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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornwall, by Sabine Baring-Gould
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cornwall
+
+Author: Sabine Baring-Gould
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38190]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORNWALL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Eric Skeet and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Italic text is denoted by _underscore_,
+bold text by =equal signs=, and fancy fonts by ~tilde~]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    CAMBRIDGE COUNTY GEOGRAPHIES
+    General Editor: F.H.H. GUILLEMARD, M.A., M.D.
+
+
+
+
+    CORNWALL
+
+
+
+
+    CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+    ~London~: FETTER LANE, E.C.
+    C.F. CLAY, MANAGER
+
+    [Illustration: Coat of Arms]
+
+    ~Edinburgh~: 100, PRINCES STREET
+
+    ~Berlin~: A. ASHER AND CO.
+
+    ~Leipzig~: F.A. BROCKHAUS
+
+    ~New York~: G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+    ~Bombay and Calcutta~: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.
+
+    [_All rights reserved_]
+
+
+
+
+    _Cambridge County Geographies_
+
+
+    CORNWALL
+
+    by
+
+    S. BARING-GOULD
+
+
+
+    With Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations
+
+
+
+    Cambridge:
+    at the University Press
+    1910
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    ~Cambridge~:
+    PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
+    AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                            PAGE
+
+  1.  County and Shire. Meaning of the Word                   1
+
+  2.  General Characteristics                                 3
+
+  3.  Size, Shape, Boundaries                                 5
+
+  4.  Surface and General Features                            8
+
+  5.  Watershed, Rivers                                      13
+
+  6.  Geology and Soil                                       19
+
+  7.  Natural History                                        26
+
+  8.  Around the Coast. From Morwenstow to Land's End        31
+
+  9.  Around the Coast. From Land's End to Rame Head         41
+
+  10.  The Coast--Gains and Losses                           51
+
+  11.  The Coast--Tides, Islands, and Lighthouses            57
+
+  12.  Climate--Rainfall                                     61
+
+  13.  People--Race, Dialect, Population                     67
+
+  14.  Agriculture--Main Cultivations. Stock                 72
+
+  15.  Industries and Manufactures                           79
+
+  16.  Minerals and Mining                                   80
+
+  17.  Fisheries                                             88
+
+  18.  Shipping and Trade                                    94
+
+  19.  History                                               97
+
+  20.  Antiquities: Prehistoric, Roman, Celtic, Saxon       106
+
+  21.  Architecture: (_a_) Ecclesiastical                   114
+
+  22.  Architecture: (_b_) Military--Castles                125
+
+  23.  Architecture: (_c_) Domestic and Monastic            128
+
+  24.  Communications--Roads, Railways                      132
+
+  25.  Administration and Divisions, Ancient and Modern     135
+
+  26.  Roll of Honour                                       140
+
+  27.  The Chief Towns and Villages of Cornwall             148
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                            PAGE
+  Luxulyan Village                                            3
+
+  Dozmare Pool                                                4
+
+  The Tamar, near Calstock                                    6
+
+  Grimsby Channel and Eastern Islands, Scilly                 8
+
+  Bodmin                                                      9
+
+  Rough Tor                                                  11
+
+  St Keyne's Well, Liskeard                                  12
+
+  On the Camel                                               13
+
+  Wadebridge                                                 15
+
+  Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash                               16
+
+  The Cheesewring                                            24
+
+  In a Cornish Garden                                        29
+
+  Bude Breakwater                                            32
+
+  King Arthur's Castle, Tintagel                             34
+
+  Bodruthan Steps                                            36
+
+  Newquay Harbour                                            37
+
+  The Wharf, St Ives                                         39
+
+  Land's End                                                 41
+
+  Newlyn Pier                                                42
+
+  St Michael's Mount                                         43
+
+  Kynance Cove and the Lizard                                45
+
+  Mullion Cove                                               47
+
+  Falmouth, from Flushing                                    48
+
+  Polperro                                                   49
+
+  Looe                                                       50
+
+  Perranporth Rocks                                          54
+
+  Round Island, Scilly                                       58
+
+  The Longships Lighthouse                                   59
+
+  Eddystone Lighthouse                                       60
+
+  Miners: Camborne                                           70
+
+  "First and Last House," Land's End                         73
+
+  Flower Farming, Scilly                                     77
+
+  Poldhu Hotel and the Marconi Station                       79
+
+  King Edward Mine, Camborne                                 81
+
+  China Clay Quarries, Porthpean                             84
+
+  Delabole Slate Quarries                                    86
+
+  Shipping Slate, Port Gavin                                 87
+
+  Pilchard Boats, Mevagissey                                 89
+
+  The Huers' House, Newquay                                  91
+
+  Pilchard Boats, St Ives Harbour                            93
+
+  Landing Fish, Newlyn                                       94
+
+  The St Vincent's Anchor, Falmouth                          95
+
+  The Nine Maidens, St Columb Major                          99
+
+  St Mawes, Falmouth Harbour                                105
+
+  Lanyon Cromlech                                           108
+
+  The Merry Maidens, St Buryan                              109
+
+  St Cleer: Monument to Doniert, son of Caradoc, died
+  A.D. 872.                                                 112
+
+  Mawgan Cross                                              113
+
+  St Buryan Cross                                           114
+
+  Buried Church, Perranporth                                117
+
+  Norman Doorway, St Germans Church                         118
+
+  Tympanum, Egloskerry Church                               119
+
+  Lanteglos Church                                          120
+
+  Launceston Church                                         121
+
+  Landewednack Church                                       123
+
+  Dupath Well, Callington                                   124
+
+  St Mawes Castle                                           127
+
+  Cothele                                                   130
+
+  The Old Post Office, Tintagel                             132
+
+  A Cornish Stile                                           134
+
+  The Old Guildhall and Pillory, Looe                       138
+
+  Captain Bligh                                             141
+
+  Sir Humphry Davy                                          143
+
+  John Opie                                                 146
+
+  Fowey                                                     150
+
+  Helston from Bullock Lane                                 151
+
+  Launceston                                                152
+
+  Looe                                                      153
+
+  Cross in Churchyard, St Columb                            156
+
+  Truro                                                     158
+
+  Diagrams                                                  160
+
+
+
+
+MAPS
+
+
+    Cornwall, Topographical                      Front Cover
+
+        "     Geological                          Back Cover
+
+    England and Wales, showing Annual Rainfall            63
+
+The illustrations on pp. 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 24, 32, 36, 37,
+39, 41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 59, 60, 70, 73, 79, 81, 84, 86, 89, 91,
+93, 95, 99, 105, 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123, 127, 138, 150,
+151, 152, 153, 156, 158 are from photographs supplied by Messrs F. Frith
+& Co.; those on pp. 8, 43, 45, 58, 77, 94, 108, 109, 134 by Messrs
+Preston, Penzance; those on pp. 141, 146 by Mr Emery Walker, and those
+on pp. 6, 29, 34, 87, 119, 124, 130, 132 by Messrs Hayman & Son,
+Launceston.
+
+
+
+
+=1. County and Shire. Meaning of the word.=
+
+
+If we take a map of England and contrast it with a map of the United
+States, perhaps one of the first things we shall notice is the
+dissimilarity of the arbitrary divisions of land of which the countries
+are composed. In America the rigidly straight boundaries and rectangular
+shape of the majority of the States strike the eye at once; in England
+our wonder is rather how the boundaries have come to be so tortuous and
+complicated--to such a degree, indeed, that until recently many counties
+had outlying islands, as it were, within their neighbours' territory. We
+may guess at once that the conditions under which the divisions arose
+cannot have been the same, and that while in America these formal square
+blocks of land, like vast allotment gardens, were probably the creation
+of a central authority, and portioned off much about the same time; the
+divisions we find in England own no such simple origin. Our guess would
+not have been wrong, for such, in fact, is more or less the case. The
+formation of the English counties in many instances was (and is--for
+they have altered up to to-day) an affair of slow growth. King Alfred
+is credited with having made them, but inaccurately, for some existed
+before his time, others not till long after his death, and their origin
+was--as their names tell us--of very diverse nature.
+
+Let us turn once more to our map of England. Collectively, we call all
+our divisions counties, but not every one of them is accurately thus
+described. Cornwall, as we shall see, is not. Some have names complete
+in themselves, such as Kent and Sussex, and we find these to be old
+English kingdoms with but little alteration either in their boundaries
+or their names. To others the terminal _shire_ is appended, which tells
+us that they were _shorn_ from a larger domain--_shares_ of Mercia or
+Northumbria or some other of the great English kingdoms. The term county
+is of Norman introduction,--the domain of a _Comte_ or Count.
+
+Although we use the term county for Cornwall, we should not in accuracy
+do so, as just stated, for it is a Duchy, and has been such since March
+17, 1337, when Edward of Woodstock, eldest son of King Edward III, was
+created Duke of Cornwall. Nor can it be called a shire, for Cornwall was
+a territory to itself. In 835 Athelstan drove the Britons across the
+Tamar and made that river the boundary between the Briton and the West
+Saxon of Devon.
+
+The ancient name of Cornwall and Devon was Totnes, i.e. _Dod-ynys_, "the
+projecting island," and the Celtic population was that of the Dumnonii.
+It was not till the tenth century that the name Cornweales appears,
+signifying the Welsh of the Horn of Britain. The Latin form of Cornwall
+is Cornubia. The ancient British settlers in the present department of
+Finistère called that portion of Gaul Cornouaille.
+
+
+
+
+=2. General Characteristics.=
+
+
+On many accounts Cornwall may be regarded as one of the most interesting
+counties of England, whether we regard it for its coast scenery, its
+products, or its antiquities. It has lain so much out of the main
+current of the life of England that it was hardly mixed up with the
+politics of the nation till the time of the Civil War.
+
+Its situation, projecting as it does into the sea, by which it is washed
+on all sides but one, has naturally caused the natives to take to the
+water, and has made Cornwall to be the mother of a hardy breed of
+fishermen and sailors. But the county being also rich in mineral wealth
+has from an early age caused a large portion of the manhood of the land
+to seek their livelihood in mines; and the peculiar conditions of
+Cornwall have thus determined the professions of a large proportion of
+its males to be either on the water or under ground.
+
+[Illustration: Luxulyan Village]
+
+The interior of the county cannot be regarded as beautiful, consisting
+of a backbone of elevated land, wind-swept, and over a large area
+covered with mine-ramps and the skeletons of abandoned machine-houses
+standing up gaunt amidst the desolation. But the valleys are always
+beautiful, and the Bodmin moors, if not so lofty and broken as
+Dartmoor, are yet fine, and Brown Willy, Rough Tor, and Kilmar are
+really noble tors.
+
+On the Bodmin moors is Dozmare Pool, the only lake, excepting Loe Pool,
+that exists in Cornwall. It is small and shallow. There were others
+formerly, now encroached on or smothered by morass.
+
+[Illustration: Dozmare Pool]
+
+In Cornwall it is quite possible to take a stride from the richest
+vegetation into the abomination of desolation. It has been said in
+mockery that Cornwall does not grow wood enough to make coffins for the
+people. The old timber was cut down to supply the furnaces for smelting
+tin, and it is true that there is not in Cornwall as magnificent timber
+as may be seen in other counties, but the valleys are everywhere well
+wooded, and the Cornish elm, that grows almost like a trimmed poplar,
+stands up lank above the lower trees and coppice.
+
+
+
+
+=3. Size, Shape, Boundaries.=
+
+
+Cornwall bears a certain resemblance to Italy, each is like a leg or
+boot, but Italy stands a-tiptoe to the south, whereas Cornwall is thrust
+out to the west. But, whereas Italy is kicking Sicily as a football,
+Cornwall has but the shattered group of the Scilly Isles at its toe.
+
+It touches but one other county, Devonshire, on the east; on all other
+sides it is washed by the sea, the Atlantic on the north and the English
+Channel on the south. The heel is the curious projection of the Lizard,
+and the toe is Land's End. On the east the river Tamar forms mainly the
+boundary between itself and Devon, except just north of Launceston,
+where a small portion of Devonshire juts into Cornwall, bounded on the
+south by the river Attery, and comprising the parishes of North
+Petherwin and Werrington. This is due to the land in these parishes
+having belonged to the Abbey of Tavistock, and the monks desiring to
+have all their lands comprised in one county. The area of Cornwall is
+886,384 acres, or 1385 square miles.
+
+[Illustration: The Tamar, near Calstock]
+
+It is the most westerly county in England, and also the most southerly.
+Its greatest length from the N.E. corner beyond Morwenstow to the Land's
+End is 80 miles; and its greatest breadth between Marsland Mouth and
+Rame Head is 46 miles. But it shrinks towards the toe, and between St
+Ives' Bay and Mounts Bay it is not five miles across.
+
+The Scilly Isles, situated twenty-five miles S.W. from the Land's End,
+are a part of Cornwall, and have an area of 4041 acres. Formerly, a part
+of the township of Bridgerule, with 1010 acres on the Devon side of the
+Tamar, belonged to Cornwall, but has now been dissevered and annexed to
+Devonshire.
+
+The north coast is sadly deficient in harbours. Bude Haven can
+accommodate only the smallest vessels, Boscastle is a dangerous creek,
+Padstow Harbour is barred by the Doom Bank lying across the entrance,
+and there is none other till we reach St Ives' Bay. On the south coast
+are Mounts Bay, Falmouth, Charlestown in St Austell Bay, Par, Fowey,
+Looe, Cawsand Bay, and the Hamoaze that opens into Plymouth Sound. Of
+these only Falmouth Harbour, once the great station for the packet
+boats, is good.
+
+The Scilly Isles comprise 145 rocky masses, six only are large islands,
+and five only are inhabited. The other inhabited islands about Cornwall
+are very small, these are St Michael's Mount and Looe Island. The
+promontory of Lleyn in Cardiganshire presents a curious resemblance to
+Cornwall, and as Cornwall has its detached group of islands in Scilly,
+so Lleyn has its Bardsey.
+
+[Illustration: Grimsby Channel and Eastern Islands, Scilly]
+
+
+
+
+=4. Surface and General Features.=
+
+
+[Illustration: Bodmin]
+
+To the east and north-east is the large granite mass of the Bodmin
+moors. It is these striking granitic masses, here and further west--at
+the Land's End, at St Breage, in the district north of Helston, and
+again north of St Austell--which form the bolder features of the
+county. A remarkable depression lies between Marazion and St Ives' Bay,
+utilised by the railway from Hayle to Marazion road. It almost seems as
+if the whole of Penwith, the portion west of this trough, had at one
+time been an island, with a channel of sea between it and the mainland.
+On the other hand, at a remote period there can be no doubt that there
+extended far out broad low-lying lands which are now covered by the sea,
+for forest beds have been found in Mounts Bay, in Padstow Bay, at St
+Columb Major, and elsewhere, showing that there has been a subsidence of
+the land. This has given rise to the fable of a drowned realm of
+Lyonesse, but this Lyonesse never existed in or near Cornwall; it was
+Léon in Brittany. But if there has been subsidence, there has also been
+an elevation of the land, as is shown by the raised beaches that can be
+traced along the coast. In the south are found flint pebbles in these
+raised beaches, showing that the wash at one period was not as now from
+west to east, but the reverse. It was from these flint pebbles in the
+elevated beaches that prehistoric man in Cornwall obtained the material
+for the fabrication of his tools and weapons. The elevation of the land,
+which dried up the channel between the Land's End and the mainland,
+preceded the depression which sunk the now submerged forests.
+
+To the north of the great granite boss that forms the Bodmin moors a
+ridge of cold moors rises, setting its back against the Atlantic and
+feeding the rivers that flow south with the rain that pours over it.
+Very little can be grown on these heights: they produce a little barley,
+but are mainly covered with rushes, coarse grass, and furze bushes. No
+considerable heights are reached till we come to Carnmarth and Carn
+Brea, each only 700 ft. above the sea. Then there is no distinct height
+till we reach Godolphin and Tregonning hills of 560 ft. and 600 ft.
+Towards Land's End there are greater heights--700 ft. and a little over,
+but this is naught compared with Brown Willy, 1368, and Kilmar, 1297, in
+the east. But it must be understood that grand mountain, or even fine
+hill scenery is not to be met with in western Cornwall. Its glory is in
+its magnificent coast-line; and its beauty is to be found in its lovely
+valleys and coombes.
+
+[Illustration: Rough Tor]
+
+The general features of a country depend on its geological structure.
+Granite formation, slate rock, sandstone, limestone, chalk--all have
+their special characters, unmistakable. When we are among the granites
+in the west of England we expect a tent-like shape of hill with a tor of
+rock at the summit; the sides strewn with a "clatter" of fallen rock,
+and clothed in heather and furze. When we come to the slates, and the
+overlying cold clays, we expect little except in the gorges and valleys
+cut through the strata by the streams. Of sandstone, or of chalk,
+forming breezy rolling downs, there is none in Cornwall, nor of
+limestone with its bold scars, such as are met with in the western
+hills of Yorkshire. We must take what we can find--and much can be found
+in Cornwall if we do not expect too much, nor look for what is not
+there, and under existing geological conditions could not be there.
+
+[Illustration: St Keyne's Well, Liskeard]
+
+
+
+
+=5. Watershed, Rivers.=
+
+
+From what has been already said, it will be seen that the great spinal
+column of Cornwall is in the north and that consequently the principal
+rivers must flow to the south. It is true that the Camel and its
+tributaries rise in the north and flow north to debouch into Padstow
+estuary, but that is the only river of the smallest consequence that
+directly feeds the Atlantic.
+
+[Illustration: On the Camel]
+
+The Camel rises in the wind-swept, sodden, clay land above Boscastle,
+and dribbles down to Camelford, passing under Slaughter Bridge and the
+stone of LATEINOS which traditionally mark the scene of King Arthur's
+last fight and death. After leaving Camelford, it plunges through a
+beautiful wooded valley, under Helsbury Castle occupying a bleak conical
+hill--a castle of the Dukes of Cornwall, but consisting only of a stone
+camp of prehistoric date and a ruined chapel in the midst dedicated to
+St Sith or Itha, an Irish saint. It passes Lavethan, a hospitium of the
+monks of Bodmin, and between wooded banks through Pencarrow and Dunmeer
+woods, and having run south, it now turns north to meet and mingle
+waters with the Allan, which has cleft for itself a very similar and
+equally beautiful valley. The Allan rises near the slate quarries of
+Delabole, and glides down by St Teath, and by St Mabyn on its bleak
+stormbeaten height, itself snug between beautiful hanging woods and with
+sweet old-world manor houses clustering near, and meets the Camel at
+Egloshayle. Thence they flow away into the Padstow estuary under the old
+15th century bridge at Wadebridge, past the Camelot of legend--the only
+streams of any consequence that flow north.
+
+With regard to the Tamar, we may call it as we please a Devonshire or a
+Cornish river. It divides the counties through the principal part of its
+course, but it has its source in Morwenstow, on a wretched moor, in
+Cornwall. Not much can be said in its favour till it reaches Bridgerule.
+From that point past North Tamerton (and Vacey, which although on the
+left bank was included in Cornwall, and has two formidable earthworks)
+it glides down to Werrington, where it meets the waters of the Attery
+and passes under Polson Bridge within sight of Launceston. Thenceforth
+the Tamar is in the full bloom of beauty. Carthamartha (Caer Tamar)
+stands at its junction with the Inny. Below Polson Bridge it has
+accepted the Lyd from Devon. Then through the lands and woods of the
+Duke of Bedford at lovely Endsleigh, under the bold crags of Morwell, up
+to which the tide reaches, then past Calstock and Cothele, and in
+serpentine writhes about Pentillie Castle, and so into the Hamoaze--the
+most beautiful river in England, excepting possibly the Wye.
+
+[Illustration: Wadebridge]
+
+The Inny, one of the feeders of the Tamar and altogether Cornish, must
+not be omitted, for it is a beautiful stream. It rises in the elevated
+land by Davidstowe and ripples down near Altarnon, passing in a
+picturesque valley the Holy Well and chapel of St Clether and the
+ancestral seat of the Trevelyan family at Basil; then, still in its
+beautiful valley, past Polyphant, famous for its quarries of a stone
+that admits of the most delicate carving, until it reaches the Tamar at
+Innyfoot. It is a river rich in trout. An old Cornish song of the
+Altarnon volunteer has the verse:
+
+    O Altarnon! O Altarnon! I ne'er shall see thee more,
+    Nor hear the sweet bells ringing, nor stand in the church door,
+    Nor hear the birds a-whistling, nor in the Inny stream
+    See silver trout glance by me, as thoughts glance by in dream.
+
+It is not however the Inny but a tributary that actually passes
+Altarnon.
+
+[Illustration: Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash]
+
+The Lynher falls into the Hamoaze, running for much of its course
+parallel to the Inny. It rises in the Bodmin moors and flows through the
+beautiful grounds of Trebartha where it receives a feeder from Trewartha
+marsh that leaps to meet it in a pretty cascade. Trewartha marsh has
+been turned over and over for tin and gold, and the Squire of Trebartha
+formerly furnished his daughters with gold rings made from the precious
+ore found in it. A curious settlement of the Celtic period exists above
+the marsh. It has however been much mutilated by farmers, who have
+carried off the stones for the construction of pigstyes. The Lynher
+flows through the park of the Earl of St Germans, past the beautiful
+church with its Norman west front, and then is lost in the united waters
+of the Tamar and the Tavy.
+
+Under Brown Willy is a pool called Fowey Well, which is traditionally
+held to be the source of the Fowey river. This however is not the case.
+It rises under Buttern Hill (1135 ft.) crowned by cairns, but as the
+Fowey Well has no outlet visible, it is supposed to decant by a
+subterranean stream into the river. Leaping down from the moors, the
+Fowey enters a wooded valley and, turning abruptly west, flows through
+another well timbered valley. Running beside the railway, and then
+turning sharply south, it passes the old Stannery town of Lostwithiel,
+to which the tide reaches, and plunging into a narrow glen with St
+Winnow on one side and Golant on the other, finally reaches the sea at
+Fowey harbour.
+
+There are two Looe rivers, one rising in the Bodmin moors receives the
+overflow of Dozmare Pool, and flowing deep below Liskeard receives the
+West Looe above the estuary. Duloe, which has a small but interesting
+circle of upright stones, stands between them and is supposed to be so
+called as between the two Looes. Before reaching Duloe the river has
+passed under St Keyne, famous for its Holy Well commemorated by Southey
+in a well-known ballad.
+
+There is no river of any importance till we reach the Fal. Rising on
+Goss Moor, not far from St Columb, and passing Grampound and Tregony,
+now an utterly decayed place, it meets the Tressilian and the Truro
+rivers, and all three, insignificant hitherto, suddenly acquire
+importance and spread out into the beautiful estuary of the Fal or
+Carrick Roads. Here are Penryn creek, Mylor creek, and Porthcuel
+harbour, commanded by the castle of St Mawes. None of these owe their
+importance to the sweet waters they bring down; all their value is due
+to the tide that flows up to Truro.
+
+The entrance to the Roads is found between Zoze Point and Pendennis
+Point, the latter at one time defended by a strong castle. Almost
+halfway between the points is the dangerous Black Rock, to which a
+former Trefusis conveyed his wife and there left her to be overwhelmed
+by the rising tide. Happily she was rescued by some fishermen. The
+Helford river is but a creek, noted for its oyster beds, into which a
+little stream dribbles.
+
+
+
+
+=6. Geology and Soil.=
+
+
+By Geology we mean the study of the rocks, and we must at the outset
+explain that the term _rock_ is used by the geologist without any
+reference to the hardness or compactness of the material to which the
+name is applied; thus he speaks of loose sand as a rock equally with a
+hard substance like granite.
+
+Rocks are of two kinds, (1) those laid down mostly under water, (2)
+those due to the action of fire.
+
+The first kind may be compared to sheets of paper one over the other.
+These sheets are called _beds_, and such beds are usually formed of sand
+(often containing pebbles), mud or clay, and limestone, or mixtures of
+these materials. They are laid down as flat or nearly flat sheets, but
+may afterwards be tilted as the result of movement of the earth's crust,
+just as you may tilt sheets of paper, folding them into arches and
+troughs, by compressing their ends. Again, we may find the tops of the
+folds so produced wasted away as the result of the wearing action of
+rivers, glaciers, and sea-waves upon them, as you might cut off the tops
+of the folds of the paper with a pair of shears. This has happened with
+the ancient beds forming parts of the earth's crust, and we therefore
+often find them tilted, with the upper parts removed.
+
+The other kinds of rocks are known as igneous rocks, which have been
+melted under the action of heat and become solid on cooling. When in the
+molten state they have been poured out at the surface as the lava of
+volcanoes, or have been forced into other rocks and cooled in the cracks
+and other places of weakness. Much material is also thrown out of
+volcanoes as volcanic ash and dust, and is piled up on the sides of the
+volcano. Such ashy material may be arranged in beds, so that it partakes
+to some extent of the qualities of the two great rock groups.
+
+The production of beds is of great importance to geologists, for by
+means of these beds we can classify the rocks according to age. If we
+take two sheets of paper, and lay one on the top of the other on a
+table, the upper one has been laid down after the other. Similarly with
+two beds, the upper is also the newer, and the newer will remain on the
+top after earth-movements, save in very exceptional cases which need not
+be regarded by us here, and for general purposes we may regard any bed
+or set of beds resting on any other in our own country as being the
+newer bed or set.
+
+The movements which affect beds may occur at different times. One set of
+beds may be laid down flat, then thrown into folds by movement, the tops
+of the beds worn off, and another set of beds laid down upon the worn
+surface of the older beds, the edges of which will abut against the
+oldest of the new set of flatly deposited beds, which latter may in turn
+undergo disturbance and renewal of their upper portions.
+
+
+          NAMES OF              SUBDIVISIONS          CHARACTERS OF ROCKS
+          SYSTEMS
+
+        {               { Metal Age Deposits       }
+        { Recent        { Neolithic     "          } Superficial Deposits
+        {  Pleistocene  { Palaeolithic  "          }
+        {               { Glacial       "          }
+        {
+        {               { Cromer Series            }
+    T   {               { Weybourne Crag           }
+    E   { Pliocene      { Chillesford and Norwich  } Sands chiefly
+    R   {               {           Crags          }
+    T   {               { Red and Walton Crags     }
+    I   {               { Coralline Crag           }
+    A   {
+    R   { Miocene         Absent from Britain
+    Y   {
+        {               { Fluviomarine Beds of     }
+        {               {           Hampshire      }
+        {               { Bagshot Beds             }
+        { Eocene        { London Clay              } Clays and Sands chiefly
+        {               { Oldhaven Beds, Woolwich  }
+        {               {      and Reading Groups  }
+        {               { Thanet Sands             }
+
+
+        {               { Chalk                    }
+        {               { Upper Greensand and Gault} Chalk at top
+        { Cretaceous    { Lower Greensand          } Sandstones, Mud and
+        {               { Weald Clay               } Clays below
+        {               { Hastings Sands           }
+        {
+        {               { Purbeck Beds             }
+    S   {               { Portland Beds            }
+    E   {               { Kimmeridge Clay          }
+    C   {               { Corallian Beds           }
+    O   {               { Oxford Clay and          } Shales, Sandstones and
+    N   {               {         Kellaways Rock   } Oolitic Limestones
+    D   { Jurassic      { Cornbrash                }
+    A   {               { Forest Marble            }
+    R   {               { Great Oolite with        }
+    Y   {               {        Stonesfield Slate }
+        {               { Inferior Oolite          }
+        {               { Lias--Upper, Middle,     }
+        {               {               and Lower  }
+        {
+        {               { Rhaetic                  }
+        {               { Keuper Marls             }
+        {               { Keuper Sandstone         } Red Sandstones and
+        { Triassic      { Upper Bunter Sandstone   } Marls, Gypsum and Salt
+        {               { Banter Pebble Beds       }
+        {               { Lower Bunter Sandstone   }
+
+
+        {               { Magnesian Limestone and  }
+        {               {           Sandstone      } Red Sandstones and
+        { Permian       { Marl Slate               } Magnesian Limestone
+        {               { Lower Permian Sandstone  }
+        {
+        {               { Coal Measures            } Sandstones, Shales and
+        {               { Millstone Grit           } Coals at top
+        { Carboniferous { Mountain Limestone       } Sandstones in middle
+        {               { Basal Carboniferous      } Limestone and Shales
+        {               {             Rocks        } below
+        {
+        {               { Upper } Devonian         } Red Sandstones,
+        { Devonian      { Mid   }    and Old Red   } Shales, Slates and
+    P   {               { Lower }    Sandstone     } Limestones
+    R   {
+    I   {               { Ludlow Beds              } Sandstones, Shales and
+    M   { Silurian      { Wenlock Beds             } Thin Limestones
+    A   {               { Llandovery Beds          }
+    R   {
+    Y   {               { Caradoc Beds             } Shales, Slates,
+        { Ordovician    { Llandeilo Beds           } Sandstones and
+        {               { Arenig Beds              } Thin Limestones
+        {
+        {               { Tremadoc Slates          }
+        {               { Lingula Flags            } Slates and
+        { Cambrian      { Menevian Beds            } Sandstones
+        {               { Harlech Grits and        }
+        {               {    Llanberis Slates      }
+        {
+        {               { No definite              } Sandstones,
+        { Pre-Cambrian  {   classification         } Slates and
+        {               {         yet made         } Volcanic Rocks
+
+
+Again, after the formation of the beds many changes may occur in them.
+They may become hardened, pebble-beds being changed into conglomerates,
+sands into sandstones, muds and clays into mudstones and shales, soft
+deposits of lime into limestone, and loose volcanic ashes into
+exceedingly hard rocks. They may also become cracked, and the cracks are
+often very regular, running in two directions at right angles one to the
+other. Such cracks are known as _joints_, and the joints are very
+important in affecting the physical geography of a district. Then, as
+the result of great pressure applied sideways, the rocks may be so
+changed that they can be split into thin slabs, which usually, though
+not necessarily, split along planes standing at high angles to the
+horizontal. Rocks affected in this way are known as _slates_.
+
+If we could flatten out all the beds of England, and arrange them one
+over the other and bore a shaft through them, we should see them on the
+sides of the shaft, the newest appearing at the top and the oldest at
+the bottom, as shown in the table. Such a shaft would have a depth of
+between 10,000 and 20,000 feet. The strata beds are divided into three
+great groups called Primary or Palaeozoic, Secondary or Mesozoic, and
+Tertiary or Cainozoic, and the lowest Primary rocks are the oldest rocks
+of Britain, which form as it were the foundation stones on which the
+other rocks rest. These may be spoken of as the Pre-Cambrian rocks. The
+three great groups are divided into minor divisions known as systems.
+The names of these systems are arranged in order in the table and on the
+right hand side the general characters of the rocks of each system are
+stated.
+
+With these preliminary remarks we may now proceed to a brief account of
+the geology of the county.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION FROM SNOWDON TO HARWICH, ABOUT 200 MILES.]
+
+In Cornwall there is a succession of nodes of granite rising to the
+surface, a continuation westward of the mass of Dartmoor. It has surged
+to the surface in four large masses continued westward by the Scilly
+Isles. These granitic masses have upheaved the superincumbent beds of
+stratified rocks, partly melting them. These distinct nodes are: the
+Bodmin moors, the St Austell elevation, the Carn Menelez, and the Land's
+End district. Smaller masses of granite occur in the double heights of
+Godolphin and Tregonning, St Michael's Mount, Carn Brea and Carn Marth,
+and Castel-an-Dinas.
+
+[Illustration: The Cheesewring]
+
+The Elvans are dykes of quartz-porphyry which issue from the granite
+into the surrounding slates, and are often mistakenly supposed to be a
+bastard granite.
+
+The granite in its upheaval has strangely altered and contorted the
+superposed beds. There are as well intrusive veins of igneous rocks. In
+the Lizard district is serpentine, a compact, tough rock often of a
+green colour, lending itself to a high polish, and forming magnificent
+cliffs with a special gloss and colour, as well as maintaining on the
+surface a special flora.
+
+The prime feature in Cornish geology is the upheaval of the granite,
+distorting, folding back, and altering the superincumbent beds.
+
+In the north-east of Cornwall from a line drawn from below Launceston,
+on the Tamar, to Boscastle the rocks belong to the culm measures of
+North Devon. All the rest of the peninsula, except the protruding
+granite and the serpentine of the Lizard, pertains to the Devonian
+series of sedimentary rocks, in which the first signs of life appear;
+consisting largely of clay-slate, locally known as Killas, alternating
+with beds of red or grey grit and sandstone. Although these slaty rocks
+must be some thousand feet in thickness, they have been so broken up and
+turned over by the convulsions of the earth that their chronological
+sequence cannot easily be determined. In these convulsions they have
+been rent, and through the rents have been driven hot blasts that have
+deposited crystalline veins, or injections of trap and other volcanic
+matter, altering the character of the rock through which they have been
+driven. By the Menheniot Station on the G.W.R. is a hill of serpentine
+thrown up at one jet, and now largely quarried for the sake of the
+roads.
+
+The culm measures already alluded to consist of black shales and slates
+with seams of grit and chert, much undulated through enormous lateral
+pressure. The granite, the lowest and most ancient formation of all, was
+itself consolidated under vast pressure from above, and was not in a
+molten condition when forced to the surface. Had it been so, it would
+have resolved itself into lava. It was cold when upheaved, tearing apart
+the superincumbent stratified sedimentary rocks, which disappeared from
+the summits, and on all sides about these upheavals were twisted,
+contorted, thrown back, and fissured.
+
+Atmospheric effect and natural gravitation is constantly carrying the
+soil from the upper land, from the hills into the bottoms, and
+consequently it is in the latter that we find the richest land, best
+calculated to repay the toil of the agriculturist. On the high moors
+there is little depth of so called "meat earth," below which is clay and
+grit, hard and unprofitable, commonly called the "calm" or the "deads."
+But adjoining the granite is the wash from it of its dissolved felspar,
+the china-clay that furnishes the inhabitants of the St Austell district
+with a remunerative and ever-growing industry, of which more presently.
+
+
+
+
+=7. Natural History.=
+
+
+Various facts, which can only shortly be mentioned here, go to show that
+the British Isles have not existed as such, and separated from the
+Continent, for any great length of geological time. Around our coasts,
+for instance, and specially in Cornwall, are in several places remains
+of forests now sunk beneath the sea, and only to be seen at extreme low
+water. Between England and the Continent the sea is very shallow, and St
+Paul's Cathedral might be placed anywhere in the North Sea without
+submerging its summit, but a little west of Ireland we soon come to very
+deep soundings. Great Britain and Ireland were thus once part of the
+Continent and are examples of what geologists call recent continental
+islands. But we also have no less certain proof that at some anterior
+period they were almost entirely submerged. The fauna and flora thus
+being destroyed, the land would have to be restocked with animals and
+plants from the Continent when union again took place, the influx of
+course coming from the east and south. As, however, it was not long
+before separation occurred, not all the continental species could
+establish themselves. We should thus expect to find that the parts in
+the neighbourhood of the Continent were richer in species and those
+furthest off poorer, and this proves to be the case both in plants and
+animals. While Britain has fewer species than France or Belgium, Ireland
+has still less than Britain.
+
+Small though England may be, she can nevertheless show most striking
+differences of fauna and flora in different districts. On the moors of
+the north, for example, the heaths and berries underfoot, and the larger
+birds of prey and grouse which now and again meet our view offer a
+marked contrast to--let us say--the furze-clad chalk downs of Sussex,
+where the wheatear and whinchat and the copper butterflies and "blues"
+are familiar objects. These differences depend upon a number of
+conditions, often mutually interdependent--upon variations of soil,
+rainfall, temperature, and so forth. Cornwall presents unusual
+peculiarities in many ways, and we may now consider how far these have
+affected the creatures and plants within her borders.
+
+Firstly, Cornwall is remotely situated--one of the extreme points of
+Western Europe--and, whether the fact be dependent on food conditions or
+not, we find that there are several species of bird, common in other
+parts of England, which do not occur within the county, such as the
+nightingale, the wood warbler, garden warbler, redstart, and others. It
+would almost seem as if some of these species had not found their way
+thither since the re-peopling of the land by its present fauna, but were
+in gradual process of doing so, for there is no doubt that many birds
+rare or unknown in the Duchy half a century ago are now not uncommon,
+and appear to be steadily moving westward. That the starling is doing so
+is perhaps not remarkable, for this bird has enormously increased in
+numbers of late years and has spread everywhere, even up into northern
+Scotland, but it is curious that birds like the stock-dove and all the
+woodpeckers and other non-gregarious sorts should show this tendency.
+
+[Illustration: In a Cornish Garden]
+
+Next, Cornwall is from its position constantly exposed to high winds,
+and to heavy gales in winter, combined with an unusually heavy rainfall
+and an "insular" climate tending to warmth and equableness. These
+factors, added to the granitic formation of much of its area, have made
+it a country of bleak moorland varied with thickly-wooded deep
+valleys--dampness being the leading characteristic of both. With such
+physical conditions, then, we should expect to find the Duchy not very
+varied in its native trees, perhaps, but particularly abundant in ferns,
+and this is the case, for 39 species are recorded, while lichens are not
+less rich. It bears in many ways a resemblance to the climate of
+Portugal, for here the camellia flourishes and displays its beautiful
+flowers to perfection, and the tea plant does so well that there seems
+no reason why it should not be grown for profit. It is not a land of
+warblers, nor can it show the rich and varied wildfowl fauna of the
+Fenlands, but there is no county in England where, in the marshy glens,
+woodcocks are more abundant. The moorlands, too, abound in snipe, and at
+one time blackgame were common, but the larger birds of prey have for
+the most part vanished, though an occasional buzzard may be seen and the
+raven is not yet extinct.
+
+Lastly, it is to be noted that Cornwall is the nearest part of England
+to America. However difficult it may be of explanation, the fact remains
+that the Duchy is very rich in rare birds; so rich, indeed, that their
+recorded occurrence cannot by any possibility be merely accidental.
+Thus, no less than 24 species have occurred in Cornwall which have never
+been found in Devonshire. But more than this, a very large number of
+these--18 or more--are purely American species. The question is, whence
+do they come? Professor James Clark, who has discussed the point at some
+length in the _Victoria County History_, is, apparently, loth to believe
+that they can come directly across the Atlantic, and it is by many
+thought that they are driven back by heavy south-westerly weather when
+dropping down the English Channel, having come by a circuitous route
+from Northern Europe. But against this is the undeniable fact that it is
+in the immediate neighbourhood of the Land's End that the chief rarities
+and stragglers are obtained, while many species have been shot in the
+Scilly Islands which have never been recorded from Cornwall itself.
+
+So far as its botany is concerned, Cornwall does not differ very
+markedly from Devonshire, but it has a large number of rare or peculiar
+plants. The highlands and north coast are rather poor in species; it is
+on the banks and estuaries of the streams that the richest flora is
+seen. A number of foreign plants are found, mostly in the neighbourhood
+of Falmouth and other ports. The balsam, _Impatiens Roylei_, from
+India, grows extremely abundantly between Liskeard and Looe, and near
+Tintagel, and a species of May-weed (_Matricaria discoidea_) has become
+a troublesome pest near Falmouth. Loe Pool in the Lizard district is
+noticeable for the number of rare and local plants it possesses. The
+Scilly Islands own certain plants peculiar to them; thus, _Trifolium
+repens_, var. _Townsendi_ and _Ornithopus ebracteatus_ are said not to
+be found elsewhere in England, and _Carex ligerica_ only in Norfolk.
+
+The chief feature of the mammals of the county is that the grey seal,
+_Halichaerus gryphus_, is quite numerous in the Scilly Islands; that the
+polecat, though nearly extinct, is still found; and that both badgers
+and otters are very abundant. It is a curious fact that certain
+freshwater fish common in other parts of England, such as pike, roach,
+chub, and bream, are unknown.
+
+The bird which bears the distinctive appellation, the Cornish chough (it
+is not confined to the county, but is also found in Wales), is now not
+nearly as common as formerly, but like the raven it still breeds on some
+parts of the coast.
+
+
+
+
+=8. Around the Coast. From Morwenstow to Land's End.=
+
+
+[Illustration: Bude Breakwater]
+
+This noble coast--so terrible to sailors--begins with the fine Henna
+Cliff at Morwenstow. Morwenstow Church contains an early font and has
+fine Norman arches. Here is Tonacombe, an interesting early Tudor house
+quite unspoiled. At Morwenstow lived the Rev. Robert Hawker, a poet and
+character. Bude Haven is a growing seaside place, with golf-links and
+tolerable bathing. Stratton, of which parish it actually forms or did form
+a part, has a fine well-cared for church, and above the town is Stamford
+Hill, where was fought a battle in the Civil War, on May 16, 1643. Sir
+Bevil Grenville and Hopton commanded the Royalist Army, and the Earl of
+Stamford the Parliamentarians. The latter were defeated with the loss of
+300 men killed and 1700 taken prisoners. One of the old guns marks the
+site, and an inscription in commemoration of the battle is affixed to
+the Tree Inn. Widemouth Bay has good sands and promises at some future
+day to become a sea-bathing place superior to Bude. At Dazard the cliffs
+are fine; at St Gennys is Crackington Cove with a small beach. Beyond
+this, High Cliff (705 ft.) is reached, the loftiest headland on the
+coast. The coast is magnificent to Boscastle. Near this is Pentargon, a
+beautiful bay into which a little stream leaps in a waterfall. Boscastle
+is a narrow creek into which only in calm weather can small vessels
+enter. It is sheltered by a headland in which is a blow-hole. In a
+lovely valley is the towerless church of Minster. In caves about
+Willapark seals breed. From hence to Tintagel the cliffs are of slate
+and are quarried, the slate being let down into boats in the water, when
+weather permits. Before reaching Tintagel we come to St Neighton's
+(Nectan's) Kieve, a small waterfall in a glen, where maidenhair fern
+once abounded.
+
+Tintagel village is separated from the church by a deep glen. The church
+is on a windy height, and is interesting for its antiquity. Tintagel
+castle stands on a headland, once an island, but the cliff and a portion
+of the castle have fallen into the narrow gulf and choked it. The sea
+has bored a tunnel through the headland, and very little of the castle
+remains. The walls were of the local slate-stone set in mortar made of
+sea-shells. In this castle, traditionally, King Arthur was born. There
+are slate quarries in the neighbourhood, and further inland are the
+Delabole quarries, from which slate is conveyed to all parts of England.
+
+[Illustration: King Arthur's Castle, Tintagel]
+
+The small Trebarwith Cove is passed and then we reach Port Isaac Bay,
+which takes its name, not from the patriarch, but from a Cornish word
+that signifies a port for corn.
+
+[Illustration: Bodruthan Steps]
+
+Porthqueen has its pilchard cellars cut out of the rocks; and at the
+western end of its bay Pentire Head stands out boldly into the Atlantic
+with a cliff castle at its extreme point. Pentire to some extent
+shelters Padstow Bay, but the entrance to the harbour is made dangerous
+by the Doom Bar lying across it. Here the rounded, sand-powdered Bray
+Hill is supposed to have buried under the drift sand the remains of a
+Roman town, but that there was such a Roman settlement is very doubtful.
+Further inland is the church of St Enodoc recently dug out of the sand,
+and the path to the porch has singular "Lord's Measures" that have been
+collected and are here planted. They were measures for grain. Of Padstow
+something shall be said elsewhere. Before reaching Trevose Head is
+Harlyn Bay, where from under the sand has been dug out a cemetery of the
+iron age, the skeletons crouching with their chins to their knees, in
+slate kists or coffins, with bronze ornaments, glass and amber beads,
+and iron instruments. Here also by the falling of the earth or sand some
+gold ornaments of the Celtic period were laid bare. On Trevose Head is a
+lighthouse. In Constantine Bay are the remains of a church half buried
+in sand, and with bones strewn about it. The font from this abandoned
+church has been transferred to St Merryn. It is of black Catacluse
+stone, as are the piers and arches of the church, giving it a sombre
+look. Passing the little Porthcothan we come to the noble cliffs of
+Bodruthan Steps, perhaps the finest bit of the north-coast scenery, and
+then reach Mawgan Porth, the estuary of the tiny stream that waters
+the vale of Lanherne. Here is the ancient mansion of the Arundells,
+dating from 1580, granted by Lord Arundell to Carmelite nuns, who came
+to England, at the outbreak of the French Revolution, in 1794. They have
+remained here ever since in seclusion. Near the door into their chapel
+is an old cross with inscription and interlaced work. The church has a
+beautifully proportioned tower, a good rood-screen, and many monuments
+of the Arundells, as well as a remarkable Gothic cross. A grove of
+Cornish elms like whips occupies the bottom of the valley. The church
+and parish are St Mawgan in Pyder.
+
+[Illustration: Newquay Harbour]
+
+Newquay with its sands is a rapidly growing watering-place, with staring
+hotels. Crantock church, which once had its canons, is interesting; it
+has been carefully restored and has a fine rood-screen and loft. On the
+stalls is carved a dove with a chip of wood in its beak, and the story
+goes that St Carantoc--who assisted St Patrick in drawing up the Senchus
+Môr, the code of laws for Christian Ireland--was guided to the site for
+his church by seeing a dove carry off the shavings of his staff which he
+was cutting. Perran Bay has sent its sands flying inland, causing a
+widespread extent of _towans_ or dunes, which have overwhelmed first of
+all the old church of St Piran or Cieran of Saighir in Ireland, who was
+buried in it, and then a second church built further inland, which also
+in turn had to be abandoned. These sand-dunes are a rabbit warren. The
+old church of St Piran, extremely rude in construction, has been
+excavated, but the only carved work found has been removed to the museum
+at Truro. The church resembles one of the early Christian chapels in
+Ireland. Bones are scattered about around it.
+
+St Agnes--or St Aun's Head as it is locally termed--is but 617 ft. high,
+but it stands boldly above the sea.
+
+Portreath is a busy little place to which coal-barges come from Cardiff
+with coal for the Camborne and Redruth mines. Tehidy Park, which stands
+above it, is an old seat of the Bassets. After passing Navax Point the
+broad Bay of St Ives opens out, with a lighthouse at each horn, and here
+again begin the towans or sand-dunes. Hayle is at the mouth of a small
+stream of the same name, and signifies "saltings." We come now to the
+town of St Ives, with an interesting church and an old cross. St Ives
+till about 1410 was but a tiny fishing village and was in the parish of
+Lelant. Perkin Warbeck landed near here in 1497.
+
+Near this is the Knill monument erected in 1782 by the eccentric John
+Knill, who left money for an annual procession to it, and a dance of
+children around it. He intended it to have been his mausoleum, but he
+died and was buried in London.
+
+[Illustration: The Wharf, St Ives]
+
+Zennor has a curious little church with carved bench ends, on one of
+which is represented a mermaid, and Zennor "quoit" is thought to be the
+largest cromlech in England.
+
+The Gurnard's Head has sheer cliffs on east and west, composed of slaty
+felspar, horneblende and greenstone, whereas the rocks of Zennor are of
+granite and slate in juxtaposition, and with dykes of granite
+penetrating the slate. Hills of rock and heather and furze bend round
+in a crescent terminating on one side at Carnminnis, on the other at
+Carn Galva, enclosing a great basin that reaches to the cliffs. On the
+isthmus connecting the headland with the mainland is a ruined chapel,
+with the altar-stone entire. Three miles westward is Morvah with the
+interesting Chûn Castle above it, of rude stone forming three concentric
+rings, and not far off is Chûn cromlech.
+
+We come now to Botallack with its famous mine, carried to a depth of a
+thousand feet and extending a considerable distance under the sea. In
+time of storm the booming of the waves overhead and the clashing of
+stones rolled by the billows is so great that the bravest miners are
+driven from their work. Tin mining is now but languidly carried on.
+Although the heights are not great, yet this portion of coast is
+remarkably fine.
+
+Cape Cornwall exhibits the junction of the slate with the granite. Here
+also extensive mining has been carried on, and Boswedden, like
+Botallack, burrowed far under the sea. Near the church of St Just is one
+of the circles or amphitheatres in which miracle plays were performed.
+The "Merry Maidens" is a prehistoric stone circle in the neighbourhood
+with ten stones erect and five fallen.
+
+Whitesand Bay enjoys some slight shelter from the S. and E. winds. It is
+said that this bay was the landing-place of Athelstan after his conquest
+of Scilly, of King Stephen in 1135, and of King John when he returned
+from Ireland. In Sennen Cove is a cluster of fishermen's cottages.
+
+Land's End is the end of Penwith, the "chief headland," and the Bolerium
+of the ancients. It commands a magnificent view, extending to Cape
+Cornwall over Whitesand Bay, of the Longships rocks with their
+lighthouse, and in clear weather of the Scilly Isles. The Wolf
+lighthouse is planted on a dangerous rock of felspathic porphyry some
+eight miles S.W. from the shore. The Land's End bristles with sharp
+fangs of rock, and somewhat resembles the back of an alligator.
+
+[Illustration: Land's End]
+
+
+
+
+=9. Around the Coast. From Land's End to Rame Head.=
+
+
+The south coast-line of Cornwall presents a great contrast to that of
+the north, except for the portion from the Land's End to Mounts Bay and
+the Lizard. We have no more the wind-swept background of heights,
+barren and often tortured by miners, turned into a waste of heaps of
+rubble and studded with ruined engine-houses. We find instead a gentler
+sea-board, pierced by long estuaries, and with valleys of rich
+vegetation running down to the sea. We speedily leave the granite and
+the culm measures, and are among the rocks of the Devonian series, less
+stern and forbidding in colour. In St Levan parish at Trereen Point is
+the Logan Rock, a block of granite weighing over 65 tons, once so nicely
+balanced that it could be made to rock by the finger of a child. In 1874
+a young naval officer, with the assistance of a boat's crew, upset it.
+This raised a storm of indignation in Cornwall, and the Admiralty
+ordered him to replace it, which he did, at great expense.
+
+[Illustration: Newlyn Pier]
+
+Mousehole is a village of fishermen and boatmen, and was the residence
+of Dolly Pentreath, the last person in Cornwall who spoke the Cornish
+language, as also of some of the unfortunate sailors who joined Captain
+Allan Gardner in 1850 in his ill-fated missionary expedition to South
+America. All the members of the mission died of starvation in Tierra del
+Fuego.
+
+[Illustration: St Michael's Mount]
+
+Newlyn has become noted as a place of residence of a school of artists.
+It is on the wide and beautiful Mounts Bay over against St Michael's
+Mount.
+
+[Illustration: Kynance Cove and the Lizard]
+
+Penzance ("the Holy Head") has become a great resort of residents for
+the winter, owing to the mildness of the climate. Marazion or Market Jew
+does not derive its name from "the Bitter Waters of Zion" as has been
+absurdly asserted; Marazion has the same significance as Market Jeu
+(i.e. Jeudi), Thursday Market. Here is a submerged forest. St Michael's
+Mount is a rock that rises out of the sands and can be reached, when the
+tide falls, by a causeway. It is incomparably inferior both in elevation
+and in the dignity of the buildings that crown it to the Mont St Michel
+in Normandy, but is nevertheless a picturesque adjunct to the scene.
+Some writers suppose that it is the Ictis to which the natives conveyed
+the tin and trafficked with the Phoenicians, but it is totally unsuited
+by nature to serve as a market-site, and there is no certain evidence
+that the Phoenicians ever came to Cornwall. About Marazion daffodils,
+narcissus, and violets are cultivated largely for the London market. At
+Perran Uthnoe the cliffs again appear, and we reach Prussia Cove, once
+the haunt of smugglers. Inland, Godolphin and Tregonning's granite hills
+are conspicuous, and near the coast is Pergersick Castle, a picturesque
+ruin of which strange legends are told. Porthleven is a small fishing
+village, where the people live on the annual arrival of the pilchards.
+Loe Pool is a beautiful sheet of water cut off from the sea by a bar of
+sand. It was when standing on this bar, and watching the wreck of a
+vessel close in shore when those on the land were unable to communicate
+with it, that Henry Trengrouse conceived the idea of a rocket apparatus,
+to be not only employed on land, but also to be carried by every ship.
+He, of course, met with opposition from the Board of Trade and the
+Government, and he spent his life and his fortune in experiments, and in
+endeavours to push his apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: Mullion Cove]
+
+We now reach the superb serpentine cliffs of the Lizard with the
+beautiful coves of Polurrian, Mullion, and Kynance. At Lizard Point is
+one of the most famous of all lighthouses, the departure-point or
+landfall of thousands of ships in the course of the year. The peninsula
+of the Lizard is interesting, though the land does not rise much above
+300 ft., and is monotonous moorland. All its charm is in its coast-line.
+The terrible Manacles rocks have been the scene of many a wreck. Helford
+river is a creek running up to Gweek in one arm and nearly to
+Constantine in another. We now reach Falmouth Bay, into which opens the
+Carrick Road. A curious peninsula, Roseland, runs to Zoze Point, where
+there is a lighthouse. Portscatho is a small place at the opening of
+Gerrans Bay, of which the eastern horn is Nare Point. Carn Beacon is
+traditionally held to have been the burial-place of Geraint, King of
+Devon and Cornwall. There were more than one of this name. The cairn has
+been opened and was found to contain a stone cist of the bronze period,
+and not, as tradition said, his golden boat with silver oars. Veryan Bay
+between Nare Point and the Dodman has in it no good harbour. Dodman
+stands nearly 380 ft. above the sea.
+
+[Illustration: Falmouth, from Flushing]
+
+Mevagissey Bay is a shallow hollow between Chapel Point and Black Head,
+the latter crowned by one of the cliff castles found on almost every
+headland. Then comes St Austell Bay with that of Tywardreath opening out
+of it. Charlestown has latterly become of importance, as from thence
+much china-clay is shipped.
+
+We reach now the narrow estuary of the Fowey river, with Fowey town
+consisting of one narrow street beside the tidal creek, and with Polruan
+on the further shore. The coast now becomes very bold, and Polperro,
+five miles beyond, was once a notorious haunt of smugglers.
+
+[Illustration: Polperro]
+
+At Looe, the two rivers bearing the same name fall into a bay, and
+seaward stands up Looe Island, crowned by the ruins of a chapel. This
+island was also a haunt of smugglers, and it was found necessary to
+establish a coastguard station on it to keep them in control. East Looe
+and West Looe each sent two members to Parliament before the passing of
+the Reform Bill.
+
+[Illustration: Looe]
+
+Between Looe and Rame Head is Whitesand Bay, so called from the
+whiteness of the sand. The quicksands have made it dangerous for
+bathers, but the cliff scenery is beautiful and romantic. There is a
+tiny watering-place at its western end, Downderry. At Tregantle is the
+most important of the western defences of Plymouth. A peninsula is
+formed by the Lynher river which discharges into the Hamoaze, and the
+neck of land between it and the sea is about two miles in breadth.
+Tregantle stands 400 ft. above the sea and commands every approach to
+Plymouth Sound.
+
+Rame Head projects into the sea from Maker Heights and is the
+termination of a range of cliffs from Looe, and from hence a fine view
+can be had of the Cornish coast as far as the Lizard.
+
+On the east of Penlee Point is Cawsand Bay, once infested with
+smugglers, sheltered by Rame Head from westerly gales. A rock with a
+cave in it and a white incrustation is regarded here with some
+superstitious reverence, and fishermen throw a few pilchards or herrings
+to it as an oblation when returning from fishing.
+
+
+
+
+=10. The Coast--Gains and Losses.=
+
+
+At a vastly remote period a valley lay between Britain and Gaul--before
+ever they were Britain and Gaul--and through this well-wooded valley
+flowed a river. The coast-line of Britain then lay from one to two
+hundred miles to the west, where is now the great drop in the ocean
+depths from 100 fathoms to 300 or 400. Cornwall was a Mesopotamia, a
+land between two almost parallel rivers, one occupying the bottom of
+what is now the English Channel, the other being the Severn. At that
+time the Bristol Channel was another great valley. From Brown Willy to
+the Scilly Isles ran a lofty mountain range, towering into the sky, of
+which the present Bodmin moors, Carn Brea, Carn Marth, Tregonning Hill,
+etc., are but the abraded stumps. Not only were they much higher, but
+their present roots stood 300 ft. higher than at present.
+
+Then ensued a sinking of the land, and the Atlantic flowed into the
+valley to the south and joined the North Sea; and at the same time the
+Bristol Channel was formed. Thus the present coast was approximately
+outlined.
+
+At some period shortly after, a vast inundation swept over the land from
+the north, and carried down the degraded granite, depositing the tin
+beds in the hollows. As early as 1830, Mr Carne noted: "The peculiar
+situation in which nearly all the stream tin of Cornwall is found is
+highly illustrative of the direction in which the current of the deluge
+swept over the surface. All the productive streams are in the valleys
+which open to the sea on the southern side of the Cornish peninsula;
+whilst most of the richest veins are situated near the northern coast."
+
+The deposit of tin stone, or tin ground, lies directly on the _shelf_,
+or primitive surface of rock, and is carried far out in the estuaries,
+and overlaid by marine deposits.
+
+In 1828, in Carnon Creek, a cairn was discovered 16 to 18 ft. below the
+surface, and that surface 4 to 5 ft. below low water mark. In it was a
+crouched skeleton. This shows that there must have been a subsidence of
+the land of something like 30 ft. at least since the period when man in
+the late stone or early bronze age inhabited Cornwall.
+
+The submarine forests grew on the top of the tin ground. Of these many
+have been noted and recorded, not only on the south coast, but on the
+north as well. The trees were oak and hazel, alder and elm, but they
+never reached a large size.
+
+Above this bed lie the raised beaches, some 40 or 50 ft. above high
+water mark. The tin-beds in the Cornish valleys towards the sea do not
+exhibit such an upheaval. Generally the raised beach rests on the
+original rock, and consists of rolled stones, frequently of large size,
+mixed with smaller gravel and sand. The "Head of Rubble," with some
+intervening perplexing beds of sand, may be noticed on the coast. This
+Head is from 40 to 50 ft. in depth. It is composed of angular fragments
+of rock, often large, many of quartz, with no signs of stratification.
+The Rubble bed in Cornwall has yielded no organic remains, but elsewhere
+in it have been found the bones of the mammoth, elephant, woolly
+rhinoceros, reindeer, etc. It was not formed by the disintegration of
+the subjacent rocks, but by aqueous transport. It owes its origin to a
+powerful force of water, acting violently and rapidly. It caps the
+heights, and is not in the valleys where the tin ground has been
+deposited. It has not therefore been found to overlie it. It was due to
+a sudden and brief overrush of water, and the fragments of stone carried
+before the flood did not travel sufficiently far to have their angles
+rubbed down.
+
+[Illustration: Perranporth Rocks]
+
+As may well be supposed, the action of the sea on the coast-line has been
+affected largely by the character of the rocks against which the waves
+have lashed themselves to foam. Where the rocks are of granite or slate,
+the tide and the waves have very little effect upon the outline of the
+coast; it is in those places where the softer rocks prevail, and where
+exposure to the prevalent wind induces breakers of great volume, that
+the loss of land by the action of the sea is greatest. In fact, the
+tides rarely run beyond one or two miles per hour, except round
+headlands, and it is where the rocks are of a yielding character that
+the coves and bays are formed. This is not always the case. Where the
+sea has found a fault in the rock it will burrow incessantly till it has
+bored out for itself a cavern, and the head of this falling in produces
+a tiny cove. The hard quartzose and trap rocks of Trevose Head, the
+greenstone rocks of Pentire, near Padstow, the hard slates of St Agnes,
+the greenstone and hardened schist of the Gurnard's Head, and the
+granite of the Land's End, defy the action of wave and tide. But it is
+otherwise where, for instance, the Head of Rubble occurs. "In Gerrans
+Bay it is plain that the cliffs of Head were at one time much further
+out than they are now. The tops of the earthy cliffs are split with
+cracks and miniature chasms, showing that great masses are constantly
+being detached by atmospheric causes, while the great heaps of earth at
+the foot of the cliffs show how for centuries masses of earth have
+rolled down from their tops on to the beach below[1]." As to the kingdom
+of Lyonesse, which was supposed to extend from the Land's End to beyond
+Scilly, it never existed in the historic or prehistoric period. Another
+fable that may be dismissed, is that St Michael's Mount was surrounded
+by a vast tract of woodland, in which were villages, and where settled
+hermits. It did rise above a forest, but that was in a prehistoric
+period. But if the sea gains on the land but imperceptibly in one way,
+it gains in another on the north coast, by the action of the wind
+carrying the sand inland, and overwhelming field after field. It is not
+a little curious to mark, nevertheless, how a small dribble of a stream
+will arrest the onward march of the sand-dunes.
+
+    [1] D.C. Whitley, "The Head of Rubble," in _Journal of the R.
+    Inst. of Cornwall_, XVII. p. 67.
+
+At Constantine by Padstow as already said the old church is enveloped in
+sand-hills, so is that of St Enodoc. The Perran Sands have so encroached
+that they extend over a mile and a half inland and have in process of
+time swallowed up two churches and a village. The Gear Sands have even
+climbed a hill to the height of 300 ft. The Godrevy, Upton and Phillack
+towans have moved inland from St Ives' Bay and engulfed the residence of
+the ancient kings of Cornwall at Riviere.
+
+The same phenomenon has not taken place in the south, but there the
+estuaries have been silted up by the wash from the stream tin works.
+Formerly boats could come up to Tregony. Now the Fal is choked with
+detritus for miles down. Restronguet creek bore vessels to
+Perranarworthal. Now it is completely silted up, only a trickle of water
+running down through desolate morasses and flats resulting from the
+workings of the miners.
+
+
+
+
+=11. The Coast--Tides, Islands, and Lighthouses.=
+
+
+Off the mouth of the English Channel the tidal-stream is materially
+influenced by the indraft and outset of the channel, and is found to run
+northward and eastward with a falling tide at Dover, and southward and
+westward with a rising tide at that place. At spring tides the tide
+rises in Padstow Bay 22 ft., at Bude a foot higher, at the Lizard only
+14-1/2 ft., at Scilly 16 ft. Nowhere on the Cornish coast is there the
+enormous rise seen at St Malo, where ordinary tides rise from 23 to 26
+ft., and spring tides 48 ft. above low-water mark.
+
+On account of the varying force with which the channel and spring tides
+blend south of the Scilly group the stream is incessantly altering, but
+north of this towards the Bristol Channel, the stream becomes more
+regular, and while the water is ebbing at Dover, it sets northward
+turning sharply round Trevose Head into the Bristol Channel, and so when
+the tide is flowing at Dover, it is running with equal speed in ebb out
+of the channel and along the coast towards Scilly.
+
+[Illustration: Round Island, Scilly]
+
+The Scilly Isles are the sole group of any importance around the coast.
+They are situated 40 miles due west from the Lizard Point and 25
+west-south-west from the Land's End, and are reached by steamers from
+Penzance. There are now but five of the isles inhabited, St Mary's,
+Tresco, St Agnes, St Martin's, and Bryher. Formerly Sampson was also
+inhabited, but the inhabitants were removed to St Mary's. The total
+acreage of the islands is 3560; and the formation is granite. This group
+is in fact the rubbed-down stump of the last great peak of the chain
+running south-west from Bodmin moors. The heights in the islands are
+inconsiderable, but very bold and picturesque scenery is obtained among
+the many islets, each of which has its special character. At St Mary's
+is a pier built in 1835-8; and a harbour called the Pool for small
+craft, while further out between the islands is a good roadstead for
+large vessels. The Scilly Isles were noted as a resting-place for
+innumerable birds, some very rare, in their annual migrations, but of
+late years gun-practice at sea marks has scared a good many away, and
+they visit the islands in far fewer numbers than formerly.
+
+[Illustration: The Longships Lighthouse]
+
+The coast of Cornwall is remarkably free of shoals. The only dangerous
+sandbank is the Doom Bar at the mouth of the Bay of Padstow; but there
+are shallows in Mounts Bay and other places.
+
+[Illustration: Eddystone Lighthouse]
+
+Trinity House, the first general lighthouse and pilotage authority in
+the kingdom, was composed of a body of merchants and seamen founded in
+1519 by Sir Thomas Speet, controller of the navy, when it was granted a
+charter by Henry VIII. Since that period the duty of erecting and
+maintaining lighthouses and other sea-marks has been entrusted to the
+Corporation by Royal Charter and Acts of Parliament. Trinity House
+maintains ten lighthouses about the coast of Cornwall, of which the most
+important, besides those of the Scilly Isles, are the Longships, white
+and red occulting; the Wolf rock, white and red group flash; the Lizard,
+white flash; the Eddystone, white flash.
+
+
+
+
+=12. Climate--Rainfall.=
+
+
+The climate of a country or district is, briefly, the average weather of
+that country or district, and it depends upon various factors, all
+mutually interacting--upon the latitude, the temperature, the direction
+and strength of the winds, the rainfall, the character of the soil, and
+the proximity of the district to the sea.
+
+The differences in the climates of the world depend mainly upon
+latitude, but a scarcely less important factor is this proximity to the
+sea. Along any great climatic zone there will be found variations in
+proportion to this proximity, the extremes being "continental" climates
+in the centres of continents far from the oceans, and "insular" climates
+in small tracts surrounded by sea. Continental climates show great
+differences in seasonal temperatures, the winters tending to be
+unusually cold and the summers unusually warm, while the climate of
+insular tracts is characterised by equableness and also by greater
+dampness. Great Britain possesses, by reason of its position, a
+temperate insular climate, but its average annual temperature is much
+higher than could be expected from its latitude. The prevalent
+south-westerly winds cause a drift of the surface-waters of the Atlantic
+towards our shores, and this warm water current, which we know as the
+Gulf Stream, is the chief cause of the mildness of our winters.
+
+Most of our weather comes to us from the Atlantic. It would be
+impossible here within the limits of a short chapter to discuss fully
+the causes which affect or control weather changes. It must suffice to
+say that the conditions are in the main either cyclonic or anticyclonic,
+which terms may be best explained, perhaps, by comparing the air
+currents to a stream of water. In a stream a chain of eddies may often
+be seen fringing the more steadily-moving central water. Regarding the
+general northeasterly moving air from the Atlantic as such a stream, a
+chain of eddies may be developed in a belt parallel with its general
+direction. This belt of eddies or cyclones, as they are termed, tends to
+shift its position, sometimes passing over our islands, sometimes to the
+north or south of them, and it is to this shifting that most of our
+weather changes are due. Cyclonic conditions are associated with a
+greater or less amount of atmospheric disturbance; anticyclonic with
+calms.
+
+The prevalent Atlantic winds largely affect our island in another way,
+namely in its rainfall. The air, heavily laden with moisture from its
+passage over the ocean, meets with elevated land-tracts directly it
+reaches our shores--the moorland of Devon and Cornwall, the Welsh
+mountains, or the fells of Cumberland and Westmorland--and blowing up
+the rising land-surface, parts with this moisture as rain. To how great
+an extent this occurs is best seen by reference to the accompanying map
+of the annual rainfall of England, where it will at once be noticed that
+the heaviest fall is in the west, and that it decreases with remarkable
+regularity until the least fall is reached on our eastern shores. Thus
+in 1906, the maximum rainfall for the year occurred at Glaslyn in the
+Snowdon district, where 205 inches of rain fell; and the lowest was at
+Boyton in Suffolk, with a record of just under 20 inches. These western
+highlands, therefore, may not inaptly be compared to an umbrella,
+sheltering the country further eastward from the rain.
+
+[Illustration: ENGLAND & WALES ANNUAL RAINFALL]
+
+The above causes, then, are those mainly concerned in influencing the
+weather, but there are other and more local factors which often affect
+greatly the climate of a place, such, for example, as configuration,
+position, and soil. The shelter of a range of hills, a southern aspect,
+a sandy soil, will thus produce conditions which may differ greatly from
+those of a place--perhaps at no great distance--situated on a wind-swept
+northern slope with a cold clay soil.
+
+The character of the climate of a country or district influences, as
+everyone knows, both the cultivation of the soil and the products which
+it yields, and thus indirectly as well as directly exercises a profound
+effect upon Man. The banana-nourished dweller in a tropical island who
+has but to tickle the earth with a hoe for it to laugh a harvest is of
+different fibre morally and physically from the inhabitant of northern
+climes who wins a scanty subsistence from the land at the expense of
+unremitting toil. These are extremes; but even within the limits of a
+county, perhaps, similar if smaller differences may be noted, and the
+man of the plain or the valley is often distinct in type from his fellow
+of the hills.
+
+Very minute records of the climate of our island are kept at numerous
+stations throughout the country, relating to the temperature, rainfall,
+force and direction of the wind, hours of sunshine, cloud conditions,
+and so forth, and are duly collected, tabulated, and averaged by the
+Meteorological Society. From these we are able to compare and contrast
+the climatic conditions in various parts.
+
+Cornwall, being so surrounded by the sea, and so peculiarly under the
+influence of the Gulf Stream, may be looked upon as possessing a local
+"insular" climate in a marked degree. The south-west wind almost
+invariably brings rain and warmth together, for the high cold granitic
+moorlands are naturally calculated to arrest these warm airs and chill
+them, causing thereby a downfall of the suspended water. But Cornwall
+does not enjoy the amount of sun heat to ripen fruit that is obtained on
+the east coast of England, and it is exposed to furious gales from the
+west. "The gale from the west," says Polwhele, "is here no gentle
+zephyr; instead of wafting perfume on its wings, it often brings
+devastation." On the north coast every tree that is exposed to it is
+dwarfed and bowed like a curling wave, and the foliage in spring is
+often cut and browned by the salt spray. Even tombstones in the
+churchyards on the heights have to be backed up with masonry, and the
+churches are low, as if cowering from the blast. According to a Cornish
+proverb: "There falls a shower on every week day, and there are two on a
+Sunday." In Scilly, however, there is more sunshine and less rain than
+on the mainland. The myrtle, geranium, fuchsia, and hydrangea grow
+luxuriantly; the red geranium at Penzance will cover the front of a
+house, and palms and other exotics thrive there and at Falmouth. The
+fields of narcissus and daffodils cultivated for the market would be
+more beautiful if the blooms were not systematically picked before fully
+open, to be sent to London. No gardens in England exhibit such a wealth
+of exotics as those of Tresco, Carclew, Enys and Penjerrick, and some
+others in the district of the Fal estuary, which seems peculiarly
+favourable for the growth of sub-tropical species.
+
+In 1906, the mean temperature of England and Wales was 49·3° Fahr.,
+while that of Cornwall was 51·2. The mean temperature of England in 1907
+was 48·5, of Cornwall 50·6. But there exists a considerable difference
+between north and south. At Redruth it was in 1906, 50·1, whereas at
+Truro it was nine degrees higher.
+
+The east wind prevails in October and is strong in March, the south-east
+in June, the south-west is felt in every month save April, but very
+little in December. The west wind is most prevalent in August, least so
+in May. The north wind predominates in December and July.
+
+The rainfall chart here given shows that Cornwall lies for the most
+part in an area where from 40 to 60 inches are annually recorded, though
+a strip of the north coast from St Ives to Padstow and again from
+Boscastle to the northern limit of the county shows a fall of less than
+40 inches. This is because the uplands have robbed the rainclouds of a
+considerable portion of their contents, and accordingly it is on these
+high moorlands that we find the greatest rainfall. Thus on the moors
+between Launceston and Bodmin from 60 to 80 inches fall, and even this
+latter figure is exceeded in the neighbourhood of Rough Tor and Brown
+Willy.
+
+From observations taken at the Royal Institution of Cornwall at Truro,
+from 1850 to 1881 it appears that the rainiest months are November and
+December, and next to them January and July; April and May are the least
+rainy.
+
+
+
+
+=13. People--Race, Dialect, Population.=
+
+
+The original population of Cornwall would seem to have been what is now
+commonly called Ivernian, the same as Iberian, the underlying race
+everywhere in Western Europe from the western isles of Scotland to
+Gibraltar. When the Romans invaded and conquered Spain, they found there
+already in the east the Celts and in the west the Iberians, and they
+designated the more or less fused population, Celtiberians. So in
+Cornwall, there was this dark-haired, dusky-skinned race, and the
+Brythons, Celts, of the people of the Dumnonii. There were extensive
+settlements by Irish in the Land's End district, the Lizard, and along
+the north coast, in 490-510, owing to the expulsion of the Ossorians and
+the Bairrche from their lands in Ireland. The Saxon also crossed the
+Tamar and peaceably settled in East Cornwall.
+
+The language spoken was Brythonic, akin to, and originally identical
+with Welsh and that spoken in Lower Brittany. It was distinct in some
+points from the Goidelic of Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Highlands
+of Scotland. The main difference was that the _C_ in the latter became
+_P_ in the former. Thus _Ken_ or _Cen_ in such names as Kenmare and
+Ciaran would in Cornish become Penmare and Piran.
+
+In the reign of Edward I, Cornish was spoken in the south Hams of
+Devonshire, but in the sixteenth century it was dying out even in West
+Cornwall. Norden, writing in 1580, says: "Of late the Cornish men have
+much conformed themselves to the use of the English tongue, and their
+English is equal to the beste, especially in the eastern partes.... In
+the weste parte of the countrye, in the hundreds of Penwith and Kirrier,
+the Cornishe tongue is most in use amongste the inhabitants." At
+Menheniot about 1540 the Creed and the Lord's Prayer were first taught
+the people in English. In 1678, at Landewednack, the last Cornish sermon
+on record was preached. In the reign of George III (1777) died Dolly
+Pentreath, the last to speak the language.
+
+Two modern Cornish dialects exist. That in the east very naturally is
+assimilated to the Devonshire; but in the west it has formed itself in
+comparatively recent times. The more common prefixes of names of places
+are:--_Tre_ an enclosure or homestead, _Lan_ also an enclosure for a
+church, _Ty_ a dwelling, _Bod_ a habitation, _Chy_ a house, _Pol_ a
+pool, _Pen_ a head, _Huel_ or _Wheal_ a mine, _Ros_ a moor, _Men_ a
+stone, _B[=a]l_ a mine, _Bos_ is a corruption of _Bod_ and is sometimes
+reduced to _Bo_; _Car_ stands for _Caer_ a fortress; _Dun_ has the same
+signification. _Burn_ stands for _Bron_ a hill, _Camborne_ should be
+_Cambron_, the crooked hill; _Cara_ is _Carreg_ a rock, and this is
+often found cut down to _Car_; _Carn_ is a cairn or heap of stones or
+mass of rock; _Enys_ or _Innis_ an island or peninsula. _Fenter_
+occurring in many combinations is _fenten_ a well or spring; _Goon_ is
+the Welsh _Waun_ a grassy down; _Hal_ is a moor, _Parc_ an enclosure,
+_Dinas_ a chieftain's castle, _Lis_ a court of justice.
+
+It is possible that certain river names may derive from the original
+tongue of the earliest race. Some seem to be more akin to Goidelic than
+Brythonic dialect, as _Fal_ (Gaelic _foill_, slow), and _Fowey_ (Gaelic
+_fobhaidh_, swift); but there are not sufficient of these to assure us
+that the Goidels preceded the Brythons in Cornwall.
+
+In East Cornwall there must have been a considerable influx of Saxon
+settlers, for there we light upon such names of places as are compounded
+with _ton_ the home-farm, _worth_ and _worthy_ a fortified settlement,
+_stoke_, _stow_, _sto_ a stockade, an earthwork surmounted by a defence
+of posts; _ham_ a meadow by the waterside. In West Cornwall such names
+are few.
+
+[Illustration: Miners: Camborne]
+
+The people are courteous and kindly, and very independent. In South
+Africa, whither many thousand miners have migrated, they are not
+popular, and are fain to disguise whence they come by pretending to
+hail from Furness. The reason is that the Cornish cling together and do
+not care to associate with others, and that they lack that breadth of
+sympathy which makes men give up their time and devote their energies to
+the common good. The Cornish miner cares nothing for the country and for
+those among whom he has placed himself, if only in three years he may
+have made enough money to return home to his wife and children. He does
+not go out to settle, and this explains the lack of interest he has in
+what interests and concerns the colony.
+
+The Cornish are a broad-shouldered race, above the average in stature,
+and it is stated that west country regiments, when drawn up on parade,
+cover a greater space of ground than would those of other counties, the
+numbers being equal.
+
+The census of 1901 gives as the population of the administrative county
+322,334 persons, of whom 149,937 were males and 172,397 were females.
+There had been an increase in the number of males since 1891, and a
+decrease in the number of females. Of inhabited houses there were
+72,660. The population of Cornwall in 1801 was 192,281, and it went on
+increasing steadily to 1861, but from that date it has been as steadily
+on the decrease. In military barracks there were 629 officers and men,
+in naval barracks 90, and on H.M. ships in home waters 2053; in
+workhouses 1308, in prison 75.
+
+In 1901 there were 21,335 marriages, 88,636 births, and 55,790 deaths.
+There were 6434 wives whose husbands were absent, either at sea or
+mining in South Africa or South America. In agriculture 23,671 were
+engaged, in fishing 3734, in mining 13,426; in building and carpentering
+9667. Of the 149,937 males enumerated in the county of Cornwall, 128,184
+were natives of the county, 8007 had come from Devonshire, and there
+were resident in Cornwall 976 foreigners. Of blind there were 447, of
+deaf and dumb 163, of lunatics 798, of imbeciles 516.
+
+Whereas the number of people to the square mile in England is 558, that
+in Cornwall is only 230.
+
+It must, however, be born in mind that the Administrative County and the
+Geographical County are not coextensive. Thus, parts of the Registration
+County of Cornwall are in the Administrative County of Devon, such are
+Broadwood Widger, Northcott, North Petherwin, St Giles in the Heath,
+Virginstow and Werrington, with a total population of 2460 persons; and
+on the other hand parts of the Administrative County of Cornwall are in
+the Registration County of Devon; these are Calstock and North Tamerton
+with a population of 6203 persons.
+
+Thus the population and acreage in 1901 in the Registration County would
+be, population 318,591, acreage 886,384, but in the Geographical or
+Administrative County the population would be in the same year 322,334
+and the acreage 868,208.
+
+
+
+
+=14. Agriculture--Main Cultivations. Stock.=
+
+
+The lack of hot sunshine makes Cornwall an unsuitable county for
+cereals, but the mildness of the climate and the rainfall render it on
+the other hand favourable for dairy produce and for stock.
+
+[Illustration: "First and Last House," Land's End]
+
+A recent writer, Mr W.H. Hudson, in his book on the Land's End, thus
+describes a Cornish farm. He speaks of the neighbourhood of Penrith, but
+the description applies to many other parts of the Duchy, though not to
+East Cornwall, where it is scarcely applicable at all, and is precisely
+the part where there exists least of the Celtic and most of the English
+element. "Life on these small farms is incredibly rough. One may guess
+what it is like from the outward aspect of such places. Each, it is
+true, has its own individual character, but they are all pretty much
+alike in their dreary, naked, and almost squalid appearance. Each, too,
+has its own ancient Cornish name, some of them very fine and pretty, but
+you are tempted to rename them in your own mind Desolation Farm, Dreary
+Farm, Stony Farm, etc. The farmhouse is a small, low place, and
+invariably built of granite, with no garden, or bush, or flower about
+it. The one I stayed at was a couple of centuries old, but no one had
+ever thought of growing anything, even a marigold, to soften its bare,
+harsh aspect. The house itself could hardly be distinguished from the
+outhouses clustered around it. Several times on coming back to the house
+in a hurry, and not exercising proper care, I found I had made for a
+wrong door, and got into the cow-house or pig-house, or a shed of some
+sort, instead of into the human habitation. The pigs and fowls did not
+come in, but were otherwise free to go where they liked. The rooms were
+very low; my hair, when I stood erect, just brushed the beams; but the
+living room or kitchen was spacious for so small a house, and had the
+wide old open fireplace still so common in this part of the country. Any
+other form of fireplace would not be suitable where the fuel consists of
+furze and turf."
+
+But it must be allowed that the large landed proprietors have everywhere
+built commodious, though almost invariably ugly, new farmhouses.
+
+Considering the vast extent of grass land there is in Cornwall, and the
+amount of butter, cream, and milk derived therefrom, it has become more
+and more clear to thinking farmers that the pasture is becoming
+exhausted, its feeding powers worn out, and that they must replenish the
+soil with the lime and phosphates that have been taken out of it to
+nourish and rear the cattle. The consequence is, that of late years the
+more intelligent farmers are largely employing artificial, i.e. chemical
+manures, and the results have been most satisfactory. You cannot eat
+your cake and have it. If you take so much annually out of the ground
+you must put in an equivalent annually, or you exhaust the soil; and
+animal manure is not sufficient. In the country a great deal of turf
+and furze is burnt, where there is proximity to the moors. The writer
+just quoted says: "in some parts of Cornwall they have good peat, called
+'pudding turves,' which makes a hot and comparatively lasting fire. In
+the Land's End district they have only the turf taken from the surface,
+which makes the poorest of all fires, but it has to serve. But to make a
+blaze and get any warmth furze was burnt. In a few moments the dry stuff
+would ignite and burn with a tremendous hissing and crackling, the
+flames springing up to a height of seven or eight feet in the vast
+hollow chimney. For a minute or two the whole big room would be almost
+too hot, and lit up as by a flash of lightning. Then the roaring flames
+would sink and vanish, leaving nothing but a bed of grey ashes, jewelled
+with innumerable crimson and yellow sparks, rapidly diminishing."
+
+The total acreage under crops and grass in 1908 was 608,691; of these
+356,497 acres were arable land, the rest, 252,194 acres, permanent
+grass: 17,120 acres grew wheat, 30,696 barley, and 66,033 oats; 4441
+acres grew potatoes, 15,271 turnips and swedes, 11,528 mangold, 8059
+rape, and 1658 small fruit. Of small fruit culture just over 621 acres
+were devoted to strawberries, nearly 276 to raspberries and nearly 553
+to currants and gooseberries. Apples were grown on 4865 acres, cherries
+on 199, plums on 182.
+
+The number of horses used for agricultural purposes was 25,706. The
+total of horses, colts and unbroken, was 34,821. Of cattle there were
+219,890, and of these 59,298 were cows in milk. The total number of
+sheep was 410,055, and that of pigs 104,813. Of mountain and heath land
+used for grazing there were 71,438 acres. In Cornwall there are 9249
+acres of coppice and 22,197 of other woods, but no more than 981 of
+plantations. While 548,787 acres are tended by tenants, only 59,904
+acres are occupied by the owners. Whereas in Surrey the percentage of
+those occupying their own land is 33 per cent., that in Cornwall is 9·7,
+in Devon 10·9, and in Hampshire 24·4.
+
+In Cornwall, in 1908, the number of agricultural holders above one acre
+but not exceeding five was 2859; of those above five and not exceeding
+50, there were 6810. Of those above 50 and not exceeding 300 acres there
+were 3682, but of those holding more than 300 acres there were but 118,
+whereas in Essex there were 564, in Suffolk 540, in Hampshire 595, in
+Wiltshire 660 and in Northumberland 731.
+
+Of late years, especially in the Scilly Isles, flower gardening, the
+growth of narcissus, jonquils, daffodils, and various sorts of lilies,
+also of violets, anemones, and marguerites, has been carried on with
+great success, and the produce is carried by steamer and train to London
+and other large towns.
+
+During six months in the year, when and where the flower culture
+prevails, it forms the staple of conversation in parsonage, manor house,
+farm, and cottage. From January until May men, women, and children are
+directly or indirectly engrossed in this one labour. The bulbs are moved
+at least once in three or four years. Left longer, they decrease in
+size, and become weakly; the flowers also degenerate. A suitable manure
+is at hand, the kelp washed up by the sea costing nothing but the labour
+of gathering and transporting.
+
+[Illustration: Flower Farming, Scilly]
+
+Anyone standing in a field which is in full bloom and waiting to be
+picked over, would think that the men have a hopeless task to face, if
+they purpose gathering all their flowers. But they move down the beds
+swiftly, snapping the stems, and throwing the flowers into big baskets,
+which are carried off to the homestead as they fill, and in an
+incredibly short time the beds are thinned. When the baskets are brought
+into the farmhouse they are emptied, and if the weather has been wet and
+stormy the flowers are packed roughly into pots and pans of every
+description, and set on shelves to dry off and assume their proper
+colour. If the weather has been fine this preliminary toilet is
+dispensed with, and the girls and women bunch and tie at once. Twelve
+stems go to a bunch always, and the aim is to arrange the flowers so
+that they shall present a compact lozenge shape, crisp and tight.
+Varieties are never mixed when tied, the bunches are passed on to
+another department, where the uneven stems are sliced off, and the
+flowers set in water to await packing.
+
+Packing the flowers is a serious business. The boxes are lined with
+paper, little pillows are made for the flowers to rest upon, and then
+the bunches are deftly laid, so many this way, so many that, and a few
+in the centre, and behold, stems are altogether hidden, and only a mass
+of bloom fills the box. The end papers are turned in, a ticket placed on
+the top, declaring the variety of flower and the number of bunches; the
+cover is nailed down, and the operation is complete.
+
+
+
+
+=15. Industries and Manufactures.=
+
+
+Cornwall is too far from the coalfields to be a manufacturing county on
+a large scale. There are, however, some few industries and manufactures
+carried on in Cornwall. The wonderful wireless telegraphy installation
+which Mr Marconi has established at Poldhu does not, perhaps, strictly
+speaking, come under this head, but it would be impossible to omit
+mention of it and of the great services it daily renders to vessels
+crossing the Atlantic.
+
+[Illustration: Poldhu Hotel and the Marconi Station]
+
+A considerable industry is in the making of casks, mainly for the
+exportation of pilchards. Woollen manufacture is carried on in a small
+way, also the construction of mining and other machinery. Shipbuilding
+occupies about 870 men. Some brick-making is done, but not to any
+considerable extent. The real employments supplying the vast majority of
+the people with bread are mining and quarrying, and agriculture and
+horticulture.
+
+
+
+
+=16. Minerals and Mining.=
+
+
+The authentic history of tin-mining in Cornwall begins with the year
+1156. It is not mentioned in Domesday, and probably the Conqueror was as
+ignorant that tin was to be found there as were the Romans. In the year
+above given the tin mines are mentioned in the Pipe Rolls. In 1198
+appears a letter from the Warden of the Stannaries to the Justiciar. In
+1156 most of the tin was raised on Dartmoor, but the output now began to
+rise rapidly. In 1201 King John issued a charter to the Stannaries. In
+1305 the Cornish Stannaries were in part dissociated from those in
+Devon.
+
+As already stated, in the beds of the valleys running down from the
+central ridge are deposits of tin, brought there from the lodes degraded
+by weather and flood in the central spinal ridge. The specific gravity
+of the tin ore is 6.8, and as the water rolled away from the heights, it
+deposited the tin that it had brought away with it. "The ores of tin,"
+wrote Pryce in 1776, "are shode and stream ... scattered to some
+distance from the parent lode, and consisting of pebbly and smoothly
+angular stones of various sizes, from half an ounce to some pounds in
+weight. Stream tin is the same as shode but smaller in size and
+arenaceous."
+
+[Illustration: King Edward Mine, Camborne]
+
+Polwhele describes an early stream work disclosed about a century ago.
+The ore was of the purest kind and contained two-thirds metal. The
+pebbles from which the metal was extracted were in size from sand-like
+grains to that of a small egg. The depth of the primeval bed was 20 ft.
+This appeared to have been worked at a remote period, and before iron
+tools were employed, as large pickaxes of oak, holm, and box were found
+there. But archaeological research at the period when he wrote was
+carried on in such a haphazard way that we cannot trust the reports then
+made, and it is quite possible that the workings were comparatively
+late, possibly of Mediaeval times.
+
+All the early work was in stream tin. The Cornish tin had this
+disadvantage--that it was not pure like the Dartmoor tin, but was so
+associated with sulphur that after smelting it had to undergo a second
+process, and that a delicate one. It had to be "roasted," to get rid of
+the sulphur, for only thus could the tin be made available. Associated
+with sulphur it is brittle. We may well doubt whether in early times the
+double process was understood. Moreover, we know that when we have the
+first notices of tin in the west, it was Dartmoor and not Cornwall which
+rendered the largest supply.
+
+Shaft-mining did not come in before 1450, when the stream tin was
+exhausted. The use of the adit cannot be traced back beyond the
+beginning of the seventeenth century. The only way of draining the mines
+was by rag and chain pumps, each consisting of an endless chain,
+broadened at intervals by leathern bindings, to fit snugly into a pipe
+from 12 to 22 ft. long, worked by a windlass at the surface. To drain a
+mine of great depth a series of these pumps was necessary.
+
+When hydraulic draining-engines were first employed is not known, but
+even so late as the close of the eighteenth century some mines were
+drained by the rag and chain pump worked by 36 men.
+
+Up to the sixteenth century, wooden shovels and picks are known to have
+been employed, and shovels were merely iron-shod. There is in the
+British Museum a MS. calendar of Haroldstone in S. Wales, of the early
+sixteenth century, in which are representations of the works of the
+months, and in it the labourers in the fields are shown as using wooden
+spades shod with metal.
+
+German mining was carried on upon better principles than the English,
+and Sir Francis Godolphin sent for an experienced German engineer to
+instruct the miners of Godolphin and Tregonning in the superior systems
+employed in Saxony. It was then only that the hydraulic stamps were
+introduced.
+
+In 1742 one steam-engine only was found in the county; but speedily
+after came a great advance. Savery and Newcomen brought in their steam
+pump; that of Newcomen was introduced at Chasewater in 1777.
+
+Notwithstanding that the methods of descent into the mines by a series
+of long ladders had been superseded by the man-engine, first introduced
+in 1842, it was a long time before the old ladders at different
+successive stages were abandoned.
+
+Owing to the introduction of tin from the Straits Settlements, where it
+is found in the condition of stream tin and can be easily worked, the
+tin mining in Cornwall, necessitating real mining and the following of
+lodes, has proved unremunerative and has been abandoned, and now but few
+mines are worked for the metal. Another cause has fatally affected
+Cornish mining--the fraudulent practice of the promoters of the mines.
+It was no uncommon practice for the "captains," when a rich lode was
+struck, to cover it up, and follow false lodes, till the investors in
+the venture lost heart and refused to advance more money, when the
+captains would carry on the work in the real lode, if they could raise
+the capital, but this they often failed to do, the mine having fallen
+into discredit, or the water having broken in.
+
+But if tin mining be practically dead in Cornwall, another industry has
+risen with leaps and bounds. It is that of the china-clay and
+china-stone, employed in the manufacture of porcelain, in the sizing of
+paper and of cotton materials, in the manufacture of alum, etc. The
+glazed paper so largely employed in our illustrated papers is made up
+largely with china-clay. Some years ago the Italian government employed
+this paper for its official documents, but found that after a few years
+under the influence of damp weather the records had dissolved into a
+lump of clay.
+
+[Illustration: China Clay Quarries, Porthpean]
+
+China-clay consists of decomposed felspar, quartz and white mica. In
+1817 the amount shipped for manufacturing pottery was comparatively
+small, but of late years it has grown, and employs over 3000 persons.
+The china-clay is the same as the Chinese _Kaolin_; its value was
+discovered by a Plymouth Quaker, Mr Cookworthy, in 1745.
+
+Porcelain was introduced into Europe from the East in 1518, when it
+acquired the name of China. For a long time it was supposed that the
+kaolin or fine white clay of which it is composed, was found only in the
+Celestial Empire, and specimens of this brought to Europe fetched a high
+price. At the beginning of the eighteenth century it was discovered in
+Saxony in an odd way. A merchant named Schnerr, being on a journey, was
+struck with the whiteness of some clay near Schneeburg, and collecting
+some of it used it for powdering his wig. It succeeded, but had this
+disadvantage, that wigs dressed with this new powder were very heavy. An
+apothecary named Bötcher noticed the increased weight of the wig,
+analysed the powder, and discovered that it was identical with Chinese
+kaolin. He began to make Dresden China in 1709, and the process was
+carried on with the greatest secrecy, the exportation of the earth being
+forbidden under heavy penalties.
+
+In 1748 Cookworthy discovered kaolin on Tregonning Hill, more was found
+at Boconnoc, and Cookworthy and Thomas Pett began to make china in 1768.
+At present St Austell is the great seat of this industry, and the
+produce is shipped at Charlestown and Polmear.
+
+[Illustration: Delabole Slate Quarries]
+
+The important slate-quarries of the Duchy, of which the Delabole
+quarry is the most renowned, have already been mentioned.
+
+At Calstock and Gunnislake a few years ago there were numerous miners
+engaged in the manufacture of arsenic from the waste product of the
+abandoned copper mines. But now this has become an extinct industry.
+
+[Illustration: Shipping Slate, Port Gavin]
+
+Wulfram or tungsten, a metal used as an alloy for hardening steel, was
+also a waste product from the tin mines, but it is now utilised. At St
+Ives, pitchblende is now being worked for radium.
+
+
+
+
+=17. Fisheries.=
+
+
+If mining be a decayed industry in Cornwall, that of fishing shows no
+diminution. In an old book of natural history published in 1776, the
+principal fishery of pilchards is described. "Pilchards appear in vast
+shoals off the Cornish coasts about the middle of July, and disappear at
+the beginning of winter; though a few of them sometimes return again
+after Christmas. The fishing employs a great many men on the sea, and
+men, women, and children on land, in salting, pressing, washing, and
+cleaning; in making boats, nets, ropes, casks; and all the tradesmen
+depending on their construction and sale. The usual quantities exported
+each year, for ten years, from 1746 to 1756 inclusive, on the average is
+as follows: Fowey has exported 1732 hogsheads annually; Falmouth 14,631;
+Penzance and Mounts Bay 12,149; St Ives 1282; in all amounting to 29,795
+hogsheads." And the same writer thus describes the fish. "The pilchard
+greatly resembles the herring, but differs from it in some particulars;
+it is a third less, and the body is proportionably broader: it has a
+black spot near the upper corner of the gills, and the belly is not so
+sharp. It has no teeth, either in the jaws, the tongue, or the palate."
+It is now held that the pilchard is identical with the sardine, but in a
+different stage of growth.
+
+The pilchards are taken generally from the middle of August to the
+middle of September, when large "schools" are seen coming up the
+Channel. Each fishing station generally has two or more companies or
+clubs of twenty or thirty men; each company owning various boats and
+generally two of the gigantic seines employed, which cost £250 or more.
+These nets are about 250 fathoms or more long and about 15 fathoms deep,
+and three boats go to each seine. The first boat, which is also the
+largest, is called the seine-boat, as it carries the net and seven men
+in it; the next is termed the "vollier," or "cock-boat," and carries
+another seine, called the tuck-seine, which is 100 fathoms long and 18
+deep, this boat also carries seven men; the third boat is called the
+"lurker," and contains three or four men, and in this boat is the
+master.
+
+[Illustration: Pilchard Boats, Mevagissey]
+
+The pilchards were at one time supposed to come from the Polar Sea, but
+it has now been ascertained that the main body retires for the winter
+into deep water to the westward of the Scilly Isles. About the middle of
+spring they quit the deep seas and begin to consort in small shoals
+which gradually increase to the end of July or the beginning of August,
+when they combine in one mighty host and begin their migration eastward.
+They strike the land a little north of Cape Cornwall, where they break
+up into two portions, one following the north coast of Cornwall, the
+other the south.
+
+When the shoal is approaching, men and boys who have been lying on the
+cliffs doing nothing start into activity and rush to the boats. The
+gulls may be seen hovering over the advancing army, and a change appears
+in the colour of the water. At once the "huers," as the signallers are
+called, get out their signals--a ball at the end of a stick--and proceed
+to direct the pursuing boats according to the movements of the school.
+
+The seine-boat leads the way followed by the vollier, and the crew of
+the foremost boat pass a warp, that is, throw a rope, which is fixed to
+the end of the seine on board the vollier, and then shoot the net
+overboard, which, having leaden weights at bottom, sinks, while the top
+is buoyed up with corks. The seine-boat is rowed in a circular course
+round where the fish are "stoiting" or jumping, and when they have
+reached the vollier, the fish are enclosed. They then join the two ends
+of the seine together with a cord to prevent the fish from breaking out,
+and whilst this is being done a man is engaged in frightening the fish
+away from the still open end by means of a stone fastened to a rope.
+When the two ends of the net are laced together, grapes, i.e. grapples,
+are let down to keep the net expanded and steady till the fish have been
+taken up. This latter process is called "tucking the seine." The boat
+with the tuck-seine on board passes the warp of that seine to one of the
+other boats and then shoots this net within the big seine. It is then
+drawn up to the edge of the water, when it is seen to be one quivering
+mass of silver. The fish are now taken or dipped out with baskets into
+the boats. When the boats are filled, if more fish remain in the large
+seine, it is left in the water, till by successive tuckings all the fish
+have been removed. In addition to seining large numbers of pilchards are
+taken in drift nets.
+
+[Illustration: The Huers' House, Newquay]
+
+Formerly pilchards were smoked, and went by the name of _fumados_,
+which name has been corrupted into "fair maids." A not over-complimentary
+saying in Cornwall is that "pilchards and women when they are bad
+are very bad, and when good are only middling." Pilchards constitute
+an important article of food to the poorer classes on the coast, but
+doubtless the Cornishmen get very tired of them as an article
+of diet. Large quantities are exported to Spain and Italy. Some are made
+into "sardines" in oil in the local factories.
+
+A peculiarity of the county is that ecclesiastical dues in the nature of
+tithes are levied on the persons employed in the pilchard fisheries.
+
+The number of hogsheads packed for export every year varies
+considerably, but the yearly produce averages from 20,000 to 30,000
+hogsheads. In certain years the amount has reached nearly 50,000. In
+1901 the fishery found employment for 3734 men, in 1905 in Penzance
+alone for 1275. Beside pilchards, there are mackerel, hake, cod, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Pilchard Boats, St Ives Harbour]
+
+The quantity of fish taken, other than mackerel, herrings, pilchards,
+and sprats in 1905 at Looe was 5841 cwt., at Mevagissey 4893, at
+Falmouth 3213, at Porthleven 6132, at Newlyn 37,468. Of mackerel,
+herrings and sprats, at Looe 10,403 cwt., at Mevagissey 40,236, at
+Falmouth 5991, at Porthleven 26,945, at Newlyn 493,956. The total value
+of the fish taken in the year at Looe was £5377, at Mevagissey £13,818,
+at Falmouth £17,718, at Porthleven £11,454, at Newlyn £232,466.
+
+Turning to the north coast, in the first category were taken at Sennen 1074
+cwt., at St Ives 2431, at Padstow 4051. In the second category, at
+Sennen 605 cwt., at St Ives 80,557, at Padstow but 318, at Port Isaac
+2526.
+
+The value of the fish taken at Sennen was £2065, at St Ives £39,941, at
+Padstow £6660, at Port Isaac £2169.
+
+[Illustration: Landing Fish, Newlyn]
+
+
+
+
+=18. Shipping and Trade.=
+
+
+There are no great seaports in Cornwall. Falmouth was by far the most
+considerable when the packet service ran from it to the West Indies,
+Portugal, and New York. The station was established in 1688. In 1705
+five packet-boats left it for the West Indies and in 1709 as many for
+Lisbon; not till 1755 did two sail for New York, but the number was
+increased to four in 1763.
+
+In 1782, eighteen packets sailed from Falmouth for the West Indies and
+America. Up to 1823 the packets had sailed under contract between the
+General Post Office and the commanders, who received their appointment
+from that establishment and engaged to provide, equip, and man a proper
+ship for the purpose, for a sum of £1800 per annum. These vessels were
+from 180 to 210 tons register. But after 1823 the above system was
+changed, for the service was placed under the orders of the Admiralty
+instead of the Post Office; and as vessels were wanted they were
+supplied by men-of-war.
+
+[Illustration: The St Vincent's Anchor, Falmouth]
+
+In 1827 thirty-nine packets left Falmouth; in 1834 six steamers were
+employed. But in 1850 Falmouth ceased altogether to be a packet station.
+This was greatly to the detriment of the town. It still remains as a
+port of call for outward-bound sailing-ships. Further up the river is
+Penryn, which was a town and a port before Falmouth was thought of. The
+silting up of the river does not now allow other than small boats and
+barges to reach it.
+
+Letters came down on mail coaches, from London through Exeter, by
+Launceston to Bodmin, and thence to Truro and Falmouth. The rate
+appointed for the coaches, including stoppages, was bound to be thirteen
+miles an hour. The mail spun along night and day, without a halt save
+for change of horses. The stages on an average were eight miles, and the
+horses, four-in-hand, went at a gallop. The guard wore the royal livery
+of scarlet, and always had his blunderbus handy, in case of an attempt
+by highwaymen to hold up his coach.
+
+Charlestown and Polmear in St Austell Bay are only important for the
+trade in china-clay exported thence; Marazion and Penzance, and St
+Mary's in Scilly only for the conveyance of flowers to London. But these
+ports and such as are on the north coast are convenient as mouths
+through which Welsh coal can be imported to feed the cellars and fires
+in the peninsula. Pilchards also are exported from these little ports to
+Italy and Spain; and anciently a considerable trade was carried on
+between them and France, Spain, and Portugal in wine, and a considerable
+amount of wine and spirits entered the county through small creeks and
+coves, into which smugglers conveyed their kegs. The gentry and
+taverners were kept well supplied with liquor that never paid duty.
+
+
+
+
+=19. History.=
+
+
+The original population of Cornwall was probably Iberic, of the same
+primitive race as the dark-haired population of Ireland, before the
+island was invaded and subjugated by the Celts.
+
+The branch of the Celts in Britain and Cornwall was Brythonic, and there
+is nothing certain to show that the Goidels were in Cornwall before the
+Brythons. It is true that some few river names, and again inscriptions
+are Irish, but these latter pertain to the settlement in Cornwall of
+Irish expelled from Ossory and Wicklow in the fifth century.
+
+Popularly the dark hair and dusky complexions of some of the Cornish is
+attributed to Spaniards wrecked from the Armada. But no Spanish wreck
+came on shore in Cornwall. The first loss the Armada sustained was east
+of Plymouth. On its way back to Spain none of the vessels came near
+Cornwall. Several were wrecked on the coast of Ireland and their crews
+massacred to a man by the natives.
+
+Posidonius travelled after B.C. 123 and visited Spain, where he
+collected a variety of information on points of geography and natural
+history, and after spending thirty days at Gades returned to Italy. He
+learned among other things something about the collection of tin in
+Bolerium, a name afterwards appropriated by Ptolemy to the Land's End.
+He says: "The inhabitants of that promontory of Britain which is called
+Bolerium are very fond of strangers, and from their intercourse with
+foreign merchants are civilised in their manner of life. They prepare
+the tin, working very skilfully the earth in which it is produced. The
+ground is rocky, but it contains earthy veins, the produce of which is
+ground down, smelted, and purified. They make the metal up into slabs
+shaped like knuckle-bones, and carry it to a certain island lying in
+front of Britain called Ictis. During the ebb of the tide the
+intervening space is left dry, and to this place they carry over
+abundance of tin in their waggons.... Here then, the merchants buy the
+tin from the natives, and carry it over to Gaul; and after travelling
+overland for about thirty days, they finally bring their loads on
+pack-horses to the outlet of the Rhone." It is very doubtful whether
+Posidonius ever visited Britain. What he relates is doubtless due to
+information received by him, either at Gades or at Massilia.
+
+According to Timaeus, the contemporary of Pytheas, the isle of Vectis
+was six days sail from Britain, "in an inward direction." Vectis, there
+can be little doubt, is the Isle of Wight, formerly connected with the
+mainland by a ridge of chalk since broken through by the waves. Ancient
+mariners coasted, and those who came to Britain for tin followed the
+Gallic shore till they could see the white cliffs of Dover, when they
+crossed, and coasted down channel to the Isle of Wight.
+
+There is no evidence that the Phoenicians ever visited Cornwall. Nor has
+a single relic of Phoenician art or coin been found in Cornwall. The
+traders with Britain were the Veneti of the Morbihan, in Brittany.
+Moreover, as General Pitt Rivers has pointed out, bronze celts (axe
+heads), which have been unearthed in Cornwall, are never found in any
+parts where the Phoenicians have been.
+
+It has been assumed with much confidence that Cornwall or the Scilly
+Isles must have been the Cassiterides of the ancients. But even this is
+doubtful. The Cassiterides were described as lying west of Spain, and
+the description applies to the Azores; it may have been due to ignorance
+or design that they were represented as islands prolific in tin.
+
+[Illustration: The Nine Maidens, St Columb Major]
+
+That tin was worked in Cornwall from a very early period can hardly be
+questioned, in 1823 at Carnon a deer-horn pick was discovered 40 ft.
+below the surface, but as a crucifix was also found there 30 ft. below
+the surface, this only shows how the creeks have had their floors
+turned over and silted up.
+
+Though tin was exported from Cornwall, bronze was not manufactured there
+till a comparatively late period. Bronze came from the East, and the
+great centre whence radiated the trade in bronze weapons was the basin
+of the Po.
+
+What seems to be abundantly clear is that the export of tin from Britain
+had come to an end by the first century of the present era. Caesar, on
+invading Britain, heard nothing about it, and when Britain was finally
+conquered, the Romans who worked the lead mines in the Mendips, and gold
+and copper in Wales, totally neglected Cornwall, holding it to be
+worthless. They never settled there, only traversed it to the Land's
+End, leaving behind them a couple of square camps, some coins, few and
+far between, and some Samian ware; but this shows little more than that
+a traffic went on between the Britons of Cornwall and the Romans and
+Romano-British beyond Exeter. The fact that the Romans had no idea that
+tin was to be found in the peninsula shows that the mining for it had
+ceased there for some time previous. The Brythonic Celts are held to
+have invaded Britain B.C. 300; and it is probable that from that date
+the industry in tin mining carried on by the Ivernian natives declined
+rapidly and expired, leaving not a tradition behind.
+
+It is noteworthy that the Dumnonii were behind the British peoples in
+the east. They had no coinage, whereas those in the south-east had
+theirs, copied from a stater of Philip of Macedon. No Greek coins had
+reached the Dumnonii, and they had consequently none to copy, however
+clumsily.
+
+In the battle of Deorham, 577, the Britons were defeated with great
+slaughter, and the West Welsh of Devon and Cornwall were cut off from
+further communication with their brethren of Wales. The Saxons steadily
+advanced, but for long the Parrett was the boundary. In 823 a battle was
+fought between the Saxons and Britons at Gavulford, now Galford, a point
+on the old road from Exeter to the west, where the hills draw together,
+and whence it is commanded by a huge camp. The Britons now called the
+Danes to their aid, and twelve years afterwards a battle was fought on
+Hingeston Down, above Calstock, in which Egbert was victorious. This was
+in 835. Hitherto the Britons had occupied one portion of Exeter, but
+Athelstan, after defeating the Cornish King Howell, not only expelled
+them from the city but fixed the Tamar as their boundary. Then he passed
+through Cornwall, and even visited the Scilly Isles. The Count of Poher
+in Brittany, of whose son Alan Barbetorte was the godson of Athelstan,
+fled from Brittany with a crowd of his countrymen from the devastations
+of the Northmen, and Athelstan gave them homes in England. It is
+probable that he planted some in the Lizard, and others about Camborne,
+for we find there church dedications to distinctively Breton saints, and
+we know, moreover, that the fugitive Bretons brought with them the bones
+of their patron saints. As they spoke the same tongue as the Cornish, it
+would be natural for Athelstan to send them there.
+
+In 981, the Danish pirates plundered the monastery of St Petrock, and in
+997 ravaged the territories of their old allies from one end of Cornwall
+to the other with fire and sword. Shortly before this, in 993, Olaf
+Tryggvason of Norway, with Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, after having
+attacked London, devastated the east coast, burnt Sandwich and Ipswich,
+and stormed Bamborough, then harried the Scottish coast, the Western
+Isles, the Isle of Man, and Ireland, where "he burned far and wide,
+wherever inhabited." He then came to the Scilly Isles, where he put into
+Tresco harbour. There the monks of the abbey founded by Athelstan so
+impressed him, that he consented to be baptized.
+
+In 1068, the county was plundered by Godwin and Edmund, sons of Harold,
+after a battle in Somersetshire, and on their way back to Ireland.
+
+In 1322, the craze for going on pilgrimage took possession of Cornish
+men, women, and children, and they set off for the Holy Land, whence few
+returned.
+
+In 1497, in consequence of the dissatisfaction occasioned by the levy of
+a burdensome tax, the commoners of Cornwall, headed by Thomas Flamank, a
+gentleman, and Michael Joseph, a Bodmin blacksmith, rose in rebellion.
+Having prevailed on Lord Audley to be their general, they marched as far
+as to Blackheath in Kent, where they were defeated with much slaughter
+by Lord Daubeny. In the same year Perkin Warbeck landed, according to
+some at Whitesand Bay, near the Land's End, according to others in St
+Ives' Bay, and marching to Bodmin, found the Cornish ripe for a new
+rebellion. At the head of 3000 men he marched to Exeter, but was unable
+to take it. He made his way to Taunton, where, despairing of success, he
+deserted his army and fled, but was taken and executed.
+
+In 1548, another rebellion broke out occasioned by the changes in
+religion, which the Cornish resented. Their leader was Hugh Arundell,
+Governor of St Michael's Mount. They proceeded to besiege Exeter, but
+although the city was sorely distressed for want of provisions it held
+out till relieved, and in a battle fought at Woodbury, they were
+defeated with immense slaughter. Cornwall remained quiet in the reign of
+Elizabeth, save that it sent out whole fleets of privateers to prey on
+the Spanish traders and treasure vessels.
+
+The Armada was off the Lizard on the 29th to 30th July, 1588. An English
+fishing-boat was hanging near them, counting their numbers. They gave
+chase, but the boat shot away down wind and disappeared. It carried the
+news to Drake at Plymouth, who at once prepared to sail forth.
+
+In the Civil War, Cornwall was almost unanimous on the side of the King.
+Lord Robartes, however, threw in his lot with the Parliament. On the
+side of the King were Sir Bevil Grenville, Sir Ralph Hopton, Godolphin,
+Slanning, and Trevanion. A battle was fought at Boconnoc on January 19,
+1643, in which General Ruthven and the Roundheads were defeated. Another
+battle in which the Royalists were successful was at Stamford Hill above
+Stratton, May 16, 1643.
+
+Charles I visited Cornwall, and was so impressed by the devotion and
+loyalty of the people that he addressed to them a letter of recognition,
+copies of which may be seen in some of the churches. Prince Charles
+spent a great part of the autumn and winter of 1645 in Cornwall; on
+March 2, 1645-6, he embarked at Pendennis Castle for the Scilly Isles,
+where he "was much straitened for provisions." He quitted Scilly on
+April 16, and landed next day in Jersey, whence he sailed for France.
+Queen Henrietta Maria had left Pendennis for France in July, 1644.
+
+Cornwall took no active part in the Revolution; in the European War, it
+sent forth many gallant sailors, among whom in the first place may be
+reckoned Admiral Boscawen, "old Dreadnought." But since the Civil War
+the history of the Duchy has been mainly one of social and industrial
+advance. The principal events stirring the community were the
+introduction of steam-engines to pump the mines, affrays with smugglers,
+and the excitement and unlimited bribery and corruption at elections in
+the rotten boroughs till these latter were swept away by the Reform Bill
+of 1832. About these rotten boroughs a few words must be said. The old
+boroughs that existed before the reign of Edward VI were Truro, Helston,
+Lostwithiel, Bodmin, Liskeard, and Launceston. But the advisers of
+Edward VI, conscious of insecure tenure of the throne and doubting
+whether the country was willing to go with them in their sweeping
+alterations in religion, and desirous of counteracting the growing
+importance of the House of Commons, considered that their object would
+be best attained by conferring the right of returning members of
+Parliament upon the obscure dependent villages of Cornwall. Accordingly
+Saltash, Camelford, West Looe, Bossiney, Grampound, Penryn, Mitchell,
+and Newport were elevated into boroughs, each returning two members to
+Parliament.
+
+[Illustration: St Mawes, Falmouth Harbour]
+
+Under Queen Mary, St Ives received the same privileges, and under
+Elizabeth six more were made boroughs with the same rights, St Germans,
+St Mawes, Tregony, East Looe, Fowey, and Callington. Some of these
+places, as Mitchell, Tregony, and St Mawes, were mere hamlets. They all
+soon passed away from the direct control of the Crown and fell into the
+hands of borough mongers who returned what members they liked, by gross
+bribery, expecting to be repaid with Baronetcies and with lucrative
+sinecures by the Ministry of the day they supported.
+
+
+
+
+=20. Antiquities: Prehistoric, Roman, Celtic, Saxon.=
+
+
+The first men who inhabited our island were the merest savages. They had
+no knowledge of the use of metals, they could not make pottery; they had
+not domesticated the cow, the sheep, or the dog. They used extremely
+rude flint weapons and tools. They were contemporary with the cave bear,
+the woolly rhinoceros, the mammoth, and the cave hyæna, all which beasts
+then lived in Britain; and at that time the temperature was much colder
+than at present. This period is called the Palaeolithic, or Old Stone
+Age.
+
+The next race that entered our island found the temperature much as it
+is now. They were comparatively civilised. They still used flint
+implements, but of a very superior type, and far better finished than
+those of the earlier race. Moreover they were agricultural, grew corn,
+had cows and sheep and dogs, and made pottery. This race it was which
+erected the so-called cromlechs, stone circles, and tall upright stones.
+The remains of their villages of circular stone huts are very numerous
+on the moors. This period is called the Neolithic, or New Stone Age.
+
+After a time bronze was introduced, by trade, and was at first as
+valuable as gold is to us. But after a while it became much more common.
+Its introduction marked the commencement of the Bronze Age.
+
+To the Bronze Age succeeded the Iron Age. This metal was introduced by
+the conquering Celts, of whom there existed two branches, one called
+Brythonic, of which were the Britons, now represented by the Welsh, the
+Cornish, the Cumbrians, and the Bretons of Brittany; the other called
+Goidelic, and now represented by the Irish, the natives of the Isle of
+Man, and the Scots. The Celts with their iron weapons speedily overcame
+and enslaved the earlier race, usually called Ivernian. The latter was
+dusky and dark haired, but the Celt probably had yellow or red hair,
+blue or grey eyes, and a fair complexion.
+
+No satisfactory evidence has been produced that Palaeolithic man
+occupied Cornwall, but the traces of Neolithic man at the stage when he
+became acquainted with the use of bronze are abundant. By him were
+erected the rude stone monuments that are scattered over the county, and
+he had his favourite sites for trimming flints into scrapers and
+arrow-heads. One of the most notable of these was the shore of Dozmare
+Pool.
+
+Of the rude stone monuments the dolmen or cromlech is sepulchral, the
+dolmen when large having been a tribal or family mausoleum, and the
+kistvaen, which is far smaller, contained the bones of one individual
+alone. The dolmen is composed of three or more upright stones sustaining
+one or more coverers, and was often buried under a cairn. The finest in
+Cornwall are Zennor and Lanyon Quoits, the Trethevy Stone, and Chûn
+Quoit.
+
+Stone circles are numerous. Their purpose has not been determined, but
+on Dartmoor, where they have been examined, they exhibit a floor strewn
+with charcoal. They have, moreover, usually numerous cairns or barrows
+associated with them. The finest sacred circle is that of the Stripple
+Stones on the Bodmin moors, but this has of late years been sadly
+mutilated. The "Merry Maidens," in St Buryan's parish near Penzance, is
+a magnificent circle. Other circles are those of Boscawen-ûn, Dauns Môr,
+Wendron, the Trippet Stones on Blisland moor, Fernacre and Stannon on
+the St Breward moors, the Hurlers near the Cheesewring, the Nine Maidens
+in St Columb Major, Duloe, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Lanyon Cromlech]
+
+Menhirs or "longstones" are upright monoliths, probably set up in
+memorial of the dead. Of these there are many in Cornwall but none of
+great height. The Pipers in St Buryan are the loftiest, 13 ft. 6 in. and
+15 ft.
+
+[Illustration: The Merry Maidens, St Buryan]
+
+Of stone alignments Cornwall is almost wholly barren, but one at St
+Breock can be claimed with confidence. This is the more remarkable as
+they abound on Dartmoor. But the reason probably is that the stones have
+been carried off to serve as gateposts, and in some cases are embedded
+in walls of fields. They were probably erected in commemoration of the
+dead and are always associated with cairns and interments.
+
+Subterranean chambers, constructed of upright stones with coverers, were
+possibly store chambers for grain. The best preserved is at Trelowarren.
+
+Upright holed stones are met with in Madron, St Buryan, St Just,
+Sancreed, Constantine, Wendron, etc. Their purport is unknown.
+
+Very curious are the clusters of communal huts at Chysauster,
+Bosporthennis, etc. They probably belong to the Iron Age, whereas the
+hut circles scattered over a hill side, or within a pound, pertained to
+the early Bronze Age.
+
+Arrow heads, lance heads and scrapers have been found in tolerable
+abundance on the Bodmin moors, on Carn Brea, at St Agnes, etc., and
+celts (axe heads) of greenstone and diorite have occurred, but not with
+great frequency.
+
+At Harlyn Bay has been found a cemetery of the Iron Age, all the bodies
+in slate cists, crouching. In the cairns and kistvaens (stone coffins)
+on the other hand the bodies have been burnt. Numerous urns of the
+well-determined Bronze Age type have been recovered from cairns.
+
+The camps of stone and earth in Cornwall are very numerous. They all--or
+nearly all--date back to the same period of the early bronze, but may
+have been used by later peoples. They are of two descriptions, the cliff
+castles, where a headland is protected by banks and dykes on the side of
+the mainland, and circular or oval camps crowning heights, with
+concentric rings of circumvallation. Where the hill top does not admit
+of the circular form the earthworks adapt themselves to the contour of
+the hill.
+
+Roman remains are conspicuously rare in Cornwall. Some fragments of
+Samian ware, coins, and a bronze and silver metal vessel have been found
+in Bossens, a camp in St Erth, and the head of an ensign at St Just. A
+second Roman camp is Tregeare, near Bodmin. An inscribed milestone of
+the time of Constantine the Great is in the churchyard of St Hilary. The
+metal bowl at Bossens was inscribed by Aelius Modestus to the god Mars.
+
+Of the Celtic period, gold lunettes have been found at Harlyn; a gold
+cup near the Cheesewring in a cairn along with a corroded iron weapon; a
+portion of a gold armlet at Penzance and of a brooch at the Lizard.
+
+Of Saxon remains the principal are the hoard at Trewhiddle, a silver
+chalice, finger-ring, pins, etc. Coins have been found; among them one
+of Ethelred, struck at Launceston. On the altar slab formerly at
+Treslothan, now supporting a sundial at Pendarves, is inscribed the
+Saxon name of Ægured; and an old bell at Lanhydrock has on it "Æthelstan
+sumpta an[ima] sua." These are scanty remains, fewer even than the
+Roman.
+
+[Illustration: St Cleer: Monument to Doniert, son of Caradoc, died A.D.
+872]
+
+Cornwall is, however, rich in Romano-British inscribed stones, dating
+from the eighth century down. At St Cleer is the memorial stone to
+Doniert (Dungarth) son of Caradoc. In Lewannick churchyard are stones
+with inscriptions not only in Latin characters but also with Ogams at
+the angle, showing that the Irish had settled there. Some of the
+inscribed stones are certainly earlier than the eighth century, to which
+cautious antiquaries have brought them down.
+
+[Illustration: Mawgan Cross]
+
+Crosses of granite are common, and some are very early, certainly
+earlier than Athelstan's passage through Cornwall in 938. But others are
+much later. They vary considerably in size and in shape. Some were used
+as preaching stations before churches had been built, but others marked
+the tracks over the moors, and some may have indicated boundaries. Some
+are excessively rude, some have the figure of the Saviour carved upon
+them, and these are comparatively late. Others--as that of St Neot--have
+elaborate scroll-work on them like those in South Wales.
+
+[Illustration: St Buryan Cross]
+
+
+
+
+=21. Architecture: (_a_) Ecclesiastical.=
+
+
+A preliminary word on the various styles of English architecture is
+necessary before we consider the churches and other important buildings
+of our county.
+
+Pre-Norman or, as it is usually, though with no great certainty termed,
+Saxon building in England, was the work of early craftsmen with an
+imperfect knowledge of stone construction, who commonly used rough
+rubble walls, no buttresses, small semicircular or triangular arches,
+and square towers with what is termed "long-and-short work" at the
+quoins or corners. It survives almost solely in portions of small
+churches.
+
+The Norman Conquest started a widespread building of massive churches
+and castles in the continental style called Romanesque, which in England
+has got the name of "Norman". They had walls of great thickness,
+semicircular vaults, round-headed doors and windows, and massive square
+towers.
+
+From 1150 to 1200 the building became lighter, the arches pointed, and
+there was perfected the science of vaulting, by which the weight is
+brought upon piers and buttresses. This method of building, the
+"Gothic," originated from the endeavour to cover the widest and loftiest
+areas with the greatest economy of stone. The first English Gothic,
+called "Early English," from about 1180 to 1250, is characterised by
+slender piers (commonly of marble), lofty pointed vaults, and long,
+narrow, lancet-headed windows. After 1250 the windows became broader,
+divided up, and ornamented by patterns of tracery, while in the vault
+the ribs were multiplied. The greatest elegance of English Gothic was
+reached from 1260 to 1290, at which date English sculpture was at its
+highest, and art in painting, coloured glass making, and general
+craftsmanship at its zenith.
+
+After 1300 the structure of stone buildings began to be overlaid with
+ornament, the window tracery and vault ribs were of intricate patterns,
+the pinnacles and spires loaded with crocket and ornament. This later
+style is known as "Decorated," and came to an end with the Black Death,
+which stopped all building for a time.
+
+With the changed conditions of life the type of building changed. With
+curious uniformity and quickness the style called "Perpendicular"--which
+is unknown abroad--developed after 1360 in all parts of England and
+lasted with scarcely any change up to 1520. As its name implies, it is
+characterised by the perpendicular arrangement of the tracery and panels
+on walls and in windows, and it is also distinguished by the flattened
+arches and the square hoods over the doorways, by the elaborate
+vault-traceries (especially fan-vaulting), and by the use of flat roofs
+and towers without spires.
+
+The mediaeval styles in England ended with the dissolution of the
+monasteries (1530-1540), for the Reformation checked the building of
+churches. There succeeded the building of manor-houses, in which the
+style called "Tudor" arose--distinguished by flat-headed windows, level
+ceilings, and panelled rooms. The ornaments of classic style were
+introduced under the influences of Renaissance sculpture and distinguish
+the "Jacobean" style, so called after James I. About this time the
+professional architect arose. Hitherto, building had been entirely in
+the hands of the builder and the craftsman.
+
+Cornwall does not furnish stately and richly adorned churches as does
+Devonshire, and even more so, Somersetshire. This is due to the
+intractable material available, granite, which unlike that of Brittany
+did not lend itself to rich sculpture. Only the Elvan stone, already
+described, could be worked with delicacy, and this is easily corroded
+by the weather, and the Catacluse stone is black. The beautiful
+Polyphant stone of Lewannick does not seem to have been largely
+employed. Although so close to Launceston, when the church there was
+reconstructed by Sir Henry Trecarrel, in the reign of Henry VIII, he
+employed only granite, which was sculptured with infinite labour, and
+with poor effect.
+
+[Illustration: Buried Church, Perranporth]
+
+The most ancient churches in Cornwall were probably exceedingly rude.
+Only two of the earliest remain and these are in ruins, Perranporth and
+St Gothien, very much resembling churches of the most primitive period
+in Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Doorway, St Germans Church]
+
+There are some important remains of Norman architecture, notably the
+west front and part of the nave of St Germans, some portion of
+Blisland, the south door of Kilkhampton, the westernmost arches of
+Morwenstow, Tintagel, and some tympana of doorways with rude sculpture.
+In many of the churches the early fonts remain. Originally baptisms took
+place in tanks or barrels sunk in the earth; then, when adult baptisms
+ceased, square or circular troughs were placed on the floor, and later
+were raised on pedestals; and not infrequently the pedestal is an
+addition, at a later date, to the basin of the font itself.
+
+Of the Early English period, the remains are scanty. St Anthony in
+Roseland is the most perfect example in Cornwall.
+
+[Illustration: Tympanum, Egloskerry Church]
+
+Of the Middle Pointed, or Decorated period, are Padstow, St Columb
+Major, Sheviock, Lostwithiel--where the very peculiar spire is
+singularly beautiful and foreign in character--and portions in Lanteglos
+by Fowey, and St Ive near Liskcard.
+
+[Illustration: Lanteglos Church]
+
+But, as in Devonshire, so in Cornwall, there was an outburst of church
+building in the Third Pointed or Perpendicular period. Then only--since
+the early sculptors of the crosses--did architects and carvers attack
+the granite, and most of the churches were then rebuilt. The finest are
+St Kewe, Mawgan in Pyder with a beautiful tower, Probus with a richly
+sculptured tower of the reign of Elizabeth, St Austell--also with a good
+tower, the carvings in Elvan--St Neot, Stratton, and Buryan. One
+remarkable feature is in the porches, where tracery of an ogival
+character is introduced in the arch. The Rev. W. Haslam, in the
+_Transactions of the Exeter Dioc. Arch. Society_, says of the Cornish
+churches that they "are low, and somewhat flat in the pitch of the roof,
+and without buttresses to break the long plain horizontal lines which
+are so conspicuous. All these are features of the Perpendicular style,
+I admit, but not to the extent to which they are carried in Cornwall.
+Besides this, the general form of a Cornish church is plain; externally,
+the plan of the larger ones is a parallelogram, divided into three low
+ridges of roof: there is a porch on the south side; this is the only
+break in the horizontal line I allude to. The smaller churches have
+generally but one aisle, and these have a transept also, but sometimes
+two transepts; but even these do not relieve the plainness of the
+exterior. This is not the character of one church, or two, or three; but
+more or less of all. It is their character, and I attribute it to the
+boisterous nature of the climate in that narrow county, exposed as it
+is, with very little shelter, to violent storms from the sea on both
+sides."
+
+[Illustration: Launceston Church]
+
+No great elaboration of tracery was possible with granite, and the
+architects abandoned the thought of making the churches attractive
+externally, devoting their attention to the internal decoration. The
+appearance of a large Cornish church now is that it is a long low shed,
+lacking in height and dignity. But the architect divided it in two by
+the screen, and thus brought it into proportion. Unfortunately, however,
+in very few have the beautiful rood-screens been left, which were
+generally spared in the Devonshire churches. Those of Cornwall in no way
+fell short of those in Devon, but the Puritans first of all, and then
+the barbarians of the Georgian period swept them away, and the churches
+in the nineteenth century fell into the hands of local architects who
+left them "naked, swept"--but not "garnished." They were, let us hope,
+the last of the Cornish wreckers. A few, but only a few screens remain.
+
+In the interior of the Cornish churches the chief feature is the absence
+of a chancel arch, which is almost universal. The arch was unnecessary
+when the roodloft extended upwards and was backed by a painted board. In
+some of the churches there are interesting bench ends. At St Austell,
+the miners' tools are represented on them; on some rabbits running in
+and out of their burrows are figured, and seagulls are frequent.
+
+In painted glass Cornwall is not rich, except in the 15 windows of St
+Neot near Liskeard, and in that in the north aisle, and the fragments in
+the south aisle of St Kewe.
+
+The church towers in Cornwall are for the most part square without
+buttresses, and with four pinnacles. One peculiarity of these pinnacles
+is that they are often cut on a curve to lean outwards, probably to
+mitigate the stiffness of effect.
+
+[Illustration: Landewednack Church]
+
+A few words must be devoted to the new Cathedral at Truro erected from
+the designs of the late Mr J.L. Pearson in a French Gothic style of
+architecture. It consists of a choir of five bays, with retrochoir,
+transepts, nave with north and south aisles, baptistery and south-west
+porch, richly sculptured; a central and two western towers. Attached to
+the south side of the choir is the fine old parish church of St Mary, or
+a portion of it. There is an elaborately sculptured reredos over the
+altar. Notwithstanding its faults Truro Cathedral is a notable monument
+of the enthusiasm and self-denial of the Cornish people.
+
+[Illustration: Dupath Well, Callington]
+
+The Holy Wells of Cornwall are a distinct feature of the county. In all
+Celtic lands, previous to the introduction of Christianity, there was a
+great veneration for wells, and the early missionaries took advantage of
+this to turn them into baptisteries, or in other ways to consecrate
+them. Holy wells abound in Cornwall, but they have not always much
+architectural character. That of Dupath, by Liskeard, is the finest, but
+there is also another that is fine at St Cleer, and one most interesting
+and unique at St Clether, where, indeed, there are two, for the water
+from the first flows into a chapel and is carried under the old stone
+altar, to decant into another well outside the chapel. The Madron Holy
+Well was for long famous for cures.
+
+
+
+
+=22. Architecture: (_b_) Military--Castles.=
+
+
+Before the Norman Conquest there were no masonry built castles in
+Cornwall, only stockades of wood surmounting earthworks or piled up
+masses of stone uncemented. The usual Saxon _Burh_ was a mound,
+surmounted by a structure of timber, reached by a bridge or ladder from
+a base-court that was encompassed by moat and mound and stockade. The
+Norman system of building a castle was to erect a round or square keep,
+a massive structure of stone, on the mound that had formerly been
+surmounted by a wooden structure, and to surround the base-court with a
+stone wall. Within this were erected the necessary domestic buildings.
+Very generally the entrance to the court was strongly defended by a
+second tower. The style of castle was greatly altered in the reign of
+Edward I but of such Edwardian castles there are no examples in
+Cornwall, save the poor fragment of Tintagel. The Normans built a castle
+at Launceston, and there the circular keep standing on a lofty tump of
+rock, artificially shaped, is of their construction, but the ruined
+buildings below, with the gateways and walls of the base-court, are
+later.
+
+The castle of Trematon also consists of a "motte" surmounted by a
+circular keep, and a base-court with square tower at the entrance, with
+an archway.
+
+Tintagel Castle is reduced to a miserable ruin, part on the mainland,
+part on the islet, with the intervening portion blocked up by fallen
+rocks, forming a narrow isthmus. The deep chasm that formerly separated
+the two portions of the castle was anciently spanned by a drawbridge.
+The work appears to be of the thirteenth century. On the island are the
+remains of a chapel with its altar slab still in place. Tintagel became
+a residence of the Earls of Cornwall, and in 1245, Richard son of King
+John received in it his nephew David, Prince of Wales. It was
+subsequently used occasionally as a prison. In the reign of Elizabeth,
+that penurious queen, deeming the expense of keeping it up too onerous,
+allowed it to fall into ruin.
+
+St Michael's Mount was crowned with a castle and a church. The oldest
+portion is the central tower, of the fourteenth or fifteenth century;
+other portions are later additions, and much very bad modern work has
+tended to its sad disfigurement. Edward the Confessor planted a
+monastery on the rock, and granted it to Mont S. Michel in Normandy; at
+the Conquest it was made over to Robert Earl of Mortain, but the
+Benedictines of Mont S. Michel continued to have a cell there with a
+prior. It was consequently at once a religious house and a military
+post.
+
+Restormel, near Lostwithiel, consists of a keep crowning a hill, with a
+gatehouse on the west, a projecting tower on the E.N.E., and a chapel.
+It is not older than the reign of Henry III and was the stronghold of
+the Cardinhams and then of the Traceys, from whom it passed to the Earls
+of Cornwall. The circular keep is only 30 ft. high. The castle was
+already ruinous in the time of the Civil War, but it was put in repair
+and held by the Parliamentary forces till taken by Grenville.
+
+St Mawes is a small but perfect castle, erected by Henry VIII.
+
+[Illustration: St Mawes Castle]
+
+Pendennis Castle was another erection of Henry VIII, on the site of
+earlier fortifications. The circular tower dates from his time, but it
+was added to considerably in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1644 Pendennis
+afforded shelter to Queen Henrietta Maria, when embarking for France,
+and hither came Prince Charles in 1646 on his way to Scilly.
+
+Helsborough, near Michaelstow, was a fortress belonging to the Earls of
+Cornwall, but it shows no tokens of having ever been walled with
+masonry. The only structural remains to be seen are the ruins in the
+midst of a Perpendicular chapel.
+
+On Carn Brea is a tower, another on Roche rock; and St Catherine's
+Castle, erected by order of Henry VIII, defended the entrance to the
+harbour of Fowey.
+
+
+
+
+=23. Architecture: (_c_) Domestic and Monastic.=
+
+
+In England generally castles belonged only to the Crown or to great
+nobles, and no gentleman was suffered to castellate or embattle his
+walls without a special licence from the Crown. In Cornwall all the
+castles pertained to the Crown or the Duke of Cornwall, and private
+persons had to content themselves with purely domestic mansions. Till
+the reign of Elizabeth the dining-hall reaching to the roof was the most
+conspicuous feature, and opening out of it was the ladies' bower, a
+small oak-panelled room. The inconvenience arising from a house being
+cut in half by the hall led in the reign of Elizabeth to an alteration,
+and the halls were ceiled over, so that the upper portion could be used
+for bedrooms and passage. Before her reign the usual form of a house was
+quadrangular, that is to say a court surrounded by buildings entered by
+a gate, with the hall and principal portions of the house opposite the
+entrance gate. But in the reign of Elizabeth it became the fashion to
+form the house in the shape of the letter E. In her father's reign it
+often had the shape of the letter H with the open ends closed by slight
+walls.
+
+Cornwall possesses very few stately houses. At the close of the
+seventeenth century a schoolmaster at Trebartha filled a folio with
+sketches of the ancient manor-houses of the neighbourhood of the Tamar;
+picturesque old mansions of the reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth.
+Nearly every one has disappeared. The squirearchy of Cornwall, flush of
+money, through tin, pulled down their old residences and built mansions
+in the Georgian period, totally devoid of interest. Of the old houses
+few remain except as farm houses. They were, however, never so
+magnificent as those in the counties where bricks and easily dressed
+stone existed. But still there remain Cothele, unaltered, the beautiful
+house of Lord Mount Edgcumbe on the Tamar; Basil, the manor-house of the
+Trevelyans, much mutilated by the barbarous hand of a modern architect;
+Trecarrel, near Launceston, an old Tudor mansion with a noble hall,
+never completed; Place, near Padstow, formerly Prideaux Castle, the
+Elizabethan residence of the Prideaux Brunes, very stately, and with a
+dining room rich in carved oak; Lanherne, built in 1580, a small
+manor-house of the Arundells and now a convent; Lanhydrock, built by
+the first Lord Roberts--they called themselves later Robartes; Place
+House, Fowey, with rich sculpture; Trerice, the old seat of the
+Arundells; Tregudick with its Elizabethan hall; Penheale, once the seat
+of the Speccots, in Egloskerry; Tonacombe, an unaltered house of the
+reign of Henry VII, in Morwenstow; Penfound in Poundstock, small but
+charming; and Lanreath, with a carved oak parlour, the ancient house of
+the Grylls family. There are others, now farmhouses, and only spared on
+that account, deserted when the squires moved elsewhere and did not pull
+down their ancestral residences.
+
+[Illustration: Cothele]
+
+A monastic building consisted of a church, with a cloister court
+adjoining, about which were the dormitories, a library, and a refectory
+or room in which all had their meals in common. There would be often two
+courts, one outer, the other with the cloister about it in which the
+monks mainly lived and in the centre of which was the monastic
+graveyard. The garden of pot herbs and herbs for medicinal purposes was
+an essential feature of all monastic settlements, as was also the
+stewpond or ponds for fish. The necessity under which the monks lay of
+being near water, both for their fish and for sanitary purposes and for
+drinking, led to all monastic establishments lying low down in valleys
+by running streams.
+
+Of monastic remains there are few. At Launceston the foundations of St
+John's Priory have been laid bare. At Glasney in Penryn a few walls
+alone represent what was once a stately priory. Of the great house at
+Bodmin hardly a wall stands, but some remains of the sanatorium exist at
+Lavethan. At Lanivet are the remains of St Benet's Monastery, till 1859
+the most picturesque and best preserved of the monastic buildings in
+Cornwall, except St Michael's Mount. An engraving of the remains was
+published by Lysons in 1814, which shows the house to have been
+beautifully situated, and as beautiful as its situation demanded. At the
+date mentioned it was mutilated and spoilt.
+
+Cornwall cannot boast picturesque cottages. Some few remain that possess
+some charm, as the old Post-office at Tintagel, some slate-hung
+dwellings in West Looe, the Lugger Inn, Fowey, and the almshouses at St
+Germans. There are as well some that call for an artist to use his
+pencil at Saltash. But, on the whole, the county is poor in the domestic
+architecture of farm and cottage, and house fronts in the towns, with
+rare exceptions, are not of any artistic character.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Post Office, Tintagel]
+
+
+
+
+=24. Communications--Roads, Railways.=
+
+
+The great road from London to Falmouth ran through Launceston, Bodmin,
+and Truro, and was kept in good order, and over it raced the mail
+coaches that conveyed letters on to the packets at Falmouth. This was
+the main artery of communication for more than a century, till Falmouth
+was abandoned as a mail-packet station by the Government. From 18 to 20
+fine vessels performed this service, carrying letters and papers to all
+parts of the world, until the extension of railways caused the service
+to be transferred to Southampton.
+
+Whether there were systematically constructed Roman roads in Cornwall
+has been doubted. One curious ancient road--the Giant's Hedge--is found
+near Lanreath, and appears to have been a portion of a road raised on a
+bank that started from a ferry over the Tamar and was carried into the
+west of Cornwall. There was a road also that came from Exeter and
+crossed the Tamar at Polson Bridge and then turned north to Camelford.
+Another ran past Stratton to the estuary of the Camel opposite Padstow,
+where Romano-British remains have been found on Bray Hill. But it is
+possible enough that these roads were of British and not of Roman
+construction.
+
+In the Middle Ages little or nothing was done to keep the roads in
+repair. Even in the eighteenth century all that was thought necessary
+was to throw down a load of boulders into the ruts, rake them in, and
+leave coach and cart wheels to grind them up. But the roads were taken
+in hand at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and the turnpikes
+served to provide funds for keeping them in order, while Macadam's
+invention of breaking the stones before laying them on the roads
+assisted enormously in facilitating transit along them.
+
+[Illustration: A Cornish Stile]
+
+The roads in Cornwall are now for the most part excellent, metalled with
+elvan, and cyclists and motorists can have little to complain of on that
+score.
+
+Two railway companies have penetrated the county; the G.W.R. in the
+south crosses the Tamar by the famous Saltash tubular bridge, and runs
+to Penzance, by Truro. There is a branch to Bodmin, another to Fowey,
+and another crosses the county to Newquay. After reaching Truro, the
+line deserts the south, but sends a branch down to Falmouth. It runs to
+Redruth and Camborne and reaches the sea at Hayle. It sends a short
+branch up to St Ives, but the main line turns south again to end in a
+terminus at Penzance. The L. & S.W.R., after sending out a branch to
+Bude, reaches Launceston, and then supplies the dreary country from
+Launceston to Camelford with communication. From Camelford it runs to
+Wadebridge; and down the estuary to Padstow, a branch to the south
+serving Bodmin.
+
+In addition to the branches already mentioned are others to Looe and
+Helston.
+
+Penzance is reached from Paddington in 8-1/2 hours and Newquay in
+half-an-hour less.
+
+The L. & S.W.R. leaving Waterloo reaches Launceston in 5-1/2 hours, Bude
+in 6 hours, and Wadebridge in under 7 hours. From Wadebridge coaches run
+to Newquay.
+
+A steamer maintains communication with the Scilly Isles from Penzance.
+
+
+
+
+=25. Administration and Divisions, Ancient and Modern.=
+
+
+Before the Conquest the divisions of the county were probably those
+afterwards forming the old deaneries, and followed the limits of the
+Celtic tribes under their several chiefs. Of these there were
+eight:--East and West, Kerrier, Penwith, Powder, Pyder, Trigg Major, and
+Trigg Minor, but at the Conquest a redistribution was made in hundreds.
+These were Conarton, Fawiton, Pawton, Riatton, Stratton, Tibesta or
+Tibesterna, and Winneton. There may have been an Anglo-Saxon
+redistribution. But it was a rearrangement that did not last, and never
+commended itself to the people, and it is not easy now to ascertain what
+the limits were. Conarton was Penwith. Perhaps Tibesta was Powder and
+Winneton Kerrier. East and West composed one district of Wyvelshire.
+
+Cornwall was first an Earldom, and then accordingly a County, but when
+raised to be a Dukedom it became a Duchy. It had two chief officers, the
+Earl and the Sheriff, the latter appointed by the crown.
+
+The county was divided up into hundreds for administrative purposes.
+Each hundred was supposed roughly to contain a hundred free families.
+Each hundred had its own court, and every township its assembly under
+the reeve. But the tinners were under their own laws and officers, and
+their court, called the Stannary Court, sat formerly at Lostwithiel.
+Every manor also had its court.
+
+All the hundreds of Cornwall, except Penwith, from time immemorial
+belonged to the Earls of Cornwall. The hundreds and Petty Sessional
+Divisions are now coextensive, and are as follows:--1. Hundred of East
+(Northern Division). 2. Hundred of East (Southern Division). 3. Hundred
+of Kerrier. 4. Hundred of Lesnewth. 5. Hundred of Penwith. 6. Hundred of
+Powder, East. 7. Hundred of Pyder, West. 8. Hundred of Pyder, East. 9.
+Hundred of Stratton. 10. Hundred of Trigg. 11. Hundred of West.
+
+Cornwall formerly returned four county members in two divisions, but
+under the provisions of the "Redistribution of Seats Act, 1885," it now
+returns six members in six divisions. 1. The western or St Ives
+division. 2. The north-western or Camborne division. 3. The Truro
+division. 4. The Mid or St Austell division. 5. The south-eastern or
+Bodmin division. 6. The north-eastern or Launceston division. Under the
+provisions of the above-mentioned Act, the boroughs of Bodmin, Helston,
+Launceston, Liskeard, St Ives, and Truro were deprived of independent
+representation and merged in the county, and Penryn and Falmouth lost
+one member.
+
+In 1877 the diocese of Truro, taken from that of Exeter, was formed,
+comprising the whole county of Cornwall, together with the parishes of
+Broadwood-Widger, Virginstow, Werrington, St Giles on the Heath, and
+North Petherwin, which are in the county of Devon. The Stannary Court is
+now at Truro, but its occupation is almost gone.
+
+The Poor Law Unions are Bodmin, Camelford, Falmouth, Helston,
+Launceston, Liskeard, Penzance, St Austell, Redruth, St Columb, St
+Germans, Scilly Isles, Stratton, and Truro.
+
+The County Council formed under the Local Government Act of 1888
+consists of a chairman, aldermen, and councillors; but for the local
+government of the towns and parishes another Act was passed in 1894, and
+new names were given to the local bodies. In the large urban parishes
+the chief authorities are now entitled District Councils, while the
+smaller parishes have their Parish Councils or only Parish Meetings.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Guildhall and Pillory, Looe]
+
+The county is in the western circuit; the assize and quarter sessions,
+which were formerly held at Launceston, a most inconvenient place for
+the purpose, being at the extreme limit of the county, are now held at
+Bodmin.
+
+In Cornwall there are 223 civil parishes and the municipal boroughs are
+eleven, Bodmin, Falmouth, Helston, Launceston, Liskeard, Lostwithiel,
+Penryn, Penzance, Saltash, St Ives, and Truro.
+
+The civil parishes and those that are ecclesiastical are not always
+conterminous. Of the latter there are 236. There are two Archdeaconries,
+Cornwall and Bodmin, and twelve deaneries, St Austell, Carnmarth,
+Kerrier, Penwith, Powder, and Pydar in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall, and
+Bodmin, East, Stratton, Trigg Major and Minor, and West in that of
+Bodmin. There is a Bishop at Truro and a suffragan who takes his title
+from St Germans.
+
+
+
+
+=26. Roll of Honour.=
+
+
+It would, perhaps, be invidious to say that Cornwall has produced men of
+more brilliant and varied achievements than any other county in England,
+but she can certainly show a very notable roll of honour. As might be
+expected from her geographical position, aided by good harbours, she has
+produced some great seamen who have done gallant service for England. At
+the head of these must come Sir Richard Grenville, hero of the
+_Revenge_, whose action off the Azores in 1591 has rendered him one of
+England's immortals. Trapped by the huge Spanish fleet off Flores, Sir
+Richard had many of his crew sick on shore, but declined to leave till
+they had been brought on board. The _Revenge_ engaged fifteen large
+Spanish men-of-war and stood at bay from three in the afternoon all
+through the night till the following morning, when the last barrel of
+powder was spent. Ralegh told of it, as did Gervase Markham in 1595, and
+Tennyson nearly 300 years later in the stirring lines:--
+
+  "Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built galleons came,
+  Ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle-thunder and flame;
+  Ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back with her dead and her shame.
+  For some were sunk and many were shattered, and so could fight us no more--
+  God of Battles, was ever a battle like this in the world before?"
+
+His grandson, Sir Bevil Grenville, "the Mirror of Chivalry," was a
+scarcely less notable warrior on land and fell in the Royalist victory
+of Lansdowne near Bath in 1643. Admiral Edward Boscawen, "Old
+Dreadnought," third son of Viscount Falmouth, distinguished himself at
+the taking of Cartagena and in the Cape Breton expedition, but his most
+memorable deed was the defeat of the French Toulon fleet in Lagos Bay in
+1759. Captain Bligh, noteworthy as the captain of the _Bounty_, of
+which the mutiny is one of the most familiar tragedies of the sea, was
+perhaps in great measure the author of his own misfortunes, for he was a
+man of very overbearing temper, but his journey of 3618 miles in an open
+boat after having been set adrift with others by the mutineers was a
+remarkable feat. The Pellew family has added at least two names to the
+roll of distinguished sailors. Edward Pellew, when in command of the
+_Nymphe_, manned by Cornish miners, captured the French man-of-war
+_Cléopâtre_ under peculiarly gallant circumstances, the first of a
+series of brilliant exploits which led to his being created Baron
+Exmouth. Later, in 1816, he bombarded Algiers, reduced the Dey to
+submission, and put an end to the Barbary corsairs. His brother, Admiral
+Sir Isaac Pellew, commanded the _Conqueror_ at the battle of Trafalgar.
+
+[Illustration: Captain Bligh]
+
+Cornwall being a land of mines has developed machinery and furthered
+invention in this direction. The most notable of the inventors she has
+produced is Richard Trevithick, who first made the high-pressure engine,
+and is still more remarkable as the early pioneer of motor traffic,
+putting his road locomotive on the Camborne highway on Christmas Day,
+1801, and obtaining a speed with it of 12 miles per hour. In 1812 he
+laid before the Navy Board his invention for a screw propeller for
+ships, only to meet with a refusal. Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, born in
+1793, also ran steam-motors on the roads until they were forbidden by
+Act of Parliament, and the work of a lifetime and his fortune of £30,000
+vanished into thin air. The oxy-hydrogen blowpipe and the steam-jet
+were invented by him. The wreck of H.M.S. _Anson_ on Looe bar with the
+loss of over 100 lives in 1807 had a great effect on one of the
+spectators, Henry Trengrouse, a Helston cabinet-maker, who thereupon
+invented the rocket life-saving apparatus and spent £3000--all his
+means--in experiments and in vain endeavours to induce Government to
+adopt the system. Another great benefactor to mankind was Sir Humphry
+Davy, the son of a poor gilder near Penzance. His safety-lamp he nobly
+refused to patent lest the sphere of its usefulness should be
+restricted, and he is fittingly honoured with a statue in his native
+town.
+
+[Illustration: Sir Humphry Davy]
+
+More than one distinguished traveller finds place among Cornish
+worthies. Richard Lander, the son of a Truro innkeeper (1805-34), stands
+at the head of them. He went with Clapperton to Sokoto and on his death
+took up his work, tracing the mouth of the Niger on a second expedition,
+and dying on a third at Fernando Po. Peter Mundy, born about 1596 at
+"Penrin, a pretty towne in Corne Wall," as he describes it, was one of
+the most remarkable travellers that the West of England has produced,
+whether in virtue of his long trading voyages to the Far East, or of his
+continental wanderings, of which he kept a not less careful record.
+James Silk Buckingham, who died in 1855, wrote eighteen books of travel,
+but was mainly noteworthy for his endeavours to do away with the
+monopoly of the East India Company.
+
+Among statesmen must be noticed Sir John Eliot, born at Port Eliot in
+1592, and at one time friend of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham,
+with whom he later broke, and taking up a strong line in the Parliament
+of 1628 against arbitrary taxation helped to force the Petition of Right
+from Charles. He was ultimately committed to the Tower, where he died
+three years later in 1632. To give an adequate sketch of the life of
+Sidney Godolphin would be to give the history of the times of Charles
+II, James II, William of Orange and Anne, with each and all of whom he
+was closely implicated. An extraordinarily able financier, his
+character was such as to permit him to serve either party
+indifferently. "Sidney Godolphin," said Charles, "is never in the way
+and never out of the way." Lord High Treasurer under Queen Anne, he was
+made Earl of Godolphin, only to be disgraced in 1710 and die shortly
+after.
+
+Samuel Drew, the "Cornish Metaphysician," who was born at St Austell,
+had been a smuggler and a shoemaker in his earlier days, but developed
+into a Wesleyan preacher and became the author of an essay on the
+Immortality of the Soul. Of more normal mould was Humphrey Prideaux,
+born at Padstow in 1648, who wrote a _Life of Mahomet_, and _The Old and
+New Testament Connected_, which reached its 27th edition only a few
+years ago. He became Dean of Norwich and died in 1724.
+
+Cornwall has produced several local antiquaries, as the Rev. Richard
+Polwhele, who died in 1838; the Rev. William Borlase, d. 1772; William
+Hals, the historian of the Duchy; and William Sandys, who died in 1874.
+She has had but few true poets, but the Rev. Robert Stephen Hawker,
+though not actually born in Cornwall, spent all his life there and may
+certainly come under this heading. He became Vicar of Morwenstow in
+1834, and remained there till his death in 1875, having during this time
+transformed his parishioners from a set of lawless wreckers to a decent
+community. His poems were almost all connected with Cornish subjects,
+and one of the best known of them is that on Bishop Trelawney's
+imprisonment--"A good sword and a trusty sword," with the refrain--"And
+shall Trelawney die? There's twenty thousand Cornishmen; Shall know the
+reason why."
+
+[Illustration: John Opie]
+
+"A wondrous Cornishman, who is carrying all before him" is Sir Joshua
+Reynolds' description of John Opie the painter, who was born the son of
+a poor carpenter near Truro in 1761, became an R.A. and portrait-painter
+of great note, and died in 1807. His second wife was Amelia Opie the
+novelist, daughter of the Norwich physician, Dr Alderson. Henry Bone,
+the enamellist, is also of sufficient distinction to deserve mention
+here.
+
+Of the astronomers of modern times few have attained the eminence of
+John Couch Adams, the discoverer of the planet Neptune, who was born at
+Laneast in 1819. As a shepherd boy he loved to lie on his back and watch
+the stars, and he at once devoted himself to the study of astronomy when
+he was sent to school at Saltash. He became Senior Wrangler at Cambridge
+in 1843, and soon after taking his degree, being struck with
+irregularities in the motion of Uranus, he made a series of calculations
+and observations which resulted in the discovery of the new planet, the
+French astronomer Leverrier having simultaneously recorded its
+existence. A distinguished geologist and one of the pioneers of
+scientific cave exploration was William Pengelly, whose great work was
+the thorough examination of Kent's Cavern near Torquay, a labour which
+lasted from 1865 to 1880. Last, but by no means least worthy of mention
+in our list, must come Davies Gilbert, a great discerner of rising
+genius, to which he was ever ready to lend help and encouragement. The
+patron of Davy, Trevithick, Hornblower, and Goldsworthy Gurney, he was
+himself a man of remarkable and varied abilities, scientist,
+mathematician, and antiquary, and President of the Royal Society. He
+died in 1839.
+
+
+
+
+=27. THE CHIEF TOWNS AND VILLAGES OF CORNWALL.=
+
+
+
+     (The figures in brackets after each name give the population in
+     1901 and those at the end of each section are references to the
+     pages in the text.)
+
+
+
+=Bodmin= (5353), now held to be the county town. Formerly there was a
+priory here, founded in 938. The church, the largest in Cornwall, is
+Perpendicular, except the tower and a part of the chancel, which are
+earlier. In it is the fine monument of Prior Vyvyan (1533). Bodmin is a
+municipal borough, market, and union town, and head of a county court
+district. The Assizes are held here. The town is pleasantly situated
+nearly in the centre of the county. A branch of the G.W.R. leads from
+Bodmin Road station on the main line. The L. & S.W.R. has also a branch
+to Bodmin from Wadebridge. The prison stands about half a mile
+north-west of the town; and the County Lunatic Asylum a little to the
+west. Bodmin has also a Hospital and Dispensary, and Barracks for
+military. (pp. 9, 14, 18, 24, 67, 96, 102, 104, 111, 131, 132, 135, 137,
+139.)
+
+=Bude= (see Stratton).
+
+=Callington= (1714), a small market town, formerly a parliamentary
+borough returning two members. Callington is in the ecclesiastical
+parish of North Hill, and the church is merely a chapel of ease. It is
+in the Perpendicular style, and has the unusual feature in Devon and
+Cornwall of having a clerestory. The L. & S.W.R. has constructed a light
+railway from Beer Alston to Callington and Calstock. (pp. 105, 124.)
+
+=Calstock= (5874) is a large village and township. The church is at a
+distance from the village or town. Gunnislake, two miles north of
+Calstock, is in the parish. Both places have declined in numbers and
+prosperity through the abandonment of the mines in the neighbourhood.
+(pp. 15, 69, 72, 87, 101.)
+
+=Camborne= (14,726), a market town with a station on the main line of
+the G.W.R. It is a great seat of mining operations. (pp. 38, 81, 101,
+135, 137.)
+
+=Camelford= (1384), a small market and union town, in a bleak and
+wind-swept situation, consisting of one street. It is the head of a
+county court district and magisterial division. It is in the parish of
+Lanteglos, nearly two miles distant, and has not in it even a chapel of
+ease. Camelford was an ancient borough with mayor and corporation. (pp.
+14, 105, 133, 135, 137.)
+
+=Falmouth= (3207), a seaport, market, and union town and a municipal
+borough. It is the head of a county court district. Falmouth was
+incorporated by charter 1661. It has the advantage of possessing one of
+the finest and most capacious harbours in the country. As many as 350 to
+400 sail have taken refuge here in winter at various times. There are
+docks, factories, and building yards. Of late an attempt has been made
+to turn Falmouth into a winter resort for invalids, and the coast is
+advertised as "The Cornish Riviera," but it is a Riviera without the sun
+of the Mediterranean. (pp. 30, 31, 48, 66, 88, 92, 94, 95, 96, 132, 135,
+137, 139.)
+
+=Fowey= (2258), once a borough, is a market town and a shipping port
+with a station on a branch of the G.W.R. The church of St Finbar is a
+noble edifice in the Perpendicular style but with portions on the north
+dating from 1336. Place House, the seat of the Treffry family, is a
+beautiful, richly-sculptured mansion of the reign of Henry VII. Fowey
+consists of one very narrow street. The town was created a borough by
+Elizabeth, returning two members, but was disfranchised in 1832. (pp.
+49, 88, 105, 119, 128, 130, 131, 135.)
+
+[Illustration: Fowey]
+
+=Grampound= (491) deserves mention only as having returned two members
+to Parliament before the Reform Bill, and as formerly a borough. (pp.
+18, 105.)
+
+=Helston= (3088) is a municipal borough, market, and union town, and the
+resort of all who want to buy or sell in the Lizard district. It was not
+formed into an ecclesiastical parish till 1845. A branch of the G.W.R.
+reaches it. Below the town is the beautiful Loe Pool. The principal
+streets form a cross, and have a constant flow of water through them.
+(pp. 8, 104, 135, 137, 139, 143.)
+
+[Illustration: Helston from Bullock Lane]
+
+=Launceston= (14,310), the ancient capital, is a municipal borough,
+market, and union town, and head of a county court district. The town
+occupies a height, and above it towers the ancient castle, but a portion
+of the town, Newport, lies in the valley at the foot. Both the G.W.R.
+and the L. & S.W.R. have stations at Launceston. The church of granite
+is richly sculptured throughout; but in a debased Perpendicular style.
+It replaced an older church of which the tower alone remains. (pp. 7,
+15, 25, 67, 96, 104, 111, 117, 121, 126, 129, 131, 132, 135, 137, 139.)
+
+[Illustration: Launceston]
+
+=Liskeard= (4945), a municipal borough, market, and union town, head
+also of a county court district, with a station on the G.W.R. Liskeard
+returned two members to Parliament till disfranchised by the
+Redistribution Act of 1885. The church of St Martin is the largest in
+the county next to that of Bodmin; it is in the Perpendicular style but
+retains portions of earlier work. Liskeard mainly flourishes on the
+granite quarries of the Cheesewring; it did at one time flourish still
+more on the mines of tin and copper in Caradon. (pp. 12, 18, 31, 104,
+119, 122, 125, 137, 139.)
+
+=Looe= (2588) is composed of two towns, East Looe and West Looe,
+separated by a creek and united by a long bridge. East Looe was formerly
+a borough returning two members. It is the terminus of a branch line of
+the G.W.R. There is a good tidal harbour, to which vessels of large
+tonnage can be brought up for the shipment of ore and granite, conveyed
+thither from Caradon and the Cheesewring, and thence coal is conveyed to
+Liskeard and its neighbourhood. The old town hall is a picturesque
+building. West Looe was also originally a borough returning two members.
+(pp. 31, 49, 50, 92, 105, 131, 135, 138, 143.)
+
+[Illustration: Looe]
+
+=Marazion= (1252) or Market Jew derives its name from a Thursday market
+there held. In ancient times the place was supported by the pilgrims
+resorting to St Michael's Mount. The town was pillaged by the French in
+the reign of Henry VIII. From Marazion St Michael's Mount is reached. At
+the base of the Mount lies a fishing village of 38 houses, and a little
+harbour. From the sea the hill rises to a height of 230 ft., the body of
+the island is granite but its north base is of slate. The castle is the
+property of Lord St Levan. Marazion is a station on the G.W.R. (pp. 9,
+44, 96.)
+
+=Mevagissey= (2088), a seaport town situated on a fine bay six miles
+south of St Austell, the nearest railway station. The natural harbour is
+safe and sheltered. A new harbour has been constructed. The inhabitants
+depend almost wholly for subsistence on the fishery of pilchards. (pp.
+48, 89, 92, 94.)
+
+=Newlyn= (1302) is not a town, it is an ecclesiastical parish formed in
+1848 out of the parishes of Paul and Madron. It has a harbour, and is a
+seat of fishery. Many artists have been attracted hither by the mildness
+of the climate and the picturesqueness of the quaint old streets, and of
+the fisherfolk. (pp. 44, 92, 94.)
+
+=Newquay= (2935) is a new and rising sea-bathing and holiday resort, to
+which run two branches of the G.W.R. It possesses a beautiful stretch of
+sands, and is near some of the finest coast scenery in Cornwall. (pp.
+37, 91, 135.)
+
+=Padstow= (1566) is a quaint old seaport on the estuary of the Camel. It
+has a fine church with a beautiful carved font. Above the town is
+Prideaux Place, an Elizabethan mansion. The town lies in a valley and
+consists mainly of one street. It is a market town, and is connected
+with the L. & S.W.R. by a branch line. (pp. 35, 55, 56, 57, 67, 92, 94,
+119, 129, 133, 135, 145.)
+
+=Penryn= (3256), a market town and municipal borough, situated on an arm
+of Falmouth harbour that is being gradually silted up. The parish church
+is dedicated to St Gluvias. It formerly returned two members to
+Parliament. Here was formerly a monastic establishment, at Glasney, but
+of this only a few fragments of wall remain. There is a station on the
+branch to Falmouth of the G.W.R. (pp. 96, 105, 131, 137, 139, 144.)
+
+=Penzance= (12,155), the most westerly town in England. The name
+signifies the Holy Head; it is a seaport, municipal borough, and union
+town. The climate is here most warm and relaxing. Penzance was
+incorporated in 1614 and has a corporation consisting of a mayor, six
+aldermen, and eighteen councillors. There are some fine public
+buildings, and a good museum for the birds, minerals, and antiquities of
+Western Cornwall. Hence starts the steamer that communicates with the
+Scilly Isles. From Penzance excursions are made to the Land's End
+district, which abounds in magnificent coast scenery, and in prehistoric
+megalithic monuments. (pp. 44, 57, 66, 88, 96, 108, 111, 133, 135, 137,
+139, 143.)
+
+=Probus= (1207) is a large village rather than a town, and is situated
+two and a half miles from Grampound station on the G.W.R. It is chiefly
+remarkable for its church tower, sculptured throughout, and erected in
+the reign of Elizabeth. (p. 120.)
+
+=St Agnes= (4291), a market town, reached by a branch of the G.W.R. The
+church is Decorated, and has a spire, an unusual feature in Cornwall.
+(pp. 55, 110.)
+
+=St Austell= (3340), a market and union town with a station on the
+G.W.R. A place that flourishes on the china-clay works in the
+neighbourhood. The church has a noble tower and is in the Perpendicular
+style. It possesses an exceedingly curious and early font. Near St
+Austell is Menacudle, perhaps the most picturesquely situated and best
+preserved of the Holy Wells in Cornwall. (pp. 9, 24, 26, 48, 85, 120,
+122, 137, 139, 145.)
+
+=St Blazey= (2931), a market town with a station on the Newquay branch
+of the G.W.R.
+
+=St Columb Major= (2640), an ancient market town two and a half miles
+from the St Columb Road Station on the Newquay branch of the G.W.R. and
+also in connexion with the L. & S.W.R. at Wadebridge by coach. The
+church is fine, Perpendicular in style, and has an interesting cross in
+the churchyard. The chancel, formerly ten feet longer, was wrecked by
+an explosion of gunpowder stored in the church, in 1676. There is a
+picturesque old building with state hangings, originally a residence of
+the Arundells of Trerice, near the churchyard gate. The old Cornish
+hurling is still practised at St Columb. (pp. 9, 18, 99, 108, 119, 137.)
+
+[Illustration: Cross in Churchyard, St Columb]
+
+=St Germans= (2126), a large village rather than a town, with a station
+on the G.W.R. It returned representatives to Parliament from 1562 till
+the passing of the Reform Act in 1832. The church is especially
+interesting from its noble Norman west front. It lies in the park of the
+Earl of St Germans. The almshouses in the town are especially to be
+noted for their picturesqueness. (pp. 105, 118, 131, 137, 139.)
+
+=St Ives= (6699), a municipal borough on the shore of St Ives Bay, and
+the terminus of a branch of the G.W.R. from St Erth. The corporation now
+consists of a mayor, four aldermen, and twelve councillors. The borough
+formerly returned two members to Parliament. The town is irregularly
+built with narrow streets and has "a very ancient fishlike smell." The
+church is interesting, it possesses curious carved bench-ends, and an
+old cross outside, of an unusually elaborate description. The population
+is almost entirely dependent on the fishing industry; but of late a St
+Ives school of painting has grown up, and artists have settled here to
+study sea effects, and seafaring people. (pp. 38, 39, 67, 87, 88, 92,
+93, 94, 102, 105, 135, 137, 139.)
+
+=St Just in Penwith= (5646), a market town seven miles west of Penzance,
+the nearest railway station. The town consists of several streets
+diverging from a triangular space in the centre. The church, well cared
+for, is Perpendicular in style. (pp. 110, 111.)
+
+=St Mary's, Scilly= is a town and the focus of life in the Isles of
+Scilly. The total population of these isles is 2092. The Isles belong to
+the Duchy of Cornwall but have been leased to Mr Dorrien-Smith. A large
+business is done in the sending of flowers and early potatoes thence to
+London. There is a good pier and harbour. (pp. 57, 59, 96.)
+
+=Saltash= (3357), built on a steep slope falling to the Hamoaze,
+returned two members to Parliament till disfranchised in 1832. The Royal
+Albert Bridge here crosses the Tamar, erected in 1857-9, carrying the
+trains of the G.W.R. into Cornwall. Saltash has a station. It was
+formerly the great place of crossing from Devon to Cornwall and _vice
+versa_ by ferry boats. (pp. 16, 132, 133, 139, 147.)
+
+=Stratton= and =Bude= (2308). Stratton is a small market and union town,
+and Bude its modern prosperous daughter is two miles off, the terminus
+of a branch of the L. & S.W.R. whereas Stratton has no station. It is a
+sleepy, decaying place; it possesses a fine church in which is the altar
+tomb of a Crusader, and another to Sir John Arundell of Trerice. On the
+other hand Bude is a growing and thriving watering-place, and possesses
+a small harbour. (pp. 32, 33, 57, 103, 120, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139.)
+
+=Truro= (2215, but with Kenwyn 5836, and with St Clement 3283 more).
+Truro is a city, the seat of a bishop, a municipal borough, head of an
+union and county court district, and a port. The city is situated in a
+valley and comprises the parishes of St Mary, Kenwyn and St Clement. At
+high water the tide forms a fine lake two miles in length reaching from
+Truro quay to Malpas, and the channel is of sufficient depth to be
+navigable for vessels of upwards of 70 tons. Truro was formerly one of
+the towns having the privilege of stamping tin, and is the seat of the
+Stannary Court. In 1876 Cornwall was cut off from Devon for
+ecclesiastical purposes and Truro constituted the seat of the bishop,
+and in 1880 the present cathedral was begun. Truro possesses a Passmore
+Edwards Free Library, and it is the seat of the Royal Institution of
+Cornwall which has here a museum and a library. (pp. 38, 66, 96, 104,
+123, 124, 132, 135, 137, 139, 144, 146.)
+
+[Illustration: Truro]
+
+=Tywardreath= (2215) is a little town where once was a Benedictine
+priory. It has a coastguard station and a police station. (p. 48.)
+
+=Wadebridge= (2186), a market town on the river Camel, partly in the
+parish of St Breock and partly in that of Egloshayle. It has a station
+on the L. & S.W.R. whence also runs a branch to Bodmin and another to
+Padstow. A stone bridge originally of 17 but now of 15 arches, erected
+in 1485, connects Wadebridge with Egloshayle. The chief trade of the
+town consists in the exportation of granite, china-clay, and
+agricultural produce, and the principal imports are coal and timber.
+(pp. 14, 15, 135.)
+
+
+
+
+=28. DIAGRAMS.=
+
+
+  [Area of Cornwall as compared with that of Rutland]
+  [Population of England and Wales]
+  [Population of Cornwall]
+  [Proportionate Land Cultivation in Cornwall]
+  [Proportionate Area of Corn Crops]
+  [Proportionate numbers of Livestock]
+  [Comparative Proportion of Cereals]
+  [Proportionate Area of Permanent Pasture]
+  [Proportionate Weight and Value of Fish landed]
+
+    CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
+
+[Illustration: Geological Map of Cornwall]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornwall, by Sabine Baring-Gould
+
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+<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ -->
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Cornwall, by S. Baring-Gould.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+body {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
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+    margin-bottom: 2em;
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+    margin-right: auto;
+    clear: both;
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+
+table {
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
+
+.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 92%;
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+
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+
+
+
+/* Footnotes */
+
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+
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+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornwall, by Sabine Baring-Gould
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cornwall
+
+Author: Sabine Baring-Gould
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38190]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORNWALL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Eric Skeet and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover" /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/map1a.jpg" alt="Physical map - west" /><a name="map1a" title=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/map1b.jpg" alt="Physical map - east" /><a name="map1b" title=""></a></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg i]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CAMBRIDGE COUNTY GEOGRAPHIES</h2>
+<p class="center">General Editor: <span class="smcap">F.H.H. Guillemard, M.A., M.D.</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h1>CORNWALL</h1>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[ii]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br />
+London: FETTER LANE, E.C.<br />
+C.F. CLAY, <span class="smcap">Manager</span><br />
+
+<img src="images/shield.png" alt="Coat of Arms" /></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+Edinburgh: 100, PRINCES STREET<br />
+<br />
+Berlin: A. ASHER AND CO.<br />
+<br />
+Leipzig: F.A. BROCKHAUS<br />
+<br />
+New York: G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS<br />
+<br />
+Bombay and Calcutt: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>[All rights reserved]</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[iii]</span></p>
+
+<h2><i>Cambridge County Geographies</i></h2>
+
+<h1>CORNWALL</h1>
+
+<h3>by</h3>
+
+<h2>S. BARING-GOULD</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>With Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations</h4>
+
+<h2>Cambridge:</h2>
+<h3>at the University Press<br />
+1910</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[iv]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+Cambridge:<br />
+PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.<br />
+AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[v]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="Contents">
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="text-align: left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">1.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap1">County and Shire. Meaning of the Word</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">2.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap2">General Characteristics</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">3.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap3">Size, Shape, Boundaries</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">4.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap4">Surface and General Features</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">5.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap5">Watershed, Rivers</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">6.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap6">Geology and Soil</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">19</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">7.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap7">Natural History</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">8.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap8">Around the Coast. From Morwenstow to Land's End</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">31</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">9.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap9">Around the Coast. From Land's End to Rame Head</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">41</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">10.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap10">The Coast&mdash;Gains and Losses</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">51</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">11.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap11">The Coast&mdash;Tides, Islands, and Lighthouses</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">12.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap12">Climate&mdash;Rainfall</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">61</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">13.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap13">People&mdash;Race, Dialect, Population</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">67</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">14.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap14">Agriculture&mdash;Main Cultivations. Stock</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">15.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap15">Industries and Manufactures</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">16.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap16">Minerals and Mining</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">17.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap17">Fisheries</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">88</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">18.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap18">Shipping and Trade</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">19.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap19">History</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">20.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap20">Antiquities: Prehistoric, Roman, Celtic, Saxon</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">106</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">21.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap21">Architecture: (a) Ecclesiastical</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">114</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">22.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap22">Architecture: (b) Military&mdash;Castles</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">125</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">23.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap23">Architecture: (c) Domestic and Monastic</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">128</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">24.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap24">Communications&mdash;Roads, Railways</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">132</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">25.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap25">Administration and Divisions, Ancient and Modern</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">135</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">26.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap26">Roll of Honour</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">140</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">27.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap27">The Chief Towns and Villages of Cornwall</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">148</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: right; margin-left: 3cm; padding-right: 1cm">28.</td>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#chap28">Diagrams</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">160</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum">[vii]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table summary="Illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left">&nbsp;</td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus1">Luxulyan Village</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus2">Dozmare Pool</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus3">The Tamar, near Calstock</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus4">Grimsby Channel and Eastern Islands, Scilly</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus5">Bodmin</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus6">Rough Tor</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus7">St Keyne's Well, Liskeard</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus8">On the Camel</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus9">Wadebridge</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus10">Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus11">The Cheesewring</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus12">In a Cornish Garden</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus13">Bude Breakwater</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus14">King Arthur's Castle, Tintagel</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">33</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus15">Bodruthan Steps</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">34</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus16">Newquay Harbour</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">37</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus17">The Wharf, St Ives</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus18">Land's End</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">41</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus19">Newlyn Pier</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">42</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus20">St Michael's Mount</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">43</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus21">Kynance Cove and the Lizard</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">44</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus22">Mullion Cove</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus23">Falmouth, from Flushing</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus24">Polperro</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">49</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus25">Looe</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">49</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus26">Perranporth Rocks</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">54</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus27">Round Island, Scilly</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">58</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus28">The Longships Lighthouse</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">59</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus29">Eddystone Lighthouse</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus30">Miners: Camborne</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">69</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus31">"First and Last House", Land's End</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus32">Flower Farming, Scilly</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus33">Poldhu Hotel and the Marconi Station</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus34">King Edward Mine, Camborne</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">81</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus35">China Clay Quarries, Porthpean</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">84</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus36">Delabole Slate Quarries</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">86</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus37">Shipping Slate, Port Gavin</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus38">Pilchard Boats, Mevagissey</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">89</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus39">The Huers' House, Newquay</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus40">Pilchard Boats, St Ives Harbour</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">92</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus41">Landing Fish, Newlyn</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus42">The St Vincent's Anchor, Falmouth</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">95</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus43">The Nine Maidens, St Columb Major</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">99</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus44">St Mawes, Falmouth Harbour</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus45">Lanyon Cromlech</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">108</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus46">The Merry Maidens, St Buryan</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">109</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus47">St Cleer: Monument to Doniert, son of<br/>&nbsp;&nbsp;Caradoc, died <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 872.</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">111</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus48">Mawgan Cross</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">112</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus49">St Buryan Cross</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">114</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus50">Buried Church, Perranporth</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus51">Norman Doorway, St Germans Church</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus52">Tympanum, Egloskerry Church</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus53">Lanteglos Church</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus54">Launceston Church</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">121</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus55">Landewednack Church</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">123</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus56">Dupath Well, Callington</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">124</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus57">St Mawes Castle</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">127</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus58">Cothele</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">130</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus59">The Old Post Office, Tintagel</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">132</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus60">A Cornish Stile</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">133</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus61">The Old Guildhall and Pillory, Looe</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">138</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus62">Captain Bligh</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">141</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus63">Sir Humphry Davy</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">144</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus64">John Opie</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">146</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus65">Fowey</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">150</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus66">Helston from Bullock Lane</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">151</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus67">Launceston</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">152</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus68">Looe</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">153</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus69">Cross in Churchyard, St Columb</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">156</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#illus70">Truro</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">159</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+
+<h2>MAPS</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="Maps">
+
+<tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#map1a">Cornwall, Topographical (West)</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm"><i>Front Endpaper</i></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#map1b">Cornwall, Topographical (East)</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm"><i>Front Endpaper</i></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#map2a">Cornwall, Geological (West)</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm"><i>Back Endpaper</i></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#map2b">Cornwall, Geological (East)</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm"><i>Back Endpaper</i></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td style="text-align: left"><a href="#map3">England and Wales, showing Annual Rainfall</a></td>
+<td style="text-align: right; padding-left: 1cm">63</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p>The illustrations on pp. 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 24, 32, 36,
+37, 39, 41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 59, 60, 70, 73, 79, 81, 84, 86,
+89, 91, 93, 95, 99, 105, 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123,
+127, 138, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 158 are from photographs
+supplied by Messrs F. Frith &amp; Co.; those on pp. 8, 43, 45, 58, 77,
+94, 108, 109, 134 by Messrs Preston, Penzance; those on pp. 141,
+146 by Mr Emery Walker, and those on pp. 6, 29, 34, 87, 119,
+124, 130, 132 by Messrs Hayman &amp; Son, Launceston.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 75%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[1]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="chap1" id="chap1"></a>1. County and Shire. Meaning of the word.</h2>
+
+<p>If we take a map of England and contrast it with a
+map of the United States, perhaps one of the first things
+we shall notice is the dissimilarity of the arbitrary divisions
+of land of which the countries are composed. In America
+the rigidly straight boundaries and rectangular shape of
+the majority of the States strike the eye at once; in
+England our wonder is rather how the boundaries have
+come to be so tortuous and complicated&mdash;to such a degree,
+indeed, that until recently many counties had outlying
+islands, as it were, within their neighbours' territory. We
+may guess at once that the conditions under which the
+divisions arose cannot have been the same, and that while
+in America these formal square blocks of land, like vast
+allotment gardens, were probably the creation of a central
+authority, and portioned off much about the same time;
+the divisions we find in England own no such simple
+origin. Our guess would not have been wrong, for such,
+in fact, is more or less the case. The formation of the
+English counties in many instances was (and is&mdash;for they
+have altered up to to-day) an affair of slow growth.
+<span class="pagenum">[2]</span>
+King Alfred is credited with having made them, but
+inaccurately, for some existed before his time, others not
+till long after his death, and their origin was&mdash;as their
+names tell us&mdash;of very diverse nature.</p>
+
+<p>Let us turn once more to our map of England. Collectively,
+we call all our divisions counties, but not every
+one of them is accurately thus described. Cornwall,
+as we shall see, is not. Some have names complete in
+themselves, such as Kent and Sussex, and we find these
+to be old English kingdoms with but little alteration
+either in their boundaries or their names. To others
+the terminal <i>shire</i> is appended, which tells us that they
+were <i>shorn</i> from a larger domain&mdash;<i>shares</i> of Mercia or
+Northumbria or some other of the great English kingdoms.
+The term county is of Norman introduction,&mdash;the
+domain of a <i>Comte</i> or Count.</p>
+
+<p>Although we use the term county for Cornwall, we
+should not in accuracy do so, as just stated, for it is a
+Duchy, and has been such since March 17, 1337, when
+Edward of Woodstock, eldest son of King Edward III,
+was created Duke of Cornwall. Nor can it be called a
+shire, for Cornwall was a territory to itself. In 835
+Athelstan drove the Britons across the Tamar and made
+that river the boundary between the Briton and the West
+Saxon of Devon.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient name of Cornwall and Devon was Totnes,
+i.e. <i>Dod-ynys</i>, "the projecting island," and the Celtic
+population was that of the Dumnonii. It was not till
+the tenth century that the name Cornweales appears,
+signifying the Welsh of the Horn of Britain. The
+<span class="pagenum">[3]</span>
+Latin form of Cornwall is Cornubia. The ancient British
+settlers in the present department of Finistère called that
+portion of Gaul Cornouaille.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap2" id="chap2"></a>2. General Characteristics.</h2>
+
+<p>On many accounts Cornwall may be regarded as one
+of the most interesting counties of England, whether we
+regard it for its coast scenery, its products, or its antiquities.
+It has lain so much out of the main current of
+the life of England that it was hardly mixed up with the
+politics of the nation till the time of the Civil War.</p>
+
+<p>Its situation, projecting as it does into the sea, by
+which it is washed on all sides but one, has naturally
+<span class="pagenum">[4]</span>
+caused the natives to take to the water, and has made
+Cornwall to be the mother of a hardy breed of fishermen
+and sailors. But the county being also rich in mineral
+wealth has from an early age caused a large portion of the
+manhood of the land to seek their livelihood in mines;
+and the peculiar conditions of Cornwall have thus determined
+the professions of a large proportion of its males to
+be either on the water or under ground.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus1.jpg" alt="Luxulyan Village" /><a name="illus1" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Luxulyan Village</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the county cannot be regarded as
+beautiful, consisting of a backbone of elevated land, wind-swept,
+and over a large area covered with mine-ramps and
+the skeletons of abandoned machine-houses standing up
+gaunt amidst the desolation. But the valleys are always
+beautiful, and the Bodmin moors, if not so lofty and broken
+<span class="pagenum">[5]</span>
+as Dartmoor, are yet fine, and Brown Willy, Rough Tor,
+and Kilmar are really noble tors.</p>
+
+<p>On the Bodmin moors is Dozmare Pool, the only
+lake, excepting Loe Pool, that exists in Cornwall. It is
+small and shallow. There were others formerly, now
+encroached on or smothered by morass.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus2.jpg" alt="Dozmare Pool" /><a name="illus2" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Dozmare Pool</p>
+
+<p>In Cornwall it is quite possible to take a stride from
+the richest vegetation into the abomination of desolation.
+It has been said in mockery that Cornwall does not grow
+wood enough to make coffins for the people. The old
+timber was cut down to supply the furnaces for smelting
+tin, and it is true that there is not in Cornwall as magnificent
+timber as may be seen in other counties, but the valleys are
+everywhere well wooded, and the Cornish elm, that grows
+almost like a trimmed poplar, stands up lank above the
+lower trees and coppice.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap3" id="chap3"></a>3. Size, Shape, Boundaries.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Cornwall bears a certain resemblance to Italy, each is
+like a leg or boot, but Italy stands a-tiptoe to the south,
+whereas Cornwall is thrust out to the west. But, whereas
+Italy is kicking Sicily as a football, Cornwall has but the
+shattered group of the Scilly Isles at its toe.</p>
+
+<p>It touches but one other county, Devonshire, on the
+east; on all other sides it is washed by the sea, the Atlantic
+on the north and the English Channel on the south.
+The heel is the curious projection of the Lizard, and the
+toe is Land's End. On the east the river Tamar forms
+mainly the boundary between itself and Devon, except just
+<span class="pagenum">[6]</span>
+north of Launceston, where a small portion of Devonshire
+juts into Cornwall, bounded on the south by the river
+Attery, and comprising the parishes of North Petherwin
+and Werrington. This is due to the land in these parishes
+having belonged to the Abbey of Tavistock, and the monks
+desiring to have all their lands comprised in one county.
+The area of Cornwall is 886,384 acres, or 1385 square
+miles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[7]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus3.jpg" alt="The Tamar, near Calstock" /><a name="illus3" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Tamar, near Calstock</p>
+
+<p>It is the most westerly county in England, and also
+the most southerly. Its greatest length from the N.E.
+corner beyond Morwenstow to the Land's End is
+80 miles; and its greatest breadth between Marsland
+Mouth and Rame Head is 46 miles. But it shrinks
+towards the toe, and between St Ives' Bay and Mounts
+Bay it is not five miles across.</p>
+
+<p>The Scilly Isles, situated twenty-five miles S.W. from
+the Land's End, are a part of Cornwall, and have an
+area of 4041 acres. Formerly, a part of the township of
+Bridgerule, with 1010 acres on the Devon side of the
+Tamar, belonged to Cornwall, but has now been dissevered
+and annexed to Devonshire.</p>
+
+<p>The north coast is sadly deficient in harbours. Bude
+Haven can accommodate only the smallest vessels, Boscastle
+is a dangerous creek, Padstow Harbour is barred by
+the Doom Bank lying across the entrance, and there is
+none other till we reach St Ives' Bay. On the south coast
+are Mounts Bay, Falmouth, Charlestown in St Austell
+Bay, Par, Fowey, Looe, Cawsand Bay, and the Hamoaze
+that opens into Plymouth Sound. Of these only Falmouth
+Harbour, once the great station for the packet boats, is good.
+<span class="pagenum">[8]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Scilly Isles comprise 145 rocky masses, six only
+are large islands, and five only are inhabited. The other
+inhabited islands about Cornwall are very small, these are
+St Michael's Mount and Looe Island. The promontory
+of Lleyn in Cardiganshire presents a curious resemblance
+to Cornwall, and as Cornwall has its detached group of
+islands in Scilly, so Lleyn has its Bardsey.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus4.jpg" alt="Grimsby Channel and Eastern Islands, Scilly" /><a name="illus4" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Grimsby Channel and Eastern Islands, Scilly</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="chap4" id="chap4"></a>4. Surface and General Features.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus5.jpg" alt="Bodmin" /><a name="illus5" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Bodmin</p>
+
+<p>To the east and north-east is the large granite mass
+of the Bodmin moors. It is these striking granitic
+masses, here and further west&mdash;at the Land's End, at St
+Breage, in the district north of Helston, and again north
+<span class="pagenum">[9]</span>
+of St Austell&mdash;which form the bolder features of the
+county. A remarkable depression lies between Marazion
+and St Ives' Bay, utilised by the railway from Hayle
+to Marazion road. It almost seems as if the whole of
+Penwith, the portion west of this trough, had at one
+time been an island, with a channel of sea between
+it and the mainland. On the other hand, at a remote
+period there can be no doubt that there extended far out
+broad low-lying lands which are now covered by the sea,
+for forest beds have been found in Mounts Bay, in Padstow
+Bay, at St Columb Major, and elsewhere, showing that
+there has been a subsidence of the land. This has given
+rise to the fable of a drowned realm of Lyonesse, but this
+Lyonesse never existed in or near Cornwall; it was Léon
+<span class="pagenum">[10]</span>
+in Brittany. But if there has been subsidence, there has
+also been an elevation of the land, as is shown by the
+raised beaches that can be traced along the coast. In the
+south are found flint pebbles in these raised beaches, showing
+that the wash at one period was not as now from
+west to east, but the reverse. It was from these flint
+pebbles in the elevated beaches that prehistoric man in
+Cornwall obtained the material for the fabrication of his
+tools and weapons. The elevation of the land, which
+dried up the channel between the Land's End and the
+mainland, preceded the depression which sunk the now
+submerged forests.</p>
+
+<p>To the north of the great granite boss that forms
+the Bodmin moors a ridge of cold moors rises, setting its
+back against the Atlantic and feeding the rivers that flow
+south with the rain that pours over it. Very little can be
+grown on these heights: they produce a little barley, but
+are mainly covered with rushes, coarse grass, and furze
+bushes. No considerable heights are reached till we come
+to Carnmarth and Carn Brea, each only 700 ft. above the
+sea. Then there is no distinct height till we reach Godolphin
+and Tregonning hills of 560 ft. and 600 ft. Towards
+Land's End there are greater heights&mdash;700 ft. and a little
+over, but this is naught compared with Brown Willy,
+1368, and Kilmar, 1297, in the east. But it must be
+understood that grand mountain, or even fine hill scenery
+is not to be met with in western Cornwall. Its glory is
+in its magnificent coast-line; and its beauty is to be found
+in its lovely valleys and coombes.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus6.jpg" alt="Rough Tor" /><a name="illus6" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Rough Tor</p>
+
+<p>The general features of a country depend on its
+<span class="pagenum">[11]</span>
+geological structure. Granite formation, slate rock, sandstone,
+limestone, chalk&mdash;all have their special characters,
+unmistakable. When we are among the granites in the
+west of England we expect a tent-like shape of hill with
+<span class="pagenum">[12]</span>
+a tor of rock at the summit; the sides strewn with a
+"clatter" of fallen rock, and clothed in heather and furze.
+When we come to the slates, and the overlying cold clays,
+we expect little except in the gorges and valleys cut through
+the strata by the streams. Of sandstone, or of chalk, forming
+breezy rolling downs, there is none in Cornwall, nor
+of limestone with its bold scars, such as are met with in
+<span class="pagenum">[13]</span>
+the western hills of Yorkshire. We must take what we
+can find&mdash;and much can be found in Cornwall if we do
+not expect too much, nor look for what is not there, and
+under existing geological conditions could not be there.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus7.jpg" alt="St Keyne's  Well, Liskeard" /><a name="illus7" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">St Keyne's Well, Liskeard</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap5" id="chap5"></a>5. Watershed, Rivers.</h2>
+
+
+
+<p>From what has been already said, it will be seen that
+the great spinal column of Cornwall is in the north and that
+consequently the principal rivers must flow to the south.
+It is true that the Camel and its tributaries rise in the
+north and flow north to debouch into Padstow estuary,
+but that is the only river of the smallest consequence that
+directly feeds the Atlantic.
+<span class="pagenum">[14]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus8.jpg" alt="On the Camel" /><a name="illus8" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">On the Camel</p>
+
+<p>The Camel rises in the wind-swept, sodden, clay land
+above Boscastle, and dribbles down to Camelford, passing
+under Slaughter Bridge and the stone of <span class="smcap">Lateinos</span> which
+traditionally mark the scene of King Arthur's last fight
+and death. After leaving Camelford, it plunges through
+a beautiful wooded valley, under Helsbury Castle occupying
+a bleak conical hill&mdash;a castle of the Dukes of Cornwall,
+but consisting only of a stone camp of prehistoric date
+and a ruined chapel in the midst dedicated to St Sith or
+Itha, an Irish saint. It passes Lavethan, a hospitium of
+the monks of Bodmin, and between wooded banks through
+Pencarrow and Dunmeer woods, and having run south, it
+now turns north to meet and mingle waters with the
+Allan, which has cleft for itself a very similar and equally
+beautiful valley. The Allan rises near the slate quarries of
+Delabole, and glides down by St Teath, and by St Mabyn
+on its bleak stormbeaten height, itself snug between beautiful
+hanging woods and with sweet old-world manor houses
+clustering near, and meets the Camel at Egloshayle.
+Thence they flow away into the Padstow estuary under
+the old 15th century bridge at Wadebridge, past the
+Camelot of legend&mdash;the only streams of any consequence
+that flow north.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the Tamar, we may call it as we
+please a Devonshire or a Cornish river. It divides the
+counties through the principal part of its course, but it
+has its source in Morwenstow, on a wretched moor, in
+Cornwall. Not much can be said in its favour till it
+reaches Bridgerule. From that point past North Tamerton
+(and Vacey, which although on the left bank was included
+<span class="pagenum">[15]</span>
+in Cornwall, and has two formidable earthworks) it glides
+down to Werrington, where it meets the waters of the
+Attery and passes under Polson Bridge within sight of
+Launceston. Thenceforth the Tamar is in the full
+bloom of beauty. Carthamartha (Caer Tamar) stands at
+its junction with the Inny. Below Polson Bridge it has
+accepted the Lyd from Devon. Then through the lands
+and woods of the Duke of Bedford at lovely Endsleigh,
+under the bold crags of Morwell, up to which the tide
+reaches, then past Calstock and Cothele, and in serpentine
+writhes about Pentillie Castle, and so into the Hamoaze&mdash;the
+most beautiful river in England, excepting possibly
+the Wye.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus9.jpg" alt="Wadebridge" /><a name="illus9" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Wadebridge</p>
+
+<p>The Inny, one of the feeders of the Tamar and altogether
+Cornish, must not be omitted, for it is a beautiful
+<span class="pagenum">[16]</span>
+stream. It rises in the elevated land by Davidstowe and
+ripples down near Altarnon, passing in a picturesque
+valley the Holy Well and chapel of St Clether and the
+ancestral seat of the Trevelyan family at Basil; then, still in
+its beautiful valley, past Polyphant, famous for its quarries
+of a stone that admits of the most delicate carving, until it
+reaches the Tamar at Innyfoot. It is a river rich in trout.
+An old Cornish song of the Altarnon volunteer has the
+verse:</p>
+
+<p>
+O Altarnon! O Altarnon! I ne'er shall see thee more,<br />
+Nor hear the sweet bells ringing, nor stand in the church door,<br />
+Nor hear the birds a-whistling, nor in the Inny stream<br />
+See silver trout glance by me, as thoughts glance by in dream.<br />
+<span class="pagenum">[17]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is not however the Inny but a tributary that
+actually passes Altarnon.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus10.jpg" alt="Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash" /><a name="illus10" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash</p>
+
+<p>The Lynher falls into the Hamoaze, running for
+much of its course parallel to the Inny. It rises in the
+Bodmin moors and flows through the beautiful grounds of
+Trebartha where it receives a feeder from Trewartha marsh
+that leaps to meet it in a pretty cascade. Trewartha marsh
+has been turned over and over for tin and gold, and the
+Squire of Trebartha formerly furnished his daughters
+with gold rings made from the precious ore found in it.
+A curious settlement of the Celtic period exists above
+the marsh. It has however been much mutilated by
+farmers, who have carried off the stones for the construction
+of pigstyes. The Lynher flows through the park of
+the Earl of St Germans, past the beautiful church with
+its Norman west front, and then is lost in the united waters
+of the Tamar and the Tavy.</p>
+
+<p>Under Brown Willy is a pool called Fowey Well, which
+is traditionally held to be the source of the Fowey river.
+This however is not the case. It rises under Buttern
+Hill (1135 ft.) crowned by cairns, but as the Fowey Well
+has no outlet visible, it is supposed to decant by a subterranean
+stream into the river. Leaping down from the
+moors, the Fowey enters a wooded valley and, turning
+abruptly west, flows through another well timbered valley.
+Running beside the railway, and then turning sharply
+south, it passes the old Stannery town of Lostwithiel, to
+which the tide reaches, and plunging into a narrow glen
+with St Winnow on one side and Golant on the other,
+finally reaches the sea at Fowey harbour.
+<span class="pagenum">[18]</span></p>
+
+<p>There are two Looe rivers, one rising in the Bodmin
+moors receives the overflow of Dozmare Pool, and flowing
+deep below Liskeard receives the West Looe above the
+estuary. Duloe, which has a small but interesting circle
+of upright stones, stands between them and is supposed
+to be so called as between the two Looes. Before reaching
+Duloe the river has passed under St Keyne, famous
+for its Holy Well commemorated by Southey in a well-known
+ballad.</p>
+
+<p>There is no river of any importance till we reach the
+Fal. Rising on Goss Moor, not far from St Columb,
+and passing Grampound and Tregony, now an utterly
+decayed place, it meets the Tressilian and the Truro rivers,
+and all three, insignificant hitherto, suddenly acquire importance
+and spread out into the beautiful estuary of the
+Fal or Carrick Roads. Here are Penryn creek, Mylor
+creek, and Porthcuel harbour, commanded by the castle
+of St Mawes. None of these owe their importance to
+the sweet waters they bring down; all their value is due
+to the tide that flows up to Truro.</p>
+
+<p>The entrance to the Roads is found between Zoze
+Point and Pendennis Point, the latter at one time defended
+by a strong castle. Almost halfway between the points is
+the dangerous Black Rock, to which a former Trefusis
+conveyed his wife and there left her to be overwhelmed
+by the rising tide. Happily she was rescued by some
+fishermen. The Helford river is but a creek, noted for
+its oyster beds, into which a little stream dribbles.
+<span class="pagenum">[19]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap6" id="chap6"></a>6. Geology and Soil.</h2>
+
+
+<p>By Geology we mean the study of the rocks, and we
+must at the outset explain that the term <i>rock</i> is used by
+the geologist without any reference to the hardness or
+compactness of the material to which the name is applied;
+thus he speaks of loose sand as a rock equally with a hard
+substance like granite.</p>
+
+<p>Rocks are of two kinds, (1) those laid down mostly
+under water, (2) those due to the action of fire.</p>
+
+<p>The first kind may be compared to sheets of paper
+one over the other. These sheets are called <i>beds</i>, and such
+beds are usually formed of sand (often containing pebbles),
+mud or clay, and limestone, or mixtures of these materials.
+They are laid down as flat or nearly flat sheets, but may
+afterwards be tilted as the result of movement of the
+earth's crust, just as you may tilt sheets of paper, folding
+them into arches and troughs, by compressing their ends.
+Again, we may find the tops of the folds so produced
+wasted away as the result of the wearing action of
+rivers, glaciers, and sea-waves upon them, as you might
+cut off the tops of the folds of the paper with a pair of
+shears. This has happened with the ancient beds forming
+parts of the earth's crust, and we therefore often find them
+tilted, with the upper parts removed.</p>
+
+<p>The other kinds of rocks are known as igneous rocks,
+which have been melted under the action of heat and
+become solid on cooling. When in the molten state
+they have been poured out at the surface as the lava of
+<span class="pagenum">[20]</span>
+volcanoes, or have been forced into other rocks and cooled
+in the cracks and other places of weakness. Much
+material is also thrown out of volcanoes as volcanic ash
+and dust, and is piled up on the sides of the volcano.
+Such ashy material may be arranged in beds, so that it
+partakes to some extent of the qualities of the two great
+rock groups.</p>
+
+<p>The production of beds is of great importance to
+geologists, for by means of these beds we can classify the
+rocks according to age. If we take two sheets of paper,
+and lay one on the top of the other on a table, the upper
+one has been laid down after the other. Similarly with
+two beds, the upper is also the newer, and the newer will
+remain on the top after earth-movements, save in very
+exceptional cases which need not be regarded by us here,
+and for general purposes we may regard any bed or set of
+beds resting on any other in our own country as being
+the newer bed or set.</p>
+
+<p>The movements which affect beds may occur at
+different times. One set of beds may be laid down flat,
+then thrown into folds by movement, the tops of the
+beds worn off, and another set of beds laid down upon the
+worn surface of the older beds, the edges of which will
+abut against the oldest of the new set of flatly deposited
+beds, which latter may in turn undergo disturbance and
+renewal of their upper portions.</p>
+
+<p>Again, after the formation of the beds many changes may occur in them.
+They may become hardened, pebble-beds being changed into conglomerates,
+sands into sandstones, muds and clays into mudstones and shales,
+softdeposits of lime into limestone, and loose volcanic ashes into
+exceedingly hard rocks. They may also become cracked, and the cracks are
+often very regular, running in two directions at right angles one to the
+other. Such cracks are known as <i>joints</i>, and the joints are very
+important in affecting the physical geography of a district. Then, as
+the result of great pressure applied sideways, the rocks may be so
+changed that they can be split into thin slabs, which usually, though
+not necessarily, split along planes standing at high angles to the
+horizontal. Rocks affected in this way are known as <i>slates</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[21]</span></p>
+
+<table style="font-size: 75%; margin-left: 10%; line-height: 8pt" summary="Characters of Rocks">
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 2cm">NAMES OF<br/>SYSTEMS</td>
+<td style="width: 8cm">| SUBDIVISIONS</td>
+<td>| CHARACTERS OF ROCKS</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td style="width: 2cm"><b>TERTIARY</b></td>
+<td style="width: 6cm"></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Metal Age Deposits</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Recent</td>
+<td>| Neolithic Deposits</td>
+<td>| Superficial Deposits</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Pleistocene</td>
+<td>| Palaeolithic Deposits</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Glacial Deposits</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Cromer Series</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Weybourne Crag</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Pliocene</td>
+<td>| Chillesford and Norwich Crags</td>
+<td>| Sands chiefly</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Crags</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Red and Walton Crags</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Coralline Crag</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Miocene</td>
+<td>| Absent from Britain</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Fluviomarine Beds of Hampshire</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Bagshot Beds</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Eocene</td>
+<td>| London Clay</td>
+<td>| Clays and Sands chiefly</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Oldhaven Beds, Woolwich and Reading Groups</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Thanet Sands</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td><b>SECONDARY</b></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Chalk</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Upper Greensand and Gault</td>
+<td>| Chalk at top,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Cretaceous</td>
+<td>| Lower Greensand</td>
+<td>| Sandstones, Mud and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Weald Clay</td>
+<td>| Clays below</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Hastings Sands</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Purbeck Beds</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Portland Beds</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Kimmeridge Clay</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Corallian Beds</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Jurassic</td>
+<td>| Oxford Clay and Kellaways Rock</td>
+<td>| Shales, Sandstones and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Cornbrash</td>
+<td>| Oolitic Limestones</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Forest Marble</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Great Oolite with Stonesfield Slate</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Inferior Oolite</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Lias--Upper, Middle and Lower</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Rhaetic</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Keuper Marls</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Triassic</td>
+<td>| Keuper Sandstone</td>
+<td>| Red Sandstone and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Upper Bunter Sandstone</td>
+<td>| Marls, Gypsum and Salt</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Bunter Pebble Beds</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Lower Bunter Sandstone</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td><b>PRIMARY</b></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Magnesian Limestone and Sandstone</td>
+<td>| Red Sandstones and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Permian</td>
+<td>| Marl Slate</td>
+<td>| Magnesian Limestone</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Lower Permian Sandstone</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Coal Measures</td>
+<td>| Sandstones Shales and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Millstone Grit</td>
+<td>| Coals at top,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Carboniferous</td>
+<td>| Mountain Limestone</td>
+<td>| Sandstones in middle,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Basal Carboniferous Rocks</td>
+<td>| Limestone and Shales below</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Upper | Devonian and</td>
+<td>| Red Sandstones,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Devonian</td>
+<td>| Mid &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;| Old Red</td>
+<td>| Shales, Slates and,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Lower | Sandstone</td>
+<td>| Limestones,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Ludlow Beds</td>
+<td>| Sandstones, Shales and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Silurian</td>
+<td>| Wenlock Beds</td>
+<td>| ThinLimestones,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Llandovery Beds</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Caradoc Beds</td>
+<td>| Shales, Slates,</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Ordovician</td>
+<td>| Llandello Beds</td>
+<td>| Sandstones and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Arenig Beds</td>
+<td>| Thin Limestones</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Tremadoc Slates</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td>Cambrian</td>
+<td>| Lingula Flags</td>
+<td>| Slates and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Menevian Beds</td>
+<td>| Sandstones</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>| Harlech Grits and Llanberis Slates</td>
+<td>|</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td> </td>
+<td>| </td>
+<td>| Sandstones,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pre-Cambrian</td>
+<td>| No definite classfication yet made</td>
+<td>| Slates and</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>|</td>
+<td>| Volcanic Rocks</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td></td><td>---</td><td>---</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[22]</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>If we could flatten out all the beds of England, and
+arrange them one over the other and bore a shaft through
+them, we should see them on the sides of the shaft, the
+newest appearing at the top and the oldest at the bottom,
+as shown in the table. Such a shaft would have a depth
+of between 10,000 and 20,000 feet. The strata beds are
+divided into three great groups called Primary or Palaeozoic,
+Secondary or Mesozoic, and Tertiary or Cainozoic, and
+the lowest Primary rocks are the oldest rocks of Britain,
+which form as it were the foundation stones on which
+the other rocks rest. These may be spoken of as the
+Pre-Cambrian rocks. The three great groups are divided
+into minor divisions known as systems. The names of
+these systems are arranged in order in the table and on
+the right hand side the general characters of the rocks of
+each system are stated.</p>
+
+<p>With these preliminary remarks we may now proceed
+to a brief account of the geology of the county.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[23]</span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5%"><img src="images/illus10a.jpg" alt="Sectional diagram" /></p>
+<p class="caption">Sectional Diagram</p>
+
+<p style="font-size:65%">This cross section shows what would be seen in a deep cutting nearly E.
+and W. across England and Wales. It shows also how, in consequence of
+the folding of the strata and the cutting off of the uplifted parts, old
+rocks which should be thousands of feet down are found in borings in
+East Anglia only 1000 feet or so below the surface.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In Cornwall there is a succession of nodes of granite
+<span class="pagenum">[24]</span>
+rising to the surface, a continuation westward of the mass
+of Dartmoor. It has surged to the surface in four large
+masses continued westward by the Scilly Isles. These
+granitic masses have upheaved the superincumbent beds of
+stratified rocks, partly melting them. These distinct
+nodes are: the Bodmin moors, the St Austell elevation,
+the Carn Menelez, and the Land's End district. Smaller
+masses of granite occur in the double heights of Godolphin
+and Tregonning, St Michael's Mount, Carn Brea and
+Carn Marth, and Castel-an-Dinas.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus11.jpg" alt="The Cheesewring" /><a name="illus11" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Cheesewring</p>
+
+<p>The Elvans are dykes of quartz-porphyry which issue
+from the granite into the surrounding slates, and are often
+mistakenly supposed to be a bastard granite.</p>
+
+<p>The granite in its upheaval has strangely altered and
+<span class="pagenum">[25]</span>
+contorted the superposed beds. There are as well intrusive
+veins of igneous rocks. In the Lizard district is
+serpentine, a compact, tough rock often of a green colour,
+lending itself to a high polish, and forming magnificent
+cliffs with a special gloss and colour, as well as maintaining
+on the surface a special flora.</p>
+
+<p>The prime feature in Cornish geology is the upheaval
+of the granite, distorting, folding back, and altering the
+superincumbent beds.</p>
+
+<p>In the north-east of Cornwall from a line drawn from
+below Launceston, on the Tamar, to Boscastle the rocks
+belong to the culm measures of North Devon. All the
+rest of the peninsula, except the protruding granite and the
+serpentine of the Lizard, pertains to the Devonian series of
+sedimentary rocks, in which the first signs of life appear;
+consisting largely of clay-slate, locally known as Killas,
+alternating with beds of red or grey grit and sandstone.
+Although these slaty rocks must be some thousand feet in
+thickness, they have been so broken up and turned over
+by the convulsions of the earth that their chronological
+sequence cannot easily be determined. In these convulsions
+they have been rent, and through the rents have
+been driven hot blasts that have deposited crystalline veins,
+or injections of trap and other volcanic matter, altering
+the character of the rock through which they have been
+driven. By the Menheniot Station on the G.W.R. is a
+hill of serpentine thrown up at one jet, and now largely
+quarried for the sake of the roads.</p>
+
+<p>The culm measures already alluded to consist of black
+shales and slates with seams of grit and chert, much undulated
+<span class="pagenum">[26]</span>
+through enormous lateral pressure. The granite,
+the lowest and most ancient formation of all, was itself
+consolidated under vast pressure from above, and was not
+in a molten condition when forced to the surface. Had
+it been so, it would have resolved itself into lava. It was
+cold when upheaved, tearing apart the superincumbent
+stratified sedimentary rocks, which disappeared from the
+summits, and on all sides about these upheavals were
+twisted, contorted, thrown back, and fissured.</p>
+
+<p>Atmospheric effect and natural gravitation is constantly
+carrying the soil from the upper land, from the
+hills into the bottoms, and consequently it is in the latter
+that we find the richest land, best calculated to repay the
+toil of the agriculturist. On the high moors there is little
+depth of so called "meat earth," below which is clay and
+grit, hard and unprofitable, commonly called the "calm"
+or the "deads." But adjoining the granite is the wash from
+it of its dissolved felspar, the china-clay that furnishes the
+inhabitants of the St Austell district with a remunerative
+and ever-growing industry, of which more presently.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap7" id="chap7"></a>7. Natural History.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Various facts, which can only shortly be mentioned
+here, go to show that the British Isles have not existed as
+such, and separated from the Continent, for any great
+length of geological time. Around our coasts, for instance,
+and specially in Cornwall, are in several places remains of
+forests now sunk beneath the sea, and only to be seen at
+<span class="pagenum">[27]</span>
+extreme low water. Between England and the Continent
+the sea is very shallow, and St Paul's Cathedral might be
+placed anywhere in the North Sea without submerging its
+summit, but a little west of Ireland we soon come to very
+deep soundings. Great Britain and Ireland were thus
+once part of the Continent and are examples of what
+geologists call recent continental islands. But we also
+have no less certain proof that at some anterior period
+they were almost entirely submerged. The fauna and
+flora thus being destroyed, the land would have to be restocked
+with animals and plants from the Continent when
+union again took place, the influx of course coming from
+the east and south. As, however, it was not long before
+separation occurred, not all the continental species could
+establish themselves. We should thus expect to find that
+the parts in the neighbourhood of the Continent were
+richer in species and those furthest off poorer, and this
+proves to be the case both in plants and animals. While
+Britain has fewer species than France or Belgium, Ireland
+has still less than Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Small though England may be, she can nevertheless
+show most striking differences of fauna and flora in
+different districts. On the moors of the north, for
+example, the heaths and berries underfoot, and the larger
+birds of prey and grouse which now and again meet our
+view offer a marked contrast to&mdash;let us say&mdash;the furze-clad
+chalk downs of Sussex, where the wheatear and
+whinchat and the copper butterflies and "blues" are
+familiar objects. These differences depend upon a number
+of conditions, often mutually interdependent&mdash;upon variations
+<span class="pagenum">[28]</span>
+of soil, rainfall, temperature, and so forth. Cornwall
+presents unusual peculiarities in many ways, and we may
+now consider how far these have affected the creatures
+and plants within her borders.</p>
+
+<p>Firstly, Cornwall is remotely situated&mdash;one of the
+extreme points of Western Europe&mdash;and, whether the
+fact be dependent on food conditions or not, we find
+that there are several species of bird, common in other
+parts of England, which do not occur within the county,
+such as the nightingale, the wood warbler, garden warbler,
+redstart, and others. It would almost seem as if some of
+these species had not found their way thither since the
+re-peopling of the land by its present fauna, but were in
+gradual process of doing so, for there is no doubt that
+many birds rare or unknown in the Duchy half a century
+ago are now not uncommon, and appear to be steadily
+moving westward. That the starling is doing so is
+perhaps not remarkable, for this bird has enormously
+increased in numbers of late years and has spread everywhere,
+even up into northern Scotland, but it is curious
+that birds like the stock-dove and all the woodpeckers
+and other non-gregarious sorts should show this tendency.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus12.jpg" alt="In a Cornish Garden" /><a name="illus12" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">In a Cornish Garden</p>
+
+<p>Next, Cornwall is from its position constantly exposed
+to high winds, and to heavy gales in winter, combined
+with an unusually heavy rainfall and an "insular" climate
+tending to warmth and equableness. These factors, added
+to the granitic formation of much of its area, have made
+it a country of bleak moorland varied with thickly-wooded
+deep valleys&mdash;dampness being the leading characteristic of
+both. With such physical conditions, then, we should
+<span class="pagenum">[29]</span>
+expect to find the Duchy not very varied in its native
+trees, perhaps, but particularly abundant in ferns, and
+this is the case, for 39 species are recorded, while lichens
+are not less rich. It bears in many ways a resemblance
+to the climate of Portugal, for here the camellia flourishes
+and displays its beautiful flowers to perfection, and the tea
+plant does so well that there seems no reason why it
+should not be grown for profit. It is not a land of
+warblers, nor can it show the rich and varied wildfowl
+fauna of the Fenlands, but there is no county in England
+where, in the marshy glens, woodcocks are more abundant.
+The moorlands, too, abound in snipe, and at one time
+blackgame were common, but the larger birds of prey
+<span class="pagenum">[30]</span>
+have for the most part vanished, though an occasional
+buzzard may be seen and the raven is not yet extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, it is to be noted that Cornwall is the nearest
+part of England to America. However difficult it may
+be of explanation, the fact remains that the Duchy is
+very rich in rare birds; so rich, indeed, that their recorded
+occurrence cannot by any possibility be merely accidental.
+Thus, no less than 24 species have occurred in Cornwall
+which have never been found in Devonshire. But more
+than this, a very large number of these&mdash;18 or more&mdash;are
+purely American species. The question is, whence
+do they come? Professor James Clark, who has discussed
+the point at some length in the <i>Victoria County History</i>,
+is, apparently, loth to believe that they can come directly
+across the Atlantic, and it is by many thought that they
+are driven back by heavy south-westerly weather when
+dropping down the English Channel, having come by a
+circuitous route from Northern Europe. But against this
+is the undeniable fact that it is in the immediate neighbourhood
+of the Land's End that the chief rarities and
+stragglers are obtained, while many species have been
+shot in the Scilly Islands which have never been recorded
+from Cornwall itself.</p>
+
+<p>So far as its botany is concerned, Cornwall does not
+differ very markedly from Devonshire, but it has a large
+number of rare or peculiar plants. The highlands and
+north coast are rather poor in species; it is on the banks
+and estuaries of the streams that the richest flora is seen.
+A number of foreign plants are found, mostly in the
+neighbourhood of Falmouth and other ports. The balsam,
+<span class="pagenum">[31]</span>
+<i>Impatiens Roylei</i>, from India, grows extremely abundantly
+between Liskeard and Looe, and near Tintagel, and a
+species of May-weed (<i>Matricaria discoidea</i>) has become
+a troublesome pest near Falmouth. Loe Pool in the
+Lizard district is noticeable for the number of rare and
+local plants it possesses. The Scilly Islands own certain
+plants peculiar to them; thus, <i>Trifolium repens</i>, var.
+<i>Townsendi</i> and <i>Ornithopus ebracteatus</i> are said not to be
+found elsewhere in England, and <i>Carex ligerica</i> only in
+Norfolk.</p>
+
+<p>The chief feature of the mammals of the county is
+that the grey seal, <i>Halichaerus gryphus</i>, is quite numerous
+in the Scilly Islands; that the polecat, though nearly
+extinct, is still found; and that both badgers and otters
+are very abundant. It is a curious fact that certain
+freshwater fish common in other parts of England, such
+as pike, roach, chub, and bream, are unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The bird which bears the distinctive appellation, the
+Cornish chough (it is not confined to the county, but is
+also found in Wales), is now not nearly as common as
+formerly, but like the raven it still breeds on some parts
+of the coast.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap8" id="chap8"></a>8. Around the Coast. From Morwenstow to Land's End.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus13.jpg" alt="Bude Breakwater" /><a name="illus13" title=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">Bude Breakwater</p>
+
+<p>This noble coast&mdash;so terrible to sailors&mdash;begins with
+the fine Henna Cliff at Morwenstow. Morwenstow
+Church contains an early font and has fine Norman arches.
+<span class="pagenum">[32]</span>
+Here is Tonacombe, an interesting early Tudor house
+quite unspoiled. At Morwenstow lived the Rev. Robert
+Hawker, a poet and character. Bude Haven is a growing
+seaside place, with golf-links and tolerable bathing.
+Stratton, of which parish it actually forms or did form
+a part, has a fine well-cared for church, and above the town
+is Stamford Hill, where was fought a battle in the Civil
+War, on May 16, 1643. Sir Bevil Grenville and Hopton
+commanded the Royalist Army, and the Earl of Stamford
+the Parliamentarians. The latter were defeated with the
+loss of 300 men killed and 1700 taken prisoners. One of
+the old guns marks the site, and an inscription in commemoration
+of the battle is affixed to the Tree Inn.
+Widemouth Bay has good sands and promises at some
+<span class="pagenum">[33]</span>
+future day to become a sea-bathing place superior to Bude.
+At Dazard the cliffs are fine; at St Gennys is Crackington
+Cove with a small beach. Beyond this, High Cliff (705 ft.)
+is reached, the loftiest headland on the coast. The coast
+is magnificent to Boscastle. Near this is Pentargon, a
+beautiful bay into which a little stream leaps in a waterfall.
+Boscastle is a narrow creek into which only in calm
+weather can small vessels enter. It is sheltered by a
+headland in which is a blow-hole. In a lovely valley is
+the towerless church of Minster. In caves about Willapark
+seals breed. From hence to Tintagel the cliffs are
+of slate and are quarried, the slate being let down into
+boats in the water, when weather permits. Before reaching
+Tintagel we come to St Neighton's (Nectan's) Kieve,
+a small waterfall in a glen, where maidenhair fern
+once abounded.</p>
+
+<p>Tintagel village is separated from the church by a
+deep glen. The church is on a windy height, and is
+interesting for its antiquity. Tintagel castle stands on a
+headland, once an island, but the cliff and a portion of
+the castle have fallen into the narrow gulf and choked it.
+The sea has bored a tunnel through the headland, and very
+little of the castle remains. The walls were of the local
+slate-stone set in mortar made of sea-shells. In this castle,
+traditionally, King Arthur was born. There are slate
+quarries in the neighbourhood, and further inland are the
+Delabole quarries, from which slate is conveyed to all
+parts of England.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus14.jpg" alt="King Arthur's Castle, Tintagel" /><a name="illus14" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">King Arthur's Castle, Tintagel</p>
+
+<p>The small Trebarwith Cove is passed and then we
+reach Port Isaac Bay, which takes its name, not from the
+<span class="pagenum">[34]</span>
+patriarch, but from a Cornish word that signifies a port
+for corn.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus15.jpg" alt="Bodruthan Steps" /><a name="illus15" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Bodruthan Steps</p>
+
+<p>Porthqueen has its pilchard cellars cut out of the rocks;
+and at the western end of its bay Pentire Head stands out
+boldly into the Atlantic with a cliff castle at its extreme
+point. Pentire to some extent shelters Padstow Bay, but
+the entrance to the harbour is made dangerous by the
+Doom Bar lying across it. Here the rounded, sand-powdered
+<span class="pagenum">[35]</span>
+Bray Hill is supposed to have buried under the
+drift sand the remains of a Roman town, but that there
+was such a Roman settlement is very doubtful. Further
+inland is the church of St Enodoc recently dug out of the
+sand, and the path to the porch has singular "Lord's
+Measures" that have been collected and are here planted.
+They were measures for grain. Of Padstow something
+shall be said elsewhere. Before reaching Trevose Head
+is Harlyn Bay, where from under the sand has been dug
+out a cemetery of the iron age, the skeletons crouching
+with their chins to their knees, in slate kists or coffins, with
+bronze ornaments, glass and amber beads, and iron instruments.
+<span class="pagenum">[36]</span>
+Here also by the falling of the earth or sand some
+gold ornaments of the Celtic period were laid bare. On
+Trevose Head is a lighthouse. In Constantine Bay are
+the remains of a church half buried in sand, and with
+bones strewn about it. The font from this abandoned
+church has been transferred to St Merryn. It is of black
+Catacluse stone, as are the piers and arches of the church,
+giving it a sombre look. Passing the little Porthcothan we
+come to the noble cliffs of Bodruthan Steps, perhaps the
+finest bit of the north-coast scenery, and then reach
+<span class="pagenum">[37]</span>
+Mawgan Porth, the estuary of the tiny stream that waters
+the vale of Lanherne. Here is the ancient mansion of
+the Arundells, dating from 1580, granted by Lord Arundell
+to Carmelite nuns, who came to England, at the outbreak
+of the French Revolution, in 1794. They have remained
+here ever since in seclusion. Near the door into their
+chapel is an old cross with inscription and interlaced work.
+The church has a beautifully proportioned tower, a good
+rood-screen, and many monuments of the Arundells, as
+well as a remarkable Gothic cross. A grove of Cornish
+elms like whips occupies the bottom of the valley. The
+church and parish are St Mawgan in Pyder.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus16.jpg" alt="Newquay Harbour" /><a name="illus16" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Newquay Harbour</p>
+
+<p>Newquay with its sands is a rapidly growing watering-place,
+with staring hotels. Crantock church, which once
+<span class="pagenum">[38]</span>
+had its canons, is interesting; it has been carefully restored
+and has a fine rood-screen and loft. On the stalls is
+carved a dove with a chip of wood in its beak, and the
+story goes that St Carantoc&mdash;who assisted St Patrick in
+drawing up the Senchus Môr, the code of laws for Christian
+Ireland&mdash;was guided to the site for his church by seeing a
+dove carry off the shavings of his staff which he was
+cutting. Perran Bay has sent its sands flying inland,
+causing a widespread extent of <i>towans</i> or dunes, which
+have overwhelmed first of all the old church of St Piran
+or Cieran of Saighir in Ireland, who was buried in it, and
+then a second church built further inland, which also in
+turn had to be abandoned. These sand-dunes are a rabbit
+warren. The old church of St Piran, extremely rude in
+construction, has been excavated, but the only carved work
+found has been removed to the museum at Truro. The
+church resembles one of the early Christian chapels in
+Ireland. Bones are scattered about around it.</p>
+
+<p>St Agnes&mdash;or St Aun's Head as it is locally termed&mdash;is
+but 617 ft. high, but it stands boldly above the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Portreath is a busy little place to which coal-barges
+come from Cardiff with coal for the Camborne and Redruth
+mines. Tehidy Park, which stands above it, is an old
+seat of the Bassets. After passing Navax Point the broad
+Bay of St Ives opens out, with a lighthouse at each horn,
+and here again begin the towans or sand-dunes. Hayle is
+at the mouth of a small stream of the same name, and
+signifies "saltings." We come now to the town of
+St Ives, with an interesting church and an old cross.
+St Ives till about 1410 was but a tiny fishing village and
+<span class="pagenum">[39]</span>
+was in the parish of Lelant. Perkin Warbeck landed
+near here in 1497.</p>
+
+<p>Near this is the Knill monument erected in 1782 by
+the eccentric John Knill, who left money for an annual
+procession to it, and a dance of children around it. He
+intended it to have been his mausoleum, but he died and
+was buried in London.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus17.jpg" alt="The Wharf, St Ives" /><a name="illus17" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Wharf, St Ives</p>
+
+
+<p>Zennor has a curious little church with carved bench
+ends, on one of which is represented a mermaid, and Zennor
+"quoit" is thought to be the largest cromlech in England.</p>
+
+<p>The Gurnard's Head has sheer cliffs on east and west,
+composed of slaty felspar, horneblende and greenstone,
+whereas the rocks of Zennor are of granite and slate in
+juxtaposition, and with dykes of granite penetrating the
+slate. Hills of rock and heather and furze bend round in
+<span class="pagenum">[40]</span>
+a crescent terminating on one side at Carnminnis, on the
+other at Carn Galva, enclosing a great basin that reaches
+to the cliffs. On the isthmus connecting the headland
+with the mainland is a ruined chapel, with the altar-stone
+entire. Three miles westward is Morvah with the interesting
+Chûn Castle above it, of rude stone forming three
+concentric rings, and not far off is Chûn cromlech.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to Botallack with its famous mine,
+carried to a depth of a thousand feet and extending a
+considerable distance under the sea. In time of storm the
+booming of the waves overhead and the clashing of stones
+rolled by the billows is so great that the bravest miners
+are driven from their work. Tin mining is now but
+languidly carried on. Although the heights are not great,
+yet this portion of coast is remarkably fine.</p>
+
+<p>Cape Cornwall exhibits the junction of the slate with
+the granite. Here also extensive mining has been carried
+on, and Boswedden, like Botallack, burrowed far under
+the sea. Near the church of St Just is one of the circles
+or amphitheatres in which miracle plays were performed.
+The "Merry Maidens" is a prehistoric stone circle in the
+neighbourhood with ten stones erect and five fallen.</p>
+
+<p>Whitesand Bay enjoys some slight shelter from the
+S. and E. winds. It is said that this bay was the landing-place
+of Athelstan after his conquest of Scilly, of King
+Stephen in 1135, and of King John when he returned
+from Ireland. In Sennen Cove is a cluster of fishermen's
+cottages.</p>
+
+<p>Land's End is the end of Penwith, the "chief headland,"
+and the Bolerium of the ancients. It commands
+<span class="pagenum">[41]</span>
+a magnificent view, extending to Cape Cornwall over
+Whitesand Bay, of the Longships rocks with their lighthouse,
+and in clear weather of the Scilly Isles. The Wolf
+lighthouse is planted on a dangerous rock of felspathic
+porphyry some eight miles S.W. from the shore. The
+Land's End bristles with sharp fangs of rock, and somewhat
+resembles the back of an alligator.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus18.jpg" alt="Land's End" /><a name="illus18" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Land's End</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap9" id="chap9"></a>9. Around the Coast. From Land's End to Rame Head.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The south coast-line of Cornwall presents a great
+contrast to that of the north, except for the portion from
+the Land's End to Mounts Bay and the Lizard. We
+<span class="pagenum">[42]</span>
+have no more the wind-swept background of heights,
+barren and often tortured by miners, turned into a waste
+of heaps of rubble and studded with ruined engine-houses.
+We find instead a gentler sea-board, pierced by long
+estuaries, and with valleys of rich vegetation running down
+to the sea. We speedily leave the granite and the culm
+measures, and are among the rocks of the Devonian series,
+less stern and forbidding in colour. In St Levan parish
+at Trereen Point is the Logan Rock, a block of granite
+weighing over 65 tons, once so nicely balanced that it
+could be made to rock by the finger of a child. In 1874
+a young naval officer, with the assistance of a boat's crew,
+upset it. This raised a storm of indignation in Cornwall,
+and the Admiralty ordered him to replace it, which he
+did, at great expense.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus19.jpg" alt="Newlyn Pier" /><a name="illus19" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Newlyn Pier</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[43]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<p>Mousehole is a village of fishermen and boatmen, and
+was the residence of Dolly Pentreath, the last person in
+Cornwall who spoke the Cornish language, as also of
+some of the unfortunate sailors who joined Captain Allan
+Gardner in 1850 in his ill-fated missionary expedition to
+South America. All the members of the mission died of
+starvation in Tierra del Fuego.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus20.jpg" alt="St Michael's Mount" /><a name="illus20" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">St Michael's Mount</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[44]</span></p>
+
+
+<p>Newlyn has become noted as a place of residence of a
+school of artists. It is on the wide and beautiful Mounts
+Bay over against St Michael's Mount.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus21.jpg" alt="Kynance Cove and the Lizard" /><a name="illus21" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Kynance Cove and the Lizard</p>
+
+<p>Penzance ("the Holy Head") has become a great resort
+of residents for the winter, owing to the mildness of the
+climate. Marazion or Market Jew does not derive its
+name from "the Bitter Waters of Zion" as has been
+absurdly asserted; Marazion has the same significance as
+Market Jeu (i.e. Jeudi), Thursday Market. Here is a
+submerged forest. St Michael's Mount is a rock that rises
+out of the sands and can be reached, when the tide falls,
+by a causeway. It is incomparably inferior both in elevation
+and in the dignity of the buildings that crown it to
+the Mont St Michel in Normandy, but is nevertheless a
+<span class="pagenum">[45]</span>
+picturesque adjunct to the scene. Some writers suppose
+that it is the Ictis to which the natives conveyed the tin
+and trafficked with the Phoenicians, but it is totally unsuited
+by nature to serve as a market-site, and there is no certain
+evidence that the Phoenicians ever came to Cornwall.
+About Marazion daffodils, narcissus, and violets are
+cultivated largely for the London market. At Perran
+Uthnoe the cliffs again appear, and we reach Prussia
+<span class="pagenum">[46]</span>
+Cove, once the haunt of smugglers. Inland, Godolphin
+and Tregonning's granite hills are conspicuous, and near
+the coast is Pergersick Castle, a picturesque ruin of which
+strange legends are told. Porthleven is a small fishing
+village, where the people live on the annual arrival of
+the pilchards. Loe Pool is a beautiful sheet of water
+cut off from the sea by a bar of sand. It was when
+standing on this bar, and watching the wreck of a vessel
+close in shore when those on the land were unable to
+communicate with it, that Henry Trengrouse conceived
+the idea of a rocket apparatus, to be not only employed
+on land, but also to be carried by every ship. He, of
+course, met with opposition from the Board of Trade and
+the Government, and he spent his life and his fortune in
+experiments, and in endeavours to push his apparatus.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus22.jpg" alt="Mullion Cove" /><a name="illus22" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Mullion Cove</p>
+
+<p>We now reach the superb serpentine cliffs of the Lizard
+with the beautiful coves of Polurrian, Mullion, and
+Kynance. At Lizard Point is one of the most famous
+of all lighthouses, the departure-point or landfall of
+thousands of ships in the course of the year. The
+peninsula of the Lizard is interesting, though the land
+does not rise much above 300 ft., and is monotonous
+moorland. All its charm is in its coast-line. The terrible
+Manacles rocks have been the scene of many a wreck.
+Helford river is a creek running up to Gweek in one arm
+and nearly to Constantine in another. We now reach
+Falmouth Bay, into which opens the Carrick Road. A
+curious peninsula, Roseland, runs to Zoze Point, where
+there is a lighthouse. Portscatho is a small place at the
+opening of Gerrans Bay, of which the eastern horn is
+<span class="pagenum">[47]</span>
+Nare Point. Carn Beacon is traditionally held to have
+been the burial-place of Geraint, King of Devon and
+Cornwall. There were more than one of this name.
+The cairn has been opened and was found to contain a
+stone cist of the bronze period, and not, as tradition said,
+his golden boat with silver oars. Veryan Bay between
+Nare Point and the Dodman has in it no good harbour.
+Dodman stands nearly 380 ft. above the sea.
+<span class="pagenum">[48]</span></p>
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus23.jpg" alt="Falmouth, from Flushing" /><a name="illus23" title=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">Falmouth, from Flushing</p>
+
+<p>Mevagissey Bay is a shallow hollow between Chapel
+Point and Black Head, the latter crowned by one of the
+cliff castles found on almost every headland. Then comes
+St Austell Bay with that of Tywardreath opening out of
+it. Charlestown has latterly become of importance, as
+from thence much china-clay is shipped.
+<span class="pagenum">[49]</span></p>
+
+<p>We reach now the narrow estuary of the Fowey river,
+with Fowey town consisting of one narrow street beside
+the tidal creek, and with Polruan on the further shore.
+The coast now becomes very bold, and Polperro, five miles
+beyond, was once a notorious haunt of smugglers.</p>
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus24.jpg" alt="Polperro" /><a name="illus24" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Polperro</p>
+
+<p>At Looe, the two rivers bearing the same name fall
+into a bay, and seaward stands up Looe Island, crowned
+by the ruins of a chapel. This island was also a haunt of
+smugglers, and it was found necessary to establish a coastguard
+station on it to keep them in control. East Looe
+and West Looe each sent two members to Parliament
+before the passing of the Reform Bill.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus25.jpg" alt="Looe" /><a name="illus25" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Looe</p>
+
+<p>Between Looe and Rame Head is Whitesand Bay,
+so called from the whiteness of the sand. The quicksands
+<span class="pagenum">[50]</span>
+have made it dangerous for bathers, but the cliff scenery is
+beautiful and romantic. There is a tiny watering-place at
+its western end, Downderry. At Tregantle is the most important
+of the western defences of Plymouth. A peninsula
+is formed by the Lynher river which discharges into the
+Hamoaze, and the neck of land between it and the sea is
+about two miles in breadth. Tregantle stands 400 ft. above
+the sea and commands every approach to Plymouth Sound.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[51]</span></p>
+
+<p>Rame Head projects into the sea from Maker Heights
+and is the termination of a range of cliffs from Looe,
+and from hence a fine view can be had of the Cornish
+coast as far as the Lizard.</p>
+
+<p>On the east of Penlee Point is Cawsand Bay, once
+infested with smugglers, sheltered by Rame Head from
+westerly gales. A rock with a cave in it and a white
+incrustation is regarded here with some superstitious
+reverence, and fishermen throw a few pilchards or herrings
+to it as an oblation when returning from fishing.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap10" id="chap10"></a>10. The Coast&mdash;Gains and Losses.</h2>
+
+
+<p>At a vastly remote period a valley lay between
+Britain and Gaul&mdash;before ever they were Britain and
+Gaul&mdash;and through this well-wooded valley flowed a
+river. The coast-line of Britain then lay from one to two
+hundred miles to the west, where is now the great drop
+in the ocean depths from 100 fathoms to 300 or 400.
+Cornwall was a Mesopotamia, a land between two almost
+parallel rivers, one occupying the bottom of what is now
+<span class="pagenum">[52]</span>
+the English Channel, the other being the Severn. At
+that time the Bristol Channel was another great valley.
+From Brown Willy to the Scilly Isles ran a lofty mountain
+range, towering into the sky, of which the present Bodmin
+moors, Carn Brea, Carn Marth, Tregonning Hill, etc.,
+are but the abraded stumps. Not only were they much
+higher, but their present roots stood 300 ft. higher than at
+present.</p>
+
+<p>Then ensued a sinking of the land, and the Atlantic
+flowed into the valley to the south and joined the North
+Sea; and at the same time the Bristol Channel was formed.
+Thus the present coast was approximately outlined.</p>
+
+<p>At some period shortly after, a vast inundation swept
+over the land from the north, and carried down the
+degraded granite, depositing the tin beds in the hollows.
+As early as 1830, Mr Carne noted: "The peculiar
+situation in which nearly all the stream tin of Cornwall
+is found is highly illustrative of the direction in which
+the current of the deluge swept over the surface. All the
+productive streams are in the valleys which open to the
+sea on the southern side of the Cornish peninsula; whilst
+most of the richest veins are situated near the northern
+coast."</p>
+
+<p>The deposit of tin stone, or tin ground, lies directly
+on the <i>shelf</i>, or primitive surface of rock, and is carried
+far out in the estuaries, and overlaid by marine deposits.</p>
+
+<p>In 1828, in Carnon Creek, a cairn was discovered
+16 to 18 ft. below the surface, and that surface 4 to 5 ft.
+below low water mark. In it was a crouched skeleton.
+This shows that there must have been a subsidence of the
+<span class="pagenum">[53]</span>
+land of something like 30 ft. at least since the period
+when man in the late stone or early bronze age inhabited
+Cornwall.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine forests grew on the top of the tin
+ground. Of these many have been noted and recorded,
+not only on the south coast, but on the north as well.
+The trees were oak and hazel, alder and elm, but they
+never reached a large size.</p>
+
+<p>Above this bed lie the raised beaches, some 40 or 50 ft.
+above high water mark. The tin-beds in the Cornish
+valleys towards the sea do not exhibit such an upheaval.
+Generally the raised beach rests on the original rock, and
+consists of rolled stones, frequently of large size, mixed
+with smaller gravel and sand. The "Head of Rubble,"
+with some intervening perplexing beds of sand, may be
+noticed on the coast. This Head is from 40 to 50 ft. in
+depth. It is composed of angular fragments of rock, often
+large, many of quartz, with no signs of stratification.
+The Rubble bed in Cornwall has yielded no organic
+remains, but elsewhere in it have been found the bones of
+the mammoth, elephant, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, etc.
+It was not formed by the disintegration of the subjacent
+rocks, but by aqueous transport. It owes its origin to a
+powerful force of water, acting violently and rapidly. It
+caps the heights, and is not in the valleys where the tin
+ground has been deposited. It has not therefore been
+found to overlie it. It was due to a sudden and brief
+overrush of water, and the fragments of stone carried
+before the flood did not travel sufficiently far to have
+their angles rubbed down.
+<span class="pagenum">[54]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus26.jpg" alt="Perranporth Rocks" /><a name="illus26" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Perranporth Rocks</p>
+
+<p>As may well be supposed, the action of the sea on the
+coast-line has been affected largely by the character of the
+rocks against which the waves have lashed themselves to
+foam. Where the rocks are of granite or slate, the tide
+and the waves have very little effect upon the outline of
+the coast; it is in those places where the softer rocks
+<span class="pagenum">[55]</span>
+prevail, and where exposure to the prevalent wind induces
+breakers of great volume, that the loss of land by the
+action of the sea is greatest. In fact, the tides rarely run
+beyond one or two miles per hour, except round headlands,
+and it is where the rocks are of a yielding character that
+the coves and bays are formed. This is not always the
+case. Where the sea has found a fault in the rock it will
+burrow incessantly till it has bored out for itself a cavern,
+and the head of this falling in produces a tiny cove. The
+hard quartzose and trap rocks of Trevose Head, the
+greenstone rocks of Pentire, near Padstow, the hard slates
+of St Agnes, the greenstone and hardened schist of the
+Gurnard's Head, and the granite of the Land's End, defy
+the action of wave and tide. But it is otherwise where,
+for instance, the Head of Rubble occurs. "In Gerrans
+Bay it is plain that the cliffs of Head were at one time
+much further out than they are now. The tops of the
+earthy cliffs are split with cracks and miniature chasms,
+showing that great masses are constantly being detached
+by atmospheric causes, while the great heaps of earth at
+the foot of the cliffs show how for centuries masses of
+earth have rolled down from their tops on to the beach
+below<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>." As to the kingdom of Lyonesse, which was supposed
+to extend from the Land's End to beyond Scilly, it
+never existed in the historic or prehistoric period. Another
+fable that may be dismissed, is that St Michael's Mount
+was surrounded by a vast tract of woodland, in which
+were villages, and where settled hermits. It did rise
+<span class="pagenum">[56]</span>
+above a forest, but that was in a prehistoric period. But
+if the sea gains on the land but imperceptibly in one way,
+it gains in another on the north coast, by the action of the
+wind carrying the sand inland, and overwhelming field
+after field. It is not a little curious to mark, nevertheless,
+how a small dribble of a stream will arrest the onward
+march of the sand-dunes.</p>
+
+<p>At Constantine by Padstow as already said the old
+church is enveloped in sand-hills, so is that of St Enodoc.
+The Perran Sands have so encroached that they extend
+over a mile and a half inland and have in process of time
+swallowed up two churches and a village. The Gear
+Sands have even climbed a hill to the height of 300 ft.
+The Godrevy, Upton and Phillack towans have moved
+inland from St Ives' Bay and engulfed the residence of
+the ancient kings of Cornwall at Riviere.</p>
+
+<p>The same phenomenon has not taken place in the
+south, but there the estuaries have been silted up by the
+wash from the stream tin works. Formerly boats could
+come up to Tregony. Now the Fal is choked with
+detritus for miles down. Restronguet creek bore vessels
+to Perranarworthal. Now it is completely silted up, only
+a trickle of water running down through desolate morasses
+and flats resulting from the workings of the miners.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> D.C. Whitley, "The Head of Rubble,"
+in <i>Journal of the R. Inst. of Cornwall</i>, XVII. p. 67.</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap11" id="chap11"></a>11. The Coast&mdash;Tides, Islands, and Lighthouses.</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[57]</span></p>
+
+<p>Off the mouth of the English Channel the tidal-stream
+is materially influenced by the indraft and outset of
+the channel, and is found to run northward and eastward
+with a falling tide at Dover, and southward and westward
+with a rising tide at that place. At spring tides the tide
+rises in Padstow Bay 22 ft., at Bude a foot higher, at the
+Lizard only 14&frac12; ft., at Scilly 16 ft. Nowhere on the
+Cornish coast is there the enormous rise seen at St Malo,
+where ordinary tides rise from 23 to 26 ft., and spring tides
+48 ft. above low-water mark.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the varying force with which the
+channel and spring tides blend south of the Scilly group
+the stream is incessantly altering, but north of this towards
+the Bristol Channel, the stream becomes more regular,
+and while the water is ebbing at Dover, it sets northward
+turning sharply round Trevose Head into the Bristol
+Channel, and so when the tide is flowing at Dover, it is
+running with equal speed in ebb out of the channel and
+along the coast towards Scilly.
+<span class="pagenum">[58]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus27.jpg" alt="Round Island, Scilly" /><a name="illus27" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Round Island, Scilly</p>
+
+<p>The Scilly Isles are the sole group of any importance
+around the coast. They are situated 40 miles due west
+from the Lizard Point and 25 west-south-west from the
+Land's End, and are reached by steamers from Penzance.
+There are now but five of the isles inhabited, St Mary's,
+Tresco, St Agnes, St Martin's, and Bryher. Formerly
+Sampson was also inhabited, but the inhabitants were
+<span class="pagenum">[59]</span>
+removed to St Mary's. The total acreage of the islands
+is 3560; and the formation is granite. This group is in
+fact the rubbed-down stump of the last great peak of the
+chain running south-west from Bodmin moors. The
+heights in the islands are inconsiderable, but very bold and
+picturesque scenery is obtained among the many islets,
+each of which has its special character. At St Mary's is
+a pier built in 1835-8; and a harbour called the Pool for
+small craft, while further out between the islands is a good
+roadstead for large vessels. The Scilly Isles were noted
+as a resting-place for innumerable birds, some very rare, in
+their annual migrations, but of late years gun-practice at
+sea marks has scared a good many away, and they visit the
+islands in far fewer numbers than formerly.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus28.jpg" alt="The Longships Lighthouse" /><a name="illus28" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Longships Lighthouse</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[60]</span></p>
+
+<p>The coast of Cornwall is remarkably free of shoals.
+The only dangerous sandbank is the Doom Bar at the
+mouth of the Bay of Padstow; but there are shallows in
+Mounts Bay and other places.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus29.jpg" alt="Eddystone Lighthouse" /><a name="illus29" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Eddystone Lighthouse</p>
+
+<p>Trinity House, the first general lighthouse and pilotage
+authority in the kingdom, was composed of a body of
+merchants and seamen founded in 1519 by Sir Thomas
+Speet, controller of the navy, when it was granted a
+<span class="pagenum">[61]</span>
+charter by Henry VIII. Since that period the duty of
+erecting and maintaining lighthouses and other sea-marks
+has been entrusted to the Corporation by Royal Charter
+and Acts of Parliament. Trinity House maintains ten
+lighthouses about the coast of Cornwall, of which the
+most important, besides those of the Scilly Isles, are the
+Longships, white and red occulting; the Wolf rock, white
+and red group flash; the Lizard, white flash; the Eddystone,
+white flash.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap12" id="chap12"></a>12. Climate&mdash;Rainfall.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The climate of a country or district is, briefly, the
+average weather of that country or district, and it depends
+upon various factors, all mutually interacting&mdash;upon the
+latitude, the temperature, the direction and strength of
+the winds, the rainfall, the character of the soil, and the
+proximity of the district to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The differences in the climates of the world depend
+mainly upon latitude, but a scarcely less important
+factor is this proximity to the sea. Along any great
+climatic zone there will be found variations in proportion
+to this proximity, the extremes being "continental"
+climates in the centres of continents far from the oceans,
+and "insular" climates in small tracts surrounded by sea.
+Continental climates show great differences in seasonal
+temperatures, the winters tending to be unusually cold
+and the summers unusually warm, while the climate of
+insular tracts is characterised by equableness and also by
+<span class="pagenum">[62]</span>
+greater dampness. Great Britain possesses, by reason of
+its position, a temperate insular climate, but its average
+annual temperature is much higher than could be expected
+from its latitude. The prevalent south-westerly winds
+cause a drift of the surface-waters of the Atlantic towards
+our shores, and this warm water current, which we know
+as the Gulf Stream, is the chief cause of the mildness of
+our winters.</p>
+
+<p>Most of our weather comes to us from the Atlantic.
+It would be impossible here within the limits of a short
+chapter to discuss fully the causes which affect or control
+weather changes. It must suffice to say that the conditions
+are in the main either cyclonic or anticyclonic, which
+terms may be best explained, perhaps, by comparing the
+air currents to a stream of water. In a stream a chain
+of eddies may often be seen fringing the more steadily-moving
+central water. Regarding the general northeasterly
+moving air from the Atlantic as such a stream, a
+chain of eddies may be developed in a belt parallel with
+its general direction. This belt of eddies or cyclones, as
+they are termed, tends to shift its position, sometimes
+passing over our islands, sometimes to the north or south
+of them, and it is to this shifting that most of our weather
+changes are due. Cyclonic conditions are associated with
+a greater or less amount of atmospheric disturbance;
+anticyclonic with calms.</p>
+
+<p>The prevalent Atlantic winds largely affect our island
+in another way, namely in its rainfall. The air, heavily
+laden with moisture from its passage over the ocean,
+meets with elevated land-tracts directly it reaches our
+<span class="pagenum">[63</span>
+shores&mdash;the moorland of Devon and Cornwall, the Welsh
+mountains, or the fells of Cumberland and Westmorland&mdash;and
+blowing up the rising land-surface, parts with this
+moisture as rain. To how great an extent this occurs is
+best seen by reference to the accompanying map of the
+annual rainfall of England, where it will at once be
+noticed that the heaviest fall is in the west, and that it
+decreases with remarkable regularity until the least fall
+is reached on our eastern shores. Thus in 1906, the
+maximum rainfall for the year occurred at Glaslyn in the
+Snowdon district, where 205 inches of rain fell; and the
+lowest was at Boyton in Suffolk, with a record of just
+under 20 inches. These western highlands, therefore,
+may not inaptly be compared to an umbrella, sheltering
+the country further eastward from the rain.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/map3.jpg" alt="Annual Rainfall" /><a name="map3" title=""></a></p>
+
+<p>The above causes, then, are those mainly concerned
+<span class="pagenum">[64]</span>
+in influencing the weather, but there are other and more
+local factors which often affect greatly the climate of a
+place, such, for example, as configuration, position, and
+soil. The shelter of a range of hills, a southern aspect,
+a sandy soil, will thus produce conditions which may
+differ greatly from those of a place&mdash;perhaps at no great
+distance&mdash;situated on a wind-swept northern slope with
+a cold clay soil.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the climate of a country or district
+influences, as everyone knows, both the cultivation of the
+soil and the products which it yields, and thus indirectly
+as well as directly exercises a profound effect upon Man.
+The banana-nourished dweller in a tropical island who
+has but to tickle the earth with a hoe for it to laugh a
+<span class="pagenum">[65]</span>
+harvest is of different fibre morally and physically from
+the inhabitant of northern climes who wins a scanty
+subsistence from the land at the expense of unremitting
+toil. These are extremes; but even within the limits of
+a county, perhaps, similar if smaller differences may be
+noted, and the man of the plain or the valley is often
+distinct in type from his fellow of the hills.</p>
+
+<p>Very minute records of the climate of our island are
+kept at numerous stations throughout the country, relating
+to the temperature, rainfall, force and direction of the
+wind, hours of sunshine, cloud conditions, and so forth,
+and are duly collected, tabulated, and averaged by the
+Meteorological Society. From these we are able to
+compare and contrast the climatic conditions in various
+parts.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall, being so surrounded by the sea, and so
+peculiarly under the influence of the Gulf Stream, may
+be looked upon as possessing a local "insular" climate in
+a marked degree. The south-west wind almost invariably
+brings rain and warmth together, for the high cold granitic
+moorlands are naturally calculated to arrest these warm
+airs and chill them, causing thereby a downfall of the
+suspended water. But Cornwall does not enjoy the
+amount of sun heat to ripen fruit that is obtained on the
+east coast of England, and it is exposed to furious gales
+from the west. "The gale from the west," says Polwhele,
+"is here no gentle zephyr; instead of wafting perfume on
+its wings, it often brings devastation." On the north
+coast every tree that is exposed to it is dwarfed and
+bowed like a curling wave, and the foliage in spring is
+<span class="pagenum">[66]</span>
+often cut and browned by the salt spray. Even tombstones
+in the churchyards on the heights have to be backed up
+with masonry, and the churches are low, as if cowering
+from the blast. According to a Cornish proverb: "There
+falls a shower on every week day, and there are two on a
+Sunday." In Scilly, however, there is more sunshine and
+less rain than on the mainland. The myrtle, geranium,
+fuchsia, and hydrangea grow luxuriantly; the red geranium
+at Penzance will cover the front of a house, and palms and
+other exotics thrive there and at Falmouth. The fields of
+narcissus and daffodils cultivated for the market would be
+more beautiful if the blooms were not systematically picked
+before fully open, to be sent to London. No gardens in
+England exhibit such a wealth of exotics as those of Tresco,
+Carclew, Enys and Penjerrick, and some others in the
+district of the Fal estuary, which seems peculiarly favourable
+for the growth of sub-tropical species.</p>
+
+<p>In 1906, the mean temperature of England and Wales
+was 49·3° Fahr., while that of Cornwall was 51·2.
+The mean temperature of England in 1907 was 48·5, of
+Cornwall 50·6. But there exists a considerable difference
+between north and south. At Redruth it was in 1906,
+50·1, whereas at Truro it was nine degrees higher.</p>
+
+<p>The east wind prevails in October and is strong in
+March, the south-east in June, the south-west is felt in
+every month save April, but very little in December.
+The west wind is most prevalent in August, least so in
+May. The north wind predominates in December and
+July.</p>
+
+<p>The rainfall chart here given shows that Cornwall
+<span class="pagenum">[67]</span>
+lies for the most part in an area where from 40 to 60
+inches are annually recorded, though a strip of the north
+coast from St Ives to Padstow and again from Boscastle to
+the northern limit of the county shows a fall of less than
+40 inches. This is because the uplands have robbed the
+rainclouds of a considerable portion of their contents, and
+accordingly it is on these high moorlands that we find the
+greatest rainfall. Thus on the moors between Launceston
+and Bodmin from 60 to 80 inches fall, and even this latter
+figure is exceeded in the neighbourhood of Rough Tor
+and Brown Willy.</p>
+
+<p>From observations taken at the Royal Institution of
+Cornwall at Truro, from 1850 to 1881 it appears that the
+rainiest months are November and December, and next to
+them January and July; April and May are the least rainy.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap13" id="chap13"></a>13. People&mdash;Race, Dialect, Population.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The original population of Cornwall would seem to
+have been what is now commonly called Ivernian, the
+same as Iberian, the underlying race everywhere in
+Western Europe from the western isles of Scotland
+to Gibraltar. When the Romans invaded and conquered
+Spain, they found there already in the east the
+Celts and in the west the Iberians, and they designated
+the more or less fused population, Celtiberians. So in
+Cornwall, there was this dark-haired, dusky-skinned race,
+and the Brythons, Celts, of the people of the Dumnonii.
+There were extensive settlements by Irish in the Land's
+<span class="pagenum">[68]</span>
+End district, the Lizard, and along the north coast, in 490-510,
+owing to the expulsion of the Ossorians and the
+Bairrche from their lands in Ireland. The Saxon also
+crossed the Tamar and peaceably settled in East Cornwall.</p>
+
+<p>The language spoken was Brythonic, akin to, and
+originally identical with Welsh and that spoken in Lower
+Brittany. It was distinct in some points from the Goidelic
+of Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Highlands of Scotland.
+The main difference was that the <i>C</i> in the latter became
+<i>P</i> in the former. Thus <i>Ken</i> or <i>Cen</i> in such names as
+Kenmare and Ciaran would in Cornish become Penmare
+and Piran.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Edward I, Cornish was spoken in the
+south Hams of Devonshire, but in the sixteenth century
+it was dying out even in West Cornwall. Norden, writing
+in 1580, says: "Of late the Cornish men have much conformed
+themselves to the use of the English tongue, and
+their English is equal to the beste, especially in the eastern
+partes.... In the weste parte of the countrye, in the hundreds
+of Penwith and Kirrier, the Cornishe tongue is most
+in use amongste the inhabitants." At Menheniot about
+1540 the Creed and the Lord's Prayer were first taught
+the people in English. In 1678, at Landewednack, the
+last Cornish sermon on record was preached. In the
+reign of George III (1777) died Dolly Pentreath, the last
+to speak the language.</p>
+
+<p>Two modern Cornish dialects exist. That in the east
+very naturally is assimilated to the Devonshire; but in the
+west it has formed itself in comparatively recent times.
+The more common prefixes of names of places are:
+<span class="pagenum">[69]</span>&mdash;
+<i>Tre</i> an enclosure or homestead, <i>Lan</i> also an enclosure
+for a church, <i>Ty</i> a dwelling, <i>Bod</i> a habitation, <i>Chy</i> a house,
+<i>Pol</i> a pool, <i>Pen</i> a head, <i>Huel</i> or <i>Wheal</i> a mine, <i>Ros</i> a
+moor, <i>Men</i> a stone, <i>B[=a]l</i> a mine, <i>Bos</i> is a corruption of
+<i>Bod</i> and is sometimes reduced to <i>Bo</i>; <i>Car</i> stands for
+<i>Caer</i> a fortress; <i>Dun</i> has the same signification. <i>Burn</i>
+stands for <i>Bron</i> a hill, <i>Camborne</i> should be <i>Cambron</i>, the
+crooked hill; <i>Cara</i> is <i>Carreg</i> a rock, and this is often
+found cut down to <i>Car</i>; <i>Carn</i> is a cairn or heap of stones
+or mass of rock; <i>Enys</i> or <i>Innis</i> an island or peninsula.
+<i>Fenter</i> occurring in many combinations is <i>fenten</i> a well or
+spring; <i>Goon</i> is the Welsh <i>Waun</i> a grassy down; <i>Hal</i> is
+a moor, <i>Parc</i> an enclosure, <i>Dinas</i> a chieftain's castle, <i>Lis</i>
+a court of justice.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that certain river names may derive from
+the original tongue of the earliest race. Some seem to be
+more akin to Goidelic than Brythonic dialect, as <i>Fal</i>
+(Gaelic <i>foill</i>, slow), and <i>Fowey</i> (Gaelic <i>fobhaidh</i>, swift);
+but there are not sufficient of these to assure us that the
+Goidels preceded the Brythons in Cornwall.</p>
+
+<p>In East Cornwall there must have been a considerable
+influx of Saxon settlers, for there we light upon such
+names of places as are compounded with <i>ton</i> the home-farm,
+<i>worth</i> and <i>worthy</i> a fortified settlement, <i>stoke</i>, <i>stow</i>,
+<i>sto</i> a stockade, an earthwork surmounted by a defence of
+posts; <i>ham</i> a meadow by the waterside. In West Cornwall
+such names are few.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus30.jpg" alt="Miners: Camborne" /><a name="illus30" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Miners: Camborne</p>
+
+<p>The people are courteous and kindly, and very independent.
+In South Africa, whither many thousand miners
+have migrated, they are not popular, and are fain to
+<span class="pagenum">[70]</span>
+disguise whence they come by pretending to hail from
+Furness. The reason is that the Cornish cling together
+and do not care to associate with others, and that they
+lack that breadth of sympathy which makes men give up
+their time and devote their energies to the common good.
+The Cornish miner cares nothing for the country and for
+those among whom he has placed himself, if only in three
+<span class="pagenum">[71]</span>
+years he may have made enough money to return home
+to his wife and children. He does not go out to settle,
+and this explains the lack of interest he has in what
+interests and concerns the colony.</p>
+
+<p>The Cornish are a broad-shouldered race, above the
+average in stature, and it is stated that west country
+regiments, when drawn up on parade, cover a greater
+space of ground than would those of other counties, the
+numbers being equal.</p>
+
+<p>The census of 1901 gives as the population of the
+administrative county 322,334 persons, of whom 149,937
+were males and 172,397 were females. There had been
+an increase in the number of males since 1891, and a
+decrease in the number of females. Of inhabited houses
+there were 72,660. The population of Cornwall in 1801
+was 192,281, and it went on increasing steadily to 1861,
+but from that date it has been as steadily on the decrease.
+In military barracks there were 629 officers and men, in
+naval barracks 90, and on H.M. ships in home waters
+2053; in workhouses 1308, in prison 75.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 there were 21,335 marriages, 88,636 births,
+and 55,790 deaths. There were 6434 wives whose husbands
+were absent, either at sea or mining in South Africa
+or South America. In agriculture 23,671 were engaged, in
+fishing 3734, in mining 13,426; in building and carpentering
+9667. Of the 149,937 males enumerated in the
+county of Cornwall, 128,184 were natives of the county,
+8007 had come from Devonshire, and there were resident
+in Cornwall 976 foreigners. Of blind there were 447, of
+deaf and dumb 163, of lunatics 798, of imbeciles 516.
+<span class="pagenum">[72]</span></p>
+
+<p>Whereas the number of people to the square mile in
+England is 558, that in Cornwall is only 230.</p>
+
+<p>It must, however, be born in mind that the Administrative
+County and the Geographical County are not
+coextensive. Thus, parts of the Registration County of
+Cornwall are in the Administrative County of Devon,
+such are Broadwood Widger, Northcott, North Petherwin,
+St Giles in the Heath, Virginstow and Werrington, with
+a total population of 2460 persons; and on the other
+hand parts of the Administrative County of Cornwall are
+in the Registration County of Devon; these are Calstock
+and North Tamerton with a population of 6203 persons.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the population and acreage in 1901 in the
+Registration County would be, population 318,591, acreage
+886,384, but in the Geographical or Administrative County
+the population would be in the same year 322,334 and
+the acreage 868,208.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap14" id="chap14"></a>14. Agriculture&mdash;Main Cultivations. Stock.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The lack of hot sunshine makes Cornwall an unsuitable
+county for cereals, but the mildness of the climate
+and the rainfall render it on the other hand favourable for
+dairy produce and for stock.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus31.jpg" alt="First and Last House" /><a name="illus31" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">"First and Last House", Land's End</p>
+
+<p>A recent writer, Mr W.H. Hudson, in his book on
+the Land's End, thus describes a Cornish farm. He speaks
+of the neighbourhood of Penrith, but the description applies
+to many other parts of the Duchy, though not to East
+Cornwall, where it is scarcely applicable at all, and is
+<span class="pagenum">[73]</span>
+precisely the part where there exists least of the Celtic and
+most of the English element. "Life on these small farms
+is incredibly rough. One may guess what it is like from
+the outward aspect of such places. Each, it is true, has its
+own individual character, but they are all pretty much
+alike in their dreary, naked, and almost squalid appearance.
+Each, too, has its own ancient Cornish name, some of them
+very fine and pretty, but you are tempted to rename them
+in your own mind Desolation Farm, Dreary Farm, Stony
+Farm, etc. The farmhouse is a small, low place, and
+invariably built of granite, with no garden, or bush, or
+flower about it. The one I stayed at was a couple of
+centuries old, but no one had ever thought of growing
+anything, even a marigold, to soften its bare, harsh aspect.
+<span class="pagenum">[74]</span>
+The house itself could hardly be distinguished from the
+outhouses clustered around it. Several times on coming
+back to the house in a hurry, and not exercising proper
+care, I found I had made for a wrong door, and got into
+the cow-house or pig-house, or a shed of some sort, instead
+of into the human habitation. The pigs and fowls did
+not come in, but were otherwise free to go where they
+liked. The rooms were very low; my hair, when I stood
+erect, just brushed the beams; but the living room or
+kitchen was spacious for so small a house, and had the
+wide old open fireplace still so common in this part of
+the country. Any other form of fireplace would not be
+suitable where the fuel consists of furze and turf."</p>
+
+<p>But it must be allowed that the large landed proprietors
+have everywhere built commodious, though almost
+invariably ugly, new farmhouses.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the vast extent of grass land there is in
+Cornwall, and the amount of butter, cream, and milk
+derived therefrom, it has become more and more clear to
+thinking farmers that the pasture is becoming exhausted, its
+feeding powers worn out, and that they must replenish the
+soil with the lime and phosphates that have been taken
+out of it to nourish and rear the cattle. The consequence
+is, that of late years the more intelligent farmers are
+largely employing artificial, i.e. chemical manures, and
+the results have been most satisfactory. You cannot eat
+your cake and have it. If you take so much annually
+out of the ground you must put in an equivalent annually,
+or you exhaust the soil; and animal manure is
+not sufficient. In the country a great deal of turf and
+<span class="pagenum">[75]</span>
+furze is burnt, where there is proximity to the moors.
+The writer just quoted says: "in some parts of Cornwall
+they have good peat, called 'pudding turves,' which
+makes a hot and comparatively lasting fire. In the
+Land's End district they have only the turf taken from
+the surface, which makes the poorest of all fires, but it
+has to serve. But to make a blaze and get any warmth
+furze was burnt. In a few moments the dry stuff would
+ignite and burn with a tremendous hissing and crackling,
+the flames springing up to a height of seven or eight feet
+in the vast hollow chimney. For a minute or two the
+whole big room would be almost too hot, and lit up as
+by a flash of lightning. Then the roaring flames would
+sink and vanish, leaving nothing but a bed of grey ashes,
+jewelled with innumerable crimson and yellow sparks,
+rapidly diminishing."</p>
+
+<p>The total acreage under crops and grass in 1908 was
+608,691; of these 356,497 acres were arable land, the
+rest, 252,194 acres, permanent grass: 17,120 acres grew
+wheat, 30,696 barley, and 66,033 oats; 4441 acres grew
+potatoes, 15,271 turnips and swedes, 11,528 mangold,
+8059 rape, and 1658 small fruit. Of small fruit culture
+just over 621 acres were devoted to strawberries, nearly 276
+to raspberries and nearly 553 to currants and gooseberries.
+Apples were grown on 4865 acres, cherries on 199, plums
+on 182.</p>
+
+<p>The number of horses used for agricultural purposes
+was 25,706. The total of horses, colts and unbroken,
+was 34,821. Of cattle there were 219,890, and of these
+59,298 were cows in milk. The total number of sheep
+<span class="pagenum">[76]</span>
+was 410,055, and that of pigs 104,813. Of mountain and
+heath land used for grazing there were 71,438 acres. In
+Cornwall there are 9249 acres of coppice and 22,197 of
+other woods, but no more than 981 of plantations. While
+548,787 acres are tended by tenants, only 59,904 acres
+are occupied by the owners. Whereas in Surrey the percentage
+of those occupying their own land is 33 per cent.,
+that in Cornwall is 9·7, in Devon 10·9, and in Hampshire
+24·4.</p>
+
+<p>In Cornwall, in 1908, the number of agricultural
+holders above one acre but not exceeding five was 2859;
+of those above five and not exceeding 50, there were 6810.
+Of those above 50 and not exceeding 300 acres there were
+3682, but of those holding more than 300 acres there
+were but 118, whereas in Essex there were 564, in
+Suffolk 540, in Hampshire 595, in Wiltshire 660 and
+in Northumberland 731.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years, especially in the Scilly Isles, flower
+gardening, the growth of narcissus, jonquils, daffodils, and
+various sorts of lilies, also of violets, anemones, and
+marguerites, has been carried on with great success, and
+the produce is carried by steamer and train to London
+and other large towns.</p>
+
+<p>During six months in the year, when and where the
+flower culture prevails, it forms the staple of conversation
+in parsonage, manor house, farm, and cottage. From
+January until May men, women, and children are
+directly or indirectly engrossed in this one labour. The
+bulbs are moved at least once in three or four years.
+Left longer, they decrease in size, and become weakly;
+<span class="pagenum">[77]</span>
+the flowers also degenerate. A suitable manure is at
+hand, the kelp washed up by the sea costing nothing but
+the labour of gathering and transporting.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus32.jpg" alt="Flower Farming" /><a name="illus32" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Flower Farming, Scilly</p>
+
+<p>Anyone standing in a field which is in full bloom and
+waiting to be picked over, would think that the men
+<span class="pagenum">[78]</span>
+have a hopeless task to face, if they purpose gathering all
+their flowers. But they move down the beds swiftly,
+snapping the stems, and throwing the flowers into big
+baskets, which are carried off to the homestead as they
+fill, and in an incredibly short time the beds are thinned.
+When the baskets are brought into the farmhouse they
+are emptied, and if the weather has been wet and stormy
+the flowers are packed roughly into pots and pans of
+every description, and set on shelves to dry off and assume
+their proper colour. If the weather has been fine this
+preliminary toilet is dispensed with, and the girls and
+women bunch and tie at once. Twelve stems go to a
+bunch always, and the aim is to arrange the flowers so
+that they shall present a compact lozenge shape, crisp and
+tight. Varieties are never mixed when tied, the bunches
+are passed on to another department, where the uneven
+stems are sliced off, and the flowers set in water to await
+packing.</p>
+
+<p>Packing the flowers is a serious business. The boxes
+are lined with paper, little pillows are made for the
+flowers to rest upon, and then the bunches are deftly laid,
+so many this way, so many that, and a few in the centre,
+and behold, stems are altogether hidden, and only a mass
+of bloom fills the box. The end papers are turned in, a
+ticket placed on the top, declaring the variety of flower
+and the number of bunches; the cover is nailed down,
+and the operation is complete.
+<span class="pagenum">[79]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap15" id="chap15"></a>15. Industries and Manufactures.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Cornwall is too far from the coalfields to be a manufacturing
+county on a large scale. There are, however,
+some few industries and manufactures carried on in
+Cornwall. The wonderful wireless telegraphy installation
+which Mr Marconi has established at Poldhu does not,
+perhaps, strictly speaking, come under this head, but it
+would be impossible to omit mention of it and of the
+great services it daily renders to vessels crossing the
+Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus33.jpg" alt="Poldhu Hotel and Marconi Station" /><a name="illus33" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Poldhu Hotel and the Marconi Station</p>
+
+<p>A considerable industry is in the making of casks,
+mainly for the exportation of pilchards. Woollen manufacture
+<span class="pagenum">[80]</span>
+is carried on in a small way, also the construction
+of mining and other machinery. Shipbuilding occupies
+about 870 men. Some brick-making is done, but not to
+any considerable extent. The real employments supplying
+the vast majority of the people with bread are mining and
+quarrying, and agriculture and horticulture.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap16" id="chap16"></a>16. Minerals and Mining.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The authentic history of tin-mining in Cornwall
+begins with the year 1156. It is not mentioned in
+Domesday, and probably the Conqueror was as ignorant
+that tin was to be found there as were the Romans. In
+the year above given the tin mines are mentioned in the
+Pipe Rolls. In 1198 appears a letter from the Warden of
+the Stannaries to the Justiciar. In 1156 most of the tin
+was raised on Dartmoor, but the output now began to
+rise rapidly. In 1201 King John issued a charter to the
+Stannaries. In 1305 the Cornish Stannaries were in part
+dissociated from those in Devon.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, in the beds of the valleys running
+down from the central ridge are deposits of tin, brought
+there from the lodes degraded by weather and flood in the
+central spinal ridge. The specific gravity of the tin ore
+is 6.8, and as the water rolled away from the heights, it
+deposited the tin that it had brought away with it.
+"The ores of tin," wrote Pryce in 1776, "are shode and
+stream ... scattered to some distance from the parent lode,
+and consisting of pebbly and smoothly angular stones of
+<span class="pagenum">[81]</span>
+various sizes, from half an ounce to some pounds in
+weight. Stream tin is the same as shode but smaller in
+size and arenaceous."</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus34.jpg" alt="King Edward Mine" /><a name="illus34" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">King Edward Mine, Camborne</p>
+
+<p>Polwhele describes an early stream work disclosed
+about a century ago. The ore was of the purest kind and
+contained two-thirds metal. The pebbles from which the
+metal was extracted were in size from sand-like grains to
+that of a small egg. The depth of the primeval bed was
+20 ft. This appeared to have been worked at a remote
+period, and before iron tools were employed, as large pickaxes
+of oak, holm, and box were found there. But archaeological
+research at the period when he wrote was carried
+on in such a haphazard way that we cannot trust the
+reports then made, and it is quite possible that the workings
+were comparatively late, possibly of Mediaeval times.
+<span class="pagenum">[82]</span></p>
+
+<p>All the early work was in stream tin. The Cornish
+tin had this disadvantage&mdash;that it was not pure like the
+Dartmoor tin, but was so associated with sulphur that
+after smelting it had to undergo a second process, and that
+a delicate one. It had to be "roasted," to get rid of the
+sulphur, for only thus could the tin be made available.
+Associated with sulphur it is brittle. We may well doubt
+whether in early times the double process was understood.
+Moreover, we know that when we have the first notices
+of tin in the west, it was Dartmoor and not Cornwall
+which rendered the largest supply.</p>
+
+<p>Shaft-mining did not come in before 1450, when the
+stream tin was exhausted. The use of the adit cannot
+be traced back beyond the beginning of the seventeenth
+century. The only way of draining the mines was by
+rag and chain pumps, each consisting of an endless
+chain, broadened at intervals by leathern bindings, to fit
+snugly into a pipe from 12 to 22 ft. long, worked by a
+windlass at the surface. To drain a mine of great depth
+a series of these pumps was necessary.</p>
+
+<p>When hydraulic draining-engines were first employed
+is not known, but even so late as the close of the eighteenth
+century some mines were drained by the rag and chain
+pump worked by 36 men.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the sixteenth century, wooden shovels and picks
+are known to have been employed, and shovels were
+merely iron-shod. There is in the British Museum a
+MS. calendar of Haroldstone in S. Wales, of the early
+sixteenth century, in which are representations of the
+works of the months, and in it the labourers in the
+<span class="pagenum">[83]</span>
+fields are shown as using wooden spades shod with
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>German mining was carried on upon better principles
+than the English, and Sir Francis Godolphin sent for an
+experienced German engineer to instruct the miners of
+Godolphin and Tregonning in the superior systems employed
+in Saxony. It was then only that the hydraulic
+stamps were introduced.</p>
+
+<p>In 1742 one steam-engine only was found in the
+county; but speedily after came a great advance. Savery
+and Newcomen brought in their steam pump; that of
+Newcomen was introduced at Chasewater in 1777.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding that the methods of descent into the
+mines by a series of long ladders had been superseded by
+the man-engine, first introduced in 1842, it was a long
+time before the old ladders at different successive stages
+were abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the introduction of tin from the Straits
+Settlements, where it is found in the condition of stream
+tin and can be easily worked, the tin mining in Cornwall,
+necessitating real mining and the following of lodes, has
+proved unremunerative and has been abandoned, and now
+but few mines are worked for the metal. Another cause has
+fatally affected Cornish mining&mdash;the fraudulent practice of
+the promoters of the mines. It was no uncommon practice
+for the "captains," when a rich lode was struck, to cover it
+up, and follow false lodes, till the investors in the venture
+lost heart and refused to advance more money, when the
+captains would carry on the work in the real lode, if they
+could raise the capital, but this they often failed to do,
+<span class="pagenum">[84]</span>
+the mine having fallen into discredit, or the water having
+broken in.</p>
+
+<p>But if tin mining be practically dead in Cornwall,
+another industry has risen with leaps and bounds. It is
+that of the china-clay and china-stone, employed in the
+manufacture of porcelain, in the sizing of paper and of
+cotton materials, in the manufacture of alum, etc. The
+glazed paper so largely employed in our illustrated papers
+is made up largely with china-clay. Some years ago the
+Italian government employed this paper for its official
+documents, but found that after a few years under the
+influence of damp weather the records had dissolved into
+a lump of clay.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus35.jpg" alt="China Clay Quarries" /><a name="illus35" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">China Clay Quarries</p>
+
+<p>China-clay consists of decomposed felspar, quartz and
+<span class="pagenum">[85]</span>
+white mica. In 1817 the amount shipped for manufacturing
+pottery was comparatively small, but of late
+years it has grown, and employs over 3000 persons. The
+china-clay is the same as the Chinese <i>Kaolin</i>; its value
+was discovered by a Plymouth Quaker, Mr Cookworthy,
+in 1745.</p>
+
+<p>Porcelain was introduced into Europe from the East
+in 1518, when it acquired the name of China. For a
+long time it was supposed that the kaolin or fine white
+clay of which it is composed, was found only in the
+Celestial Empire, and specimens of this brought to Europe
+fetched a high price. At the beginning of the eighteenth
+century it was discovered in Saxony in an odd way. A
+merchant named Schnerr, being on a journey, was struck
+with the whiteness of some clay near Schneeburg, and
+collecting some of it used it for powdering his wig. It
+succeeded, but had this disadvantage, that wigs dressed
+with this new powder were very heavy. An apothecary
+named Bötcher noticed the increased weight of the wig,
+analysed the powder, and discovered that it was identical
+with Chinese kaolin. He began to make Dresden China
+in 1709, and the process was carried on with the greatest
+secrecy, the exportation of the earth being forbidden under
+heavy penalties.</p>
+
+<p>In 1748 Cookworthy discovered kaolin on Tregonning
+Hill, more was found at Boconnoc, and Cookworthy and
+Thomas Pett began to make china in 1768. At present
+St Austell is the great seat of this industry, and the produce
+is shipped at Charlestown and Polmear.
+<span class="pagenum">[86]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus36.jpg" alt="Delabole Slate Quarries" /><a name="illus36" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Delabole Slate Quarries</p>
+
+<p>The important slate-quarries of the Duchy, of which
+<span class="pagenum">[87]</span>
+the Delabole quarry is the most renowned, have already
+been mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>At Calstock and Gunnislake a few years ago there
+were numerous miners engaged in the manufacture of
+arsenic from the waste product of the abandoned copper
+mines. But now this has become an extinct industry.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus37.jpg" alt="Shipping Slate, Port Gavin" /><a name="illus37" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Shipping Slate, Port Gavin</p>
+
+<p>Wulfram or tungsten, a metal used as an alloy for
+hardening steel, was also a waste product from the tin
+mines, but it is now utilised. At St Ives, pitchblende is
+now being worked for radium.
+<span class="pagenum">[88]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap17" id="chap17"></a>17. Fisheries.</h2>
+
+
+<p>If mining be a decayed industry in Cornwall, that of
+fishing shows no diminution. In an old book of natural
+history published in 1776, the principal fishery of pilchards
+is described. "Pilchards appear in vast shoals off
+the Cornish coasts about the middle of July, and disappear
+at the beginning of winter; though a few of them sometimes
+return again after Christmas. The fishing employs
+a great many men on the sea, and men, women, and
+children on land, in salting, pressing, washing, and cleaning;
+in making boats, nets, ropes, casks; and all the
+tradesmen depending on their construction and sale. The
+usual quantities exported each year, for ten years, from
+1746 to 1756 inclusive, on the average is as follows:
+Fowey has exported 1732 hogsheads annually; Falmouth
+14,631; Penzance and Mounts Bay 12,149; St Ives
+1282; in all amounting to 29,795 hogsheads." And the
+same writer thus describes the fish. "The pilchard
+greatly resembles the herring, but differs from it in some
+particulars; it is a third less, and the body is proportionably
+broader: it has a black spot near the upper corner of
+the gills, and the belly is not so sharp. It has no teeth,
+either in the jaws, the tongue, or the palate." It is now
+held that the pilchard is identical with the sardine, but in
+a different stage of growth.</p>
+
+<p>The pilchards are taken generally from the middle of
+August to the middle of September, when large "schools"
+are seen coming up the Channel. Each fishing station
+<span class="pagenum">[89]</span>
+generally has two or more companies or clubs of twenty
+or thirty men; each company owning various boats and
+generally two of the gigantic seines employed, which cost
+£250 or more. These nets are about 250 fathoms or
+more long and about 15 fathoms deep, and three boats go
+to each seine. The first boat, which is also the largest,
+is called the seine-boat, as it carries the net and seven men
+in it; the next is termed the "vollier," or "cock-boat,"
+and carries another seine, called the tuck-seine, which is
+100 fathoms long and 18 deep, this boat also carries seven
+men; the third boat is called the "lurker," and contains
+three or four men, and in this boat is the master.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus38.jpg" alt="Pilchard Boats, Mevagissey" /><a name="illus38" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Pilchard Boats, Mevagissey</p>
+
+<p>The pilchards were at one time supposed to come
+from the Polar Sea, but it has now been ascertained that
+<span class="pagenum">[90]</span>
+the main body retires for the winter into deep water to
+the westward of the Scilly Isles. About the middle of
+spring they quit the deep seas and begin to consort in
+small shoals which gradually increase to the end of July
+or the beginning of August, when they combine in one
+mighty host and begin their migration eastward. They
+strike the land a little north of Cape Cornwall, where they
+break up into two portions, one following the north coast
+of Cornwall, the other the south.</p>
+
+<p>When the shoal is approaching, men and boys who
+have been lying on the cliffs doing nothing start into
+activity and rush to the boats. The gulls may be seen
+hovering over the advancing army, and a change appears
+in the colour of the water. At once the "huers," as the
+signallers are called, get out their signals&mdash;a ball at the
+end of a stick&mdash;and proceed to direct the pursuing boats
+according to the movements of the school.</p>
+
+<p>The seine-boat leads the way followed by the vollier,
+and the crew of the foremost boat pass a warp, that is,
+throw a rope, which is fixed to the end of the seine on
+board the vollier, and then shoot the net overboard, which,
+having leaden weights at bottom, sinks, while the top is
+buoyed up with corks. The seine-boat is rowed in a
+circular course round where the fish are "stoiting" or
+jumping, and when they have reached the vollier, the fish
+are enclosed. They then join the two ends of the seine
+together with a cord to prevent the fish from breaking
+out, and whilst this is being done a man is engaged in
+frightening the fish away from the still open end by means
+of a stone fastened to a rope. When the two ends of the
+<span class="pagenum">[91]</span>
+net are laced together, grapes, i.e. grapples, are let down to
+keep the net expanded and steady till the fish have been
+taken up. This latter process is called "tucking the seine."
+The boat with the tuck-seine on board passes the warp of
+that seine to one of the other boats and then shoots this
+net within the big seine. It is then drawn up to the
+edge of the water, when it is seen to be one quivering
+mass of silver. The fish are now taken or dipped out
+with baskets into the boats. When the boats are filled, if
+more fish remain in the large seine, it is left in the water,
+till by successive tuckings all the fish have been removed.
+In addition to seining large numbers of pilchards are taken
+in drift nets.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus39.jpg" alt="The Huers' House, Newquay" /><a name="illus39" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Huers' House, Newquay</p>
+
+<p>Formerly pilchards were smoked, and went by the
+<span class="pagenum">[92]</span>
+name of <i>fumados</i>, which name has been corrupted into
+"fair maids." A not over-complimentary saying in Cornwall
+is that "pilchards and women when they are bad are
+very bad, and when good are only middling." Pilchards
+constitute an important article of food to the poorer classes
+on the coast, but doubtless the Cornishmen get very tired
+of them as an article of diet. Large quantities are exported
+to Spain and Italy. Some are made into "sardines" in oil
+in the local factories.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiarity of the county is that ecclesiastical dues
+in the nature of tithes are levied on the persons employed
+in the pilchard fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>The number of hogsheads packed for export every
+year varies considerably, but the yearly produce averages
+from 20,000 to 30,000 hogsheads. In certain years the
+amount has reached nearly 50,000. In 1901 the fishery
+found employment for 3734 men, in 1905 in Penzance
+alone for 1275. Beside pilchards, there are mackerel,
+hake, cod, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus40.jpg" alt="Pilchard Boats, St Ives Harbour" /><a name="illus40" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Pilchard Boats, St Ives Harbour</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of fish taken, other than mackerel,
+<span class="pagenum">[93]</span>
+herrings, pilchards, and sprats in 1905 at Looe was 5841
+cwt., at Mevagissey 4893, at Falmouth 3213, at Porthleven
+6132, at Newlyn 37,468. Of mackerel, herrings
+and sprats, at Looe 10,403 cwt., at Mevagissey 40,236, at
+Falmouth 5991, at Porthleven 26,945, at Newlyn 493,956.
+The total value of the fish taken in the year at Looe was
+£5377, at Mevagissey £13,818, at Falmouth £17,718, at
+Porthleven £11,454, at Newlyn £232,466.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to the north coast, in the first category were
+taken at Sennen 1074 cwt., at St Ives 2431, at Padstow
+<span class="pagenum">[94]</span>
+4051. In the second category, at Sennen 605 cwt., at
+St Ives 80,557, at Padstow but 318, at Port Isaac 2526.</p>
+
+<p>The value of the fish taken at Sennen was £2065, at
+St Ives £39,941, at Padstow £6660, at Port Isaac £2169.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus41.jpg" alt="Landing Fish, Newlyn" /><a name="illus41" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Landing Fish, Newlyn</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap18" id="chap18"></a>18. Shipping and Trade.</h2>
+
+
+<p>There are no great seaports in Cornwall. Falmouth
+was by far the most considerable when the packet service
+ran from it to the West Indies, Portugal, and New York.
+The station was established in 1688. In 1705 five
+packet-boats left it for the West Indies and in 1709 as
+many for Lisbon; not till 1755 did two sail for New
+York, but the number was increased to four in 1763.
+<span class="pagenum">[95]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1782, eighteen packets sailed from Falmouth for
+the West Indies and America. Up to 1823 the packets
+had sailed under contract between the General Post
+Office and the commanders, who received their appointment
+from that establishment and engaged to provide,
+equip, and man a proper ship for the purpose, for a sum
+of £1800 per annum. These vessels were from 180 to
+210 tons register. But after 1823 the above system was
+changed, for the service was placed under the orders of
+the Admiralty instead of the Post Office; and as vessels
+were wanted they were supplied by men-of-war.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus42.jpg" alt="The St Vincent's Anchor, Falmouth" /><a name="illus42" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The St Vincent's Anchor, Falmouth</p>
+
+<p>In 1827 thirty-nine packets left Falmouth; in 1834
+six steamers were employed. But in 1850 Falmouth
+ceased altogether to be a packet station. This was
+<span class="pagenum">[96]</span>
+greatly to the detriment of the town. It still remains as
+a port of call for outward-bound sailing-ships. Further
+up the river is Penryn, which was a town and a port
+before Falmouth was thought of. The silting up of the
+river does not now allow other than small boats and barges
+to reach it.</p>
+
+<p>Letters came down on mail coaches, from London
+through Exeter, by Launceston to Bodmin, and thence
+to Truro and Falmouth. The rate appointed for the
+coaches, including stoppages, was bound to be thirteen
+miles an hour. The mail spun along night and day,
+without a halt save for change of horses. The stages on
+an average were eight miles, and the horses, four-in-hand,
+went at a gallop. The guard wore the royal livery of
+scarlet, and always had his blunderbus handy, in case of
+an attempt by highwaymen to hold up his coach.</p>
+
+<p>Charlestown and Polmear in St Austell Bay are only
+important for the trade in china-clay exported thence;
+Marazion and Penzance, and St Mary's in Scilly only for
+the conveyance of flowers to London. But these ports
+and such as are on the north coast are convenient as
+mouths through which Welsh coal can be imported to
+feed the cellars and fires in the peninsula. Pilchards also
+are exported from these little ports to Italy and Spain;
+and anciently a considerable trade was carried on between
+them and France, Spain, and Portugal in wine, and a
+considerable amount of wine and spirits entered the county
+through small creeks and coves, into which smugglers
+conveyed their kegs. The gentry and taverners were
+kept well supplied with liquor that never paid duty.
+<span class="pagenum">[97]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap19" id="chap19"></a>19. History.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The original population of Cornwall was probably
+Iberic, of the same primitive race as the dark-haired
+population of Ireland, before the island was invaded and
+subjugated by the Celts.</p>
+
+<p>The branch of the Celts in Britain and Cornwall was
+Brythonic, and there is nothing certain to show that the
+Goidels were in Cornwall before the Brythons. It is
+true that some few river names, and again inscriptions
+are Irish, but these latter pertain to the settlement in
+Cornwall of Irish expelled from Ossory and Wicklow in
+the fifth century.</p>
+
+<p>Popularly the dark hair and dusky complexions of
+some of the Cornish is attributed to Spaniards wrecked
+from the Armada. But no Spanish wreck came on shore
+in Cornwall. The first loss the Armada sustained was
+east of Plymouth. On its way back to Spain none of the
+vessels came near Cornwall. Several were wrecked on
+the coast of Ireland and their crews massacred to a man
+by the natives.</p>
+
+<p>Posidonius travelled after <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 123 and visited Spain,
+where he collected a variety of information on points of
+geography and natural history, and after spending thirty
+days at Gades returned to Italy. He learned among other
+things something about the collection of tin in Bolerium,
+a name afterwards appropriated by Ptolemy to the Land's
+End. He says: "The inhabitants of that promontory of
+Britain which is called Bolerium are very fond of strangers,
+<span class="pagenum">[98]</span>
+and from their intercourse with foreign merchants are
+civilised in their manner of life. They prepare the tin,
+working very skilfully the earth in which it is produced.
+The ground is rocky, but it contains earthy veins, the
+produce of which is ground down, smelted, and purified.
+They make the metal up into slabs shaped like knuckle-bones,
+and carry it to a certain island lying in front of
+Britain called Ictis. During the ebb of the tide the
+intervening space is left dry, and to this place they carry
+over abundance of tin in their waggons.... Here then, the
+merchants buy the tin from the natives, and carry it over
+to Gaul; and after travelling overland for about thirty
+days, they finally bring their loads on pack-horses to the
+outlet of the Rhone." It is very doubtful whether
+Posidonius ever visited Britain. What he relates is doubtless
+due to information received by him, either at Gades
+or at Massilia.</p>
+
+<p>According to Timaeus, the contemporary of Pytheas,
+the isle of Vectis was six days sail from Britain, "in an
+inward direction." Vectis, there can be little doubt, is
+the Isle of Wight, formerly connected with the mainland
+by a ridge of chalk since broken through by the waves.
+Ancient mariners coasted, and those who came to Britain
+for tin followed the Gallic shore till they could see the
+white cliffs of Dover, when they crossed, and coasted
+down channel to the Isle of Wight.</p>
+
+<p>There is no evidence that the Phoenicians ever visited
+Cornwall. Nor has a single relic of Phoenician art or
+coin been found in Cornwall. The traders with Britain
+were the Veneti of the Morbihan, in Brittany. Moreover,
+<span class="pagenum">[99]</span>
+as General Pitt Rivers has pointed out, bronze celts
+(axe heads), which have been unearthed in Cornwall, are
+never found in any parts where the Phoenicians have been.</p>
+
+<p>It has been assumed with much confidence that Cornwall
+or the Scilly Isles must have been the Cassiterides of
+the ancients. But even this is doubtful. The Cassiterides
+were described as lying west of Spain, and the description
+applies to the Azores; it may have been due to ignorance
+or design that they were represented as islands prolific in
+tin.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus43.jpg" alt="The Nine Maidens, St Columb Major" /><a name="illus43" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Nine Maidens, St Columb Major</p>
+
+<p>That tin was worked in Cornwall from a very early
+period can hardly be questioned, in 1823 at Carnon a
+deer-horn pick was discovered 40 ft. below the surface,
+but as a crucifix was also found there 30 ft. below the
+<span class="pagenum">[100]</span>
+surface, this only shows how the creeks have had their
+floors turned over and silted up.</p>
+
+<p>Though tin was exported from Cornwall, bronze was
+not manufactured there till a comparatively late period.
+Bronze came from the East, and the great centre whence
+radiated the trade in bronze weapons was the basin of
+the Po.</p>
+
+<p>What seems to be abundantly clear is that the export
+of tin from Britain had come to an end by the first century
+of the present era. Caesar, on invading Britain, heard
+nothing about it, and when Britain was finally conquered,
+the Romans who worked the lead mines in the Mendips,
+and gold and copper in Wales, totally neglected Cornwall,
+holding it to be worthless. They never settled there,
+only traversed it to the Land's End, leaving behind them
+a couple of square camps, some coins, few and far between,
+and some Samian ware; but this shows little more than
+that a traffic went on between the Britons of Cornwall
+and the Romans and Romano-British beyond Exeter.
+The fact that the Romans had no idea that tin was to be
+found in the peninsula shows that the mining for it had
+ceased there for some time previous. The Brythonic
+Celts are held to have invaded Britain <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 300; and it is
+probable that from that date the industry in tin mining
+carried on by the Ivernian natives declined rapidly and
+expired, leaving not a tradition behind.</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that the Dumnonii were behind the
+British peoples in the east. They had no coinage, whereas
+those in the south-east had theirs, copied from a stater of
+Philip of Macedon. No Greek coins had reached the
+<span class="pagenum">[101]</span>
+Dumnonii, and they had consequently none to copy,
+however clumsily.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle of Deorham, 577, the Britons were
+defeated with great slaughter, and the West Welsh of
+Devon and Cornwall were cut off from further communication
+with their brethren of Wales. The Saxons steadily
+advanced, but for long the Parrett was the boundary. In
+823 a battle was fought between the Saxons and Britons
+at Gavulford, now Galford, a point on the old road from
+Exeter to the west, where the hills draw together, and
+whence it is commanded by a huge camp. The Britons
+now called the Danes to their aid, and twelve years
+afterwards a battle was fought on Hingeston Down, above
+Calstock, in which Egbert was victorious. This was in
+835. Hitherto the Britons had occupied one portion of
+Exeter, but Athelstan, after defeating the Cornish King
+Howell, not only expelled them from the city but fixed
+the Tamar as their boundary. Then he passed through
+Cornwall, and even visited the Scilly Isles. The Count
+of Poher in Brittany, of whose son Alan Barbetorte was
+the godson of Athelstan, fled from Brittany with a crowd
+of his countrymen from the devastations of the Northmen,
+and Athelstan gave them homes in England. It is
+probable that he planted some in the Lizard, and others
+about Camborne, for we find there church dedications to
+distinctively Breton saints, and we know, moreover, that
+the fugitive Bretons brought with them the bones of their
+patron saints. As they spoke the same tongue as the
+Cornish, it would be natural for Athelstan to send them
+there.
+<span class="pagenum">[102]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 981, the Danish pirates plundered the monastery
+of St Petrock, and in 997 ravaged the territories of their
+old allies from one end of Cornwall to the other with fire
+and sword. Shortly before this, in 993, Olaf Tryggvason
+of Norway, with Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, after
+having attacked London, devastated the east coast, burnt
+Sandwich and Ipswich, and stormed Bamborough, then
+harried the Scottish coast, the Western Isles, the Isle of
+Man, and Ireland, where "he burned far and wide,
+wherever inhabited." He then came to the Scilly Isles,
+where he put into Tresco harbour. There the monks of
+the abbey founded by Athelstan so impressed him, that he
+consented to be baptized.</p>
+
+<p>In 1068, the county was plundered by Godwin and
+Edmund, sons of Harold, after a battle in Somersetshire,
+and on their way back to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>In 1322, the craze for going on pilgrimage took
+possession of Cornish men, women, and children, and
+they set off for the Holy Land, whence few returned.</p>
+
+<p>In 1497, in consequence of the dissatisfaction occasioned
+by the levy of a burdensome tax, the commoners of
+Cornwall, headed by Thomas Flamank, a gentleman, and
+Michael Joseph, a Bodmin blacksmith, rose in rebellion.
+Having prevailed on Lord Audley to be their general,
+they marched as far as to Blackheath in Kent, where they
+were defeated with much slaughter by Lord Daubeny.
+In the same year Perkin Warbeck landed, according to
+some at Whitesand Bay, near the Land's End, according
+to others in St Ives' Bay, and marching to Bodmin, found
+the Cornish ripe for a new rebellion. At the head of
+<span class="pagenum">[103]</span>
+3000 men he marched to Exeter, but was unable to take
+it. He made his way to Taunton, where, despairing of
+success, he deserted his army and fled, but was taken and
+executed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1548, another rebellion broke out occasioned by
+the changes in religion, which the Cornish resented. Their
+leader was Hugh Arundell, Governor of St Michael's
+Mount. They proceeded to besiege Exeter, but although
+the city was sorely distressed for want of provisions it
+held out till relieved, and in a battle fought at Woodbury,
+they were defeated with immense slaughter. Cornwall
+remained quiet in the reign of Elizabeth, save that it sent
+out whole fleets of privateers to prey on the Spanish
+traders and treasure vessels.</p>
+
+<p>The Armada was off the Lizard on the 29th to 30th
+July, 1588. An English fishing-boat was hanging near
+them, counting their numbers. They gave chase, but
+the boat shot away down wind and disappeared. It
+carried the news to Drake at Plymouth, who at once
+prepared to sail forth.</p>
+
+<p>In the Civil War, Cornwall was almost unanimous
+on the side of the King. Lord Robartes, however, threw
+in his lot with the Parliament. On the side of the
+King were Sir Bevil Grenville, Sir Ralph Hopton,
+Godolphin, Slanning, and Trevanion. A battle was
+fought at Boconnoc on January 19, 1643, in which
+General Ruthven and the Roundheads were defeated.
+Another battle in which the Royalists were successful
+was at Stamford Hill above Stratton, May 16, 1643.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I visited Cornwall, and was so impressed by
+<span class="pagenum">[104]</span>
+the devotion and loyalty of the people that he addressed
+to them a letter of recognition, copies of which may be
+seen in some of the churches. Prince Charles spent a
+great part of the autumn and winter of 1645 in Cornwall;
+on March 2, 1645-6, he embarked at Pendennis Castle
+for the Scilly Isles, where he "was much straitened for
+provisions." He quitted Scilly on April 16, and landed
+next day in Jersey, whence he sailed for France. Queen
+Henrietta Maria had left Pendennis for France in July,
+1644.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall took no active part in the Revolution; in
+the European War, it sent forth many gallant sailors,
+among whom in the first place may be reckoned Admiral
+Boscawen, "old Dreadnought." But since the Civil War
+the history of the Duchy has been mainly one of social
+and industrial advance. The principal events stirring the
+community were the introduction of steam-engines to
+pump the mines, affrays with smugglers, and the excitement
+and unlimited bribery and corruption at elections in
+the rotten boroughs till these latter were swept away by
+the Reform Bill of 1832. About these rotten boroughs
+a few words must be said. The old boroughs that existed
+before the reign of Edward VI were Truro, Helston,
+Lostwithiel, Bodmin, Liskeard, and Launceston. But the
+advisers of Edward VI, conscious of insecure tenure of the
+throne and doubting whether the country was willing to
+go with them in their sweeping alterations in religion, and
+desirous of counteracting the growing importance of the
+House of Commons, considered that their object would be
+best attained by conferring the right of returning members
+<span class="pagenum">[105]</span>
+of Parliament upon the obscure dependent villages of
+Cornwall. Accordingly Saltash, Camelford, West Looe,
+Bossiney, Grampound, Penryn, Mitchell, and Newport
+were elevated into boroughs, each returning two members
+to Parliament.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus44.jpg" alt="St Mawes, Falmouth Harbour" /><a name="illus44" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">St Mawes, Falmouth Harbour</p>
+
+<p>Under Queen Mary, St Ives received the same privileges,
+and under Elizabeth six more were made boroughs
+with the same rights, St Germans, St Mawes, Tregony,
+East Looe, Fowey, and Callington. Some of these places,
+as Mitchell, Tregony, and St Mawes, were mere hamlets.
+They all soon passed away from the direct control of the
+Crown and fell into the hands of borough mongers who
+returned what members they liked, by gross bribery,
+expecting to be repaid with Baronetcies and with lucrative
+sinecures by the Ministry of the day they supported.
+<span class="pagenum">[106]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap20" id="chap20"></a>20. Antiquities: Prehistoric, Roman, Celtic, Saxon.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The first men who inhabited our island were the
+merest savages. They had no knowledge of the use of
+metals, they could not make pottery; they had not domesticated
+the cow, the sheep, or the dog. They used
+extremely rude flint weapons and tools. They were
+contemporary with the cave bear, the woolly rhinoceros,
+the mammoth, and the cave hyæna, all which beasts then
+lived in Britain; and at that time the temperature was
+much colder than at present. This period is called the
+Palaeolithic, or Old Stone Age.</p>
+
+<p>The next race that entered our island found the
+temperature much as it is now. They were comparatively
+civilised. They still used flint implements, but of a very
+superior type, and far better finished than those of the
+earlier race. Moreover they were agricultural, grew corn,
+had cows and sheep and dogs, and made pottery. This
+race it was which erected the so-called cromlechs, stone
+circles, and tall upright stones. The remains of their
+villages of circular stone huts are very numerous on the
+moors. This period is called the Neolithic, or New
+Stone Age.</p>
+
+<p>After a time bronze was introduced, by trade, and
+was at first as valuable as gold is to us. But after a while
+it became much more common. Its introduction marked
+the commencement of the Bronze Age.</p>
+
+<p>To the Bronze Age succeeded the Iron Age. This
+<span class="pagenum">[107]</span>
+metal was introduced by the conquering Celts, of whom
+there existed two branches, one called Brythonic, of which
+were the Britons, now represented by the Welsh, the
+Cornish, the Cumbrians, and the Bretons of Brittany; the
+other called Goidelic, and now represented by the Irish,
+the natives of the Isle of Man, and the Scots. The Celts
+with their iron weapons speedily overcame and enslaved
+the earlier race, usually called Ivernian. The latter was
+dusky and dark haired, but the Celt probably had yellow
+or red hair, blue or grey eyes, and a fair complexion.</p>
+
+<p>No satisfactory evidence has been produced that Palaeolithic
+man occupied Cornwall, but the traces of Neolithic
+man at the stage when he became acquainted with the
+use of bronze are abundant. By him were erected the
+rude stone monuments that are scattered over the county,
+and he had his favourite sites for trimming flints into
+scrapers and arrow-heads. One of the most notable of
+these was the shore of Dozmare Pool.</p>
+
+<p>Of the rude stone monuments the dolmen or cromlech
+is sepulchral, the dolmen when large having been a
+tribal or family mausoleum, and the kistvaen, which is
+far smaller, contained the bones of one individual alone.
+The dolmen is composed of three or more upright stones
+sustaining one or more coverers, and was often buried
+under a cairn. The finest in Cornwall are Zennor and
+Lanyon Quoits, the Trethevy Stone, and Chûn Quoit.</p>
+
+<p>Stone circles are numerous. Their purpose has not
+been determined, but on Dartmoor, where they have been
+examined, they exhibit a floor strewn with charcoal.
+They have, moreover, usually numerous cairns or barrows
+<span class="pagenum">[108]</span>
+associated with them. The finest sacred circle is that of
+the Stripple Stones on the Bodmin moors, but this has of
+late years been sadly mutilated. The "Merry Maidens,"
+in St Buryan's parish near Penzance, is a magnificent
+circle. Other circles are those of Boscawen-ûn, Dauns
+Môr, Wendron, the Trippet Stones on Blisland moor,
+Fernacre and Stannon on the St Breward moors, the
+Hurlers near the Cheesewring, the Nine Maidens in
+St Columb Major, Duloe, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus45.jpg" alt="Lanyon Cromlech" /><a name="illus45" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Lanyon Cromlech</p>
+
+<p>Menhirs or "longstones" are upright monoliths,
+probably set up in memorial of the dead. Of these there
+are many in Cornwall but none of great height. The
+Pipers in St Buryan are the loftiest, 13 ft. 6 in. and 15 ft.
+<span class="pagenum">[109]</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus46.jpg" alt="The Merry Maidens, St Buryan" /><a name="illus46" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Merry Maidens, St Burylan</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[110]</span></p>
+
+<p>Of stone alignments Cornwall is almost wholly barren,
+but one at St Breock can be claimed with confidence. This
+is the more remarkable as they abound on Dartmoor.
+But the reason probably is that the stones have been carried
+off to serve as gateposts, and in some cases are embedded
+in walls of fields. They were probably erected in commemoration
+of the dead and are always associated with
+cairns and interments.</p>
+
+<p>Subterranean chambers, constructed of upright stones
+with coverers, were possibly store chambers for grain.
+The best preserved is at Trelowarren.</p>
+
+<p>Upright holed stones are met with in Madron,
+St Buryan, St Just, Sancreed, Constantine, Wendron, etc.
+Their purport is unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Very curious are the clusters of communal huts at
+Chysauster, Bosporthennis, etc. They probably belong to
+the Iron Age, whereas the hut circles scattered over a hill
+side, or within a pound, pertained to the early Bronze Age.</p>
+
+<p>Arrow heads, lance heads and scrapers have been found
+in tolerable abundance on the Bodmin moors, on Carn
+Brea, at St Agnes, etc., and celts (axe heads) of greenstone
+and diorite have occurred, but not with great frequency.</p>
+
+<p>At Harlyn Bay has been found a cemetery of the
+Iron Age, all the bodies in slate cists, crouching. In the
+cairns and kistvaens (stone coffins) on the other hand the
+bodies have been burnt. Numerous urns of the well-determined
+Bronze Age type have been recovered from
+cairns.</p>
+
+<p>The camps of stone and earth in Cornwall are very
+numerous. They all&mdash;or nearly all&mdash;date back to the
+<span class="pagenum">[111]</span>
+same period of the early bronze, but may have been used
+by later peoples. They are of two descriptions, the cliff
+castles, where a headland is protected by banks and dykes
+on the side of the mainland, and circular or oval camps
+crowning heights, with concentric rings of circumvallation.
+Where the hill top does not admit of the circular form
+the earthworks adapt themselves to the contour of the hill.</p>
+
+<p>Roman remains are conspicuously rare in Cornwall.
+Some fragments of Samian ware, coins, and a bronze and
+silver metal vessel have been found in Bossens, a camp in
+St Erth, and the head of an ensign at St Just. A second
+Roman camp is Tregeare, near Bodmin. An inscribed
+milestone of the time of Constantine the Great is in the
+churchyard of St Hilary. The metal bowl at Bossens was
+inscribed by Aelius Modestus to the god Mars.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Celtic period, gold lunettes have been found at
+Harlyn; a gold cup near the Cheesewring in a cairn along
+with a corroded iron weapon; a portion of a gold armlet
+at Penzance and of a brooch at the Lizard.</p>
+
+<p>Of Saxon remains the principal are the hoard at
+Trewhiddle, a silver chalice, finger-ring, pins, etc. Coins
+have been found; among them one of Ethelred, struck at
+Launceston. On the altar slab formerly at Treslothan,
+now supporting a sundial at Pendarves, is inscribed the
+Saxon name of Ægured; and an old bell at Lanhydrock
+has on it "Æthelstan sumpta an[ima] sua." These are
+scanty remains, fewer even than the Roman.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus47.jpg" alt="St Cleer: Monument to Doniert" /><a name="illus47" title=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">St Cleer: Monument to Doniert, son of Caradoc, died A.D. 872</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall is, however, rich in Romano-British inscribed
+stones, dating from the eighth century down. At St Cleer
+is the memorial stone to Doniert (Dungarth) son of
+<span class="pagenum">[112]</span>
+Caradoc. In Lewannick churchyard are stones with inscriptions
+not only in Latin characters but also with
+Ogams at the angle, showing that the Irish had settled
+there. Some of the inscribed stones are certainly earlier
+than the eighth century, to which cautious antiquaries
+have brought them down.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus48.jpg" alt="Mawgan Cross" /><a name="illus48" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Mawgan Cross</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[113]</span>
+Crosses of granite are common, and some are very
+early, certainly earlier than Athelstan's passage through
+Cornwall in 938. But others are much later. They vary
+considerably in size and in shape. Some were used as
+preaching stations before churches had been built, but
+others marked the tracks over the moors, and some
+may have indicated boundaries. Some are excessively
+<span class="pagenum">[114]</span>
+rude, some have the figure of the Saviour carved upon
+them, and these are comparatively late. Others&mdash;as that
+of St Neot&mdash;have elaborate scroll-work on them like those
+in South Wales.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus49.jpg" alt="St Buryan's Cross" /><a name="illus49" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">St Buryan's Cross</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap21" id="chap21"></a>21. Architecture: (<i>a</i>) Ecclesiastical.</h2>
+
+
+<p>A preliminary word on the various styles of English
+architecture is necessary before we consider the churches
+and other important buildings of our county.</p>
+
+<p>Pre-Norman or, as it is usually, though with no great
+certainty termed, Saxon building in England, was the
+work of early craftsmen with an imperfect knowledge of
+stone construction, who commonly used rough rubble
+<span class="pagenum">[115]</span>
+walls, no buttresses, small semicircular or triangular
+arches, and square towers with what is termed "long-and-short
+work" at the quoins or corners. It survives
+almost solely in portions of small churches.</p>
+
+<p>The Norman Conquest started a widespread building
+of massive churches and castles in the continental style
+called Romanesque, which in England has got the name
+of "Norman". They had walls of great thickness, semicircular
+vaults, round-headed doors and windows, and
+massive square towers.</p>
+
+<p>From 1150 to 1200 the building became lighter, the
+arches pointed, and there was perfected the science of
+vaulting, by which the weight is brought upon piers and
+buttresses. This method of building, the "Gothic,"
+originated from the endeavour to cover the widest and
+loftiest areas with the greatest economy of stone. The
+first English Gothic, called "Early English," from about
+1180 to 1250, is characterised by slender piers (commonly
+of marble), lofty pointed vaults, and long, narrow, lancet-headed
+windows. After 1250 the windows became
+broader, divided up, and ornamented by patterns of
+tracery, while in the vault the ribs were multiplied. The
+greatest elegance of English Gothic was reached from
+1260 to 1290, at which date English sculpture was at
+its highest, and art in painting, coloured glass making,
+and general craftsmanship at its zenith.</p>
+
+<p>After 1300 the structure of stone buildings began to
+be overlaid with ornament, the window tracery and vault
+ribs were of intricate patterns, the pinnacles and spires
+loaded with crocket and ornament. This later style is
+<span class="pagenum">[116]</span>
+known as "Decorated," and came to an end with the
+Black Death, which stopped all building for a time.</p>
+
+<p>With the changed conditions of life the type of
+building changed. With curious uniformity and quickness
+the style called "Perpendicular"&mdash;which is unknown
+abroad&mdash;developed after 1360 in all parts of England and
+lasted with scarcely any change up to 1520. As its name
+implies, it is characterised by the perpendicular arrangement
+of the tracery and panels on walls and in windows,
+and it is also distinguished by the flattened arches and the
+square hoods over the doorways, by the elaborate vault-traceries
+(especially fan-vaulting), and by the use of flat
+roofs and towers without spires.</p>
+
+<p>The mediaeval styles in England ended with the
+dissolution of the monasteries (1530-1540), for the
+Reformation checked the building of churches. There
+succeeded the building of manor-houses, in which the
+style called "Tudor" arose&mdash;distinguished by flat-headed
+windows, level ceilings, and panelled rooms. The ornaments
+of classic style were introduced under the influences
+of Renaissance sculpture and distinguish the "Jacobean"
+style, so called after James I. About this time the professional
+architect arose. Hitherto, building had been
+entirely in the hands of the builder and the craftsman.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall does not furnish stately and richly adorned
+churches as does Devonshire, and even more so, Somersetshire.
+This is due to the intractable material available,
+granite, which unlike that of Brittany did not lend itself
+to rich sculpture. Only the Elvan stone, already described,
+could be worked with delicacy, and this is easily
+<span class="pagenum">[117]</span>
+corroded by the weather, and the Catacluse stone is
+black. The beautiful Polyphant stone of Lewannick does
+not seem to have been largely employed. Although so
+close to Launceston, when the church there was reconstructed
+by Sir Henry Trecarrel, in the reign of
+Henry VIII, he employed only granite, which was
+sculptured with infinite labour, and with poor effect.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus50.jpg" alt="Buried Church, Perranporth" /><a name="illus50" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Buried Church, Perranporth</p>
+
+<p>The most ancient churches in Cornwall were probably
+exceedingly rude. Only two of the earliest remain and
+these are in ruins, Perranporth and St Gothien, very
+much resembling churches of the most primitive period in
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus51.jpg" alt="Norman Doorway, St Germans Church" /><a name="illus51" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Norman Doorway, St Germans Church</p>
+
+<p>There are some important remains of Norman
+architecture, notably the west front and part of the nave
+<span class="pagenum">[118]</span>
+of St Germans, some portion of Blisland, the south door
+of Kilkhampton, the westernmost arches of Morwenstow,
+Tintagel, and some tympana of doorways with
+rude sculpture. In many of the churches the early fonts
+remain. Originally baptisms took place in tanks or barrels
+sunk in the earth; then, when adult baptisms ceased,
+<span class="pagenum">[119]</span>
+square or circular troughs were placed on the floor, and
+later were raised on pedestals; and not infrequently the
+pedestal is an addition, at a later date, to the basin of the
+font itself.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Early English period, the remains are scanty.
+St Anthony in Roseland is the most perfect example in
+Cornwall.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus52.jpg" alt="Tympanum, Egloskerry Church" /><a name="illus52" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Tympanum, Egloskerry Church</p>
+
+<p>Of the Middle Pointed, or Decorated period, are
+Padstow, St Columb Major, Sheviock, Lostwithiel&mdash;where
+the very peculiar spire is singularly beautiful and foreign
+in character&mdash;and portions in Lanteglos by Fowey, and
+St Ive near Liskcard.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus53.jpg" alt="Lanteglos Church" /><a name="illus53" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Lanteglos Church</p>
+
+<p>But, as in Devonshire, so in Cornwall, there was an
+outburst of church building in the Third Pointed or Perpendicular
+<span class="pagenum">[120]</span>
+period. Then only&mdash;since the early sculptors
+of the crosses&mdash;did architects and carvers attack the granite,
+and most of the churches were then rebuilt. The finest
+are St Kewe, Mawgan in Pyder with a beautiful tower,
+Probus with a richly sculptured tower of the reign of
+Elizabeth, St Austell&mdash;also with a good tower, the carvings
+in Elvan&mdash;St Neot, Stratton, and Buryan. One remarkable
+feature is in the porches, where tracery of an ogival
+character is introduced in the arch. The Rev. W. Haslam,
+in the <i>Transactions of the Exeter Dioc. Arch. Society</i>, says
+of the Cornish churches that they "are low, and somewhat
+flat in the pitch of the roof, and without buttresses
+to break the long plain horizontal lines which are so
+conspicuous. All these are features of the Perpendicular
+<span class="pagenum">[121]</span>
+style, I admit, but not to the extent to which they are
+carried in Cornwall. Besides this, the general form of a
+Cornish church is plain; externally, the plan of the larger
+ones is a parallelogram, divided into three low ridges of
+roof: there is a porch on the south side; this is the only
+break in the horizontal line I allude to. The smaller
+churches have generally but one aisle, and these have a
+transept also, but sometimes two transepts; but even these
+do not relieve the plainness of the exterior. This is not
+the character of one church, or two, or three; but more
+or less of all. It is their character, and I attribute it to
+the boisterous nature of the climate in that narrow county,
+exposed as it is, with very little shelter, to violent storms
+from the sea on both sides."</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus54.jpg" alt="Launceston Church" /><a name="illus54" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Launceston Church</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[122]</span></p>
+
+<p>No great elaboration of tracery was possible with
+granite, and the architects abandoned the thought of
+making the churches attractive externally, devoting their
+attention to the internal decoration. The appearance of
+a large Cornish church now is that it is a long low shed,
+lacking in height and dignity. But the architect divided
+it in two by the screen, and thus brought it into proportion.
+Unfortunately, however, in very few have the
+beautiful rood-screens been left, which were generally
+spared in the Devonshire churches. Those of Cornwall
+in no way fell short of those in Devon, but the Puritans
+first of all, and then the barbarians of the Georgian period
+swept them away, and the churches in the nineteenth
+century fell into the hands of local architects who left
+them "naked, swept"&mdash;but not "garnished." They were,
+let us hope, the last of the Cornish wreckers. A few, but
+only a few screens remain.</p>
+
+<p>In the interior of the Cornish churches the chief
+feature is the absence of a chancel arch, which is almost
+universal. The arch was unnecessary when the roodloft
+extended upwards and was backed by a painted board.
+In some of the churches there are interesting bench ends.
+At St Austell, the miners' tools are represented on them;
+on some rabbits running in and out of their burrows are
+figured, and seagulls are frequent.</p>
+
+<p>In painted glass Cornwall is not rich, except in the
+15 windows of St Neot near Liskeard, and in that in the
+north aisle, and the fragments in the south aisle of St Kewe.</p>
+
+<p>The church towers in Cornwall are for the most part
+square without buttresses, and with four pinnacles. One
+<span class="pagenum">[123]</span>
+peculiarity of these pinnacles is that they are often cut on
+a curve to lean outwards, probably to mitigate the stiffness
+of effect.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus55.jpg" alt="Landewednack Church" /><a name="illus55" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Landewednack Church</p>
+
+<p>A few words must be devoted to the new Cathedral
+at Truro erected from the designs of the late Mr J.L.
+Pearson in a French Gothic style of architecture. It
+consists of a choir of five bays, with retrochoir, transepts,
+nave with north and south aisles, baptistery and south-west
+porch, richly sculptured; a central and two western
+<span class="pagenum">[124]</span>
+towers. Attached to the south side of the choir is the
+fine old parish church of St Mary, or a portion of it.
+There is an elaborately sculptured reredos over the altar.
+Notwithstanding its faults Truro Cathedral is a notable
+monument of the enthusiasm and self-denial of the Cornish
+people.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus56.jpg" alt="Dupath Well, Callington" /><a name="illus56" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Dupath Well, Callington</p>
+
+<p>The Holy Wells of Cornwall are a distinct feature of
+the county. In all Celtic lands, previous to the introduction
+<span class="pagenum">[125]</span>
+of Christianity, there was a great veneration for wells,
+and the early missionaries took advantage of this to turn
+them into baptisteries, or in other ways to consecrate them.
+Holy wells abound in Cornwall, but they have not always
+much architectural character. That of Dupath, by
+Liskeard, is the finest, but there is also another that is
+fine at St Cleer, and one most interesting and unique at
+St Clether, where, indeed, there are two, for the water
+from the first flows into a chapel and is carried under the
+old stone altar, to decant into another well outside the
+chapel. The Madron Holy Well was for long famous
+for cures.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap22" id="chap22"></a>22. Architecture: (<i>b</i>) Military&mdash;Castles.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Before the Norman Conquest there were no masonry
+built castles in Cornwall, only stockades of wood surmounting
+earthworks or piled up masses of stone
+uncemented. The usual Saxon <i>Burh</i> was a mound,
+surmounted by a structure of timber, reached by a bridge
+or ladder from a base-court that was encompassed by
+moat and mound and stockade. The Norman system
+of building a castle was to erect a round or square keep,
+a massive structure of stone, on the mound that had
+formerly been surmounted by a wooden structure, and to
+surround the base-court with a stone wall. Within this
+were erected the necessary domestic buildings. Very
+generally the entrance to the court was strongly defended
+by a second tower. The style of castle was greatly
+<span class="pagenum">[126]</span>
+altered in the reign of Edward I but of such Edwardian
+castles there are no examples in Cornwall, save the poor
+fragment of Tintagel. The Normans built a castle at
+Launceston, and there the circular keep standing on a
+lofty tump of rock, artificially shaped, is of their construction,
+but the ruined buildings below, with the
+gateways and walls of the base-court, are later.</p>
+
+<p>The castle of Trematon also consists of a "motte"
+surmounted by a circular keep, and a base-court with
+square tower at the entrance, with an archway.</p>
+
+<p>Tintagel Castle is reduced to a miserable ruin, part
+on the mainland, part on the islet, with the intervening
+portion blocked up by fallen rocks, forming a narrow
+isthmus. The deep chasm that formerly separated the
+two portions of the castle was anciently spanned by a
+drawbridge. The work appears to be of the thirteenth
+century. On the island are the remains of a chapel with
+its altar slab still in place. Tintagel became a residence
+of the Earls of Cornwall, and in 1245, Richard son of
+King John received in it his nephew David, Prince of
+Wales. It was subsequently used occasionally as a prison.
+In the reign of Elizabeth, that penurious queen, deeming
+the expense of keeping it up too onerous, allowed it to
+fall into ruin.</p>
+
+<p>St Michael's Mount was crowned with a castle and
+a church. The oldest portion is the central tower, of the
+fourteenth or fifteenth century; other portions are later
+additions, and much very bad modern work has tended
+to its sad disfigurement. Edward the Confessor planted a
+monastery on the rock, and granted it to Mont S. Michel
+<span class="pagenum">[127]</span>
+in Normandy; at the Conquest it was made over to Robert
+Earl of Mortain, but the Benedictines of Mont S. Michel
+continued to have a cell there with a prior. It was consequently
+at once a religious house and a military post.</p>
+
+<p>Restormel, near Lostwithiel, consists of a keep crowning
+a hill, with a gatehouse on the west, a projecting
+tower on the E.N.E., and a chapel. It is not older than
+the reign of Henry III and was the stronghold of the
+Cardinhams and then of the Traceys, from whom it
+passed to the Earls of Cornwall. The circular keep is
+only 30 ft. high. The castle was already ruinous in the
+time of the Civil War, but it was put in repair and held
+by the Parliamentary forces till taken by Grenville.</p>
+
+<p>St Mawes is a small but perfect castle, erected by
+Henry VIII.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus57.jpg" alt="St Mawes Castle" /><a name="illus57" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">St Mawes Castle</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[128]</span></p>
+
+<p>Pendennis Castle was another erection of Henry VIII,
+on the site of earlier fortifications. The circular tower
+dates from his time, but it was added to considerably in
+the reign of Elizabeth. In 1644 Pendennis afforded shelter
+to Queen Henrietta Maria, when embarking for France,
+and hither came Prince Charles in 1646 on his way to
+Scilly.</p>
+
+<p>Helsborough, near Michaelstow, was a fortress belonging
+to the Earls of Cornwall, but it shows no tokens
+of having ever been walled with masonry. The only
+structural remains to be seen are the ruins in the midst
+of a Perpendicular chapel.</p>
+
+<p>On Carn Brea is a tower, another on Roche rock; and
+St Catherine's Castle, erected by order of Henry VIII,
+defended the entrance to the harbour of Fowey.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap23" id="chap23"></a>23. Architecture: (<i>c</i>) Domestic and Monastic.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In England generally castles belonged only to the
+Crown or to great nobles, and no gentleman was suffered
+to castellate or embattle his walls without a special licence
+from the Crown. In Cornwall all the castles pertained to
+the Crown or the Duke of Cornwall, and private persons
+had to content themselves with purely domestic mansions.
+Till the reign of Elizabeth the dining-hall reaching to the
+roof was the most conspicuous feature, and opening out
+of it was the ladies' bower, a small oak-panelled room.
+The inconvenience arising from a house being cut in half
+<span class="pagenum">[129]</span>
+by the hall led in the reign of Elizabeth to an alteration,
+and the halls were ceiled over, so that the upper portion
+could be used for bedrooms and passage. Before her reign
+the usual form of a house was quadrangular, that is to say
+a court surrounded by buildings entered by a gate, with
+the hall and principal portions of the house opposite the
+entrance gate. But in the reign of Elizabeth it became
+the fashion to form the house in the shape of the letter E.
+In her father's reign it often had the shape of the letter H
+with the open ends closed by slight walls.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall possesses very few stately houses. At the
+close of the seventeenth century a schoolmaster at Trebartha
+filled a folio with sketches of the ancient manor-houses of
+the neighbourhood of the Tamar; picturesque old mansions
+of the reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth. Nearly every
+one has disappeared. The squirearchy of Cornwall, flush
+of money, through tin, pulled down their old residences and
+built mansions in the Georgian period, totally devoid of
+interest. Of the old houses few remain except as farm
+houses. They were, however, never so magnificent as
+those in the counties where bricks and easily dressed stone
+existed. But still there remain Cothele, unaltered, the
+beautiful house of Lord Mount Edgcumbe on the Tamar;
+Basil, the manor-house of the Trevelyans, much mutilated
+by the barbarous hand of a modern architect; Trecarrel,
+near Launceston, an old Tudor mansion with a noble hall,
+never completed; Place, near Padstow, formerly Prideaux
+Castle, the Elizabethan residence of the Prideaux Brunes,
+very stately, and with a dining room rich in carved oak;
+Lanherne, built in 1580, a small manor-house of the
+<span class="pagenum">[130]</span>
+Arundells and now a convent; Lanhydrock, built by the
+first Lord Roberts&mdash;they called themselves later Robartes;
+Place House, Fowey, with rich sculpture; Trerice, the
+old seat of the Arundells; Tregudick with its Elizabethan
+hall; Penheale, once the seat of the Speccots, in Egloskerry;
+Tonacombe, an unaltered house of the reign of Henry VII,
+in Morwenstow; Penfound in Poundstock, small but
+charming; and Lanreath, with a carved oak parlour, the
+ancient house of the Grylls family. There are others,
+now farmhouses, and only spared on that account, deserted
+when the squires moved elsewhere and did not pull down
+their ancestral residences.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus58.jpg" alt="Cothele" /><a name="illus58" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Cothele</p>
+
+<p>A monastic building consisted of a church, with a
+<span class="pagenum">[131]</span>
+cloister court adjoining, about which were the dormitories,
+a library, and a refectory or room in which all had their
+meals in common. There would be often two courts,
+one outer, the other with the cloister about it in which the
+monks mainly lived and in the centre of which was the
+monastic graveyard. The garden of pot herbs and herbs
+for medicinal purposes was an essential feature of all
+monastic settlements, as was also the stewpond or ponds
+for fish. The necessity under which the monks lay of
+being near water, both for their fish and for sanitary
+purposes and for drinking, led to all monastic establishments
+lying low down in valleys by running streams.</p>
+
+<p>Of monastic remains there are few. At Launceston
+the foundations of St John's Priory have been laid bare.
+At Glasney in Penryn a few walls alone represent what
+was once a stately priory. Of the great house at Bodmin
+hardly a wall stands, but some remains of the sanatorium
+exist at Lavethan. At Lanivet are the remains of
+St Benet's Monastery, till 1859 the most picturesque
+and best preserved of the monastic buildings in Cornwall,
+except St Michael's Mount. An engraving of the remains
+was published by Lysons in 1814, which shows the house
+to have been beautifully situated, and as beautiful as its
+situation demanded. At the date mentioned it was
+mutilated and spoilt.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall cannot boast picturesque cottages. Some
+few remain that possess some charm, as the old Post-office
+at Tintagel, some slate-hung dwellings in West Looe, the
+Lugger Inn, Fowey, and the almshouses at St Germans.
+There are as well some that call for an artist to use his
+<span class="pagenum">[132]</span>
+pencil at Saltash. But, on the whole, the county is poor
+in the domestic architecture of farm and cottage, and
+house fronts in the towns, with rare exceptions, are not of
+any artistic character.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus59.jpg" alt="The Old Post Office, Tintagel" /><a name="illus59" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Old Post Office, Tintagel</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap24" id="chap24"></a>24. Communications&mdash;Roads, Railways.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The great road from London to Falmouth ran through
+Launceston, Bodmin, and Truro, and was kept in good
+order, and over it raced the mail coaches that conveyed
+letters on to the packets at Falmouth. This was the
+main artery of communication for more than a century,
+till Falmouth was abandoned as a mail-packet station by
+the Government. From 18 to 20 fine vessels performed
+this service, carrying letters and papers to all parts of the
+<span class="pagenum">[133]</span>
+world, until the extension of railways caused the service
+to be transferred to Southampton.</p>
+
+<p>Whether there were systematically constructed Roman
+roads in Cornwall has been doubted. One curious ancient
+road&mdash;the Giant's Hedge&mdash;is found near Lanreath, and
+appears to have been a portion of a road raised on a bank
+that started from a ferry over the Tamar and was carried
+into the west of Cornwall. There was a road also that
+came from Exeter and crossed the Tamar at Polson
+Bridge and then turned north to Camelford. Another
+ran past Stratton to the estuary of the Camel opposite
+Padstow, where Romano-British remains have been found
+on Bray Hill. But it is possible enough that these roads
+were of British and not of Roman construction.</p>
+
+<p>In the Middle Ages little or nothing was done to keep
+the roads in repair. Even in the eighteenth century all
+that was thought necessary was to throw down a load
+of boulders into the ruts, rake them in, and leave coach
+and cart wheels to grind them up. But the roads were
+taken in hand at the beginning of the nineteenth century,
+and the turnpikes served to provide funds for keeping
+them in order, while Macadam's invention of breaking the
+stones before laying them on the roads assisted enormously
+in facilitating transit along them.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus60.jpg" alt="A Cornish Stile" /><a name="illus60" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">A Cornish Stile</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[134]</span></p>
+<p>The roads in Cornwall are now for the most part
+excellent, metalled with elvan, and cyclists and motorists
+can have little to complain of on that score.</p>
+
+<p>Two railway companies have penetrated the county;
+the G.W.R. in the south crosses the Tamar by the
+famous Saltash tubular bridge, and runs to Penzance,
+<span class="pagenum">[135]</span>
+by Truro. There is a branch to Bodmin, another to
+Fowey, and another crosses the county to Newquay.
+After reaching Truro, the line deserts the south, but sends
+a branch down to Falmouth. It runs to Redruth and
+Camborne and reaches the sea at Hayle. It sends a short
+branch up to St Ives, but the main line turns south again
+to end in a terminus at Penzance. The L. &amp; S.W.R.,
+after sending out a branch to Bude, reaches Launceston,
+and then supplies the dreary country from Launceston to
+Camelford with communication. From Camelford it
+runs to Wadebridge; and down the estuary to Padstow, a
+branch to the south serving Bodmin.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the branches already mentioned are
+others to Looe and Helston.</p>
+
+<p>Penzance is reached from Paddington in 8&frac12; hours and
+Newquay in half-an-hour less.</p>
+
+<p>The L. &amp; S.W.R. leaving Waterloo reaches Launceston
+in 5&frac12; hours, Bude in 6 hours, and Wadebridge
+in under 7 hours. From Wadebridge coaches run to
+Newquay.</p>
+
+<p>A steamer maintains communication with the Scilly
+Isles from Penzance.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap25" id="chap25"></a>25. Administration and Divisions, Ancient and Modern.</h2>
+
+<p>Before the Conquest the divisions of the county were
+probably those afterwards forming the old deaneries, and
+followed the limits of the Celtic tribes under their several
+<span class="pagenum">[136]</span>
+chiefs. Of these there were eight:&mdash;East and West,
+Kerrier, Penwith, Powder, Pyder, Trigg Major, and
+Trigg Minor, but at the Conquest a redistribution was
+made in hundreds. These were Conarton, Fawiton,
+Pawton, Riatton, Stratton, Tibesta or Tibesterna, and
+Winneton. There may have been an Anglo-Saxon
+redistribution. But it was a rearrangement that did not
+last, and never commended itself to the people, and it is
+not easy now to ascertain what the limits were. Conarton
+was Penwith. Perhaps Tibesta was Powder and Winneton
+Kerrier. East and West composed one district of
+Wyvelshire.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall was first an Earldom, and then accordingly
+a County, but when raised to be a Dukedom it became a
+Duchy. It had two chief officers, the Earl and the Sheriff,
+the latter appointed by the crown.</p>
+
+<p>The county was divided up into hundreds for administrative
+purposes. Each hundred was supposed roughly
+to contain a hundred free families. Each hundred had
+its own court, and every township its assembly under the
+reeve. But the tinners were under their own laws and
+officers, and their court, called the Stannary Court, sat
+formerly at Lostwithiel. Every manor also had its court.</p>
+
+<p>All the hundreds of Cornwall, except Penwith, from
+time immemorial belonged to the Earls of Cornwall. The
+hundreds and Petty Sessional Divisions are now coextensive,
+and are as follows:&mdash;1. Hundred of East (Northern
+Division). 2. Hundred of East (Southern Division).
+3. Hundred of Kerrier. 4. Hundred of Lesnewth.
+5. Hundred of Penwith. 6. Hundred of Powder, East.
+<span class="pagenum">[137]</span>
+7. Hundred of Pyder, West. 8. Hundred of Pyder,
+East. 9. Hundred of Stratton. 10. Hundred of Trigg.
+11. Hundred of West.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall formerly returned four county members in
+two divisions, but under the provisions of the "Redistribution
+of Seats Act, 1885," it now returns six members
+in six divisions. 1. The western or St Ives division.
+2. The north-western or Camborne division. 3. The
+Truro division. 4. The Mid or St Austell division.
+5. The south-eastern or Bodmin division. 6. The north-eastern
+or Launceston division. Under the provisions
+of the above-mentioned Act, the boroughs of Bodmin,
+Helston, Launceston, Liskeard, St Ives, and Truro were
+deprived of independent representation and merged in the
+county, and Penryn and Falmouth lost one member.</p>
+
+<p>In 1877 the diocese of Truro, taken from that of
+Exeter, was formed, comprising the whole county of
+Cornwall, together with the parishes of Broadwood-Widger,
+Virginstow, Werrington, St Giles on the Heath,
+and North Petherwin, which are in the county of Devon.
+The Stannary Court is now at Truro, but its occupation
+is almost gone.</p>
+
+<p>The Poor Law Unions are Bodmin, Camelford,
+Falmouth, Helston, Launceston, Liskeard, Penzance,
+St Austell, Redruth, St Columb, St Germans, Scilly Isles,
+Stratton, and Truro.</p>
+
+<p>The County Council formed under the Local Government
+Act of 1888 consists of a chairman, aldermen, and
+councillors; but for the local government of the towns
+and parishes another Act was passed in 1894, and new
+<span class="pagenum">[138]</span>
+names were given to the local bodies. In the large urban
+parishes the chief authorities are now entitled District
+Councils, while the smaller parishes have their Parish
+Councils or only Parish Meetings.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus61.jpg" alt="The Old Guildhall and Pillory, Looe" /><a name="illus61" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">The Old Guildhall and Pillory, Looe</p>
+
+<p>The county is in the western circuit; the assize and
+quarter sessions, which were formerly held at Launceston,
+<span class="pagenum">[139]</span>
+a most inconvenient place for the purpose, being at the
+extreme limit of the county, are now held at Bodmin.</p>
+
+<p>In Cornwall there are 223 civil parishes and the
+municipal boroughs are eleven, Bodmin, Falmouth, Helston,
+Launceston, Liskeard, Lostwithiel, Penryn, Penzance,
+Saltash, St Ives, and Truro.</p>
+
+<p>The civil parishes and those that are ecclesiastical are
+not always conterminous. Of the latter there are 236.
+There are two Archdeaconries, Cornwall and Bodmin,
+and twelve deaneries, St Austell, Carnmarth, Kerrier,
+Penwith, Powder, and Pydar in the Archdeaconry of
+Cornwall, and Bodmin, East, Stratton, Trigg Major and
+Minor, and West in that of Bodmin. There is a Bishop
+at Truro and a suffragan who takes his title from
+St Germans.
+<span class="pagenum">[140]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap26" id="chap26"></a>26. Roll of Honour.</h2>
+
+
+<p>It would, perhaps, be invidious to say that Cornwall
+has produced men of more brilliant and varied achievements
+than any other county in England, but she can
+certainly show a very notable roll of honour. As might
+be expected from her geographical position, aided by good
+harbours, she has produced some great seamen who have
+done gallant service for England. At the head of these
+must come Sir Richard Grenville, hero of the <i>Revenge</i>,
+whose action off the Azores in 1591 has rendered him
+one of England's immortals. Trapped by the huge
+Spanish fleet off Flores, Sir Richard had many of his crew
+sick on shore, but declined to leave till they had been
+brought on board. The <i>Revenge</i> engaged fifteen large
+Spanish men-of-war and stood at bay from three in the
+afternoon all through the night till the following morning,
+when the last barrel of powder was spent. Ralegh told
+of it, as did Gervase Markham in 1595, and Tennyson
+nearly 300 years later in the stirring lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+"Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built galleons came,<br />
+Ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle-thunder and flame;<br />
+Ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back with her dead and her shame.<br />
+For some were sunk and many were shattered, and so could fight us no more&mdash;<br />
+God of Battles, was ever a battle like this in the world before?"<br /></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[141]</span>
+His grandson, Sir Bevil Grenville, "the Mirror of
+Chivalry," was a scarcely less notable warrior on land
+and fell in the Royalist victory of Lansdowne near Bath
+in 1643. Admiral Edward Boscawen, "Old Dreadnought,"
+third son of Viscount Falmouth, distinguished
+himself at the taking of Cartagena and in the Cape
+Breton expedition, but his most memorable deed was the
+defeat of the French Toulon fleet in Lagos Bay in 1759.
+Captain Bligh, noteworthy as the captain of the <i>Bounty</i>,
+<span class="pagenum">[142]</span>
+of which the mutiny is one of the most familiar tragedies
+of the sea, was perhaps in great measure the author of his
+own misfortunes, for he was a man of very overbearing
+temper, but his journey of 3618 miles in an open boat
+after having been set adrift with others by the mutineers
+was a remarkable feat. The Pellew family has added
+at least two names to the roll of distinguished sailors.
+Edward Pellew, when in command of the <i>Nymphe</i>,
+manned by Cornish miners, captured the French man-of-war
+<i>Cléopâtre</i> under peculiarly gallant circumstances, the
+first of a series of brilliant exploits which led to his being
+created Baron Exmouth. Later, in 1816, he bombarded
+Algiers, reduced the Dey to submission, and put an end
+to the Barbary corsairs. His brother, Admiral Sir Isaac
+Pellew, commanded the <i>Conqueror</i> at the battle of
+Trafalgar.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus62.jpg" alt="Captain Bligh" /><a name="illus62" title=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="caption">Captain Bligh</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall being a land of mines has developed
+machinery and furthered invention in this direction. The
+most notable of the inventors she has produced is Richard
+Trevithick, who first made the high-pressure engine, and
+is still more remarkable as the early pioneer of motor
+traffic, putting his road locomotive on the Camborne
+highway on Christmas Day, 1801, and obtaining a speed
+with it of 12 miles per hour. In 1812 he laid before the
+Navy Board his invention for a screw propeller for ships,
+only to meet with a refusal. Sir Goldsworthy Gurney,
+born in 1793, also ran steam-motors on the roads until
+they were forbidden by Act of Parliament, and the work
+of a lifetime and his fortune of £30,000 vanished into
+thin air. The oxy-hydrogen blowpipe and the steam-jet
+<span class="pagenum">[143]</span>
+were invented by him. The wreck of H.M.S. <i>Anson</i> on
+Looe bar with the loss of over 100 lives in 1807 had a
+great effect on one of the spectators, Henry Trengrouse,
+a Helston cabinet-maker, who thereupon invented the
+rocket life-saving apparatus and spent £3000&mdash;all his
+means&mdash;in experiments and in vain endeavours to induce
+Government to adopt the system. Another great benefactor
+to mankind was Sir Humphry Davy, the son of a
+poor gilder near Penzance. His safety-lamp he nobly
+<span class="pagenum">[144]</span>
+refused to patent lest the sphere of its usefulness should
+be restricted, and he is fittingly honoured with a statue in
+his native town.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus63.jpg" alt="Sir Humphry Davy" /><a name="illus63" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Sir Humphry Davy</p>
+
+<p>More than one distinguished traveller finds place
+among Cornish worthies. Richard Lander, the son of a
+Truro innkeeper (1805-34), stands at the head of them.
+He went with Clapperton to Sokoto and on his death
+took up his work, tracing the mouth of the Niger on a
+second expedition, and dying on a third at Fernando Po.
+Peter Mundy, born about 1596 at "Penrin, a pretty
+towne in Corne Wall," as he describes it, was one of the
+most remarkable travellers that the West of England has
+produced, whether in virtue of his long trading voyages to
+the Far East, or of his continental wanderings, of which
+he kept a not less careful record. James Silk Buckingham,
+who died in 1855, wrote eighteen books of travel, but
+was mainly noteworthy for his endeavours to do away
+with the monopoly of the East India Company.</p>
+
+<p>Among statesmen must be noticed Sir John Eliot,
+born at Port Eliot in 1592, and at one time friend of
+George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, with whom he
+later broke, and taking up a strong line in the Parliament
+of 1628 against arbitrary taxation helped to force the
+Petition of Right from Charles. He was ultimately
+committed to the Tower, where he died three years later
+in 1632. To give an adequate sketch of the life of
+Sidney Godolphin would be to give the history of the
+times of Charles II, James II, William of Orange and
+Anne, with each and all of whom he was closely implicated.
+An extraordinarily able financier, his character
+<span class="pagenum">[145]</span>
+was such as to permit him to serve either party indifferently.
+"Sidney Godolphin," said Charles, "is never in the way
+and never out of the way." Lord High Treasurer under
+Queen Anne, he was made Earl of Godolphin, only to
+be disgraced in 1710 and die shortly after.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel Drew, the "Cornish Metaphysician," who
+was born at St Austell, had been a smuggler and a shoemaker
+in his earlier days, but developed into a Wesleyan
+preacher and became the author of an essay on the
+Immortality of the Soul. Of more normal mould was
+Humphrey Prideaux, born at Padstow in 1648, who
+wrote a <i>Life of Mahomet</i>, and <i>The Old and New Testament
+Connected</i>, which reached its 27th edition only a few
+years ago. He became Dean of Norwich and died in
+1724.</p>
+
+<p>Cornwall has produced several local antiquaries, as
+the Rev. Richard Polwhele, who died in 1838; the
+Rev. William Borlase, d. 1772; William Hals, the
+historian of the Duchy; and William Sandys, who died
+in 1874. She has had but few true poets, but the
+Rev. Robert Stephen Hawker, though not actually born
+in Cornwall, spent all his life there and may certainly
+come under this heading. He became Vicar of Morwenstow
+in 1834, and remained there till his death in 1875,
+having during this time transformed his parishioners from
+a set of lawless wreckers to a decent community. His
+poems were almost all connected with Cornish subjects,
+and one of the best known of them is that on Bishop
+<span class="pagenum">[146]</span>
+Trelawney's imprisonment&mdash;"A good sword and a trusty
+sword," with the refrain&mdash;"And shall Trelawney die?
+There's twenty thousand Cornishmen; Shall know the
+reason why."</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus64.jpg" alt="John Opie" /><a name="illus64" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">John Opie</p>
+
+<p>"A wondrous Cornishman, who is carrying all before
+him" is Sir Joshua Reynolds' description of John Opie
+the painter, who was born the son of a poor carpenter
+near Truro in 1761, became an R.A. and portrait-painter
+of great note, and died in 1807. His second wife was
+Amelia Opie the novelist, daughter of the Norwich
+physician, Dr Alderson. Henry Bone, the enamellist, is
+also of sufficient distinction to deserve mention here.
+<span class="pagenum">[147]</span></p>
+
+<p>Of the astronomers of modern times few have attained
+the eminence of John Couch Adams, the discoverer of
+the planet Neptune, who was born at Laneast in 1819.
+As a shepherd boy he loved to lie on his back and watch
+the stars, and he at once devoted himself to the study of
+astronomy when he was sent to school at Saltash. He
+became Senior Wrangler at Cambridge in 1843, and soon
+after taking his degree, being struck with irregularities in
+the motion of Uranus, he made a series of calculations
+and observations which resulted in the discovery of the
+new planet, the French astronomer Leverrier having
+simultaneously recorded its existence. A distinguished
+geologist and one of the pioneers of scientific cave
+exploration was William Pengelly, whose great work
+was the thorough examination of Kent's Cavern near
+Torquay, a labour which lasted from 1865 to 1880.
+Last, but by no means least worthy of mention in our
+list, must come Davies Gilbert, a great discerner of rising
+genius, to which he was ever ready to lend help and
+encouragement. The patron of Davy, Trevithick, Horn-*blower,
+and Goldsworthy Gurney, he was himself a man
+of remarkable and varied abilities, scientist, mathematician,
+and antiquary, and President of the Royal Society. He
+died in 1839.
+<span class="pagenum">[148]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap27" id="chap27"></a>27. THE CHIEF TOWNS AND VILLAGES OF CORNWALL.</h2>
+
+
+<blockquote><p>(The figures in brackets after each name give the population in
+1901 and those at the end of each section are references to
+the pages in the text.)</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p><b>Bodmin</b> (5353), now held to be the county town. Formerly
+there was a priory here, founded in 938. The church, the largest
+in Cornwall, is Perpendicular, except the tower and a part of the
+chancel, which are earlier. In it is the fine monument of Prior
+Vyvyan (1533). Bodmin is a municipal borough, market, and
+union town, and head of a county court district. The Assizes
+are held here. The town is pleasantly situated nearly in the
+centre of the county. A branch of the G.W.R. leads from
+Bodmin Road station on the main line. The L. &amp; S.W.R. has
+also a branch to Bodmin from Wadebridge. The prison stands
+about half a mile north-west of the town; and the County Lunatic
+Asylum a little to the west. Bodmin has also a Hospital and
+Dispensary, and Barracks for military. (pp. 9, 14, 18, 24, 67,
+96, 102, 104, 111, 131, 132, 135, 137, 139.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Bude</b> (see Stratton).</p>
+
+<p><b>Callington</b> (1714), a small market town, formerly a parliamentary
+borough returning two members. Callington is in the
+ecclesiastical parish of North Hill, and the church is merely a
+chapel of ease. It is in the Perpendicular style, and has the unusual
+<span class="pagenum">[149]</span>
+feature in Devon and Cornwall of having a clerestory.
+The L. &amp; S.W.R. has constructed a light railway from Beer Alston
+to Callington and Calstock. (pp. 105, 124.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Calstock</b> (5874) is a large village and township. The
+church is at a distance from the village or town. Gunnislake,
+two miles north of Calstock, is in the parish. Both places have
+declined in numbers and prosperity through the abandonment of
+the mines in the neighbourhood. (pp. 15, 69, 72, 87, 101.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Camborne</b> (14,726), a market town with a station on the
+main line of the G.W.R. It is a great seat of mining operations.
+(pp. 38, 81, 101, 135, 137.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Camelford</b> (1384), a small market and union town, in a
+bleak and wind-swept situation, consisting of one street. It is
+the head of a county court district and magisterial division. It
+is in the parish of Lanteglos, nearly two miles distant, and has not
+in it even a chapel of ease. Camelford was an ancient borough
+with mayor and corporation. (pp. 14, 105, 133, 135, 137.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Falmouth</b> (3207), a seaport, market, and union town and a
+municipal borough. It is the head of a county court district.
+Falmouth was incorporated by charter 1661. It has the advantage
+of possessing one of the finest and most capacious
+harbours in the country. As many as 350 to 400 sail have taken
+refuge here in winter at various times. There are docks,
+factories, and building yards. Of late an attempt has been made to
+turn Falmouth into a winter resort for invalids, and the coast is
+advertised as "The Cornish Riviera," but it is a Riviera without
+the sun of the Mediterranean. (pp. 30, 31, 48, 66, 88, 92, 94,
+95, 96, 132, 135, 137, 139.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Fowey</b> (2258), once a borough, is a market town and a
+shipping port with a station on a branch of the G.W.R. The
+church of St Finbar is a noble edifice in the Perpendicular style
+but with portions on the north dating from 1336. Place House,
+the seat of the Treffry family, is a beautiful, richly-sculptured
+<span class="pagenum">[150]</span>
+mansion of the reign of Henry VII. Fowey consists of one very
+narrow street. The town was created a borough by Elizabeth,
+returning two members, but was disfranchised in 1832. (pp. 49,
+88, 105, 119, 128, 130, 131, 135.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus65.jpg" alt="Fowey" /><a name="illus65" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Fowey</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[151]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Grampound</b> (491) deserves mention only as having returned
+two members to Parliament before the Reform Bill, and
+as formerly a borough. (pp. 18, 105.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Helston</b> (3088) is a municipal borough, market, and union
+town, and the resort of all who want to buy or sell in the Lizard
+district. It was not formed into an ecclesiastical parish till 1845.
+A branch of the G.W.R. reaches it. Below the town is the
+beautiful Loe Pool. The principal streets form a cross, and have
+a constant flow of water through them. (pp. 8, 104, 135, 137, 139,
+143.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus66.jpg" alt="Helston" /><a name="illus66" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Helston from Bullock Lane</p>
+
+<p><b>Launceston</b> (14,310), the ancient capital, is a municipal
+borough, market, and union town, and head of a county court
+<span class="pagenum">[152]</span>
+district. The town occupies a height, and above it towers the
+ancient castle, but a portion of the town, Newport, lies in the
+valley at the foot. Both the G.W.R. and the L. &amp; S.W.R. have
+stations at Launceston. The church of granite is richly sculptured
+throughout; but in a debased Perpendicular style. It replaced an
+older church of which the tower alone remains. (pp. 7, 15, 25,
+67, 96, 104, 111, 117, 121, 126, 129, 131, 132, 135, 137, 139.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus67.jpg" alt="Launceston" /><a name="illus67" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Launceston</p>
+
+<p><b>Liskeard</b> (4945), a municipal borough, market, and union
+town, head also of a county court district, with a station on the
+G.W.R. Liskeard returned two members to Parliament till
+disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The church of
+St Martin is the largest in the county next to that of Bodmin; it
+is in the Perpendicular style but retains portions of earlier work.
+Liskeard mainly flourishes on the granite quarries of the Cheesewring;
+it did at one time flourish still more on the mines of tin and
+copper in Caradon. (pp. 12, 18, 31, 104, 119, 122, 125, 137, 139.)
+<span class="pagenum">[153]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Looe</b> (2588) is composed of two towns, East Looe and West
+Looe, separated by a creek and united by a long bridge. East
+Looe was formerly a borough returning two members. It is the
+terminus of a branch line of the G.W.R. There is a good tidal
+harbour, to which vessels of large tonnage can be brought up for
+the shipment of ore and granite, conveyed thither from Caradon
+and the Cheesewring, and thence coal is conveyed to Liskeard
+and its neighbourhood. The old town hall is a picturesque
+building. West Looe was also originally a borough returning
+two members. (pp. 31, 49, 50, 92, 105, 131, 135, 138, 143.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus68.jpg" alt="Looe" /><a name="illus68" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Looe</p>
+
+<p><b>Marazion</b> (1252) or Market Jew derives its name from a
+Thursday market there held. In ancient times the place was
+supported by the pilgrims resorting to St Michael's Mount. The
+town was pillaged by the French in the reign of Henry VIII.
+From Marazion St Michael's Mount is reached. At the base of
+<span class="pagenum">[154]</span>
+the Mount lies a fishing village of 38 houses, and a little harbour.
+From the sea the hill rises to a height of 230 ft., the body of the
+island is granite but its north base is of slate. The castle is the
+property of Lord St Levan. Marazion is a station on the G.W.R.
+(pp. 9, 44, 45, 96.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Mevagissey</b> (2088), a seaport town situated on a fine bay
+six miles south of St Austell, the nearest railway station. The
+natural harbour is safe and sheltered. A new harbour has been
+constructed. The inhabitants depend almost wholly for subsistence
+on the fishery of pilchards. (pp. 48, 93.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Newlyn</b> (1302) is not a town, it is an ecclesiastical parish
+formed in 1848 out of the parishes of Paul and Madron. It has
+a harbour, and is a seat of fishery. Many artists have been
+attracted hither by the mildness of the climate and the picturesqueness
+of the quaint old streets, and of the fisherfolk. (pp. 44, 93.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Newquay</b> (2935) is a new and rising sea-bathing and
+holiday resort, to which run two branches of the G.W.R. It
+possesses a beautiful stretch of sands, and is near some of the
+finest coast scenery in Cornwall. (pp. 37, 135.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Padstow</b> (1566) is a quaint old seaport on the estuary of the Camel. It
+has a fine church with a beautiful carved font. Above the town is
+Prideaux Place, an Elizabethan mansion. The town lies in a valley and
+consists mainly of one street. It is a market town, and is connected
+with the L. &amp; S.W.R. by a branch line. (pp. 7, 9, 13, 14, 34, 55, 56,
+57, 67, 93, 94, 119, 129, 133, 135, 145.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Penryn</b> (3256), a market town and municipal borough,
+situated on an arm of Falmouth harbour that is being gradually
+silted up. The parish church is dedicated to St Gluvias. It
+formerly returned two members to Parliament. Here was formerly
+a monastic establishment, at Glasney, but of this only a few
+fragments of wall remain. There is a station on the branch
+to Falmouth of the G.W.R. (pp. 18, 96, 105, 131, 137, 139, 144.)
+<span class="pagenum">[155]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>Penzance</b> (12,155), the most westerly town in England.
+The name signifies the Holy Head; it is a seaport, municipal
+borough, and union town. The climate is here most warm and
+relaxing. Penzance was incorporated in 1614 and has a corporation
+consisting of a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen councillors.
+There are some fine public buildings, and a good museum for the
+birds, minerals, and antiquities of Western Cornwall. Hence
+starts the steamer that communicates with the Scilly Isles. From
+Penzance excursions are made to the Land's End district, which
+abounds in magnificent coast scenery, and in prehistoric megalithic
+monuments. (pp. 44, 58, 66, 88, 92, 96, 108, 111, 134, 135, 137,
+139, 143.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Probus</b> (1207) is a large village rather than a town, and is
+situated two and a half miles from Grampound station on the
+G.W.R. It is chiefly remarkable for its church tower, sculptured
+throughout, and erected in the reign of Elizabeth. (p. 120.)</p>
+
+<p><b>St Agnes</b> (4291), a market town, reached by a branch of
+the G.W.R. The church is Decorated, and has a spire, an
+unusual feature in Cornwall. (pp. 38, 55, 58, 110.)</p>
+
+<p><b>St Austell</b> (3340), a market and union town with a station
+on the G.W.R. A place that flourishes on the china-clay works
+in the neighbourhood. The church has a noble tower and is in
+the Perpendicular style. It possesses an exceedingly curious and
+early font. Near St Austell is Menacudle, perhaps the most
+picturesquely situated and best preserved of the Holy Wells in
+Cornwall. (pp. 7, 9, 24, 26, 48, 85, 96, 120, 122, 137, 139, 145, 154.)</p>
+
+<p><b>St Blazey</b> (2931), a market town with a station on the
+Newquay branch of the G.W.R.</p>
+
+<p><b>St Columb Major</b> (2640), an ancient market town two and
+a half miles from the St Columb Road Station on the Newquay
+branch of the G.W.R. and also in connexion with the L. &amp; S.W.R.
+at Wadebridge by coach. The church is fine, Perpendicular in
+style, and has an interesting cross in the churchyard. The
+<span class="pagenum">[156]</span>
+chancel, formerly ten feet longer, was wrecked by an explosion of
+gunpowder stored in the church, in 1676. There is a picturesque
+old building with state hangings, originally a residence of the
+Arundells of Trerice, near the churchyard gate. The old Cornish
+hurling is still practised at St Columb. (pp. 9, 18, 99, 108, 119,
+137.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus69.jpg" alt="Cross in Churchyard, St Columb" /><a name="illus69" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Cross in Churchyard, St Columb</p>
+
+<p><b>St Germans</b> (2126), a large village rather than a town,
+with a station on the G.W.R. It returned representatives to
+Parliament from 1562 till the passing of the Reform Act in 1832.
+The church is especially interesting from its noble Norman west
+front. It lies in the park of the Earl of St Germans. The
+almshouses in the town are especially to be noted for their
+picturesqueness. (pp. 17, 105, 118, 131, 137, 139.)
+<span class="pagenum">[157]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>St Ives</b> (6699), a municipal borough on the shore of St Ives
+Bay, and the terminus of a branch of the G.W.R. from St Erth.
+The corporation now consists of a mayor, four aldermen, and
+twelve councillors. The borough formerly returned two members
+to Parliament. The town is irregularly built with narrow
+streets and has "a very ancient fishlike smell." The church is
+interesting, it possesses curious carved bench-ends, and an old
+cross outside, of an unusually elaborate description. The population
+is almost entirely dependent on the fishing industry; but
+of late a St Ives school of painting has grown up, and artists have
+settled here to study sea effects, and seafaring people. (pp. 7, 9, 38,
+56, 67, 87, 88, 93, 94, 102, 105, 135, 137, 139.)</p>
+
+<p><b>St Just in Penwith</b> (5646), a market town seven miles
+west of Penzance, the nearest railway station. The town consists
+of several streets diverging from a triangular space in the centre.
+The church, well cared for, is Perpendicular in style. (pp. 40, 110,
+111.)</p>
+
+<p><b>St Mary's, Scilly</b> is a town and the focus of life in the
+Isles of Scilly. The total population of these isles is 2092. The
+Isles belong to the Duchy of Cornwall but have been leased to
+Mr Dorrien-Smith. A large business is done in the sending of
+flowers and early potatoes thence to London. There is a good
+pier and harbour. (pp. 58, 59, 96.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Saltash</b> (3357), built on a steep slope falling to the Hamoaze,
+returned two members to Parliament till disfranchised in 1832.
+The Royal Albert Bridge here crosses the Tamar, erected in
+1857-9, carrying the trains of the G.W.R. into Cornwall.
+Saltash has a station. It was formerly the great place of crossing
+from Devon to Cornwall and <i>vice versa</i> by ferry boats. (pp. 105,
+132, 134, 139, 147.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Stratton</b> and <b>Bude</b> (2308). Stratton is a small market
+and union town, and Bude its modern prosperous daughter is two
+miles off, the terminus of a branch of the L. &amp; S.W.R. whereas
+<span class="pagenum">[158]</span>
+Stratton has no station. It is a sleepy, decaying place; it possesses
+a fine church in which is the altar tomb of a Crusader, and another
+to Sir John Arundell of Trerice. On the other hand Bude is a
+growing and thriving watering-place, and possesses a small harbour.
+(pp. 7, 32, 33, 57, 103, 120, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Truro</b> (2215, but with Kenwyn 5836, and with St Clement
+3283 more). Truro is a city, the seat of a bishop, a municipal
+borough, head of an union and county court district, and a port.
+The city is situated in a valley and comprises the parishes of
+St Mary, Kenwyn and St Clement. At high water the tide forms
+a fine lake two miles in length reaching from Truro quay to Malpas,
+and the channel is of sufficient depth to be navigable for vessels
+of upwards of 70 tons. Truro was formerly one of the towns
+having the privilege of stamping tin, and is the seat of the
+Stannary Court. In 1876 Cornwall was cut off from Devon for
+ecclesiastical purposes and Truro constituted the seat of the
+<span class="pagenum">[159]</span>
+bishop, and in 1880 the present cathedral was begun. Truro
+possesses a Passmore Edwards Free Library, and it is the seat of
+the Royal Institution of Cornwall which has here a museum and
+a library. (pp. 18, 38, 66, 67, 96, 104, 123, 124, 132, 135, 137, 139,
+144, 146.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus70.jpg" alt="Truro" /><a name="illus70" title=""></a></p>
+<p class="caption">Truro</p>
+
+<p><b>Tywardreath</b> (2215) is a little town where once was a
+Benedictine priory. It has a coastguard station and a police
+station. (p. 48.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Wadebridge</b> (2186), a market town on the river Camel,
+partly in the parish of St Breock and partly in that of
+Egloshayle. It has a station on the L. &amp; S.W.R. whence also
+runs a branch to Bodmin and another to Padstow. A stone bridge
+originally of 17 but now of 15 arches, erected in 1485, connects
+Wadebridge with Egloshayle. The chief trade of the town
+consists in the exportation of granite, china-clay, and agricultural
+produce, and the principal imports are coal and timber. (pp. 14,
+135.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chap28" id="chap28"></a>28. DIAGRAMS.</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[160]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus71.png" alt="Figures 1 and 2 (Land area and Population)" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[161]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus72.png" alt="Figure 3 (Population Density)" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[162]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus73.png" alt="Figures 4 and 5 (Cultivation and Crops)" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[163]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus74.png" alt="Figures 6 and 7 (Livestock and Cereals)" /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[164]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/illus75.png" alt="Figures 8 and 9 (Pastures and Fish)" /></p>
+<hr style="width:50%" />
+
+<p style="font-size: 60%" class="center">CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS</p>
+<hr style="width: 80%" />
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/map2a.jpg" alt="Geological map - west" /><a name="map2a" title=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="images/map2b.jpg" alt="Geological map - east" /><a name="map2b" title=""></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornwall, by Sabine Baring-Gould
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornwall, by Sabine Baring-Gould
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Cornwall
+
+Author: Sabine Baring-Gould
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2011 [EBook #38190]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CORNWALL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Eric Skeet and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Italic text is denoted by _underscore_,
+bold text by =equal signs=, and fancy fonts by ~tilde~]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    CAMBRIDGE COUNTY GEOGRAPHIES
+    General Editor: F.H.H. GUILLEMARD, M.A., M.D.
+
+
+
+
+    CORNWALL
+
+
+
+
+    CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+    ~London~: FETTER LANE, E.C.
+    C.F. CLAY, MANAGER
+
+    [Illustration: Coat of Arms]
+
+    ~Edinburgh~: 100, PRINCES STREET
+
+    ~Berlin~: A. ASHER AND CO.
+
+    ~Leipzig~: F.A. BROCKHAUS
+
+    ~New York~: G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+    ~Bombay and Calcutta~: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.
+
+    [_All rights reserved_]
+
+
+
+
+    _Cambridge County Geographies_
+
+
+    CORNWALL
+
+    by
+
+    S. BARING-GOULD
+
+
+
+    With Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations
+
+
+
+    Cambridge:
+    at the University Press
+    1910
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    ~Cambridge~:
+    PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
+    AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                            PAGE
+
+  1.  County and Shire. Meaning of the Word                   1
+
+  2.  General Characteristics                                 3
+
+  3.  Size, Shape, Boundaries                                 5
+
+  4.  Surface and General Features                            8
+
+  5.  Watershed, Rivers                                      13
+
+  6.  Geology and Soil                                       19
+
+  7.  Natural History                                        26
+
+  8.  Around the Coast. From Morwenstow to Land's End        31
+
+  9.  Around the Coast. From Land's End to Rame Head         41
+
+  10.  The Coast--Gains and Losses                           51
+
+  11.  The Coast--Tides, Islands, and Lighthouses            57
+
+  12.  Climate--Rainfall                                     61
+
+  13.  People--Race, Dialect, Population                     67
+
+  14.  Agriculture--Main Cultivations. Stock                 72
+
+  15.  Industries and Manufactures                           79
+
+  16.  Minerals and Mining                                   80
+
+  17.  Fisheries                                             88
+
+  18.  Shipping and Trade                                    94
+
+  19.  History                                               97
+
+  20.  Antiquities: Prehistoric, Roman, Celtic, Saxon       106
+
+  21.  Architecture: (_a_) Ecclesiastical                   114
+
+  22.  Architecture: (_b_) Military--Castles                125
+
+  23.  Architecture: (_c_) Domestic and Monastic            128
+
+  24.  Communications--Roads, Railways                      132
+
+  25.  Administration and Divisions, Ancient and Modern     135
+
+  26.  Roll of Honour                                       140
+
+  27.  The Chief Towns and Villages of Cornwall             148
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                            PAGE
+  Luxulyan Village                                            3
+
+  Dozmare Pool                                                4
+
+  The Tamar, near Calstock                                    6
+
+  Grimsby Channel and Eastern Islands, Scilly                 8
+
+  Bodmin                                                      9
+
+  Rough Tor                                                  11
+
+  St Keyne's Well, Liskeard                                  12
+
+  On the Camel                                               13
+
+  Wadebridge                                                 15
+
+  Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash                               16
+
+  The Cheesewring                                            24
+
+  In a Cornish Garden                                        29
+
+  Bude Breakwater                                            32
+
+  King Arthur's Castle, Tintagel                             34
+
+  Bodruthan Steps                                            36
+
+  Newquay Harbour                                            37
+
+  The Wharf, St Ives                                         39
+
+  Land's End                                                 41
+
+  Newlyn Pier                                                42
+
+  St Michael's Mount                                         43
+
+  Kynance Cove and the Lizard                                45
+
+  Mullion Cove                                               47
+
+  Falmouth, from Flushing                                    48
+
+  Polperro                                                   49
+
+  Looe                                                       50
+
+  Perranporth Rocks                                          54
+
+  Round Island, Scilly                                       58
+
+  The Longships Lighthouse                                   59
+
+  Eddystone Lighthouse                                       60
+
+  Miners: Camborne                                           70
+
+  "First and Last House," Land's End                         73
+
+  Flower Farming, Scilly                                     77
+
+  Poldhu Hotel and the Marconi Station                       79
+
+  King Edward Mine, Camborne                                 81
+
+  China Clay Quarries, Porthpean                             84
+
+  Delabole Slate Quarries                                    86
+
+  Shipping Slate, Port Gavin                                 87
+
+  Pilchard Boats, Mevagissey                                 89
+
+  The Huers' House, Newquay                                  91
+
+  Pilchard Boats, St Ives Harbour                            93
+
+  Landing Fish, Newlyn                                       94
+
+  The St Vincent's Anchor, Falmouth                          95
+
+  The Nine Maidens, St Columb Major                          99
+
+  St Mawes, Falmouth Harbour                                105
+
+  Lanyon Cromlech                                           108
+
+  The Merry Maidens, St Buryan                              109
+
+  St Cleer: Monument to Doniert, son of Caradoc, died
+  A.D. 872.                                                 112
+
+  Mawgan Cross                                              113
+
+  St Buryan Cross                                           114
+
+  Buried Church, Perranporth                                117
+
+  Norman Doorway, St Germans Church                         118
+
+  Tympanum, Egloskerry Church                               119
+
+  Lanteglos Church                                          120
+
+  Launceston Church                                         121
+
+  Landewednack Church                                       123
+
+  Dupath Well, Callington                                   124
+
+  St Mawes Castle                                           127
+
+  Cothele                                                   130
+
+  The Old Post Office, Tintagel                             132
+
+  A Cornish Stile                                           134
+
+  The Old Guildhall and Pillory, Looe                       138
+
+  Captain Bligh                                             141
+
+  Sir Humphry Davy                                          143
+
+  John Opie                                                 146
+
+  Fowey                                                     150
+
+  Helston from Bullock Lane                                 151
+
+  Launceston                                                152
+
+  Looe                                                      153
+
+  Cross in Churchyard, St Columb                            156
+
+  Truro                                                     158
+
+  Diagrams                                                  160
+
+
+
+
+MAPS
+
+
+    Cornwall, Topographical                      Front Cover
+
+        "     Geological                          Back Cover
+
+    England and Wales, showing Annual Rainfall            63
+
+The illustrations on pp. 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 24, 32, 36, 37,
+39, 41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 59, 60, 70, 73, 79, 81, 84, 86, 89, 91,
+93, 95, 99, 105, 112, 113, 114, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123, 127, 138, 150,
+151, 152, 153, 156, 158 are from photographs supplied by Messrs F. Frith
+& Co.; those on pp. 8, 43, 45, 58, 77, 94, 108, 109, 134 by Messrs
+Preston, Penzance; those on pp. 141, 146 by Mr Emery Walker, and those
+on pp. 6, 29, 34, 87, 119, 124, 130, 132 by Messrs Hayman & Son,
+Launceston.
+
+
+
+
+=1. County and Shire. Meaning of the word.=
+
+
+If we take a map of England and contrast it with a map of the United
+States, perhaps one of the first things we shall notice is the
+dissimilarity of the arbitrary divisions of land of which the countries
+are composed. In America the rigidly straight boundaries and rectangular
+shape of the majority of the States strike the eye at once; in England
+our wonder is rather how the boundaries have come to be so tortuous and
+complicated--to such a degree, indeed, that until recently many counties
+had outlying islands, as it were, within their neighbours' territory. We
+may guess at once that the conditions under which the divisions arose
+cannot have been the same, and that while in America these formal square
+blocks of land, like vast allotment gardens, were probably the creation
+of a central authority, and portioned off much about the same time; the
+divisions we find in England own no such simple origin. Our guess would
+not have been wrong, for such, in fact, is more or less the case. The
+formation of the English counties in many instances was (and is--for
+they have altered up to to-day) an affair of slow growth. King Alfred
+is credited with having made them, but inaccurately, for some existed
+before his time, others not till long after his death, and their origin
+was--as their names tell us--of very diverse nature.
+
+Let us turn once more to our map of England. Collectively, we call all
+our divisions counties, but not every one of them is accurately thus
+described. Cornwall, as we shall see, is not. Some have names complete
+in themselves, such as Kent and Sussex, and we find these to be old
+English kingdoms with but little alteration either in their boundaries
+or their names. To others the terminal _shire_ is appended, which tells
+us that they were _shorn_ from a larger domain--_shares_ of Mercia or
+Northumbria or some other of the great English kingdoms. The term county
+is of Norman introduction,--the domain of a _Comte_ or Count.
+
+Although we use the term county for Cornwall, we should not in accuracy
+do so, as just stated, for it is a Duchy, and has been such since March
+17, 1337, when Edward of Woodstock, eldest son of King Edward III, was
+created Duke of Cornwall. Nor can it be called a shire, for Cornwall was
+a territory to itself. In 835 Athelstan drove the Britons across the
+Tamar and made that river the boundary between the Briton and the West
+Saxon of Devon.
+
+The ancient name of Cornwall and Devon was Totnes, i.e. _Dod-ynys_, "the
+projecting island," and the Celtic population was that of the Dumnonii.
+It was not till the tenth century that the name Cornweales appears,
+signifying the Welsh of the Horn of Britain. The Latin form of Cornwall
+is Cornubia. The ancient British settlers in the present department of
+Finistere called that portion of Gaul Cornouaille.
+
+
+
+
+=2. General Characteristics.=
+
+
+On many accounts Cornwall may be regarded as one of the most interesting
+counties of England, whether we regard it for its coast scenery, its
+products, or its antiquities. It has lain so much out of the main
+current of the life of England that it was hardly mixed up with the
+politics of the nation till the time of the Civil War.
+
+Its situation, projecting as it does into the sea, by which it is washed
+on all sides but one, has naturally caused the natives to take to the
+water, and has made Cornwall to be the mother of a hardy breed of
+fishermen and sailors. But the county being also rich in mineral wealth
+has from an early age caused a large portion of the manhood of the land
+to seek their livelihood in mines; and the peculiar conditions of
+Cornwall have thus determined the professions of a large proportion of
+its males to be either on the water or under ground.
+
+[Illustration: Luxulyan Village]
+
+The interior of the county cannot be regarded as beautiful, consisting
+of a backbone of elevated land, wind-swept, and over a large area
+covered with mine-ramps and the skeletons of abandoned machine-houses
+standing up gaunt amidst the desolation. But the valleys are always
+beautiful, and the Bodmin moors, if not so lofty and broken as
+Dartmoor, are yet fine, and Brown Willy, Rough Tor, and Kilmar are
+really noble tors.
+
+On the Bodmin moors is Dozmare Pool, the only lake, excepting Loe Pool,
+that exists in Cornwall. It is small and shallow. There were others
+formerly, now encroached on or smothered by morass.
+
+[Illustration: Dozmare Pool]
+
+In Cornwall it is quite possible to take a stride from the richest
+vegetation into the abomination of desolation. It has been said in
+mockery that Cornwall does not grow wood enough to make coffins for the
+people. The old timber was cut down to supply the furnaces for smelting
+tin, and it is true that there is not in Cornwall as magnificent timber
+as may be seen in other counties, but the valleys are everywhere well
+wooded, and the Cornish elm, that grows almost like a trimmed poplar,
+stands up lank above the lower trees and coppice.
+
+
+
+
+=3. Size, Shape, Boundaries.=
+
+
+Cornwall bears a certain resemblance to Italy, each is like a leg or
+boot, but Italy stands a-tiptoe to the south, whereas Cornwall is thrust
+out to the west. But, whereas Italy is kicking Sicily as a football,
+Cornwall has but the shattered group of the Scilly Isles at its toe.
+
+It touches but one other county, Devonshire, on the east; on all other
+sides it is washed by the sea, the Atlantic on the north and the English
+Channel on the south. The heel is the curious projection of the Lizard,
+and the toe is Land's End. On the east the river Tamar forms mainly the
+boundary between itself and Devon, except just north of Launceston,
+where a small portion of Devonshire juts into Cornwall, bounded on the
+south by the river Attery, and comprising the parishes of North
+Petherwin and Werrington. This is due to the land in these parishes
+having belonged to the Abbey of Tavistock, and the monks desiring to
+have all their lands comprised in one county. The area of Cornwall is
+886,384 acres, or 1385 square miles.
+
+[Illustration: The Tamar, near Calstock]
+
+It is the most westerly county in England, and also the most southerly.
+Its greatest length from the N.E. corner beyond Morwenstow to the Land's
+End is 80 miles; and its greatest breadth between Marsland Mouth and
+Rame Head is 46 miles. But it shrinks towards the toe, and between St
+Ives' Bay and Mounts Bay it is not five miles across.
+
+The Scilly Isles, situated twenty-five miles S.W. from the Land's End,
+are a part of Cornwall, and have an area of 4041 acres. Formerly, a part
+of the township of Bridgerule, with 1010 acres on the Devon side of the
+Tamar, belonged to Cornwall, but has now been dissevered and annexed to
+Devonshire.
+
+The north coast is sadly deficient in harbours. Bude Haven can
+accommodate only the smallest vessels, Boscastle is a dangerous creek,
+Padstow Harbour is barred by the Doom Bank lying across the entrance,
+and there is none other till we reach St Ives' Bay. On the south coast
+are Mounts Bay, Falmouth, Charlestown in St Austell Bay, Par, Fowey,
+Looe, Cawsand Bay, and the Hamoaze that opens into Plymouth Sound. Of
+these only Falmouth Harbour, once the great station for the packet
+boats, is good.
+
+The Scilly Isles comprise 145 rocky masses, six only are large islands,
+and five only are inhabited. The other inhabited islands about Cornwall
+are very small, these are St Michael's Mount and Looe Island. The
+promontory of Lleyn in Cardiganshire presents a curious resemblance to
+Cornwall, and as Cornwall has its detached group of islands in Scilly,
+so Lleyn has its Bardsey.
+
+[Illustration: Grimsby Channel and Eastern Islands, Scilly]
+
+
+
+
+=4. Surface and General Features.=
+
+
+[Illustration: Bodmin]
+
+To the east and north-east is the large granite mass of the Bodmin
+moors. It is these striking granitic masses, here and further west--at
+the Land's End, at St Breage, in the district north of Helston, and
+again north of St Austell--which form the bolder features of the
+county. A remarkable depression lies between Marazion and St Ives' Bay,
+utilised by the railway from Hayle to Marazion road. It almost seems as
+if the whole of Penwith, the portion west of this trough, had at one
+time been an island, with a channel of sea between it and the mainland.
+On the other hand, at a remote period there can be no doubt that there
+extended far out broad low-lying lands which are now covered by the sea,
+for forest beds have been found in Mounts Bay, in Padstow Bay, at St
+Columb Major, and elsewhere, showing that there has been a subsidence of
+the land. This has given rise to the fable of a drowned realm of
+Lyonesse, but this Lyonesse never existed in or near Cornwall; it was
+Leon in Brittany. But if there has been subsidence, there has also been
+an elevation of the land, as is shown by the raised beaches that can be
+traced along the coast. In the south are found flint pebbles in these
+raised beaches, showing that the wash at one period was not as now from
+west to east, but the reverse. It was from these flint pebbles in the
+elevated beaches that prehistoric man in Cornwall obtained the material
+for the fabrication of his tools and weapons. The elevation of the land,
+which dried up the channel between the Land's End and the mainland,
+preceded the depression which sunk the now submerged forests.
+
+To the north of the great granite boss that forms the Bodmin moors a
+ridge of cold moors rises, setting its back against the Atlantic and
+feeding the rivers that flow south with the rain that pours over it.
+Very little can be grown on these heights: they produce a little barley,
+but are mainly covered with rushes, coarse grass, and furze bushes. No
+considerable heights are reached till we come to Carnmarth and Carn
+Brea, each only 700 ft. above the sea. Then there is no distinct height
+till we reach Godolphin and Tregonning hills of 560 ft. and 600 ft.
+Towards Land's End there are greater heights--700 ft. and a little over,
+but this is naught compared with Brown Willy, 1368, and Kilmar, 1297, in
+the east. But it must be understood that grand mountain, or even fine
+hill scenery is not to be met with in western Cornwall. Its glory is in
+its magnificent coast-line; and its beauty is to be found in its lovely
+valleys and coombes.
+
+[Illustration: Rough Tor]
+
+The general features of a country depend on its geological structure.
+Granite formation, slate rock, sandstone, limestone, chalk--all have
+their special characters, unmistakable. When we are among the granites
+in the west of England we expect a tent-like shape of hill with a tor of
+rock at the summit; the sides strewn with a "clatter" of fallen rock,
+and clothed in heather and furze. When we come to the slates, and the
+overlying cold clays, we expect little except in the gorges and valleys
+cut through the strata by the streams. Of sandstone, or of chalk,
+forming breezy rolling downs, there is none in Cornwall, nor of
+limestone with its bold scars, such as are met with in the western
+hills of Yorkshire. We must take what we can find--and much can be found
+in Cornwall if we do not expect too much, nor look for what is not
+there, and under existing geological conditions could not be there.
+
+[Illustration: St Keyne's Well, Liskeard]
+
+
+
+
+=5. Watershed, Rivers.=
+
+
+From what has been already said, it will be seen that the great spinal
+column of Cornwall is in the north and that consequently the principal
+rivers must flow to the south. It is true that the Camel and its
+tributaries rise in the north and flow north to debouch into Padstow
+estuary, but that is the only river of the smallest consequence that
+directly feeds the Atlantic.
+
+[Illustration: On the Camel]
+
+The Camel rises in the wind-swept, sodden, clay land above Boscastle,
+and dribbles down to Camelford, passing under Slaughter Bridge and the
+stone of LATEINOS which traditionally mark the scene of King Arthur's
+last fight and death. After leaving Camelford, it plunges through a
+beautiful wooded valley, under Helsbury Castle occupying a bleak conical
+hill--a castle of the Dukes of Cornwall, but consisting only of a stone
+camp of prehistoric date and a ruined chapel in the midst dedicated to
+St Sith or Itha, an Irish saint. It passes Lavethan, a hospitium of the
+monks of Bodmin, and between wooded banks through Pencarrow and Dunmeer
+woods, and having run south, it now turns north to meet and mingle
+waters with the Allan, which has cleft for itself a very similar and
+equally beautiful valley. The Allan rises near the slate quarries of
+Delabole, and glides down by St Teath, and by St Mabyn on its bleak
+stormbeaten height, itself snug between beautiful hanging woods and with
+sweet old-world manor houses clustering near, and meets the Camel at
+Egloshayle. Thence they flow away into the Padstow estuary under the old
+15th century bridge at Wadebridge, past the Camelot of legend--the only
+streams of any consequence that flow north.
+
+With regard to the Tamar, we may call it as we please a Devonshire or a
+Cornish river. It divides the counties through the principal part of its
+course, but it has its source in Morwenstow, on a wretched moor, in
+Cornwall. Not much can be said in its favour till it reaches Bridgerule.
+From that point past North Tamerton (and Vacey, which although on the
+left bank was included in Cornwall, and has two formidable earthworks)
+it glides down to Werrington, where it meets the waters of the Attery
+and passes under Polson Bridge within sight of Launceston. Thenceforth
+the Tamar is in the full bloom of beauty. Carthamartha (Caer Tamar)
+stands at its junction with the Inny. Below Polson Bridge it has
+accepted the Lyd from Devon. Then through the lands and woods of the
+Duke of Bedford at lovely Endsleigh, under the bold crags of Morwell, up
+to which the tide reaches, then past Calstock and Cothele, and in
+serpentine writhes about Pentillie Castle, and so into the Hamoaze--the
+most beautiful river in England, excepting possibly the Wye.
+
+[Illustration: Wadebridge]
+
+The Inny, one of the feeders of the Tamar and altogether Cornish, must
+not be omitted, for it is a beautiful stream. It rises in the elevated
+land by Davidstowe and ripples down near Altarnon, passing in a
+picturesque valley the Holy Well and chapel of St Clether and the
+ancestral seat of the Trevelyan family at Basil; then, still in its
+beautiful valley, past Polyphant, famous for its quarries of a stone
+that admits of the most delicate carving, until it reaches the Tamar at
+Innyfoot. It is a river rich in trout. An old Cornish song of the
+Altarnon volunteer has the verse:
+
+    O Altarnon! O Altarnon! I ne'er shall see thee more,
+    Nor hear the sweet bells ringing, nor stand in the church door,
+    Nor hear the birds a-whistling, nor in the Inny stream
+    See silver trout glance by me, as thoughts glance by in dream.
+
+It is not however the Inny but a tributary that actually passes
+Altarnon.
+
+[Illustration: Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash]
+
+The Lynher falls into the Hamoaze, running for much of its course
+parallel to the Inny. It rises in the Bodmin moors and flows through the
+beautiful grounds of Trebartha where it receives a feeder from Trewartha
+marsh that leaps to meet it in a pretty cascade. Trewartha marsh has
+been turned over and over for tin and gold, and the Squire of Trebartha
+formerly furnished his daughters with gold rings made from the precious
+ore found in it. A curious settlement of the Celtic period exists above
+the marsh. It has however been much mutilated by farmers, who have
+carried off the stones for the construction of pigstyes. The Lynher
+flows through the park of the Earl of St Germans, past the beautiful
+church with its Norman west front, and then is lost in the united waters
+of the Tamar and the Tavy.
+
+Under Brown Willy is a pool called Fowey Well, which is traditionally
+held to be the source of the Fowey river. This however is not the case.
+It rises under Buttern Hill (1135 ft.) crowned by cairns, but as the
+Fowey Well has no outlet visible, it is supposed to decant by a
+subterranean stream into the river. Leaping down from the moors, the
+Fowey enters a wooded valley and, turning abruptly west, flows through
+another well timbered valley. Running beside the railway, and then
+turning sharply south, it passes the old Stannery town of Lostwithiel,
+to which the tide reaches, and plunging into a narrow glen with St
+Winnow on one side and Golant on the other, finally reaches the sea at
+Fowey harbour.
+
+There are two Looe rivers, one rising in the Bodmin moors receives the
+overflow of Dozmare Pool, and flowing deep below Liskeard receives the
+West Looe above the estuary. Duloe, which has a small but interesting
+circle of upright stones, stands between them and is supposed to be so
+called as between the two Looes. Before reaching Duloe the river has
+passed under St Keyne, famous for its Holy Well commemorated by Southey
+in a well-known ballad.
+
+There is no river of any importance till we reach the Fal. Rising on
+Goss Moor, not far from St Columb, and passing Grampound and Tregony,
+now an utterly decayed place, it meets the Tressilian and the Truro
+rivers, and all three, insignificant hitherto, suddenly acquire
+importance and spread out into the beautiful estuary of the Fal or
+Carrick Roads. Here are Penryn creek, Mylor creek, and Porthcuel
+harbour, commanded by the castle of St Mawes. None of these owe their
+importance to the sweet waters they bring down; all their value is due
+to the tide that flows up to Truro.
+
+The entrance to the Roads is found between Zoze Point and Pendennis
+Point, the latter at one time defended by a strong castle. Almost
+halfway between the points is the dangerous Black Rock, to which a
+former Trefusis conveyed his wife and there left her to be overwhelmed
+by the rising tide. Happily she was rescued by some fishermen. The
+Helford river is but a creek, noted for its oyster beds, into which a
+little stream dribbles.
+
+
+
+
+=6. Geology and Soil.=
+
+
+By Geology we mean the study of the rocks, and we must at the outset
+explain that the term _rock_ is used by the geologist without any
+reference to the hardness or compactness of the material to which the
+name is applied; thus he speaks of loose sand as a rock equally with a
+hard substance like granite.
+
+Rocks are of two kinds, (1) those laid down mostly under water, (2)
+those due to the action of fire.
+
+The first kind may be compared to sheets of paper one over the other.
+These sheets are called _beds_, and such beds are usually formed of sand
+(often containing pebbles), mud or clay, and limestone, or mixtures of
+these materials. They are laid down as flat or nearly flat sheets, but
+may afterwards be tilted as the result of movement of the earth's crust,
+just as you may tilt sheets of paper, folding them into arches and
+troughs, by compressing their ends. Again, we may find the tops of the
+folds so produced wasted away as the result of the wearing action of
+rivers, glaciers, and sea-waves upon them, as you might cut off the tops
+of the folds of the paper with a pair of shears. This has happened with
+the ancient beds forming parts of the earth's crust, and we therefore
+often find them tilted, with the upper parts removed.
+
+The other kinds of rocks are known as igneous rocks, which have been
+melted under the action of heat and become solid on cooling. When in the
+molten state they have been poured out at the surface as the lava of
+volcanoes, or have been forced into other rocks and cooled in the cracks
+and other places of weakness. Much material is also thrown out of
+volcanoes as volcanic ash and dust, and is piled up on the sides of the
+volcano. Such ashy material may be arranged in beds, so that it partakes
+to some extent of the qualities of the two great rock groups.
+
+The production of beds is of great importance to geologists, for by
+means of these beds we can classify the rocks according to age. If we
+take two sheets of paper, and lay one on the top of the other on a
+table, the upper one has been laid down after the other. Similarly with
+two beds, the upper is also the newer, and the newer will remain on the
+top after earth-movements, save in very exceptional cases which need not
+be regarded by us here, and for general purposes we may regard any bed
+or set of beds resting on any other in our own country as being the
+newer bed or set.
+
+The movements which affect beds may occur at different times. One set of
+beds may be laid down flat, then thrown into folds by movement, the tops
+of the beds worn off, and another set of beds laid down upon the worn
+surface of the older beds, the edges of which will abut against the
+oldest of the new set of flatly deposited beds, which latter may in turn
+undergo disturbance and renewal of their upper portions.
+
+
+          NAMES OF              SUBDIVISIONS          CHARACTERS OF ROCKS
+          SYSTEMS
+
+        {               { Metal Age Deposits       }
+        { Recent        { Neolithic     "          } Superficial Deposits
+        {  Pleistocene  { Palaeolithic  "          }
+        {               { Glacial       "          }
+        {
+        {               { Cromer Series            }
+    T   {               { Weybourne Crag           }
+    E   { Pliocene      { Chillesford and Norwich  } Sands chiefly
+    R   {               {           Crags          }
+    T   {               { Red and Walton Crags     }
+    I   {               { Coralline Crag           }
+    A   {
+    R   { Miocene         Absent from Britain
+    Y   {
+        {               { Fluviomarine Beds of     }
+        {               {           Hampshire      }
+        {               { Bagshot Beds             }
+        { Eocene        { London Clay              } Clays and Sands chiefly
+        {               { Oldhaven Beds, Woolwich  }
+        {               {      and Reading Groups  }
+        {               { Thanet Sands             }
+
+
+        {               { Chalk                    }
+        {               { Upper Greensand and Gault} Chalk at top
+        { Cretaceous    { Lower Greensand          } Sandstones, Mud and
+        {               { Weald Clay               } Clays below
+        {               { Hastings Sands           }
+        {
+        {               { Purbeck Beds             }
+    S   {               { Portland Beds            }
+    E   {               { Kimmeridge Clay          }
+    C   {               { Corallian Beds           }
+    O   {               { Oxford Clay and          } Shales, Sandstones and
+    N   {               {         Kellaways Rock   } Oolitic Limestones
+    D   { Jurassic      { Cornbrash                }
+    A   {               { Forest Marble            }
+    R   {               { Great Oolite with        }
+    Y   {               {        Stonesfield Slate }
+        {               { Inferior Oolite          }
+        {               { Lias--Upper, Middle,     }
+        {               {               and Lower  }
+        {
+        {               { Rhaetic                  }
+        {               { Keuper Marls             }
+        {               { Keuper Sandstone         } Red Sandstones and
+        { Triassic      { Upper Bunter Sandstone   } Marls, Gypsum and Salt
+        {               { Banter Pebble Beds       }
+        {               { Lower Bunter Sandstone   }
+
+
+        {               { Magnesian Limestone and  }
+        {               {           Sandstone      } Red Sandstones and
+        { Permian       { Marl Slate               } Magnesian Limestone
+        {               { Lower Permian Sandstone  }
+        {
+        {               { Coal Measures            } Sandstones, Shales and
+        {               { Millstone Grit           } Coals at top
+        { Carboniferous { Mountain Limestone       } Sandstones in middle
+        {               { Basal Carboniferous      } Limestone and Shales
+        {               {             Rocks        } below
+        {
+        {               { Upper } Devonian         } Red Sandstones,
+        { Devonian      { Mid   }    and Old Red   } Shales, Slates and
+    P   {               { Lower }    Sandstone     } Limestones
+    R   {
+    I   {               { Ludlow Beds              } Sandstones, Shales and
+    M   { Silurian      { Wenlock Beds             } Thin Limestones
+    A   {               { Llandovery Beds          }
+    R   {
+    Y   {               { Caradoc Beds             } Shales, Slates,
+        { Ordovician    { Llandeilo Beds           } Sandstones and
+        {               { Arenig Beds              } Thin Limestones
+        {
+        {               { Tremadoc Slates          }
+        {               { Lingula Flags            } Slates and
+        { Cambrian      { Menevian Beds            } Sandstones
+        {               { Harlech Grits and        }
+        {               {    Llanberis Slates      }
+        {
+        {               { No definite              } Sandstones,
+        { Pre-Cambrian  {   classification         } Slates and
+        {               {         yet made         } Volcanic Rocks
+
+
+Again, after the formation of the beds many changes may occur in them.
+They may become hardened, pebble-beds being changed into conglomerates,
+sands into sandstones, muds and clays into mudstones and shales, soft
+deposits of lime into limestone, and loose volcanic ashes into
+exceedingly hard rocks. They may also become cracked, and the cracks are
+often very regular, running in two directions at right angles one to the
+other. Such cracks are known as _joints_, and the joints are very
+important in affecting the physical geography of a district. Then, as
+the result of great pressure applied sideways, the rocks may be so
+changed that they can be split into thin slabs, which usually, though
+not necessarily, split along planes standing at high angles to the
+horizontal. Rocks affected in this way are known as _slates_.
+
+If we could flatten out all the beds of England, and arrange them one
+over the other and bore a shaft through them, we should see them on the
+sides of the shaft, the newest appearing at the top and the oldest at
+the bottom, as shown in the table. Such a shaft would have a depth of
+between 10,000 and 20,000 feet. The strata beds are divided into three
+great groups called Primary or Palaeozoic, Secondary or Mesozoic, and
+Tertiary or Cainozoic, and the lowest Primary rocks are the oldest rocks
+of Britain, which form as it were the foundation stones on which the
+other rocks rest. These may be spoken of as the Pre-Cambrian rocks. The
+three great groups are divided into minor divisions known as systems.
+The names of these systems are arranged in order in the table and on the
+right hand side the general characters of the rocks of each system are
+stated.
+
+With these preliminary remarks we may now proceed to a brief account of
+the geology of the county.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION FROM SNOWDON TO HARWICH, ABOUT 200 MILES.]
+
+In Cornwall there is a succession of nodes of granite rising to the
+surface, a continuation westward of the mass of Dartmoor. It has surged
+to the surface in four large masses continued westward by the Scilly
+Isles. These granitic masses have upheaved the superincumbent beds of
+stratified rocks, partly melting them. These distinct nodes are: the
+Bodmin moors, the St Austell elevation, the Carn Menelez, and the Land's
+End district. Smaller masses of granite occur in the double heights of
+Godolphin and Tregonning, St Michael's Mount, Carn Brea and Carn Marth,
+and Castel-an-Dinas.
+
+[Illustration: The Cheesewring]
+
+The Elvans are dykes of quartz-porphyry which issue from the granite
+into the surrounding slates, and are often mistakenly supposed to be a
+bastard granite.
+
+The granite in its upheaval has strangely altered and contorted the
+superposed beds. There are as well intrusive veins of igneous rocks. In
+the Lizard district is serpentine, a compact, tough rock often of a
+green colour, lending itself to a high polish, and forming magnificent
+cliffs with a special gloss and colour, as well as maintaining on the
+surface a special flora.
+
+The prime feature in Cornish geology is the upheaval of the granite,
+distorting, folding back, and altering the superincumbent beds.
+
+In the north-east of Cornwall from a line drawn from below Launceston,
+on the Tamar, to Boscastle the rocks belong to the culm measures of
+North Devon. All the rest of the peninsula, except the protruding
+granite and the serpentine of the Lizard, pertains to the Devonian
+series of sedimentary rocks, in which the first signs of life appear;
+consisting largely of clay-slate, locally known as Killas, alternating
+with beds of red or grey grit and sandstone. Although these slaty rocks
+must be some thousand feet in thickness, they have been so broken up and
+turned over by the convulsions of the earth that their chronological
+sequence cannot easily be determined. In these convulsions they have
+been rent, and through the rents have been driven hot blasts that have
+deposited crystalline veins, or injections of trap and other volcanic
+matter, altering the character of the rock through which they have been
+driven. By the Menheniot Station on the G.W.R. is a hill of serpentine
+thrown up at one jet, and now largely quarried for the sake of the
+roads.
+
+The culm measures already alluded to consist of black shales and slates
+with seams of grit and chert, much undulated through enormous lateral
+pressure. The granite, the lowest and most ancient formation of all, was
+itself consolidated under vast pressure from above, and was not in a
+molten condition when forced to the surface. Had it been so, it would
+have resolved itself into lava. It was cold when upheaved, tearing apart
+the superincumbent stratified sedimentary rocks, which disappeared from
+the summits, and on all sides about these upheavals were twisted,
+contorted, thrown back, and fissured.
+
+Atmospheric effect and natural gravitation is constantly carrying the
+soil from the upper land, from the hills into the bottoms, and
+consequently it is in the latter that we find the richest land, best
+calculated to repay the toil of the agriculturist. On the high moors
+there is little depth of so called "meat earth," below which is clay and
+grit, hard and unprofitable, commonly called the "calm" or the "deads."
+But adjoining the granite is the wash from it of its dissolved felspar,
+the china-clay that furnishes the inhabitants of the St Austell district
+with a remunerative and ever-growing industry, of which more presently.
+
+
+
+
+=7. Natural History.=
+
+
+Various facts, which can only shortly be mentioned here, go to show that
+the British Isles have not existed as such, and separated from the
+Continent, for any great length of geological time. Around our coasts,
+for instance, and specially in Cornwall, are in several places remains
+of forests now sunk beneath the sea, and only to be seen at extreme low
+water. Between England and the Continent the sea is very shallow, and St
+Paul's Cathedral might be placed anywhere in the North Sea without
+submerging its summit, but a little west of Ireland we soon come to very
+deep soundings. Great Britain and Ireland were thus once part of the
+Continent and are examples of what geologists call recent continental
+islands. But we also have no less certain proof that at some anterior
+period they were almost entirely submerged. The fauna and flora thus
+being destroyed, the land would have to be restocked with animals and
+plants from the Continent when union again took place, the influx of
+course coming from the east and south. As, however, it was not long
+before separation occurred, not all the continental species could
+establish themselves. We should thus expect to find that the parts in
+the neighbourhood of the Continent were richer in species and those
+furthest off poorer, and this proves to be the case both in plants and
+animals. While Britain has fewer species than France or Belgium, Ireland
+has still less than Britain.
+
+Small though England may be, she can nevertheless show most striking
+differences of fauna and flora in different districts. On the moors of
+the north, for example, the heaths and berries underfoot, and the larger
+birds of prey and grouse which now and again meet our view offer a
+marked contrast to--let us say--the furze-clad chalk downs of Sussex,
+where the wheatear and whinchat and the copper butterflies and "blues"
+are familiar objects. These differences depend upon a number of
+conditions, often mutually interdependent--upon variations of soil,
+rainfall, temperature, and so forth. Cornwall presents unusual
+peculiarities in many ways, and we may now consider how far these have
+affected the creatures and plants within her borders.
+
+Firstly, Cornwall is remotely situated--one of the extreme points of
+Western Europe--and, whether the fact be dependent on food conditions or
+not, we find that there are several species of bird, common in other
+parts of England, which do not occur within the county, such as the
+nightingale, the wood warbler, garden warbler, redstart, and others. It
+would almost seem as if some of these species had not found their way
+thither since the re-peopling of the land by its present fauna, but were
+in gradual process of doing so, for there is no doubt that many birds
+rare or unknown in the Duchy half a century ago are now not uncommon,
+and appear to be steadily moving westward. That the starling is doing so
+is perhaps not remarkable, for this bird has enormously increased in
+numbers of late years and has spread everywhere, even up into northern
+Scotland, but it is curious that birds like the stock-dove and all the
+woodpeckers and other non-gregarious sorts should show this tendency.
+
+[Illustration: In a Cornish Garden]
+
+Next, Cornwall is from its position constantly exposed to high winds,
+and to heavy gales in winter, combined with an unusually heavy rainfall
+and an "insular" climate tending to warmth and equableness. These
+factors, added to the granitic formation of much of its area, have made
+it a country of bleak moorland varied with thickly-wooded deep
+valleys--dampness being the leading characteristic of both. With such
+physical conditions, then, we should expect to find the Duchy not very
+varied in its native trees, perhaps, but particularly abundant in ferns,
+and this is the case, for 39 species are recorded, while lichens are not
+less rich. It bears in many ways a resemblance to the climate of
+Portugal, for here the camellia flourishes and displays its beautiful
+flowers to perfection, and the tea plant does so well that there seems
+no reason why it should not be grown for profit. It is not a land of
+warblers, nor can it show the rich and varied wildfowl fauna of the
+Fenlands, but there is no county in England where, in the marshy glens,
+woodcocks are more abundant. The moorlands, too, abound in snipe, and at
+one time blackgame were common, but the larger birds of prey have for
+the most part vanished, though an occasional buzzard may be seen and the
+raven is not yet extinct.
+
+Lastly, it is to be noted that Cornwall is the nearest part of England
+to America. However difficult it may be of explanation, the fact remains
+that the Duchy is very rich in rare birds; so rich, indeed, that their
+recorded occurrence cannot by any possibility be merely accidental.
+Thus, no less than 24 species have occurred in Cornwall which have never
+been found in Devonshire. But more than this, a very large number of
+these--18 or more--are purely American species. The question is, whence
+do they come? Professor James Clark, who has discussed the point at some
+length in the _Victoria County History_, is, apparently, loth to believe
+that they can come directly across the Atlantic, and it is by many
+thought that they are driven back by heavy south-westerly weather when
+dropping down the English Channel, having come by a circuitous route
+from Northern Europe. But against this is the undeniable fact that it is
+in the immediate neighbourhood of the Land's End that the chief rarities
+and stragglers are obtained, while many species have been shot in the
+Scilly Islands which have never been recorded from Cornwall itself.
+
+So far as its botany is concerned, Cornwall does not differ very
+markedly from Devonshire, but it has a large number of rare or peculiar
+plants. The highlands and north coast are rather poor in species; it is
+on the banks and estuaries of the streams that the richest flora is
+seen. A number of foreign plants are found, mostly in the neighbourhood
+of Falmouth and other ports. The balsam, _Impatiens Roylei_, from
+India, grows extremely abundantly between Liskeard and Looe, and near
+Tintagel, and a species of May-weed (_Matricaria discoidea_) has become
+a troublesome pest near Falmouth. Loe Pool in the Lizard district is
+noticeable for the number of rare and local plants it possesses. The
+Scilly Islands own certain plants peculiar to them; thus, _Trifolium
+repens_, var. _Townsendi_ and _Ornithopus ebracteatus_ are said not to
+be found elsewhere in England, and _Carex ligerica_ only in Norfolk.
+
+The chief feature of the mammals of the county is that the grey seal,
+_Halichaerus gryphus_, is quite numerous in the Scilly Islands; that the
+polecat, though nearly extinct, is still found; and that both badgers
+and otters are very abundant. It is a curious fact that certain
+freshwater fish common in other parts of England, such as pike, roach,
+chub, and bream, are unknown.
+
+The bird which bears the distinctive appellation, the Cornish chough (it
+is not confined to the county, but is also found in Wales), is now not
+nearly as common as formerly, but like the raven it still breeds on some
+parts of the coast.
+
+
+
+
+=8. Around the Coast. From Morwenstow to Land's End.=
+
+
+[Illustration: Bude Breakwater]
+
+This noble coast--so terrible to sailors--begins with the fine Henna
+Cliff at Morwenstow. Morwenstow Church contains an early font and has
+fine Norman arches. Here is Tonacombe, an interesting early Tudor house
+quite unspoiled. At Morwenstow lived the Rev. Robert Hawker, a poet and
+character. Bude Haven is a growing seaside place, with golf-links and
+tolerable bathing. Stratton, of which parish it actually forms or did form
+a part, has a fine well-cared for church, and above the town is Stamford
+Hill, where was fought a battle in the Civil War, on May 16, 1643. Sir
+Bevil Grenville and Hopton commanded the Royalist Army, and the Earl of
+Stamford the Parliamentarians. The latter were defeated with the loss of
+300 men killed and 1700 taken prisoners. One of the old guns marks the
+site, and an inscription in commemoration of the battle is affixed to
+the Tree Inn. Widemouth Bay has good sands and promises at some future
+day to become a sea-bathing place superior to Bude. At Dazard the cliffs
+are fine; at St Gennys is Crackington Cove with a small beach. Beyond
+this, High Cliff (705 ft.) is reached, the loftiest headland on the
+coast. The coast is magnificent to Boscastle. Near this is Pentargon, a
+beautiful bay into which a little stream leaps in a waterfall. Boscastle
+is a narrow creek into which only in calm weather can small vessels
+enter. It is sheltered by a headland in which is a blow-hole. In a
+lovely valley is the towerless church of Minster. In caves about
+Willapark seals breed. From hence to Tintagel the cliffs are of slate
+and are quarried, the slate being let down into boats in the water, when
+weather permits. Before reaching Tintagel we come to St Neighton's
+(Nectan's) Kieve, a small waterfall in a glen, where maidenhair fern
+once abounded.
+
+Tintagel village is separated from the church by a deep glen. The church
+is on a windy height, and is interesting for its antiquity. Tintagel
+castle stands on a headland, once an island, but the cliff and a portion
+of the castle have fallen into the narrow gulf and choked it. The sea
+has bored a tunnel through the headland, and very little of the castle
+remains. The walls were of the local slate-stone set in mortar made of
+sea-shells. In this castle, traditionally, King Arthur was born. There
+are slate quarries in the neighbourhood, and further inland are the
+Delabole quarries, from which slate is conveyed to all parts of England.
+
+[Illustration: King Arthur's Castle, Tintagel]
+
+The small Trebarwith Cove is passed and then we reach Port Isaac Bay,
+which takes its name, not from the patriarch, but from a Cornish word
+that signifies a port for corn.
+
+[Illustration: Bodruthan Steps]
+
+Porthqueen has its pilchard cellars cut out of the rocks; and at the
+western end of its bay Pentire Head stands out boldly into the Atlantic
+with a cliff castle at its extreme point. Pentire to some extent
+shelters Padstow Bay, but the entrance to the harbour is made dangerous
+by the Doom Bar lying across it. Here the rounded, sand-powdered Bray
+Hill is supposed to have buried under the drift sand the remains of a
+Roman town, but that there was such a Roman settlement is very doubtful.
+Further inland is the church of St Enodoc recently dug out of the sand,
+and the path to the porch has singular "Lord's Measures" that have been
+collected and are here planted. They were measures for grain. Of Padstow
+something shall be said elsewhere. Before reaching Trevose Head is
+Harlyn Bay, where from under the sand has been dug out a cemetery of the
+iron age, the skeletons crouching with their chins to their knees, in
+slate kists or coffins, with bronze ornaments, glass and amber beads,
+and iron instruments. Here also by the falling of the earth or sand some
+gold ornaments of the Celtic period were laid bare. On Trevose Head is a
+lighthouse. In Constantine Bay are the remains of a church half buried
+in sand, and with bones strewn about it. The font from this abandoned
+church has been transferred to St Merryn. It is of black Catacluse
+stone, as are the piers and arches of the church, giving it a sombre
+look. Passing the little Porthcothan we come to the noble cliffs of
+Bodruthan Steps, perhaps the finest bit of the north-coast scenery, and
+then reach Mawgan Porth, the estuary of the tiny stream that waters
+the vale of Lanherne. Here is the ancient mansion of the Arundells,
+dating from 1580, granted by Lord Arundell to Carmelite nuns, who came
+to England, at the outbreak of the French Revolution, in 1794. They have
+remained here ever since in seclusion. Near the door into their chapel
+is an old cross with inscription and interlaced work. The church has a
+beautifully proportioned tower, a good rood-screen, and many monuments
+of the Arundells, as well as a remarkable Gothic cross. A grove of
+Cornish elms like whips occupies the bottom of the valley. The church
+and parish are St Mawgan in Pyder.
+
+[Illustration: Newquay Harbour]
+
+Newquay with its sands is a rapidly growing watering-place, with staring
+hotels. Crantock church, which once had its canons, is interesting; it
+has been carefully restored and has a fine rood-screen and loft. On the
+stalls is carved a dove with a chip of wood in its beak, and the story
+goes that St Carantoc--who assisted St Patrick in drawing up the Senchus
+Mor, the code of laws for Christian Ireland--was guided to the site for
+his church by seeing a dove carry off the shavings of his staff which he
+was cutting. Perran Bay has sent its sands flying inland, causing a
+widespread extent of _towans_ or dunes, which have overwhelmed first of
+all the old church of St Piran or Cieran of Saighir in Ireland, who was
+buried in it, and then a second church built further inland, which also
+in turn had to be abandoned. These sand-dunes are a rabbit warren. The
+old church of St Piran, extremely rude in construction, has been
+excavated, but the only carved work found has been removed to the museum
+at Truro. The church resembles one of the early Christian chapels in
+Ireland. Bones are scattered about around it.
+
+St Agnes--or St Aun's Head as it is locally termed--is but 617 ft. high,
+but it stands boldly above the sea.
+
+Portreath is a busy little place to which coal-barges come from Cardiff
+with coal for the Camborne and Redruth mines. Tehidy Park, which stands
+above it, is an old seat of the Bassets. After passing Navax Point the
+broad Bay of St Ives opens out, with a lighthouse at each horn, and here
+again begin the towans or sand-dunes. Hayle is at the mouth of a small
+stream of the same name, and signifies "saltings." We come now to the
+town of St Ives, with an interesting church and an old cross. St Ives
+till about 1410 was but a tiny fishing village and was in the parish of
+Lelant. Perkin Warbeck landed near here in 1497.
+
+Near this is the Knill monument erected in 1782 by the eccentric John
+Knill, who left money for an annual procession to it, and a dance of
+children around it. He intended it to have been his mausoleum, but he
+died and was buried in London.
+
+[Illustration: The Wharf, St Ives]
+
+Zennor has a curious little church with carved bench ends, on one of
+which is represented a mermaid, and Zennor "quoit" is thought to be the
+largest cromlech in England.
+
+The Gurnard's Head has sheer cliffs on east and west, composed of slaty
+felspar, horneblende and greenstone, whereas the rocks of Zennor are of
+granite and slate in juxtaposition, and with dykes of granite
+penetrating the slate. Hills of rock and heather and furze bend round
+in a crescent terminating on one side at Carnminnis, on the other at
+Carn Galva, enclosing a great basin that reaches to the cliffs. On the
+isthmus connecting the headland with the mainland is a ruined chapel,
+with the altar-stone entire. Three miles westward is Morvah with the
+interesting Chun Castle above it, of rude stone forming three concentric
+rings, and not far off is Chun cromlech.
+
+We come now to Botallack with its famous mine, carried to a depth of a
+thousand feet and extending a considerable distance under the sea. In
+time of storm the booming of the waves overhead and the clashing of
+stones rolled by the billows is so great that the bravest miners are
+driven from their work. Tin mining is now but languidly carried on.
+Although the heights are not great, yet this portion of coast is
+remarkably fine.
+
+Cape Cornwall exhibits the junction of the slate with the granite. Here
+also extensive mining has been carried on, and Boswedden, like
+Botallack, burrowed far under the sea. Near the church of St Just is one
+of the circles or amphitheatres in which miracle plays were performed.
+The "Merry Maidens" is a prehistoric stone circle in the neighbourhood
+with ten stones erect and five fallen.
+
+Whitesand Bay enjoys some slight shelter from the S. and E. winds. It is
+said that this bay was the landing-place of Athelstan after his conquest
+of Scilly, of King Stephen in 1135, and of King John when he returned
+from Ireland. In Sennen Cove is a cluster of fishermen's cottages.
+
+Land's End is the end of Penwith, the "chief headland," and the Bolerium
+of the ancients. It commands a magnificent view, extending to Cape
+Cornwall over Whitesand Bay, of the Longships rocks with their
+lighthouse, and in clear weather of the Scilly Isles. The Wolf
+lighthouse is planted on a dangerous rock of felspathic porphyry some
+eight miles S.W. from the shore. The Land's End bristles with sharp
+fangs of rock, and somewhat resembles the back of an alligator.
+
+[Illustration: Land's End]
+
+
+
+
+=9. Around the Coast. From Land's End to Rame Head.=
+
+
+The south coast-line of Cornwall presents a great contrast to that of
+the north, except for the portion from the Land's End to Mounts Bay and
+the Lizard. We have no more the wind-swept background of heights,
+barren and often tortured by miners, turned into a waste of heaps of
+rubble and studded with ruined engine-houses. We find instead a gentler
+sea-board, pierced by long estuaries, and with valleys of rich
+vegetation running down to the sea. We speedily leave the granite and
+the culm measures, and are among the rocks of the Devonian series, less
+stern and forbidding in colour. In St Levan parish at Trereen Point is
+the Logan Rock, a block of granite weighing over 65 tons, once so nicely
+balanced that it could be made to rock by the finger of a child. In 1874
+a young naval officer, with the assistance of a boat's crew, upset it.
+This raised a storm of indignation in Cornwall, and the Admiralty
+ordered him to replace it, which he did, at great expense.
+
+[Illustration: Newlyn Pier]
+
+Mousehole is a village of fishermen and boatmen, and was the residence
+of Dolly Pentreath, the last person in Cornwall who spoke the Cornish
+language, as also of some of the unfortunate sailors who joined Captain
+Allan Gardner in 1850 in his ill-fated missionary expedition to South
+America. All the members of the mission died of starvation in Tierra del
+Fuego.
+
+[Illustration: St Michael's Mount]
+
+Newlyn has become noted as a place of residence of a school of artists.
+It is on the wide and beautiful Mounts Bay over against St Michael's
+Mount.
+
+[Illustration: Kynance Cove and the Lizard]
+
+Penzance ("the Holy Head") has become a great resort of residents for
+the winter, owing to the mildness of the climate. Marazion or Market Jew
+does not derive its name from "the Bitter Waters of Zion" as has been
+absurdly asserted; Marazion has the same significance as Market Jeu
+(i.e. Jeudi), Thursday Market. Here is a submerged forest. St Michael's
+Mount is a rock that rises out of the sands and can be reached, when the
+tide falls, by a causeway. It is incomparably inferior both in elevation
+and in the dignity of the buildings that crown it to the Mont St Michel
+in Normandy, but is nevertheless a picturesque adjunct to the scene.
+Some writers suppose that it is the Ictis to which the natives conveyed
+the tin and trafficked with the Phoenicians, but it is totally unsuited
+by nature to serve as a market-site, and there is no certain evidence
+that the Phoenicians ever came to Cornwall. About Marazion daffodils,
+narcissus, and violets are cultivated largely for the London market. At
+Perran Uthnoe the cliffs again appear, and we reach Prussia Cove, once
+the haunt of smugglers. Inland, Godolphin and Tregonning's granite hills
+are conspicuous, and near the coast is Pergersick Castle, a picturesque
+ruin of which strange legends are told. Porthleven is a small fishing
+village, where the people live on the annual arrival of the pilchards.
+Loe Pool is a beautiful sheet of water cut off from the sea by a bar of
+sand. It was when standing on this bar, and watching the wreck of a
+vessel close in shore when those on the land were unable to communicate
+with it, that Henry Trengrouse conceived the idea of a rocket apparatus,
+to be not only employed on land, but also to be carried by every ship.
+He, of course, met with opposition from the Board of Trade and the
+Government, and he spent his life and his fortune in experiments, and in
+endeavours to push his apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: Mullion Cove]
+
+We now reach the superb serpentine cliffs of the Lizard with the
+beautiful coves of Polurrian, Mullion, and Kynance. At Lizard Point is
+one of the most famous of all lighthouses, the departure-point or
+landfall of thousands of ships in the course of the year. The peninsula
+of the Lizard is interesting, though the land does not rise much above
+300 ft., and is monotonous moorland. All its charm is in its coast-line.
+The terrible Manacles rocks have been the scene of many a wreck. Helford
+river is a creek running up to Gweek in one arm and nearly to
+Constantine in another. We now reach Falmouth Bay, into which opens the
+Carrick Road. A curious peninsula, Roseland, runs to Zoze Point, where
+there is a lighthouse. Portscatho is a small place at the opening of
+Gerrans Bay, of which the eastern horn is Nare Point. Carn Beacon is
+traditionally held to have been the burial-place of Geraint, King of
+Devon and Cornwall. There were more than one of this name. The cairn has
+been opened and was found to contain a stone cist of the bronze period,
+and not, as tradition said, his golden boat with silver oars. Veryan Bay
+between Nare Point and the Dodman has in it no good harbour. Dodman
+stands nearly 380 ft. above the sea.
+
+[Illustration: Falmouth, from Flushing]
+
+Mevagissey Bay is a shallow hollow between Chapel Point and Black Head,
+the latter crowned by one of the cliff castles found on almost every
+headland. Then comes St Austell Bay with that of Tywardreath opening out
+of it. Charlestown has latterly become of importance, as from thence
+much china-clay is shipped.
+
+We reach now the narrow estuary of the Fowey river, with Fowey town
+consisting of one narrow street beside the tidal creek, and with Polruan
+on the further shore. The coast now becomes very bold, and Polperro,
+five miles beyond, was once a notorious haunt of smugglers.
+
+[Illustration: Polperro]
+
+At Looe, the two rivers bearing the same name fall into a bay, and
+seaward stands up Looe Island, crowned by the ruins of a chapel. This
+island was also a haunt of smugglers, and it was found necessary to
+establish a coastguard station on it to keep them in control. East Looe
+and West Looe each sent two members to Parliament before the passing of
+the Reform Bill.
+
+[Illustration: Looe]
+
+Between Looe and Rame Head is Whitesand Bay, so called from the
+whiteness of the sand. The quicksands have made it dangerous for
+bathers, but the cliff scenery is beautiful and romantic. There is a
+tiny watering-place at its western end, Downderry. At Tregantle is the
+most important of the western defences of Plymouth. A peninsula is
+formed by the Lynher river which discharges into the Hamoaze, and the
+neck of land between it and the sea is about two miles in breadth.
+Tregantle stands 400 ft. above the sea and commands every approach to
+Plymouth Sound.
+
+Rame Head projects into the sea from Maker Heights and is the
+termination of a range of cliffs from Looe, and from hence a fine view
+can be had of the Cornish coast as far as the Lizard.
+
+On the east of Penlee Point is Cawsand Bay, once infested with
+smugglers, sheltered by Rame Head from westerly gales. A rock with a
+cave in it and a white incrustation is regarded here with some
+superstitious reverence, and fishermen throw a few pilchards or herrings
+to it as an oblation when returning from fishing.
+
+
+
+
+=10. The Coast--Gains and Losses.=
+
+
+At a vastly remote period a valley lay between Britain and Gaul--before
+ever they were Britain and Gaul--and through this well-wooded valley
+flowed a river. The coast-line of Britain then lay from one to two
+hundred miles to the west, where is now the great drop in the ocean
+depths from 100 fathoms to 300 or 400. Cornwall was a Mesopotamia, a
+land between two almost parallel rivers, one occupying the bottom of
+what is now the English Channel, the other being the Severn. At that
+time the Bristol Channel was another great valley. From Brown Willy to
+the Scilly Isles ran a lofty mountain range, towering into the sky, of
+which the present Bodmin moors, Carn Brea, Carn Marth, Tregonning Hill,
+etc., are but the abraded stumps. Not only were they much higher, but
+their present roots stood 300 ft. higher than at present.
+
+Then ensued a sinking of the land, and the Atlantic flowed into the
+valley to the south and joined the North Sea; and at the same time the
+Bristol Channel was formed. Thus the present coast was approximately
+outlined.
+
+At some period shortly after, a vast inundation swept over the land from
+the north, and carried down the degraded granite, depositing the tin
+beds in the hollows. As early as 1830, Mr Carne noted: "The peculiar
+situation in which nearly all the stream tin of Cornwall is found is
+highly illustrative of the direction in which the current of the deluge
+swept over the surface. All the productive streams are in the valleys
+which open to the sea on the southern side of the Cornish peninsula;
+whilst most of the richest veins are situated near the northern coast."
+
+The deposit of tin stone, or tin ground, lies directly on the _shelf_,
+or primitive surface of rock, and is carried far out in the estuaries,
+and overlaid by marine deposits.
+
+In 1828, in Carnon Creek, a cairn was discovered 16 to 18 ft. below the
+surface, and that surface 4 to 5 ft. below low water mark. In it was a
+crouched skeleton. This shows that there must have been a subsidence of
+the land of something like 30 ft. at least since the period when man in
+the late stone or early bronze age inhabited Cornwall.
+
+The submarine forests grew on the top of the tin ground. Of these many
+have been noted and recorded, not only on the south coast, but on the
+north as well. The trees were oak and hazel, alder and elm, but they
+never reached a large size.
+
+Above this bed lie the raised beaches, some 40 or 50 ft. above high
+water mark. The tin-beds in the Cornish valleys towards the sea do not
+exhibit such an upheaval. Generally the raised beach rests on the
+original rock, and consists of rolled stones, frequently of large size,
+mixed with smaller gravel and sand. The "Head of Rubble," with some
+intervening perplexing beds of sand, may be noticed on the coast. This
+Head is from 40 to 50 ft. in depth. It is composed of angular fragments
+of rock, often large, many of quartz, with no signs of stratification.
+The Rubble bed in Cornwall has yielded no organic remains, but elsewhere
+in it have been found the bones of the mammoth, elephant, woolly
+rhinoceros, reindeer, etc. It was not formed by the disintegration of
+the subjacent rocks, but by aqueous transport. It owes its origin to a
+powerful force of water, acting violently and rapidly. It caps the
+heights, and is not in the valleys where the tin ground has been
+deposited. It has not therefore been found to overlie it. It was due to
+a sudden and brief overrush of water, and the fragments of stone carried
+before the flood did not travel sufficiently far to have their angles
+rubbed down.
+
+[Illustration: Perranporth Rocks]
+
+As may well be supposed, the action of the sea on the coast-line has been
+affected largely by the character of the rocks against which the waves
+have lashed themselves to foam. Where the rocks are of granite or slate,
+the tide and the waves have very little effect upon the outline of the
+coast; it is in those places where the softer rocks prevail, and where
+exposure to the prevalent wind induces breakers of great volume, that
+the loss of land by the action of the sea is greatest. In fact, the
+tides rarely run beyond one or two miles per hour, except round
+headlands, and it is where the rocks are of a yielding character that
+the coves and bays are formed. This is not always the case. Where the
+sea has found a fault in the rock it will burrow incessantly till it has
+bored out for itself a cavern, and the head of this falling in produces
+a tiny cove. The hard quartzose and trap rocks of Trevose Head, the
+greenstone rocks of Pentire, near Padstow, the hard slates of St Agnes,
+the greenstone and hardened schist of the Gurnard's Head, and the
+granite of the Land's End, defy the action of wave and tide. But it is
+otherwise where, for instance, the Head of Rubble occurs. "In Gerrans
+Bay it is plain that the cliffs of Head were at one time much further
+out than they are now. The tops of the earthy cliffs are split with
+cracks and miniature chasms, showing that great masses are constantly
+being detached by atmospheric causes, while the great heaps of earth at
+the foot of the cliffs show how for centuries masses of earth have
+rolled down from their tops on to the beach below[1]." As to the kingdom
+of Lyonesse, which was supposed to extend from the Land's End to beyond
+Scilly, it never existed in the historic or prehistoric period. Another
+fable that may be dismissed, is that St Michael's Mount was surrounded
+by a vast tract of woodland, in which were villages, and where settled
+hermits. It did rise above a forest, but that was in a prehistoric
+period. But if the sea gains on the land but imperceptibly in one way,
+it gains in another on the north coast, by the action of the wind
+carrying the sand inland, and overwhelming field after field. It is not
+a little curious to mark, nevertheless, how a small dribble of a stream
+will arrest the onward march of the sand-dunes.
+
+    [1] D.C. Whitley, "The Head of Rubble," in _Journal of the R.
+    Inst. of Cornwall_, XVII. p. 67.
+
+At Constantine by Padstow as already said the old church is enveloped in
+sand-hills, so is that of St Enodoc. The Perran Sands have so encroached
+that they extend over a mile and a half inland and have in process of
+time swallowed up two churches and a village. The Gear Sands have even
+climbed a hill to the height of 300 ft. The Godrevy, Upton and Phillack
+towans have moved inland from St Ives' Bay and engulfed the residence of
+the ancient kings of Cornwall at Riviere.
+
+The same phenomenon has not taken place in the south, but there the
+estuaries have been silted up by the wash from the stream tin works.
+Formerly boats could come up to Tregony. Now the Fal is choked with
+detritus for miles down. Restronguet creek bore vessels to
+Perranarworthal. Now it is completely silted up, only a trickle of water
+running down through desolate morasses and flats resulting from the
+workings of the miners.
+
+
+
+
+=11. The Coast--Tides, Islands, and Lighthouses.=
+
+
+Off the mouth of the English Channel the tidal-stream is materially
+influenced by the indraft and outset of the channel, and is found to run
+northward and eastward with a falling tide at Dover, and southward and
+westward with a rising tide at that place. At spring tides the tide
+rises in Padstow Bay 22 ft., at Bude a foot higher, at the Lizard only
+14-1/2 ft., at Scilly 16 ft. Nowhere on the Cornish coast is there the
+enormous rise seen at St Malo, where ordinary tides rise from 23 to 26
+ft., and spring tides 48 ft. above low-water mark.
+
+On account of the varying force with which the channel and spring tides
+blend south of the Scilly group the stream is incessantly altering, but
+north of this towards the Bristol Channel, the stream becomes more
+regular, and while the water is ebbing at Dover, it sets northward
+turning sharply round Trevose Head into the Bristol Channel, and so when
+the tide is flowing at Dover, it is running with equal speed in ebb out
+of the channel and along the coast towards Scilly.
+
+[Illustration: Round Island, Scilly]
+
+The Scilly Isles are the sole group of any importance around the coast.
+They are situated 40 miles due west from the Lizard Point and 25
+west-south-west from the Land's End, and are reached by steamers from
+Penzance. There are now but five of the isles inhabited, St Mary's,
+Tresco, St Agnes, St Martin's, and Bryher. Formerly Sampson was also
+inhabited, but the inhabitants were removed to St Mary's. The total
+acreage of the islands is 3560; and the formation is granite. This group
+is in fact the rubbed-down stump of the last great peak of the chain
+running south-west from Bodmin moors. The heights in the islands are
+inconsiderable, but very bold and picturesque scenery is obtained among
+the many islets, each of which has its special character. At St Mary's
+is a pier built in 1835-8; and a harbour called the Pool for small
+craft, while further out between the islands is a good roadstead for
+large vessels. The Scilly Isles were noted as a resting-place for
+innumerable birds, some very rare, in their annual migrations, but of
+late years gun-practice at sea marks has scared a good many away, and
+they visit the islands in far fewer numbers than formerly.
+
+[Illustration: The Longships Lighthouse]
+
+The coast of Cornwall is remarkably free of shoals. The only dangerous
+sandbank is the Doom Bar at the mouth of the Bay of Padstow; but there
+are shallows in Mounts Bay and other places.
+
+[Illustration: Eddystone Lighthouse]
+
+Trinity House, the first general lighthouse and pilotage authority in
+the kingdom, was composed of a body of merchants and seamen founded in
+1519 by Sir Thomas Speet, controller of the navy, when it was granted a
+charter by Henry VIII. Since that period the duty of erecting and
+maintaining lighthouses and other sea-marks has been entrusted to the
+Corporation by Royal Charter and Acts of Parliament. Trinity House
+maintains ten lighthouses about the coast of Cornwall, of which the most
+important, besides those of the Scilly Isles, are the Longships, white
+and red occulting; the Wolf rock, white and red group flash; the Lizard,
+white flash; the Eddystone, white flash.
+
+
+
+
+=12. Climate--Rainfall.=
+
+
+The climate of a country or district is, briefly, the average weather of
+that country or district, and it depends upon various factors, all
+mutually interacting--upon the latitude, the temperature, the direction
+and strength of the winds, the rainfall, the character of the soil, and
+the proximity of the district to the sea.
+
+The differences in the climates of the world depend mainly upon
+latitude, but a scarcely less important factor is this proximity to the
+sea. Along any great climatic zone there will be found variations in
+proportion to this proximity, the extremes being "continental" climates
+in the centres of continents far from the oceans, and "insular" climates
+in small tracts surrounded by sea. Continental climates show great
+differences in seasonal temperatures, the winters tending to be
+unusually cold and the summers unusually warm, while the climate of
+insular tracts is characterised by equableness and also by greater
+dampness. Great Britain possesses, by reason of its position, a
+temperate insular climate, but its average annual temperature is much
+higher than could be expected from its latitude. The prevalent
+south-westerly winds cause a drift of the surface-waters of the Atlantic
+towards our shores, and this warm water current, which we know as the
+Gulf Stream, is the chief cause of the mildness of our winters.
+
+Most of our weather comes to us from the Atlantic. It would be
+impossible here within the limits of a short chapter to discuss fully
+the causes which affect or control weather changes. It must suffice to
+say that the conditions are in the main either cyclonic or anticyclonic,
+which terms may be best explained, perhaps, by comparing the air
+currents to a stream of water. In a stream a chain of eddies may often
+be seen fringing the more steadily-moving central water. Regarding the
+general northeasterly moving air from the Atlantic as such a stream, a
+chain of eddies may be developed in a belt parallel with its general
+direction. This belt of eddies or cyclones, as they are termed, tends to
+shift its position, sometimes passing over our islands, sometimes to the
+north or south of them, and it is to this shifting that most of our
+weather changes are due. Cyclonic conditions are associated with a
+greater or less amount of atmospheric disturbance; anticyclonic with
+calms.
+
+The prevalent Atlantic winds largely affect our island in another way,
+namely in its rainfall. The air, heavily laden with moisture from its
+passage over the ocean, meets with elevated land-tracts directly it
+reaches our shores--the moorland of Devon and Cornwall, the Welsh
+mountains, or the fells of Cumberland and Westmorland--and blowing up
+the rising land-surface, parts with this moisture as rain. To how great
+an extent this occurs is best seen by reference to the accompanying map
+of the annual rainfall of England, where it will at once be noticed that
+the heaviest fall is in the west, and that it decreases with remarkable
+regularity until the least fall is reached on our eastern shores. Thus
+in 1906, the maximum rainfall for the year occurred at Glaslyn in the
+Snowdon district, where 205 inches of rain fell; and the lowest was at
+Boyton in Suffolk, with a record of just under 20 inches. These western
+highlands, therefore, may not inaptly be compared to an umbrella,
+sheltering the country further eastward from the rain.
+
+[Illustration: ENGLAND & WALES ANNUAL RAINFALL]
+
+The above causes, then, are those mainly concerned in influencing the
+weather, but there are other and more local factors which often affect
+greatly the climate of a place, such, for example, as configuration,
+position, and soil. The shelter of a range of hills, a southern aspect,
+a sandy soil, will thus produce conditions which may differ greatly from
+those of a place--perhaps at no great distance--situated on a wind-swept
+northern slope with a cold clay soil.
+
+The character of the climate of a country or district influences, as
+everyone knows, both the cultivation of the soil and the products which
+it yields, and thus indirectly as well as directly exercises a profound
+effect upon Man. The banana-nourished dweller in a tropical island who
+has but to tickle the earth with a hoe for it to laugh a harvest is of
+different fibre morally and physically from the inhabitant of northern
+climes who wins a scanty subsistence from the land at the expense of
+unremitting toil. These are extremes; but even within the limits of a
+county, perhaps, similar if smaller differences may be noted, and the
+man of the plain or the valley is often distinct in type from his fellow
+of the hills.
+
+Very minute records of the climate of our island are kept at numerous
+stations throughout the country, relating to the temperature, rainfall,
+force and direction of the wind, hours of sunshine, cloud conditions,
+and so forth, and are duly collected, tabulated, and averaged by the
+Meteorological Society. From these we are able to compare and contrast
+the climatic conditions in various parts.
+
+Cornwall, being so surrounded by the sea, and so peculiarly under the
+influence of the Gulf Stream, may be looked upon as possessing a local
+"insular" climate in a marked degree. The south-west wind almost
+invariably brings rain and warmth together, for the high cold granitic
+moorlands are naturally calculated to arrest these warm airs and chill
+them, causing thereby a downfall of the suspended water. But Cornwall
+does not enjoy the amount of sun heat to ripen fruit that is obtained on
+the east coast of England, and it is exposed to furious gales from the
+west. "The gale from the west," says Polwhele, "is here no gentle
+zephyr; instead of wafting perfume on its wings, it often brings
+devastation." On the north coast every tree that is exposed to it is
+dwarfed and bowed like a curling wave, and the foliage in spring is
+often cut and browned by the salt spray. Even tombstones in the
+churchyards on the heights have to be backed up with masonry, and the
+churches are low, as if cowering from the blast. According to a Cornish
+proverb: "There falls a shower on every week day, and there are two on a
+Sunday." In Scilly, however, there is more sunshine and less rain than
+on the mainland. The myrtle, geranium, fuchsia, and hydrangea grow
+luxuriantly; the red geranium at Penzance will cover the front of a
+house, and palms and other exotics thrive there and at Falmouth. The
+fields of narcissus and daffodils cultivated for the market would be
+more beautiful if the blooms were not systematically picked before fully
+open, to be sent to London. No gardens in England exhibit such a wealth
+of exotics as those of Tresco, Carclew, Enys and Penjerrick, and some
+others in the district of the Fal estuary, which seems peculiarly
+favourable for the growth of sub-tropical species.
+
+In 1906, the mean temperature of England and Wales was 49.3 deg. Fahr.,
+while that of Cornwall was 51.2. The mean temperature of England in 1907
+was 48.5, of Cornwall 50.6. But there exists a considerable difference
+between north and south. At Redruth it was in 1906, 50.1, whereas at
+Truro it was nine degrees higher.
+
+The east wind prevails in October and is strong in March, the south-east
+in June, the south-west is felt in every month save April, but very
+little in December. The west wind is most prevalent in August, least so
+in May. The north wind predominates in December and July.
+
+The rainfall chart here given shows that Cornwall lies for the most
+part in an area where from 40 to 60 inches are annually recorded, though
+a strip of the north coast from St Ives to Padstow and again from
+Boscastle to the northern limit of the county shows a fall of less than
+40 inches. This is because the uplands have robbed the rainclouds of a
+considerable portion of their contents, and accordingly it is on these
+high moorlands that we find the greatest rainfall. Thus on the moors
+between Launceston and Bodmin from 60 to 80 inches fall, and even this
+latter figure is exceeded in the neighbourhood of Rough Tor and Brown
+Willy.
+
+From observations taken at the Royal Institution of Cornwall at Truro,
+from 1850 to 1881 it appears that the rainiest months are November and
+December, and next to them January and July; April and May are the least
+rainy.
+
+
+
+
+=13. People--Race, Dialect, Population.=
+
+
+The original population of Cornwall would seem to have been what is now
+commonly called Ivernian, the same as Iberian, the underlying race
+everywhere in Western Europe from the western isles of Scotland to
+Gibraltar. When the Romans invaded and conquered Spain, they found there
+already in the east the Celts and in the west the Iberians, and they
+designated the more or less fused population, Celtiberians. So in
+Cornwall, there was this dark-haired, dusky-skinned race, and the
+Brythons, Celts, of the people of the Dumnonii. There were extensive
+settlements by Irish in the Land's End district, the Lizard, and along
+the north coast, in 490-510, owing to the expulsion of the Ossorians and
+the Bairrche from their lands in Ireland. The Saxon also crossed the
+Tamar and peaceably settled in East Cornwall.
+
+The language spoken was Brythonic, akin to, and originally identical
+with Welsh and that spoken in Lower Brittany. It was distinct in some
+points from the Goidelic of Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Highlands
+of Scotland. The main difference was that the _C_ in the latter became
+_P_ in the former. Thus _Ken_ or _Cen_ in such names as Kenmare and
+Ciaran would in Cornish become Penmare and Piran.
+
+In the reign of Edward I, Cornish was spoken in the south Hams of
+Devonshire, but in the sixteenth century it was dying out even in West
+Cornwall. Norden, writing in 1580, says: "Of late the Cornish men have
+much conformed themselves to the use of the English tongue, and their
+English is equal to the beste, especially in the eastern partes.... In
+the weste parte of the countrye, in the hundreds of Penwith and Kirrier,
+the Cornishe tongue is most in use amongste the inhabitants." At
+Menheniot about 1540 the Creed and the Lord's Prayer were first taught
+the people in English. In 1678, at Landewednack, the last Cornish sermon
+on record was preached. In the reign of George III (1777) died Dolly
+Pentreath, the last to speak the language.
+
+Two modern Cornish dialects exist. That in the east very naturally is
+assimilated to the Devonshire; but in the west it has formed itself in
+comparatively recent times. The more common prefixes of names of places
+are:--_Tre_ an enclosure or homestead, _Lan_ also an enclosure for a
+church, _Ty_ a dwelling, _Bod_ a habitation, _Chy_ a house, _Pol_ a
+pool, _Pen_ a head, _Huel_ or _Wheal_ a mine, _Ros_ a moor, _Men_ a
+stone, _B[=a]l_ a mine, _Bos_ is a corruption of _Bod_ and is sometimes
+reduced to _Bo_; _Car_ stands for _Caer_ a fortress; _Dun_ has the same
+signification. _Burn_ stands for _Bron_ a hill, _Camborne_ should be
+_Cambron_, the crooked hill; _Cara_ is _Carreg_ a rock, and this is
+often found cut down to _Car_; _Carn_ is a cairn or heap of stones or
+mass of rock; _Enys_ or _Innis_ an island or peninsula. _Fenter_
+occurring in many combinations is _fenten_ a well or spring; _Goon_ is
+the Welsh _Waun_ a grassy down; _Hal_ is a moor, _Parc_ an enclosure,
+_Dinas_ a chieftain's castle, _Lis_ a court of justice.
+
+It is possible that certain river names may derive from the original
+tongue of the earliest race. Some seem to be more akin to Goidelic than
+Brythonic dialect, as _Fal_ (Gaelic _foill_, slow), and _Fowey_ (Gaelic
+_fobhaidh_, swift); but there are not sufficient of these to assure us
+that the Goidels preceded the Brythons in Cornwall.
+
+In East Cornwall there must have been a considerable influx of Saxon
+settlers, for there we light upon such names of places as are compounded
+with _ton_ the home-farm, _worth_ and _worthy_ a fortified settlement,
+_stoke_, _stow_, _sto_ a stockade, an earthwork surmounted by a defence
+of posts; _ham_ a meadow by the waterside. In West Cornwall such names
+are few.
+
+[Illustration: Miners: Camborne]
+
+The people are courteous and kindly, and very independent. In South
+Africa, whither many thousand miners have migrated, they are not
+popular, and are fain to disguise whence they come by pretending to
+hail from Furness. The reason is that the Cornish cling together and do
+not care to associate with others, and that they lack that breadth of
+sympathy which makes men give up their time and devote their energies to
+the common good. The Cornish miner cares nothing for the country and for
+those among whom he has placed himself, if only in three years he may
+have made enough money to return home to his wife and children. He does
+not go out to settle, and this explains the lack of interest he has in
+what interests and concerns the colony.
+
+The Cornish are a broad-shouldered race, above the average in stature,
+and it is stated that west country regiments, when drawn up on parade,
+cover a greater space of ground than would those of other counties, the
+numbers being equal.
+
+The census of 1901 gives as the population of the administrative county
+322,334 persons, of whom 149,937 were males and 172,397 were females.
+There had been an increase in the number of males since 1891, and a
+decrease in the number of females. Of inhabited houses there were
+72,660. The population of Cornwall in 1801 was 192,281, and it went on
+increasing steadily to 1861, but from that date it has been as steadily
+on the decrease. In military barracks there were 629 officers and men,
+in naval barracks 90, and on H.M. ships in home waters 2053; in
+workhouses 1308, in prison 75.
+
+In 1901 there were 21,335 marriages, 88,636 births, and 55,790 deaths.
+There were 6434 wives whose husbands were absent, either at sea or
+mining in South Africa or South America. In agriculture 23,671 were
+engaged, in fishing 3734, in mining 13,426; in building and carpentering
+9667. Of the 149,937 males enumerated in the county of Cornwall, 128,184
+were natives of the county, 8007 had come from Devonshire, and there
+were resident in Cornwall 976 foreigners. Of blind there were 447, of
+deaf and dumb 163, of lunatics 798, of imbeciles 516.
+
+Whereas the number of people to the square mile in England is 558, that
+in Cornwall is only 230.
+
+It must, however, be born in mind that the Administrative County and the
+Geographical County are not coextensive. Thus, parts of the Registration
+County of Cornwall are in the Administrative County of Devon, such are
+Broadwood Widger, Northcott, North Petherwin, St Giles in the Heath,
+Virginstow and Werrington, with a total population of 2460 persons; and
+on the other hand parts of the Administrative County of Cornwall are in
+the Registration County of Devon; these are Calstock and North Tamerton
+with a population of 6203 persons.
+
+Thus the population and acreage in 1901 in the Registration County would
+be, population 318,591, acreage 886,384, but in the Geographical or
+Administrative County the population would be in the same year 322,334
+and the acreage 868,208.
+
+
+
+
+=14. Agriculture--Main Cultivations. Stock.=
+
+
+The lack of hot sunshine makes Cornwall an unsuitable county for
+cereals, but the mildness of the climate and the rainfall render it on
+the other hand favourable for dairy produce and for stock.
+
+[Illustration: "First and Last House," Land's End]
+
+A recent writer, Mr W.H. Hudson, in his book on the Land's End, thus
+describes a Cornish farm. He speaks of the neighbourhood of Penrith, but
+the description applies to many other parts of the Duchy, though not to
+East Cornwall, where it is scarcely applicable at all, and is precisely
+the part where there exists least of the Celtic and most of the English
+element. "Life on these small farms is incredibly rough. One may guess
+what it is like from the outward aspect of such places. Each, it is
+true, has its own individual character, but they are all pretty much
+alike in their dreary, naked, and almost squalid appearance. Each, too,
+has its own ancient Cornish name, some of them very fine and pretty, but
+you are tempted to rename them in your own mind Desolation Farm, Dreary
+Farm, Stony Farm, etc. The farmhouse is a small, low place, and
+invariably built of granite, with no garden, or bush, or flower about
+it. The one I stayed at was a couple of centuries old, but no one had
+ever thought of growing anything, even a marigold, to soften its bare,
+harsh aspect. The house itself could hardly be distinguished from the
+outhouses clustered around it. Several times on coming back to the house
+in a hurry, and not exercising proper care, I found I had made for a
+wrong door, and got into the cow-house or pig-house, or a shed of some
+sort, instead of into the human habitation. The pigs and fowls did not
+come in, but were otherwise free to go where they liked. The rooms were
+very low; my hair, when I stood erect, just brushed the beams; but the
+living room or kitchen was spacious for so small a house, and had the
+wide old open fireplace still so common in this part of the country. Any
+other form of fireplace would not be suitable where the fuel consists of
+furze and turf."
+
+But it must be allowed that the large landed proprietors have everywhere
+built commodious, though almost invariably ugly, new farmhouses.
+
+Considering the vast extent of grass land there is in Cornwall, and the
+amount of butter, cream, and milk derived therefrom, it has become more
+and more clear to thinking farmers that the pasture is becoming
+exhausted, its feeding powers worn out, and that they must replenish the
+soil with the lime and phosphates that have been taken out of it to
+nourish and rear the cattle. The consequence is, that of late years the
+more intelligent farmers are largely employing artificial, i.e. chemical
+manures, and the results have been most satisfactory. You cannot eat
+your cake and have it. If you take so much annually out of the ground
+you must put in an equivalent annually, or you exhaust the soil; and
+animal manure is not sufficient. In the country a great deal of turf
+and furze is burnt, where there is proximity to the moors. The writer
+just quoted says: "in some parts of Cornwall they have good peat, called
+'pudding turves,' which makes a hot and comparatively lasting fire. In
+the Land's End district they have only the turf taken from the surface,
+which makes the poorest of all fires, but it has to serve. But to make a
+blaze and get any warmth furze was burnt. In a few moments the dry stuff
+would ignite and burn with a tremendous hissing and crackling, the
+flames springing up to a height of seven or eight feet in the vast
+hollow chimney. For a minute or two the whole big room would be almost
+too hot, and lit up as by a flash of lightning. Then the roaring flames
+would sink and vanish, leaving nothing but a bed of grey ashes, jewelled
+with innumerable crimson and yellow sparks, rapidly diminishing."
+
+The total acreage under crops and grass in 1908 was 608,691; of these
+356,497 acres were arable land, the rest, 252,194 acres, permanent
+grass: 17,120 acres grew wheat, 30,696 barley, and 66,033 oats; 4441
+acres grew potatoes, 15,271 turnips and swedes, 11,528 mangold, 8059
+rape, and 1658 small fruit. Of small fruit culture just over 621 acres
+were devoted to strawberries, nearly 276 to raspberries and nearly 553
+to currants and gooseberries. Apples were grown on 4865 acres, cherries
+on 199, plums on 182.
+
+The number of horses used for agricultural purposes was 25,706. The
+total of horses, colts and unbroken, was 34,821. Of cattle there were
+219,890, and of these 59,298 were cows in milk. The total number of
+sheep was 410,055, and that of pigs 104,813. Of mountain and heath land
+used for grazing there were 71,438 acres. In Cornwall there are 9249
+acres of coppice and 22,197 of other woods, but no more than 981 of
+plantations. While 548,787 acres are tended by tenants, only 59,904
+acres are occupied by the owners. Whereas in Surrey the percentage of
+those occupying their own land is 33 per cent., that in Cornwall is 9.7,
+in Devon 10.9, and in Hampshire 24.4.
+
+In Cornwall, in 1908, the number of agricultural holders above one acre
+but not exceeding five was 2859; of those above five and not exceeding
+50, there were 6810. Of those above 50 and not exceeding 300 acres there
+were 3682, but of those holding more than 300 acres there were but 118,
+whereas in Essex there were 564, in Suffolk 540, in Hampshire 595, in
+Wiltshire 660 and in Northumberland 731.
+
+Of late years, especially in the Scilly Isles, flower gardening, the
+growth of narcissus, jonquils, daffodils, and various sorts of lilies,
+also of violets, anemones, and marguerites, has been carried on with
+great success, and the produce is carried by steamer and train to London
+and other large towns.
+
+During six months in the year, when and where the flower culture
+prevails, it forms the staple of conversation in parsonage, manor house,
+farm, and cottage. From January until May men, women, and children are
+directly or indirectly engrossed in this one labour. The bulbs are moved
+at least once in three or four years. Left longer, they decrease in
+size, and become weakly; the flowers also degenerate. A suitable manure
+is at hand, the kelp washed up by the sea costing nothing but the labour
+of gathering and transporting.
+
+[Illustration: Flower Farming, Scilly]
+
+Anyone standing in a field which is in full bloom and waiting to be
+picked over, would think that the men have a hopeless task to face, if
+they purpose gathering all their flowers. But they move down the beds
+swiftly, snapping the stems, and throwing the flowers into big baskets,
+which are carried off to the homestead as they fill, and in an
+incredibly short time the beds are thinned. When the baskets are brought
+into the farmhouse they are emptied, and if the weather has been wet and
+stormy the flowers are packed roughly into pots and pans of every
+description, and set on shelves to dry off and assume their proper
+colour. If the weather has been fine this preliminary toilet is
+dispensed with, and the girls and women bunch and tie at once. Twelve
+stems go to a bunch always, and the aim is to arrange the flowers so
+that they shall present a compact lozenge shape, crisp and tight.
+Varieties are never mixed when tied, the bunches are passed on to
+another department, where the uneven stems are sliced off, and the
+flowers set in water to await packing.
+
+Packing the flowers is a serious business. The boxes are lined with
+paper, little pillows are made for the flowers to rest upon, and then
+the bunches are deftly laid, so many this way, so many that, and a few
+in the centre, and behold, stems are altogether hidden, and only a mass
+of bloom fills the box. The end papers are turned in, a ticket placed on
+the top, declaring the variety of flower and the number of bunches; the
+cover is nailed down, and the operation is complete.
+
+
+
+
+=15. Industries and Manufactures.=
+
+
+Cornwall is too far from the coalfields to be a manufacturing county on
+a large scale. There are, however, some few industries and manufactures
+carried on in Cornwall. The wonderful wireless telegraphy installation
+which Mr Marconi has established at Poldhu does not, perhaps, strictly
+speaking, come under this head, but it would be impossible to omit
+mention of it and of the great services it daily renders to vessels
+crossing the Atlantic.
+
+[Illustration: Poldhu Hotel and the Marconi Station]
+
+A considerable industry is in the making of casks, mainly for the
+exportation of pilchards. Woollen manufacture is carried on in a small
+way, also the construction of mining and other machinery. Shipbuilding
+occupies about 870 men. Some brick-making is done, but not to any
+considerable extent. The real employments supplying the vast majority of
+the people with bread are mining and quarrying, and agriculture and
+horticulture.
+
+
+
+
+=16. Minerals and Mining.=
+
+
+The authentic history of tin-mining in Cornwall begins with the year
+1156. It is not mentioned in Domesday, and probably the Conqueror was as
+ignorant that tin was to be found there as were the Romans. In the year
+above given the tin mines are mentioned in the Pipe Rolls. In 1198
+appears a letter from the Warden of the Stannaries to the Justiciar. In
+1156 most of the tin was raised on Dartmoor, but the output now began to
+rise rapidly. In 1201 King John issued a charter to the Stannaries. In
+1305 the Cornish Stannaries were in part dissociated from those in
+Devon.
+
+As already stated, in the beds of the valleys running down from the
+central ridge are deposits of tin, brought there from the lodes degraded
+by weather and flood in the central spinal ridge. The specific gravity
+of the tin ore is 6.8, and as the water rolled away from the heights, it
+deposited the tin that it had brought away with it. "The ores of tin,"
+wrote Pryce in 1776, "are shode and stream ... scattered to some
+distance from the parent lode, and consisting of pebbly and smoothly
+angular stones of various sizes, from half an ounce to some pounds in
+weight. Stream tin is the same as shode but smaller in size and
+arenaceous."
+
+[Illustration: King Edward Mine, Camborne]
+
+Polwhele describes an early stream work disclosed about a century ago.
+The ore was of the purest kind and contained two-thirds metal. The
+pebbles from which the metal was extracted were in size from sand-like
+grains to that of a small egg. The depth of the primeval bed was 20 ft.
+This appeared to have been worked at a remote period, and before iron
+tools were employed, as large pickaxes of oak, holm, and box were found
+there. But archaeological research at the period when he wrote was
+carried on in such a haphazard way that we cannot trust the reports then
+made, and it is quite possible that the workings were comparatively
+late, possibly of Mediaeval times.
+
+All the early work was in stream tin. The Cornish tin had this
+disadvantage--that it was not pure like the Dartmoor tin, but was so
+associated with sulphur that after smelting it had to undergo a second
+process, and that a delicate one. It had to be "roasted," to get rid of
+the sulphur, for only thus could the tin be made available. Associated
+with sulphur it is brittle. We may well doubt whether in early times the
+double process was understood. Moreover, we know that when we have the
+first notices of tin in the west, it was Dartmoor and not Cornwall which
+rendered the largest supply.
+
+Shaft-mining did not come in before 1450, when the stream tin was
+exhausted. The use of the adit cannot be traced back beyond the
+beginning of the seventeenth century. The only way of draining the mines
+was by rag and chain pumps, each consisting of an endless chain,
+broadened at intervals by leathern bindings, to fit snugly into a pipe
+from 12 to 22 ft. long, worked by a windlass at the surface. To drain a
+mine of great depth a series of these pumps was necessary.
+
+When hydraulic draining-engines were first employed is not known, but
+even so late as the close of the eighteenth century some mines were
+drained by the rag and chain pump worked by 36 men.
+
+Up to the sixteenth century, wooden shovels and picks are known to have
+been employed, and shovels were merely iron-shod. There is in the
+British Museum a MS. calendar of Haroldstone in S. Wales, of the early
+sixteenth century, in which are representations of the works of the
+months, and in it the labourers in the fields are shown as using wooden
+spades shod with metal.
+
+German mining was carried on upon better principles than the English,
+and Sir Francis Godolphin sent for an experienced German engineer to
+instruct the miners of Godolphin and Tregonning in the superior systems
+employed in Saxony. It was then only that the hydraulic stamps were
+introduced.
+
+In 1742 one steam-engine only was found in the county; but speedily
+after came a great advance. Savery and Newcomen brought in their steam
+pump; that of Newcomen was introduced at Chasewater in 1777.
+
+Notwithstanding that the methods of descent into the mines by a series
+of long ladders had been superseded by the man-engine, first introduced
+in 1842, it was a long time before the old ladders at different
+successive stages were abandoned.
+
+Owing to the introduction of tin from the Straits Settlements, where it
+is found in the condition of stream tin and can be easily worked, the
+tin mining in Cornwall, necessitating real mining and the following of
+lodes, has proved unremunerative and has been abandoned, and now but few
+mines are worked for the metal. Another cause has fatally affected
+Cornish mining--the fraudulent practice of the promoters of the mines.
+It was no uncommon practice for the "captains," when a rich lode was
+struck, to cover it up, and follow false lodes, till the investors in
+the venture lost heart and refused to advance more money, when the
+captains would carry on the work in the real lode, if they could raise
+the capital, but this they often failed to do, the mine having fallen
+into discredit, or the water having broken in.
+
+But if tin mining be practically dead in Cornwall, another industry has
+risen with leaps and bounds. It is that of the china-clay and
+china-stone, employed in the manufacture of porcelain, in the sizing of
+paper and of cotton materials, in the manufacture of alum, etc. The
+glazed paper so largely employed in our illustrated papers is made up
+largely with china-clay. Some years ago the Italian government employed
+this paper for its official documents, but found that after a few years
+under the influence of damp weather the records had dissolved into a
+lump of clay.
+
+[Illustration: China Clay Quarries, Porthpean]
+
+China-clay consists of decomposed felspar, quartz and white mica. In
+1817 the amount shipped for manufacturing pottery was comparatively
+small, but of late years it has grown, and employs over 3000 persons.
+The china-clay is the same as the Chinese _Kaolin_; its value was
+discovered by a Plymouth Quaker, Mr Cookworthy, in 1745.
+
+Porcelain was introduced into Europe from the East in 1518, when it
+acquired the name of China. For a long time it was supposed that the
+kaolin or fine white clay of which it is composed, was found only in the
+Celestial Empire, and specimens of this brought to Europe fetched a high
+price. At the beginning of the eighteenth century it was discovered in
+Saxony in an odd way. A merchant named Schnerr, being on a journey, was
+struck with the whiteness of some clay near Schneeburg, and collecting
+some of it used it for powdering his wig. It succeeded, but had this
+disadvantage, that wigs dressed with this new powder were very heavy. An
+apothecary named Boetcher noticed the increased weight of the wig,
+analysed the powder, and discovered that it was identical with Chinese
+kaolin. He began to make Dresden China in 1709, and the process was
+carried on with the greatest secrecy, the exportation of the earth being
+forbidden under heavy penalties.
+
+In 1748 Cookworthy discovered kaolin on Tregonning Hill, more was found
+at Boconnoc, and Cookworthy and Thomas Pett began to make china in 1768.
+At present St Austell is the great seat of this industry, and the
+produce is shipped at Charlestown and Polmear.
+
+[Illustration: Delabole Slate Quarries]
+
+The important slate-quarries of the Duchy, of which the Delabole
+quarry is the most renowned, have already been mentioned.
+
+At Calstock and Gunnislake a few years ago there were numerous miners
+engaged in the manufacture of arsenic from the waste product of the
+abandoned copper mines. But now this has become an extinct industry.
+
+[Illustration: Shipping Slate, Port Gavin]
+
+Wulfram or tungsten, a metal used as an alloy for hardening steel, was
+also a waste product from the tin mines, but it is now utilised. At St
+Ives, pitchblende is now being worked for radium.
+
+
+
+
+=17. Fisheries.=
+
+
+If mining be a decayed industry in Cornwall, that of fishing shows no
+diminution. In an old book of natural history published in 1776, the
+principal fishery of pilchards is described. "Pilchards appear in vast
+shoals off the Cornish coasts about the middle of July, and disappear at
+the beginning of winter; though a few of them sometimes return again
+after Christmas. The fishing employs a great many men on the sea, and
+men, women, and children on land, in salting, pressing, washing, and
+cleaning; in making boats, nets, ropes, casks; and all the tradesmen
+depending on their construction and sale. The usual quantities exported
+each year, for ten years, from 1746 to 1756 inclusive, on the average is
+as follows: Fowey has exported 1732 hogsheads annually; Falmouth 14,631;
+Penzance and Mounts Bay 12,149; St Ives 1282; in all amounting to 29,795
+hogsheads." And the same writer thus describes the fish. "The pilchard
+greatly resembles the herring, but differs from it in some particulars;
+it is a third less, and the body is proportionably broader: it has a
+black spot near the upper corner of the gills, and the belly is not so
+sharp. It has no teeth, either in the jaws, the tongue, or the palate."
+It is now held that the pilchard is identical with the sardine, but in a
+different stage of growth.
+
+The pilchards are taken generally from the middle of August to the
+middle of September, when large "schools" are seen coming up the
+Channel. Each fishing station generally has two or more companies or
+clubs of twenty or thirty men; each company owning various boats and
+generally two of the gigantic seines employed, which cost L250 or more.
+These nets are about 250 fathoms or more long and about 15 fathoms deep,
+and three boats go to each seine. The first boat, which is also the
+largest, is called the seine-boat, as it carries the net and seven men
+in it; the next is termed the "vollier," or "cock-boat," and carries
+another seine, called the tuck-seine, which is 100 fathoms long and 18
+deep, this boat also carries seven men; the third boat is called the
+"lurker," and contains three or four men, and in this boat is the
+master.
+
+[Illustration: Pilchard Boats, Mevagissey]
+
+The pilchards were at one time supposed to come from the Polar Sea, but
+it has now been ascertained that the main body retires for the winter
+into deep water to the westward of the Scilly Isles. About the middle of
+spring they quit the deep seas and begin to consort in small shoals
+which gradually increase to the end of July or the beginning of August,
+when they combine in one mighty host and begin their migration eastward.
+They strike the land a little north of Cape Cornwall, where they break
+up into two portions, one following the north coast of Cornwall, the
+other the south.
+
+When the shoal is approaching, men and boys who have been lying on the
+cliffs doing nothing start into activity and rush to the boats. The
+gulls may be seen hovering over the advancing army, and a change appears
+in the colour of the water. At once the "huers," as the signallers are
+called, get out their signals--a ball at the end of a stick--and proceed
+to direct the pursuing boats according to the movements of the school.
+
+The seine-boat leads the way followed by the vollier, and the crew of
+the foremost boat pass a warp, that is, throw a rope, which is fixed to
+the end of the seine on board the vollier, and then shoot the net
+overboard, which, having leaden weights at bottom, sinks, while the top
+is buoyed up with corks. The seine-boat is rowed in a circular course
+round where the fish are "stoiting" or jumping, and when they have
+reached the vollier, the fish are enclosed. They then join the two ends
+of the seine together with a cord to prevent the fish from breaking out,
+and whilst this is being done a man is engaged in frightening the fish
+away from the still open end by means of a stone fastened to a rope.
+When the two ends of the net are laced together, grapes, i.e. grapples,
+are let down to keep the net expanded and steady till the fish have been
+taken up. This latter process is called "tucking the seine." The boat
+with the tuck-seine on board passes the warp of that seine to one of the
+other boats and then shoots this net within the big seine. It is then
+drawn up to the edge of the water, when it is seen to be one quivering
+mass of silver. The fish are now taken or dipped out with baskets into
+the boats. When the boats are filled, if more fish remain in the large
+seine, it is left in the water, till by successive tuckings all the fish
+have been removed. In addition to seining large numbers of pilchards are
+taken in drift nets.
+
+[Illustration: The Huers' House, Newquay]
+
+Formerly pilchards were smoked, and went by the name of _fumados_,
+which name has been corrupted into "fair maids." A not over-complimentary
+saying in Cornwall is that "pilchards and women when they are bad
+are very bad, and when good are only middling." Pilchards constitute
+an important article of food to the poorer classes on the coast, but
+doubtless the Cornishmen get very tired of them as an article
+of diet. Large quantities are exported to Spain and Italy. Some are made
+into "sardines" in oil in the local factories.
+
+A peculiarity of the county is that ecclesiastical dues in the nature of
+tithes are levied on the persons employed in the pilchard fisheries.
+
+The number of hogsheads packed for export every year varies
+considerably, but the yearly produce averages from 20,000 to 30,000
+hogsheads. In certain years the amount has reached nearly 50,000. In
+1901 the fishery found employment for 3734 men, in 1905 in Penzance
+alone for 1275. Beside pilchards, there are mackerel, hake, cod, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Pilchard Boats, St Ives Harbour]
+
+The quantity of fish taken, other than mackerel, herrings, pilchards,
+and sprats in 1905 at Looe was 5841 cwt., at Mevagissey 4893, at
+Falmouth 3213, at Porthleven 6132, at Newlyn 37,468. Of mackerel,
+herrings and sprats, at Looe 10,403 cwt., at Mevagissey 40,236, at
+Falmouth 5991, at Porthleven 26,945, at Newlyn 493,956. The total value
+of the fish taken in the year at Looe was L5377, at Mevagissey L13,818,
+at Falmouth L17,718, at Porthleven L11,454, at Newlyn L232,466.
+
+Turning to the north coast, in the first category were taken at Sennen 1074
+cwt., at St Ives 2431, at Padstow 4051. In the second category, at
+Sennen 605 cwt., at St Ives 80,557, at Padstow but 318, at Port Isaac
+2526.
+
+The value of the fish taken at Sennen was L2065, at St Ives L39,941, at
+Padstow L6660, at Port Isaac L2169.
+
+[Illustration: Landing Fish, Newlyn]
+
+
+
+
+=18. Shipping and Trade.=
+
+
+There are no great seaports in Cornwall. Falmouth was by far the most
+considerable when the packet service ran from it to the West Indies,
+Portugal, and New York. The station was established in 1688. In 1705
+five packet-boats left it for the West Indies and in 1709 as many for
+Lisbon; not till 1755 did two sail for New York, but the number was
+increased to four in 1763.
+
+In 1782, eighteen packets sailed from Falmouth for the West Indies and
+America. Up to 1823 the packets had sailed under contract between the
+General Post Office and the commanders, who received their appointment
+from that establishment and engaged to provide, equip, and man a proper
+ship for the purpose, for a sum of L1800 per annum. These vessels were
+from 180 to 210 tons register. But after 1823 the above system was
+changed, for the service was placed under the orders of the Admiralty
+instead of the Post Office; and as vessels were wanted they were
+supplied by men-of-war.
+
+[Illustration: The St Vincent's Anchor, Falmouth]
+
+In 1827 thirty-nine packets left Falmouth; in 1834 six steamers were
+employed. But in 1850 Falmouth ceased altogether to be a packet station.
+This was greatly to the detriment of the town. It still remains as a
+port of call for outward-bound sailing-ships. Further up the river is
+Penryn, which was a town and a port before Falmouth was thought of. The
+silting up of the river does not now allow other than small boats and
+barges to reach it.
+
+Letters came down on mail coaches, from London through Exeter, by
+Launceston to Bodmin, and thence to Truro and Falmouth. The rate
+appointed for the coaches, including stoppages, was bound to be thirteen
+miles an hour. The mail spun along night and day, without a halt save
+for change of horses. The stages on an average were eight miles, and the
+horses, four-in-hand, went at a gallop. The guard wore the royal livery
+of scarlet, and always had his blunderbus handy, in case of an attempt
+by highwaymen to hold up his coach.
+
+Charlestown and Polmear in St Austell Bay are only important for the
+trade in china-clay exported thence; Marazion and Penzance, and St
+Mary's in Scilly only for the conveyance of flowers to London. But these
+ports and such as are on the north coast are convenient as mouths
+through which Welsh coal can be imported to feed the cellars and fires
+in the peninsula. Pilchards also are exported from these little ports to
+Italy and Spain; and anciently a considerable trade was carried on
+between them and France, Spain, and Portugal in wine, and a considerable
+amount of wine and spirits entered the county through small creeks and
+coves, into which smugglers conveyed their kegs. The gentry and
+taverners were kept well supplied with liquor that never paid duty.
+
+
+
+
+=19. History.=
+
+
+The original population of Cornwall was probably Iberic, of the same
+primitive race as the dark-haired population of Ireland, before the
+island was invaded and subjugated by the Celts.
+
+The branch of the Celts in Britain and Cornwall was Brythonic, and there
+is nothing certain to show that the Goidels were in Cornwall before the
+Brythons. It is true that some few river names, and again inscriptions
+are Irish, but these latter pertain to the settlement in Cornwall of
+Irish expelled from Ossory and Wicklow in the fifth century.
+
+Popularly the dark hair and dusky complexions of some of the Cornish is
+attributed to Spaniards wrecked from the Armada. But no Spanish wreck
+came on shore in Cornwall. The first loss the Armada sustained was east
+of Plymouth. On its way back to Spain none of the vessels came near
+Cornwall. Several were wrecked on the coast of Ireland and their crews
+massacred to a man by the natives.
+
+Posidonius travelled after B.C. 123 and visited Spain, where he
+collected a variety of information on points of geography and natural
+history, and after spending thirty days at Gades returned to Italy. He
+learned among other things something about the collection of tin in
+Bolerium, a name afterwards appropriated by Ptolemy to the Land's End.
+He says: "The inhabitants of that promontory of Britain which is called
+Bolerium are very fond of strangers, and from their intercourse with
+foreign merchants are civilised in their manner of life. They prepare
+the tin, working very skilfully the earth in which it is produced. The
+ground is rocky, but it contains earthy veins, the produce of which is
+ground down, smelted, and purified. They make the metal up into slabs
+shaped like knuckle-bones, and carry it to a certain island lying in
+front of Britain called Ictis. During the ebb of the tide the
+intervening space is left dry, and to this place they carry over
+abundance of tin in their waggons.... Here then, the merchants buy the
+tin from the natives, and carry it over to Gaul; and after travelling
+overland for about thirty days, they finally bring their loads on
+pack-horses to the outlet of the Rhone." It is very doubtful whether
+Posidonius ever visited Britain. What he relates is doubtless due to
+information received by him, either at Gades or at Massilia.
+
+According to Timaeus, the contemporary of Pytheas, the isle of Vectis
+was six days sail from Britain, "in an inward direction." Vectis, there
+can be little doubt, is the Isle of Wight, formerly connected with the
+mainland by a ridge of chalk since broken through by the waves. Ancient
+mariners coasted, and those who came to Britain for tin followed the
+Gallic shore till they could see the white cliffs of Dover, when they
+crossed, and coasted down channel to the Isle of Wight.
+
+There is no evidence that the Phoenicians ever visited Cornwall. Nor has
+a single relic of Phoenician art or coin been found in Cornwall. The
+traders with Britain were the Veneti of the Morbihan, in Brittany.
+Moreover, as General Pitt Rivers has pointed out, bronze celts (axe
+heads), which have been unearthed in Cornwall, are never found in any
+parts where the Phoenicians have been.
+
+It has been assumed with much confidence that Cornwall or the Scilly
+Isles must have been the Cassiterides of the ancients. But even this is
+doubtful. The Cassiterides were described as lying west of Spain, and
+the description applies to the Azores; it may have been due to ignorance
+or design that they were represented as islands prolific in tin.
+
+[Illustration: The Nine Maidens, St Columb Major]
+
+That tin was worked in Cornwall from a very early period can hardly be
+questioned, in 1823 at Carnon a deer-horn pick was discovered 40 ft.
+below the surface, but as a crucifix was also found there 30 ft. below
+the surface, this only shows how the creeks have had their floors
+turned over and silted up.
+
+Though tin was exported from Cornwall, bronze was not manufactured there
+till a comparatively late period. Bronze came from the East, and the
+great centre whence radiated the trade in bronze weapons was the basin
+of the Po.
+
+What seems to be abundantly clear is that the export of tin from Britain
+had come to an end by the first century of the present era. Caesar, on
+invading Britain, heard nothing about it, and when Britain was finally
+conquered, the Romans who worked the lead mines in the Mendips, and gold
+and copper in Wales, totally neglected Cornwall, holding it to be
+worthless. They never settled there, only traversed it to the Land's
+End, leaving behind them a couple of square camps, some coins, few and
+far between, and some Samian ware; but this shows little more than that
+a traffic went on between the Britons of Cornwall and the Romans and
+Romano-British beyond Exeter. The fact that the Romans had no idea that
+tin was to be found in the peninsula shows that the mining for it had
+ceased there for some time previous. The Brythonic Celts are held to
+have invaded Britain B.C. 300; and it is probable that from that date
+the industry in tin mining carried on by the Ivernian natives declined
+rapidly and expired, leaving not a tradition behind.
+
+It is noteworthy that the Dumnonii were behind the British peoples in
+the east. They had no coinage, whereas those in the south-east had
+theirs, copied from a stater of Philip of Macedon. No Greek coins had
+reached the Dumnonii, and they had consequently none to copy, however
+clumsily.
+
+In the battle of Deorham, 577, the Britons were defeated with great
+slaughter, and the West Welsh of Devon and Cornwall were cut off from
+further communication with their brethren of Wales. The Saxons steadily
+advanced, but for long the Parrett was the boundary. In 823 a battle was
+fought between the Saxons and Britons at Gavulford, now Galford, a point
+on the old road from Exeter to the west, where the hills draw together,
+and whence it is commanded by a huge camp. The Britons now called the
+Danes to their aid, and twelve years afterwards a battle was fought on
+Hingeston Down, above Calstock, in which Egbert was victorious. This was
+in 835. Hitherto the Britons had occupied one portion of Exeter, but
+Athelstan, after defeating the Cornish King Howell, not only expelled
+them from the city but fixed the Tamar as their boundary. Then he passed
+through Cornwall, and even visited the Scilly Isles. The Count of Poher
+in Brittany, of whose son Alan Barbetorte was the godson of Athelstan,
+fled from Brittany with a crowd of his countrymen from the devastations
+of the Northmen, and Athelstan gave them homes in England. It is
+probable that he planted some in the Lizard, and others about Camborne,
+for we find there church dedications to distinctively Breton saints, and
+we know, moreover, that the fugitive Bretons brought with them the bones
+of their patron saints. As they spoke the same tongue as the Cornish, it
+would be natural for Athelstan to send them there.
+
+In 981, the Danish pirates plundered the monastery of St Petrock, and in
+997 ravaged the territories of their old allies from one end of Cornwall
+to the other with fire and sword. Shortly before this, in 993, Olaf
+Tryggvason of Norway, with Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, after having
+attacked London, devastated the east coast, burnt Sandwich and Ipswich,
+and stormed Bamborough, then harried the Scottish coast, the Western
+Isles, the Isle of Man, and Ireland, where "he burned far and wide,
+wherever inhabited." He then came to the Scilly Isles, where he put into
+Tresco harbour. There the monks of the abbey founded by Athelstan so
+impressed him, that he consented to be baptized.
+
+In 1068, the county was plundered by Godwin and Edmund, sons of Harold,
+after a battle in Somersetshire, and on their way back to Ireland.
+
+In 1322, the craze for going on pilgrimage took possession of Cornish
+men, women, and children, and they set off for the Holy Land, whence few
+returned.
+
+In 1497, in consequence of the dissatisfaction occasioned by the levy of
+a burdensome tax, the commoners of Cornwall, headed by Thomas Flamank, a
+gentleman, and Michael Joseph, a Bodmin blacksmith, rose in rebellion.
+Having prevailed on Lord Audley to be their general, they marched as far
+as to Blackheath in Kent, where they were defeated with much slaughter
+by Lord Daubeny. In the same year Perkin Warbeck landed, according to
+some at Whitesand Bay, near the Land's End, according to others in St
+Ives' Bay, and marching to Bodmin, found the Cornish ripe for a new
+rebellion. At the head of 3000 men he marched to Exeter, but was unable
+to take it. He made his way to Taunton, where, despairing of success, he
+deserted his army and fled, but was taken and executed.
+
+In 1548, another rebellion broke out occasioned by the changes in
+religion, which the Cornish resented. Their leader was Hugh Arundell,
+Governor of St Michael's Mount. They proceeded to besiege Exeter, but
+although the city was sorely distressed for want of provisions it held
+out till relieved, and in a battle fought at Woodbury, they were
+defeated with immense slaughter. Cornwall remained quiet in the reign of
+Elizabeth, save that it sent out whole fleets of privateers to prey on
+the Spanish traders and treasure vessels.
+
+The Armada was off the Lizard on the 29th to 30th July, 1588. An English
+fishing-boat was hanging near them, counting their numbers. They gave
+chase, but the boat shot away down wind and disappeared. It carried the
+news to Drake at Plymouth, who at once prepared to sail forth.
+
+In the Civil War, Cornwall was almost unanimous on the side of the King.
+Lord Robartes, however, threw in his lot with the Parliament. On the
+side of the King were Sir Bevil Grenville, Sir Ralph Hopton, Godolphin,
+Slanning, and Trevanion. A battle was fought at Boconnoc on January 19,
+1643, in which General Ruthven and the Roundheads were defeated. Another
+battle in which the Royalists were successful was at Stamford Hill above
+Stratton, May 16, 1643.
+
+Charles I visited Cornwall, and was so impressed by the devotion and
+loyalty of the people that he addressed to them a letter of recognition,
+copies of which may be seen in some of the churches. Prince Charles
+spent a great part of the autumn and winter of 1645 in Cornwall; on
+March 2, 1645-6, he embarked at Pendennis Castle for the Scilly Isles,
+where he "was much straitened for provisions." He quitted Scilly on
+April 16, and landed next day in Jersey, whence he sailed for France.
+Queen Henrietta Maria had left Pendennis for France in July, 1644.
+
+Cornwall took no active part in the Revolution; in the European War, it
+sent forth many gallant sailors, among whom in the first place may be
+reckoned Admiral Boscawen, "old Dreadnought." But since the Civil War
+the history of the Duchy has been mainly one of social and industrial
+advance. The principal events stirring the community were the
+introduction of steam-engines to pump the mines, affrays with smugglers,
+and the excitement and unlimited bribery and corruption at elections in
+the rotten boroughs till these latter were swept away by the Reform Bill
+of 1832. About these rotten boroughs a few words must be said. The old
+boroughs that existed before the reign of Edward VI were Truro, Helston,
+Lostwithiel, Bodmin, Liskeard, and Launceston. But the advisers of
+Edward VI, conscious of insecure tenure of the throne and doubting
+whether the country was willing to go with them in their sweeping
+alterations in religion, and desirous of counteracting the growing
+importance of the House of Commons, considered that their object would
+be best attained by conferring the right of returning members of
+Parliament upon the obscure dependent villages of Cornwall. Accordingly
+Saltash, Camelford, West Looe, Bossiney, Grampound, Penryn, Mitchell,
+and Newport were elevated into boroughs, each returning two members to
+Parliament.
+
+[Illustration: St Mawes, Falmouth Harbour]
+
+Under Queen Mary, St Ives received the same privileges, and under
+Elizabeth six more were made boroughs with the same rights, St Germans,
+St Mawes, Tregony, East Looe, Fowey, and Callington. Some of these
+places, as Mitchell, Tregony, and St Mawes, were mere hamlets. They all
+soon passed away from the direct control of the Crown and fell into the
+hands of borough mongers who returned what members they liked, by gross
+bribery, expecting to be repaid with Baronetcies and with lucrative
+sinecures by the Ministry of the day they supported.
+
+
+
+
+=20. Antiquities: Prehistoric, Roman, Celtic, Saxon.=
+
+
+The first men who inhabited our island were the merest savages. They had
+no knowledge of the use of metals, they could not make pottery; they had
+not domesticated the cow, the sheep, or the dog. They used extremely
+rude flint weapons and tools. They were contemporary with the cave bear,
+the woolly rhinoceros, the mammoth, and the cave hyaena, all which beasts
+then lived in Britain; and at that time the temperature was much colder
+than at present. This period is called the Palaeolithic, or Old Stone
+Age.
+
+The next race that entered our island found the temperature much as it
+is now. They were comparatively civilised. They still used flint
+implements, but of a very superior type, and far better finished than
+those of the earlier race. Moreover they were agricultural, grew corn,
+had cows and sheep and dogs, and made pottery. This race it was which
+erected the so-called cromlechs, stone circles, and tall upright stones.
+The remains of their villages of circular stone huts are very numerous
+on the moors. This period is called the Neolithic, or New Stone Age.
+
+After a time bronze was introduced, by trade, and was at first as
+valuable as gold is to us. But after a while it became much more common.
+Its introduction marked the commencement of the Bronze Age.
+
+To the Bronze Age succeeded the Iron Age. This metal was introduced by
+the conquering Celts, of whom there existed two branches, one called
+Brythonic, of which were the Britons, now represented by the Welsh, the
+Cornish, the Cumbrians, and the Bretons of Brittany; the other called
+Goidelic, and now represented by the Irish, the natives of the Isle of
+Man, and the Scots. The Celts with their iron weapons speedily overcame
+and enslaved the earlier race, usually called Ivernian. The latter was
+dusky and dark haired, but the Celt probably had yellow or red hair,
+blue or grey eyes, and a fair complexion.
+
+No satisfactory evidence has been produced that Palaeolithic man
+occupied Cornwall, but the traces of Neolithic man at the stage when he
+became acquainted with the use of bronze are abundant. By him were
+erected the rude stone monuments that are scattered over the county, and
+he had his favourite sites for trimming flints into scrapers and
+arrow-heads. One of the most notable of these was the shore of Dozmare
+Pool.
+
+Of the rude stone monuments the dolmen or cromlech is sepulchral, the
+dolmen when large having been a tribal or family mausoleum, and the
+kistvaen, which is far smaller, contained the bones of one individual
+alone. The dolmen is composed of three or more upright stones sustaining
+one or more coverers, and was often buried under a cairn. The finest in
+Cornwall are Zennor and Lanyon Quoits, the Trethevy Stone, and Chun
+Quoit.
+
+Stone circles are numerous. Their purpose has not been determined, but
+on Dartmoor, where they have been examined, they exhibit a floor strewn
+with charcoal. They have, moreover, usually numerous cairns or barrows
+associated with them. The finest sacred circle is that of the Stripple
+Stones on the Bodmin moors, but this has of late years been sadly
+mutilated. The "Merry Maidens," in St Buryan's parish near Penzance, is
+a magnificent circle. Other circles are those of Boscawen-un, Dauns Mor,
+Wendron, the Trippet Stones on Blisland moor, Fernacre and Stannon on
+the St Breward moors, the Hurlers near the Cheesewring, the Nine Maidens
+in St Columb Major, Duloe, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Lanyon Cromlech]
+
+Menhirs or "longstones" are upright monoliths, probably set up in
+memorial of the dead. Of these there are many in Cornwall but none of
+great height. The Pipers in St Buryan are the loftiest, 13 ft. 6 in. and
+15 ft.
+
+[Illustration: The Merry Maidens, St Buryan]
+
+Of stone alignments Cornwall is almost wholly barren, but one at St
+Breock can be claimed with confidence. This is the more remarkable as
+they abound on Dartmoor. But the reason probably is that the stones have
+been carried off to serve as gateposts, and in some cases are embedded
+in walls of fields. They were probably erected in commemoration of the
+dead and are always associated with cairns and interments.
+
+Subterranean chambers, constructed of upright stones with coverers, were
+possibly store chambers for grain. The best preserved is at Trelowarren.
+
+Upright holed stones are met with in Madron, St Buryan, St Just,
+Sancreed, Constantine, Wendron, etc. Their purport is unknown.
+
+Very curious are the clusters of communal huts at Chysauster,
+Bosporthennis, etc. They probably belong to the Iron Age, whereas the
+hut circles scattered over a hill side, or within a pound, pertained to
+the early Bronze Age.
+
+Arrow heads, lance heads and scrapers have been found in tolerable
+abundance on the Bodmin moors, on Carn Brea, at St Agnes, etc., and
+celts (axe heads) of greenstone and diorite have occurred, but not with
+great frequency.
+
+At Harlyn Bay has been found a cemetery of the Iron Age, all the bodies
+in slate cists, crouching. In the cairns and kistvaens (stone coffins)
+on the other hand the bodies have been burnt. Numerous urns of the
+well-determined Bronze Age type have been recovered from cairns.
+
+The camps of stone and earth in Cornwall are very numerous. They all--or
+nearly all--date back to the same period of the early bronze, but may
+have been used by later peoples. They are of two descriptions, the cliff
+castles, where a headland is protected by banks and dykes on the side of
+the mainland, and circular or oval camps crowning heights, with
+concentric rings of circumvallation. Where the hill top does not admit
+of the circular form the earthworks adapt themselves to the contour of
+the hill.
+
+Roman remains are conspicuously rare in Cornwall. Some fragments of
+Samian ware, coins, and a bronze and silver metal vessel have been found
+in Bossens, a camp in St Erth, and the head of an ensign at St Just. A
+second Roman camp is Tregeare, near Bodmin. An inscribed milestone of
+the time of Constantine the Great is in the churchyard of St Hilary. The
+metal bowl at Bossens was inscribed by Aelius Modestus to the god Mars.
+
+Of the Celtic period, gold lunettes have been found at Harlyn; a gold
+cup near the Cheesewring in a cairn along with a corroded iron weapon; a
+portion of a gold armlet at Penzance and of a brooch at the Lizard.
+
+Of Saxon remains the principal are the hoard at Trewhiddle, a silver
+chalice, finger-ring, pins, etc. Coins have been found; among them one
+of Ethelred, struck at Launceston. On the altar slab formerly at
+Treslothan, now supporting a sundial at Pendarves, is inscribed the
+Saxon name of AEgured; and an old bell at Lanhydrock has on it "AEthelstan
+sumpta an[ima] sua." These are scanty remains, fewer even than the
+Roman.
+
+[Illustration: St Cleer: Monument to Doniert, son of Caradoc, died A.D.
+872]
+
+Cornwall is, however, rich in Romano-British inscribed stones, dating
+from the eighth century down. At St Cleer is the memorial stone to
+Doniert (Dungarth) son of Caradoc. In Lewannick churchyard are stones
+with inscriptions not only in Latin characters but also with Ogams at
+the angle, showing that the Irish had settled there. Some of the
+inscribed stones are certainly earlier than the eighth century, to which
+cautious antiquaries have brought them down.
+
+[Illustration: Mawgan Cross]
+
+Crosses of granite are common, and some are very early, certainly
+earlier than Athelstan's passage through Cornwall in 938. But others are
+much later. They vary considerably in size and in shape. Some were used
+as preaching stations before churches had been built, but others marked
+the tracks over the moors, and some may have indicated boundaries. Some
+are excessively rude, some have the figure of the Saviour carved upon
+them, and these are comparatively late. Others--as that of St Neot--have
+elaborate scroll-work on them like those in South Wales.
+
+[Illustration: St Buryan Cross]
+
+
+
+
+=21. Architecture: (_a_) Ecclesiastical.=
+
+
+A preliminary word on the various styles of English architecture is
+necessary before we consider the churches and other important buildings
+of our county.
+
+Pre-Norman or, as it is usually, though with no great certainty termed,
+Saxon building in England, was the work of early craftsmen with an
+imperfect knowledge of stone construction, who commonly used rough
+rubble walls, no buttresses, small semicircular or triangular arches,
+and square towers with what is termed "long-and-short work" at the
+quoins or corners. It survives almost solely in portions of small
+churches.
+
+The Norman Conquest started a widespread building of massive churches
+and castles in the continental style called Romanesque, which in England
+has got the name of "Norman". They had walls of great thickness,
+semicircular vaults, round-headed doors and windows, and massive square
+towers.
+
+From 1150 to 1200 the building became lighter, the arches pointed, and
+there was perfected the science of vaulting, by which the weight is
+brought upon piers and buttresses. This method of building, the
+"Gothic," originated from the endeavour to cover the widest and loftiest
+areas with the greatest economy of stone. The first English Gothic,
+called "Early English," from about 1180 to 1250, is characterised by
+slender piers (commonly of marble), lofty pointed vaults, and long,
+narrow, lancet-headed windows. After 1250 the windows became broader,
+divided up, and ornamented by patterns of tracery, while in the vault
+the ribs were multiplied. The greatest elegance of English Gothic was
+reached from 1260 to 1290, at which date English sculpture was at its
+highest, and art in painting, coloured glass making, and general
+craftsmanship at its zenith.
+
+After 1300 the structure of stone buildings began to be overlaid with
+ornament, the window tracery and vault ribs were of intricate patterns,
+the pinnacles and spires loaded with crocket and ornament. This later
+style is known as "Decorated," and came to an end with the Black Death,
+which stopped all building for a time.
+
+With the changed conditions of life the type of building changed. With
+curious uniformity and quickness the style called "Perpendicular"--which
+is unknown abroad--developed after 1360 in all parts of England and
+lasted with scarcely any change up to 1520. As its name implies, it is
+characterised by the perpendicular arrangement of the tracery and panels
+on walls and in windows, and it is also distinguished by the flattened
+arches and the square hoods over the doorways, by the elaborate
+vault-traceries (especially fan-vaulting), and by the use of flat roofs
+and towers without spires.
+
+The mediaeval styles in England ended with the dissolution of the
+monasteries (1530-1540), for the Reformation checked the building of
+churches. There succeeded the building of manor-houses, in which the
+style called "Tudor" arose--distinguished by flat-headed windows, level
+ceilings, and panelled rooms. The ornaments of classic style were
+introduced under the influences of Renaissance sculpture and distinguish
+the "Jacobean" style, so called after James I. About this time the
+professional architect arose. Hitherto, building had been entirely in
+the hands of the builder and the craftsman.
+
+Cornwall does not furnish stately and richly adorned churches as does
+Devonshire, and even more so, Somersetshire. This is due to the
+intractable material available, granite, which unlike that of Brittany
+did not lend itself to rich sculpture. Only the Elvan stone, already
+described, could be worked with delicacy, and this is easily corroded
+by the weather, and the Catacluse stone is black. The beautiful
+Polyphant stone of Lewannick does not seem to have been largely
+employed. Although so close to Launceston, when the church there was
+reconstructed by Sir Henry Trecarrel, in the reign of Henry VIII, he
+employed only granite, which was sculptured with infinite labour, and
+with poor effect.
+
+[Illustration: Buried Church, Perranporth]
+
+The most ancient churches in Cornwall were probably exceedingly rude.
+Only two of the earliest remain and these are in ruins, Perranporth and
+St Gothien, very much resembling churches of the most primitive period
+in Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Doorway, St Germans Church]
+
+There are some important remains of Norman architecture, notably the
+west front and part of the nave of St Germans, some portion of
+Blisland, the south door of Kilkhampton, the westernmost arches of
+Morwenstow, Tintagel, and some tympana of doorways with rude sculpture.
+In many of the churches the early fonts remain. Originally baptisms took
+place in tanks or barrels sunk in the earth; then, when adult baptisms
+ceased, square or circular troughs were placed on the floor, and later
+were raised on pedestals; and not infrequently the pedestal is an
+addition, at a later date, to the basin of the font itself.
+
+Of the Early English period, the remains are scanty. St Anthony in
+Roseland is the most perfect example in Cornwall.
+
+[Illustration: Tympanum, Egloskerry Church]
+
+Of the Middle Pointed, or Decorated period, are Padstow, St Columb
+Major, Sheviock, Lostwithiel--where the very peculiar spire is
+singularly beautiful and foreign in character--and portions in Lanteglos
+by Fowey, and St Ive near Liskcard.
+
+[Illustration: Lanteglos Church]
+
+But, as in Devonshire, so in Cornwall, there was an outburst of church
+building in the Third Pointed or Perpendicular period. Then only--since
+the early sculptors of the crosses--did architects and carvers attack
+the granite, and most of the churches were then rebuilt. The finest are
+St Kewe, Mawgan in Pyder with a beautiful tower, Probus with a richly
+sculptured tower of the reign of Elizabeth, St Austell--also with a good
+tower, the carvings in Elvan--St Neot, Stratton, and Buryan. One
+remarkable feature is in the porches, where tracery of an ogival
+character is introduced in the arch. The Rev. W. Haslam, in the
+_Transactions of the Exeter Dioc. Arch. Society_, says of the Cornish
+churches that they "are low, and somewhat flat in the pitch of the roof,
+and without buttresses to break the long plain horizontal lines which
+are so conspicuous. All these are features of the Perpendicular style,
+I admit, but not to the extent to which they are carried in Cornwall.
+Besides this, the general form of a Cornish church is plain; externally,
+the plan of the larger ones is a parallelogram, divided into three low
+ridges of roof: there is a porch on the south side; this is the only
+break in the horizontal line I allude to. The smaller churches have
+generally but one aisle, and these have a transept also, but sometimes
+two transepts; but even these do not relieve the plainness of the
+exterior. This is not the character of one church, or two, or three; but
+more or less of all. It is their character, and I attribute it to the
+boisterous nature of the climate in that narrow county, exposed as it
+is, with very little shelter, to violent storms from the sea on both
+sides."
+
+[Illustration: Launceston Church]
+
+No great elaboration of tracery was possible with granite, and the
+architects abandoned the thought of making the churches attractive
+externally, devoting their attention to the internal decoration. The
+appearance of a large Cornish church now is that it is a long low shed,
+lacking in height and dignity. But the architect divided it in two by
+the screen, and thus brought it into proportion. Unfortunately, however,
+in very few have the beautiful rood-screens been left, which were
+generally spared in the Devonshire churches. Those of Cornwall in no way
+fell short of those in Devon, but the Puritans first of all, and then
+the barbarians of the Georgian period swept them away, and the churches
+in the nineteenth century fell into the hands of local architects who
+left them "naked, swept"--but not "garnished." They were, let us hope,
+the last of the Cornish wreckers. A few, but only a few screens remain.
+
+In the interior of the Cornish churches the chief feature is the absence
+of a chancel arch, which is almost universal. The arch was unnecessary
+when the roodloft extended upwards and was backed by a painted board. In
+some of the churches there are interesting bench ends. At St Austell,
+the miners' tools are represented on them; on some rabbits running in
+and out of their burrows are figured, and seagulls are frequent.
+
+In painted glass Cornwall is not rich, except in the 15 windows of St
+Neot near Liskeard, and in that in the north aisle, and the fragments in
+the south aisle of St Kewe.
+
+The church towers in Cornwall are for the most part square without
+buttresses, and with four pinnacles. One peculiarity of these pinnacles
+is that they are often cut on a curve to lean outwards, probably to
+mitigate the stiffness of effect.
+
+[Illustration: Landewednack Church]
+
+A few words must be devoted to the new Cathedral at Truro erected from
+the designs of the late Mr J.L. Pearson in a French Gothic style of
+architecture. It consists of a choir of five bays, with retrochoir,
+transepts, nave with north and south aisles, baptistery and south-west
+porch, richly sculptured; a central and two western towers. Attached to
+the south side of the choir is the fine old parish church of St Mary, or
+a portion of it. There is an elaborately sculptured reredos over the
+altar. Notwithstanding its faults Truro Cathedral is a notable monument
+of the enthusiasm and self-denial of the Cornish people.
+
+[Illustration: Dupath Well, Callington]
+
+The Holy Wells of Cornwall are a distinct feature of the county. In all
+Celtic lands, previous to the introduction of Christianity, there was a
+great veneration for wells, and the early missionaries took advantage of
+this to turn them into baptisteries, or in other ways to consecrate
+them. Holy wells abound in Cornwall, but they have not always much
+architectural character. That of Dupath, by Liskeard, is the finest, but
+there is also another that is fine at St Cleer, and one most interesting
+and unique at St Clether, where, indeed, there are two, for the water
+from the first flows into a chapel and is carried under the old stone
+altar, to decant into another well outside the chapel. The Madron Holy
+Well was for long famous for cures.
+
+
+
+
+=22. Architecture: (_b_) Military--Castles.=
+
+
+Before the Norman Conquest there were no masonry built castles in
+Cornwall, only stockades of wood surmounting earthworks or piled up
+masses of stone uncemented. The usual Saxon _Burh_ was a mound,
+surmounted by a structure of timber, reached by a bridge or ladder from
+a base-court that was encompassed by moat and mound and stockade. The
+Norman system of building a castle was to erect a round or square keep,
+a massive structure of stone, on the mound that had formerly been
+surmounted by a wooden structure, and to surround the base-court with a
+stone wall. Within this were erected the necessary domestic buildings.
+Very generally the entrance to the court was strongly defended by a
+second tower. The style of castle was greatly altered in the reign of
+Edward I but of such Edwardian castles there are no examples in
+Cornwall, save the poor fragment of Tintagel. The Normans built a castle
+at Launceston, and there the circular keep standing on a lofty tump of
+rock, artificially shaped, is of their construction, but the ruined
+buildings below, with the gateways and walls of the base-court, are
+later.
+
+The castle of Trematon also consists of a "motte" surmounted by a
+circular keep, and a base-court with square tower at the entrance, with
+an archway.
+
+Tintagel Castle is reduced to a miserable ruin, part on the mainland,
+part on the islet, with the intervening portion blocked up by fallen
+rocks, forming a narrow isthmus. The deep chasm that formerly separated
+the two portions of the castle was anciently spanned by a drawbridge.
+The work appears to be of the thirteenth century. On the island are the
+remains of a chapel with its altar slab still in place. Tintagel became
+a residence of the Earls of Cornwall, and in 1245, Richard son of King
+John received in it his nephew David, Prince of Wales. It was
+subsequently used occasionally as a prison. In the reign of Elizabeth,
+that penurious queen, deeming the expense of keeping it up too onerous,
+allowed it to fall into ruin.
+
+St Michael's Mount was crowned with a castle and a church. The oldest
+portion is the central tower, of the fourteenth or fifteenth century;
+other portions are later additions, and much very bad modern work has
+tended to its sad disfigurement. Edward the Confessor planted a
+monastery on the rock, and granted it to Mont S. Michel in Normandy; at
+the Conquest it was made over to Robert Earl of Mortain, but the
+Benedictines of Mont S. Michel continued to have a cell there with a
+prior. It was consequently at once a religious house and a military
+post.
+
+Restormel, near Lostwithiel, consists of a keep crowning a hill, with a
+gatehouse on the west, a projecting tower on the E.N.E., and a chapel.
+It is not older than the reign of Henry III and was the stronghold of
+the Cardinhams and then of the Traceys, from whom it passed to the Earls
+of Cornwall. The circular keep is only 30 ft. high. The castle was
+already ruinous in the time of the Civil War, but it was put in repair
+and held by the Parliamentary forces till taken by Grenville.
+
+St Mawes is a small but perfect castle, erected by Henry VIII.
+
+[Illustration: St Mawes Castle]
+
+Pendennis Castle was another erection of Henry VIII, on the site of
+earlier fortifications. The circular tower dates from his time, but it
+was added to considerably in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1644 Pendennis
+afforded shelter to Queen Henrietta Maria, when embarking for France,
+and hither came Prince Charles in 1646 on his way to Scilly.
+
+Helsborough, near Michaelstow, was a fortress belonging to the Earls of
+Cornwall, but it shows no tokens of having ever been walled with
+masonry. The only structural remains to be seen are the ruins in the
+midst of a Perpendicular chapel.
+
+On Carn Brea is a tower, another on Roche rock; and St Catherine's
+Castle, erected by order of Henry VIII, defended the entrance to the
+harbour of Fowey.
+
+
+
+
+=23. Architecture: (_c_) Domestic and Monastic.=
+
+
+In England generally castles belonged only to the Crown or to great
+nobles, and no gentleman was suffered to castellate or embattle his
+walls without a special licence from the Crown. In Cornwall all the
+castles pertained to the Crown or the Duke of Cornwall, and private
+persons had to content themselves with purely domestic mansions. Till
+the reign of Elizabeth the dining-hall reaching to the roof was the most
+conspicuous feature, and opening out of it was the ladies' bower, a
+small oak-panelled room. The inconvenience arising from a house being
+cut in half by the hall led in the reign of Elizabeth to an alteration,
+and the halls were ceiled over, so that the upper portion could be used
+for bedrooms and passage. Before her reign the usual form of a house was
+quadrangular, that is to say a court surrounded by buildings entered by
+a gate, with the hall and principal portions of the house opposite the
+entrance gate. But in the reign of Elizabeth it became the fashion to
+form the house in the shape of the letter E. In her father's reign it
+often had the shape of the letter H with the open ends closed by slight
+walls.
+
+Cornwall possesses very few stately houses. At the close of the
+seventeenth century a schoolmaster at Trebartha filled a folio with
+sketches of the ancient manor-houses of the neighbourhood of the Tamar;
+picturesque old mansions of the reigns of Henry VIII and Elizabeth.
+Nearly every one has disappeared. The squirearchy of Cornwall, flush of
+money, through tin, pulled down their old residences and built mansions
+in the Georgian period, totally devoid of interest. Of the old houses
+few remain except as farm houses. They were, however, never so
+magnificent as those in the counties where bricks and easily dressed
+stone existed. But still there remain Cothele, unaltered, the beautiful
+house of Lord Mount Edgcumbe on the Tamar; Basil, the manor-house of the
+Trevelyans, much mutilated by the barbarous hand of a modern architect;
+Trecarrel, near Launceston, an old Tudor mansion with a noble hall,
+never completed; Place, near Padstow, formerly Prideaux Castle, the
+Elizabethan residence of the Prideaux Brunes, very stately, and with a
+dining room rich in carved oak; Lanherne, built in 1580, a small
+manor-house of the Arundells and now a convent; Lanhydrock, built by
+the first Lord Roberts--they called themselves later Robartes; Place
+House, Fowey, with rich sculpture; Trerice, the old seat of the
+Arundells; Tregudick with its Elizabethan hall; Penheale, once the seat
+of the Speccots, in Egloskerry; Tonacombe, an unaltered house of the
+reign of Henry VII, in Morwenstow; Penfound in Poundstock, small but
+charming; and Lanreath, with a carved oak parlour, the ancient house of
+the Grylls family. There are others, now farmhouses, and only spared on
+that account, deserted when the squires moved elsewhere and did not pull
+down their ancestral residences.
+
+[Illustration: Cothele]
+
+A monastic building consisted of a church, with a cloister court
+adjoining, about which were the dormitories, a library, and a refectory
+or room in which all had their meals in common. There would be often two
+courts, one outer, the other with the cloister about it in which the
+monks mainly lived and in the centre of which was the monastic
+graveyard. The garden of pot herbs and herbs for medicinal purposes was
+an essential feature of all monastic settlements, as was also the
+stewpond or ponds for fish. The necessity under which the monks lay of
+being near water, both for their fish and for sanitary purposes and for
+drinking, led to all monastic establishments lying low down in valleys
+by running streams.
+
+Of monastic remains there are few. At Launceston the foundations of St
+John's Priory have been laid bare. At Glasney in Penryn a few walls
+alone represent what was once a stately priory. Of the great house at
+Bodmin hardly a wall stands, but some remains of the sanatorium exist at
+Lavethan. At Lanivet are the remains of St Benet's Monastery, till 1859
+the most picturesque and best preserved of the monastic buildings in
+Cornwall, except St Michael's Mount. An engraving of the remains was
+published by Lysons in 1814, which shows the house to have been
+beautifully situated, and as beautiful as its situation demanded. At the
+date mentioned it was mutilated and spoilt.
+
+Cornwall cannot boast picturesque cottages. Some few remain that possess
+some charm, as the old Post-office at Tintagel, some slate-hung
+dwellings in West Looe, the Lugger Inn, Fowey, and the almshouses at St
+Germans. There are as well some that call for an artist to use his
+pencil at Saltash. But, on the whole, the county is poor in the domestic
+architecture of farm and cottage, and house fronts in the towns, with
+rare exceptions, are not of any artistic character.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Post Office, Tintagel]
+
+
+
+
+=24. Communications--Roads, Railways.=
+
+
+The great road from London to Falmouth ran through Launceston, Bodmin,
+and Truro, and was kept in good order, and over it raced the mail
+coaches that conveyed letters on to the packets at Falmouth. This was
+the main artery of communication for more than a century, till Falmouth
+was abandoned as a mail-packet station by the Government. From 18 to 20
+fine vessels performed this service, carrying letters and papers to all
+parts of the world, until the extension of railways caused the service
+to be transferred to Southampton.
+
+Whether there were systematically constructed Roman roads in Cornwall
+has been doubted. One curious ancient road--the Giant's Hedge--is found
+near Lanreath, and appears to have been a portion of a road raised on a
+bank that started from a ferry over the Tamar and was carried into the
+west of Cornwall. There was a road also that came from Exeter and
+crossed the Tamar at Polson Bridge and then turned north to Camelford.
+Another ran past Stratton to the estuary of the Camel opposite Padstow,
+where Romano-British remains have been found on Bray Hill. But it is
+possible enough that these roads were of British and not of Roman
+construction.
+
+In the Middle Ages little or nothing was done to keep the roads in
+repair. Even in the eighteenth century all that was thought necessary
+was to throw down a load of boulders into the ruts, rake them in, and
+leave coach and cart wheels to grind them up. But the roads were taken
+in hand at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and the turnpikes
+served to provide funds for keeping them in order, while Macadam's
+invention of breaking the stones before laying them on the roads
+assisted enormously in facilitating transit along them.
+
+[Illustration: A Cornish Stile]
+
+The roads in Cornwall are now for the most part excellent, metalled with
+elvan, and cyclists and motorists can have little to complain of on that
+score.
+
+Two railway companies have penetrated the county; the G.W.R. in the
+south crosses the Tamar by the famous Saltash tubular bridge, and runs
+to Penzance, by Truro. There is a branch to Bodmin, another to Fowey,
+and another crosses the county to Newquay. After reaching Truro, the
+line deserts the south, but sends a branch down to Falmouth. It runs to
+Redruth and Camborne and reaches the sea at Hayle. It sends a short
+branch up to St Ives, but the main line turns south again to end in a
+terminus at Penzance. The L. & S.W.R., after sending out a branch to
+Bude, reaches Launceston, and then supplies the dreary country from
+Launceston to Camelford with communication. From Camelford it runs to
+Wadebridge; and down the estuary to Padstow, a branch to the south
+serving Bodmin.
+
+In addition to the branches already mentioned are others to Looe and
+Helston.
+
+Penzance is reached from Paddington in 8-1/2 hours and Newquay in
+half-an-hour less.
+
+The L. & S.W.R. leaving Waterloo reaches Launceston in 5-1/2 hours, Bude
+in 6 hours, and Wadebridge in under 7 hours. From Wadebridge coaches run
+to Newquay.
+
+A steamer maintains communication with the Scilly Isles from Penzance.
+
+
+
+
+=25. Administration and Divisions, Ancient and Modern.=
+
+
+Before the Conquest the divisions of the county were probably those
+afterwards forming the old deaneries, and followed the limits of the
+Celtic tribes under their several chiefs. Of these there were
+eight:--East and West, Kerrier, Penwith, Powder, Pyder, Trigg Major, and
+Trigg Minor, but at the Conquest a redistribution was made in hundreds.
+These were Conarton, Fawiton, Pawton, Riatton, Stratton, Tibesta or
+Tibesterna, and Winneton. There may have been an Anglo-Saxon
+redistribution. But it was a rearrangement that did not last, and never
+commended itself to the people, and it is not easy now to ascertain what
+the limits were. Conarton was Penwith. Perhaps Tibesta was Powder and
+Winneton Kerrier. East and West composed one district of Wyvelshire.
+
+Cornwall was first an Earldom, and then accordingly a County, but when
+raised to be a Dukedom it became a Duchy. It had two chief officers, the
+Earl and the Sheriff, the latter appointed by the crown.
+
+The county was divided up into hundreds for administrative purposes.
+Each hundred was supposed roughly to contain a hundred free families.
+Each hundred had its own court, and every township its assembly under
+the reeve. But the tinners were under their own laws and officers, and
+their court, called the Stannary Court, sat formerly at Lostwithiel.
+Every manor also had its court.
+
+All the hundreds of Cornwall, except Penwith, from time immemorial
+belonged to the Earls of Cornwall. The hundreds and Petty Sessional
+Divisions are now coextensive, and are as follows:--1. Hundred of East
+(Northern Division). 2. Hundred of East (Southern Division). 3. Hundred
+of Kerrier. 4. Hundred of Lesnewth. 5. Hundred of Penwith. 6. Hundred of
+Powder, East. 7. Hundred of Pyder, West. 8. Hundred of Pyder, East. 9.
+Hundred of Stratton. 10. Hundred of Trigg. 11. Hundred of West.
+
+Cornwall formerly returned four county members in two divisions, but
+under the provisions of the "Redistribution of Seats Act, 1885," it now
+returns six members in six divisions. 1. The western or St Ives
+division. 2. The north-western or Camborne division. 3. The Truro
+division. 4. The Mid or St Austell division. 5. The south-eastern or
+Bodmin division. 6. The north-eastern or Launceston division. Under the
+provisions of the above-mentioned Act, the boroughs of Bodmin, Helston,
+Launceston, Liskeard, St Ives, and Truro were deprived of independent
+representation and merged in the county, and Penryn and Falmouth lost
+one member.
+
+In 1877 the diocese of Truro, taken from that of Exeter, was formed,
+comprising the whole county of Cornwall, together with the parishes of
+Broadwood-Widger, Virginstow, Werrington, St Giles on the Heath, and
+North Petherwin, which are in the county of Devon. The Stannary Court is
+now at Truro, but its occupation is almost gone.
+
+The Poor Law Unions are Bodmin, Camelford, Falmouth, Helston,
+Launceston, Liskeard, Penzance, St Austell, Redruth, St Columb, St
+Germans, Scilly Isles, Stratton, and Truro.
+
+The County Council formed under the Local Government Act of 1888
+consists of a chairman, aldermen, and councillors; but for the local
+government of the towns and parishes another Act was passed in 1894, and
+new names were given to the local bodies. In the large urban parishes
+the chief authorities are now entitled District Councils, while the
+smaller parishes have their Parish Councils or only Parish Meetings.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Guildhall and Pillory, Looe]
+
+The county is in the western circuit; the assize and quarter sessions,
+which were formerly held at Launceston, a most inconvenient place for
+the purpose, being at the extreme limit of the county, are now held at
+Bodmin.
+
+In Cornwall there are 223 civil parishes and the municipal boroughs are
+eleven, Bodmin, Falmouth, Helston, Launceston, Liskeard, Lostwithiel,
+Penryn, Penzance, Saltash, St Ives, and Truro.
+
+The civil parishes and those that are ecclesiastical are not always
+conterminous. Of the latter there are 236. There are two Archdeaconries,
+Cornwall and Bodmin, and twelve deaneries, St Austell, Carnmarth,
+Kerrier, Penwith, Powder, and Pydar in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall, and
+Bodmin, East, Stratton, Trigg Major and Minor, and West in that of
+Bodmin. There is a Bishop at Truro and a suffragan who takes his title
+from St Germans.
+
+
+
+
+=26. Roll of Honour.=
+
+
+It would, perhaps, be invidious to say that Cornwall has produced men of
+more brilliant and varied achievements than any other county in England,
+but she can certainly show a very notable roll of honour. As might be
+expected from her geographical position, aided by good harbours, she has
+produced some great seamen who have done gallant service for England. At
+the head of these must come Sir Richard Grenville, hero of the
+_Revenge_, whose action off the Azores in 1591 has rendered him one of
+England's immortals. Trapped by the huge Spanish fleet off Flores, Sir
+Richard had many of his crew sick on shore, but declined to leave till
+they had been brought on board. The _Revenge_ engaged fifteen large
+Spanish men-of-war and stood at bay from three in the afternoon all
+through the night till the following morning, when the last barrel of
+powder was spent. Ralegh told of it, as did Gervase Markham in 1595, and
+Tennyson nearly 300 years later in the stirring lines:--
+
+  "Ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built galleons came,
+  Ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle-thunder and flame;
+  Ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back with her dead and her shame.
+  For some were sunk and many were shattered, and so could fight us no more--
+  God of Battles, was ever a battle like this in the world before?"
+
+His grandson, Sir Bevil Grenville, "the Mirror of Chivalry," was a
+scarcely less notable warrior on land and fell in the Royalist victory
+of Lansdowne near Bath in 1643. Admiral Edward Boscawen, "Old
+Dreadnought," third son of Viscount Falmouth, distinguished himself at
+the taking of Cartagena and in the Cape Breton expedition, but his most
+memorable deed was the defeat of the French Toulon fleet in Lagos Bay in
+1759. Captain Bligh, noteworthy as the captain of the _Bounty_, of
+which the mutiny is one of the most familiar tragedies of the sea, was
+perhaps in great measure the author of his own misfortunes, for he was a
+man of very overbearing temper, but his journey of 3618 miles in an open
+boat after having been set adrift with others by the mutineers was a
+remarkable feat. The Pellew family has added at least two names to the
+roll of distinguished sailors. Edward Pellew, when in command of the
+_Nymphe_, manned by Cornish miners, captured the French man-of-war
+_Cleopatre_ under peculiarly gallant circumstances, the first of a
+series of brilliant exploits which led to his being created Baron
+Exmouth. Later, in 1816, he bombarded Algiers, reduced the Dey to
+submission, and put an end to the Barbary corsairs. His brother, Admiral
+Sir Isaac Pellew, commanded the _Conqueror_ at the battle of Trafalgar.
+
+[Illustration: Captain Bligh]
+
+Cornwall being a land of mines has developed machinery and furthered
+invention in this direction. The most notable of the inventors she has
+produced is Richard Trevithick, who first made the high-pressure engine,
+and is still more remarkable as the early pioneer of motor traffic,
+putting his road locomotive on the Camborne highway on Christmas Day,
+1801, and obtaining a speed with it of 12 miles per hour. In 1812 he
+laid before the Navy Board his invention for a screw propeller for
+ships, only to meet with a refusal. Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, born in
+1793, also ran steam-motors on the roads until they were forbidden by
+Act of Parliament, and the work of a lifetime and his fortune of L30,000
+vanished into thin air. The oxy-hydrogen blowpipe and the steam-jet
+were invented by him. The wreck of H.M.S. _Anson_ on Looe bar with the
+loss of over 100 lives in 1807 had a great effect on one of the
+spectators, Henry Trengrouse, a Helston cabinet-maker, who thereupon
+invented the rocket life-saving apparatus and spent L3000--all his
+means--in experiments and in vain endeavours to induce Government to
+adopt the system. Another great benefactor to mankind was Sir Humphry
+Davy, the son of a poor gilder near Penzance. His safety-lamp he nobly
+refused to patent lest the sphere of its usefulness should be
+restricted, and he is fittingly honoured with a statue in his native
+town.
+
+[Illustration: Sir Humphry Davy]
+
+More than one distinguished traveller finds place among Cornish
+worthies. Richard Lander, the son of a Truro innkeeper (1805-34), stands
+at the head of them. He went with Clapperton to Sokoto and on his death
+took up his work, tracing the mouth of the Niger on a second expedition,
+and dying on a third at Fernando Po. Peter Mundy, born about 1596 at
+"Penrin, a pretty towne in Corne Wall," as he describes it, was one of
+the most remarkable travellers that the West of England has produced,
+whether in virtue of his long trading voyages to the Far East, or of his
+continental wanderings, of which he kept a not less careful record.
+James Silk Buckingham, who died in 1855, wrote eighteen books of travel,
+but was mainly noteworthy for his endeavours to do away with the
+monopoly of the East India Company.
+
+Among statesmen must be noticed Sir John Eliot, born at Port Eliot in
+1592, and at one time friend of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham,
+with whom he later broke, and taking up a strong line in the Parliament
+of 1628 against arbitrary taxation helped to force the Petition of Right
+from Charles. He was ultimately committed to the Tower, where he died
+three years later in 1632. To give an adequate sketch of the life of
+Sidney Godolphin would be to give the history of the times of Charles
+II, James II, William of Orange and Anne, with each and all of whom he
+was closely implicated. An extraordinarily able financier, his
+character was such as to permit him to serve either party
+indifferently. "Sidney Godolphin," said Charles, "is never in the way
+and never out of the way." Lord High Treasurer under Queen Anne, he was
+made Earl of Godolphin, only to be disgraced in 1710 and die shortly
+after.
+
+Samuel Drew, the "Cornish Metaphysician," who was born at St Austell,
+had been a smuggler and a shoemaker in his earlier days, but developed
+into a Wesleyan preacher and became the author of an essay on the
+Immortality of the Soul. Of more normal mould was Humphrey Prideaux,
+born at Padstow in 1648, who wrote a _Life of Mahomet_, and _The Old and
+New Testament Connected_, which reached its 27th edition only a few
+years ago. He became Dean of Norwich and died in 1724.
+
+Cornwall has produced several local antiquaries, as the Rev. Richard
+Polwhele, who died in 1838; the Rev. William Borlase, d. 1772; William
+Hals, the historian of the Duchy; and William Sandys, who died in 1874.
+She has had but few true poets, but the Rev. Robert Stephen Hawker,
+though not actually born in Cornwall, spent all his life there and may
+certainly come under this heading. He became Vicar of Morwenstow in
+1834, and remained there till his death in 1875, having during this time
+transformed his parishioners from a set of lawless wreckers to a decent
+community. His poems were almost all connected with Cornish subjects,
+and one of the best known of them is that on Bishop Trelawney's
+imprisonment--"A good sword and a trusty sword," with the refrain--"And
+shall Trelawney die? There's twenty thousand Cornishmen; Shall know the
+reason why."
+
+[Illustration: John Opie]
+
+"A wondrous Cornishman, who is carrying all before him" is Sir Joshua
+Reynolds' description of John Opie the painter, who was born the son of
+a poor carpenter near Truro in 1761, became an R.A. and portrait-painter
+of great note, and died in 1807. His second wife was Amelia Opie the
+novelist, daughter of the Norwich physician, Dr Alderson. Henry Bone,
+the enamellist, is also of sufficient distinction to deserve mention
+here.
+
+Of the astronomers of modern times few have attained the eminence of
+John Couch Adams, the discoverer of the planet Neptune, who was born at
+Laneast in 1819. As a shepherd boy he loved to lie on his back and watch
+the stars, and he at once devoted himself to the study of astronomy when
+he was sent to school at Saltash. He became Senior Wrangler at Cambridge
+in 1843, and soon after taking his degree, being struck with
+irregularities in the motion of Uranus, he made a series of calculations
+and observations which resulted in the discovery of the new planet, the
+French astronomer Leverrier having simultaneously recorded its
+existence. A distinguished geologist and one of the pioneers of
+scientific cave exploration was William Pengelly, whose great work was
+the thorough examination of Kent's Cavern near Torquay, a labour which
+lasted from 1865 to 1880. Last, but by no means least worthy of mention
+in our list, must come Davies Gilbert, a great discerner of rising
+genius, to which he was ever ready to lend help and encouragement. The
+patron of Davy, Trevithick, Hornblower, and Goldsworthy Gurney, he was
+himself a man of remarkable and varied abilities, scientist,
+mathematician, and antiquary, and President of the Royal Society. He
+died in 1839.
+
+
+
+
+=27. THE CHIEF TOWNS AND VILLAGES OF CORNWALL.=
+
+
+
+     (The figures in brackets after each name give the population in
+     1901 and those at the end of each section are references to the
+     pages in the text.)
+
+
+
+=Bodmin= (5353), now held to be the county town. Formerly there was a
+priory here, founded in 938. The church, the largest in Cornwall, is
+Perpendicular, except the tower and a part of the chancel, which are
+earlier. In it is the fine monument of Prior Vyvyan (1533). Bodmin is a
+municipal borough, market, and union town, and head of a county court
+district. The Assizes are held here. The town is pleasantly situated
+nearly in the centre of the county. A branch of the G.W.R. leads from
+Bodmin Road station on the main line. The L. & S.W.R. has also a branch
+to Bodmin from Wadebridge. The prison stands about half a mile
+north-west of the town; and the County Lunatic Asylum a little to the
+west. Bodmin has also a Hospital and Dispensary, and Barracks for
+military. (pp. 9, 14, 18, 24, 67, 96, 102, 104, 111, 131, 132, 135, 137,
+139.)
+
+=Bude= (see Stratton).
+
+=Callington= (1714), a small market town, formerly a parliamentary
+borough returning two members. Callington is in the ecclesiastical
+parish of North Hill, and the church is merely a chapel of ease. It is
+in the Perpendicular style, and has the unusual feature in Devon and
+Cornwall of having a clerestory. The L. & S.W.R. has constructed a light
+railway from Beer Alston to Callington and Calstock. (pp. 105, 124.)
+
+=Calstock= (5874) is a large village and township. The church is at a
+distance from the village or town. Gunnislake, two miles north of
+Calstock, is in the parish. Both places have declined in numbers and
+prosperity through the abandonment of the mines in the neighbourhood.
+(pp. 15, 69, 72, 87, 101.)
+
+=Camborne= (14,726), a market town with a station on the main line of
+the G.W.R. It is a great seat of mining operations. (pp. 38, 81, 101,
+135, 137.)
+
+=Camelford= (1384), a small market and union town, in a bleak and
+wind-swept situation, consisting of one street. It is the head of a
+county court district and magisterial division. It is in the parish of
+Lanteglos, nearly two miles distant, and has not in it even a chapel of
+ease. Camelford was an ancient borough with mayor and corporation. (pp.
+14, 105, 133, 135, 137.)
+
+=Falmouth= (3207), a seaport, market, and union town and a municipal
+borough. It is the head of a county court district. Falmouth was
+incorporated by charter 1661. It has the advantage of possessing one of
+the finest and most capacious harbours in the country. As many as 350 to
+400 sail have taken refuge here in winter at various times. There are
+docks, factories, and building yards. Of late an attempt has been made
+to turn Falmouth into a winter resort for invalids, and the coast is
+advertised as "The Cornish Riviera," but it is a Riviera without the sun
+of the Mediterranean. (pp. 30, 31, 48, 66, 88, 92, 94, 95, 96, 132, 135,
+137, 139.)
+
+=Fowey= (2258), once a borough, is a market town and a shipping port
+with a station on a branch of the G.W.R. The church of St Finbar is a
+noble edifice in the Perpendicular style but with portions on the north
+dating from 1336. Place House, the seat of the Treffry family, is a
+beautiful, richly-sculptured mansion of the reign of Henry VII. Fowey
+consists of one very narrow street. The town was created a borough by
+Elizabeth, returning two members, but was disfranchised in 1832. (pp.
+49, 88, 105, 119, 128, 130, 131, 135.)
+
+[Illustration: Fowey]
+
+=Grampound= (491) deserves mention only as having returned two members
+to Parliament before the Reform Bill, and as formerly a borough. (pp.
+18, 105.)
+
+=Helston= (3088) is a municipal borough, market, and union town, and the
+resort of all who want to buy or sell in the Lizard district. It was not
+formed into an ecclesiastical parish till 1845. A branch of the G.W.R.
+reaches it. Below the town is the beautiful Loe Pool. The principal
+streets form a cross, and have a constant flow of water through them.
+(pp. 8, 104, 135, 137, 139, 143.)
+
+[Illustration: Helston from Bullock Lane]
+
+=Launceston= (14,310), the ancient capital, is a municipal borough,
+market, and union town, and head of a county court district. The town
+occupies a height, and above it towers the ancient castle, but a portion
+of the town, Newport, lies in the valley at the foot. Both the G.W.R.
+and the L. & S.W.R. have stations at Launceston. The church of granite
+is richly sculptured throughout; but in a debased Perpendicular style.
+It replaced an older church of which the tower alone remains. (pp. 7,
+15, 25, 67, 96, 104, 111, 117, 121, 126, 129, 131, 132, 135, 137, 139.)
+
+[Illustration: Launceston]
+
+=Liskeard= (4945), a municipal borough, market, and union town, head
+also of a county court district, with a station on the G.W.R. Liskeard
+returned two members to Parliament till disfranchised by the
+Redistribution Act of 1885. The church of St Martin is the largest in
+the county next to that of Bodmin; it is in the Perpendicular style but
+retains portions of earlier work. Liskeard mainly flourishes on the
+granite quarries of the Cheesewring; it did at one time flourish still
+more on the mines of tin and copper in Caradon. (pp. 12, 18, 31, 104,
+119, 122, 125, 137, 139.)
+
+=Looe= (2588) is composed of two towns, East Looe and West Looe,
+separated by a creek and united by a long bridge. East Looe was formerly
+a borough returning two members. It is the terminus of a branch line of
+the G.W.R. There is a good tidal harbour, to which vessels of large
+tonnage can be brought up for the shipment of ore and granite, conveyed
+thither from Caradon and the Cheesewring, and thence coal is conveyed to
+Liskeard and its neighbourhood. The old town hall is a picturesque
+building. West Looe was also originally a borough returning two members.
+(pp. 31, 49, 50, 92, 105, 131, 135, 138, 143.)
+
+[Illustration: Looe]
+
+=Marazion= (1252) or Market Jew derives its name from a Thursday market
+there held. In ancient times the place was supported by the pilgrims
+resorting to St Michael's Mount. The town was pillaged by the French in
+the reign of Henry VIII. From Marazion St Michael's Mount is reached. At
+the base of the Mount lies a fishing village of 38 houses, and a little
+harbour. From the sea the hill rises to a height of 230 ft., the body of
+the island is granite but its north base is of slate. The castle is the
+property of Lord St Levan. Marazion is a station on the G.W.R. (pp. 9,
+44, 96.)
+
+=Mevagissey= (2088), a seaport town situated on a fine bay six miles
+south of St Austell, the nearest railway station. The natural harbour is
+safe and sheltered. A new harbour has been constructed. The inhabitants
+depend almost wholly for subsistence on the fishery of pilchards. (pp.
+48, 89, 92, 94.)
+
+=Newlyn= (1302) is not a town, it is an ecclesiastical parish formed in
+1848 out of the parishes of Paul and Madron. It has a harbour, and is a
+seat of fishery. Many artists have been attracted hither by the mildness
+of the climate and the picturesqueness of the quaint old streets, and of
+the fisherfolk. (pp. 44, 92, 94.)
+
+=Newquay= (2935) is a new and rising sea-bathing and holiday resort, to
+which run two branches of the G.W.R. It possesses a beautiful stretch of
+sands, and is near some of the finest coast scenery in Cornwall. (pp.
+37, 91, 135.)
+
+=Padstow= (1566) is a quaint old seaport on the estuary of the Camel. It
+has a fine church with a beautiful carved font. Above the town is
+Prideaux Place, an Elizabethan mansion. The town lies in a valley and
+consists mainly of one street. It is a market town, and is connected
+with the L. & S.W.R. by a branch line. (pp. 35, 55, 56, 57, 67, 92, 94,
+119, 129, 133, 135, 145.)
+
+=Penryn= (3256), a market town and municipal borough, situated on an arm
+of Falmouth harbour that is being gradually silted up. The parish church
+is dedicated to St Gluvias. It formerly returned two members to
+Parliament. Here was formerly a monastic establishment, at Glasney, but
+of this only a few fragments of wall remain. There is a station on the
+branch to Falmouth of the G.W.R. (pp. 96, 105, 131, 137, 139, 144.)
+
+=Penzance= (12,155), the most westerly town in England. The name
+signifies the Holy Head; it is a seaport, municipal borough, and union
+town. The climate is here most warm and relaxing. Penzance was
+incorporated in 1614 and has a corporation consisting of a mayor, six
+aldermen, and eighteen councillors. There are some fine public
+buildings, and a good museum for the birds, minerals, and antiquities of
+Western Cornwall. Hence starts the steamer that communicates with the
+Scilly Isles. From Penzance excursions are made to the Land's End
+district, which abounds in magnificent coast scenery, and in prehistoric
+megalithic monuments. (pp. 44, 57, 66, 88, 96, 108, 111, 133, 135, 137,
+139, 143.)
+
+=Probus= (1207) is a large village rather than a town, and is situated
+two and a half miles from Grampound station on the G.W.R. It is chiefly
+remarkable for its church tower, sculptured throughout, and erected in
+the reign of Elizabeth. (p. 120.)
+
+=St Agnes= (4291), a market town, reached by a branch of the G.W.R. The
+church is Decorated, and has a spire, an unusual feature in Cornwall.
+(pp. 55, 110.)
+
+=St Austell= (3340), a market and union town with a station on the
+G.W.R. A place that flourishes on the china-clay works in the
+neighbourhood. The church has a noble tower and is in the Perpendicular
+style. It possesses an exceedingly curious and early font. Near St
+Austell is Menacudle, perhaps the most picturesquely situated and best
+preserved of the Holy Wells in Cornwall. (pp. 9, 24, 26, 48, 85, 120,
+122, 137, 139, 145.)
+
+=St Blazey= (2931), a market town with a station on the Newquay branch
+of the G.W.R.
+
+=St Columb Major= (2640), an ancient market town two and a half miles
+from the St Columb Road Station on the Newquay branch of the G.W.R. and
+also in connexion with the L. & S.W.R. at Wadebridge by coach. The
+church is fine, Perpendicular in style, and has an interesting cross in
+the churchyard. The chancel, formerly ten feet longer, was wrecked by
+an explosion of gunpowder stored in the church, in 1676. There is a
+picturesque old building with state hangings, originally a residence of
+the Arundells of Trerice, near the churchyard gate. The old Cornish
+hurling is still practised at St Columb. (pp. 9, 18, 99, 108, 119, 137.)
+
+[Illustration: Cross in Churchyard, St Columb]
+
+=St Germans= (2126), a large village rather than a town, with a station
+on the G.W.R. It returned representatives to Parliament from 1562 till
+the passing of the Reform Act in 1832. The church is especially
+interesting from its noble Norman west front. It lies in the park of the
+Earl of St Germans. The almshouses in the town are especially to be
+noted for their picturesqueness. (pp. 105, 118, 131, 137, 139.)
+
+=St Ives= (6699), a municipal borough on the shore of St Ives Bay, and
+the terminus of a branch of the G.W.R. from St Erth. The corporation now
+consists of a mayor, four aldermen, and twelve councillors. The borough
+formerly returned two members to Parliament. The town is irregularly
+built with narrow streets and has "a very ancient fishlike smell." The
+church is interesting, it possesses curious carved bench-ends, and an
+old cross outside, of an unusually elaborate description. The population
+is almost entirely dependent on the fishing industry; but of late a St
+Ives school of painting has grown up, and artists have settled here to
+study sea effects, and seafaring people. (pp. 38, 39, 67, 87, 88, 92,
+93, 94, 102, 105, 135, 137, 139.)
+
+=St Just in Penwith= (5646), a market town seven miles west of Penzance,
+the nearest railway station. The town consists of several streets
+diverging from a triangular space in the centre. The church, well cared
+for, is Perpendicular in style. (pp. 110, 111.)
+
+=St Mary's, Scilly= is a town and the focus of life in the Isles of
+Scilly. The total population of these isles is 2092. The Isles belong to
+the Duchy of Cornwall but have been leased to Mr Dorrien-Smith. A large
+business is done in the sending of flowers and early potatoes thence to
+London. There is a good pier and harbour. (pp. 57, 59, 96.)
+
+=Saltash= (3357), built on a steep slope falling to the Hamoaze,
+returned two members to Parliament till disfranchised in 1832. The Royal
+Albert Bridge here crosses the Tamar, erected in 1857-9, carrying the
+trains of the G.W.R. into Cornwall. Saltash has a station. It was
+formerly the great place of crossing from Devon to Cornwall and _vice
+versa_ by ferry boats. (pp. 16, 132, 133, 139, 147.)
+
+=Stratton= and =Bude= (2308). Stratton is a small market and union town,
+and Bude its modern prosperous daughter is two miles off, the terminus
+of a branch of the L. & S.W.R. whereas Stratton has no station. It is a
+sleepy, decaying place; it possesses a fine church in which is the altar
+tomb of a Crusader, and another to Sir John Arundell of Trerice. On the
+other hand Bude is a growing and thriving watering-place, and possesses
+a small harbour. (pp. 32, 33, 57, 103, 120, 133, 135, 136, 137, 139.)
+
+=Truro= (2215, but with Kenwyn 5836, and with St Clement 3283 more).
+Truro is a city, the seat of a bishop, a municipal borough, head of an
+union and county court district, and a port. The city is situated in a
+valley and comprises the parishes of St Mary, Kenwyn and St Clement. At
+high water the tide forms a fine lake two miles in length reaching from
+Truro quay to Malpas, and the channel is of sufficient depth to be
+navigable for vessels of upwards of 70 tons. Truro was formerly one of
+the towns having the privilege of stamping tin, and is the seat of the
+Stannary Court. In 1876 Cornwall was cut off from Devon for
+ecclesiastical purposes and Truro constituted the seat of the bishop,
+and in 1880 the present cathedral was begun. Truro possesses a Passmore
+Edwards Free Library, and it is the seat of the Royal Institution of
+Cornwall which has here a museum and a library. (pp. 38, 66, 96, 104,
+123, 124, 132, 135, 137, 139, 144, 146.)
+
+[Illustration: Truro]
+
+=Tywardreath= (2215) is a little town where once was a Benedictine
+priory. It has a coastguard station and a police station. (p. 48.)
+
+=Wadebridge= (2186), a market town on the river Camel, partly in the
+parish of St Breock and partly in that of Egloshayle. It has a station
+on the L. & S.W.R. whence also runs a branch to Bodmin and another to
+Padstow. A stone bridge originally of 17 but now of 15 arches, erected
+in 1485, connects Wadebridge with Egloshayle. The chief trade of the
+town consists in the exportation of granite, china-clay, and
+agricultural produce, and the principal imports are coal and timber.
+(pp. 14, 15, 135.)
+
+
+
+
+=28. DIAGRAMS.=
+
+
+  [Area of Cornwall as compared with that of Rutland]
+  [Population of England and Wales]
+  [Population of Cornwall]
+  [Proportionate Land Cultivation in Cornwall]
+  [Proportionate Area of Corn Crops]
+  [Proportionate numbers of Livestock]
+  [Comparative Proportion of Cereals]
+  [Proportionate Area of Permanent Pasture]
+  [Proportionate Weight and Value of Fish landed]
+
+    CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
+
+[Illustration: Geological Map of Cornwall]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cornwall, by Sabine Baring-Gould
+
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