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diff --git a/38051.txt b/38051.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9db473e --- /dev/null +++ b/38051.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3586 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Tomato + +Author: Paul Work + +Release Date: November 18, 2011 [EBook #38051] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOMATO *** + + + + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Betsie Bush, Scanned by Ray +Bush and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + -------------------------------------- + Transcriber's Note. + +Hyphenation has been standardized. + -------------------------------------- + + + + + THE TOMATO + + + + + THE TOMATO + + _By_ PAUL WORK + + _Professor of Vegetable Crops, Cornell University_ + _Editor of Market Growers Journal_ + + _ILLUSTRATED_ + + [Illustration: Printer's Logo] + + NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 1945 + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1942, BY ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. + + PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + +_This book or any part thereof, may not be reproduced without +permission of the publishers, except by a reviewer who wishes to +quote brief passages in connection with a review written for +inclusion in a magazine or newspaper._ + + +Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan +American Republics and the United States August 11, 1910 + +[Illustration: FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD + +1874-1931 + +_Originator of tomato varieties of improved type and resistant to +disease_] + + + + + TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 11 + + I. THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT 13 + + II. CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT 25 + + III. THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD 38 + + IV. STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP 53 + + V. GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS 71 + + VI. TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD 79 + + VII. THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES 85 + + VIII. SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE 93 + + IX. OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK 116 + + REFERENCES 119 + + INDEX 133 + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + + F. J. Pritchard _Frontispiece_ + + FIGURE + + 1. The tomato is the leader among greenhouse vegetables 19 + + 2. The tomato flower 22 + + 3. Long section of tomato flower 23 + + 4. How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato growth 27 + + 5. Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer 33 + + 6. Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes 36 + + 7. Types of tomato interiors 43 + + 8. The Earliana tomato 45 + + 9. Marglobe plant 48 + + 10. Marglobe fruit 49 + + 11. A good small greenhouse for plant growing 58 + + 12. Plants for the early crop 61 + + 13. Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed 64 + + 14. Plants that have been crowded and overgrown 69 + + 15. Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine 80 + + 16. Fine clusters on trained plants 81 + + 17. Resistance to fusarium wilt 87 + + 18. Diseases of the tomato 89 + + 19. Packing tomatoes on a farm 99 + + 20. A California packing house 101 + + 21. Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes 102 + + 22. The lug box 104 + + 23. Lug boxes as loaded in car 105 + + 24. The square braid basket 106 + + 25. The Connecticut half bushel box 107 + + 26. Repacked tomatoes 108 + + 27. Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes 109 + + + + + INTRODUCTION + + +Why should there be a book on tomatoes? The world is full of +bulletins of experiment stations, of articles in periodicals and of +general books on vegetables which include discussion of tomatoes. + +An incomplete set of tomato bulletins includes over 350 documents. +Many of these are no longer available. Many are of no great value +but contribute this or that small item. + +The task of a book like this is to offer between two covers, a +summary of what seem the most significant facts and opinions about +the third most important vegetable crop in the United States. + +The tomato is one of the most rewarding crops for the home garden. A +little space yields heavily, from half a peck to a peck per plant +without difficulty. It grows well practically everywhere in the +States, affording high nutritional values whether used fresh or +canned. And people do like tomatoes, whether as salad, cooked +vegetable, or condiment. + +Competition among growers and among districts makes three elements +necessary for commercial success:--quality in the goods, economy in +production, and effectiveness in marketing. + +The grower must know his plant, what it is like and how it behaves +under various conditions and treatments. Then, he needs an +understanding of the economic factors that surround his enterprise. + +Conditions in various sections and production for various purposes +are so diverse that dogmatic statement and general advice are +precluded. The aim is rather by means of available information to +help the reader to an understanding that will enable him to answer +his own questions for his own conditions and this far better than +any broad prescription could possibly do. Principles, possible +practices and examples of field programs are offered as guides for +self-help for home, school, hobby as well as commercial production. + +A person who studies on this basis will not be thwarted by a sudden +shift of weather or market but will have at hand the necessary facts +and ideas to adjust his plan to changed conditions. + +No attempt has been made toward complete citation of reference. +Those given will lead to others making possible a full survey of the +extensive literature. + + + + + The Tomato + + + + + I + + THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT + + +Vegetable, Fruit or Berry,--what is the tomato? A standard query +this is and many an argument has raged about it. The answer is easy. +It is all three. By culture and use, it is a vegetable; botanically +it is a fruit and among the fruits, it is a berry being indehiscent +(non-shedding), pulpy, with one or more seeds that are not stones. +And they say the tomato is more truly a berry than the raspberry. + +But that doesn't make much difference. The thing that matters is +that people like the tomato. It is easy to grow and nearly every +home garden has it. It is good to look upon--shapely, colorful and +of glossy sheen. A trained single stem plant with ripening fruit is +a genuine ornament in the garden. It is most gratifying to the +palate, fresh or cooked; soft and grainy, smooth and juicy in +texture, sweet and tart and with an appealing flavor all of its own +that few fail to relish. As juice or cocktail, adding color and +flavor to soup, as condiment or as side dish with the entree, as +salad freshly sliced or in jell, it is welcome with almost every +course and some ingenious chef or, more likely, some clever +housewife will, one of these days, fashion from it the dessert +supreme. + +Nor have we exhausted the list of forms in which the tomato may be +served. In addition to its simplest cooked form, stewed or turned +hot from the can, it may also be baked, stuffed or not, or it may be +escalloped and cooked with rice, spaghetti or other foods. Fried, +before fully ripe, and served with brown gravy, it is most popular +in many a home. + +Ketchup or catsup is one of our most widely used condiments and +chili sauce many like even better. Green tomato pickles, chow chow, +piccalilli carry the piquant tang of the tomato to enliven the +winter table. And tomato juice, plain or dressed up with spices, +vinegar or lemon juice has become a great staple of our groceries, a +standard send-off for any meal from breakfast snatched on the +morning sprint to work on through to the most elaborate of +banquets. + +The tomato, by reason of its natural acidity, is readily sterilized +and so can be preserved easily in glass or tin. It ranks first among +the "big three" canned vegetables; the other two being sweet corn +and peas. By far the great bulk that goes to the factory is put up +with the addition of nothing more than salt. In addition to the +condiments, puree and paste are manufactured in commercial +quantities. The Italians dry tomatoes extensively in the sun, +slicing the fruits, and later flavoring them to taste for various +winter uses. + +Though the tomato was not recognized as a valuable food until about +a century ago, its merit is now universally accepted. Bob Adams used +to call it "the poor man's orange" for it is rich in vitamins and in +malic and citric acid, possessing besides, a fine appetizing flavor +which is as truly a value in nutrition as it is a pleasure. + +Actually, the tomato is mostly water, of rather low protein and +carbohydrate content but this does not detract, for other foods are +dependable for these staples of nutrition and most of us eat too +much of them. + +The tomato is a youngster among the vegetables. In contrast to the +onion of Egyptian lore and the cucumber reputed to have been used +in Western Asia many centuries ago, the tomato is not reported +until the herbalists of the 16th century recorded its culture in +Italy and England--but with little of the esteem now accorded. The +name seems to be of Aztec origin and two distinct wild forms--one +corresponding to our cherry or currant varieties and the other to +our larger, flatter, less regular fruits of many cells,--are to be +found wild in Latin America. Its American origin is generally +accepted. + +Commercially, the tomato is a great crop. Among the vegetables, it +is outranked only by the potato and the sweet potato. + +The following table gives a few figures on the tomato crop: + + ====================================================================== + | | _Acres_ | _Value_ + | | _Thousands_ | _Million dollars_ + |_1929-38_+-------------+---------+------+------ + |_Average_| | |_1929-38_| | + | |_1939_|_1940_|_Average_|_1939_|_1940_ + ----------------------+---------+------+------+---------+------+------ + U.S. for canning | 369 | 358 | 386 | 19 | 24 | 24 + for fresh market | 177 | 210 | 204 | 24 | 34 | 29 + +---------+------+------+---------+------+------ + Total | 546 | 568 | 590 | 43 | 58 | 53 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Average yield for market is about 116 bushels per acre and the +average price $1.26 per bushel. The government reckons a bushel at +53 pounds, or about 38 bushels per ton. + +The average cannery yield for 1929-38 was 4.15 tons; for 1939, 5.58 +tons; and 1940, 5.39 tons. This shows a material increase. The +average cannery price for 1929-38 was $12.54 per ton. Yields by +states varied widely in 1940 from 2.7 tons per acre in Arkansas with +Indiana at 5.5 to 7.5 in California. In northeastern states, it is +considered that about a seven ton yield is necessary for the farmer +to break even. In New York, it costs about $60.00 to grow an acre of +tomatoes to first picking. With a good yield, picking and delivery +costs about $3.00 a ton. + +Leading market states are Texas, 40,000 acres; Florida, 31,000 and +California, 22,000. Tomatoes are grown in a very large number of +states--23 or 24 states showing 1,000 acres or more for market. + +Leading cannery states are Indiana, 74,000 acres; California, +52,000; Maryland, 51,000; and New Jersey, 33,000. California, also +Pennsylvania and Ohio have shown recent large gains. + +Large quantities grown in town and country home gardens are not +included in these figures and probably also many grown on small +scale for market. + +After all, however, the United States Department of Agriculture +estimated per capita consumption of fresh tomatoes at 17.7 pounds, +about one medium sized fruit per week per person. Consumption of +canned tomatoes is less than a third of the fresh consumption. These +figures include estimates for rural and urban home gardens. So, we +can hardly be said to be gluttons for tomatoes nor even to meet a +fair health standard, even considering all vegetables together. +After all, it does not have to be tomatoes even though their high +nutritional value is recognized. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--The tomato is the leader among greenhouse +vegetables.] + +In commercial greenhouses, the tomato has replaced lettuce as the +principal crop and it is likely to remain an important under-glass +crop until such time as the South finds practical means of getting +it to market with first-class quality--perhaps, harvesting the fruit +when it first shows color. + + + Solution Culture + +The tomato has been widely used in experiments in solution-culture +of plants, sometimes called "hydroponics." The method has been in +use for decades for research purposes, but has been widely +publicized of recent years as a possible method of commercial +culture. A high degree of control of factors governing growth is +undertaken and difficulties are proportionately increased. Hence no +extensive commercial development has occurred. A good presentation +of the method has been offered by Hoagland and Arnon.[1] + + + The Tomato Plant + +To manage a crop, one must needs know the plant. To know the various +characters of the tomato helps one to master its culture. + +The tomato belongs to the night shade family, the Solanaceae of the +botanist, along with the potato, tobacco, petunia, pepper, eggplant, +night shade, jimson weed and many other plants useful and noxious. + +The tomato is a warm-season crop, sensitive to frost but reasonably +resistant to heat and drought, thriving under a wide range of +climate and soil. A frost free season of seventy-five to ninety days +will mature home garden tomatoes in useful quantities if good plants +are set but over 120 days are needed for economical commercial +production. Plant growing requires six to eight weeks previous to +setting out-of-doors. Each fruit requires about six weeks from +blossom to ripeness. The fruit ripens best for yield, color and +quality when the weather is warm and sunny. Low temperatures without +frost are not favorable for growth and prolonged conditions of this +sort may "check" the plant and retard the response when higher +temperatures come. + +The tomato is sensitive to extreme day-length, setting fruit at 7 to +19 hours but not at 5 or 24 hours.[2] + +The tomato responds readily to fertilizers and to moisture, coming +quickly into vigorous growth after unfavorable conditions, unless +too badly stunted. + +As long as moisture and nutrients are available and other conditions +are favorable, a tomato plant will continue to branch and blossom +and make fruit almost indefinitely. A pruned single stem plant in a +greenhouse at Cornell once reached a length of over 40 feet during a +year and a half of growth. Thus, it is really a herbaceous +perennial grown in northern climates as an annual. + +The plant branches freely at leaf joints but fruit clusters are +formed along the bare stem,--a habit not common among plants. Some +varieties are "determinate" in habit, sometimes miscalled +"self-pruning," as branches only attain limited length. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--The tomato flower. Varieties differ in +protrusion of pistil beyond the stamen column. If style is too +short, pollination may fail; also, if too long. A long pistil +increases danger of damage from heat and drying out.] + +Hot, dry winds often damage floral parts and the blossoms drop +without setting fruit. + +Smith[3] has shown that pollen grains germinate best at 85 deg. F., +almost as well at 70 deg. F., poorly at 50 deg. F. and very poorly at 100 deg. +F. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--Long section of tomato flower.] + +The flowers of the tomato are borne in simple racemes or, in some +varieties, in compound clusters. The flowers are normally on the +plan of 5 but cultivated varieties may have six or eight sepals and +petals. Sepals are narrow and may be as much as an inch long. Petals +are united at the base. Stamens are united by the anthers +surrounding the style and stigma. The ovary or little tomato is +above the calyx but, as it grows, it carries corolla and stamens +outward until they, with stigma and style, drop off. Length of style +is a fairly important character in its bearing on pollination and on +susceptibility to heat and wind injury. + + + Seedless Fruits + +Recent experiments by several workers have demonstrated the +possibilities of inducing development of fruits without pollination +(parthenocarpy) by means of certain chemical compounds, notably +indolebutyric acid, although others are effective.[4] This method +yields seedless fruits and promises to be of value in insuring a +yield of fruits under conditions unfavorable for natural setting. + + + + + II + + CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT + + +Almost anywhere that other things will grow, the tomato thrives--so +far as soil type is concerned. + +Florida grows tomatoes on coral soils that appear too poor to +produce any useful crop. The fields of South Jersey are very sandy +but tomatoes do well despite costly control of moisture and +fertility. In some canning sections, clay loams and even clay soils +are used. The ideal is a medium sandy loam, well supplied with humus +for good water holding capacity. Lighter soils are generally +earlier. Tomatoes on drouthy soils are likely to suffer from blossom +end rot as well as from poor growth. Good drainage is required. Muck +or peat soils will grow tomatoes but they are not commonly used for +commercial production. + +Liming is not important for tomatoes even on fairly acid soils, +assuming, of course, that the very small actual calcium requirement +of the plant is met. This is generally confirmed by experiments but +it does not preclude the merit of lime in favoring green manure +crops which, in turn, make the soil more suitable for tomatoes. + +The dominant element in most sound tomato fertility programs is +phosphorus with nitrogen second and potash third. Recommendations of +general application are not possible but each need must be met +before other beneficial additions can be fully effective. + +In the home garden, a program that keeps up fertility for other +crops will suffice for tomatoes. In commercial production, +especially for canning, where prices received are usually low, the +program must be neatly cut to fit the soil, the crop system, the +value of the tomatoes and the costs of materials. A canning crop in +those sections where yields are almost bound to be low, will not +justify heavy investment in fertilizer. Where much is spent for +irrigation, plant growing, staking and pruning, one cannot afford to +curtail the fertilizer investment that will bring maximum return. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato +growth. Plants, grown in quartz sand, with plenty of other +nutrients, received definite amounts of nitrate, in one application. +A4, None. D5, 8 grams. F2, 32 grams. J4, 256 grams. N4, Soil and +manure. (1 ounce = about 28 grams).] + +The task of this chapter is not to tell the grower how best to +provide fertilizer for tomatoes but to help him in making his own +plan for his own need. Research results and practical experience +both contribute. One may well consult neighbors, county agent and +extension specialist, as well as the many books and bulletins that +are available. + + + Nitrogen + +Nitrogen is very important to insure the growth of vine without +which a good crop may not be expected. Lands vary more widely in +nitrogen content than in phosphorus and potash. Sandy soils are +commonly deficient in this element and often difficult to keep +supplied. Here liberal applications are needed. Up to a hundred +pounds[5] of actual nitrogen may prove profitable where other +conditions justify. Heavier soils, well managed and manured during +rotation, require less nitrogen and fair results may be obtained +with no fertilizer where investment must be kept to a minimum. + +Form of nitrogen to be used is largely a matter of economy though +nitrate for part of it may be desirable early in the season when +soil is cold and nitrification slow. Nitrate is desirable for side +dressing but even here ammonia and other forms are now considered +suitable when the soil is warm. + + + Failure to Set Fruit + +Why do tomatoes sometimes run to vine with failure to set fruit? +This is an old, old query and, since 1918, has been, directly or +indirectly, the occasion of more research projects than any other +horticultural topic. Kraus and Kraybill[6] set the ball a-rolling +with a paper which called attention first to the observations of +Klebs in Germany in which he emphasized the fact that external +conditions influence conditions within the plant which in turn +influence performance--a veritable chain of causation. Kraus and +Kraybill then undertook to relate performance (vegetative growth and +fruitfulness) to internal conditions, chiefly carbohydrate and +nitrogen content of the plant tissues. These, in turn, were traced +back to treatments applied to the soil. + +They suggested four combinations of vegetation and fruitfulness in +plants as follows: + + 1. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. Plants whose carbohydrate + supply has been cut off, say by removal of leaves which make + carbohydrates. These plants were low in carbohydrate and high + in nitrogen. + + 2. Vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants were well + supplied with both carbohydrates and nitrogen. They were of + the sort we describe as having "run to vine." + + 3. Vegetative and fruitful. These plants were well supplied + with carbohydrates, but not so liberally supplied with + nitrogen, thus, providing a balance between the two that was + favorable for a good crop. + + 4. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants had ample + opportunity for carbohydrate making, but were underfed with + nitrogen and so could not perform well in either vegetation or + fruit-making. + +Kraus and Kraybill conclude that there are certain balances between +these two groups of compounds--nitrogenous and carbohydrate--which +determine the nature of the plant's performance--whether there will +be too little vegetative growth to permit a crop, whether the plants +will "run to vine" or whether they will show good growth of both +foliage and fruit. + +From experiments in the same field, using definite amounts of +nitrate of soda per plant, Work[7] concluded that while adequate +carbohydrate supply is necessary for fruiting, excess carbohydrate +did not, in itself, occasion unfruitfulness but was more likely to +represent an accumulation of material unused by reason of deficiency +in some other factor--often nitrogen. + +It was shown that nitrate of soda does not injure tomatoes until a +concentration in the soil is attained which is strong enough to +plasmolyze the cells, that is to withdraw water from them by +osmosis. Nor were a wide variety of nitrogen and moisture and manure +treatments sufficient to induce the Bonny Best variety to "run to +vine." Some varieties are subject to this trouble, mostly of the +large, late types. + +Murneek[8] has shown that the fruitfulness of a plant may greatly +affect its internal condition, its vegetative performance and its +later setting of fruit. A heavy load of developing fruit, with +limited soil resources, tends to limit growth and setting. Removal +of fruit induces renewal of vegetative growth and of fruit setting. +Failure to set fruit favors vigorous vine growth. This failure may +be traceable to various causes. (1) To damage to floral parts as the +blasting of the pistil by heat and drouth. Flowers of some varieties +show tendency toward elongation of pistils with subsequent failure +to develop normal fruit. Smith and Howlett have shown that +environmental conditions as well as heredity influence this +elongation. (2) To injury by insects as thrips. (3) To the character +of the variety used, the Bonny group being very slightly susceptible +to failure from over feeding with nitrogen while some late sorts +readily "run to vine." (4) Shortage of nutrient elements as nitrogen +or phosphorus or others. (5) Lack of adequate light or short day. In +such cases, there may be excess of nitrogen for current need with +resultant over-development of leafage. Thus, excess vegetative +growth may be a result as well as a cause of poor setting. + + + Phosphorus + +Fertilizer experiments fairly generally point to the frequency with +which phosphorus is the limiting factor among nutrients in tomato +production. MacGillivray[9] has studied the phosphorus content of the +various parts of the plant, concluding that this element is important +throughout and not alone in seed making or in rapidly growing parts as +has been believed. Hepler and Kraybill[10] found some years ago and +others more recently have confirmed the influence of liberal phosphorus +treatments upon earliness. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete +fertilizer in Western New York.] + + + Potash + +The potash requirement of the tomato has not been as thoroughly +studied as the requirement for the other two major elements. It is +thought that potash has a part in building up sugars into more +complex carbohydrates. + +The consensus of fertilizer experiments suggests that potash is less +important on most soils than phosphorus and nitrogen but that if +these elements are in good supply, increased yields from potash are +likely. + +Lanham in Texas was unable to find a relation between potash +fertilization and resistance to shipping hazards. + + + Stable Manure + +Stable manure has long been recognized as useful for tomatoes. It is +generally considered better to apply it to the preceding crop or at +least the preceding fall than to use it just before setting of +plants. If spring application is necessary, it is better to use well +rotted manure. Stable manure is low in phosphorus. An approximate +statement would be that 10 tons of manure is roughly equivalent to +one ton of a 6-3-6 fertilizer. Thus, 1,000 pounds of 18% +superphosphate would bring the analysis to 6-12-6 which would be +generally regarded as a good balance. + +A recent publication[11] from Pennsylvania emphasizes the value of +manures and of phosphorus. + + + Placement and Side Dressing + +Recent experiments have shown the desirability of placing fertilizer +close to but not in contact with the roots of the young plants. When +newly set and before new roots have developed is the time when +nutrient material close at hand is needed to give the plant a +vigorous send-off. Transplanters have been devised with attachments +to place the fertilizer in bands at each side of the row of tomatoes +and about two inches deep. + +Recent experiments, notably by Sayre[12] of New York, have shown the +advantage of dissolving fertilizer materials in the water used for +transplanting tomatoes. One combination of materials consists of +ammo-phos, 14-48, 2 parts and potassium nitrate, 1 part. Five to +eight pounds of this mixture are dissolved in 50 gallons of water +and about 1/4 pint or 1/2 cup is applied to each plant, usually by +the transplanting machine. There are other suitable mixtures of +nutrients for this purpose. A very small investment in starter +solutions has shown material increase in total yield. The practice +places immediately available nutrients in the soil at the time and +place to be of maximum usefulness to plants that have been severely +root-pruned and have not yet had opportunity to rebuild the root +system. + +[Illustration: + + _Courtesy Campbell Soup Co._ + +FIGURE 6.--Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes.] + +Another critical stage in tomato growth comes when much fruit has +been set in the clusters and demands upon plant and soil are +especially heavy. At this stage, side dressing with nitrogen is +helpful in maintaining plant growth and providing resources for +growth and maturing of fruit. On sandy or nutrient-deficient soils, +more than one side dressing may be advisable. Sodium nitrate is +commonly used but other materials are suitable after the soil has +warmed up. Side dressing with fertilizer in solution has been +recommended recently by Tiedjens of New Jersey. + + + + + III + + THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD + + +A tomato crop may be much poorer than the seed from which it grows +but it can be no better. + +The tomato seed is short-oval and flattened in shape, covered +thickly with short silky hairs. The embryo or baby plant is coiled +in a spiral and imbedded in the endosperm (reserve food supply). +Three or four years is generally given as the life of the seed but +it often remains viable much longer--up to 10 or 12 years in extreme +cases. Good seed should germinate 85% to 90%. + +Tomato seed sprouts readily, requiring fairly warm temperature, say, +70 deg. to 75 deg. F. for best results. It germinates very slowly at 40 deg. to +50 deg. F. + + + Breeding + +Being a major vegetable crop, the tomato has received much attention +from plant breeders. Objectives sought include good cannery type, +resistance to the fusarium wilt and other diseases, better +greenhouse forms, improved general market and home garden sorts, and +varieties adapted for arduous conditions such as hot and dry summers +or very short growing seasons. + +The tomato is largely but not wholly self pollinated and pollen is +not carried far. Thus, it is not difficult to breed to practically a +pure-line condition. + +Tomatoes for seed are usually ground up and the seed and fine pulp +are separated from the skins and coarse material by screening. The +juice, fine pulp and seeds are allowed to ferment from 24 to 48 +hours, or until the jelly-like pulp is readily washed away. After +washing, the seed is dried in thin layers and stored. A bushel of +tomatoes may be expected to yield 2-1/2 to 4 ounces of seed and an +acre of tomatoes, from 100 to 225 pounds. These vary greatly +according to varieties and conditions. + +Wellington[13] and others have shown that first generation seed from +crosses of suitable varieties show a marked increase of vigor +(heterosis or hybrid vigor) over either parent or over the later +generations. This fact would seem to offer possibilities in +practical use, but it has not thus far proved of value. + + + Selection Methods + +Many growers find it profitable to save their own tomato seed. The +plant is an annual, the important characters are quite readily +observed and natural crossing is not serious. For these reasons, the +enterprise is not as difficult as with most vegetables, although, if +done well, it makes heavy demands in labor and care at a time when +the grower has much else to do. + +The first step in selection is to establish clearly the ideal to be +sought, recording it in detail on paper for future reference. +Selections should be made on the basis of the plant, not of the +individual fruit. It is the plant that is reproduced and the seed +from "crown clusters" is no earlier than seed from later settings. +The field should be searched soon after blooming time and plants +that appear promising should be marked. These plants should be +examined three or four times as the season advances, and markers +pulled from plants that do not measure up to the desired standard. +Suppose ten plants remain; all fruits from each of these may be +saved, keeping the seed of each plant separate. All or part of the +seed may be planted in separate rows the next year for further +selection and to note which parents best transmit their excellent +points. If only a small amount of seed is required, direct +selections may be made for use in planting for the general crop. If +a larger amount of seed is required, seed from one or two of the +best plants should be planted in multiplication plats. Off-type +plants should be removed from such plantings, but otherwise all the +seed may be saved for use. Repeated selection results in constant +improvement until the stock becomes a "pure line" or practically so. + +Lindstrom of Iowa has led in research on the genetics of tomatoes, +chromosome relations and mode of inheritance. Many scientific papers +deal with inheritance methods and results. The Yearbook of +Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) for 1937 contains a valuable chapter on +tomato breeding. It may also be had as Yearbook Separate 1581. + + + Certification + +As with certain other kinds of seeds, certification service for tomatoes +has now been set up in several states. Certification is a most useful +incentive toward care in breeding and handling and affords valuable +assurance to the buyer. It is necessary to know just what is guaranteed +by the certificate. It is at the same time wise to be informed as to the +inclusiveness and methods of the certification. + + + The Ideal Variety + +In breeding for better varieties of tomatoes, the following are some of +the characters to be sought: + + (1) A vigorous vine which is necessary to produce abundant + fruit and to protect from sunscald. + + (2) Resistance to disease especially to fusarium. + + (3) High productiveness with moderate number of fruits per + cluster--say, 5 to 8. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--Types of tomato interiors. 1, 5. Small fruited +sorts. 2, 6, 9. Bonny Best. 3, 7, 10. Chalk Jewel. 3, 7, 11. Stone. 4, +8. Earliana. 12. Ponderosa.] + + (4) Evenness of maturity. This is somewhat out of line with + the nature of the tomato but much could be accomplished toward + the goal of varieties that make their crop and are gone, + eliminating long picking periods and the drag of inferior + fruit toward the end of the season. The so-called + determinate habit of some varieties such as Pritchard is a + step in this direction. + + (5) Size suitable for expected use and for market demand. + Greenhouse tomatoes are generally smaller than those for + cannery. Uniformity of size is increasingly important with + wide-spread use of the lug-box pack and of small consumer + cartons. + + (6) Globular to oblong shape is desirable for market but is + less important for cannery. Form should be symmetrical, even + and smooth. + + (7) Color should be deep and rich, fully and evenly developed, + inside and out. Red is generally preferred to pink. The + difference between red and pink tomatoes does not reside in + the flesh but in the presence of yellow pigment in the skin of + the former while the skin of the latter is without pigment. + Yellow tomatoes are also extant. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--The Earliana tomato. A picture of a single +fruit cannot adequately describe a variety. 1-3. Rough types, common in +older strains. 4. Typical interior. 5, 6. Stem end. 7-9. Good type +resulting from selection. 10-12. Pointed-round type occurring frequently +in improved strains. A. Unusually large cluster. B. Typical Earliana +cluster showing compound branching. C. Unbranched cluster of Bonny Best +for comparison.] + + (8) Skin should be thick and tough. This safeguards against + damage on the way to market and favors ease of peeling. Those + saladists who serve sliced tomatoes with skins unremoved, may + call for a thin, tender skin but this practice finds no + encouragement from discriminating partakers. + + (9) Flesh should be abundant in thick walls with a minimum of + watery pulp surrounding seeds. In general, a structure of many + small cells is desirable. + + + Varieties + +_Earliana._--The earliness of this old and popular variety outweighs +its demerits where this character is required. The past ten years +have seen material improvement. + +Earliana is early, of small vine, with small leaves and leaflets. +Clusters are compoundly branched, with many fruits. The fruits are +of medium size, deep oblate, cross section often elliptical rather +than circular. There are many rough irregular fruits, varying in +this respect with breeding and conditions of growth. Color is red, +not too deep and tending to be poorly developed at the stem end. +Interior consists of many small cells with thin walls. + +_Bison._--represents a group of varieties bred for rigorous climates +of our most northerly states. A. F. Yeager formerly of North Dakota, +later of Michigan, now of New Hampshire has led in this +development. + +_Victor._--is a new variety bred originally by Yeager but introduced +by K. C. Barrons of Michigan. It affords smoother, deeper and better +colored fruits about as early as Earliana. It is determinate in +habit and shy in foliage, increasing danger of sunscald. Rich soil +and ample moisture are needed for its best development. _Bounty_ and +_Home Garden_ are similar. + +_Penn State._--Penn State, developed by C. E. Myers of Pennsylvania, +is not as early as Earliana. It is similar in fruit characters +though distinctly better in color and shape. It is marked by short +branches (determinate habit) and is designed to give an early crop +to be followed by prompt abandonment of the planting. It is not to +be confused with Penn State Earliana. + +_Bonny Group._--This group embraces our leading second early +varieties widely used for home garden, greenhouse, market and +cannery in the north. It includes _Bonny Best_, _John Baer_ and +_Chalk Jewel_ with many additional names and with much confusion of +characters among them. + +Bonny Best is second early and of medium plant growth. Fruits are +deep oblate to flattened globe, even and smooth, of good red color, +with few large, thick-walled cells. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--Marglobe plant.] + +Varieties and strains of this group vary in growth and yield, in +size, shape and earliness of fruit and in suitability for +greenhouse, market, cannery and juice. _Stokesdale_ and _Scarlet +Dawn_ are meritorious newer names in the group. + +_Marglobe._--This variety was developed by the late Dr. F. J. +Pritchard from a cross between Marvel, a French variety lending +resistance to fusarium and Globe, an old variety of fine size and +shape. It is widely used, north and south, for market--green or +ripe, for cannery and to some extent, for forcing. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--Marglobe fruit.] + +Marglobe is a midseason variety, with large vine and foliage, +resistant to fusarium and nailhead spot. Fruits are nearly globular, +shapely and smooth, medium to large, scarlet red, with medium number +of thick walled cells. Marglobe is rather subject to deep radial +cracks. + +_Pritchard_ is of the general type of Marglobe but is earlier, with +short branching habit and resistance to nailhead rust and to +fusarium, and, perhaps, is less subject to cracking. + +_Greater Baltimore_ is used chiefly for canning in long-season +districts. It is late, with large vine, large flat fruits of +excellent scarlet red, outside and in, with many thick walled cells. +_Indiana Baltimore_ is a variant widely grown in the mid-west for +cannery. + +_Rutgers_ was developed by L. G. Schermerhorn at the New Jersey +Experiment Station for fine juice and canning characters--color, +flavor and substance. Growth is vigorous and yields are heavy; +fruits are large, flattened and well colored. + +_Gulf State Market_ is a second early shipping tomato, generally +harvested green. It is flattened in shape, of well developed pink +color and good interior. + +_Comet Group._--These trace mostly to English or other European +origin and are increasingly used for greenhouse and for staking +out-of-doors. Comet is small, flattened, slightly corrugated about +the stem, of fine even red color, very firm and solid, with few very +thick walled cells. Other names are _Sunrise_, and _Lord Roberts_. +Several American forcing strains have been developed with at least +one parent of this group--_Ideal_, _Grand Rapids Forcing_, _Field +Station Comet_, _Trellis_, _Michigan State Forcing_, _Lloyd +Forcing_, _Blair Forcing_ and others. + +_King Humbert_ and _San Marzano_ represent the small Italian oblong +tomatoes that are prized for their thick walls, fine color and +suitability for puree, paste and soup. + +_Ponderosa_ is popular for home garden, a "beef-steak" tomato of +very large size, irregular shape, flat, pink, with many small cells +and of very mild sub-acid flavor. It is best grown to single stem. +_Oxheart_ is large, heart shaped, pink and very meaty. Others of +this general type may be had in red, yellow and orange flesh. In +general, the whole group lacks in prolificacy. + +_Oddities._--Tomato fanciers often plant seed of Red and Yellow +Pear, Cherry, Currant, Peach with its fuzzy skin, Plum and others. +They are prized for preserves and for decoration. Ground Cherry or +Husk Tomato is not a true tomato but belongs to a different genus +(Physalis). It makes excellent preserves. Well do I remember +sneaking off from the other kids for solitary plunder of the little +row that was usually in Grandma's garden. + +Comprehensive descriptions of leading varieties of tomatoes have +been published by the United States Department of Agriculture in +Miscellaneous Publication 160, the result of statistical and verbal +notations over several years at five widely scattered stations of +the country. + + + + + IV + + STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP + + +One of the ways to make money from tomatoes is to mature them early, +selling while the price is still high. There is a big difference +between $.10 a pound and $.10 a basket. Shipped and ripened green +wrap tomatoes cannot be very cheap on northern markets even though +Southern growers may realize little for them. + +Another way to profit is to grow good plants to sell. Judging by the +spindling, crowded, soft or over-hardened plants so common in stores, +there should be great opportunity here and, as a matter of fact, +many market gardeners do well in this business realizing welcome +returns when other income is negligible. + +To market ten-cent-a-pound tomatoes from out-doors requires good +plants--plants that have passed through their youth nearly or fully +up to blossoming time with benefit of heat and shelter and that are +ready to keep up vigorous growth in face of the demands of +fruiting. A few scattering fruits matured early do not suffice. + +Even for cannery, good plants are required. In most regions, plants +are not as good as they should be. All too often, outdoor seed bed +plants are set where cold frame or at least cloth cover should be +employed. Further north, cold frame plants or second run or other +inferior plants are used instead of the best. That is why many +canning companies have greenhouses and grow plants for their +farmers. + +And in the home garden, the quality of vine ripened fruit along with +the satisfaction of early maturity are goals worth striving for. + +Plant growing is a game of skill. It calls for keen observation, +constant and faithful attention to small details, and a high order +of workmanship in the various operations. Furthermore, when a +considerable number of plants are to be grown, it calls for good +organization and rapid work if costs are not to be unduly increased. +A transplanter who makes three motions where two will suffice is +likely to turn profit into loss, for the loss of a second when +repeated thousands of times makes many hours. + +The grower who is producing tomatoes for first-early maturity wants +a plant that will withstand the rigors of transplanting and of +inclement weather which may follow, that will start immediately into +growth, and that will mature fruit in good quantity at the earliest +possible date. This usually means a plant about ten inches tall, +with heavy, firm, dark-colored stem (though not over-hardened), a +heavy body of dark, healthy foliage, and a cluster of blossoms, with +possibly a fruit or two already set. If the buds in the axils of the +leaves have begun growth, no harm will be done. + +Many growers are doubtful whether it is well to have fruit set on +plants when they are transplanted in the field, as they claim that +the little tomatoes are often lost and in any case the progress of +the plant is retarded. Such plants must be handled with great skill. +If they are severely checked when taken to the field, other and less +advanced plants may do as well. There is danger in having plants too +far advanced, and an unexpected delay in field setting may result in +spindling and over-hardening that may prove disastrous. A vigorous +and properly hardened plant that is younger will do better under +such circumstances. Some growers protect themselves by having plants +of more than one sort. + + + Open-bed Plant Growing + +With favorable conditions and careful methods, good plants can be +grown in open beds but they must be grown and used where the season +is long or be grown in the south and shipped north. + +Soil should be free of disease and nematodes, of good physical +character, full of humus and nutrients. + +Seed may be sowed a week or two after "average date of last killing +frost" which may be learned from county agent or weather bureau. +Further south planting times are gauged by the time tomatoes are to +be set and by experience as to safe or reasonably safe sowing dates. +Rows are usually a foot apart, more or less. Good plants call for +sowing thinly, 6 to 12 seeds per foot, but several seeds per inch +are not unusual. One may expect a million plants per acre with close +planting or 40,000 plants per pound of seed. + + + Southern Plants + +Many millions of tomato plants are grown in open fields in the south +to be sent to home gardeners in small parcels on seedsmen's orders, +to be sold to commercial growers or to be delivered on contract to +canners. + +A suitable climate and soil, good seed, freedom from disease and +insects and good handling and packing are all required for +satisfactory results. In far too many cases, these requirements have +been sadly neglected and a good deal of distrust has been +engendered. Here, as in buying seed, one must discriminate among +good and poor growers. Canners who order in millions can send men +south to investigate and supervise with good results. + +Georgia now has a certification service for plants that helps +greatly to build up and maintain high standards. + + + Growing Early Plants in the North + +Varied programs of plant growing are in vogue in the temperate and +cooler regions. A simple cold frame with or without transplanting +may be employed. Seedlings may be started in hotbed or greenhouse +and then transplanted to cold frames to finish the job. Some sow +seed early, transplant once in the greenhouse at 1-1/2 or 2 inches +each way and then again to cold frame with wide spacing say, 4 x 4 +inches or using pots or dirt bands. + +For this method, as much as twelve weeks may be allowed but if space +permits, excellent results may be achieved in seven or eight weeks +transplanting but once to pots or to 4 x 4 inches in flat or bed. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--A good small greenhouse for plant +growing.] + + + The Place to Grow Plants + +For northern climates, greenhouses are practically required. +Canneries or other large growers, have wide houses similar to those +used for winter maturing crops. A market gardener may have a little +house of 10' x 20' to 20' x 60' or larger as needed. If one does not +object to some inconvenience and discomfort, a hotbed may be +used--heated with hot water or electricity, or as in years past, +with fermenting manure. Cold frames may be covered with glass sash +as in the case of hotbeds, or cloth may be used. There are also +materials consisting of wire cloth filled with cellulose film. +Special mats of straw or of quilted burlap may be used for extra +cover and large growers often employ coarse manure, straw or marsh +hay. + +Many a tomato gets its start in life in a small flat in a kitchen +window--perhaps, in a cigar box. Such seedlings may then be carried +forward in hot bed or cold frame. + + + Beds, Flats and Pots + +Growing plants directly in ground beds in the greenhouse and +directly in the soil in the hotbeds or cold frames, is rather +common. However, the use of flats or plant boxes in plant growing +offers a number of advantages as compared with planting in the bed. +Transplanting can be done at benches under conditions of comfort and +convenience which make for efficiency. Moisture can be more +precisely controlled and flats can be shifted if some plants grow +faster than others. Plants can be moved with more dirt on the roots, +and this is a great advantage when plants are sold and hauled some +distance, though, of course, pulled plants are handled more cheaply. +On the other hand, the first cost, and the maintenance and storage +of the flats must be considered. Flats may be set on the ground in +the greenhouse without use of benches. + +Flats are of many dimensions, ordinarily six to ten per sash or +about 18 x 22 inches or 13 x 18 inches outside measure. They may be +made of lumber from used boxes, but they ought to be uniform in size +and made to fit beds without loss of space. The more durable kinds +of wood, cypress or chestnut are preferred. Some growers make the +bottoms of the flats of square-mesh galvanized screen (hardware +cloth), about five or six meshes to the inch. This allows roots to +penetrate the soil of the beds, permits root pruning by shifting, +and there is no wooden bottom to rot. + +Some growers use clay pots for plants which are receiving special +care. Their cost is an obstacle though they are used repeatedly. +Such pots also hold less soil for the area occupied than flats or +square dirt bands. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Plants for the early crop. 1. Shows +plants in paper bands of excellent proportion and thrift but not yet +in bloom. 2. In blossom but fruit has not yet set. 3. Similar to 2 +but a little further advanced and has actually set fruit.] + +Paper pots are used to some extent. Organisms decomposing the paper +may use and so render unavailable some of the nitrogen of the soil +thus hindering the growth of the plants. This may be corrected by +seeing that abundant nitrogen is present in the soil either when +made up or by later application of nitrate sowed upon the soil while +plants are dry or applied in solution in watering. + +Dirt bands of veneer are used and are very satisfactory. Blocking as +practiced by many growers is a cheap and effective way of attaining +much the same results. + + + The Blocking System + +When the cold frame is prepared for the last transplanting, two +inches of fairly well-rotted manure is laid down and two or three +inches of prepared soil is placed on top. Plants are set about four +inches apart each way. About a week before field setting, a butcher +knife, or a hoe which has been straightened and sharpened, is run +between rows both ways. This cuts the roots whereupon the plant at +once begins to form new feeders within the block thus reducing, to +some extent at least, the damage which might be caused by +transplanting. The method is also used with flats. + + + Soil + +Soil for plant growing should be free of disease and nematodes, +friable, not readily forming a crust, receiving and retaining +moisture well, but drying off quickly on the surface after watering +and well supplied with nutrients. A sandy loam base with good humus +content is desirable. It may be prepared, beginning a year or two +ahead by growing and plowing under well fertilized green manure +crops. Or a compost heap may be prepared with successive layers of +soil and manure or other humus making material. In either case, it +is usually mixed a time or two by shoveling over or by passing +through a shredding machine or a coarse screen. + +If trouble is likely to be experienced from damping-off fungi, the +soil may be heated to 200 deg. F. and held there for an hour, using oven +or electric or steam sterilizer. Seed may also be treated with red +copper oxid or semesan. + + + Seed and Seed Sowing + +Tomato seed runs about 125,000 to 150,000 per pound. An ounce of +seed is usually depended upon for plants for an acre. For growing +seedlings, seed may be sowed up to 100 or more per foot of row. For +a maximum number of strong seedlings from a small amount of seed, +thinner sowing is desirable. Rows are usually about two inches +apart, and a quarter of an inch is sufficient cover. The seedlings +break ground in a week or ten days. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed.] + +Uniformity of depth of rows and of covering is important. Otherwise, +seedlings will come up unevenly and there will be considerable +waste. + + + Care of Seedlings + +Water and heat should be provided to permit a steady and moderate +rate of growth in plants. Over-watering and high temperature yield +soft and spindling plants and also plants that are overgrown and +that are liable to severe checking before field setting. +Under-watering and low temperature give stunted plants. The +thermometer at the earlier stages of growth may well stand around 70 +to 75 degrees by day and 10 degrees lower at night. A reasonable +range of temperature and moisture gives opportunity for the skillful +grower to forward or retard his plants as seems best. Great care +should be exercised to water evenly. It is necessary to watch the +plants constantly to detect the slightest variations in growth. The +watering may then be modified and even progress insured. + +Ventilation finds its chief significance as a means of controlling +temperature and humidity, though actual change of air may be a +factor. + +High soil moisture, high humidity, high temperature, and faulty +ventilation, all favor the ravages of the various damping-off fungi +mentioned above which cause little plants to rot off near the +ground. + + + Transplanting + +The main advantage of transplanting plants before they are set in +the field is to give them increased space, or, in other words, to +conserve space in greenhouses and frames. Other advantages have been +claimed, but in many instances the gains have resulted from more +space rather than from the actual shift. Transplanting checks growth +through breakage and disturbance of the root system. Loomis[14] +finds that "the immediate effect of transplanting is a reduction in +the water supply, and the immediate and long-time results are +dependent upon the severity and duration of such reduction." +Transplanting has little effect upon very young plants and a shift +at the age of six or eight weeks checks the plant about as much as +two earlier transplantings. The tomato falls in the group of plants +that stand transplanting well, roots being rapidly replaced. +Transplanting breaks roots and so results in the growth of branches +which are shorter than the members of the old system. The new system +is accordingly less severely damaged in later transplantings. + +To insure efficiency, the work of transplanting merits careful +attention. Carelessness as to details means loss through unevenness +of plants. For example, if soil is not carefully packed at the edges +and corners of the flats, irregular water supply and irregular +growth result. If much transplanting is to be done, it pays to +divide up the work, as is done in a factory. Have a good place for +doing the work--a warm, light, and comfortable room. Tired workers +are not efficient. Spotting boards are of service if properly made +and correctly used. Soil should always contain just the right degree +of moisture to allow holes to stand open. Care must be taken that +the workers in setting plants do not double the roots or close the +holes at the top leaving the roots dangling in an open space below. + +It is said that a good worker will prick out 10,000 plants per day, +though everything must be convenient to accomplish this and many +growers regard 6,000 plants as a good day's work. + + + Pruning Young Plants + +Pruning of tops injures rather than helps the plant, for it destroys +leaves which are the machines that make carbohydrates, the principal +material for growth. Pruning to cure legginess is bad. Proper +management of time, temperature and water will provide adequate +control and if plants should become leggy, it is better to plant +them by laying them down in a trench with a few inches of top above +ground than it is to prune them. + +Nipping out the growing point with the first cluster of flower buds +is sometimes practiced to encourage branching and a heavier yield of +early fruit. If this is done, ample space and nutrients must +accompany careful management. Otherwise, the plant finds itself with +inadequate resources to do a big job. + + + Hardening + +Tomato plants cannot be made frost proof, but low temperature, +reduced moisture supply, partial starvation, and crowding all tend +to make plants more resistant to cold, to drying winds, to heat, to +mechanical injury such as breakage of leaves and stems, and even to +cut-worm attacks. Plants can be hardened appreciably in a short +time--say a week. It is now generally accepted that moisture control +is more useful than reduced temperature as a means of hardening. +Starving and crowding are not desirable methods. Plants can be kept +on the dry side if glass or other water-shedding cover is +available. + +Great care must be exercised to avoid over-hardening of tomato +plants, for in this way a check in growth is incurred from which +they recover slowly, and perhaps never fully. + +Much study has been given to the changes in plants which underlie +the hardening process, and papers by Harvey, Rosa, Loomis, and +others should be consulted in this connection. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Plants that have been crowded and +overgrown, probably undernourished and over-hardened. Plants like +this are very often set in the field. They are definitely slow in +starting growth.] + +Watts[15] has shown that adverse conditions, especially low +temperature and water deficiency prevailing at the time when fruit +clusters are barely beginning to form, commonly occasion the +development of misshapen fruits. + +Faithful spraying or dusting with Bordeaux in the plant bed has +proved a useful means of forestalling destructive leaf blights which +often devastate whole fields. + + + + + V + + GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS + + +The tomato is not especially exacting as to care after it has been +set out-of-doors. It will do business if given half a chance. At the +same time, much can be done to favor earliness, good yield and high +quality. + + + Time of Planting + +In general, tomatoes are set in field or garden as soon as danger of +frost is reasonably past. Suppose May 1st is average date of last +killing frost. Growers would make general plantings from May 18th to +25th though, in rare instances, frost might occur as late as May +28th or 30th. The last week of May is planting time over a vast area +of the North. Venturesome souls will set home garden plants as early +as May 10th, standing ready to replant if necessary. There is little +gain in rushing the season too much, however, for the tomato is not +only sensitive to frost but it does not thrive under what people +call "raw, mean, chilly weather." Such conditions may also be +responsible for misshapen fruits. A grower for local market not +infrequently risks a share of his plants before safe setting time in +the hope that warm weather may give the crop a good start toward +early ripe fruit to sell at high prices. + +Delayed planting and use of plants that do not start quickly into +vigorous growth is the cause of heavy losses in the north, +especially among cannery growers. Better quality and heavier yields +are attained if the bulk of the crop matures before cool weather in +the fall. In the south, it is necessary to get good plant +development and a full set of fruit before hot weather which often +destroys the blossoms. + + + Plant Protectors + +Many forms of plant protectors are on the market--of paper and of +other materials. These act as little greenhouses for the individual +plant, protecting against frost and promoting growth. Plants may be +set out-of-doors a couple of weeks earlier by their use. The most +common forms are of translucent paper reinforced by pasted strips +of paper or by wire. The trick is to devise one that is cheap, that +will admit maximum light and that will withstand the weather. For +tomatoes, they need to be tall, which makes the problem of wind +resistance more serious. + +For emergencies, opaque cover, baskets upside down or even newspaper +may be used. Many a field has been saved by burying the plants when +frost threatened, carefully uncovering when danger is past. + + + Spacing + +Untrained tomatoes are set at distances from 3-1/2 feet each way to +7 x 7 feet or even more. The extreme width is found on rich +irrigated lands in California where plants make tremendous growth. +The closer spacings are found on lighter soils where humus, plant +food, and moisture are not too abundant. The variety should also be +considered. Sixteen square feet per plant is about average. + +Check row planting is common, though it is not feasible where +transplanters are used. Wider spacing between the rows than between +plants is desirable as it permits later cultivation one way and +leaves a better passage for pickers with less damage to plants and +fruits. Thus, 3-1/2 x 4-1/2 feet might be preferred to 4 x 4 feet. + +Rows for single stem, staked and pruned plants may be as close as +three feet and plants may be as close as eighteen or even twelve +inches, though some growers contend that two feet is close enough. + + + Methods of Planting + +The essential point in field setting is to pack the soil firmly +about the roots, thus establishing maximum contact for moisture +absorption. Whatever the method of planting, the aim should be to +get the plants from the old home to the new with as little delay and +check in growth as possible. For the first-early crop, they should +be moved so that "they never know it." With bands, pots or blocking +in flats or beds, it is feasible to avoid practically all +disturbance of roots. + +The tomato will, under ordinary favorable conditions, take hold and +grow even if shaken quite free of earth. Plants, however, should be +dug loose rather than pulled, to prevent undue breakage of roots. + +Plants ought to be watered well some hours before transplanting. +Transplanting machines and hand planters of the Masters type give a +little shot of water at the root, thus helping to establish contact +with the soil. Starter solutions are discussed on page 35. These +machines are commonly used for cannery setting and, to some extent, +for market tomatoes. Blocked plants can be set pretty fast by hand +with much less disturbance of roots. Some manage to set potted or +blocked plants by machine, keeping a ball of earth about the roots. + +The rows are usually marked out fairly deeply, plants are dropped in +fours between rows and it is a very short job to pack soil about the +clod of earth in which the plant is growing. Another method is for +one worker to make an opening with a spade. A second places the +plant in the wedge-like opening and the first steps on the soil to +firm it solidly about the roots. + +Plants are generally set a little deeper than in the plant bed. + + + Cultivation + +The old idea about cultivation was "the more, the better." More +recent experiments notably those by Thompson have shown that little +need be done beyond controlling weeds. He found that stirring the +soil gave no significant increase in yield over mere scraping +sufficient to destroy weeds. It is pretty hard to convince many old +time gardeners of this. The value of dust mulch for conservation of +moisture has been pretty well discredited by experimental +comparisons. + + + Irrigation + +Irrigation is not essential for tomato production in humid climates +and is seldom provided except under market garden conditions. Water +is occasionally an asset in a dry season and, of course, the grower +who waters at such times reaps a harvest in higher prices as well as +in increased yield. The advantage of irrigation is especially marked +if dry weather retards plant growth and delays maturity of the first +of the crop, for the high prices of the early market are involved. +Judicious irrigation will sometimes continue production for late +fall market. Yet gardeners seldom plan permanent overhead equipment +for tomatoes. The movable lines that are now used to a considerable +extent serve well for the tomato crop. + +The furrow method of irrigating tomatoes is the most common in the +West. This plan allows the water to make its way down the rows, +slowly soaking in all along the line. The tomato stands drouth +better than many of our crops, especially if the soil holds moisture +fairly well, either naturally or through a liberal humus content. +Excessive moisture is doubtless a factor in causing the plants to +run to vine and drop their blossoms. Hence, in western sections, it +is customary to water thoroughly just before or just after setting +the plants and then to avoid applications until the setting of fruit +is well advanced. + +Thorough soaking is better than frequent light waterings, as it +encourages a better development of root system. An Idaho bulletin +suggests three irrigations. Late irrigations tend to delay ripening +of fruit, but this object is sought in the late fall shipping +districts of California which find their best markets after eastern +crops have been nipped by frost. + +Irrigation must be handled with care to avoid cracking of fruit, +which occurs when soil becomes rather dry and then is heavily +watered. Watering late in the season is said to make fruit watery +and of poor quality. + + + Mulching + +R. A. Emerson[16] in 1903 reported results of careful comparisons +between vegetables that were cultivated and others that were mulched +with straw. These results indicate that mulching gives good results +with tomatoes, both as to yield and quality. However, frost injury +was more severe on mulched plats, and Emerson points out that the +mulch should not be applied until the plants are well established. + +Mulching is recommended by a good many writers and growers and it +seems to be practiced to some extent in Missouri. The advantages +claimed are conservation of moisture and clean, fine quality fruit. +L. W. Purdum and Sons of Virginia use 4-5 tons per acre of wheat +straw, staking their plants and irrigating. They report unusually +heavy returns per acre under these methods. The Missouri people +apply as much as sixteen tons per acre, making the cover five or six +inches thick. The practice of mulching, however, is not common, and +the cost will likely prevent its general use. + + + + + VI + + TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD + + +Growers attending conventions will often stay up half the night to +argue about training and pruning tomatoes and to debate the details +of their favorite procedures. + +For home garden, the method is strongly commended. Many market +gardeners follow the practice and it has gained materially of recent +years in New England. Some market reports quote staked tomatoes +separately and at a materially higher level than fruit from unpruned +plants. + +Most of the southern shipping sections follow the practice and it is +practically universal in greenhouses. + +One way is to drive a stake by each plant tying at several points +along the stem with cheap twine. The other plan, recently gaining in +favor, is to set posts every 25 feet or so, string a heavy wire on +top, and another a foot from the ground. Cheap jute twine is strung +between wires and the tomato plants are merely twisted around the +string. Tying is not required. Some omit the lower wire, tying a +non-slipping bowline loop around the plant near the ground. In +either case, plants are kept trimmed to a single stem though +occasionally an extra branch is allowed to grow. In southern +Illinois, plants are tied to a short stake without pruning. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, +wire and twine. This is the trellis system of New England.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Fine clusters on trained plants.] + + + Pro and Con + +The advantages claimed for pruning and training are: + + Earliness. + High yield per acre. + Ease of cultivating and spraying. + Ease of picking. + No injury from snails and wire worms. + Quality of fruit:--size, color, smoothness and cleanliness. + Crop finished earlier. + Less sunscald. + +The disadvantages claimed are: + + Many plants required. + Reduced yield. + More blossom-end rot. + Higher cost of labor. + Cost and care of stakes and wire. + +The validity of each of these points varies greatly with conditions; +in fact, the answer to the whole question depends largely upon the +location and the ideas of the grower. In trying to reach a +conclusion, it is well to realize that training makes certain +radical changes in the plant. It loses leaves through pruning, it is +supported from the ground, and it is spaced differently. Since the +leaves manufacture the basic substance for themselves, and for the +rest of the plant, removal of leaves reduces the resources of the +plant. H. C. Thompson[17] has found that the root system is reduced +about in proportion to leaf reduction. It is fairly clear that +single-stem training greatly reduces the yield per plant, and other +methods result similarly in proportion to the severity of pruning. +When plants are spaced closely enough together the yield may be +brought up to that of areas unpruned and unstaked. Idaho experiments +indicate that staking alone does not affect the total yield, but +that it does favor early maturity under the different pruning +systems. The disadvantages of training are largely economic. Will +the marketing conditions justify the extra cost of staking and +pruning? + +Experiments have shown pretty clearly that sunscald, blossom-end rot +and cracking are worse on trained plants. Using varieties of good +foliage will help the first trouble while uniform and adequate water +supply achieved by selection of suitable land, by building humus +content of the soil and by irrigation will solve the latter two +problems. Thompson found increased yield of early fruit. Other +evidence is somewhat conflicting but, in general, it supports +Thompson. It is generally agreed that pruned plants yield larger, +cleaner and more perfectly formed and colored fruits. Ease of +spraying or dusting and of picking is important. + +For pruned plants, 3-1/2 feet between rows and 1-1/2-2 feet between +plants is about right. + +To train or not to train is a question that one must answer for +himself as the controlling factors vary too widely--costs of stakes, +wire and labor, prices of early tomatoes and possibility of +cultivating a more or less fancy trade. + + + + + VII + + THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES + + +The tomato, in most regions, is not one of our most "pestered" +crops. Although over thirty diseases of tomatoes are discussed in +books and bulletins, most of them are only occasionally serious or +are subject to definite control methods. Enemies are generally worse +in the warmer climates. + +Most home garden tomatoes and many commercial crops are grown +without benefit of spray or dust. If trouble arises, county agent or +college specialist can usually advise, suggesting methods suitable +for local conditions. + +Experience must, of necessity, be the guide in shaping a program and +costs must be carefully balanced against results. + +The principal measures that are widely used are seed treatment +against damping off, use of resistant strains against fusarium wilt +and application of bordeaux mixture against leaf blights. + +As with all plants, thoroughness must be the watchword in spraying +or dusting. Timeliness, choice of weather conditions so far as +possible, and covering all surface lightly rather than throwing on +heavy blotches of spray or dust all require careful attention. + +_Fusarium Wilt_ (Fusarium lycopersici) is perhaps the most serious +of all the tomato diseases although it occasions little trouble in +the more northerly states. It is troublesome as far north as New +Jersey to Iowa. + +The fungus winters in the soil, enters through the roots and blocks +the water passages of the plant causing wilting, yellowing, and +finally, death. Water vessels in the stem are discolored,--another +means of identifying the disease. + +Spraying or dusting are of no service since the fungus is within. +Long time rotation and use of the many resistant strains are +effective means of control. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left +center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on right with one of +F. J. Pritchard's wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant +attacked by wilt fungus.] + +_Leaf Spot_, _Septoria Blight_ (Septoria lycopersici) causes heavy +loss by destroying the foliage and so the fruit-making power of the +plant. It also opens the fruits to sunscald. The spots appear as +small dark water soaked areas which enlarge but little though they +increase in number and turn brown. Tiny black dots, the fruiting +bodies of the fungus, appear. The spores germinate only on moist +leaves and the disease is spread by wind, rain, workers and the +like. It winters on refuse of the tomato and related plants. + +Fall plowing helps to control. Bordeaux spraying beginning in the +seed bed and carried faithfully through the season will usually hold +the trouble in check. + +_Late Blight_ (Phytophthora infestans) is the same fungus as the +late blight of potatoes, affecting both foliage and fruit. It is +often troublesome the first few weeks after plants are set +out-of-doors. Clean soil in seed bed and bordeaux spraying are +helpful. + +_Western Blight_, _Yellows_, _Curly Top_,--cause unknown,--is +prevalent in California. Leaves roll and become thickened and +brittle, later turning a sulfury yellow. Veins become purplish. The +trouble prevails in hot weather. The cause is likely a virus, +similar to or identical with the curly top of beets. It is +apparently spread by leaf hoppers. No satisfactory control has been +devised though there is some promise in resistant strains. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Diseases of the tomato. 1. Septoria or +leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform.] + +_Mosaic._--No organism has been definitely connected with the mosaic +diseases of tomatoes, but they are highly infectious, being spread +by means of what is called a "virus," which passes the finest +filters. It is spread by insects, notably aphids, which carry plant +juice, and in the handling of plants, but it does not persist in +seeds or in litter. It is wintered on horse nettles and three +species of ground cherries. Control suggestions include roguing +affected plants, eliminating weeds, and controlling carrying +insects. The symptoms are widely various, the most common being +mottling of leaves, stunting and malformation of leaflets, which +sometimes become fine ribbons or threads, curling, appearance of +small brown dead areas, and spots and cracks on fruits. + +_Damping off_ is caused by various fungi in the seed bed which +attack the stem near the surface of the soil and cause the plant to +drop over and die. Clean soil, heating of soil, commonly called +sterilization, and care in watering are all helpful. It is now +common practice to dust seed with formaldehyde dust, or with red +copper oxid or with an organic mercury disinfectant. If trouble is +serious, a watering with semesan just before seedlings emerge may be +helpful. + +A government bulletin on "Market Diseases of Tomatoes" +(Miscellaneous Publication 121, 1932) is an excellent summary with +colored plates to help in recognizing the various troubles. + + + Insects + +_The Fruit Worm_ (Chloridea obsoleta) is probably the worst of the +tomato insects, but is not prevalent in the North. It is the same as +the corn ear-worm or the cotton boll-worm, and bores into green or +ripening fruits. It winters in the soil and fall plowing is +recommended for its control. Planting corn as a trap crop is also +suggested. The Virginia Truck Experiment Station finds that the +addition of two pounds of calcium arsenate to 50 gallons of the +Bordeaux used for disease control helps materially. + +_Cut-worms_ (various species of the family Noctuidae) cause severe +losses at the time of field setting. They winter in the soil and are +worse when sod has been plowed under, or following other host +plants. Poison bran mash is commonly used to combat them, using a +spoonful to each plant. Hand picking and the use of paper collars +are resorted to on a small scale. Well-hardened plants seem less +subject to injury by these pests than tender plants. + +_Colorado Potato Beetle_ (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) can cause a +world of damage to young plants. Arsenical spray or dust will +ordinarily control them. The old-fashioned potato bug (family +Meloidae), is reported as troublesome in Missouri. When they appear +in droves, the only control is to drive them with brush. Arsenical +spray or dust is of some value. + +_Flea Beetles_ (family Chrysomelidae) are the little black jumping +fellows that perforate leaves in plant beds and in the field. They +are also accused of injuring blossoms and reducing the set of fruit. +Their attacks upon young plants are sometimes ruinous. Bordeaux with +arsenical serves as a repellant. Dusting with nicotine sulphate dust +is also suggested. + +_Green Tomato Worms_, or _Horn Worms_ (Phlegethontius sexta) are +big, green fellows and have a great capacity for tomato foliage. +Hand-picking and arsenical spray or dust are usual means of combat. + +_The stalk-borer_ (Papaipema nitela) is a slender caterpillar which +is reported as serious in Indiana. No satisfactory control is +suggested except clean culture around fields and pinching the stems +to destroy the pest. + + + + + VIII + + SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE + + +The most skillful production is in vain if marketing is not done +well. At the same time, the quality of the goods is the principal +factor in making the price and in moving the goods. Even then, if +costs in production and marketing are too high, the enterprise is a +failure. + +The differences between high and low quotations on the same market +the same day, are usually fairly wide,--say, $1.75 to $2.50; or +$0.75 to $1.25; or $0.20 to $0.25 per basket. These differences are +sufficient to make the difference between profit and loss. Small +differences in quality of the product, in handling and dress-up of +the market pack and skill in finding buyers may easily result in +price differences as great or greater than those indicated. + + + Harvesting + +Picking in the field calls for the closest care and supervision to +prevent damage to the fruits and vines. Stems should be removed to +avoid punching other fruits, and long finger-nails do great harm by +cutting the skin and admitting infection. Containers should not be +too large to be handled conveniently. Round half-bushel stave +baskets and galvanized pails are excellent. Baskets made of +quarter-inch staves rather than veneer are smooth and durable, but +the investment is rather heavy unless dumping is resorted to. In +practice, all sorts of boxes and crates are used, often the package +that is used for marketing. No container as deep as a bushel basket +should be used. + +The stage of ripeness at which tomatoes are picked depends upon the +time and distance to market. For home use or local market, fruit may +range from the first turn to almost fully colored. + +A few growers pick at the turn and use ripening rooms to prepare for +local selling. In this way cracking, injury by soil, by insects, and +by uneven coloring are avoided. Fruits are wiped and handled with +less loss and may even be washed if need be. + +Fully ripened fruit will not stand handling and hauling and will +quickly deteriorate, reaching the consumer in bad condition. + +For cannery, full ripening is desired with even coloring. +MacGillivray[18] has shown that success in this is largely a matter +of care in picking. Cracking and slight softening are not serious +defects for this purpose, but molds and bacteria in broken places +are serious as they throw the product out of grade or occasion +rejection. + + + Picking Green + +Most tomatoes for long distance shipment, are picked before color +appears,--at the mature-green stage. One of the great difficulties +is to judge this stage correctly; to train ordinary labor to pick by +maturity and not by size. Immature-green tomatoes ripen slowly and +do not achieve good appearance or table quality. + +It is almost impossible to describe the ear marks of a mature-green +tomato. Most of those usually cited are of doubtful value--glossy +surface, whitish cast of color and the dark ring at the stem scar. +The jelly-like or mucilaginous material in the seed cells has +sufficiently developed in a mature green tomato so that the fruit +may be sliced without cutting seeds. Of course, the tomato is +ruined but the method can be used to check one's judgment based on +the exterior. Also, one can learn by laying aside tomatoes judged +mature-green and immature-green to ripen. + +Some efforts have recently been made in Florida to pick tomatoes at +the turn, that is, at the first show of color, a practice suggested +by Sando[19] some years ago. This should provide fruits of uniform +degree of maturity, that would be about ready to sell on arrival and +it would eliminate the serious problem of immature-greens. It would +require more frequent picking of fields and there could be no delay +in packing. There would, doubtless, also be problems of temperature +and ventilation in transit. Results of tests thus far have been +rather encouraging. + + + Ripening + +Green wrap tomatoes are received at terminal markets by produce +houses that have special ripening rooms where temperature is kept at +about 70 deg., with high humidity to prevent wilting or shriveling. +Ethylene gas is used by some to hasten ripening. It does not change +the nature of the process, merely speeding it up. Some of these +repackers have elaborate equipment for sorting and packing. + +The tomatoes, on arrival, are shaken out of their paper wraps. Any +that have ripened in transit are taken out and packed while the +greens go into the ripening rooms. They may have to be sorted over +two or three times as ripening progresses. + +The ripening process in tomatoes has been rather thoroughly studied. +Sando found that tomatoes ripen uniformly, regardless of size, at a +certain age, dating from the setting of the fruit. This time, which, +of course, varies according to weather conditions, was eight weeks +when the studies were made. Ripening is accompanied by an increase +in moisture, acids and sugars, with decrease of solids, nitrogen, +starch, pentisans, crude fibre and ash. Sugars increase from about a +quarter to about half of the dry weight. Chemical analysis did not +show differences sufficient to account for the difference in quality +between vine-ripened fruit and green fruit ripened in the +laboratory. Lack of ventilation seems to be detrimental. + +It is commonly held that tomatoes chilled without freezing will not +ripen satisfactorily afterward. This belief is discounted by results +of Wright and associates and of Platenius who found little effect of +low temperatures upon later ripening. + +Wright[20] and Platenius[21] have both found that tomatoes should +not be stored at low temperatures, 50 deg. to 60 deg. F. being best. Storage +is not likely to be satisfactory for more than a month. + + + Waxing + +Waxing of tomatoes by immersion in a dilute water emulsion of +paraffine and carnauba waxes is being tried out with very promising +results. Waxes are also dissolved in volatile hydrocarbons and +sprayed on. Moisture loss and shriveling are materially retarded, +and interference with the ripening process is negligible. The wax +coating is very thin, adds an attractive gloss and is entirely +harmless. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Packing tomatoes on a farm in +Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The +others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on +before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job. +A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from +falling out.] + + + Grading + +It is generally true that at market the poorest products in a given +lot tend to fix the price. When the buyer finds a few inferior +specimens he assumes there are many more. Imperfect and diseased +specimens infect others. Grading enhances the appearance of the +pack. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy Tripak Mach. Service_ + +FIGURE 20.--A California packing house with elaborate machinery and +fully organized.] + +Of course, the grower who picks marketable tomatoes and leaves +unmarketable fruits on the vine is engaged in a form of +grading--informal and subconscious. Methods may range from this +simple practice to the elaborate schemes adopted in large packing +houses. There is no difficulty in adopting methods for the farm that +are easily managed and perfectly practical. In general, two grades +to sell represent a good plan, leaving culls at home unless prices +are high and there is good demand for them. The set-up may involve +no more than a worker at a table with three baskets--one with +tomatoes from the field; another for #1's and a third for #2's. The +worker may well use a cotton flannel glove or cloth to wipe the +tomatoes and the fruits should be placed in layers to bring the +package to a good face. With some practice, this slows the operation +but very little. Shed packing should be more common than it is +though the practice seems to be gaining. + +Shippers scattered from Cuba and California to New York state have +packing houses set up to all degrees of elaborateness. Some have +machines and conveyors that wash, sort for size, provide for hand +sorting for grade and deliver to bins for packing. Experienced +packers advance with the season from Florida to Lake Erie. These +workers become almost incredibly expert and speedy. It is not +uncommon for a worker to pick up, wrap and place in the lug box 60 +or 70 tomatoes per minute--not as a show-off but in course of +regular work. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 21.--Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes, +especially when grown in the winter in the South.] + +The federal government has worked out and published standards for +the grades of tomatoes along with most other vegetables. These +standards are practical and have found wide acceptance as furnishing +common language between seller and buyer, especially for long +distance shipment. The one who grades may, however, set up a +standard of his own to meet the needs of his conditions and market. + +U.S. Standards for cannery tomatoes are widely used as a basis of +payment to the grower and this practice is to be commended. + + + Packaging + +The lug box has almost wholly replaced the older 6-basket carrier +and 4-basket flat for shipment of tomatoes. It is in almost every +respect, a good package for tomatoes. It is built with solid board +ends, with veneer or sawed sides, bottom and cover. Cleats on the +ends serve to raise the lids so that a bulge pack will not be +injured by pressure. Veneer covers and bottoms are held together by +stitched veneer cross pieces. The lug box is packed in three layers +and holds about 30 pounds net of tomatoes though it is often +over-packed to carry considerably more. The bulge pack is desirable +only so far as it is necessary to insure a tight pack and to take up +the small shrinkage that takes place in transit. Ordinarily, it goes +beyond this. It results in delivery of more tomatoes than are paid +for, and in bruising because the top center is too high. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy Southern Arkansas Growers Association_ + +FIGURE 22.--The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato +packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much bulge +making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing danger +of bruising the upper fruits.] + +The late M. R. Ensign in Florida, was working with a wire-bound lug +to carry 20 pounds of tomatoes in two layers without bulge. + +The lug box is packed in three layers and the size of fruits is +designated by the number of tomatoes each way,--6 x 6, 6 x 7, and 7 +x 7 being the commonest sizes. Each tomato is wrapped in a square of +tissue paper which may or may not be printed. The principal +advantage of the paper is to cushion the pack and protect the +tomatoes against rubbing and abrasion. Where tomatoes are small, +U.S. Standards provide for "bridge pack" or partial extra layers, +for extra rows and for double wraps or two tomatoes in one paper. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 23.--Lug boxes as loaded in car.] + +Lug boxes were formerly loaded lengthwise of the car but are now +generally loaded crosswise,--that is, the side of the box is +crosswise throwing the heavy endwise thrust against the substantial +end of the box. Thin strips are nailed between layers, butting +against the sides of the car to prevent shifting of the load and +closing of ventilation channels. Refrigerated cars are generally +used but icing is not usual. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 24.--The square braid basket is widely used as +a local market package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and +is easily put up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high.] + +A few shipping sections, notably New Jersey, still use the 12-quart +climax basket for tomatoes. + +Local markets use various containers for tomatoes,--the Boston +bushel box; a half bushel of the same depth also used in New +England; lug boxes; the Jersey tomato crate; and very commonly, 8 +and 12-quart square braid veneer market baskets. Peach baskets and +bushel baskets are now used but little, being too deep for good +carrying. The diamond market basket of earlier years has about +disappeared--being too flexible and not suited for stacking. The +square braid with suitable cover may be stacked very satisfactorily +in trucks but is hardly substantial enough for rail shipment. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 25.--The Connecticut half bushel box. Figure +19 shows how this is packed.] + +Hot house tomatoes travel in square braid, climax or paper fibre +baskets, now rather commonly, the latter. The Cleveland section +sells some millions of baskets of 8-quart capacity but carrying 8 +pounds of tomatoes in two layers, usually with stems on, usually +wrapped and sometimes with a paper divider between layers. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--Repacked tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go +to wholesale houses that specialize in ripening and repacking. Many +kinds of packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of the +popular packs especially in the Boston area.] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 27.--Cellulose film is used for repacked +tomatoes.] + +Cannery tomatoes move in field crates belonging to the canner or, in +Jersey, in 5/8 bushel baskets, about as awkward a container as could +be readily devised unless it should be the Jersey tomato crate +with its two cover strips permanently fastened. + +Repack tomatoes are sometimes replaced in lugs or in half lugs. Ten +pound corrugated cartons are widely used, newer and fancier packs +being but one layer deep. Fruits are wrapped with paper or cellulose +film. An increasing proportion of repacks are now put up in +one-pound cartons with a window of cellulose film, carrying four or +five tomatoes. A variation is a paper tray wrapped with cellulose +film. + +Good marketing calls for a good label for whatever package is used. +These are usually pasted on the package. Paper containers are often +printed directly but the problem of misuse of second hand packages +is coming to the fore. + + + Selling + +Success in selling demands in the producer the qualities which we +ordinarily expect in the business man. The good grower is a business +man if he succeeds, and this will be more true in the future than in +the past, as competition increases. It is necessary to judge the men +one deals with, forming estimates as to reliability and character. +Mutual confidence is essential to satisfactory dealings. It is worth +while to study the produce business and to learn its ins and outs, +reading a trade paper, talking with dealers, and making trips to +markets. + +Shipments are made on "f.o.b." or track sale, on consignment, or on +joint account. The first plan of outright sale is the most desirable +and is possible where there is enough business at a given point to +attract buyers or where grades and business standing are well enough +established to assure the purchaser of what he is getting. When the +quality of the product is uncertain or when markets are glutted, +consignment must be resorted to. Under this plan, the shipper owns +the goods until the receiver makes a sale and all the risks up to +this point are his. There are many consignment houses of high +character if the shipper will take the trouble to find them instead +of shipping to any one who writes a good letter, and there is +vigorous competition in the trade. These factors make it possible to +secure fairly good service most of the time. Joint account selling, +where shipper and receiver agree on how returns shall be divided, is +sometimes undertaken where mutual acquaintance justifies it. + +Selling on distant markets is more complex and difficult than local +selling for many reasons. Shoving crates off the wagon into the car +and forgetting them is not selling. Co-operative organization has +helped many communities through pooling of resources, standardizing, +grading and packing the product, encouraging better field practices, +and securing the services of able managers and salesmen. + + + Local Selling + +A very small amount of produce is sold by producers directly to the +consumer at his home, but the roadside market has greatly developed +retail activity by growers. Here fine quality, attractive +appearance, moderate prices, and fair dealing are effective in +building business. Stands that plan to "fleece them as they pass" do +not last long. It is the return business that counts. The bulk of +local selling is done directly to retailers--grocers or +hucksters--either at market or store-door. The costliness of this +system is being realized and local commission business is growing, +in many cases through the establishment of commission houses +co-operatively owned and managed by growers, as in Providence, +Cleveland, Chicago and other markets. + +Some effort has been made to increase the use of tomatoes as has +been successfully done with oranges and bananas. These efforts have +been sporadic and results have been hardly more consistent than the +efforts. Co-operative publicity, especially at times when large +quantities are to be moved, would seem to offer fine possibilities. +Growers of some crops are finding chain store groups very ready to +help in moving out large volumes of produce when the supply is +large. + + + Cannery Selling + +Cannery sales are generally made at a stipulated price on contracts +closed in advance of planting. These contracts have usually devoted +more words to protecting the interests of the packer than those of +the grower, largely because the grower has accepted the canner's +initiative with little question. Farseeing companies have been fair +in enforcement of terms and liberal in their dealings, realizing +that prosperity must be mutual for the highest success. A few +canners have contract provisions that enable the grower to share in +prices realized for the packed product when they rise beyond a +certain figure. Too many canners have lacked vision, however, and +have taken all they could get. Farmers have known little about costs +and so have frequently been lured by the prospect of cash return +even though they see no money until the packed tomatoes are actually +sold. During recent years, much has been learned about the business +side of growing for cannery purposes and the knowledge has been made +available through extension channels. Growers have shown some +tendency to organize and some canners welcome this movement as +helping them to set their affairs on a plane of definite +understanding. Canners have suffered sadly through failure of +growers to live up to contracts if it suited them better to evade +the terms, and organization helps greatly to develop the producer's +sense of responsibility. Indiana has formed a federation of locals, +but an organization movement in another state failed, more because +the directors and members did not live up to their duties than +through opposition of certain hostile canners. Co-operation in this +field has the same possibilities, requirements and dangers as in +other fields. With time and experience, co-operation will be an +increasing and beneficial factor in the business. + +In some sections, most of the cannery tomatoes are sold on open +market, and in others, the early part of the crop is free for local +sale or shipment. This arrangement would seem to have possibilities +for further development by the use of good plants and good culture. + + + + + IX + + OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK + + +Happily, the home gardener does not need to keep books with his +tomatoes. If he likes the culture and the product, he need not +inquire further. + +Not so with the commercial grower. After all skill has been +exercised in growing and selling, the books must show black and not +red. This calls for good management and judgment not only as to what +is best for the tomatoes and for the consumer but also how much one +can afford to spend to gain a given advantage. + +Fortunately, quality, yield and economy generally go hand in hand. +One of the best ways to achieve low unit cost is to win a high yield +per acre. + +For the cannery crop, conditions are sometimes such that one cannot +afford to apply, say, optimum fertilizer because some other factor +not readily controlled may limit the returns and so make heavy +feeding uneconomical. + +_Yield._--The average yield per acre of cannery tomatoes for the +United States was, in 1940, 5.39 tons per acre and the 10-year +average, to 1938, was 4.15 tons per acre. For tomatoes for fresh +market, the average yield for 1940 was 148 bushels per acre, 14 +bushels above the 10-year average. Of course, these yields would not +satisfy a grower who calls himself successful. In the canning +sections of New York, it takes about 7 tons per acre to cover costs +of production. Some years ago a survey in Arkansas recorded costs as +low as $36 per acre. However, the same survey showed cost per ton as +$13.64. Cannery contracts that year averaged about $12.75 per ton. +That does not yield much money to bank even if ten or twenty acres +are grown. Rarely yields run to 25 tons per acre. + +It is accordingly necessary to keep costs down and to bring yields +up. Each item of cost must be scrutinized and adjusted to bring +lowest cost per ton or per package. + +In counting costs, it is necessary to include every element. The +following summary from 118 Western New York farms for 1934 for +cannery tomatoes illustrates the various items: + + ----------------------------------------------------------- + | | _Per cent_ + | | _of total_ + Growing costs: | | + Land | $ 7.66 | 9.17 + Manure | 3.91 | 4.68 + Commercial fertilizer | 8.21 | 9.83 + Plants | 15.55 | 18.62 + Plowing | 3.42 | 4.10 + Fitting | 3.83 | 4.59 + Applying fertilizer | 1.65 | 1.98 + Setting | 5.41 | 6.48 + Cultivating | 6.38 | 7.64 + All other growing costs | 2.14 | 2.56 + |--------------------- + Total growing costs per acre | $58.16 | 69.65 + Harvesting and delivering (8.2 tons) | 25.34 | 30.35 + |--------------------- + Total costs | $83.50 |100.00 + ----------------------------------------------------------- + +All too often, growers think they are counting costs when such +important items as interest, use of truck and machinery or others +are omitted. One sometimes sees such figures in print. + +One good way to view returns is in terms of cents per hour for +labor. Cost accounts in New York have showed that a group of farmers +who raised cannery tomatoes the nine years up to 1937 and whose +records were studied, realized $0.34 per hour for their time given +to tomatoes, $0.51 for potatoes, $0.24 for wheat, and $0.11 for +oats. + + + + + SELECTED REFERENCES + + +This book is not a monograph in the scientific sense and no attempt +has been made to cite references for all statements. This list is +intended to include the publications that are likely to prove most +useful to one who wishes to read further about tomatoes. There are +many others of great value, most of them being included in +bibliographies in the works cited below. + +Unless otherwise stated, references are to publications of the state +experiment stations, addresses of which may be obtained by writing +Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of +Agriculture, Washington, D.C. + + + General + + Beattie, W. R. Tomatoes as a truck crop. U.S. Dept. of Agr. + Farmers Bul. 1338. 1923. + + Snyder, G. B. and Dempsey, P. W. Tomato production in + Massachusetts. Mass. Ext. Leaf. 51. May, 1937. + + Porter, D. R. and MacGillivray, John H. The production of + tomatoes in California. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 104. 1937. + + Cochran, H. L. Improved methods of tomato production in + Georgia. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206. 1940. + + Huelsen, W. A. Growing tomatoes in Illinois. Ill. Exp. Sta. + Cir. 451. 1936. + + Balch, W. B. Growing tomatoes in Kansas. Kan. Exp. Sta. Cir. + 172. 1933. + + Seaton, H. L. Tomato growing in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta. Ext. + Bul. 156. 1936. + + Allen, E. J. and Talbert, T. J. Tomato culture in Missouri. + Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 173. 1934. + + Schermerhorn, L. G., Tiedjens, V. A., et al. Questions and + answers relative to tomato production. N.J. Exp. Sta. Ext. + Bul. 174. 1936. + + Raleigh, G. J. Growing tomatoes for market. Cornell Ext. Bul. + 377. 1937. + + Tracy, W. Tomato culture. Orange Judd Co. 1907. + + Work, Paul. Tomato production. Orange Judd Co. 1926. + + Pellett, F. C. and M. A. Practical tomato culture. A. T. De La + More Co. 1930. + + + Food Value + + Atwater, W. O., and Woods, C. D. The chemical composition of + American food materials. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Expt. + Stas. Bul. 28. 1896. + + Sherman, H. C. Food products. Macmillan. 1924. + + Miller, Elna. Tomatoes, their value and uses. Utah Exp. Sta. + Cir. 47. 1932. + + Ellis, Eliz. E. Using tomatoes in family meals. N.H. Exp. + Sta. Cir. 225. 1940. + + + Cannery + + Beattie, J. H. Tomatoes for canning and manufacturing. U.S. + Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1233. Rev. 1930. + + Lancashire, E. R., Parks, T. H. and Pierstorff, A. L. Tomatoes + for canning. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 114. 1935. + + Hester, J. B. Good, fair or poor tomatoes from your soil. + Campbell Soup Co., Bul. 2. 1940. + + Cruess, W. V. Commercial fruit and vegetable products. + McGraw-Hill. 1924. + + Pederson, C. S. Preparation of tomato products. N.Y. Exp. + Sta. Cir. 178. 1937. + + Gaylord, F. C. and Fawcett, K. L. A study of grade, quality + and price of canned tomatoes sold at retail in Indiana. Ind. + Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1939. + + Saywell, L. G. and Cruess, W. V. The composition of canning + tomatoes. Calif. Exp. Sta. Bul. 545. 1932. + + MacGillivray, J. H. and Ford, O. W. Tomato quality as + influenced by the relative amount of outer and inner wall + region. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 327. 1928. + + MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the + tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931. + + Gaylord, F. C. and MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato quality studies. + Field and harvest factors affecting grade. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. + 394. 1934. + + Hauck, C. W. Marketing cannery tomatoes on grade in Ohio. Ohio + Exp. Sta. Bul. 504. 1932. + + + Greenhouse + + Beattie, J. H. Greenhouse tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. + Farmers Bul. 1431. Rev. 1939. + + Hoffman, I. C. Growing of greenhouse tomatoes. Ohio Exp. Sta. + Bul. 499. 1932. + + Burk, E. F. and Roberts, R. H. Growing greenhouse tomatoes. + Wisc. Exp. Sta. Bul. 418. 1931. + + Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Relative efficiency of + various organic supplements in the growth of greenhouse + tomatoes. R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 236. 1932. + + Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Economical amounts of nitrate + of soda to apply in the greenhouse for the growth of tomatoes. + R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 252. 1935. + + Bouquet, A. G. P. An analysis of the characters of the + inflorescence and fruiting habit of some varieties of + greenhouse tomatoes. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 139. 1932. + Biblio. + + Seaton, H. L. and Gray, G. F. Histological study of tissues + from greenhouse tomatoes affected by blotchy ripening. Jour. + Agr. Research (U.S. Dept. of Agr.), Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. + 217-224. 1936. + + + Breeding and Varieties + + Boswell, V. R. Improvement and genetics of tomatoes, peppers, + and eggplant. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook. 1937. pp. 176-206. + Full biblio. + + Boswell, V. R., et al. Description of American varieties of + tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 160. 1933. + + Muller, C. H. A revision of the genus Lycopersicon. U.S. + Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 382. 1940. + + Morrison, Gordon. Tomato varieties. Mich. Exp. Sta. Spec. Bul. + 290. 1938. + + Myers, C. E. and Lewis, M. T. The effect of selection in the + tomato. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 248. Rev. May 2, 1930. + + Yeager, A. F. Tomato breeding. N.D. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276. 1933. + + Pritchard, F. J. Development of wilt-resistant tomatoes. U.S. + Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1015. 1922. + + Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato + crosses and their parents. Minn. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 6. Rev. + 1923. + + Groth, B. H. A. The F_{1} hereditary of size, shape, and + number in tomato fruits. N.J. Exp. Sta. Bul. 242. 1912. + + Lindstrom, E. W. Hereditary correlation of size and color + characters in tomatoes. Iowa Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 93. 1926. + + Porte, W. S. and Wellman, F. L. Development of interspecific + tomato hybrids. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 584. 1941. + + Babb, M. F. and Kraus, J. E. Results of tomato variety tests + in the great plains region. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 533. + 1939. + + Anon. A haploid marglobe tomato. Jour. of Heredity, + Washington, D.C. Vol. 27, No. 11, 1936. + + Huelsen, W. A. New wilt-resistant tomato varieties for field + and greenhouse. Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 448. 1936. + + + Plants for Transplanting + + Nissley, C. H. Plant growing and plant growing structures. + N.J. Ext. Bul. 51. 1926. + + Tussing, E. B. and Lancashire, E. R. Growing vegetable plants. + Ohio Ext. Bul. 103. 1930. + + Raleigh, G. J. Starting vegetable plants. Cornell Ext. Bul. + 448. Oct. 1940. + + Crist, J. W. Ultimate effect of hardening tomato plants. Mich. + Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 89. 1928. + + Harvey, R. B. and Wright, R. C. Frost injury to tomatoes. + U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1099. 1922. + + Seaton, H. L. and Strong, M. C. Southern-grown vs. locally + grown tomato plants. Mich. Quarterly Bul. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. + 131-141. 1938. + + Alexander, L. J., Young, H. C. and Kiger, C. M. The causes and + control of damping-off of tomato seedlings. Ohio Exp. Sta. + Bul. 496. 1931. + + Van Haltern, Frank. Control of tomato seedbed diseases of + southern plants. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 187. 1935. + + + Fertilizers + + Work, Paul. Tomato fertilizer experiments in Chautauqua + County, New York. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 467. 1928. + + Hartman, J. D., Work, Paul Wessels, P. H. Tomato fertilizer + experiments on Long Island. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 676. 1937. + + Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J. and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer + experiments with tomatoes. Penna. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940. + + Sayre, C. B. Effects of fertilizers and rotation on earliness + and total yields of tomatoes. N.Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 619. 1933. + + Sayre, C. B. Starter solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Exp. Sta. + Geneva) Vols. 5, 6, and 7, No. 2. April 1939, '40, '41. + + Parker, M. M. Tomato fertilization. (1) The effect of + different fertilizer ratios on the yield to tomatoes. Va. Exp. + Sta. Bul. 80. 1933. + + Carolus, R. L. Tomato fertilization. (2) The effect of + different fertilizer ratios on the chemical composition of + tomatoes. Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 81. 1933. + + Thomas, R. P. Effect of fertilizer treatments of a soil on the + quality and yield of tomatoes. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 386. 1935. + + Friend, W. H. Tomato varieties and fertilizers for the lower + Rio Grande valley of Texas. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1931. + + Comin, Donald and Bushnell, John. Fertilizers for early + cabbage, tomatoes, cucumbers, and sweet corn. Ohio Exp. Sta. + Bul. 420. 1928. + + Hepler, J. R. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon + the yield and time of maturity of the tomato. N.H. Exp. Sta. + Tech. Bul. 28. Rev. 1926. + + Hester, J. B. Soil fertility in tomato production. Campbell + Soup Co. Bul. 3. 1941. + + + Cultural Practices + + Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Exp. + Sta. Bul. 580. 1934. + + Watts, V. M. Pruning and training tomatoes in Arkansas. Ark. + Exp. Sta. Bul. 292. 1933. + + Hibbard, R. P. The various effects of frost protectors on + tomato plants. Mich. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 124. 1932. + + Thompson, H. C. Experimental studies of the effects of + cultivation of certain vegetable crops. Cornell Expt. Sta. + Memoir 107. 1927. + + + Physiology + + Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction + with special reference to the tomato. Ore. Exp. Sta. Bul. 149. + 1918. Biblio. + + Work, Paul. Nitrate of soda in the nutrition of the tomato. + Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 75. 1924. + + Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, John M. Some effects + of artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition + of plants. Amer. Jour. of Botany, 17: 416-482. 1930. + + Murneek, A. E. Physiology of reproduction in horticultural + plants. (1) Reproduction and metabolic efficiency in the + tomato. Mo. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 90. 1926. + + Murneek, A. E. Effects of correlation between vegetative and + reproductive functions in the tomato. Plant Physiology, Vol. + I, No. 1. 1926. + + Nightingale, G. T. The chemical composition of plants in + relation to photo-periodic changes. Wis. Exp. Sta. Research + Bul. 74. 1927. + + Porter, A. M. Effect of light intensity on the photosynthetic + efficiency of tomato plants. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12: pp. + 225-252. 1937. + + Nightingale, G. T. Effects of temperature on metabolism in + tomato. Botanical Gazette, Vol. 95, No. 1. 1933. + + Phillips, T. G., Smith, T. O. and Hepler, J. R. Some effects + of potassium and nitrogen on the composition of the tomato + plant. N.H. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 73. 1939. + + MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of + the tomato plant. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 34, No. 2. pp. + 97-127. 1927. + + Janssen, G., Bartholomew, R. R. and Watts, V. M. Some effects + of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium on the composition and + growth of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 310. 1934. + + Eckerson, Sophia H. Influence of phosphorus deficiency on + metabolism of the tomato. Contribs. of Boyce Thompson + Institute. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 197-218. 1931. + + Fisher, P. L. Responses of the tomato in solution cultures + with deficiencies and excesses of certain essential elements. + Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 375. 1935. + + Howlett, F. S. Effect of carbohydrate deficiency upon + formation of sex cells in tomato. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 532. + 1934. + + Howlett, F. S. The modification of flower structure by + environment in varieties of Lycopersicum esculentum. Jour. of + Agr. Research, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 79-117. 1939. + + Watts, V. M. Some factors which influence growth and fruiting + of the tomato. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 267. 1931. + + Watts, V. M. Growth and fruiting responses to pruning and + defloration of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 347. 1937. + + Smith, Ora. Pollination and life-history studies of the tomato + (Lycopersicon esculentum mill.) Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 184. + 1935. + + Smith, Ora. Relation of temperature to anthesis and blossom + drop of the tomato together with a histological study of the + pistils. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 183-190. + 1932. + + Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen + germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Exp. Sta. + Memoir 175. 1935. + + Smith, Ora. Effects of light on carotenoid formation in tomato + fruits. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 187. 1936. + + Reid, Mary E. Growth of tomato cuttings in relation to stored + carbohydrate and nitrogenous compounds. Amer. Jour. of Botany, + Vol. 13: pp. 548-574. 1926. + + Foster, A. C. and Tatman, E. C. Influence of certain + environment conditions of congestion of starch in tomato plant + stems. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 56, No. 12, pp. 869-882. + 1938. + + + Diseases and Insects + + Chupp, Chas. Manual of vegetable-garden diseases. Macmillan. + 1925. + + Kadow, K. J. and Shropshire, L. H. Tomato diseases and insect + pests. (Identification and control.) Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 428. + 1935. + + Weber, G. F. and Kelbert, D. G. A. Seasonal occurrence of + tomato diseases in Florida. Fla. Sta. Bul. 345. 1940. + + Samson, R. W. and Thomas, H. Rex. Tomato diseases in Indiana. + Ind. Exp. Sta. Cir. 257. 1940. + + Strong, M. C. Tomato diseases in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta. + Cir. Bul. 139. 1932. + + Young, P. A., Harrison, A. L. and Altstatt, G. E. Common + diseases of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Cir. 86. 1940. + + Horsfall, J. G., Magie, R. O. and Suit, R. F. Bordeaux injury + to tomatoes and its effect on ripening. N.Y. Exp. Sta. + Geneva. Tech. Bul. 251. 1938. + + Ramsey, G. B. and Link, G. K. K. Market diseases of fruits and + vegetables: Tomatoes, peppers, eggplants. U.S. Dept. of Agr. + Misc. Pub. 121. 1932. + + + Marketing + + Parsons, F. E. Preparation of fresh tomatoes for market. U.S. + Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1291. Rev. 1930. + + Wright, R. C. and Gorman, E. A., Jr. Ripening and repacking of + mature green tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 566. 1940. + + Sando, Charles E. The process of ripening in the tomato, + considered especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S. + Dept. of Agr. Bul. 859. 1920. + + Wright, R. C., Pentzer, W. T. et al. Effect of various + temperatures on the storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S. + Dept. of Agr. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931. + + Frazier, W. A. Cracks in tomato fruits. American Soc. for + Hort. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 519-523. 1934. + + Brown, H. D. and Price, C. V. Effect of irrigation, degree of + maturity and shading upon yield and degree of cracking of + tomatoes. Amer. Soc. for Horti. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 524-528. + 1934. + + Yarnell, S. H., Friend, W. H. and Wood, J. F. Factors + affecting the amount of puffing in tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. + Bul. 541. 1937. + + LeCrone, Freddie and Haber, E. S. Changes in the pectic + constituents of tomatoes in storage. Iowa State College Jour. + of Sci. Vol. 12, No. 4. pp. 467-476. 1933. Good biblio. + + Work, Paul. Ethylene ripening of tomatoes in relation to stage + of maturity. Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci. 1928. pp. 61-64. + + MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the + tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931. + + Vogele, A. C. Effect of environmental factors upon the color + of the tomato and the watermelon. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12, + pp. 929-955. 1937. + + Lanham, W. B. Effect of potash fertilizer on the carrying + quality of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 357. 1927. + + Wardlaw, C. W., and McGuire, L. P. The storage of + tropically-grown tomatoes. (Low Temp. Sta., Imperial College + of Tropical Agr. Trinidad, B.W.I.) E.M.B. 59. 1932. + + Rosa, J. T. Ripening and storage of tomatoes. 1926 Proceedings + of the American Soc. for Hort. Sci. pp. 1-10. + + Haber, E. S. Acidity and color changes in tomatoes under + various storage temperatures. Iowa State College Jour. of Sci. + Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 171-184. 1931. + + Diehl, H. C. The chilling of tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agri. + Dept. Cir. 315. 1924. + + Some problems in marketing tomatoes grown in the lower Rio + Grande Valley of Texas. U.S. Dept. of Agri. Marketing + Information Series G.C.M.4. 1938. + + + Costs and Economics + + Campbell, C. E. An economic study of tomato production for + canning in Arkansas. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 225. 1928. + + Walker, W. P. An economic study of the production of tomatoes + in Maryland. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 304. 1929. + + Montgomery, T. M. Jr., and Efferson, J. N. A cost of + production study of tomatoes in North Louisiana, 1939. La. + Exp. Sta. Bul. 329. 1941. + + Carncross, J. W., Cathcart, C. S. et al. Economic review of + New Jersey Agriculture. Ext. Service No. 72. pp. 89-96. 1931. + + Carncross, J. W. and Nissley, C. H. New Jersey Can-house + tomato production. Costs and recommendations for 1932. N.J. + Ext. Bul. 96. 1932. + + Hawthorne, H. W. Cost of production of tomatoes (20 states + 1913-1934) Mimeo. Bul. of Agr. Eco., U.S. Dept. of Agr., Nov. + 1936. + + + + + INDEX + + + Ammo-phos, 35 + + Aphis, 90 + + Arnon, D. I., 20 + + Arthur, J. M., 21 + + + Barrons, K. C., 47 + + Bison, 46 + + Blight, 86, 88 + + Blocking plants, 62 + + Blossom end rot, 83 + + Bonny Best, 47 + + Botany, 20 + + Bounty, 47 + + Breeding, 38 + + + Cannery, 14, 54, 108, 113, 117 + + Carbohydrate, 29 + + Car loading, 105 + + Certification, plants, 57 + + Certification, seeds, 41 + + Chalk Jewel, 47 + + Chili sauce, 14 + + Chromosomes, 41 + + Climate, 20, 71 + + Cochran, H. L., 23 + + Cold frames, 57 + + Comet, 50 + + Composition, 15 + + Compost, 63 + + Condiments, 14 + + Costs, 17, 117 + + Cracking, 83 + + Crown Seed, 40 + + Cultivation, 75 + + Curly top, 88 + + Cut worms, 91 + + + Damping off, 65, 90 + + Description of tomato, 20 + + Determinate habit, 22 + + Dirt bands, 57, 62 + + Diseases, 85 + + + Earliana, 46 + + Earliness, 33, 53 + + Economics, 11, 16, 116 + + Embryo, 38 + + Emerson, R. A., 78 + + + Fertilization, 25 + + Field containers, 94 + + Flats for plants, 60 + + Flea beetles, 92 + + Floral characters, 22 + + Forcing, 18 + + Fruitfulness, 29 + + Fruit worm, 91 + + Fusarium, 38, 42, 49, 50, 86 + + + Geography, 17 + + Germination, 38 + + Grading, 100 + + Greater Baltimore, 50 + + Green wraps, 96 + + Greenhouse culture, 18 + + Greenhouses for plant growing, 58 + + Ground cherry, 51 + + Gulf State Market, 50 + + Guthrie, J. D., 21 + + + Hardening, 68 + + Harvesting, 93 + + Harvey, R. B., 69 + + Hepler, J. H., 33 + + Heterosis, 39 + + History, 15 + + Hitchcock, A. E., 24 + + Hoagland, D. R., 20 + + Home garden, 11, 26, 54, 79 + + Home Garden, variety, 47 + + Horn worms, 92 + + Hot beds, 57 + + Howlett, F. S., 24 + + Husk tomato, 51 + + Hybrid vigor, 39 + + + Ideal variety, 42 + + Immature green, 95 + + Insects, 91 + + Internal nutrition, 29 + + Irrigation, 76 + + + Jamison, F. S., 98 + + John Baer, 47 + + Juice, 14 + + + Ketchup, 14 + + King Humbert, 51 + + Klebs, 29 + + Kraus, E. J., 29 + + Kraybill, H. R., 29, 33 + + + Lanham, W. B., 34 + + Leaf blight, 86, 88 + + Lime, 25 + + Lindstrom, E. W., 41 + + Longevity, 38 + + Loomis, W. E., 66, 69 + + Lug box, 103 + + + MacGillivray, J. H., 33, 95 + + Mack, W. B., 35 + + Manure, animal, 34 + + Marglobe, 48 + + Market diseases, 90 + + Marketing, 93 + + Mature green, 95 + + Maturity, 94 + + Mosaic, 88 + + Mulch, 76, 78 + + Murneek, A. E., 31 + + Myers, C. E., 47 + + + Newell, J. M., 21 + + Nitrogen, 26, 28, 37 + + Nutritive value, 11, 15, 18 + + + Packing, 103 + + Parthenocarpy, 24 + + Penn State, 47 + + Per capita consumption, 18 + + Phosphorus, 26, 32, 35 + + Physalis, 51 + + Placement of fertilizer, 35 + + Plant beds, open, 56 + + Plants for transplanting, 53 + + Pollination, 23, 39 + + Ponderosa, 51 + + Potash, 26, 34 + + Potassium nitrate, 35 + + Potato beetle, 91 + + Pots, clay, 60 + + Pots, paper, 60 + + Price, 16 + + Pritchard, variety, 50 + + Pritchard, F. J., Frontispiece, 48, 87 + + Protectors, 72 + + Pruning, 67, 79 + + Puffiness, 102 + + Purdum, L. W., & Sons, 78 + + Puree and paste, 14 + + + Rahn, E. M., 35 + + References, 11, 12, 119 + + Requirements, 20 + + Ripening, 96 + + Roadside selling, 112 + + Rosa, J. T., 69 + + Running to vine, 29 + + Rutgers, 50 + + + Sando, C. E., 96 + + San Marzano, 51 + + Saving seed, 39, 40 + + Sayre, C. B., 35 + + Scarlet Dawn, 48 + + Seed, 38 + + Seed Sowing, 56, 63 + + Seed treatment, 63 + + Seedless fruits, 24 + + Selection, 40 + + Selling, 93, 110 + + Septoria, 86 + + Setting fruit, 29 + + Side dressing, 35, 37 + + Smith, Ora, 23 + + Soil, field, 25 + + Soil, plant growing, 63 + + Solution culture, 18 + + Southern plants, 56 + + Spacing in field, 73 + + Staking, 79 + + Stalk borer, 92 + + Starter solutions, 35, 75 + + Statistics, 16 + + Sterilizing soil, 63, 90 + + Stokesdale, 48 + + Stout, G. J., 35 + + Sunscald, 83 + + + Temperature for plant growing, 65 + + Thompson, H. C, 82, 83, 98 + + Tiedjens, V. H., 37 + + Training, 79 + + Transplanters, 74 + + Transplanting, 66, 74 + + Trellis system, 79 + + + Uses, 14 + + + Varieties, 46 + + Vegetation and fruitfulness, 29 + + Victor, 47 + + Virus, 88 + + + Water culture, 18 + + Watering, 74 + + Watering plants, 65 + + Watts, V. M., 70 + + Wellington, Richard, 39 + + Work, Paul, 31 + + Wright, R. C., 98 + + + Yeager, A. F., 46, 47 + + Yellows (See also fusarium), 88 + + Yield, 16, 17, 117 + + + Zimmerman, P. W., 24 + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + + +[1] Hoagland, D. R. and Arnon, D. I. The water culture method for +growing plants without soil. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 347. Dec. 1938. + +[2] Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, J. M. Some effects of +artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition of plants. +Amer. Jour. Bot. 17:416-482. 1930. + +[3] Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen +germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Memoir 175. 1935. + +[4] Howlett, F. S. Use of chemicals to stimulate fruitfulness in +tomatoes. Veg. Growers Asso. of America Rept. 1941, pp. 203-214. 1941. + +Zimmerman, P. W. and Hitchcock, A. E. Formative effects induced with +B-Naphthoxyacetic acid. Contribution from Boyce Thompson Inst. +Vol. 12 #1, April-June, 1941. + +[5] Fertilizer recommendations are best given in form of pounds per acre +of nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P_{2}O_{5}) and potash (K_{2}O). These +figures are then translated into pounds per acre of materials or of +mixed fertilizers. + +[6] Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction with +special reference to the tomato. Oreg. Bul. 149. 1918. + +[7] Work, Paul. Nitrate of Soda in the nutrition of the tomato. Cornell +Memoir 75. 1924. + +[8] Murneek, A. E. The effects of fruit on vegetative growth in plants. +Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Rpt. 1924, pp. 274-276. + +[9] MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of the +tomato plant. Jour. Agr. Res. 34: 97-127. 1927. + +[10] Hepler, J. H. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon yield +and maturity of the tomato. N. H. Tech. Bul. 28. 1925. + +[11] Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J., and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer experiments +with tomatoes. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940. + +[12] Sayre, C. B. Starter Solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Expt. Sta.) +Vols. V, VI, and VII, No. 2, April, 1939, 1940, and 1941. + +[13] Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato crosses +and their parents. Minn. Tech. Bul. 6. 1922. + +[14] Loomis, W. E. Studies in the transplanting of vegetable plants. +Cornell Memoir 87. 1925. + +[15] Watts, V. M. Factors affecting production of wrinkled tomato +fruits. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30: 513-517. 1934. + +[16] Emerson, R. A. Experiments in mulching garden vegetables. Neb. Bul. +80. 1903. + +[17] Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Sta. Bul. +580. 1934. + +[18] MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in canning. +Ind. Bul. 350. 1931. + +[19] Sando, C. E. The process of ripening in the tomato, considered +especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S.D.A. Bul. 859. 1920. + +[20] Wright, R. C. et al. Effect of various storage temperatures on +storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931. + +[21] Platenius, H., Jamison, F. S., and Thompson, H. C. Studies on cold +storage of vegetables. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 602. 1934. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOMATO *** + +***** This file should be named 38051.txt or 38051.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/0/5/38051/ + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Betsie Bush, Scanned by Ray +Bush and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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