Celts rather than, as +was formerly believed, Etruscans), set up by the Romans after +their conquest of the region in 15 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Romanized inhabitants +were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin tongue +is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the +Ostrogoths (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537 +onwards). Governors called <i>Praesides</i> are mentioned in the +7th and 8th centuries, while members of the same family occupied +the episcopal see of Coire (founded 4th-5th centuries). About +806 Charles the Great made this region into a county, but in +831 the bishop procured for his dominions exemption (“immunity”) +from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before 847 +his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the +German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from +Italy to be joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united +with the duchy of Alamannia, but the bishop still retained +practical independence, and his wide-spread dominions placed +him even above the abbots of Disentis and Pfäfers, who likewise +enjoyed “immunity.” In the 10th century the bishop obtained +fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia in +960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who +struggled for power in the region. He became a prince of the +empire in 1170 and later allied himself with the rising power +(in the region) of the Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the +foundation of the League of God’s House or the <i>Gotteshausbund</i> +(composed of the city and chapter of Coire, and of the bishop’s +subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val Bregaglia, Domleschg +and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising power, the bishop +entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis, the men of +the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Räzuns and +Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another +League, called the <i>Ober Bund</i> (as comprising the highlands in +the Vorder Rhine valley) and also wrongly the “Grey League” +(as the word interpreted “grey” is simply a misreading of +<i>graven</i> or counts, though the false view has given rise to the name +of Grisons or Graubünden for the whole canton), their alliance +being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free men of the +Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco +also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded, +that of the <i>Zehngerichtenbund</i> or League of the Ten Jurisdictions, +by the former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose +dynasty then became extinct; they include the inhabitants of +the Prättigau, Davos, Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Churwalden, +and the lordship of Belfort (<i>i.e.</i> the region round Alvaneu), +and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the name of the League. In +1450 the <i>Zehngerichtenbund</i> concluded an alliance with the +<i>Gotteshausbund</i> and in 1471 with the <i>Ober Bund</i>; but of the +so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels, +there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though +diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496) +nearly all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of +Toggenburg in the Prättigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese +line of the Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they +passed to the elder line, the head of which, Maximilian, was +already emperor-elect and desired to maintain the rights of his +family there and in the Lower Engadine. Hence in 1497 the +Ober Bund and in 1498 the <i>Gotteshausbund</i> became allies of the +Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, but was ended by +the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the +Calven gorge (above Mals) which, added to another Swiss victory +at Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize +the <i>practical</i> independence of the Swiss and their allies of the +Empire. The religious Reformation brought disunion into the +three Leagues, as the <i>Ober Bund</i> clung in the main to the old +faith, and for this reason their connexion with the Swiss Confederation +was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles of +Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction +of the bishop of Coire was abolished. In 1486 Poschiavo had at +last been secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was +bought in 1509, while in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the +<i>Ober Bund</i> since 1480) purchased its freedom of its lords, the +Trivulzió family of Milan. In 1512 the three Leagues conquered +from Milan the rich and fertile Valtellina, with Bormio and +Chiavenna, and held these districts as subject lands till in 1797 +they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. The struggle +for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the long +rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis +(Val Bregaglia), while in the 17th century this rivalry was +complicated by political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the +Spanish side and the Salis that of France during the long struggle +(1620-1639) for the Valtellina (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jenatsch</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valtellina</a></span>). +Troubles arose (1622) also in the Prättigau through the attempts +of the Habsburgers to force the inhabitants to give up Protestantism. +Finally, after the emperor had <i>formally</i> recognized, +by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the independence of the +Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers in the +Prättigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 and +1652). But the Austrian <i>enclaves</i> of Tarasp (Lower Engadine) +and of Räzuns (near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Grisons +in 1809 and 1815 respectively, in each case France holding the +lordship for a short time after its cession by Austria. In 1748 +(finally in 1762) the three Leagues secured the upper portion +of the valley of Münster. In 1799 the French invaded the +canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict (1799-1800) +between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in the +course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent +of Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the +provisional government agreed to the incorporation of the three +Leagues in the Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June +1801 that the canton of Raetia became formally part of the +Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by Napoleon’s Act of Mediation, +it entered, under the name of Canton of the Grisons or Graubünden, +the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which it +then first became a full member.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901); +<i>Bündnergeschichte in 11 Vorträgen</i>, by various writers (Coire, 1902); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span> +<i>Codex diplomaticus Raetiae</i> (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe, +<i>Travels in Switzerland</i>, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition; E. Dunant, +<i>La Réunion des Grisons à la Suisse</i> (1798-1799) (Basel, 1899); +G. Fient, <i>Das Prättigau</i> (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa, <i>Das +bündnerische Münsterthal</i> (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, <i>Codice diplomatico +della Rezia</i> (originally published in the <i>Periodico</i> of the +<i>Società storica a Comense</i> at Como; separate reprint, Como, 1901); +R. A. Ganzoni, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis d. bündnerischen Referendums</i> +(Zürich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, <i>A Summer Tour in the +Grisons</i> (London, 1862); C. and F. Jecklin, <i>Der Anteil Graubündens +am Schwabenkrieg</i> (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor, <i>Geschichte +von Curraetien</i> (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874), and <i>Wegweiser</i> (Coire, +1873); E. Lechner, <i>Das Thal Bergell</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1874); +G. Leonhardi, <i>Das Poschiavinothal</i> (Leipzig, 1859); A. Lorria and +E. A. Martel, <i>Le Massif de la Bernina</i> (Upper Engadine and Val +Bregaglia) (Zürich, 1894); P. C. von Planta, <i>Das alte Raetien</i> (Berlin, +1872); <i>Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d. Feudalzeit</i> (Bern, 1881); +<i>Geschichte von Graubünden</i> (Bern, 1892); and <i>Chronik d. Familie von +Planta</i> (Zürich, 1892); W. Plattner, <i>Die Entstehung d. Freistaates +der 3 Bünde</i> (Davos, 1895), R. von Reding-Biberegg, <i>Der Zug +Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799</i> (Stans, 1895); N. Salis-Soglio, +<i>Die Familie von Salis</i> (Lindau, 1891); G. Theobald, <i>Das Bündner +Oberland</i> (Coire, 1861), and <i>Naturbilder aus den rhätischen Alpen</i> +(3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, <i>Johannes von Planta</i> (d. 1572) +(Zürich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis, <i>Rechtsquellen d. +Cant. Graubünden</i> (Basel, 1877-1892); F. Jecklin, <i>Materialen zur +Standes- und Landesgeschichte Gem. iii. Bünde</i> (Graubünden), +<i>1464-1803</i> (pt. i., <i>Regesten</i>, was published at Basel in 1907). See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coire</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Engadine</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jenatsch</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valtellina</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1815-1857), American editor +and compiler, was born in Benson, Vermont, on the 15th of +February 1815. He travelled extensively, worked in newspaper +offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a time, and finally became +a journalist in New York City, where he was successively a +member of the staffs of <i>The Brother Jonathan</i>, <i>The New World</i> +(1839-1840) and <i>The New Yorker</i> (1840). From 1841 to 1843 +he edited <i>Graham’s Magazine</i> (Philadelphia), and added to +its list of contributors many leading American writers. From +1850 to 1852 he edited the <i>International Magazine</i> (New York), +which in 1852 was merged into <i>Harper’s Magazine</i>. He died in +New York City on the 27th of August 1857. He is best known +as the compiler and editor of various anthologies (with brief +biographies and critiques), such as <i>Poets and Poetry of America</i> +(1842), his most popular and valuable book; <i>Prose Writers of +America</i> (1846); <i>Female Poets of America</i> (1848); and <i>Sacred +Poets of England and America</i> (1849). Of his own writings his +<i>Republican Court: or American Society in the Days of Washington</i> +(1854) is the only one of permanent value. He edited the first +American edition of Milton’s prose works (1845), and, as literary +executor, edited, with James R. Lowell and N. P. Willis, the +works (1850) of Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold’s great contemporary +reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but he +rendered a valuable service in making Americans better acquainted +with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Passages from the Correspondence and Other Papers of Rufus +W. Griswold</i> (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William +McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRIVET,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> a monkey, <i>Cercopithecus sabaeus</i>, of the guenon +group, nearly allied to the green monkey. It is common throughout +equatorial Africa. The chin, whiskers and a broad band +across the forehead, as well as the under-parts, are white, and +the head and back olive-green. These monkeys are very +commonly seen in menageries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROAT<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (adapted from the Dutch <i>groot</i>, great, thick; cf. +Ger. <i>Groschen</i>; the Med. Lat. <i>grossus</i> gives Ital. <i>grosso</i>, +Fr. <i>gros</i>, as names for the coin), a name applied as early as the +13th century on the continent of Europe to any large or thick +coin. The groat was almost universally a silver coin, but its +value varied considerably, as well at different times as in different +countries. The English groat was first coined in 1351, of a value +somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous debasement +of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth four +pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662, +but a coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although +frequently referred to as a groat, it had no other official designation +than a “fourpenny piece.” Its issue was again discontinued +in 1856. The groat was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck +by David II. in 1358. In Ireland it was first struck by Edward +IV. in 1460.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROCER,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale +dealer; the word is derived through the O. Fr. form, <i>grossia</i>, +from the Med. Lat. <i>grossarius</i>, defined by du Cange, +<i>Glossarium</i>, s.v. <i>Grossares</i>, as <i>solidae mercis propola</i>. The name, +as a general one for dealers by wholesale, “engrossers” as +opposed to “regrators,” the retail dealers, is found with the +commodity attached; thus in the <i>Munimenta Gildhallae</i> (“Rolls” +series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>) is found +an allusion to <i>grossours de vin</i>, cf. <i>groser of fysshe</i>, <i>Surtees Misc.</i> +(1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted <i>ib.</i>). The specific +application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale +or retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all +kinds of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected +with the history of the Grocers’ Company of London, one of the +twelve “great” livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and +the spicers amalgamated and were known as the Fraternity +of St Anthony. The name “grocers” first appears in 1373 in +the records of the company. In 1386 the association was +granted a right of search over all “spicers” in London, and in +1394 they obtained the right to inspect or “garble” spices and +other “subtil wares.” Their first charter was obtained in 1428; +letters patent in 1447 granted an extension of the right of search +over the whole county, but removed the “liberties” of the +city of London. They sold all kinds of drugs, medicines, ointments, +plasters, and medicated and other waters. For the +separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 1617 see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apothecary</a></span>. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Livery Companies</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Grocery Trade</i>, by J. Aubrey Rees (1910).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROCYN, WILLIAM<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1446?-1519), English scholar, was born +at Colerne, Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents +for the church, he was sent to Winchester College, and in 1465 +was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. In 1467 +he became a fellow, and had among his pupils William Warham, +afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 he accepted the +rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but continued +to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College +in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of +divinity, in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknowledged +his skill as a debater by the present of a buck and five +marks. In 1485 he became prebendary of Lincoln cathedral. +About 1488 Grocyn left England for Italy, and before his return +in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and Padua, and studied +Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and Politian. +As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of indoctrinating +his countrymen in the new Greek learning.</p> + +<p>Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek +at Oxford before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College, +Thomas Chaundler, invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to +Oxford, to act as praelector. This was about 1475, and as +Vitelli was certainly familiar with Greek literature, Grocyn +may have learnt Greek from him. He seems to have lived in +Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became dean of +St Paul’s in 1504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by +his friend to deliver lectures in St Paul’s; and in this connexion +he gave a singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced +all who impugned the authenticity of the <i>Hierarchia ecclesiastica</i> +ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify +his views by further investigation, he openly declared that he +had been completely mistaken. He also counted Linacre, +William Lily, William Latimer and More among his friends, +and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by +Grocyn in London, and calls him “the friend and preceptor of +us all.” He held several preferments, but his generosity to his +friends involved him in continual difficulties, and though in +1506 he was appointed on Archbishop Warham’s recommendation +master or warden of All Hallows College at Maidstone +in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his friends, and +even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519, and was +buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted +as his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span> +to the poor and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With +the exception of a few lines of Latin verse on a lady who snowballed +him, and a letter to Aldus Manutius at the head of Linacre’s +translation of Proclus’s <i>Sphaera</i> (Venice, 1499), Grocyn has +left no literary proof of his scholarship or abilities. His proposal +to execute a translation of Aristotle in company with Linacre +and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin +works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus +he has been described as “vir severissimae castissimae vitae, +ecclesiasticarum constitutionum observantissimus pene usque +ad superstitionem, scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus +ac natura etiam acerrimi judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum +genere exacte versatus” (<i>Declarationes ad censuras facultatis +theologiae Parisianae</i>, 1522).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the +Oxford Historical Society’s <i>Collectanea</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRODNO,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> one of the Lithuanian governments of western +Russia, lying between 51° 40′ and 52° N. and between 22° 12′ and +26° E., and bounded N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk, +S. by Volhynia, and W. by the Polish governments of Lomza +and Siedlce. Area, 14,926 sq. m. Except for some hills (not +exceeding 925 ft.) in the N., it is a uniform plain, and is drained +chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev and Bobr, all navigable. +There are also several canals, the most important being the +Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop out along +the Bug, Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits elsewhere. +The soil is mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and along +the rivers is often drift-sand. Forests, principally of <i>Coniferae</i>, +cover more than one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are some +of vast extent, <i>e.g.</i> those of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa +(Bialowice) (376 sq. m.), embracing wide areas of marshy ground. +In the last mentioned forest the wild ox survives, having been +jealously preserved since 1803. Peat bogs, sometimes as much +as 4 to 7 ft. thick, cover extensive districts. The climate is wet and +cold; the annual mean temperature being 44.5° F., the January +mean 22.5° and the July mean 64.5°. The rainfall amounts to +21½ in.; hail is frequent. Agriculture is the predominant +industry. The peasants own 42½% of the land, that is, about +4,000,000 acres, and of these over 2¼ million acres are arable. +The crops principally grown are potatoes, rye, oats, wheat, flax, +hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle and sheep are bred in +fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain amount of +manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and +tobacco. In woollens this government ranks second (after +Moscow) in the empire, the centre of the industry being Byelostok. +Other factories produce silk, shoddy and leather. The government +is crossed by the main lines of railway from Warsaw to +St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow. The population +numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of these +last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906 +it was estimated at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate +(54%), then follow Jews (17.4%), Poles (10%), Lithuanians +and Germans. The government is divided into nine districts, +the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, being Grodno +(<i>q.v.</i>), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1901), Byelsk (7461), +Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1901), Kobrin (10,365), +Pruzhany (7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk +(10,584). In 1795 Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was +annexed by Russia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRODNO,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a town of Russia, capital of the government of the +same name in 53° 40′ N. and 23° 50′ E., on the right bank of the +Niemen, 160 m. by rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna +on the main line to St Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly +two-thirds Jews. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek +church and the headquarters of the II. Army Corps. It has two +old castles, now converted to other uses, and two churches +(16th and 17th centuries). Tobacco factories and distilleries +are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and firearms +are also made. Built in the 12th century, Grodno was almost +entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights +(1284 and 1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his +capital, and died there in 1586. The Polish Estates frequently +met at Grodno after 1673, and there in 1793 they signed the +second partition of Poland. It was at Grodno that Stanislaus +Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1801-1876), +Dutch politician and historian, was born at Voorburg, near +the Hague, on the 21st of August 1801. He studied at Leiden +university, and graduated in 1823 both as doctor of literature +and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary to King +William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in +Dutch home politics, and gradually became the leader of the +so-called anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber, +of which he was for many years a member, and outside. In Groen +the doctrines of Guizot and Stahl found an eloquent exponent. +They permeate his controversial and political writings and +historical studies, of which his <i>Handbook of Dutch History</i> (in +Dutch) and <i>Maurice et Barnevelt</i> (in French, 1875, a criticism +of Motley’s <i>Life of Van Olden-Barnevelt</i>) are the principal. +Groen was violently opposed to Thorbecke, whose principles +he denounced as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived +to see these principles triumph, he never ceased to oppose them +until his death, which occurred at the Hague on the 19th of May +1876. He is best known as the editor of the <i>Archives et correspondance +de la maison d’Orange</i> (12 vols., 1835-1845), a great +work of patient erudition, which procured for him the title of +the “Dutch <i>Gachard</i>.” J. L. Motley acknowledges his indebtedness +to Groen’s Archives in the preface to his <i>Rise of the Dutch +Republic</i>, at a time when the American historian had not yet +made the acquaintance of King William’s archivist, and also +bore emphatic testimony to Groen’s worth as a writer of history +in the correspondence published after his death. At the first +reception, in 1858, of Motley at the royal palace at the Hague, +the king presented him with a copy of Groen’s <i>Archives</i> as a token +of appreciation and admiration of the work done by the “worthy +vindicator of William I., prince of Orange.” This copy, bearing +the king’s autograph inscription, afterwards came into the possession +of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley’s son-in-law.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROIN.<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine, +from Lat. <i>grunnire</i>, and so applied to the snout of a pig; it +is probably the origin of the word, more commonly spelled +“groyne,” for a small timber framework or wall of masonry used +on sea coasts as a breakwater to prevent the encroachment of +sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin; from an older form +<i>grynde</i> or <i>grinde</i>; the derivation from “grain,” an obsolete word +meaning “fork,” cannot, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, +be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed between +the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the +inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle +or “arris” formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one +another, occasionally called by workmen “groin point.” If the +vaults are both of the same radius and height, their intersections +lie in a vertical plane, in other cases they form winding curves +for which it is difficult to provide centering. In early medieval +vaulting this was sometimes arranged by a slight alteration in the +geometrical curve of the vault, but the problem was not satisfactorily +solved until the introduction of the rib which henceforth +ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span>). +The name “Welsh groin” or “underpitch” is generally given +to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal +vault is higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the transverse +rib (of much greater radius than that of the wall rib), +projected diagonally in front of the latter, the filling-in or web +has to be carried back from the transverse to the wall rib. +The term “groin centering” is used where, in groining without +ribs, the whole surface is supported by centering during the erection +of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone ribs only are +supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work, any +light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vault</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1777-1843), +Prussian soldier, was born in Berlin on the 30th of July 1777. +He entered an infantry regiment when scarcely thirteen, became +an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797, first lieutenant 1804 +and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had become one of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span> +Scharnhorst’s intimates, and he was distinguished for his +energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which +he served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a +staff officer, and won the rank of major for distinguished service +in action. After the peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was +one of the most active of Scharnhorst’s assistants in the work +of reorganization (1809), joined the <i>Tugendbund</i> and endeavoured +to take part in Schill’s abortive expedition, after which he +entered the Austrian service as a major on the general staff. +Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards against +Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that +port against Marshal Victor in 1810. He was present at the +battle of Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a +prisoner of war at the surrender of the last-named place. Soon, +however, he escaped to Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he +returned to Prussia as a major on the general staff. He served successively +under Colonel von Dolffs and General von Kleist, and as +commissioner at the headquarters of the Russian general Barclay +de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory of Kulm, and +recovered from a severe wound received at that action in time +to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous +part in the campaign of 1814 in France, after which he was made +a major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster-general +to Field Marshal Prince Blücher, and, after his chief and +Gneisenau, Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the +Prussian operations of 1815. In the decision, on the 18th of +June 1815, to press forward to Wellington’s assistance (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>), Grolmann actively concurred, and as +the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to have overcome +the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and +the chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After +the peace of 1815, Grolmann occupied important positions in +the ministry of war and the general staff. His last public +services were rendered in Poland as commander-in-chief, and +practically as civil administrator of the province of Posen. He +was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died on the 1st of +June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the +Prussian army. The Prussian 18th infantry regiment bears his +name.</p> + +<p>General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the +material for von Damitz’s <i>Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815</i> (Berlin, +1837-1838), and <i>Gesch. des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankreich</i> (Berlin, +1842-1843).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See v. Conrady, <i>Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann</i> +(Berlin, 1894-1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROMATICI<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (from <i>groma</i> or <i>gruma</i>, a surveyor’s pole), or +<i>Agrimensores</i>, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans. +The art of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the +augurs, by whom it was exercised in all cases where the demarcation +of a <i>templum</i> (any consecrated space) was necessary. Thus, +the boundaries of Rome itself, of colonies and camps, were all +marked out in accordance with the rules of augural procedure. +The first professional surveyor mentioned is L. Decidius Saxa, +who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps +(Cicero, <i>Philippics</i>, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their +number and reputation increased. The distribution of land +amongst the veterans, the increase in the number of military +colonies, the settlement of Italian peasants in the provinces, +the general survey of the empire under Augustus, the separation +of private and state domains, led to the establishment of a +recognized professional corporation of surveyors. During later +times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some cases +were even honoured with the title <i>clarissimus</i>. Their duties +were not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal +knowledge for consultations or the settlement of disputes. This +led to the institution of special schools for the training of surveyors +and a special literature, which lasted from the 1st to +the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The earliest of the gromatic writers was +Frontinus (<i>q.v.</i>), whose <i>De agrorum qualitate</i>, dealing with the +legal aspect of the art, was the subject of a commentary by +Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan +a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his +Dacian campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for +land surveyors (<i>Expositio et ratio omnium formarum</i> or <i>mensurarum</i>, +probably after a Greek original by Hero), dedicated +to a certain Celsus who had invented an improvement in a +gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling the +modern theodolite); for the treatises of Hyginus see that name. +Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus (<i>De condicionibus +agrorum</i>, extant), while the most curious treatise on +the subject, written in barbarous Latin and entitled <i>Casae +litterarum</i> (long a school text-book) is the work of a certain +Innocentius (4th-5th century). It is doubtful whether Boëtius +is the author of the treatises attributed to him. The <i>Gromatici +veteres</i> also contains extracts from official registers (probably +belonging to the 5th century) of colonial and other land surveys, +lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and extracts from the +Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection had +its origin during the 5th century in the office of a vicarius (diocesan +governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under +him. The surveyors were known by various names: <i>decempedator</i> +(with reference to the instrument used); <i>finitor</i>, <i>metator</i> +or <i>mensor castrorum</i> in republican times; <i>togati Augustorum</i> +as imperial civil officials; <i>professor</i>, <i>auctor</i> as professional +instructors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others +(1848) with supplementary volume, <i>Die Schriften der römischen +Feldmesser</i> (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, <i>Roman History</i>, ii., +appendix (Eng. trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M. +Cantor, <i>Die römischen Agrimensoren</i> (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot, +<i>La Condition des Agrimensores dans l’ancienne Rome</i> (1879); G. +Rossi, <i>Groma e squadro</i> (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Hultsch in +Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgem. Encyklopädie</i>, and by G. Humbert in +Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; Teuffel-Schwabe, +<i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i>, 58.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRONINGEN,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> the most northerly province of Holland, +bounded S. by Drente, W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee, +N. and N.E. by the North Sea and the mouth of the Ems with +the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover. +It includes the islands of Boschplaat and Rottumeroog, belonging +to the group of Frisian islands (<i>q.v.</i>). Area, 887 sq. m.; pop. +(1900) 299,602. Groningen is connected with the Drente plateau +by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to +the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is +flat and consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except +where patches of low and high fen occur on the Frisian borders. +Low fen predominates to the east of the capital, between the +Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or lakes. The south-eastern +portion of the province consists of high fen resting on diluvial +sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and the sandy soil +laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas of fen +still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian +border was long considered as the natural protection of the +eastern frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable +condition neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised +here until 1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of +houses was sanctioned and the work of reclamation begun. The +gradual extension of the seaward boundaries of the province +owing to the process of littoral deposits may be easily traced, a +triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the successive stages +in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending from the +Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued +by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through +a lock), and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south-eastern +corner of the province is traversed by the Westerwolde +Aa, which discharges into the Dollart. The railway system +belongs to the northern section of the State railways, and affords +communication with Germany via Winschoten. Steam-tramways +also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the +main industry. The proportion of landowners is a very large one, +and the prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested +by the style of his home, his dress and his gig. As a result, +however, partly of the usual want of work on the grasslands +in certain seasons, there has been a considerable emigration +to America. The ancient custom called the <i>beklem-recht</i>, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span> +lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended ownership of the +land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath his +farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity.</p> + +<p>The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and +in the north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South +Holland and Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing +and horse-breeding are also practised, together with butter and +cheese making. The cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds +in the south and the fen colonies along the Stads-Canal invite +general comparison with the industries of Drente (<i>q.v.</i>). Hoogezand +and Sappemeer, Veendam and Wildervank, New and Old +Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of villages which +have extended until they overlap one another and are similar +in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in +North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen +(<i>q.v.</i>) is the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl, +which was formerly an important fortress for the protection of +the ancient sluices on the little river Delf (hence its name), has +greatly benefited by the construction of the Ems (Eems) ship-canal +connecting it with Groningen, and has a good harbour +with a considerable import trade in wood. Appingedam and +Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle and +horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out +by the Society for Public Welfare (<i>Tot Nut van het Algemeen</i>) +in 1826.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRONINGEN,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a town of Holland, capital of the province of +the same name, at the confluence of the two canalized rivers +the Drentsche Aa and the Hunse (which are continued to the +Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m. N. of Assen and 33 m. E. +of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (1900) 67,563. Groningen is the +centre from which several important canals radiate. Besides +the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and the Damster Diep, +connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the Kolonel’s Diep +with Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem’s Canal with Assen and the +south and the Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence +steamers ply in all directions, and there is a regular service to +Emden and the island of Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the +Lauwers Zee to the island of Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is +the most important town in the north of Holland, with its fine +shops and houses and wide clean streets, while brick houses of +the 16th and 17th centuries help it to retain a certain old-world +air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the +former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of +which the Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares +in Holland. Pleasant gardens and promenades extend on the +north side of the town, together with a botanical garden. The +chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a high tower (432 ft.) +dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the famous +scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near +Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was +founded in 1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt +at the end of the 19th century) contains some remarkable +pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx (1865). There is also a +Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in classical style), +one of the finest public buildings, was built at the beginning of the +19th century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial government +offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid +front in 1871. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial +museum of antiquities, containing interesting Germanic antiquities, +as well as medieval and modern collections of porcelain, +pictures, &c.; the courts of justice (transformed in the middle +of the 18th century); the old Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted +to the administration of the surrounding district, built in 1509 +and restored in 1899; the weigh-house (1874); the civil and +military prison; the arsenal; the military hospital; and the +concert hall.</p> + +<p>The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its +present fine buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its +auxiliary establishments are a good natural history museum, +an observatory, a laboratory, and a library which contains a +copy of Erasmus’ New Testament with marginal annotations +by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and +dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in +1790, a gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music. +There are learned societies for the study of law (1761) and +natural science (1830); an academy of fine arts (1830); an +archaeological society; and a central bureau for collecting +information concerning the province.</p> + +<p>As capital of the province, and on account of the advantages +of its natural position, Groningen maintains a very considerable +trade, chiefly in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle, +with Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia and Russia. The +chief industries are flax-spinning, rope-making, sugar refining, +book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and it also manufactures +beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen stuffs, furniture, +organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil and grain +mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and silversmiths.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The town of Groningen belonged originally to the +<i>pagus</i>, or <i>gouw</i>, of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which +was bestowed by the emperor Henry II. on the bishop and +chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040 Henry III. gave the church +of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and in the deed of +gift the “villa Cruoninga” is mentioned. Upon this charter +the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of +the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the +time of the donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to +have existed, but the royal “villa” rapidly developed into a +community which strove to assert the rights of a free imperial +city. At first the bishops were too strong for the townsmen; +the defences built in 1110 were pulled down by the bishop’s +order two years later; and during the 12th and 13th centuries +the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in +maintaining its authority. Down to the 15th century an episcopal +prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority +extending over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht. +In 1143 Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the +office into an hereditary fief in favour of his brother Liffert, +on the extinction of whose male line it was partitioned between +the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden) and van den Hove. +Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the neighbouring +Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the episcopal +yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had +become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of +the 14th century it was practically a powerful independent +republic, which exercised an effective control over the Frisian +Ommelande between the Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the +close of the 14th century the heirs of the Koevorden and van den +Hove families sold their rights, first to the town, and then to the +bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was temporarily +worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the city +the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht.</p> + +<p>The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of +Utrecht, was aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none; +and the craft gilds were without direct influence on the city +government, which held them in subjection. Membership +of the governing council, which selected from its own body the +four <i>rationales</i> or burgomasters, was confined to men of approved +“wisdom,” and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This +<i>Raad</i> of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power. +The bishop’s bailiff (<i>schout</i>), with his nominated assessors +(<i>scabini</i>), continued to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the +Raad sat on the bench with him, and an appeal lay from his +court to the Raad itself. The council was, in fact, supreme +in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 it decreed that no +one might trade in all the district between the Ems and the +Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the +<i>burwal</i> (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the +gilds. Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony, +hereditary podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred +to accept the protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when +Albert’s son George attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they +recognized the lordship of Edzart of East Frisia. On George’s +renewal of hostilities they transferred their allegiance to Duke +Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In 1536 the city passed into the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span> +hands of Charles V., and in the great wars of the 16th century +suffered all the miseries of siege and military occupation. From +1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards, was constantly +at war with the “Ommelanden” which had declared +against the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the +capture of the city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree +of the States in 1597 which was intended to set them at rest. +In 1672 the town was besieged by the bishop of Münster, but +it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its fortifications were +improved under Coehoorn’s direction. The French Republicans +planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the 14th of +February 1795, and they continued in authority till the 16th +of November 1814. The fortifications of the city were doomed +to destruction by the law of the 18th of April 1874.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden</i> (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, <i>Manuel +d’histoire</i>, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.v. in Chevalier, +<i>Répertoire des sources hist. du moyen âge</i> (<i>Topo-bibliographie</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRONLUND, LAURENCE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1846-1899), American socialist, +was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on the 13th of July 1846. +He graduated from the university of Copenhagen in 1865, began +the study of law, removed to the United States in 1867, taught +German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the bar in 1869, and +practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer on +socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist +Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost exclusively +to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the +bureau of labour statistics. He again returned to the lecture +field, and was an editorial writer for the New York and Chicago +<i>American</i> from 1898 until his death in New York City on the +15th of October 1899. His principal works are: <i>The Coming +Revolution</i> (1880); <i>The Co-operative Commonwealth in its Outlines, +An Exposition of Modern Socialism</i> (1884); <i>Ça Ira, or Danton +in the French Revolution</i> (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton; +<i>Our Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion</i> +(1890); and <i>The New Economy</i> (1898).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRONOVIUS<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (the latinized form of <span class="sc">Gronov</span>), <b>JOHANN +FRIEDRICH</b> (1611-1671), German classical scholar and critic, +was born at Hamburg on the 8th of September 1611. Having +studied at several universities, he travelled in England, France +and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and +history at Deventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at Leiden, +where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fabretti, +Raphael</a></span>.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy, +Tacitus, Aulus Gellius and Seneca’s tragedies, Gronovius was +the author, amongst numerous other works, of <i>Commentarius +de sestertiis</i> (1643) and of an edition of Hugo Grotius’ De jure +belli et pacis (1660). His <i>Observationes</i> contain a number of +brilliant emendations. His son, <span class="sc">Jakob Gronovius</span> (1645-1716), +is chiefly known as the editor of the <i>Thesaurus antiquitatum +Graecarum</i> (1697-1702, in 13 volumes).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> ii. (1908); F. A. Eckstein in +Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROOM,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> in modern usage a male servant attached to the +stables, whose duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding, +currying and care generally of horses. The earliest meaning +of the word appears to be that of a boy, and in 16th and 17th +century literature it frequently occurs, in pastorals, for a shepherd +lover. Later it is used for any male attendant, and thus survives +in the name for several officials in the royal household, such as the +grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the great chamber. The +groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George III., saw +to the preparation of the sovereign’s apartment, and, during the +16th and 17th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and +was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of +gaming within the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The +O. Fr. <i>gromet</i>, shop boy, is taken by French etymologists to +be derived from the English. From the application of this +word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant’s shop, is derived +<i>gourmet</i>, an epicure. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, +though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic +languages, the word may be ultimately connected with the +root of “to grow.” In “bridegroom,” a newly married man, +“grom” in the 16th century took the place of an older <i>gome</i>, +a common old Teutonic word meaning “man,” and connected +with the Latin <i>homo</i>. The Old English word was <i>brydguma</i>, +later <i>bridegome</i>. The word survives in the German <i>Bräutigam</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROOT, GERHARD<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert +Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of +the society of Brothers of Common Life (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in 1340 +at Deventer in the diocese of Utrecht, where his father held a +good civic position. He went to the university of Paris when +only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic philosophy and theology +under a pupil of Occam’s, from whom he imbibed the nominalist +conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon law, +medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some +Hebrew. After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and +possibly became master in 1363. He pursued his studies still +further in Cologne, and perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited +the papal court at Avignon. About this time he was appointed +to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in Aix-la-Chapelle, and +the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly becoming +luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change +passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every +worldly enjoyment. This conversion, which took place In 1374, +appears to have been due partly to the effects of a dangerous +illness and partly to the influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned +and pious prior of the Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen +near Arnhem, who had remonstrated with him on the vanity +of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this monastery and +there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study, without, +however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received +ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher throughout +the diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his +labours not only in the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle, +Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden, +Delft, Zütphen and elsewhere, was immense; according to +Thomas à Kempis the people left their business and their meals +to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the +crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop +of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against +concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod. +The impartiality of his censures, which he directed not only +against the prevailing sins of the laity, but also against heresy, +simony, avarice, and impurity among the secular and regular +clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and accusations of +heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that +Groot emitted a <i>Publica Protestatio</i>, in which he declared that +Jesus Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all +of them he believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic +doctrine, and that he willingly subjected them to the candid +judgment of the Roman Church. The bishop was induced to +issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not +in priest’s orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without effect. +There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either it +was only a few months before Groot’s death, or else it must have +been removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached +in public in the last year of his life. At some period (perhaps +1381, perhaps earlier) he paid a visit of some days’ duration +to the famous mystic Johann Ruysbroeck, prior of the +Augustinian canons at Groenendael near Brussels; at this visit +was formed Groot’s attraction for the rule and life of the Augustinian +canons which was destined to bear such notable fruit. +At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who +attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, +and Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St +Augustine. No time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, +but Groot died before a foundation could be made. In 1387, +however, a site was secured at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of +Deventer, and here was established the monastery that became +the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of canons regular, +embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses, and +leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the +15th century by all the religious orders in Germany. The +initiation of this movement was the great achievement of Groot’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span> +life; he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his +other creation, the society of Brothers of Common Life. He +died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at the age of 44.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authority for Groot’s life is Thomas à Kempis, <i>Vita +Gerardi Magni</i> (translated into English by J. P. Arthur, <i>The Founders +of the New Devotion</i>, 1905); also the <i>Chronicon Windeshemense</i> +of Johann Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these +sources, will be found in S. Kettlewell, <i>Thomas à Kempis and the +Brothers of Common Life</i> (1882). i. c. 5; and a shorter account in +F. R. Cruise, <i>Thomas à Kempis</i>, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch, +with an account of Groot’s writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot’s +theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in +his day, and that the attempts to make him “a reformer before the +Reformation” are unhistorical.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a large and brilliantly +coloured Bornean squirrel, <i>Rhithrosciurus macrotis</i>, representing +a genus by itself distinguished from all other members of the +family <i>Sciuridae</i> by having numerous longitudinal grooves on +the front surface of the incisor teeth; the molars being of a +simpler type than in other members of the family. The tail is +large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks marked +by black and white bands.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROS, ANTOINE JEAN,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1771-1835), French painter, +was born at Paris in 1771. His father, who was a miniature +painter, began to teach him to draw at the age of six, and showed +himself from the first an exacting master. Towards the close +of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the studio of David, +which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same time +to follow the classes of the Collège Mazarin. The death of his +father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolution, +threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now +devoted himself wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792 +for the <i>grand prix</i>, but unsuccessfully. About this time, however, +on the recommendation of the École des Beaux Arts, he +was employed on the execution of portraits of the members of +the Convention, and when—disturbed by the development of +the Revolution—Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported +himself at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity +of miniatures and <i>fixés</i>. He visited Florence, but returning to +Genoa made the acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to +Milan, where he was well received by her husband. On November +15, 1796, Gros was present with the army near Arcola when +Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros seized on +this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had found +his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of “inspecteur +aux revues,” which enabled him to follow the army, +and in 1797 nominated him on the commission charged to select +the spoils which should enrich the Louvre. In 1799, having +escaped from the besieged city of Genoa, Gros made his way to +Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his quarters in the +Capucins. His “esquisse” (Musée de Nantes) of the “Battle of +Nazareth” gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls, but +was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt +by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him +to paint his own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. “Les Pestiférés +de Jaffa” (Louvre) was followed by the “Battle of Aboukir” +1806 (Versailles), and the “Battle of Eylau,” 1808 (Louvre). +These three subjects—the popular leader facing the pestilence +unmoved, challenging the splendid instant of victory, heart-sick +with the bitter cost of a hard-won field—gave to Gros his chief +title to fame. As long as the military element remained bound +up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and +energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the +events which he depicted; but as the army and its general +separated from the people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes +representative only of the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased +to find the nourishment necessary to his genius, and the defect +of his artistic position became evident. Trained in the sect of +the Classicists, he was shackled by their rules, even when—by his +naturalistic treatment of types, and appeal to picturesque effect +in colour and tone—he seemed to run counter to them. In 1810 +his “Madrid” and “Napoleon at the Pyramids” (Versailles) show +that his star had deserted him. His “Francis I.” and “Charles +V.,” 1812 (Louvre), had considerable success; but the decoration +of the dome of St Geneviève (begun in 1811 and completed in +1824) is the only work of Gros’s later years which shows his +early force and vigour, as well as his skill. The “Departure of +Louis XVIII.” (Versailles), the “Embarkation of Madame +d’Angoulême” (Bordeaux), the plafond of the Egyptian room in +the Louvre, and finally his “Hercules and Diomedes,” exhibited +in 1835, testify only that Gros’s efforts—in accordance with the +frequent counsels of his old master David—to stem the rising tide +of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant reputation. +Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure, +Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 25th of +June 1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near +Sèvres. From a paper which he had placed in his hat it became +known that “las de la vie, et trahi par les dernières facultés qui +la lui rendaient supportable, il avait résolu de s’en défaire.” +The number of Gros’s pupils was very great, and was considerably +augmented when, in 1815, David quitted Paris and made over +his own classes to him. Gros was decorated and named baron +of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of 1808, at which +he had exhibited the “Battle of Eylau.” Under the Restoration +he became a member of the Institute, professor at the +École des Beaux Arts, and was named chevalier of the order +of St Michel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>M. Delécluze gives a brief notice of his life in <i>Louis David et son +temps</i>, and Julius Meyer’s <i>Geschichte der modernen französischen +Malerei</i> contains an excellent criticism on his works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1827-1899), Scottish +divine and literary editor, the son of a building contractor, was +born at Stirling on the 18th of June 1827. He was educated +at Edinburgh University, and in 1856 became a Presbyterian +minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool, and three +years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in +1892, and died at Dublin on the 16th of March 1899. Dr Grosart +is chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare +Elizabethan literature, a work which he undertook in the first +instance from his strong interest in Puritan theology. Among +the first writers whose works he edited were the Puritan divines, +Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and Herbert Palmer. Editions +of Michael Bruce’s <i>Poems</i> (1865) and Richard Gilpin’s <i>Demonologia +sacra</i> (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a bibliography +of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year +until 1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers +the “Fuller Worthies Library,” a series of thirty-nine volumes +which included the works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies, +Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert, +Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir Philip Sidney. The last +four volumes of the series were devoted to the works of many +little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His <i>Occasional +Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books</i> (1875-1881) is of the +utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other +things the <i>Annalia Dubrensia</i> of Robert Dover. In 1876 still +another series, known as the “Chertsey Worthies Library,” was +begun. It included editions of the works of Nicholas Breton, +Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont, Abraham Cowley, +Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was untiring +in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two +last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881, +and no sooner had they been completed than Grosart began +the “Huth Library,” so called from the bibliophile Henry Huth, +who possessed the originals of many of the reprints. It included +the works of Robert Greene, Thomas Nash, Gabriel Harvey, +and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also edited the +complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From +the Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and +edited Sir John Eliot’s works, Sir Richard Boyle’s <i>Lismore +Papers</i>, and various publications for the Chetham Society, the +Camden Society and the Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart’s faults +of style and occasional inaccuracy do not seriously detract from +the immense value of his work. He was unwearied in searching +for rare books, and he brought to light much interesting literature, +formerly almost inaccessible.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GROSBEAK<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Grosbec</i>), a name very indefinitely applied +to many birds belonging to the families <i>Fringillidae</i> and <i>Ploceidae</i> +of modern ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the +<i>Emberizidae</i> and <i>Tanagridae</i>, but always to birds distinguished +by the great size of their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a +synonym of hawfinch (<i>q.v.</i>), but a prefix is usually added to +indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak, cardinal-grosbeak and +the like. By early writers the word was generally given as an +equivalent of the Linnaean <i>Loxia</i>, but that genus has been +found to include many forms not now placed in the same family.</p> + +<p>The Pine-grosbeak (<i>Pinicola enucleator</i>) inhabits the conifer-zone +of both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe +and probably elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches—often +journeying in large flocks; stragglers have occasionally +reached the British Islands (Yarrell, <i>Br. Birds</i>, ed. 4, ii. 177-179). +In structure and some of its habits much resembling +a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in size, it has the +plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same changes +as do the members of the restricted genus <i>Loxia</i>—the young +being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black, +the adult hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing +with crimson-red on nearly all the body-feathers, this last +colour being replaced after moulting in confinement by bright +yellow. Nests of this species were found in 1821 by Johana +Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjärwi in Swedish Lapland, +but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855, when +John Wolley, after two years’ ineffectual search, succeeded in +obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish +frontier, well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of +which are like exaggerated bullfinches’. The food of this species +seems to consist of the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees, +though the staple may very possibly be those of some kind of +pine.</p> + +<p>Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller +size, but its equals in beauty of plumage.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> They have been +referred to several genera, such as <i>Carpodacus</i>, <i>Propasser</i>, +<i>Bycanetes</i>, <i>Uragus</i> and others; but possibly <i>Carpodacus</i> is +sufficient to contain all. Most of them are natives of the Old +World, and chiefly of its eastern division, but several inhabit +the western portion of North America, and one, <i>C. githagineus</i> +(of which there seem to be at least two local races), is an especial +native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North +Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands—a singular +modification in the <i>habitat</i> of a form which one would be apt to +associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers.</p> + +<p>The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, <i>Cardinalis +virginianus</i>, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained +as to the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable +for its bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same +colour, than for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confinement +has made it a popular cage-bird on both sides of the +Atlantic. The hen is not so good a songster as the cock bird. +Her plumage, with exception of the wings and tail, which are +of a dull red, is light-olive above and brownish-yellow beneath. +This species inhabits the eastern parts of the United States +southward of 40° N. lat., and also occurs in the Bermudas. +It is represented in the south-west of North America by other +forms that by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern +parts of South America by the <i>C. phoeniceus</i>, which would +really seem entitled to distinction. Another kindred bird +placed from its short and broad bill in a different genus, and +known as <i>Pyrrhuloxia sinuata</i> or the Texan cardinal, is found on +the southern borders of the United States and in Mexico; while +among North American “grosbeaks” must also be named the +birds belonging to the genera <i>Guiraca</i> and <i>Hedymeles</i>—the +former especially exemplified by the beautiful blue <i>G. caerulea</i>, +and the latter by the brilliant rose-breasted <i>H. ludovicianus</i>, +which last extends its range into Canada.</p> + +<p>The species of the Old World which, though commonly called +“grosbeaks,” certainly belong to the family <i>Ploceidae</i>, are +treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Weaver-bird</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Many of them are described and illustrated in the <i>Monographie +des loxiens</i> of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850), +though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call +“grosbeaks.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSE, FRANCIS<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1730-1791), English antiquary, was +born at Greenford in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His +father was a wealthy Swiss jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey. +Grose early showed an interest in heraldry and antiquities, and +his father procured him a position in the Heralds’ College. In +1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his tabard, and +shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the +Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed, +the only account-books he kept were his right and left pockets, +into the one of which he received, and from the other of which +he paid. This carelessness exposed him to serious financial +difficulties; and after a vain attempt to repair them by accepting +a captaincy in the Surrey militia, the fortune left him by his +father being squandered, he began to turn to account his excellent +education and his powers as a draughtsman. In 1757 he had +been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1773 he +began to publish his <i>Antiquities of England and Wales</i>, a work +which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its +supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not +completed till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour +through Scotland, and in the course of this journey met Burns, +who composed in his honour the famous song beginning “Ken +ye aught o’ Captain Grose,” and in that other poem, still more +famous, “Hear, land o’ cakes, and brither Scots,” warned all +Scotsmen of this “chield amang them taking notes.” In 1790 +he began to publish the results of what Burns called “his +peregrinations through Scotland;” but he had not finished +the work when he bethought himself of going over to Ireland +and doing for that country what he had already done for Great +Britain. About a month after his arrival, while in Dublin, +he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend, on the +12th of June 1791.</p> + +<p>Grose was a sort of antiquarian Falstaff—at least he possessed +in a striking degree the knight’s physical peculiarities; but +he was a man of true honour and charity, a valuable friend, +“overlooking little faults and seeking out greater virtues,” +and an inimitable boon companion. His humour, his varied +knowledge and his good nature were all eminently calculated +to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“But wad ye see him in his glee,</p> +<p class="i05">For meikle glee and fun has he,</p> +<p class="i05">Then set him down, and twa or three</p> + <p class="i3">Gude fellows wi’ him;</p> +<p class="i05">And <i>port, O port!</i> shine thou a wee,</p> + <p class="i3">And <span class="sc">then</span> ye’ll see him!”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Grose’s works include <i>The Antiquities of England and Wales</i> +(6 vols., 1773-1787); <i>Advice to the Officers of the British Army</i> (1782), +a satire in the manner of Swift’s <i>Directions to Servants; A Guide +to Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour</i> (1783), a collection of advertisements +of the period, with characteristic satiric preface; <i>A Classical +Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue</i> (1785); <i>A Treatise on Ancient +Armour and Weapons</i> (1785-1789); Darrell’s <i>History of Dover</i> (1786); +<i>Military Antiquities</i> (2 vols., 1786-1788); <i>A Provincial Glossary</i> +(1787); <i>Rules for Drawing Caricatures</i> (1788); <i>The Antiquities +of Scotland</i> (2 vols., 1789-1791); <i>Antiquities of Ireland</i> (2 vols., 1791), +edited and partly written by Ledwich. <i>The Grumbler</i>, sixteen +humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death; and in 1793 +<i>The Olio</i>, a collection of essays, jests and small pieces of poetry, +highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by him, +was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also his +executor.</p> + +<p>A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first +volume of the <i>Antiquities of England and Wales</i>, and another is among +Kay’s <i>Portraits</i>. A versified sketch of him appeared in the <i>Gentleman’s +Magazine</i>, lxi. 660. See <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i>, lxi. 498, 582; Noble’s +<i>Hist. of the College of Arms</i>, p. 434; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 1st ser., ix. +350; 3rd ser., i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser., xii. 148; 6th ser., ii. 47, +257, 291; Hone, <i>Every-day Book</i>, i. 655.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat. +<i>grossus</i>. The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate +with <i>crassus</i>, thick, but this is now doubted. It also appears +not to be connected with the Ger. <i>gross</i>, a Teutonic word represented +in English by “great.” Apart from its direct meaning, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span> +and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar or flagrant, the chief +uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as opposed to “net,” +or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed to “retail” +(cf. “grocer” and “engrossing”). As a unit of tale, “gross” +equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as “small gross,” in +contrast with “great gross,” <i>i.e.</i> 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a +technical expression in English common law, “in gross” is +applied to an incorporeal hereditament attached to the person +of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is appendant +or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commons</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1828-1902), German poet, +the son of a military chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 25th of +April 1828. He received his early education at the gymnasium +in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and showing disinclination +for the ministry, entered an architect’s office. But his mind was +bent upon literature, and in 1849 he entered the university +of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he devoted +himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay +was with the tragedy <i>Cola di Rienzi</i> (1851), followed in the same +year by a comedy, <i>Eine Nachtpartie Shakespeares</i>, which was +at once produced on the stage. The success of these first two +pieces encouraged him to follow literature as a profession, +and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he joined the circle of young +poets of whom Paul Heyse (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hermann Lingg (1820-1905) +were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was dramatic +critic of the <i>Neue Münchener Zeitung</i>, and was then for a while +on the staff of the <i>Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung</i>, but in 1862 he +returned to Munich as editor of the <i>Bayrische Zeitung</i>, a post he +retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse +was appointed secretary of the <i>Schiller-Stiftung</i>, and lived for +the next few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich, +until, in 1890, he took up his permanent residence in Weimar. +He was made grand-ducal <i>Hofrat</i> and had the title of “professor.” +He died at Torbole on the Lago di Garda on the 9th of May 1902.</p> + +<p>Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems. +As a lyric poet, especially in <i>Gedichte</i> (1857) and <i>Aus bewegten +Tagen</i>, a volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to +advantage than in his novels, of which latter, however, <i>Untreu +aus Mitleid</i> (2 vols., 1868); <i>Vox populi, vox dei</i> (1869); <i>Maria +Mancini</i> (1871); <i>Neue Erzählungen</i> (1875); <i>Sophie Monnier</i> +(1876), and <i>Ein Frauenlos</i> (1888) are remarkable for a certain +elegance of style. His tragedies, <i>Die Ynglinger</i> (1858); <i>Tiberius</i> +(1876); <i>Johann von Schwaben</i>; and the comedy <i>Die steinerne +Braut</i>, had considerable success on the stage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Grosse’s <i>Gesammelte dramatische Werke</i> appeared in 7 vols. in +Leipzig (1870), while his <i>Erzählende Dichtungen</i> were published at +Berlin (6 vols., 1871-1873). An edition of his selected works by +A. Bartels is in preparation. See also his autobiography, <i>Literarische +Ursachen und Wirkungen</i> (1896); R. Prutz, <i>Die Literatur der +Gegenwart</i> (1859); J. Ethé, <i>J. Grosse als epischer Dichter</i> (1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSSENHAIN,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a town In the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N. +from Dresden, on the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda) +to Berlin and at the junction of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort-on-Oder. +Pop. (1905) 12,015. It has an Evangelical church, +a modern and a commercial school, a library and an extensive +public park. The industries are very important, and embrace +manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather, +glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settlement. +It was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom +it was strongly fortified. It afterwards came into the possession +of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it was taken in 1312 +by the margraves of Brandenburg. It suffered considerably in +all the great German wars, and in 1744 was nearly destroyed +by fire. On the 16th of May 1813, a battle took place here +between the French and the Russians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. W. Schuberth, <i>Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain</i> (Grossenhain, +1887-1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSSETESTE, ROBERT<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1175-1253), English statesman, +theologian and bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents +at Stradbrook in Suffolk. He received his education at Oxford +where he became proficient in law, medicine and the natural +sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose acquaintance he had +made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de Vere, bishop +of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop’s household, +but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself +to the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris +for this purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher. +His first preferment of importance was the chancellorship of +the university. He gained considerable distinction as a lecturer, +and was the first rector of the school which the Franciscans +established in Oxford about 1224. Grosseteste’s learning is +highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a severe critic. According +to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or Hebrew and paid +slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was pre-eminent +among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural +sciences. Between 1214 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession +the archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester. +In 1232, after a severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and +preferments except one prebend which he held at Lincoln. +His intention was to spend the rest of his life in contemplative +piety. But he retained the office of chancellor, and in 1235 +accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook without delay +the reformation of morals and clerical discipline throughout +his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with +more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his +own chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the +right of visitation over their community. The dispute raged +hotly from 1239 to 1245. It was conducted on both sides with +unseemly violence, and those who most approved of Grosseteste’s +main purpose thought it needful to warn him against the mistake +of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal visit to the papal court +at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In ecclesiastical +politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His zeal +for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian, +pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should +admit. He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry III. +upon this subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle +the question of principle in favour of the state. The devotion of +Grosseteste to the hierarchical theories of his age is attested by +his correspondence with his chapter and the king. Against the +former he upheld the prerogative of the bishops; against the +latter he asserted that it was impossible for a bishop to disregard +the commands of the Holy See. Where the liberties of the +national church came into conflict with the pretensions of Rome +he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded +that the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had +assaulted the legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1247 he +submitted patiently to papal encroachments, contenting himself +with the protection (by a special papal privilege) of his own +diocese from alien clerks. Of royal exactions he was more +impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop Saint +Edmund (<i>q.v.</i>) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical +estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee +which was empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy. +The committee rejected the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an +attempt on the king’s part to separate the clergy from the +baronage. “It is written,” the bishop said, “that united we +stand and divided we fall.”</p> + +<p>It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope +were in alliance to crush the independence of the English clergy; +and from 1250 onwards Grosseteste openly criticized the new +financial expedients to which Innocent IV. had been driven by +his desperate conflict with the Empire. In the course of a visit +which he made to Innocent in this year, the bishop laid before +the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he ascribed +all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the Curia. +It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that Grosseteste +was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much +discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In +the end, however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle. +In 1251 he protested against a papal mandate enjoining the +English clergy to pay Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for +a crusade; and called attention to the fact that, under the +system of provisions, a sum of 70,000 marks was annually drawn +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span> +from England by the alien nominees of Rome. In 1253, upon +being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a papal +nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to +the pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent, +through whom he received the mandate. The text of the +remonstrance, as given in the <i>Burton Annals</i> and in Matthew +Paris, has possibly been altered by a forger who had less respect +than Grosseteste for the papacy. The language is more violent +than that which the bishop elsewhere employs. But the general +argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so far +as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and +the apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesiastical +reformer of Grosseteste’s time. There is much more +reason for suspecting the letter addressed “to the nobles of +England, the citizens of London, and the community of the +whole realm,” in which Grosseteste is represented as denouncing +in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its branches. But even +in this case allowance must be made for the difference between +modern and medieval standards of decorum.</p> + +<p>Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the +Franciscan teacher, Adam Marsh (<i>q.v.</i>). Through Adam he +came into close relations with Simon de Montfort. From the +Franciscan’s letters it appears that the earl had studied a political +tract by Grosseteste on the difference between a monarchy and +a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm the bishop’s +projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as early +as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a +reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no +reason to suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured +before the death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy himself +overmuch with secular politics, except in so far as they +touched the interest of the Church. Grosseteste realized that +the misrule of Henry III. and his unprincipled compact with the +papacy largely accounted for the degeneracy of the English +hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical discipline. But he can +hardly be termed a constitutionalist.</p> + +<p>Grosseteste died on the 9th of October 1253. He must then +have been between seventy and eighty years of age. He was +already an elderly man, with a firmly established reputation, +when he became a bishop. As an ecclesiastical statesman he +showed the same fiery zeal and versatility of which he had given +proof in his academical career; but the general tendency of +modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and ecclesiastical +services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist and +scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew +Paris and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries, +while admitting the excellence of his intentions as a statesman, +lay stress upon his defects of temper and discretion. But they +see in him the pioneer of a literary and scientific movement; +not merely a great ecclesiastic who patronized learning in his +leisure hours, but the first mathematician and physicist of his +age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in these fields of +thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger Bacon +subsequently gave a wider currency.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste</i> (Rolls Series, 1861) edited with +a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste’s famous +memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown’s +<i>Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum</i> (1690). A tract +<i>De phisicis, lineis, angulis et figuris</i> was printed at Nuremberg in +1503, A French poem, <i>Le Chastel d’amour</i>, sometimes attributed +to him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts, +the “De moribus pueri ad mensam” (printed by Wynkyn de Worde) +and the “Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste” (printed by J. S. +Brewer in <i>Monumenta Franciscana</i>, i. 582), may be from his pen; +but the editor of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh. +There is less doubt respecting the <i>Reules Seynt Robert</i>, a tract giving +advice for the management of the household of the countess of +Lincoln. For Grosseteste’s life and work see Roger Bacon’s <i>Opus +majus</i> (ed. J. H. Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and <i>Opera quaedam inedita</i> +(ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris’s <i>Chronica majora</i> +(ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the <i>Lives</i> +by S. Pegge (1793) and F. S. Stevenson (1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSSETO,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of +the province of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop. +(1901) 5856 (town), 8843 (commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level, +and is almost circular in shape; it is surrounded by fortifications, +constructed by Francis I. (1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587-1609), +which form a hexagonal enceinte with projecting bastions, +with two gates only. The small cathedral, begun in 1294, is +built of red and white marble alternating, in the Italian Gothic +style; it was restored in 1855. The citadel was built in 1311 by +the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to Rome, +and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is the +exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and +Siena.</p> + +<p>The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal +see was transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the +rest of the Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the +dominion of Siena. By the peace of 1559, however, it passed +to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In 1745 the malaria had grown to such +an extent, owing to the neglect of the drainage works, that +Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in 1224 it had 3000 +men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage operations, +and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is +not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters +of the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.), +20 m. to the S.E. by road.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (?-1699), one of the +greatest Italian singers of the age of <i>bel canto</i>, better known as +Siface, was born at Pescia in Tuscany about the middle of the +17th century. He entered the papal chapel in 1675, and later +sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of Siface from his +impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli. It has +generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro +Scarlatti’s <i>Mitridate</i>, but the confusion is due to his having sung +the part of Mitridate in Scarlatti’s <i>Pompeo</i> at Naples in 1683. +In 1687 he was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become +a member of the chapel of James II. He probably did much +for the introduction of Italian music into England, but soon +left the country on account of the climate. Among Purcell’s +harpsichord music is an air entitled “Sefauchi’s Farewell.” +He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and +Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife +he had a <i>liaison</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Corrado Ricci’s <i>Vita Barocca</i> (Milan, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSSI, TOMMASO<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist, +was born at Bellano, on the Lake of Como, on the 20th of January +1791. He took his degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded +thence to Milan to exercise his profession; but the Austrian +government, suspecting his loyalty, interfered with his prospects, +and in consequence Grossi was a simple notary all his life. That +the suspicion was well grounded he soon showed by writing in the +Milanese dialect the battle poem <i>La Prineide</i>, in which he +described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina, chief +treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated +by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through +the streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous, +was first attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of +his own accord acknowledged himself the author. In 1816 he +published other two poems, written likewise in Milanese—<i>The +Golden Rain</i> (La Pioggia d’oro) and <i>The Fugitive</i> (La Fuggitiva). +These compositions secured him the friendship of Porta and +Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort of romantic +literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the popularity +of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he sought +to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction +in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful +with his poem <i>Ildegonda</i> (1814). He next wrote an epic poem, +entitled <i>The Lombards in the First Crusade</i>, a work of which +Manzoni makes honourable mention in <i>I Promessi Sposi</i>. This +composition, which was published by subscription (1826), attained +a success unequalled by that of any other Italian poem +within the century. The example of Manzoni induced Grossi +to write an historical novel entitled <i>Marco Visconti</i> (1834)—a +work which contains passages of fine description and deep +pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, <i>Ulrico and +Lida</i>, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span> +After his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as +a notary in Milan till his death on the 10th of December 1853.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life</i> by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROSSMITH, GEORGE<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1847-  ), English comedian, was +born on the 9th of December 1847, the son of a law reporter and +entertainer of the same name. After some years of journalistic +work he started about 1870 as a public entertainer, with songs +and recitations; but in 1877 he began a long connexion with the +Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy Theatre, London, in +<i>The Sorcerer</i>. For twelve years he had the leading part, his +capacity for “patter-songs,” and his humorous acting, dancing +and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the +Gilbert and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original +individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an +entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United +States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote <i>The +Reminiscences of a Society Clown</i> (1888); and, with his brother +Weedon, <i>The Diary of a Nobody</i> (1894). His humorous songs +and sketches numbered over six hundred. His younger brother, +Weedon Grossmith, who was educated as a painter and exhibited +at the Academy, also took to the stage, his first notable success +being in the <i>Pantomime Rehearsal</i>; in 1894 he went into management +on his own account, and had much success as a comedian. +George Grossmith’s two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George +Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well-known +figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre, +London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROS VENTRES<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Fr. for “Great Bellies”), or Atsina, a +tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. The +name is said to have reference to the greediness of the people, +but more probably originated from their prominent tattooing. +They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana. The name +has also been given to other tribes, <i>e.g.</i> the Hidatsa or Minitari, +now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROTE, GEORGE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1794-1871), English historian of Greece, +was born on the 17th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near +Beckenham in Kent. His grandfather, Andreas, originally a +Bremen merchant, was one of the founders (1st of January 1766) +of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott & Company in Threadneedle +Street, London (the name of Grote did not disappear +from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married (1793) +Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1747-1787), minister of the +countess of Huntingdon’s chapel in Westminster (descended +from a Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine +on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter +and ten sons, of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated +at first by his mother, George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks +grammar school (1800-1804) and afterwards to Charterhouse +(1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine in company +with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and +Henry Havelock. In spite of Grote’s school successes, his +father refused to send him to the university and put him in the +bank in 1810. He spent all his spare time in the study of classics, +history, metaphysics and political economy, and in learning +German, French and Italian. Driven by his mother’s Puritanism +and his father’s contempt for academic learning to outside +society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who +strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W. +Norman, through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin +(see below). After various difficulties the marriage took place +on the 5th of March 1820, and was in all respects a happy union.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic +and political attitude. In 1817 he came under the influence +of David Ricardo, and through him of James Mill and Jeremy +Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a house attached to the bank +in Threadneedle Street, where his only child died a week after +its birth. During Mrs Grote’s slow convalescence at Hampstead, +he wrote his first published work, the <i>Statement of the Question +of Parliamentary Reform</i> (1821), in reply to Sir James +Mackintosh’s article in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, advocating +popular representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments. +In 1822 he published in the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> (April) a letter +against Canning’s attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or +rather re-wrote, some discursive papers of Bentham, which he +published under the title <i>Analysis of the Influence of Natural +Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind by Philip +Beauchamp</i> (1822). The book was published in the name of +Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a +member of J. S. Mill’s Utilitarian Society (1822-1823). he took +a great interest in a society for reading and discussion, which +met (from 1823) in a room at the bank before business hours +twice a week. From the <i>Posthumous Papers</i> (pp. 22, 24) it is +clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in asserting that she first in +1823 (autumn) suggested the <i>History of Greece</i>; the book was +already in preparation in 1822, though what was then written +was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in +the <i>Westminster Review</i> (April) a criticism of Mitford’s <i>History +of Greece</i>, which shows that his ideas were already in order. +From 1826 to 1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and +Henry Brougham in the organization of the new “university” +in Gower Street. He was a member of the council which organized +the faculties and the curriculum; but in 1830, owing to a +difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the philosophical +chairs, he resigned his position.</p> + +<p>In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis, +spent some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders. +Recalled by his father’s death (6th of July), he not only became +manager of the bank, but took a leading position among the city +Radicals. In 1831 he published his important <i>Essentials of +Parliamentary Reform</i> (an elaboration of his previous <i>Statement</i>), +and, after refusing to stand as parliamentary candidate for the +city in 1831, changed his mind and was elected head of the poll, +with three other Liberals, in December 1832. After serving in +three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which time his party +(“the philosophic Radicals”) had dwindled away. During these +years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and +philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he +severed his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to +literature. In 1846 the first two volumes of the <i>History</i> appeared, +and the remaining ten between 1847 and the spring of 1856. +In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes Currie he gave monetary +assistance to Auguste Comte (<i>q.v.</i>), then in financial difficulties. +The formation of the Sonderbund (20th of July 1847) led him to +visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of things +in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states. +This visit resulted in the publication in the <i>Spectator</i> of seven +weekly letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a +letter to de Tocqueville in Mrs Grote’s reprint of the <i>Seven +Letters</i>, 1876).</p> + +<p>In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and +Aristotle. <i>Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates</i> (3 vols.) +appeared in 1865, but the work on Aristotle he was not destined +to complete. He had finished the <i>Organon</i> and was about to +deal with the metaphysical and physical treatises when he died +on the 18th of June 1871, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. +He was a man of strong character and self-control, unfailing +courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the +best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates +alike, he was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming, +trustworthy in the smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive +in thought, energetic and conscientious in action. Yet, hidden +under his calm exterior there was a burning enthusiasm and a +depth of passion of which only his intimate friends were aware.</p> + +<p>His work may best be considered under the following heads:</p> + +<p>1. <i>Grote’s Services to Education.</i>—He took, as already stated, +an important part in the foundation and organization of the +original university of London, which began its public work in +Gower Street on the 28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the +incorporation of the university of London proper, became known +as University College. In 1849 he was re-elected to the council, +in 1860 he became treasurer, and on the death of Brougham +(1868) president. He took a keen interest in all the work of the +college, presented to it the <i>Marmor Homericum</i>, and finally +bequeathed the reversion of £6000 for the endowment of a chair +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span> +of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum +were, however, to be held over and added to the principal if at +any time the holder of the chair should be “a minister of the +Church of England or of any other religious persuasion.” In +1850 the senate of the university was reconstituted, and Grote +was one of seven eminent men who were added to it. Eventually +he became the strongest advocate for open examinations, for the +claims not only of philosophy and classics but also of natural +science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the admission of +women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in 1868. +He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British +Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the +departments of antiquities and natural science.</p> + +<p>The honours which he received in recognition of these services +were as follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge +(1861); F.R.S. (1857); honorary professor of ancient history +in the Royal Academy (1859). By the French Academy of +Moral and Political Sciences he was made correspondent (1857) +and foreign associate (the first Englishman since Macaulay) +(1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone’s offer of a peerage.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Political Career.</i>—In politics Grote belonged to the “philosophic +Radicals” of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose +chief principles were representative government, vote by ballot, +the abolition of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered +to these principles throughout, and refused to countenance any +reforms which were incompatible with them. By this uncompromising +attitude, he gradually lost all his supporters save a +few men of like rigidity. As a speaker, he was clear, logical +and impressive, and on select committees his common sense +was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the <i>Minor +Works</i>; see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ballot</a></span>.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The History of Greece.</i>—It is on this work that Grote’s +reputation mainly rests. Though half a century has passed +since its production, it is still in some sense the text-book. +It consists of two parts, the “Legendary” and the “Historical” +Greece. The former, owing to the development of comparative +mythology, is now of little authority, and portions of part ii. +are obsolete owing partly to the immense accumulations of epigraphic +and archaeological research, partly to the subsequent +discovery of the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, and partly +also to the more careful weighing of evidence which Grote himself +misinterpreted. The interest of the work is twofold. In the +first place it contains a wonderful mass of information carefully +collected from all sources, arranged on a simple plan, and expressed +in direct forcible language. It is in this respect one of +the few great comprehensive histories in our possession, great in +scope, conception and accomplishment. But more than this it is +interesting as among the first works in which Greek history +became a separate study, based on real evidence and governed +by the criteria of modern historical science. Further Grote, +a practical man, a rationalist and an enthusiast for democracy, +was the first to consider Greek political development with a +sympathetic interest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History, Ancient</i>, section +“Authorities”), in opposition to the Tory attitude of John +Gillies and Mitford, who had written under the influence of horror +at the French Revolution. On the whole his work was done with +impartiality, and more recent study has only confirmed his +general conclusions. Much has been made of his defective +accounts of the tyrants and the Macedonian empire, and his +opinion that Greek history ceased to be interesting or instructive +after Chaeronea. It is true that he confined his interest to the +fortunes of the city state and neglected the wider diffusion of the +Greek culture, but this is after all merely a criticism of the title +of the book. The value of the <i>History</i> consists to-day primarily +in its examination of the Athenian democracy, its growth and +decline, an examination which is still the most inspiring, and in +general the most instructive, in any language. In the description +of battles and military operations generally Grote was handicapped +by the lack of personal knowledge of the country. In this +respect he is inferior to men like Ernst Curtius and G. B. Grundy.</p> + +<p>4. <i>In Philosophy</i> Grote was a follower of the Mills and +Bentham. J. S. Mill paid a tribute to him in the preface to the +third edition of his <i>Examination of Sir Wm. Hamilton’s Philosophy</i>, +and there is no doubt that the empirical school owed a great deal +to his sound, accurate thinking, untrammelled by any reverence +for authority, technique and convention. In dealing with Plato +he was handicapped by this very common sense, which prevented +him from appreciating the theory of ideas in its widest relations. +His <i>Plato</i> is important in that it emphasizes the generally +neglected passages of Plato in which he seems to indulge in mere +Socratic dialectic rather than to seek knowledge; it is, therefore, +to be read as a corrective to the ordinary criticism of Plato. +The more congenial study of Aristotle, though incomplete, is +more valuable in the positive sense, and has not received the +attention it deserves. Perhaps Grote’s most distinctive contribution +to the study of Greek philosophy is his chapter in the +<i>History of Greece</i> on the Sophists, of whom he took a view somewhat +more favourable than has been accepted before or since.</p> + +<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Harriet Lewin</span> (1792-1878), was the daughter of +Thomas Lewin, a retired Indian civilian, settled in Southampton. +After her marriage with Grote in 1820 she devoted herself to the +subjects in which he was interested and was a prominent figure in +the literary, political and philosophical circle in which he lived. +She carefully read the proofs of his work and relieved him of +anxiety in connexion with his property. Among her writings are: +<i>Memoir of Ary Scheffer</i> (1860); <i>Collected Papers</i> (1862); and +her biography of her husband (1873). Another publication, +<i>The Philosophical Radicals of 1832</i> (privately circulated in 1866), +is interesting for the light it throws on the Reform movement of +1832 to 1842, especially on Molesworth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>The History of Greece</i> passed through five editions +the fifth (10 vols., 1888) being final. An edition covering the period +from Solon to 403, with new notes and excursuses, was published by +J. M. Mitchell and M. O. B. Caspari in 1907. The <i>Plato</i> was finally +edited by Alexander Bain in 4 vols. See Mrs Grote’s <i>Personal +Life of George Grote</i>, and article in <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> by G. Croom +Robertson.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1775-1853), German +epigraphist, was born at Münden in Hanover on the 9th of June +1775. He was educated partly in his native town, partly at +Ilfeld, where he remained till 1795, when he entered the university +of Göttingen, and there became the friend of Heyne, Tychsen +and Heeren. Heyne’s recommendation procured for him an +assistant mastership in the Göttingen gymnasium in 1797. +While there he published his work <i>De pasigraphia sive scriptura +universali</i> (1799), which led to his appointment in 1803 as +prorector of the gymnasium of Frankfort-on-Main, and shortly +afterwards as conrector. Grotefend was best known during his +lifetime as a Latin and Italian philologist, though the attention +he paid to his own language is shown by his <i>Anfangsgründe der +deutschen Poesie</i>, published in 1815, and his foundation of a +society for investigating the German tongue in 1817. In 1821 +he became director of the gymnasium at Hanover, a post which +he retained till his retirement in 1849. In 1823-1824 appeared +his revised edition of Wenck’s Latin grammar, in two volumes, +followed by a smaller grammar for the use of schools in 1826; +in 1835-1838 a systematic attempt to explain the fragmentary +remains of the Umbrian dialect, entitled <i>Rudimenta linguae +Umbricae ex inscriptionibus antiquis enodata</i> (in eight parts); and +in 1839 a work of similar character upon Oscan (<i>Rudimenta +linguae Oscae</i>). In the same year he published an important +memoir on the coins of Bactria, under the name of <i>Die Münzen der +griechischen, parthischen, und indoskythischen Könige von Bactrien +und den Ländern am Indus</i>. He soon, however, returned to his +favourite subject, and brought out a work in five parts, <i>Zur +Geographie und Geschichte von Altitalien</i> (1840-1842). Previously, +in 1836, he had written a preface to Wagenfeld’s translation of the +spurious <i>Sanchoniathon</i> of Philo Byblius, which was alleged to +have been discovered in the preceding year in the Portuguese +convent of Santa Maria de Merinhao. But it was in the East +rather than in the West that Grotefend did his greatest work. +The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia had for some time been +attracting attention in Europe; exact copies of them had been +published by the elder Niebuhr, who lost his eyesight over the +work; and Grotefend’s friend, Tychsen of Rostock, believed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span> +that he had ascertained the characters in the column, now known +to be Persian, to be alphabetic. At this point Grotefend took +the matter up. His first discovery was communicated to the +Royal Society of Göttingen in 1800, and reviewed by Tychsen +two years afterwards. In 1815 he gave an account of it in +Heeren’s great work on ancient history, and in 1837 published +his <i>Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der persepolitanischen Keilschrift</i>. +Three years later appeared his <i>Neue Beiträge zur +Erläuterung der babylonischen Keilschrift</i>. His discovery may +be summed up as follows: (1) that the Persian inscriptions +contain three different forms of cuneiform writing, so that the +decipherment of the one would give the key to the decipherment +of the others; (2) that the characters of the Persian column are +alphabetic and not syllabic; (3) that they must be read from +left to right; (4) that the alphabet consists of forty letters, +including signs for long and short vowels; and (5) that the +Persepolitan inscriptions are written in Zend (which, however, +is not the case), and must be ascribed to the age of the Achaemenian +princes. The process whereby Grotefend arrived at +these conclusions is a prominent illustration of persevering +genius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cuneiform</a></span>). A solid basis had thus been laid for +the interpretation of the Persian inscriptions, and all that +remained was to work out the results of Grotefend’s brilliant +discovery, a task ably performed by Burnouf, Lassen and +Rawlinson. Grotefend died on the 15th of December 1853.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROTESQUE,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> strictly a form of decorative art, in painting +or sculpture, consisting of fantastic shapes of human beings, +animals and the like, joined together by wreaths of flowers, +garlands or arabesques. The word is also applied to any whimsical +design or decorative style, if characterized by unnatural +distortion, and, generally, to anything ludicrous or extravagantly +fanciful. “Grotesque” comes through the French from the +Ital. <i>grottesco</i>, an adjective formed from <i>grotta</i>, which has been +corrupted in English to “grotto.” The commonly accepted +explanation of the special use of the term “grotesque” is that +this particular form of decorative art was most frequently found +in the excavated ancient Roman and Greek dwellings found in +Italy, to which was applied the name <i>grotte</i>. The derivation of +<i>grotta</i> is through popular Lat. <i>crupta</i> or <i>grupta</i> (cf. “crypt”), +from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kyptê">κρύπτη</span>, a vault, <span class="grk" title="kryptein">κρύπτειν</span>, to hide. Such a term would +be applicable both to the buried dwellings of ancient Italy, and +to a cavern, artificial or natural, the ordinary sense of the word. +An interesting parallel with this origin of the word is found in +that of “antic,” now meaning a freak, a jest, absurd fancy, &c. +This word is the same as “antique,” and was, like “grotesque,” +first applied to the fanciful decorations of ancient art.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROTH, KLAUS<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1819-1899), Low German poet, was born +at Heide in Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After +studying at the seminary in Tondern (1838-1841), he became a +teacher at the girls’ school in his native village, but in 1847 went +to Kiel to qualify for a higher educational post. Ill-health +interrupted his studies and it was not until 1853 that he was able +to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took the degree of doctor +of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as <i>privatdocent</i> in +German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in 1866, he was +made professor, and where he lived until his death on the 1st +of June 1899. In his Low German (<i>Plattdeutsch</i>) lyric and epic +poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (<i>q.v.</i>), +Groth gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern +home; and though his descriptions may not always reflect the +peculiar characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully +as those of F. Reuter (<i>q.v.</i>), yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine +inspiration. His chief works are <i>Quickborn, Volksleben in +plattdeutschen Gedichten Ditmarscher Mundart</i> (1852; 25th ed. +1900; and in High German translations, notably by M. J. +Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes of stories, <i>Vertelln</i> +(1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also <i>Voer de Goern</i> (1858) and <i>Ut +min Jungsparadies</i> (1875).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Groth’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> appeared in 4 vols. (1893). His <i>Lebenserinnerungen</i> +were edited by E. Wolff in 1891; see also K. Eggers, +<i>K. Groth und die plattdeutsche Dichtung</i> (1885); and biographies by +A. Bartels (1899) and H. Siercks (1899.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1843-  ), German +mineralogist, was born at Magdeburg on the 23rd of June 1843. +He was educated at Freiberg, Dresden and Berlin, and took +the degree of Ph.D. in 1868. After holding from 1872 the chair +of mineralogy at Strasburg, he was in 1883 appointed professor +of mineralogy and curator of minerals in the state museum +at Munich. He carried on extensive researches on crystals and +minerals, and also on rocks; and published <i>Tabellarische +Übersicht der einfachen Mineralien</i> (1874-1898), and <i>Physikalische +Krystallographie</i> (1876-1895, ed. 4, 1905). He edited for +some years the <i>Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROTIUS, HUGO<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1583-1645), in his native country Huig van +Groot, but known to the rest of Europe by the latinized form +of the name, Dutch publicist and statesman, was born at Delft +on Easter day, the 10th of April 1583. The Groots were a branch +of a family of distinction, which had been noble in France, but +had removed to the Low Countries more than a century before. +Their French name was de Cornets, and this cadet branch had +taken the name of Groot on the marriage of Hugo’s great-grandfather +with a Dutch heiress. The father of Hugo was a lawyer +in considerable practice, who had four times served the office +of burgomaster of Leiden, and was one of the three curators +of the university of that place.</p> + +<p>In the annals of precocious genius there is no greater prodigy +on record than Hugo Grotius, who was able to make good Latin +verses at nine, was ripe for the university at twelve, and at +fifteen edited the encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella. +At Leiden he was much noticed by J. J. Scaliger, whose habit +it was to engage his young friends in the editing of some classical +text. At fifteen Grotius accompanied Count Justin of Nassau, +and the grand pensionary J. van Olden Barneveldt on their +special embassy to the court of France. After a year spent in +acquiring the language and making acquaintance with the +leading men of France, Grotius returned home. He took the +degree of doctor of law at Leiden, and entered on practice as an +advocate.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding his successes in his profession, his inclination +was to literature. In 1600 he edited the remains of Aratus, +with the versions of Cicero, Germanicus and Avienus. Of the +<i>Germanicus</i> Scaliger says—“A better text than that which +Grotius has given, it is impossible to give”; but it is probable +that Scaliger had himself been the reviser. Grotius vied with +the Latinists of his day in the composition of Latin verses. +Some lines on the siege of Ostend spread his fame beyond the +circle of the learned. He wrote three dramas in Latin:—<i>Christus +patiens; Sophomphaneas</i>, on the story of Joseph and +his brethren; and <i>Adamus exul</i>, a production still remembered +as having given hints to Milton. The <i>Sophomphaneas</i> was +translated into Dutch by Vondel, and into English by Francis +Goldsmith (1652); the <i>Christus patiens</i> into English by George +Sandys (1640).</p> + +<p>In 1603 the United Provinces, desiring to transmit to posterity +some account of their struggle with Spain, determined to appoint +a historiographer. The choice of the states fell upon Grotius, +though he was but twenty years of age, and had not offered +himself for the post. There was some talk at this time in Paris +of calling Grotius to be librarian of the royal library. But it was +a ruse of the Jesuit party, who wished to persuade the public +that the opposition to the appointment of Isaac Casaubon did +not proceed from theological motives, since they were ready +to appoint a Protestant in the person of Grotius.</p> + +<p>His next preferment was that of advocate-general of the +fisc for the provinces of Holland and Zeeland. This was followed +by his marriage, in 1608, to Marie Reigersberg, a lady of family +in Zeeland, a woman of great capacity and noble disposition.</p> + +<p>Grotius had already passed from occupation with the classics +to studies more immediately connected with his profession. +In the winter of 1604 he composed (but did not publish) a treatise +entitled <i>De jure praedae</i>. The MS. remained unknown till 1868, +when it was brought to light, and printed at the Hague under the +auspices of Professor Fruin. It shows that the principles and the +plan of the celebrated <i>De jure belli</i>, which was not composed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span> +till 1625, more than twenty years after, had already been conceived +by a youth of twenty-one. It has always been a question +what it was that determined Grotius, when an exile in Paris in +1625, to that particular subject, and various explanations have +been offered; among others a casual suggestion of Peiresc in a +letter of early date. The discovery of the MS. of the <i>De jure +praedae</i> discloses the whole history of Grotius’s ideas, and shows +that from youth upwards he had steadily read and meditated +in one direction, that, namely, of which the famous <i>De jure belli</i> +was the mature product. In the <i>De jure praedae</i> of 1604 there is +much more than the germ of the later treatise <i>De jure belli</i>. +Its main principles, and the whole system of thought implied +in the later, are anticipated in the earlier work. The arrangement +even is the same. The chief difference between the two treatises +is one which twenty years’ experience in affairs could not but +bring—the substitution of more cautious and guarded language, +less dogmatic affirmation, more allowance for exceptions and +deviations. The <i>Jus pacis</i> was an addition introduced first +in the later work, an insertion which is the cause of not a little +of the confused arrangement which has been found fault with +in the <i>De jure belli</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>De jure praedae</i> further demonstrates that Grotius was +originally determined to this subject, not by any speculative +intellectual interest, but by a special occasion presented by his +professional engagements. He was retained by the Dutch +East India Company as their advocate. One of their captains, +Heemskirk, had captured a rich Portuguese galleon in the Straits +of Malacca. The right of a private company to make prizes +was hotly contested in Holland, and denied by the stricter +religionists, especially the Mennonites, who considered all war +unlawful. Grotius undertook to prove that Heemskirk’s prize +had been lawfully captured. In doing this he was led to investigate +the grounds of the lawfulness of war in general. Such +was the casual origin of a book which long enjoyed such celebrity +that it used to be said, with some exaggeration indeed, that it +had founded a new science.</p> + +<p>A short treatise which was printed in 1609, Grotius says +without his permission, under the title of <i>Mare liberum</i>, is +nothing more than a chapter—the 12th—of the <i>De jure praedae</i>. +It was necessary to Grotius’s defence of Heemskirk that he +should show that the Portuguese pretence that Eastern waters +were their private property was untenable. Grotius maintains +that the ocean is free to all nations. The occasional character +of this piece explains the fact that at the time of its appearance +it made no sensation. It was not till many years afterwards +that the jealousies between England and Holland gave importance +to the novel doctrine broached in the tract by Grotius, +a doctrine which Selden set himself to refute in his <i>Mare clausum</i> +(1632).</p> + +<p>Equally due to the circumstances of the time was his small +contribution to constitutional history entitled <i>De antiquitate +reipublicae Batavae</i> (1610). In this he vindicates, on grounds +of right, prescriptive and natural, the revolt of the United +Provinces against the sovereignty of Spain.</p> + +<p>Grotius, when he was only thirty, was made pensionary of the +city of Rotterdam. In 1613 he formed one of a deputation +to England, in an attempt to adjust those differences which +gave rise afterwards to a naval struggle disastrous to Holland. +He was received by James with every mark of distinction. +He also cultivated the acquaintance of the Anglican ecclesiastics +John Overall and L. Andrewes, and was much in the society +of the celebrated scholar Isaac Casaubon, with whom he had +been in correspondence by letter for many years. Though the +mediating views in the great religious conflict between Catholic +and Protestant, by which Grotius was afterwards known, had +been arrived at by him by independent reflection, yet it could +not but be that he would be confirmed in them by finding in +England a developed school of thought of the same character +already in existence. How highly Casaubon esteemed Grotius +appears from a letter of his to Daniel Heinsius, dated London, +13th of April 1613. “I cannot say how happy I esteem myself +in having seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius. A +wonderful man! This I knew him to be before I had seen him; +but the rare excellence of that divine genius no one can sufficiently +feel who does not see his face, and hear him speak. Probity +is stamped on his features; his conversation savours of true +piety and profound learning. It is not only upon me that he +has made this impression; all the pious and learned to whom +he has been here introduced have felt the same towards him; +the king especially so!”</p> + +<p>After Grotius’s return from England the exasperation of +theological parties in Holland rose to such a pitch that it became +clear that an appeal to force would be made. Grotius sought +to find some mean term in which the two hostile parties of +Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, or as they were subsequently +called Arminians and Gomarists (see Remonstrants), +might agree. A form of edict drawn by Grotius was published +by the states, recommending mutual toleration, and forbidding +ministers in the pulpit from handling the disputed dogmas. +To the orthodox Calvinists the word toleration was insupportable. +They had the populace on their side. This fact determined the +stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau, to support the orthodox party—a +party to which he inclined the more readily that Olden +Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the man whose uprightness +and abilities he most dreaded, sided with the Remonstrants.</p> + +<p>In 1618 Prince Maurice set out on a sort of pacific campaign, +disbanding the civic guards in the various cities of Guelders, +Holland and Zeeland, and occupying the places with troops +on whom he could rely. The states of Holland sent a commission, +of which Grotius was chairman, to Utrecht, with the view of +strengthening the hands of their friends, the Remonstrant +party, in that city. Feeble plans were formed, but not carried +into effect, for shutting the gates upon the stadtholder, who +entered the city with troops on the night of the 26th of July +1618. There were conferences in which Grotius met Prince +Maurice, and taught him that Olden Barneveldt was not the only +man of capacity in the ranks of the Remonstrants whom he had +to fear. On the early morning of the 31st of July the prince’s +<i>coup d’état</i> against the liberties of Utrecht and of Holland was +carried out; the civic guard was disarmed—Grotius and his +colleagues saving themselves by a precipitate flight. But it +was only a reprieve. The grand pensionary, Olden Barneveldt, +the leader of the Remonstrant party, Grotius and Hoogerbeets +were arrested, brought to trial, and condemned—Olden +Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to imprisonment for life and +confiscation of his property. In June 1619 he was immured +in the fortress of Louvestein near Gorcum. His confinement +was rigorous, but after a time his wife obtained permission to +share his captivity, on the condition that if she came out, she +should not be suffered to return.</p> + +<p>Grotius had now before him, at thirty-six, no prospect but +that of a life-long captivity. He did not abandon himself to +despair, but sought refuge in returning to the classical pursuits +of his youth. Several of his translations (into Latin) from the +Greek tragedians and other writers, made at this time, have +been printed. “The Muses,” he writes to Voss, “were now his +consolation, and appeared more amiable than ever.”</p> + +<p>The ingenuity of Madame Grotius at length devised a mode of +escape. It had grown into a custom to send the books which +he had done with in a chest along with his linen to be washed at +Gorcum. After a time the warders began to let the chest pass +without opening it. Madame Grotius, perceiving this, prevailed +on her husband to allow himself to be shut up in it at the usual +time. The two soldiers who carried the chest out complained +that it was so heavy “there must be an Arminian in it.” “There +are indeed,” said Madame Grotius, “Arminian books in it.” +The chest was carried to the house of a friend, where Grotius was +released. He was then dressed like a mason with hod and trowel, +and so conveyed over the frontier. His first place of refuge was +Antwerp, from which he proceeded to Paris, where he arrived +in April 1621. In October he was joined by his wife. There +he was presented to the king, Louis XIII., and a pension of 3000 +livres conferred upon him. French pensions were easily granted, +all the more so as they were never paid. Grotius was now +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> +reduced to great straits. He looked about for any opening +through which he might earn a living. There was talk of something +in Denmark; or he would settle in Spires, and practise +in the court there. Some little relief he got through the intervention +of Étienne d’Aligre, the chancellor, who procured a royal +mandate which enabled Grotius to draw, not all, but a large +part of his pension. In 1623 the president Henri de Même lent +him his château of Balagni near Senlis (dep. Oise), and there +Grotius passed the spring and summer of that year. De Thou +gave him facilities to borrow books from the superb library +formed by his father.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances the <i>De jure belli et pacis</i> was composed. +That a work of such immense reading, consisting in great part of +quotation, should have been written in little more than a year +was a source of astonishment to his biographers. The achievement +would have been impossible, but for the fact that Grotius +had with him the first draft of the work made in 1604. He had +also got his brother William, when reading his classics, to mark +down all the passages which touched upon law, public or private. +In March 1625 the printing of the <i>De jure belli</i>, which had +taken four months, was completed, and the edition despatched to +the fair at Frankfort. His own honorarium as author consisted +of 200 copies, of which, however, he had to give away many to +friends, to the king, the principal courtiers, the papal nuncio, &c. +What remained he sold for his own profit at the price of a crown +each, but the sale did not recoup him his outlay. But though +his book brought him no profit it brought him reputation, so +widely spread, and of such long endurance, as no other legal +treatise has ever enjoyed.</p> + +<p>Grotius hoped that his fame would soften the hostility of his +foes, and that his country would recall him to her service. Theological +rancour, however, prevailed over all other sentiments, +and, after fruitless attempts to re-establish himself in Holland, +Grotius accepted service under Sweden, in the capacity of +ambassador to France. He was not very successful in negotiating +the treaty on behalf of the Protestant interest in Germany, +Richelieu having a special dislike to him. He never enjoyed the +confidence of the court to which he was accredited, and frittered +away his influence in disputes about precedence. In 1645 he +demanded and obtained his recall. He was honourably received +at Stockholm, but neither the climate nor the tone of the court +suited him, and he asked permission to leave. He was driven +by a storm on the coast near Dantzig. He got as far as Rostock, +where he found himself very ill. Stockman, a Scottish physician +who was sent for, thought it was only weakness, and that rest +would restore the patient. But Grotius sank rapidly, and died +on the 29th of August 1645.</p> + +<p>Grotius combined a wide circle of general knowledge with a +profound study of one branch of law. History, theology, +jurisprudence, politics, classics, poetry,—all these fields he +cultivated. His commentaries on the Scriptures were the first +application on an extensive scale of the principle affirmed by +Scaliger, that, namely, of interpretation by the rules of grammar +without dogmatic assumptions. Grotius’s philological skill, +however, was not sufficient to enable him to work up to this ideal.</p> + +<p>As in many other points Grotius inevitably recalls Erasmus, +so he does in his attitude towards the great schism. Grotius +was, however, animated by an ardent desire for peace and concord. +He thought that a basis for reconciliation of Protestant +and Catholic might be found in a common piety, combined with +reticence upon discrepancies of doctrinal statement. His <i>De +veritate religionis Christianae</i> (1627), a presentment of the +evidences, is so written as to form a code of common Christianity, +irrespective of sect. The little treatise became widely popular, +gaining rather than losing popularity in the 18th century. It +became the classical manual of apologetics in Protestant colleges, +and was translated for missionary purposes into Arabic (by +Pococke, 1660), Persian, Chinese, &c. His <i>Via et votum ad +pacem ecclesiasticam</i> (1642) was a detailed proposal of a scheme +of accommodation. Like all men of moderate and mediating +views, he was charged by both sides with vacillation. An +Amsterdam minister, James Laurent, published his <i>Grotius +papizans</i> (1642), and it was continually being announced from +Paris that Grotius had “gone over.” Hallam, who has collected +all the passages from Grotius’s letters in which the prejudices +and narrow tenets of the Reformed clergy are condemned, thought +he had a “bias towards popery” (<i>Lit. of Europe</i>, ii. 312). The +true interpretation of Grotius’s mind appears to be an indifference +to dogmatic propositions, produced by a profound sentiment of +piety. He approached parties as a statesman approaches them, +as facts which have to be dealt with, and governed, not suppressed +in the interests of some one of their number.</p> + +<p>His editions and translations of the classics were either juvenile +exercises prescribed by Scaliger, or “lusus poetici,” the amusement +of vacant hours. Grotius read the classics as a humanist, +for the sake of their contents, not as a professional scholar.</p> + +<p>His <i>Annals of the Low Countries</i> was begun as an official duty +while he held the appointment of historiographer, and was being +continued and retouched by him to the last. It was not published +till 1657, by his sons Peter and Cornelius.</p> + +<p>Grotius was a great jurist, and his <i>De jure belli et pacis</i> (Paris, +1625), though not the first attempt in modern times to ascertain +the principles of jurisprudence, went far more fundamentally +into the discussion than any one had done before him. The +title of the work was so far misleading that the <i>jus belli</i> was a +very small part of his comprehensive scheme. In his treatment +of this narrower question he had the works of Alberico Gentili +and Ayala before him, and has acknowledged his obligations to +them. But it is in the larger questions to which he opened the +way that the merit of Grotius consists. His was the first attempt +to obtain a principle of right, and a basis for society and government, +outside the church or the Bible. The distinction between +religion on the one hand and law and morality on the other is not +indeed clearly conceived by Grotius, but he wrestles with it in +such a way as to make it easy for those who followed him to seize +it. The law of nature is unalterable; God Himself cannot alter +it any more than He can alter a mathematical axiom. This law +has its source in the nature of man as a social being; it would +be valid even were there no God, or if God did not interfere in +the government of the world. These positions, though Grotius’s +religious temper did not allow him to rely unreservedly upon +them, yet, even in the partial application they find in his book, +entitle him to the honour of being held the founder of the modern +science of the law of nature and nations. The <i>De jure</i> exerted +little influence on the practice of belligerents, yet its publication +was an epoch in the science. De Quincey has said that the book +is equally divided between “empty truisms and time-serving +Dutch falsehoods.” For a saner judgment and a brief abstract +of the contents of the <i>De jure</i>, consult J. K. Bluntschli, <i>Geschichte +des allgemeinen Staatsrechts</i> (Munich, 1864). A fuller analysis, +and some notice of the predecessors of Grotius, will be found in +Hély, <i>Étude sur le droit de la guerre de Grotius</i> (Paris, 1875). +The writer, however, had never heard of the <i>De jure praedae</i>, +published in 1868. Hallam, <i>Lit. of Europe</i>, ii. p. 543, has an +abstract done with his usual conscientious pains. Dugald +Stewart (<i>Collected Works</i>, i. 370) has dwelt upon the confusion +and defects of Grotius’s theory. Sir James Mackintosh (<i>Miscell. +Works</i>, p. 166) has defended Grotius, affirming that his work +“is perhaps the most complete that the world has yet owed, at +so early a stage in the progress of any science, to the genius and +learning of one man.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief writings of Grotius have been named. For a complete +bibliography of his works, see Lehmann, <i>Hugonis Grotii manes +vindicati</i> (Delft, 1727), which also contains a full biography. Of +this Latin life De Burigny published a réchauffée in French (2 vols., +8vo, Paris, 1752). Other lives are: Van Brandt, <i>Historie van het +Leven H. de Groot</i> (2 vols., 8vo, Dordrecht, 1727); Von Luden, +<i>Hugo Grotius nach seinen Schicksalen und Schriften dargestellt</i> (8vo, +Berlin, 1806); <i>Life of Hugo Grotius</i>, by Charles Butler of Lincoln’s +Inn (8vo, London, 1826). The work of the Abbé Hély contains a +life of Grotius. See also <i>Hugo Grotius</i>, by L. Neumann (Berlin, 1884); +<i>Opinions of Grotius</i>, by D. P. de Bruyn (London, 1894).</p> + +<p>Grotius’s theological works were collected in 3 vols. fol. at Amsterdam +(1644-1646; reprinted London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1679; +and again Amsterdam, 1698). His letters were printed first in a +selection, <i>Epistolae ad Gallos</i> (12mo, Leiden, 1648), abounding, +though an Elzevir, in errors of the press. They were collected in <i>H.</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span> +<i>Grotii epistolae quotquot reperiri poluerunt</i> (fol., Amsterdam, 1687). +A few may be found scattered in other collections of <i>Epistolae</i>. +Supplements to the large collection of 1687 were published at +Haarlem, 1806; Leiden, 1809; and Haarlem, 1829. The <i>De jure +belli</i> was translated into English by Whewell (3 vols., 8vo, Cambridge, +1853); into French by Barbeyrac (2 vols. 4to, Amsterdam, 1724); +into German in Kirchmann’s <i>Philosophische Bibliothek</i> (3 vols. 12mo, +Leipzig, 1879).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROTTAFERRATA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, +from which it is 13 m. S.E. by electric tramway, and 2½ m. S. +of Frascati, 1080 ft. above sea-level, in the Alban Hills. Pop. +(1901) 2645. It is noticeable for the Greek monastery of Basilians +founded by S. Nilus in 1002 under the Emperor Otho III., and +which occupies the site of a large Roman villa, possibly that of +Cicero. It was fortified at the end of the 15th century by Cardinal +Giuliano della Rovere (afterwards Pope Julius II.), whose arms +may be seen about it. The massive towers added by him give +it a picturesque appearance. The church belongs to the 12th +century, and the original portal, with a mosaic over it, is still +preserved; the interior was restored in 1574 and in 1754, but +there are some remains of frescoes of the 13th century. The +chapel of S. Nilus contains frescoes by Domenico Zampieri +(Domenichino) of 1610, illustrating the life of the saint, which +are among his most important works. The abbot’s palace has +a fine Renaissance portico, and contains an interesting museum +of local antiquities. The library contains valuable MSS., among +them one from the hand of S. Nilus (965); and a palaeographical +school, for the copying of MSS. in the ancient style, is maintained. +An <i>omophorion</i> of the 11th or 12th century, with scenes from the +Gospel in needlework, and a chalice of the 15th century with +enamels, given by Cardinal Bessarion, the predecessor of Giuliano +della Rovere as commendatory of the abbey, are among its +treasures. An important exhibition of Italo-Byzantine art was +held here in 1905-1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Rocchi, <i>La Badia di Grottaferrata</i> (Rome, 1884); A. +Muñoz, <i>L’Art byzantin à l’exposition de Grottaferrata</i> (Rome, 1905); +T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iv. (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUCHY, EMMANUEL,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1766-1847), marshal +of France, was born in Paris on the 23rd of October 1766. He +entered the French artillery in 1779, transferred to the cavalry +in 1782, and to the <i>Gardes du corps</i> in 1786. In spite of his +aristocratic birth and his connexions with the court, he was a +convinced supporter of the principles of the Revolution, and had +in consequence to leave the Guards. About the time of the +outbreak of war in 1792 he became colonel of a cavalry regiment, +and soon afterwards, as a <i>maréchal de camp</i>, he was sent to serve +on the south-eastern frontier. In 1793 he distinguished himself +in La Vendée, and was promoted general of division. Grouchy +was shortly afterwards deprived of his rank as being of noble +birth, but in 1795 he was again placed on the active list. He +served on the staff of the Army of Ireland (1796-1797), and took +a conspicuous part in the Irish expedition. In 1798 he +administered the civil and military government of Piedmont at +the time of the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and in 1799 he +distinguished himself greatly as a divisional commander in the +campaign against the Austrians and Russians. In covering +the retreat of the French after the defeat of Novi, Grouchy received +fourteen wounds and was taken prisoner. On his release +he returned to France. In spite of his having protested against the +<i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th of Brumaire he was at once re-employed by +the First Consul, and distinguished himself again at Hohenlinden. +It was not long before he accepted the new régime in France, +and from 1801 onwards he was employed by Napoleon in military +and political positions of importance. He served in Austria in +1805, in Prussia in 1806, Poland in 1807, Spain in 1808, and commanded +the cavalry of the Army of Italy in 1809 in the Viceroy +Eugène’s advance to Vienna. In 1812 he was made commander +of one of the four cavalry corps of the Grand Army, and during +the retreat from Moscow Napoleon appointed him to command +the escort squadron, which was composed entirely of picked +officers. His almost continuous service with the cavalry led +Napoleon to decline in 1813 to place Grouchy at the head of an +army corps, and Grouchy thereupon retired to France. In +1814, however, he hastened to take part in the defensive campaign +in France, and he was severely wounded at Craonne. At the +Restoration he was deprived of the post of colonel-general of +<i>chasseurs à cheval</i> and retired. He joined Napoleon on his +return from Elba, and was made marshal and peer of France. +In the campaign of Waterloo he commanded the reserve cavalry +of the army, and after Ligny he was appointed to command +the right wing to pursue the Prussians. The march on Wavre, +its influence on the result of the campaign, and the controversy +to which Grouchy’s conduct on the day of Waterloo has given +rise, are dealt with briefly in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>, +and at length in nearly every work on the campaign of 1815. +Here it is only necessary to say that on the 17th Grouchy was +unable to close with the Prussians, and on the 18th, though +urged to march towards the sound of the guns of Waterloo, +he permitted himself, from whatever cause, to be held up by a +Prussian rearguard while the Prussians and English united +to crush Napoleon. On the 19th Grouchy won a smart victory +over the Prussians at Wavre, but it was then too late. So far +as resistance was possible after the great disaster, Grouchy +made it. He gathered up the wrecks of Napoleon’s army, and +retired, swiftly and unbroken, to Paris, where, after interposing +his reorganized forces between the enemy and the capital, he +resigned his command into the hands of Marshal Davout. The +rest of his life was spent in defending himself. An attempt to +have him condemned to death by a court-martial failed, but +he was exiled and lived in America till amnestied in 1821. On +his return to France he was reinstated as general, but not as +marshal nor as peer of France. For many years thereafter +he was equally an object of aversion to the court party, as a +member of their own caste who had followed the Revolution +and Napoleon, and to his comrades of the Grand Army as the +supposed betrayer of Napoleon. In 1830 Louis Philippe gave +him back the marshal’s bâton and restored him to the Chamber +of Peers. He died at St-Étienne on the 29th of May 1847.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marquis de Grouchy, <i>Mémoires du maréchal Marquis de +Grouchy</i> (Paris, 1873-1874); General Marquis de Grouchy, <i>Le +Général Grouchy en Irlande</i> (Paris, 1866), and <i>Le Maréchal Grouchy +du 16 au 18 juin, 1815</i> (Paris, 1864); <i>Appel à l’histoire sur les faites +de l’aile droite de l’armée française</i> (Paris, n.d.); <i>Sévère Justice sur +les faits ... du 28 juin au 3 juillet, 1815</i> (Paris, 1866); and the +literature of the Waterloo campaign. Marshal Grouchy himself +wrote the following: <i>Observations sur la relation de la campagne de +1815 par le général de Gourgaud</i> (Philadelphia and Paris, 1818); +<i>Réfutation de quelques articles des mémoires de M. le Duc de Rovigo</i> +(Paris, 1829); <i>Fragments historiques relatifs à la campagne et à la +bataille de Waterloo</i> (Paris, 1829-1830, in reply to Barthélemy and +Méry, and to Marshal Gérard); <i>Réclamation du maréchal de Grouchy</i> +(Paris, 1834); <i>Plainte contre le général Baron Berthezène</i> (Berthezène, +formerly a divisional commander under Gérard, stated in reply to +this defence that he had no intention of accusing Grouchy of ill faith).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUND-ICE,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span><a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> ice formed at the bottom of streams while +the temperature of the water is above freezing-point. Everything +points to radiation as the prime cause of the formation of +ground-ice. It is formed only under a clear sky, never in cloudy +weather; it is most readily formed on dark rocks, and never +under any covering such as a bridge, and rarely under surface-ice. +Professor Howard T. Barnes of McGill University concludes +that the radiation from a river bed in cold and clear nights goes +through the water in long rays that penetrate much more easily +from below upwards than the sun’s heat rays from above downwards, +which are mostly absorbed by the first few feet of water. +On a cold clear night, therefore, the radiation from the bottom +is excessive, and loosely-grown spongy masses of anchor-ice +form on the bottom, which on the following bright sunny day +receive just sufficient heat from the sun to detach the mass of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span> +ice, which rises to the surface with considerable force. It is probable +that owing to surface tension a thin film of stationary water +rests upon the boulders and sand over which a stream flows, +and that this, becoming frozen owing to radiation, forms the +foundation for the anchor-ice and produces a surface upon which +the descending frazil-ice (see below) can lodge. The theory +of radiation from the boulders is supported by the fact that as +the ice is formed upon them in response to a sudden fall in the +air temperature, it is only released under the influence of a strong +rise of temperature during the morning. It may not rise for +several days, but the advent of bright sunlight is followed by +the appearance on the surface of masses of ground-ice. This +ice has a spongy texture and frequently carries gravel with it +when it rises. It is said that the bottom of Lake Erie is strewn +with gravel that has been floated down in this way. This +“anchor-ice,” as it was called by Canadian trappers, frequently +forms dams across narrow portions of the river where the +floating masses are caught. Dr H. Landor pointed out that the +Mackenzie and Mississippi rivers, which rise in the same region +and flow in opposite directions, carry ground-ice from their +head-waters for a considerable distance down stream, and +suggested that here and in Siberia many forms of vegetable and +animal life may be distributed from a centre by this agency, +since the material carried by the floating ice would contain the +seeds and eggs or larvae of many forms.</p> + +<p>Besides ground-ice and anchor-ice this formation is called +also bottom-ice, ground-gru and lappered ice, the two last names +being Scottish. In France it is called <i>glace du fond</i>, in Germany +<i>Grundeis</i>, and in French Canada <i>moutonne</i> from the appearance +of sheep at rest, since the ice formed at the bottom grows in +woolly, spongy masses upon boulders or other projections.</p> + +<p>“Frazil-ice” is a Canadian term from the French for “forge-cinders.” +It is surface ice formed in spicules and carried downwards +in water agitated by winds or rapids. The frazil-ice may +render swiftly moving water turbid with ice crystals, it may be +swirled downwards and accumulated upon the ground ice, or +it may be swept under the sheet of surface-ice, coating the under +surface of the sheet to a thickness as great as 80 ft. of loose +spicular ice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. G. Thompson, in <i>Nature</i>, i. 555 (1870); H. Landor, in +<i>Geological Magazine</i>, decade II., vol. iii., p. 459 (1876); H. T. +Barnes, <i>Ice Formation with special Reference to Anchor-ice and Frazil</i> +(1906).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The O. Eng. word <i>grund</i>, ground, is common to Teutonic languages, +cf. Du. <i>grond</i>, Ger. <i>Grund</i>, but has no cognates outside Teutonic. +The suggestion that the origin is to be found in “grind,” to crush +small, reduce to powder, is plausible, but the primary meaning +seems to be the lowest part or bottom of anything rather than grit, +sand or gravel. The main branches in sense appear to be, first, +bottom, as of the sea or a river, cf. the use, in the plural, for dregs; +second, base or foundation, actual, as of the first or main surface of a +painting, fabric, &c., or figurative, as of a principle or reason; third, +the surface of the earth, or a particular part of that surface.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUND NUT<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (Earth Nut, Pistache de Terre, Monkey Nut, +Pea Nut, Manilla Nut), in botany, the fruit or pod of <i>Arachis +hypogaea</i> (nat. ord. Leguminosae). The plant is an annual of +diffuse habit, with hairy stem, and two-paired, abruptly pinnate +leaflets. The pods or legumes are stalked, oblong, cylindrical, +about 1 in. in length, the thin reticulated shell containing one or +two irregularly ovoid seeds. After the flower withers, the stalk +of the ovary has the peculiarity of elongating and bending down, +forcing the young pod underground, and thus the seeds become +matured at some distance below the surface. Hence the specific +and vernacular names of the plant. Originally a native of +South America, it is extensively cultivated in all tropical and +subtropical countries. The plant affects a light sandy soil, and +is very prolific, yielding in some instances 30 to 38 bushels of nuts +per acre. The pods when ripe are dug up and dried. The seeds +when fresh are largely eaten in tropical countries, and in taste +are almost equal to almonds; when roasted they are used as a +substitute for chocolate. In America they are consumed in +large quantities as the “pea-nut”; but are not much appreciated +in England except by the poorer children, who know them as +“monkey-nuts.” By expression the seeds yield a large quantity +of oil, which is used by natives for lamps, as a fish or curry oil +and for medicinal purposes. The leaves form an excellent food +for cattle, being very like clover.</p> + +<p>Large quantities of seeds are imported to Europe, chiefly to +Marseilles, London and Hamburg, for the sake of their contained +oil. The seeds yield from 42 to 50% of oil by cold expression, +but a larger quantity is obtained by heat, although of an inferior +quality. The seeds being soft facilitate mechanical expression, +and where bisulphide of carbon or other solvent is used, a very +pure oil is obtained.</p> + +<p>The expressed oil is limpid, of a light yellowish or straw colour, +having a faint smell and bland taste; it forms an excellent +substitute for olive oil, although in a slight degree more prone +to rancidity than the latter. Its specific gravity is 0.916 to +0.918; it becomes turbid at 3° C., concretes at +3° to −4° C., +and hardens at +7° C. It is a non-drying oil. Ground nut oil +consists of (1) oleic acid (C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">34</span>O<span class="su">2</span>); (2) hypogaeic acid +(C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">30</span>O<span class="su">2</span>), by some supposed to be identical with a fatty acid +found in whale oil; (3) palmitic acid (C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O<span class="su">2</span>); and (4) +arachic acid (C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">40</span>O<span class="su">2</span>). The oil is used in the adulteration of +gingelly oil.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUND-PEARL,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> the glassy secretion forming the pupacase +of coccid insects of the genus <i>Margarodes</i>, belonging to the +homopterous division of the Hemiptera.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUND RENT.<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> In Roman law, ground rent (<i>solarium</i>) +was an annual rent payable by the lessee of a <i>superficies</i> or +perpetual lease of building land. In English law, it appears that +the term was at one time popularly used for the houses and lands +out of which ground rents issue as well as for the rents themselves +(cf. <i>Maundy</i> v. <i>Maundy</i>, 2 Strange, 1020); and Lord Eldon +observed in 1815 that the context in which the term occurred +may materially vary its meaning (<i>Stewart</i> v. <i>Alliston</i>, 1 Mer. 26). +But at the present time the accepted meaning of ground rent is +the rent at which land is let for the purpose of improvement by +building, <i>i.e.</i> a rent charged in respect of the land only and not in +respect of the buildings to be placed thereon. It thus conveys +the idea of something lower than a rack rent (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>); and +accordingly if a vendor described property as property for which +he paid a “ground rent,” without any further explanation of the +term, a purchaser would not be obliged to accept the property +if it turned out to be held at a rack rent. But while a rack rent +is generally higher in amount than a ground rent, the latter is +usually better secured, as it carries with it the reversionary +interest in buildings and improvements put on the ground <i>after</i> +the date at which the ground rent was fixed, and accordingly +ground rents have been regarded as a good investment. Trustees +empowered to invest money on the security of freehold or +copyhold hereditaments, may invest upon freehold ground rents +reserved out of house property. In estimating the amount that +may be so invested, account may be taken of the value of the +houses, as, if the ground rents are not paid, the landlord can +re-enter. Again, where a settlement authorizes trustees to +purchase lands or hereditaments in fee-simple or possession, a +purchase of freehold ground rents has been held to be proper. +A devise of “ground rent” carries not only the rent but the +reversion. Where a tenant is compelled, in order to protect +himself in the enjoyment of the land in respect of which his rent +is payable, to pay ground rent to a superior landlord (who is +of course in a position to distrain on him for it), he is considered +as having been authorized by his immediate landlord to apply +his rent, due or accruing due, in this manner, and the payment +of the ground rent will be held to be payment of the rent itself +or part of it. A lodger should make any payment of this character +under the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1908 (s. 3; +and see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>). Ground rents are apportionable (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apportionment</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In Scots law, the term “ground rent” is not employed, but its +place is taken, for practical purposes, by the “ground-annual,” +which bears a double meaning. (i.) At the time of the Reformation +in Scotland, the lands of the Church were parcelled out by the crown +into various lordships—the grantees being called Lords of Erection. +In the 17th century these Lords of Erection resigned their superiorities +to the crown, with the exception of the feu-duties, which were to be +retained till a price agreed upon for their redemption had been paid. +This reserved power of redemption was, however, resigned by the +crown on the eve of the Union and the feu-duties became payable in +perpetuity to the Lords of Erection as a “ground-annual.” (ii.) +Speculators in building ground usually grant sub-feus to builders at +a high feu-duty. But where sub-feus are prohibited—as they might +be, prior to the Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874—and there is +much demand for building ground, the feuars frequently stipulate for +an annual rent from the builders rather than for a price payable at +once. This annual rent is called a “ground-annual.” Interest is not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span> +due on arrears of ground-annuals. Like other real burdens, ground-annuals +may now be freely assigned and conveyed (Conveyancing +(Scotland) Act 1874, s. 30).</p> +</div> + +<p>The term “ground rent” in the English sense does not seem +to be generally used in the United States, but is applied in +Pennsylvania to a kind of tenure, created by a grant in fee simple, +the grantor reserving to himself and his heirs a certain rent, +which is the interest of the money value of the land. These +“ground rents” are real estate, and, in cases of intestacy, go to +the heir. They are rent services and not rent charges—the +statute <i>Quia Emptores</i> never having been in force in Pennsylvania, +and are subject to all the incidents of such rents (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>). +The grantee of such a “ground rent” may mortgage, sell, or +otherwise dispose of the grant as he pleases; and while the rent +is paid the land cannot be sold or the value of the improvements +lost.</p> + +<p>A ground rent being a freehold estate, created by deed and +perpetual in duration, no presumption could, at common law, +arise from lapse of time, that it had been released. But now, +by statute (Act of 27th of April 1855, s. 7), a presumption of +release or extinguishment is created where no payment, claim +or demand has been made for the rent, nor any declaration or +acknowledgment of its existence made or given by the owner +of the premises subject to it, for the period of 21 years. Ground +rents were formerly irredeemable after a certain time. But the +creation of irredeemable ground rents is now forbidden (Pennsylvania +Act 7 Assembly, 22nd of April 1850).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For English Law see Foa, <i>Landlord and Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London, +1901); Scots Law, Bell’s <i>Principles</i> (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899); +American Law, Bouvier, <i>Law Dict.</i> (Boston and London, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUNDSEL<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Kreuzkraut</i>; Fr. <i>seneçon</i>), <i>Senecio vulgaris</i>, +an annual, glabrous, or more or less woolly plant of the +natural order Compositae, having a branched succulent stem +6 to 15 in. in height, pinnatifid irregularly and coarsely-toothed +leaves, and small cylindrical heads of yellow tubular florets +enveloped in an involucre of numerous narrow bracts; the +ribbed fruit bears a soft, feathery, hoary tuft of hairs (<i>pappus</i>). +The plant is indigenous to Europe, whence it has been introduced +into all temperate climates. It is a troublesome weed, flowering +throughout the year, and propagating itself rapidly by means +of its light feathery fruits; it has its use, however, as a food +for cage-birds. <i>Senecio Jacobaea</i>, ragwort, is a showy plant with +heads of bright yellow flowers, common in pastures and by +roadsides. The genus <i>Senecio</i> is a very large one, widely distributed +in temperate and cold climates. The British species are +all herbs, but the genus also includes shrubs and even arborescent +forms, which are characteristic features of the vegetation of +the higher levels on the mountains of tropical Africa. Many +species of the genus are handsome florists’ plants. The groundsel +tree, <i>Baccharis halimifolia</i>, a native of the North American +sea-coast from Massachusetts southward, is a Composite shrub, +attaining 6 to 12 ft. in height, and having angular branches, +obovate or oblong-cuneate, somewhat scurfy leaves, and flowers +larger than but similar to those of common groundsel. The +long white pappus of the female plant renders it a conspicuous +object in autumn. The groundsel tree has been cultivated in +British gardens since 1683.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Old English word, represented by “groundsel,” appears in +two forms, <i>grundeswylige</i> and <i>gundæswelgiæ</i>; of the first form the +accepted derivation is from <i>grund</i>, ground, and <i>swelgau</i>, to swallow; +a weed of such rapid growth would not inaptly be styled a “ground-swallower.” +If the form without the <i>r</i> be genuine, the word might +mean “pus-absorber” (O.E. <i>gund</i>, filth, matter), with reference to its +use in poultices for abscesses and the like.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GROUND-SQUIRREL,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> one of the names for a group of (chiefly) +North American striped terrestrial squirrel-like rodents, more +generally known as chipmunks. They are closely allied to +squirrels, from which they are distinguished by the possession +of cheek-pouches for the storage of food. The sides, or the sides +and back, are marked with light stripes bordered by dark bands; +the ears are small, and without tufts; and the tail is relatively +short. With the exception of one Siberian species (<i>Tamias +asiaticus</i>), ground-squirrels are confined to North America, +where they are represented by a large number of species and +races, all referable to the genus <i>Tamias</i>. In North America +ground-squirrels are migratory, and may be abundant in a +district one year, and absent the next. They feed on nuts, +beechmast, corn and roots, and also on grubs. With the assistance +of their cheek-pouches they accumulate large supplies +of food for the winter, during which season they lie dormant +in holes. Although generally keeping to the ground, when +hunted they take to trees, which they climb in search of food. +One of the longest known American species is <i>T. striatus</i>.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38202-h.htm or 38202-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/2/0/38202/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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