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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Tomato
+
+Author: Paul Work
+
+Release Date: November 18, 2011 [EBook #38051]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOMATO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Betsie Bush, Scanned by Ray
+Bush and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+        --------------------------------------
+                     Transcriber's Note.
+
+Hyphenation has been standardized.
+        --------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+      THE TOMATO
+
+
+
+
+      THE TOMATO
+
+      _By_ PAUL WORK
+
+      _Professor of Vegetable Crops, Cornell University_
+      _Editor of Market Growers Journal_
+
+      _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+      [Illustration: Printer's Logo]
+
+      NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 1945
+
+
+
+
+      COPYRIGHT, 1942, BY ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.
+
+      PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+_This book or any part thereof, may not be reproduced without
+permission of the publishers, except by a reviewer who wishes to
+quote brief passages in connection with a review written for
+inclusion in a magazine or newspaper._
+
+
+Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan
+American Republics and the United States August 11, 1910
+
+[Illustration: FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD
+
+1874-1931
+
+_Originator of tomato varieties of improved type and resistant to
+disease_]
+
+
+
+
+      TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+    CHAPTER                                                     PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                  11
+
+       I. THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT               13
+
+      II. CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT                      25
+
+     III. THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD                       38
+
+      IV. STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP         53
+
+       V. GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS                        71
+
+      VI. TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD                     79
+
+     VII. THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES            85
+
+    VIII. SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE                  93
+
+      IX. OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK                   116
+
+    REFERENCES                                                   119
+
+    INDEX                                                        133
+
+
+
+
+      ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    F. J. Pritchard                                  _Frontispiece_
+
+    FIGURE
+
+     1. The tomato is the leader among greenhouse vegetables      19
+
+     2. The tomato flower                                         22
+
+     3. Long section of tomato flower                             23
+
+     4. How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato growth                27
+
+     5. Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer 33
+
+     6. Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes                    36
+
+     7. Types of tomato interiors                                 43
+
+     8. The Earliana tomato                                       45
+
+     9. Marglobe plant                                            48
+
+    10. Marglobe fruit                                            49
+
+    11. A good small greenhouse for plant growing                 58
+
+    12. Plants for the early crop                                 61
+
+    13. Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed                   64
+
+    14. Plants that have been crowded and overgrown               69
+
+    15. Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine     80
+
+    16. Fine clusters on trained plants                           81
+
+    17. Resistance to fusarium wilt                               87
+
+    18. Diseases of the tomato                                    89
+
+    19. Packing tomatoes on a farm                                99
+
+    20. A California packing house                               101
+
+    21. Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes                 102
+
+    22. The lug box                                              104
+
+    23. Lug boxes as loaded in car                               105
+
+    24. The square braid basket                                  106
+
+    25. The Connecticut half bushel box                          107
+
+    26. Repacked tomatoes                                        108
+
+    27. Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes             109
+
+
+
+
+      INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Why should there be a book on tomatoes? The world is full of
+bulletins of experiment stations, of articles in periodicals and of
+general books on vegetables which include discussion of tomatoes.
+
+An incomplete set of tomato bulletins includes over 350 documents.
+Many of these are no longer available. Many are of no great value
+but contribute this or that small item.
+
+The task of a book like this is to offer between two covers, a
+summary of what seem the most significant facts and opinions about
+the third most important vegetable crop in the United States.
+
+The tomato is one of the most rewarding crops for the home garden. A
+little space yields heavily, from half a peck to a peck per plant
+without difficulty. It grows well practically everywhere in the
+States, affording high nutritional values whether used fresh or
+canned. And people do like tomatoes, whether as salad, cooked
+vegetable, or condiment.
+
+Competition among growers and among districts makes three elements
+necessary for commercial success:--quality in the goods, economy in
+production, and effectiveness in marketing.
+
+The grower must know his plant, what it is like and how it behaves
+under various conditions and treatments. Then, he needs an
+understanding of the economic factors that surround his enterprise.
+
+Conditions in various sections and production for various purposes
+are so diverse that dogmatic statement and general advice are
+precluded. The aim is rather by means of available information to
+help the reader to an understanding that will enable him to answer
+his own questions for his own conditions and this far better than
+any broad prescription could possibly do. Principles, possible
+practices and examples of field programs are offered as guides for
+self-help for home, school, hobby as well as commercial production.
+
+A person who studies on this basis will not be thwarted by a sudden
+shift of weather or market but will have at hand the necessary facts
+and ideas to adjust his plan to changed conditions.
+
+No attempt has been made toward complete citation of reference.
+Those given will lead to others making possible a full survey of the
+extensive literature.
+
+
+
+
+      The Tomato
+
+
+
+
+      I
+
+      THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT
+
+
+Vegetable, Fruit or Berry,--what is the tomato? A standard query
+this is and many an argument has raged about it. The answer is easy.
+It is all three. By culture and use, it is a vegetable; botanically
+it is a fruit and among the fruits, it is a berry being indehiscent
+(non-shedding), pulpy, with one or more seeds that are not stones.
+And they say the tomato is more truly a berry than the raspberry.
+
+But that doesn't make much difference. The thing that matters is
+that people like the tomato. It is easy to grow and nearly every
+home garden has it. It is good to look upon--shapely, colorful and
+of glossy sheen. A trained single stem plant with ripening fruit is
+a genuine ornament in the garden. It is most gratifying to the
+palate, fresh or cooked; soft and grainy, smooth and juicy in
+texture, sweet and tart and with an appealing flavor all of its own
+that few fail to relish. As juice or cocktail, adding color and
+flavor to soup, as condiment or as side dish with the entree, as
+salad freshly sliced or in jell, it is welcome with almost every
+course and some ingenious chef or, more likely, some clever
+housewife will, one of these days, fashion from it the dessert
+supreme.
+
+Nor have we exhausted the list of forms in which the tomato may be
+served. In addition to its simplest cooked form, stewed or turned
+hot from the can, it may also be baked, stuffed or not, or it may be
+escalloped and cooked with rice, spaghetti or other foods. Fried,
+before fully ripe, and served with brown gravy, it is most popular
+in many a home.
+
+Ketchup or catsup is one of our most widely used condiments and
+chili sauce many like even better. Green tomato pickles, chow chow,
+piccalilli carry the piquant tang of the tomato to enliven the
+winter table. And tomato juice, plain or dressed up with spices,
+vinegar or lemon juice has become a great staple of our groceries, a
+standard send-off for any meal from breakfast snatched on the
+morning sprint to work on through to the most elaborate of
+banquets.
+
+The tomato, by reason of its natural acidity, is readily sterilized
+and so can be preserved easily in glass or tin. It ranks first among
+the "big three" canned vegetables; the other two being sweet corn
+and peas. By far the great bulk that goes to the factory is put up
+with the addition of nothing more than salt. In addition to the
+condiments, puree and paste are manufactured in commercial
+quantities. The Italians dry tomatoes extensively in the sun,
+slicing the fruits, and later flavoring them to taste for various
+winter uses.
+
+Though the tomato was not recognized as a valuable food until about
+a century ago, its merit is now universally accepted. Bob Adams used
+to call it "the poor man's orange" for it is rich in vitamins and in
+malic and citric acid, possessing besides, a fine appetizing flavor
+which is as truly a value in nutrition as it is a pleasure.
+
+Actually, the tomato is mostly water, of rather low protein and
+carbohydrate content but this does not detract, for other foods are
+dependable for these staples of nutrition and most of us eat too
+much of them.
+
+The tomato is a youngster among the vegetables. In contrast to the
+onion of Egyptian lore and the cucumber reputed to have been used
+in Western Asia many centuries ago, the tomato is not reported
+until the herbalists of the 16th century recorded its culture in
+Italy and England--but with little of the esteem now accorded. The
+name seems to be of Aztec origin and two distinct wild forms--one
+corresponding to our cherry or currant varieties and the other to
+our larger, flatter, less regular fruits of many cells,--are to be
+found wild in Latin America. Its American origin is generally
+accepted.
+
+Commercially, the tomato is a great crop. Among the vegetables, it
+is outranked only by the potato and the sweet potato.
+
+The following table gives a few figures on the tomato crop:
+
+  ======================================================================
+                        |         |   _Acres_   |       _Value_
+                        |         | _Thousands_ |  _Million dollars_
+                        |_1929-38_+-------------+---------+------+------
+                        |_Average_|      |      |_1929-38_|      |
+                        |         |_1939_|_1940_|_Average_|_1939_|_1940_
+  ----------------------+---------+------+------+---------+------+------
+  U.S. for canning      |   369   |  358 |  386 |   19    |  24  |  24
+       for fresh market |   177   |  210 |  204 |   24    |  34  |  29
+                        +---------+------+------+---------+------+------
+            Total       |   546   |  568 |  590 |   43    |  58  |  53
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Average yield for market is about 116 bushels per acre and the
+average price $1.26 per bushel. The government reckons a bushel at
+53 pounds, or about 38 bushels per ton.
+
+The average cannery yield for 1929-38 was 4.15 tons; for 1939, 5.58
+tons; and 1940, 5.39 tons. This shows a material increase. The
+average cannery price for 1929-38 was $12.54 per ton. Yields by
+states varied widely in 1940 from 2.7 tons per acre in Arkansas with
+Indiana at 5.5 to 7.5 in California. In northeastern states, it is
+considered that about a seven ton yield is necessary for the farmer
+to break even. In New York, it costs about $60.00 to grow an acre of
+tomatoes to first picking. With a good yield, picking and delivery
+costs about $3.00 a ton.
+
+Leading market states are Texas, 40,000 acres; Florida, 31,000 and
+California, 22,000. Tomatoes are grown in a very large number of
+states--23 or 24 states showing 1,000 acres or more for market.
+
+Leading cannery states are Indiana, 74,000 acres; California,
+52,000; Maryland, 51,000; and New Jersey, 33,000. California, also
+Pennsylvania and Ohio have shown recent large gains.
+
+Large quantities grown in town and country home gardens are not
+included in these figures and probably also many grown on small
+scale for market.
+
+After all, however, the United States Department of Agriculture
+estimated per capita consumption of fresh tomatoes at 17.7 pounds,
+about one medium sized fruit per week per person. Consumption of
+canned tomatoes is less than a third of the fresh consumption. These
+figures include estimates for rural and urban home gardens. So, we
+can hardly be said to be gluttons for tomatoes nor even to meet a
+fair health standard, even considering all vegetables together.
+After all, it does not have to be tomatoes even though their high
+nutritional value is recognized.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--The tomato is the leader among greenhouse
+vegetables.]
+
+In commercial greenhouses, the tomato has replaced lettuce as the
+principal crop and it is likely to remain an important under-glass
+crop until such time as the South finds practical means of getting
+it to market with first-class quality--perhaps, harvesting the fruit
+when it first shows color.
+
+
+      Solution Culture
+
+The tomato has been widely used in experiments in solution-culture
+of plants, sometimes called "hydroponics." The method has been in
+use for decades for research purposes, but has been widely
+publicized of recent years as a possible method of commercial
+culture. A high degree of control of factors governing growth is
+undertaken and difficulties are proportionately increased. Hence no
+extensive commercial development has occurred. A good presentation
+of the method has been offered by Hoagland and Arnon.[1]
+
+
+      The Tomato Plant
+
+To manage a crop, one must needs know the plant. To know the various
+characters of the tomato helps one to master its culture.
+
+The tomato belongs to the night shade family, the Solanaceae of the
+botanist, along with the potato, tobacco, petunia, pepper, eggplant,
+night shade, jimson weed and many other plants useful and noxious.
+
+The tomato is a warm-season crop, sensitive to frost but reasonably
+resistant to heat and drought, thriving under a wide range of
+climate and soil. A frost free season of seventy-five to ninety days
+will mature home garden tomatoes in useful quantities if good plants
+are set but over 120 days are needed for economical commercial
+production. Plant growing requires six to eight weeks previous to
+setting out-of-doors. Each fruit requires about six weeks from
+blossom to ripeness. The fruit ripens best for yield, color and
+quality when the weather is warm and sunny. Low temperatures without
+frost are not favorable for growth and prolonged conditions of this
+sort may "check" the plant and retard the response when higher
+temperatures come.
+
+The tomato is sensitive to extreme day-length, setting fruit at 7 to
+19 hours but not at 5 or 24 hours.[2]
+
+The tomato responds readily to fertilizers and to moisture, coming
+quickly into vigorous growth after unfavorable conditions, unless
+too badly stunted.
+
+As long as moisture and nutrients are available and other conditions
+are favorable, a tomato plant will continue to branch and blossom
+and make fruit almost indefinitely. A pruned single stem plant in a
+greenhouse at Cornell once reached a length of over 40 feet during a
+year and a half of growth. Thus, it is really a herbaceous
+perennial grown in northern climates as an annual.
+
+The plant branches freely at leaf joints but fruit clusters are
+formed along the bare stem,--a habit not common among plants. Some
+varieties are "determinate" in habit, sometimes miscalled
+"self-pruning," as branches only attain limited length.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--The tomato flower. Varieties differ in
+protrusion of pistil beyond the stamen column. If style is too
+short, pollination may fail; also, if too long. A long pistil
+increases danger of damage from heat and drying out.]
+
+Hot, dry winds often damage floral parts and the blossoms drop
+without setting fruit.
+
+Smith[3] has shown that pollen grains germinate best at 85° F.,
+almost as well at 70° F., poorly at 50° F. and very poorly at 100°
+F.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--Long section of tomato flower.]
+
+The flowers of the tomato are borne in simple racemes or, in some
+varieties, in compound clusters. The flowers are normally on the
+plan of 5 but cultivated varieties may have six or eight sepals and
+petals. Sepals are narrow and may be as much as an inch long. Petals
+are united at the base. Stamens are united by the anthers
+surrounding the style and stigma. The ovary or little tomato is
+above the calyx but, as it grows, it carries corolla and stamens
+outward until they, with stigma and style, drop off. Length of style
+is a fairly important character in its bearing on pollination and on
+susceptibility to heat and wind injury.
+
+
+      Seedless Fruits
+
+Recent experiments by several workers have demonstrated the
+possibilities of inducing development of fruits without pollination
+(parthenocarpy) by means of certain chemical compounds, notably
+indolebutyric acid, although others are effective.[4] This method
+yields seedless fruits and promises to be of value in insuring a
+yield of fruits under conditions unfavorable for natural setting.
+
+
+
+
+      II
+
+      CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT
+
+
+Almost anywhere that other things will grow, the tomato thrives--so
+far as soil type is concerned.
+
+Florida grows tomatoes on coral soils that appear too poor to
+produce any useful crop. The fields of South Jersey are very sandy
+but tomatoes do well despite costly control of moisture and
+fertility. In some canning sections, clay loams and even clay soils
+are used. The ideal is a medium sandy loam, well supplied with humus
+for good water holding capacity. Lighter soils are generally
+earlier. Tomatoes on drouthy soils are likely to suffer from blossom
+end rot as well as from poor growth. Good drainage is required. Muck
+or peat soils will grow tomatoes but they are not commonly used for
+commercial production.
+
+Liming is not important for tomatoes even on fairly acid soils,
+assuming, of course, that the very small actual calcium requirement
+of the plant is met. This is generally confirmed by experiments but
+it does not preclude the merit of lime in favoring green manure
+crops which, in turn, make the soil more suitable for tomatoes.
+
+The dominant element in most sound tomato fertility programs is
+phosphorus with nitrogen second and potash third. Recommendations of
+general application are not possible but each need must be met
+before other beneficial additions can be fully effective.
+
+In the home garden, a program that keeps up fertility for other
+crops will suffice for tomatoes. In commercial production,
+especially for canning, where prices received are usually low, the
+program must be neatly cut to fit the soil, the crop system, the
+value of the tomatoes and the costs of materials. A canning crop in
+those sections where yields are almost bound to be low, will not
+justify heavy investment in fertilizer. Where much is spent for
+irrigation, plant growing, staking and pruning, one cannot afford to
+curtail the fertilizer investment that will bring maximum return.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato
+growth. Plants, grown in quartz sand, with plenty of other
+nutrients, received definite amounts of nitrate, in one application.
+A4, None. D5, 8 grams. F2, 32 grams. J4, 256 grams. N4, Soil and
+manure. (1 ounce = about 28 grams).]
+
+The task of this chapter is not to tell the grower how best to
+provide fertilizer for tomatoes but to help him in making his own
+plan for his own need. Research results and practical experience
+both contribute. One may well consult neighbors, county agent and
+extension specialist, as well as the many books and bulletins that
+are available.
+
+
+      Nitrogen
+
+Nitrogen is very important to insure the growth of vine without
+which a good crop may not be expected. Lands vary more widely in
+nitrogen content than in phosphorus and potash. Sandy soils are
+commonly deficient in this element and often difficult to keep
+supplied. Here liberal applications are needed. Up to a hundred
+pounds[5] of actual nitrogen may prove profitable where other
+conditions justify. Heavier soils, well managed and manured during
+rotation, require less nitrogen and fair results may be obtained
+with no fertilizer where investment must be kept to a minimum.
+
+Form of nitrogen to be used is largely a matter of economy though
+nitrate for part of it may be desirable early in the season when
+soil is cold and nitrification slow. Nitrate is desirable for side
+dressing but even here ammonia and other forms are now considered
+suitable when the soil is warm.
+
+
+      Failure to Set Fruit
+
+Why do tomatoes sometimes run to vine with failure to set fruit?
+This is an old, old query and, since 1918, has been, directly or
+indirectly, the occasion of more research projects than any other
+horticultural topic. Kraus and Kraybill[6] set the ball a-rolling
+with a paper which called attention first to the observations of
+Klebs in Germany in which he emphasized the fact that external
+conditions influence conditions within the plant which in turn
+influence performance--a veritable chain of causation. Kraus and
+Kraybill then undertook to relate performance (vegetative growth and
+fruitfulness) to internal conditions, chiefly carbohydrate and
+nitrogen content of the plant tissues. These, in turn, were traced
+back to treatments applied to the soil.
+
+They suggested four combinations of vegetation and fruitfulness in
+plants as follows:
+
+      1. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. Plants whose carbohydrate
+      supply has been cut off, say by removal of leaves which make
+      carbohydrates. These plants were low in carbohydrate and high
+      in nitrogen.
+
+      2. Vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants were well
+      supplied with both carbohydrates and nitrogen. They were of
+      the sort we describe as having "run to vine."
+
+      3. Vegetative and fruitful. These plants were well supplied
+      with carbohydrates, but not so liberally supplied with
+      nitrogen, thus, providing a balance between the two that was
+      favorable for a good crop.
+
+      4. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants had ample
+      opportunity for carbohydrate making, but were underfed with
+      nitrogen and so could not perform well in either vegetation or
+      fruit-making.
+
+Kraus and Kraybill conclude that there are certain balances between
+these two groups of compounds--nitrogenous and carbohydrate--which
+determine the nature of the plant's performance--whether there will
+be too little vegetative growth to permit a crop, whether the plants
+will "run to vine" or whether they will show good growth of both
+foliage and fruit.
+
+From experiments in the same field, using definite amounts of
+nitrate of soda per plant, Work[7] concluded that while adequate
+carbohydrate supply is necessary for fruiting, excess carbohydrate
+did not, in itself, occasion unfruitfulness but was more likely to
+represent an accumulation of material unused by reason of deficiency
+in some other factor--often nitrogen.
+
+It was shown that nitrate of soda does not injure tomatoes until a
+concentration in the soil is attained which is strong enough to
+plasmolyze the cells, that is to withdraw water from them by
+osmosis. Nor were a wide variety of nitrogen and moisture and manure
+treatments sufficient to induce the Bonny Best variety to "run to
+vine." Some varieties are subject to this trouble, mostly of the
+large, late types.
+
+Murneek[8] has shown that the fruitfulness of a plant may greatly
+affect its internal condition, its vegetative performance and its
+later setting of fruit. A heavy load of developing fruit, with
+limited soil resources, tends to limit growth and setting. Removal
+of fruit induces renewal of vegetative growth and of fruit setting.
+Failure to set fruit favors vigorous vine growth. This failure may
+be traceable to various causes. (1) To damage to floral parts as the
+blasting of the pistil by heat and drouth. Flowers of some varieties
+show tendency toward elongation of pistils with subsequent failure
+to develop normal fruit. Smith and Howlett have shown that
+environmental conditions as well as heredity influence this
+elongation. (2) To injury by insects as thrips. (3) To the character
+of the variety used, the Bonny group being very slightly susceptible
+to failure from over feeding with nitrogen while some late sorts
+readily "run to vine." (4) Shortage of nutrient elements as nitrogen
+or phosphorus or others. (5) Lack of adequate light or short day. In
+such cases, there may be excess of nitrogen for current need with
+resultant over-development of leafage. Thus, excess vegetative
+growth may be a result as well as a cause of poor setting.
+
+
+      Phosphorus
+
+Fertilizer experiments fairly generally point to the frequency with
+which phosphorus is the limiting factor among nutrients in tomato
+production. MacGillivray[9] has studied the phosphorus content of the
+various parts of the plant, concluding that this element is important
+throughout and not alone in seed making or in rapidly growing parts as
+has been believed. Hepler and Kraybill[10] found some years ago and
+others more recently have confirmed the influence of liberal phosphorus
+treatments upon earliness.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete
+fertilizer in Western New York.]
+
+
+      Potash
+
+The potash requirement of the tomato has not been as thoroughly
+studied as the requirement for the other two major elements. It is
+thought that potash has a part in building up sugars into more
+complex carbohydrates.
+
+The consensus of fertilizer experiments suggests that potash is less
+important on most soils than phosphorus and nitrogen but that if
+these elements are in good supply, increased yields from potash are
+likely.
+
+Lanham in Texas was unable to find a relation between potash
+fertilization and resistance to shipping hazards.
+
+
+      Stable Manure
+
+Stable manure has long been recognized as useful for tomatoes. It is
+generally considered better to apply it to the preceding crop or at
+least the preceding fall than to use it just before setting of
+plants. If spring application is necessary, it is better to use well
+rotted manure. Stable manure is low in phosphorus. An approximate
+statement would be that 10 tons of manure is roughly equivalent to
+one ton of a 6-3-6 fertilizer. Thus, 1,000 pounds of 18%
+superphosphate would bring the analysis to 6-12-6 which would be
+generally regarded as a good balance.
+
+A recent publication[11] from Pennsylvania emphasizes the value of
+manures and of phosphorus.
+
+
+      Placement and Side Dressing
+
+Recent experiments have shown the desirability of placing fertilizer
+close to but not in contact with the roots of the young plants. When
+newly set and before new roots have developed is the time when
+nutrient material close at hand is needed to give the plant a
+vigorous send-off. Transplanters have been devised with attachments
+to place the fertilizer in bands at each side of the row of tomatoes
+and about two inches deep.
+
+Recent experiments, notably by Sayre[12] of New York, have shown the
+advantage of dissolving fertilizer materials in the water used for
+transplanting tomatoes. One combination of materials consists of
+ammo-phos, 14-48, 2 parts and potassium nitrate, 1 part. Five to
+eight pounds of this mixture are dissolved in 50 gallons of water
+and about 1/4 pint or 1/2 cup is applied to each plant, usually by
+the transplanting machine. There are other suitable mixtures of
+nutrients for this purpose. A very small investment in starter
+solutions has shown material increase in total yield. The practice
+places immediately available nutrients in the soil at the time and
+place to be of maximum usefulness to plants that have been severely
+root-pruned and have not yet had opportunity to rebuild the root
+system.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    _Courtesy Campbell Soup Co._
+
+FIGURE 6.--Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes.]
+
+Another critical stage in tomato growth comes when much fruit has
+been set in the clusters and demands upon plant and soil are
+especially heavy. At this stage, side dressing with nitrogen is
+helpful in maintaining plant growth and providing resources for
+growth and maturing of fruit. On sandy or nutrient-deficient soils,
+more than one side dressing may be advisable. Sodium nitrate is
+commonly used but other materials are suitable after the soil has
+warmed up. Side dressing with fertilizer in solution has been
+recommended recently by Tiedjens of New Jersey.
+
+
+
+
+      III
+
+      THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD
+
+
+A tomato crop may be much poorer than the seed from which it grows
+but it can be no better.
+
+The tomato seed is short-oval and flattened in shape, covered
+thickly with short silky hairs. The embryo or baby plant is coiled
+in a spiral and imbedded in the endosperm (reserve food supply).
+Three or four years is generally given as the life of the seed but
+it often remains viable much longer--up to 10 or 12 years in extreme
+cases. Good seed should germinate 85% to 90%.
+
+Tomato seed sprouts readily, requiring fairly warm temperature, say,
+70° to 75° F. for best results. It germinates very slowly at 40° to
+50° F.
+
+
+      Breeding
+
+Being a major vegetable crop, the tomato has received much attention
+from plant breeders. Objectives sought include good cannery type,
+resistance to the fusarium wilt and other diseases, better
+greenhouse forms, improved general market and home garden sorts, and
+varieties adapted for arduous conditions such as hot and dry summers
+or very short growing seasons.
+
+The tomato is largely but not wholly self pollinated and pollen is
+not carried far. Thus, it is not difficult to breed to practically a
+pure-line condition.
+
+Tomatoes for seed are usually ground up and the seed and fine pulp
+are separated from the skins and coarse material by screening. The
+juice, fine pulp and seeds are allowed to ferment from 24 to 48
+hours, or until the jelly-like pulp is readily washed away. After
+washing, the seed is dried in thin layers and stored. A bushel of
+tomatoes may be expected to yield 2-1/2 to 4 ounces of seed and an
+acre of tomatoes, from 100 to 225 pounds. These vary greatly
+according to varieties and conditions.
+
+Wellington[13] and others have shown that first generation seed from
+crosses of suitable varieties show a marked increase of vigor
+(heterosis or hybrid vigor) over either parent or over the later
+generations. This fact would seem to offer possibilities in
+practical use, but it has not thus far proved of value.
+
+
+      Selection Methods
+
+Many growers find it profitable to save their own tomato seed. The
+plant is an annual, the important characters are quite readily
+observed and natural crossing is not serious. For these reasons, the
+enterprise is not as difficult as with most vegetables, although, if
+done well, it makes heavy demands in labor and care at a time when
+the grower has much else to do.
+
+The first step in selection is to establish clearly the ideal to be
+sought, recording it in detail on paper for future reference.
+Selections should be made on the basis of the plant, not of the
+individual fruit. It is the plant that is reproduced and the seed
+from "crown clusters" is no earlier than seed from later settings.
+The field should be searched soon after blooming time and plants
+that appear promising should be marked. These plants should be
+examined three or four times as the season advances, and markers
+pulled from plants that do not measure up to the desired standard.
+Suppose ten plants remain; all fruits from each of these may be
+saved, keeping the seed of each plant separate. All or part of the
+seed may be planted in separate rows the next year for further
+selection and to note which parents best transmit their excellent
+points. If only a small amount of seed is required, direct
+selections may be made for use in planting for the general crop. If
+a larger amount of seed is required, seed from one or two of the
+best plants should be planted in multiplication plats. Off-type
+plants should be removed from such plantings, but otherwise all the
+seed may be saved for use. Repeated selection results in constant
+improvement until the stock becomes a "pure line" or practically so.
+
+Lindstrom of Iowa has led in research on the genetics of tomatoes,
+chromosome relations and mode of inheritance. Many scientific papers
+deal with inheritance methods and results. The Yearbook of
+Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) for 1937 contains a valuable chapter on
+tomato breeding. It may also be had as Yearbook Separate 1581.
+
+
+      Certification
+
+As with certain other kinds of seeds, certification service for tomatoes
+has now been set up in several states. Certification is a most useful
+incentive toward care in breeding and handling and affords valuable
+assurance to the buyer. It is necessary to know just what is guaranteed
+by the certificate. It is at the same time wise to be informed as to the
+inclusiveness and methods of the certification.
+
+
+      The Ideal Variety
+
+In breeding for better varieties of tomatoes, the following are some of
+the characters to be sought:
+
+      (1) A vigorous vine which is necessary to produce abundant
+      fruit and to protect from sunscald.
+
+      (2) Resistance to disease especially to fusarium.
+
+      (3) High productiveness with moderate number of fruits per
+      cluster--say, 5 to 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--Types of tomato interiors. 1, 5. Small fruited
+sorts. 2, 6, 9. Bonny Best. 3, 7, 10. Chalk Jewel. 3, 7, 11. Stone. 4,
+8. Earliana. 12. Ponderosa.]
+
+      (4) Evenness of maturity. This is somewhat out of line with
+      the nature of the tomato but much could be accomplished toward
+      the goal of varieties that make their crop and are gone,
+      eliminating long picking periods and the drag of inferior
+      fruit toward the end of the season. The so-called
+      determinate habit of some varieties such as Pritchard is a
+      step in this direction.
+
+      (5) Size suitable for expected use and for market demand.
+      Greenhouse tomatoes are generally smaller than those for
+      cannery. Uniformity of size is increasingly important with
+      wide-spread use of the lug-box pack and of small consumer
+      cartons.
+
+      (6) Globular to oblong shape is desirable for market but is
+      less important for cannery. Form should be symmetrical, even
+      and smooth.
+
+      (7) Color should be deep and rich, fully and evenly developed,
+      inside and out. Red is generally preferred to pink. The
+      difference between red and pink tomatoes does not reside in
+      the flesh but in the presence of yellow pigment in the skin of
+      the former while the skin of the latter is without pigment.
+      Yellow tomatoes are also extant.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--The Earliana tomato. A picture of a single
+fruit cannot adequately describe a variety. 1-3. Rough types, common in
+older strains. 4. Typical interior. 5, 6. Stem end. 7-9. Good type
+resulting from selection. 10-12. Pointed-round type occurring frequently
+in improved strains. A. Unusually large cluster. B. Typical Earliana
+cluster showing compound branching. C. Unbranched cluster of Bonny Best
+for comparison.]
+
+      (8) Skin should be thick and tough. This safeguards against
+      damage on the way to market and favors ease of peeling. Those
+      saladists who serve sliced tomatoes with skins unremoved, may
+      call for a thin, tender skin but this practice finds no
+      encouragement from discriminating partakers.
+
+      (9) Flesh should be abundant in thick walls with a minimum of
+      watery pulp surrounding seeds. In general, a structure of many
+      small cells is desirable.
+
+
+      Varieties
+
+_Earliana._--The earliness of this old and popular variety outweighs
+its demerits where this character is required. The past ten years
+have seen material improvement.
+
+Earliana is early, of small vine, with small leaves and leaflets.
+Clusters are compoundly branched, with many fruits. The fruits are
+of medium size, deep oblate, cross section often elliptical rather
+than circular. There are many rough irregular fruits, varying in
+this respect with breeding and conditions of growth. Color is red,
+not too deep and tending to be poorly developed at the stem end.
+Interior consists of many small cells with thin walls.
+
+_Bison._--represents a group of varieties bred for rigorous climates
+of our most northerly states. A. F. Yeager formerly of North Dakota,
+later of Michigan, now of New Hampshire has led in this
+development.
+
+_Victor._--is a new variety bred originally by Yeager but introduced
+by K. C. Barrons of Michigan. It affords smoother, deeper and better
+colored fruits about as early as Earliana. It is determinate in
+habit and shy in foliage, increasing danger of sunscald. Rich soil
+and ample moisture are needed for its best development. _Bounty_ and
+_Home Garden_ are similar.
+
+_Penn State._--Penn State, developed by C. E. Myers of Pennsylvania,
+is not as early as Earliana. It is similar in fruit characters
+though distinctly better in color and shape. It is marked by short
+branches (determinate habit) and is designed to give an early crop
+to be followed by prompt abandonment of the planting. It is not to
+be confused with Penn State Earliana.
+
+_Bonny Group._--This group embraces our leading second early
+varieties widely used for home garden, greenhouse, market and
+cannery in the north. It includes _Bonny Best_, _John Baer_ and
+_Chalk Jewel_ with many additional names and with much confusion of
+characters among them.
+
+Bonny Best is second early and of medium plant growth. Fruits are
+deep oblate to flattened globe, even and smooth, of good red color,
+with few large, thick-walled cells.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--Marglobe plant.]
+
+Varieties and strains of this group vary in growth and yield, in
+size, shape and earliness of fruit and in suitability for
+greenhouse, market, cannery and juice. _Stokesdale_ and _Scarlet
+Dawn_ are meritorious newer names in the group.
+
+_Marglobe._--This variety was developed by the late Dr. F. J.
+Pritchard from a cross between Marvel, a French variety lending
+resistance to fusarium and Globe, an old variety of fine size and
+shape. It is widely used, north and south, for market--green or
+ripe, for cannery and to some extent, for forcing.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--Marglobe fruit.]
+
+Marglobe is a midseason variety, with large vine and foliage,
+resistant to fusarium and nailhead spot. Fruits are nearly globular,
+shapely and smooth, medium to large, scarlet red, with medium number
+of thick walled cells. Marglobe is rather subject to deep radial
+cracks.
+
+_Pritchard_ is of the general type of Marglobe but is earlier, with
+short branching habit and resistance to nailhead rust and to
+fusarium, and, perhaps, is less subject to cracking.
+
+_Greater Baltimore_ is used chiefly for canning in long-season
+districts. It is late, with large vine, large flat fruits of
+excellent scarlet red, outside and in, with many thick walled cells.
+_Indiana Baltimore_ is a variant widely grown in the mid-west for
+cannery.
+
+_Rutgers_ was developed by L. G. Schermerhorn at the New Jersey
+Experiment Station for fine juice and canning characters--color,
+flavor and substance. Growth is vigorous and yields are heavy;
+fruits are large, flattened and well colored.
+
+_Gulf State Market_ is a second early shipping tomato, generally
+harvested green. It is flattened in shape, of well developed pink
+color and good interior.
+
+_Comet Group._--These trace mostly to English or other European
+origin and are increasingly used for greenhouse and for staking
+out-of-doors. Comet is small, flattened, slightly corrugated about
+the stem, of fine even red color, very firm and solid, with few very
+thick walled cells. Other names are _Sunrise_, and _Lord Roberts_.
+Several American forcing strains have been developed with at least
+one parent of this group--_Ideal_, _Grand Rapids Forcing_, _Field
+Station Comet_, _Trellis_, _Michigan State Forcing_, _Lloyd
+Forcing_, _Blair Forcing_ and others.
+
+_King Humbert_ and _San Marzano_ represent the small Italian oblong
+tomatoes that are prized for their thick walls, fine color and
+suitability for puree, paste and soup.
+
+_Ponderosa_ is popular for home garden, a "beef-steak" tomato of
+very large size, irregular shape, flat, pink, with many small cells
+and of very mild sub-acid flavor. It is best grown to single stem.
+_Oxheart_ is large, heart shaped, pink and very meaty. Others of
+this general type may be had in red, yellow and orange flesh. In
+general, the whole group lacks in prolificacy.
+
+_Oddities._--Tomato fanciers often plant seed of Red and Yellow
+Pear, Cherry, Currant, Peach with its fuzzy skin, Plum and others.
+They are prized for preserves and for decoration. Ground Cherry or
+Husk Tomato is not a true tomato but belongs to a different genus
+(Physalis). It makes excellent preserves. Well do I remember
+sneaking off from the other kids for solitary plunder of the little
+row that was usually in Grandma's garden.
+
+Comprehensive descriptions of leading varieties of tomatoes have
+been published by the United States Department of Agriculture in
+Miscellaneous Publication 160, the result of statistical and verbal
+notations over several years at five widely scattered stations of
+the country.
+
+
+
+
+      IV
+
+      STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP
+
+
+One of the ways to make money from tomatoes is to mature them early,
+selling while the price is still high. There is a big difference
+between $.10 a pound and $.10 a basket. Shipped and ripened green
+wrap tomatoes cannot be very cheap on northern markets even though
+Southern growers may realize little for them.
+
+Another way to profit is to grow good plants to sell. Judging by the
+spindling, crowded, soft or over-hardened plants so common in stores,
+there should be great opportunity here and, as a matter of fact,
+many market gardeners do well in this business realizing welcome
+returns when other income is negligible.
+
+To market ten-cent-a-pound tomatoes from out-doors requires good
+plants--plants that have passed through their youth nearly or fully
+up to blossoming time with benefit of heat and shelter and that are
+ready to keep up vigorous growth in face of the demands of
+fruiting. A few scattering fruits matured early do not suffice.
+
+Even for cannery, good plants are required. In most regions, plants
+are not as good as they should be. All too often, outdoor seed bed
+plants are set where cold frame or at least cloth cover should be
+employed. Further north, cold frame plants or second run or other
+inferior plants are used instead of the best. That is why many
+canning companies have greenhouses and grow plants for their
+farmers.
+
+And in the home garden, the quality of vine ripened fruit along with
+the satisfaction of early maturity are goals worth striving for.
+
+Plant growing is a game of skill. It calls for keen observation,
+constant and faithful attention to small details, and a high order
+of workmanship in the various operations. Furthermore, when a
+considerable number of plants are to be grown, it calls for good
+organization and rapid work if costs are not to be unduly increased.
+A transplanter who makes three motions where two will suffice is
+likely to turn profit into loss, for the loss of a second when
+repeated thousands of times makes many hours.
+
+The grower who is producing tomatoes for first-early maturity wants
+a plant that will withstand the rigors of transplanting and of
+inclement weather which may follow, that will start immediately into
+growth, and that will mature fruit in good quantity at the earliest
+possible date. This usually means a plant about ten inches tall,
+with heavy, firm, dark-colored stem (though not over-hardened), a
+heavy body of dark, healthy foliage, and a cluster of blossoms, with
+possibly a fruit or two already set. If the buds in the axils of the
+leaves have begun growth, no harm will be done.
+
+Many growers are doubtful whether it is well to have fruit set on
+plants when they are transplanted in the field, as they claim that
+the little tomatoes are often lost and in any case the progress of
+the plant is retarded. Such plants must be handled with great skill.
+If they are severely checked when taken to the field, other and less
+advanced plants may do as well. There is danger in having plants too
+far advanced, and an unexpected delay in field setting may result in
+spindling and over-hardening that may prove disastrous. A vigorous
+and properly hardened plant that is younger will do better under
+such circumstances. Some growers protect themselves by having plants
+of more than one sort.
+
+
+      Open-bed Plant Growing
+
+With favorable conditions and careful methods, good plants can be
+grown in open beds but they must be grown and used where the season
+is long or be grown in the south and shipped north.
+
+Soil should be free of disease and nematodes, of good physical
+character, full of humus and nutrients.
+
+Seed may be sowed a week or two after "average date of last killing
+frost" which may be learned from county agent or weather bureau.
+Further south planting times are gauged by the time tomatoes are to
+be set and by experience as to safe or reasonably safe sowing dates.
+Rows are usually a foot apart, more or less. Good plants call for
+sowing thinly, 6 to 12 seeds per foot, but several seeds per inch
+are not unusual. One may expect a million plants per acre with close
+planting or 40,000 plants per pound of seed.
+
+
+      Southern Plants
+
+Many millions of tomato plants are grown in open fields in the south
+to be sent to home gardeners in small parcels on seedsmen's orders,
+to be sold to commercial growers or to be delivered on contract to
+canners.
+
+A suitable climate and soil, good seed, freedom from disease and
+insects and good handling and packing are all required for
+satisfactory results. In far too many cases, these requirements have
+been sadly neglected and a good deal of distrust has been
+engendered. Here, as in buying seed, one must discriminate among
+good and poor growers. Canners who order in millions can send men
+south to investigate and supervise with good results.
+
+Georgia now has a certification service for plants that helps
+greatly to build up and maintain high standards.
+
+
+      Growing Early Plants in the North
+
+Varied programs of plant growing are in vogue in the temperate and
+cooler regions. A simple cold frame with or without transplanting
+may be employed. Seedlings may be started in hotbed or greenhouse
+and then transplanted to cold frames to finish the job. Some sow
+seed early, transplant once in the greenhouse at 1-1/2 or 2 inches
+each way and then again to cold frame with wide spacing say, 4 × 4
+inches or using pots or dirt bands.
+
+For this method, as much as twelve weeks may be allowed but if space
+permits, excellent results may be achieved in seven or eight weeks
+transplanting but once to pots or to 4 × 4 inches in flat or bed.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--A good small greenhouse for plant
+growing.]
+
+
+      The Place to Grow Plants
+
+For northern climates, greenhouses are practically required.
+Canneries or other large growers, have wide houses similar to those
+used for winter maturing crops. A market gardener may have a little
+house of 10´ × 20´ to 20´ × 60´ or larger as needed. If one does not
+object to some inconvenience and discomfort, a hotbed may be
+used--heated with hot water or electricity, or as in years past,
+with fermenting manure. Cold frames may be covered with glass sash
+as in the case of hotbeds, or cloth may be used. There are also
+materials consisting of wire cloth filled with cellulose film.
+Special mats of straw or of quilted burlap may be used for extra
+cover and large growers often employ coarse manure, straw or marsh
+hay.
+
+Many a tomato gets its start in life in a small flat in a kitchen
+window--perhaps, in a cigar box. Such seedlings may then be carried
+forward in hot bed or cold frame.
+
+
+      Beds, Flats and Pots
+
+Growing plants directly in ground beds in the greenhouse and
+directly in the soil in the hotbeds or cold frames, is rather
+common. However, the use of flats or plant boxes in plant growing
+offers a number of advantages as compared with planting in the bed.
+Transplanting can be done at benches under conditions of comfort and
+convenience which make for efficiency. Moisture can be more
+precisely controlled and flats can be shifted if some plants grow
+faster than others. Plants can be moved with more dirt on the roots,
+and this is a great advantage when plants are sold and hauled some
+distance, though, of course, pulled plants are handled more cheaply.
+On the other hand, the first cost, and the maintenance and storage
+of the flats must be considered. Flats may be set on the ground in
+the greenhouse without use of benches.
+
+Flats are of many dimensions, ordinarily six to ten per sash or
+about 18 × 22 inches or 13 × 18 inches outside measure. They may be
+made of lumber from used boxes, but they ought to be uniform in size
+and made to fit beds without loss of space. The more durable kinds
+of wood, cypress or chestnut are preferred. Some growers make the
+bottoms of the flats of square-mesh galvanized screen (hardware
+cloth), about five or six meshes to the inch. This allows roots to
+penetrate the soil of the beds, permits root pruning by shifting,
+and there is no wooden bottom to rot.
+
+Some growers use clay pots for plants which are receiving special
+care. Their cost is an obstacle though they are used repeatedly.
+Such pots also hold less soil for the area occupied than flats or
+square dirt bands.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Plants for the early crop. 1. Shows
+plants in paper bands of excellent proportion and thrift but not yet
+in bloom. 2. In blossom but fruit has not yet set. 3. Similar to 2
+but a little further advanced and has actually set fruit.]
+
+Paper pots are used to some extent. Organisms decomposing the paper
+may use and so render unavailable some of the nitrogen of the soil
+thus hindering the growth of the plants. This may be corrected by
+seeing that abundant nitrogen is present in the soil either when
+made up or by later application of nitrate sowed upon the soil while
+plants are dry or applied in solution in watering.
+
+Dirt bands of veneer are used and are very satisfactory. Blocking as
+practiced by many growers is a cheap and effective way of attaining
+much the same results.
+
+
+      The Blocking System
+
+When the cold frame is prepared for the last transplanting, two
+inches of fairly well-rotted manure is laid down and two or three
+inches of prepared soil is placed on top. Plants are set about four
+inches apart each way. About a week before field setting, a butcher
+knife, or a hoe which has been straightened and sharpened, is run
+between rows both ways. This cuts the roots whereupon the plant at
+once begins to form new feeders within the block thus reducing, to
+some extent at least, the damage which might be caused by
+transplanting. The method is also used with flats.
+
+
+      Soil
+
+Soil for plant growing should be free of disease and nematodes,
+friable, not readily forming a crust, receiving and retaining
+moisture well, but drying off quickly on the surface after watering
+and well supplied with nutrients. A sandy loam base with good humus
+content is desirable. It may be prepared, beginning a year or two
+ahead by growing and plowing under well fertilized green manure
+crops. Or a compost heap may be prepared with successive layers of
+soil and manure or other humus making material. In either case, it
+is usually mixed a time or two by shoveling over or by passing
+through a shredding machine or a coarse screen.
+
+If trouble is likely to be experienced from damping-off fungi, the
+soil may be heated to 200° F. and held there for an hour, using oven
+or electric or steam sterilizer. Seed may also be treated with red
+copper oxid or semesan.
+
+
+      Seed and Seed Sowing
+
+Tomato seed runs about 125,000 to 150,000 per pound. An ounce of
+seed is usually depended upon for plants for an acre. For growing
+seedlings, seed may be sowed up to 100 or more per foot of row. For
+a maximum number of strong seedlings from a small amount of seed,
+thinner sowing is desirable. Rows are usually about two inches
+apart, and a quarter of an inch is sufficient cover. The seedlings
+break ground in a week or ten days.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed.]
+
+Uniformity of depth of rows and of covering is important. Otherwise,
+seedlings will come up unevenly and there will be considerable
+waste.
+
+
+      Care of Seedlings
+
+Water and heat should be provided to permit a steady and moderate
+rate of growth in plants. Over-watering and high temperature yield
+soft and spindling plants and also plants that are overgrown and
+that are liable to severe checking before field setting.
+Under-watering and low temperature give stunted plants. The
+thermometer at the earlier stages of growth may well stand around 70
+to 75 degrees by day and 10 degrees lower at night. A reasonable
+range of temperature and moisture gives opportunity for the skillful
+grower to forward or retard his plants as seems best. Great care
+should be exercised to water evenly. It is necessary to watch the
+plants constantly to detect the slightest variations in growth. The
+watering may then be modified and even progress insured.
+
+Ventilation finds its chief significance as a means of controlling
+temperature and humidity, though actual change of air may be a
+factor.
+
+High soil moisture, high humidity, high temperature, and faulty
+ventilation, all favor the ravages of the various damping-off fungi
+mentioned above which cause little plants to rot off near the
+ground.
+
+
+      Transplanting
+
+The main advantage of transplanting plants before they are set in
+the field is to give them increased space, or, in other words, to
+conserve space in greenhouses and frames. Other advantages have been
+claimed, but in many instances the gains have resulted from more
+space rather than from the actual shift. Transplanting checks growth
+through breakage and disturbance of the root system. Loomis[14]
+finds that "the immediate effect of transplanting is a reduction in
+the water supply, and the immediate and long-time results are
+dependent upon the severity and duration of such reduction."
+Transplanting has little effect upon very young plants and a shift
+at the age of six or eight weeks checks the plant about as much as
+two earlier transplantings. The tomato falls in the group of plants
+that stand transplanting well, roots being rapidly replaced.
+Transplanting breaks roots and so results in the growth of branches
+which are shorter than the members of the old system. The new system
+is accordingly less severely damaged in later transplantings.
+
+To insure efficiency, the work of transplanting merits careful
+attention. Carelessness as to details means loss through unevenness
+of plants. For example, if soil is not carefully packed at the edges
+and corners of the flats, irregular water supply and irregular
+growth result. If much transplanting is to be done, it pays to
+divide up the work, as is done in a factory. Have a good place for
+doing the work--a warm, light, and comfortable room. Tired workers
+are not efficient. Spotting boards are of service if properly made
+and correctly used. Soil should always contain just the right degree
+of moisture to allow holes to stand open. Care must be taken that
+the workers in setting plants do not double the roots or close the
+holes at the top leaving the roots dangling in an open space below.
+
+It is said that a good worker will prick out 10,000 plants per day,
+though everything must be convenient to accomplish this and many
+growers regard 6,000 plants as a good day's work.
+
+
+      Pruning Young Plants
+
+Pruning of tops injures rather than helps the plant, for it destroys
+leaves which are the machines that make carbohydrates, the principal
+material for growth. Pruning to cure legginess is bad. Proper
+management of time, temperature and water will provide adequate
+control and if plants should become leggy, it is better to plant
+them by laying them down in a trench with a few inches of top above
+ground than it is to prune them.
+
+Nipping out the growing point with the first cluster of flower buds
+is sometimes practiced to encourage branching and a heavier yield of
+early fruit. If this is done, ample space and nutrients must
+accompany careful management. Otherwise, the plant finds itself with
+inadequate resources to do a big job.
+
+
+      Hardening
+
+Tomato plants cannot be made frost proof, but low temperature,
+reduced moisture supply, partial starvation, and crowding all tend
+to make plants more resistant to cold, to drying winds, to heat, to
+mechanical injury such as breakage of leaves and stems, and even to
+cut-worm attacks. Plants can be hardened appreciably in a short
+time--say a week. It is now generally accepted that moisture control
+is more useful than reduced temperature as a means of hardening.
+Starving and crowding are not desirable methods. Plants can be kept
+on the dry side if glass or other water-shedding cover is
+available.
+
+Great care must be exercised to avoid over-hardening of tomato
+plants, for in this way a check in growth is incurred from which
+they recover slowly, and perhaps never fully.
+
+Much study has been given to the changes in plants which underlie
+the hardening process, and papers by Harvey, Rosa, Loomis, and
+others should be consulted in this connection.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Plants that have been crowded and
+overgrown, probably undernourished and over-hardened. Plants like
+this are very often set in the field. They are definitely slow in
+starting growth.]
+
+Watts[15] has shown that adverse conditions, especially low
+temperature and water deficiency prevailing at the time when fruit
+clusters are barely beginning to form, commonly occasion the
+development of misshapen fruits.
+
+Faithful spraying or dusting with Bordeaux in the plant bed has
+proved a useful means of forestalling destructive leaf blights which
+often devastate whole fields.
+
+
+
+
+      V
+
+      GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS
+
+
+The tomato is not especially exacting as to care after it has been
+set out-of-doors. It will do business if given half a chance. At the
+same time, much can be done to favor earliness, good yield and high
+quality.
+
+
+      Time of Planting
+
+In general, tomatoes are set in field or garden as soon as danger of
+frost is reasonably past. Suppose May 1st is average date of last
+killing frost. Growers would make general plantings from May 18th to
+25th though, in rare instances, frost might occur as late as May
+28th or 30th. The last week of May is planting time over a vast area
+of the North. Venturesome souls will set home garden plants as early
+as May 10th, standing ready to replant if necessary. There is little
+gain in rushing the season too much, however, for the tomato is not
+only sensitive to frost but it does not thrive under what people
+call "raw, mean, chilly weather." Such conditions may also be
+responsible for misshapen fruits. A grower for local market not
+infrequently risks a share of his plants before safe setting time in
+the hope that warm weather may give the crop a good start toward
+early ripe fruit to sell at high prices.
+
+Delayed planting and use of plants that do not start quickly into
+vigorous growth is the cause of heavy losses in the north,
+especially among cannery growers. Better quality and heavier yields
+are attained if the bulk of the crop matures before cool weather in
+the fall. In the south, it is necessary to get good plant
+development and a full set of fruit before hot weather which often
+destroys the blossoms.
+
+
+      Plant Protectors
+
+Many forms of plant protectors are on the market--of paper and of
+other materials. These act as little greenhouses for the individual
+plant, protecting against frost and promoting growth. Plants may be
+set out-of-doors a couple of weeks earlier by their use. The most
+common forms are of translucent paper reinforced by pasted strips
+of paper or by wire. The trick is to devise one that is cheap, that
+will admit maximum light and that will withstand the weather. For
+tomatoes, they need to be tall, which makes the problem of wind
+resistance more serious.
+
+For emergencies, opaque cover, baskets upside down or even newspaper
+may be used. Many a field has been saved by burying the plants when
+frost threatened, carefully uncovering when danger is past.
+
+
+      Spacing
+
+Untrained tomatoes are set at distances from 3-1/2 feet each way to
+7 × 7 feet or even more. The extreme width is found on rich
+irrigated lands in California where plants make tremendous growth.
+The closer spacings are found on lighter soils where humus, plant
+food, and moisture are not too abundant. The variety should also be
+considered. Sixteen square feet per plant is about average.
+
+Check row planting is common, though it is not feasible where
+transplanters are used. Wider spacing between the rows than between
+plants is desirable as it permits later cultivation one way and
+leaves a better passage for pickers with less damage to plants and
+fruits. Thus, 3-1/2 × 4-1/2 feet might be preferred to 4 × 4 feet.
+
+Rows for single stem, staked and pruned plants may be as close as
+three feet and plants may be as close as eighteen or even twelve
+inches, though some growers contend that two feet is close enough.
+
+
+      Methods of Planting
+
+The essential point in field setting is to pack the soil firmly
+about the roots, thus establishing maximum contact for moisture
+absorption. Whatever the method of planting, the aim should be to
+get the plants from the old home to the new with as little delay and
+check in growth as possible. For the first-early crop, they should
+be moved so that "they never know it." With bands, pots or blocking
+in flats or beds, it is feasible to avoid practically all
+disturbance of roots.
+
+The tomato will, under ordinary favorable conditions, take hold and
+grow even if shaken quite free of earth. Plants, however, should be
+dug loose rather than pulled, to prevent undue breakage of roots.
+
+Plants ought to be watered well some hours before transplanting.
+Transplanting machines and hand planters of the Masters type give a
+little shot of water at the root, thus helping to establish contact
+with the soil. Starter solutions are discussed on page 35. These
+machines are commonly used for cannery setting and, to some extent,
+for market tomatoes. Blocked plants can be set pretty fast by hand
+with much less disturbance of roots. Some manage to set potted or
+blocked plants by machine, keeping a ball of earth about the roots.
+
+The rows are usually marked out fairly deeply, plants are dropped in
+fours between rows and it is a very short job to pack soil about the
+clod of earth in which the plant is growing. Another method is for
+one worker to make an opening with a spade. A second places the
+plant in the wedge-like opening and the first steps on the soil to
+firm it solidly about the roots.
+
+Plants are generally set a little deeper than in the plant bed.
+
+
+      Cultivation
+
+The old idea about cultivation was "the more, the better." More
+recent experiments notably those by Thompson have shown that little
+need be done beyond controlling weeds. He found that stirring the
+soil gave no significant increase in yield over mere scraping
+sufficient to destroy weeds. It is pretty hard to convince many old
+time gardeners of this. The value of dust mulch for conservation of
+moisture has been pretty well discredited by experimental
+comparisons.
+
+
+      Irrigation
+
+Irrigation is not essential for tomato production in humid climates
+and is seldom provided except under market garden conditions. Water
+is occasionally an asset in a dry season and, of course, the grower
+who waters at such times reaps a harvest in higher prices as well as
+in increased yield. The advantage of irrigation is especially marked
+if dry weather retards plant growth and delays maturity of the first
+of the crop, for the high prices of the early market are involved.
+Judicious irrigation will sometimes continue production for late
+fall market. Yet gardeners seldom plan permanent overhead equipment
+for tomatoes. The movable lines that are now used to a considerable
+extent serve well for the tomato crop.
+
+The furrow method of irrigating tomatoes is the most common in the
+West. This plan allows the water to make its way down the rows,
+slowly soaking in all along the line. The tomato stands drouth
+better than many of our crops, especially if the soil holds moisture
+fairly well, either naturally or through a liberal humus content.
+Excessive moisture is doubtless a factor in causing the plants to
+run to vine and drop their blossoms. Hence, in western sections, it
+is customary to water thoroughly just before or just after setting
+the plants and then to avoid applications until the setting of fruit
+is well advanced.
+
+Thorough soaking is better than frequent light waterings, as it
+encourages a better development of root system. An Idaho bulletin
+suggests three irrigations. Late irrigations tend to delay ripening
+of fruit, but this object is sought in the late fall shipping
+districts of California which find their best markets after eastern
+crops have been nipped by frost.
+
+Irrigation must be handled with care to avoid cracking of fruit,
+which occurs when soil becomes rather dry and then is heavily
+watered. Watering late in the season is said to make fruit watery
+and of poor quality.
+
+
+      Mulching
+
+R. A. Emerson[16] in 1903 reported results of careful comparisons
+between vegetables that were cultivated and others that were mulched
+with straw. These results indicate that mulching gives good results
+with tomatoes, both as to yield and quality. However, frost injury
+was more severe on mulched plats, and Emerson points out that the
+mulch should not be applied until the plants are well established.
+
+Mulching is recommended by a good many writers and growers and it
+seems to be practiced to some extent in Missouri. The advantages
+claimed are conservation of moisture and clean, fine quality fruit.
+L. W. Purdum and Sons of Virginia use 4-5 tons per acre of wheat
+straw, staking their plants and irrigating. They report unusually
+heavy returns per acre under these methods. The Missouri people
+apply as much as sixteen tons per acre, making the cover five or six
+inches thick. The practice of mulching, however, is not common, and
+the cost will likely prevent its general use.
+
+
+
+
+      VI
+
+      TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD
+
+
+Growers attending conventions will often stay up half the night to
+argue about training and pruning tomatoes and to debate the details
+of their favorite procedures.
+
+For home garden, the method is strongly commended. Many market
+gardeners follow the practice and it has gained materially of recent
+years in New England. Some market reports quote staked tomatoes
+separately and at a materially higher level than fruit from unpruned
+plants.
+
+Most of the southern shipping sections follow the practice and it is
+practically universal in greenhouses.
+
+One way is to drive a stake by each plant tying at several points
+along the stem with cheap twine. The other plan, recently gaining in
+favor, is to set posts every 25 feet or so, string a heavy wire on
+top, and another a foot from the ground. Cheap jute twine is strung
+between wires and the tomato plants are merely twisted around the
+string. Tying is not required. Some omit the lower wire, tying a
+non-slipping bowline loop around the plant near the ground. In
+either case, plants are kept trimmed to a single stem though
+occasionally an extra branch is allowed to grow. In southern
+Illinois, plants are tied to a short stake without pruning.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Tomatoes pruned and trained with post,
+wire and twine. This is the trellis system of New England.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Fine clusters on trained plants.]
+
+
+      Pro and Con
+
+The advantages claimed for pruning and training are:
+
+    Earliness.
+    High yield per acre.
+    Ease of cultivating and spraying.
+    Ease of picking.
+    No injury from snails and wire worms.
+    Quality of fruit:--size, color, smoothness and cleanliness.
+    Crop finished earlier.
+    Less sunscald.
+
+The disadvantages claimed are:
+
+    Many plants required.
+    Reduced yield.
+    More blossom-end rot.
+    Higher cost of labor.
+    Cost and care of stakes and wire.
+
+The validity of each of these points varies greatly with conditions;
+in fact, the answer to the whole question depends largely upon the
+location and the ideas of the grower. In trying to reach a
+conclusion, it is well to realize that training makes certain
+radical changes in the plant. It loses leaves through pruning, it is
+supported from the ground, and it is spaced differently. Since the
+leaves manufacture the basic substance for themselves, and for the
+rest of the plant, removal of leaves reduces the resources of the
+plant. H. C. Thompson[17] has found that the root system is reduced
+about in proportion to leaf reduction. It is fairly clear that
+single-stem training greatly reduces the yield per plant, and other
+methods result similarly in proportion to the severity of pruning.
+When plants are spaced closely enough together the yield may be
+brought up to that of areas unpruned and unstaked. Idaho experiments
+indicate that staking alone does not affect the total yield, but
+that it does favor early maturity under the different pruning
+systems. The disadvantages of training are largely economic. Will
+the marketing conditions justify the extra cost of staking and
+pruning?
+
+Experiments have shown pretty clearly that sunscald, blossom-end rot
+and cracking are worse on trained plants. Using varieties of good
+foliage will help the first trouble while uniform and adequate water
+supply achieved by selection of suitable land, by building humus
+content of the soil and by irrigation will solve the latter two
+problems. Thompson found increased yield of early fruit. Other
+evidence is somewhat conflicting but, in general, it supports
+Thompson. It is generally agreed that pruned plants yield larger,
+cleaner and more perfectly formed and colored fruits. Ease of
+spraying or dusting and of picking is important.
+
+For pruned plants, 3-1/2 feet between rows and 1-1/2-2 feet between
+plants is about right.
+
+To train or not to train is a question that one must answer for
+himself as the controlling factors vary too widely--costs of stakes,
+wire and labor, prices of early tomatoes and possibility of
+cultivating a more or less fancy trade.
+
+
+
+
+      VII
+
+      THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES
+
+
+The tomato, in most regions, is not one of our most "pestered"
+crops. Although over thirty diseases of tomatoes are discussed in
+books and bulletins, most of them are only occasionally serious or
+are subject to definite control methods. Enemies are generally worse
+in the warmer climates.
+
+Most home garden tomatoes and many commercial crops are grown
+without benefit of spray or dust. If trouble arises, county agent or
+college specialist can usually advise, suggesting methods suitable
+for local conditions.
+
+Experience must, of necessity, be the guide in shaping a program and
+costs must be carefully balanced against results.
+
+The principal measures that are widely used are seed treatment
+against damping off, use of resistant strains against fusarium wilt
+and application of bordeaux mixture against leaf blights.
+
+As with all plants, thoroughness must be the watchword in spraying
+or dusting. Timeliness, choice of weather conditions so far as
+possible, and covering all surface lightly rather than throwing on
+heavy blotches of spray or dust all require careful attention.
+
+_Fusarium Wilt_ (Fusarium lycopersici) is perhaps the most serious
+of all the tomato diseases although it occasions little trouble in
+the more northerly states. It is troublesome as far north as New
+Jersey to Iowa.
+
+The fungus winters in the soil, enters through the roots and blocks
+the water passages of the plant causing wilting, yellowing, and
+finally, death. Water vessels in the stem are discolored,--another
+means of identifying the disease.
+
+Spraying or dusting are of no service since the fungus is within.
+Long time rotation and use of the many resistant strains are
+effective means of control.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left
+center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on right with one of
+F. J. Pritchard's wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant
+attacked by wilt fungus.]
+
+_Leaf Spot_, _Septoria Blight_ (Septoria lycopersici) causes heavy
+loss by destroying the foliage and so the fruit-making power of the
+plant. It also opens the fruits to sunscald. The spots appear as
+small dark water soaked areas which enlarge but little though they
+increase in number and turn brown. Tiny black dots, the fruiting
+bodies of the fungus, appear. The spores germinate only on moist
+leaves and the disease is spread by wind, rain, workers and the
+like. It winters on refuse of the tomato and related plants.
+
+Fall plowing helps to control. Bordeaux spraying beginning in the
+seed bed and carried faithfully through the season will usually hold
+the trouble in check.
+
+_Late Blight_ (Phytophthora infestans) is the same fungus as the
+late blight of potatoes, affecting both foliage and fruit. It is
+often troublesome the first few weeks after plants are set
+out-of-doors. Clean soil in seed bed and bordeaux spraying are
+helpful.
+
+_Western Blight_, _Yellows_, _Curly Top_,--cause unknown,--is
+prevalent in California. Leaves roll and become thickened and
+brittle, later turning a sulfury yellow. Veins become purplish. The
+trouble prevails in hot weather. The cause is likely a virus,
+similar to or identical with the curly top of beets. It is
+apparently spread by leaf hoppers. No satisfactory control has been
+devised though there is some promise in resistant strains.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Diseases of the tomato. 1. Septoria or
+leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform.]
+
+_Mosaic._--No organism has been definitely connected with the mosaic
+diseases of tomatoes, but they are highly infectious, being spread
+by means of what is called a "virus," which passes the finest
+filters. It is spread by insects, notably aphids, which carry plant
+juice, and in the handling of plants, but it does not persist in
+seeds or in litter. It is wintered on horse nettles and three
+species of ground cherries. Control suggestions include roguing
+affected plants, eliminating weeds, and controlling carrying
+insects. The symptoms are widely various, the most common being
+mottling of leaves, stunting and malformation of leaflets, which
+sometimes become fine ribbons or threads, curling, appearance of
+small brown dead areas, and spots and cracks on fruits.
+
+_Damping off_ is caused by various fungi in the seed bed which
+attack the stem near the surface of the soil and cause the plant to
+drop over and die. Clean soil, heating of soil, commonly called
+sterilization, and care in watering are all helpful. It is now
+common practice to dust seed with formaldehyde dust, or with red
+copper oxid or with an organic mercury disinfectant. If trouble is
+serious, a watering with semesan just before seedlings emerge may be
+helpful.
+
+A government bulletin on "Market Diseases of Tomatoes"
+(Miscellaneous Publication 121, 1932) is an excellent summary with
+colored plates to help in recognizing the various troubles.
+
+
+      Insects
+
+_The Fruit Worm_ (Chloridea obsoleta) is probably the worst of the
+tomato insects, but is not prevalent in the North. It is the same as
+the corn ear-worm or the cotton boll-worm, and bores into green or
+ripening fruits. It winters in the soil and fall plowing is
+recommended for its control. Planting corn as a trap crop is also
+suggested. The Virginia Truck Experiment Station finds that the
+addition of two pounds of calcium arsenate to 50 gallons of the
+Bordeaux used for disease control helps materially.
+
+_Cut-worms_ (various species of the family Noctuidae) cause severe
+losses at the time of field setting. They winter in the soil and are
+worse when sod has been plowed under, or following other host
+plants. Poison bran mash is commonly used to combat them, using a
+spoonful to each plant. Hand picking and the use of paper collars
+are resorted to on a small scale. Well-hardened plants seem less
+subject to injury by these pests than tender plants.
+
+_Colorado Potato Beetle_ (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) can cause a
+world of damage to young plants. Arsenical spray or dust will
+ordinarily control them. The old-fashioned potato bug (family
+Meloidae), is reported as troublesome in Missouri. When they appear
+in droves, the only control is to drive them with brush. Arsenical
+spray or dust is of some value.
+
+_Flea Beetles_ (family Chrysomelidae) are the little black jumping
+fellows that perforate leaves in plant beds and in the field. They
+are also accused of injuring blossoms and reducing the set of fruit.
+Their attacks upon young plants are sometimes ruinous. Bordeaux with
+arsenical serves as a repellant. Dusting with nicotine sulphate dust
+is also suggested.
+
+_Green Tomato Worms_, or _Horn Worms_ (Phlegethontius sexta) are
+big, green fellows and have a great capacity for tomato foliage.
+Hand-picking and arsenical spray or dust are usual means of combat.
+
+_The stalk-borer_ (Papaipema nitela) is a slender caterpillar which
+is reported as serious in Indiana. No satisfactory control is
+suggested except clean culture around fields and pinching the stems
+to destroy the pest.
+
+
+
+
+      VIII
+
+      SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE
+
+
+The most skillful production is in vain if marketing is not done
+well. At the same time, the quality of the goods is the principal
+factor in making the price and in moving the goods. Even then, if
+costs in production and marketing are too high, the enterprise is a
+failure.
+
+The differences between high and low quotations on the same market
+the same day, are usually fairly wide,--say, $1.75 to $2.50; or
+$0.75 to $1.25; or $0.20 to $0.25 per basket. These differences are
+sufficient to make the difference between profit and loss. Small
+differences in quality of the product, in handling and dress-up of
+the market pack and skill in finding buyers may easily result in
+price differences as great or greater than those indicated.
+
+
+      Harvesting
+
+Picking in the field calls for the closest care and supervision to
+prevent damage to the fruits and vines. Stems should be removed to
+avoid punching other fruits, and long finger-nails do great harm by
+cutting the skin and admitting infection. Containers should not be
+too large to be handled conveniently. Round half-bushel stave
+baskets and galvanized pails are excellent. Baskets made of
+quarter-inch staves rather than veneer are smooth and durable, but
+the investment is rather heavy unless dumping is resorted to. In
+practice, all sorts of boxes and crates are used, often the package
+that is used for marketing. No container as deep as a bushel basket
+should be used.
+
+The stage of ripeness at which tomatoes are picked depends upon the
+time and distance to market. For home use or local market, fruit may
+range from the first turn to almost fully colored.
+
+A few growers pick at the turn and use ripening rooms to prepare for
+local selling. In this way cracking, injury by soil, by insects, and
+by uneven coloring are avoided. Fruits are wiped and handled with
+less loss and may even be washed if need be.
+
+Fully ripened fruit will not stand handling and hauling and will
+quickly deteriorate, reaching the consumer in bad condition.
+
+For cannery, full ripening is desired with even coloring.
+MacGillivray[18] has shown that success in this is largely a matter
+of care in picking. Cracking and slight softening are not serious
+defects for this purpose, but molds and bacteria in broken places
+are serious as they throw the product out of grade or occasion
+rejection.
+
+
+      Picking Green
+
+Most tomatoes for long distance shipment, are picked before color
+appears,--at the mature-green stage. One of the great difficulties
+is to judge this stage correctly; to train ordinary labor to pick by
+maturity and not by size. Immature-green tomatoes ripen slowly and
+do not achieve good appearance or table quality.
+
+It is almost impossible to describe the ear marks of a mature-green
+tomato. Most of those usually cited are of doubtful value--glossy
+surface, whitish cast of color and the dark ring at the stem scar.
+The jelly-like or mucilaginous material in the seed cells has
+sufficiently developed in a mature green tomato so that the fruit
+may be sliced without cutting seeds. Of course, the tomato is
+ruined but the method can be used to check one's judgment based on
+the exterior. Also, one can learn by laying aside tomatoes judged
+mature-green and immature-green to ripen.
+
+Some efforts have recently been made in Florida to pick tomatoes at
+the turn, that is, at the first show of color, a practice suggested
+by Sando[19] some years ago. This should provide fruits of uniform
+degree of maturity, that would be about ready to sell on arrival and
+it would eliminate the serious problem of immature-greens. It would
+require more frequent picking of fields and there could be no delay
+in packing. There would, doubtless, also be problems of temperature
+and ventilation in transit. Results of tests thus far have been
+rather encouraging.
+
+
+      Ripening
+
+Green wrap tomatoes are received at terminal markets by produce
+houses that have special ripening rooms where temperature is kept at
+about 70°, with high humidity to prevent wilting or shriveling.
+Ethylene gas is used by some to hasten ripening. It does not change
+the nature of the process, merely speeding it up. Some of these
+repackers have elaborate equipment for sorting and packing.
+
+The tomatoes, on arrival, are shaken out of their paper wraps. Any
+that have ripened in transit are taken out and packed while the
+greens go into the ripening rooms. They may have to be sorted over
+two or three times as ripening progresses.
+
+The ripening process in tomatoes has been rather thoroughly studied.
+Sando found that tomatoes ripen uniformly, regardless of size, at a
+certain age, dating from the setting of the fruit. This time, which,
+of course, varies according to weather conditions, was eight weeks
+when the studies were made. Ripening is accompanied by an increase
+in moisture, acids and sugars, with decrease of solids, nitrogen,
+starch, pentisans, crude fibre and ash. Sugars increase from about a
+quarter to about half of the dry weight. Chemical analysis did not
+show differences sufficient to account for the difference in quality
+between vine-ripened fruit and green fruit ripened in the
+laboratory. Lack of ventilation seems to be detrimental.
+
+It is commonly held that tomatoes chilled without freezing will not
+ripen satisfactorily afterward. This belief is discounted by results
+of Wright and associates and of Platenius who found little effect of
+low temperatures upon later ripening.
+
+Wright[20] and Platenius[21] have both found that tomatoes should
+not be stored at low temperatures, 50° to 60° F. being best. Storage
+is not likely to be satisfactory for more than a month.
+
+
+      Waxing
+
+Waxing of tomatoes by immersion in a dilute water emulsion of
+paraffine and carnauba waxes is being tried out with very promising
+results. Waxes are also dissolved in volatile hydrocarbons and
+sprayed on. Moisture loss and shriveling are materially retarded,
+and interference with the ripening process is negligible. The wax
+coating is very thin, adds an attractive gloss and is entirely
+harmless.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Packing tomatoes on a farm in
+Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The
+others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on
+before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job.
+A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from
+falling out.]
+
+
+      Grading
+
+It is generally true that at market the poorest products in a given
+lot tend to fix the price. When the buyer finds a few inferior
+specimens he assumes there are many more. Imperfect and diseased
+specimens infect others. Grading enhances the appearance of the
+pack.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy Tripak Mach. Service_
+
+FIGURE 20.--A California packing house with elaborate machinery and
+fully organized.]
+
+Of course, the grower who picks marketable tomatoes and leaves
+unmarketable fruits on the vine is engaged in a form of
+grading--informal and subconscious. Methods may range from this
+simple practice to the elaborate schemes adopted in large packing
+houses. There is no difficulty in adopting methods for the farm that
+are easily managed and perfectly practical. In general, two grades
+to sell represent a good plan, leaving culls at home unless prices
+are high and there is good demand for them. The set-up may involve
+no more than a worker at a table with three baskets--one with
+tomatoes from the field; another for #1's and a third for #2's. The
+worker may well use a cotton flannel glove or cloth to wipe the
+tomatoes and the fruits should be placed in layers to bring the
+package to a good face. With some practice, this slows the operation
+but very little. Shed packing should be more common than it is
+though the practice seems to be gaining.
+
+Shippers scattered from Cuba and California to New York state have
+packing houses set up to all degrees of elaborateness. Some have
+machines and conveyors that wash, sort for size, provide for hand
+sorting for grade and deliver to bins for packing. Experienced
+packers advance with the season from Florida to Lake Erie. These
+workers become almost incredibly expert and speedy. It is not
+uncommon for a worker to pick up, wrap and place in the lug box 60
+or 70 tomatoes per minute--not as a show-off but in course of
+regular work.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 21.--Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes,
+especially when grown in the winter in the South.]
+
+The federal government has worked out and published standards for
+the grades of tomatoes along with most other vegetables. These
+standards are practical and have found wide acceptance as furnishing
+common language between seller and buyer, especially for long
+distance shipment. The one who grades may, however, set up a
+standard of his own to meet the needs of his conditions and market.
+
+U.S. Standards for cannery tomatoes are widely used as a basis of
+payment to the grower and this practice is to be commended.
+
+
+      Packaging
+
+The lug box has almost wholly replaced the older 6-basket carrier
+and 4-basket flat for shipment of tomatoes. It is in almost every
+respect, a good package for tomatoes. It is built with solid board
+ends, with veneer or sawed sides, bottom and cover. Cleats on the
+ends serve to raise the lids so that a bulge pack will not be
+injured by pressure. Veneer covers and bottoms are held together by
+stitched veneer cross pieces. The lug box is packed in three layers
+and holds about 30 pounds net of tomatoes though it is often
+over-packed to carry considerably more. The bulge pack is desirable
+only so far as it is necessary to insure a tight pack and to take up
+the small shrinkage that takes place in transit. Ordinarily, it goes
+beyond this. It results in delivery of more tomatoes than are paid
+for, and in bruising because the top center is too high.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy Southern Arkansas Growers Association_
+
+FIGURE 22.--The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato
+packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much bulge
+making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing danger
+of bruising the upper fruits.]
+
+The late M. R. Ensign in Florida, was working with a wire-bound lug
+to carry 20 pounds of tomatoes in two layers without bulge.
+
+The lug box is packed in three layers and the size of fruits is
+designated by the number of tomatoes each way,--6 x 6, 6 x 7, and 7
+x 7 being the commonest sizes. Each tomato is wrapped in a square of
+tissue paper which may or may not be printed. The principal
+advantage of the paper is to cushion the pack and protect the
+tomatoes against rubbing and abrasion. Where tomatoes are small,
+U.S. Standards provide for "bridge pack" or partial extra layers,
+for extra rows and for double wraps or two tomatoes in one paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 23.--Lug boxes as loaded in car.]
+
+Lug boxes were formerly loaded lengthwise of the car but are now
+generally loaded crosswise,--that is, the side of the box is
+crosswise throwing the heavy endwise thrust against the substantial
+end of the box. Thin strips are nailed between layers, butting
+against the sides of the car to prevent shifting of the load and
+closing of ventilation channels. Refrigerated cars are generally
+used but icing is not usual.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 24.--The square braid basket is widely used as
+a local market package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and
+is easily put up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high.]
+
+A few shipping sections, notably New Jersey, still use the 12-quart
+climax basket for tomatoes.
+
+Local markets use various containers for tomatoes,--the Boston
+bushel box; a half bushel of the same depth also used in New
+England; lug boxes; the Jersey tomato crate; and very commonly, 8
+and 12-quart square braid veneer market baskets. Peach baskets and
+bushel baskets are now used but little, being too deep for good
+carrying. The diamond market basket of earlier years has about
+disappeared--being too flexible and not suited for stacking. The
+square braid with suitable cover may be stacked very satisfactorily
+in trucks but is hardly substantial enough for rail shipment.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 25.--The Connecticut half bushel box. Figure
+19 shows how this is packed.]
+
+Hot house tomatoes travel in square braid, climax or paper fibre
+baskets, now rather commonly, the latter. The Cleveland section
+sells some millions of baskets of 8-quart capacity but carrying 8
+pounds of tomatoes in two layers, usually with stems on, usually
+wrapped and sometimes with a paper divider between layers.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--Repacked tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go
+to wholesale houses that specialize in ripening and repacking. Many
+kinds of packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of the
+popular packs especially in the Boston area.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 27.--Cellulose film is used for repacked
+tomatoes.]
+
+Cannery tomatoes move in field crates belonging to the canner or, in
+Jersey, in 5/8 bushel baskets, about as awkward a container as could
+be readily devised unless it should be the Jersey tomato crate
+with its two cover strips permanently fastened.
+
+Repack tomatoes are sometimes replaced in lugs or in half lugs. Ten
+pound corrugated cartons are widely used, newer and fancier packs
+being but one layer deep. Fruits are wrapped with paper or cellulose
+film. An increasing proportion of repacks are now put up in
+one-pound cartons with a window of cellulose film, carrying four or
+five tomatoes. A variation is a paper tray wrapped with cellulose
+film.
+
+Good marketing calls for a good label for whatever package is used.
+These are usually pasted on the package. Paper containers are often
+printed directly but the problem of misuse of second hand packages
+is coming to the fore.
+
+
+      Selling
+
+Success in selling demands in the producer the qualities which we
+ordinarily expect in the business man. The good grower is a business
+man if he succeeds, and this will be more true in the future than in
+the past, as competition increases. It is necessary to judge the men
+one deals with, forming estimates as to reliability and character.
+Mutual confidence is essential to satisfactory dealings. It is worth
+while to study the produce business and to learn its ins and outs,
+reading a trade paper, talking with dealers, and making trips to
+markets.
+
+Shipments are made on "f.o.b." or track sale, on consignment, or on
+joint account. The first plan of outright sale is the most desirable
+and is possible where there is enough business at a given point to
+attract buyers or where grades and business standing are well enough
+established to assure the purchaser of what he is getting. When the
+quality of the product is uncertain or when markets are glutted,
+consignment must be resorted to. Under this plan, the shipper owns
+the goods until the receiver makes a sale and all the risks up to
+this point are his. There are many consignment houses of high
+character if the shipper will take the trouble to find them instead
+of shipping to any one who writes a good letter, and there is
+vigorous competition in the trade. These factors make it possible to
+secure fairly good service most of the time. Joint account selling,
+where shipper and receiver agree on how returns shall be divided, is
+sometimes undertaken where mutual acquaintance justifies it.
+
+Selling on distant markets is more complex and difficult than local
+selling for many reasons. Shoving crates off the wagon into the car
+and forgetting them is not selling. Co-operative organization has
+helped many communities through pooling of resources, standardizing,
+grading and packing the product, encouraging better field practices,
+and securing the services of able managers and salesmen.
+
+
+      Local Selling
+
+A very small amount of produce is sold by producers directly to the
+consumer at his home, but the roadside market has greatly developed
+retail activity by growers. Here fine quality, attractive
+appearance, moderate prices, and fair dealing are effective in
+building business. Stands that plan to "fleece them as they pass" do
+not last long. It is the return business that counts. The bulk of
+local selling is done directly to retailers--grocers or
+hucksters--either at market or store-door. The costliness of this
+system is being realized and local commission business is growing,
+in many cases through the establishment of commission houses
+co-operatively owned and managed by growers, as in Providence,
+Cleveland, Chicago and other markets.
+
+Some effort has been made to increase the use of tomatoes as has
+been successfully done with oranges and bananas. These efforts have
+been sporadic and results have been hardly more consistent than the
+efforts. Co-operative publicity, especially at times when large
+quantities are to be moved, would seem to offer fine possibilities.
+Growers of some crops are finding chain store groups very ready to
+help in moving out large volumes of produce when the supply is
+large.
+
+
+      Cannery Selling
+
+Cannery sales are generally made at a stipulated price on contracts
+closed in advance of planting. These contracts have usually devoted
+more words to protecting the interests of the packer than those of
+the grower, largely because the grower has accepted the canner's
+initiative with little question. Farseeing companies have been fair
+in enforcement of terms and liberal in their dealings, realizing
+that prosperity must be mutual for the highest success. A few
+canners have contract provisions that enable the grower to share in
+prices realized for the packed product when they rise beyond a
+certain figure. Too many canners have lacked vision, however, and
+have taken all they could get. Farmers have known little about costs
+and so have frequently been lured by the prospect of cash return
+even though they see no money until the packed tomatoes are actually
+sold. During recent years, much has been learned about the business
+side of growing for cannery purposes and the knowledge has been made
+available through extension channels. Growers have shown some
+tendency to organize and some canners welcome this movement as
+helping them to set their affairs on a plane of definite
+understanding. Canners have suffered sadly through failure of
+growers to live up to contracts if it suited them better to evade
+the terms, and organization helps greatly to develop the producer's
+sense of responsibility. Indiana has formed a federation of locals,
+but an organization movement in another state failed, more because
+the directors and members did not live up to their duties than
+through opposition of certain hostile canners. Co-operation in this
+field has the same possibilities, requirements and dangers as in
+other fields. With time and experience, co-operation will be an
+increasing and beneficial factor in the business.
+
+In some sections, most of the cannery tomatoes are sold on open
+market, and in others, the early part of the crop is free for local
+sale or shipment. This arrangement would seem to have possibilities
+for further development by the use of good plants and good culture.
+
+
+
+
+      IX
+
+      OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK
+
+
+Happily, the home gardener does not need to keep books with his
+tomatoes. If he likes the culture and the product, he need not
+inquire further.
+
+Not so with the commercial grower. After all skill has been
+exercised in growing and selling, the books must show black and not
+red. This calls for good management and judgment not only as to what
+is best for the tomatoes and for the consumer but also how much one
+can afford to spend to gain a given advantage.
+
+Fortunately, quality, yield and economy generally go hand in hand.
+One of the best ways to achieve low unit cost is to win a high yield
+per acre.
+
+For the cannery crop, conditions are sometimes such that one cannot
+afford to apply, say, optimum fertilizer because some other factor
+not readily controlled may limit the returns and so make heavy
+feeding uneconomical.
+
+_Yield._--The average yield per acre of cannery tomatoes for the
+United States was, in 1940, 5.39 tons per acre and the 10-year
+average, to 1938, was 4.15 tons per acre. For tomatoes for fresh
+market, the average yield for 1940 was 148 bushels per acre, 14
+bushels above the 10-year average. Of course, these yields would not
+satisfy a grower who calls himself successful. In the canning
+sections of New York, it takes about 7 tons per acre to cover costs
+of production. Some years ago a survey in Arkansas recorded costs as
+low as $36 per acre. However, the same survey showed cost per ton as
+$13.64. Cannery contracts that year averaged about $12.75 per ton.
+That does not yield much money to bank even if ten or twenty acres
+are grown. Rarely yields run to 25 tons per acre.
+
+It is accordingly necessary to keep costs down and to bring yields
+up. Each item of cost must be scrutinized and adjusted to bring
+lowest cost per ton or per package.
+
+In counting costs, it is necessary to include every element. The
+following summary from 118 Western New York farms for 1934 for
+cannery tomatoes illustrates the various items:
+
+    -----------------------------------------------------------
+                                         |        | _Per cent_
+                                         |        | _of total_
+    Growing costs:                       |        |
+      Land                               | $ 7.66 |   9.17
+      Manure                             |   3.91 |   4.68
+      Commercial fertilizer              |   8.21 |   9.83
+      Plants                             |  15.55 |  18.62
+      Plowing                            |   3.42 |   4.10
+      Fitting                            |   3.83 |   4.59
+      Applying fertilizer                |   1.65 |   1.98
+      Setting                            |   5.41 |   6.48
+      Cultivating                        |   6.38 |   7.64
+      All other growing costs            |   2.14 |   2.56
+                                         |---------------------
+            Total growing costs per acre | $58.16 |  69.65
+    Harvesting and delivering (8.2 tons) |  25.34 |  30.35
+                                         |---------------------
+    Total costs                          | $83.50 |100.00
+    -----------------------------------------------------------
+
+All too often, growers think they are counting costs when such
+important items as interest, use of truck and machinery or others
+are omitted. One sometimes sees such figures in print.
+
+One good way to view returns is in terms of cents per hour for
+labor. Cost accounts in New York have showed that a group of farmers
+who raised cannery tomatoes the nine years up to 1937 and whose
+records were studied, realized $0.34 per hour for their time given
+to tomatoes, $0.51 for potatoes, $0.24 for wheat, and $0.11 for
+oats.
+
+
+
+
+      SELECTED REFERENCES
+
+
+This book is not a monograph in the scientific sense and no attempt
+has been made to cite references for all statements. This list is
+intended to include the publications that are likely to prove most
+useful to one who wishes to read further about tomatoes. There are
+many others of great value, most of them being included in
+bibliographies in the works cited below.
+
+Unless otherwise stated, references are to publications of the state
+experiment stations, addresses of which may be obtained by writing
+Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of
+Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
+
+
+      General
+
+      Beattie, W. R. Tomatoes as a truck crop. U.S. Dept. of Agr.
+      Farmers Bul. 1338. 1923.
+
+      Snyder, G. B. and Dempsey, P. W. Tomato production in
+      Massachusetts. Mass. Ext. Leaf. 51. May, 1937.
+
+      Porter, D. R. and MacGillivray, John H. The production of
+      tomatoes in California. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 104. 1937.
+
+      Cochran, H. L. Improved methods of tomato production in
+      Georgia. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206. 1940.
+
+      Huelsen, W. A. Growing tomatoes in Illinois. Ill. Exp. Sta.
+      Cir. 451. 1936.
+
+      Balch, W. B. Growing tomatoes in Kansas. Kan. Exp. Sta. Cir.
+      172. 1933.
+
+      Seaton, H. L. Tomato growing in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta. Ext.
+      Bul. 156. 1936.
+
+      Allen, E. J. and Talbert, T. J. Tomato culture in Missouri.
+      Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 173. 1934.
+
+      Schermerhorn, L. G., Tiedjens, V. A., et al. Questions and
+      answers relative to tomato production. N.J. Exp. Sta. Ext.
+      Bul. 174. 1936.
+
+      Raleigh, G. J. Growing tomatoes for market. Cornell Ext. Bul.
+      377. 1937.
+
+      Tracy, W. Tomato culture. Orange Judd Co. 1907.
+
+      Work, Paul. Tomato production. Orange Judd Co. 1926.
+
+      Pellett, F. C. and M. A. Practical tomato culture. A. T. De La
+      More Co. 1930.
+
+
+      Food Value
+
+      Atwater, W. O., and Woods, C. D. The chemical composition of
+      American food materials. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Expt.
+      Stas. Bul. 28. 1896.
+
+      Sherman, H. C. Food products. Macmillan. 1924.
+
+      Miller, Elna. Tomatoes, their value and uses. Utah Exp. Sta.
+      Cir. 47. 1932.
+
+      Ellis, Eliz. E. Using tomatoes in family meals. N.H. Exp.
+      Sta. Cir. 225. 1940.
+
+
+      Cannery
+
+      Beattie, J. H. Tomatoes for canning and manufacturing. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1233. Rev. 1930.
+
+      Lancashire, E. R., Parks, T. H. and Pierstorff, A. L. Tomatoes
+      for canning. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 114. 1935.
+
+      Hester, J. B. Good, fair or poor tomatoes from your soil.
+      Campbell Soup Co., Bul. 2. 1940.
+
+      Cruess, W. V. Commercial fruit and vegetable products.
+      McGraw-Hill. 1924.
+
+      Pederson, C. S. Preparation of tomato products. N.Y. Exp.
+      Sta. Cir. 178. 1937.
+
+      Gaylord, F. C. and Fawcett, K. L. A study of grade, quality
+      and price of canned tomatoes sold at retail in Indiana. Ind.
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1939.
+
+      Saywell, L. G. and Cruess, W. V. The composition of canning
+      tomatoes. Calif. Exp. Sta. Bul. 545. 1932.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. and Ford, O. W. Tomato quality as
+      influenced by the relative amount of outer and inner wall
+      region. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 327. 1928.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the
+      tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931.
+
+      Gaylord, F. C. and MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato quality studies.
+      Field and harvest factors affecting grade. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul.
+      394. 1934.
+
+      Hauck, C. W. Marketing cannery tomatoes on grade in Ohio. Ohio
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 504. 1932.
+
+
+      Greenhouse
+
+      Beattie, J. H. Greenhouse tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr.
+      Farmers Bul. 1431. Rev. 1939.
+
+      Hoffman, I. C. Growing of greenhouse tomatoes. Ohio Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 499. 1932.
+
+      Burk, E. F. and Roberts, R. H. Growing greenhouse tomatoes.
+      Wisc. Exp. Sta. Bul. 418. 1931.
+
+      Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Relative efficiency of
+      various organic supplements in the growth of greenhouse
+      tomatoes. R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 236. 1932.
+
+      Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Economical amounts of nitrate
+      of soda to apply in the greenhouse for the growth of tomatoes.
+      R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 252. 1935.
+
+      Bouquet, A. G. P. An analysis of the characters of the
+      inflorescence and fruiting habit of some varieties of
+      greenhouse tomatoes. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 139. 1932.
+      Biblio.
+
+      Seaton, H. L. and Gray, G. F. Histological study of tissues
+      from greenhouse tomatoes affected by blotchy ripening. Jour.
+      Agr. Research (U.S. Dept. of Agr.), Vol. 52, No. 3, pp.
+      217-224. 1936.
+
+
+      Breeding and Varieties
+
+      Boswell, V. R. Improvement and genetics of tomatoes, peppers,
+      and eggplant. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook. 1937. pp. 176-206.
+      Full biblio.
+
+      Boswell, V. R., et al. Description of American varieties of
+      tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 160. 1933.
+
+      Muller, C. H. A revision of the genus Lycopersicon. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 382. 1940.
+
+      Morrison, Gordon. Tomato varieties. Mich. Exp. Sta. Spec. Bul.
+      290. 1938.
+
+      Myers, C. E. and Lewis, M. T. The effect of selection in the
+      tomato. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 248. Rev. May 2, 1930.
+
+      Yeager, A. F. Tomato breeding. N.D. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276. 1933.
+
+      Pritchard, F. J. Development of wilt-resistant tomatoes. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1015. 1922.
+
+      Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato
+      crosses and their parents. Minn. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 6. Rev.
+      1923.
+
+      Groth, B. H. A. The F_{1} hereditary of size, shape, and
+      number in tomato fruits. N.J. Exp. Sta. Bul. 242. 1912.
+
+      Lindstrom, E. W. Hereditary correlation of size and color
+      characters in tomatoes. Iowa Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 93. 1926.
+
+      Porte, W. S. and Wellman, F. L. Development of interspecific
+      tomato hybrids. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 584. 1941.
+
+      Babb, M. F. and Kraus, J. E. Results of tomato variety tests
+      in the great plains region. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 533.
+      1939.
+
+      Anon. A haploid marglobe tomato. Jour. of Heredity,
+      Washington, D.C. Vol. 27, No. 11, 1936.
+
+      Huelsen, W. A. New wilt-resistant tomato varieties for field
+      and greenhouse. Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 448. 1936.
+
+
+      Plants for Transplanting
+
+      Nissley, C. H. Plant growing and plant growing structures.
+      N.J. Ext. Bul. 51. 1926.
+
+      Tussing, E. B. and Lancashire, E. R. Growing vegetable plants.
+      Ohio Ext. Bul. 103. 1930.
+
+      Raleigh, G. J. Starting vegetable plants. Cornell Ext. Bul.
+      448. Oct. 1940.
+
+      Crist, J. W. Ultimate effect of hardening tomato plants. Mich.
+      Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 89. 1928.
+
+      Harvey, R. B. and Wright, R. C. Frost injury to tomatoes.
+      U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1099. 1922.
+
+      Seaton, H. L. and Strong, M. C. Southern-grown vs. locally
+      grown tomato plants. Mich. Quarterly Bul. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp.
+      131-141. 1938.
+
+      Alexander, L. J., Young, H. C. and Kiger, C. M. The causes and
+      control of damping-off of tomato seedlings. Ohio Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 496. 1931.
+
+      Van Haltern, Frank. Control of tomato seedbed diseases of
+      southern plants. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 187. 1935.
+
+
+      Fertilizers
+
+      Work, Paul. Tomato fertilizer experiments in Chautauqua
+      County, New York. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 467. 1928.
+
+      Hartman, J. D., Work, Paul Wessels, P. H. Tomato fertilizer
+      experiments on Long Island. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 676. 1937.
+
+      Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J. and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer
+      experiments with tomatoes. Penna. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940.
+
+      Sayre, C. B. Effects of fertilizers and rotation on earliness
+      and total yields of tomatoes. N.Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 619. 1933.
+
+      Sayre, C. B. Starter solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Exp. Sta.
+      Geneva) Vols. 5, 6, and 7, No. 2. April 1939, '40, '41.
+
+      Parker, M. M. Tomato fertilization. (1) The effect of
+      different fertilizer ratios on the yield to tomatoes. Va. Exp.
+      Sta. Bul. 80. 1933.
+
+      Carolus, R. L. Tomato fertilization. (2) The effect of
+      different fertilizer ratios on the chemical composition of
+      tomatoes. Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 81. 1933.
+
+      Thomas, R. P. Effect of fertilizer treatments of a soil on the
+      quality and yield of tomatoes. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 386. 1935.
+
+      Friend, W. H. Tomato varieties and fertilizers for the lower
+      Rio Grande valley of Texas. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1931.
+
+      Comin, Donald and Bushnell, John. Fertilizers for early
+      cabbage, tomatoes, cucumbers, and sweet corn. Ohio Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 420. 1928.
+
+      Hepler, J. R. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon
+      the yield and time of maturity of the tomato. N.H. Exp. Sta.
+      Tech. Bul. 28. Rev. 1926.
+
+      Hester, J. B. Soil fertility in tomato production. Campbell
+      Soup Co. Bul. 3. 1941.
+
+
+      Cultural Practices
+
+      Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Exp.
+      Sta. Bul. 580. 1934.
+
+      Watts, V. M. Pruning and training tomatoes in Arkansas. Ark.
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 292. 1933.
+
+      Hibbard, R. P. The various effects of frost protectors on
+      tomato plants. Mich. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 124. 1932.
+
+      Thompson, H. C. Experimental studies of the effects of
+      cultivation of certain vegetable crops. Cornell Expt. Sta.
+      Memoir 107. 1927.
+
+
+      Physiology
+
+      Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction
+      with special reference to the tomato. Ore. Exp. Sta. Bul. 149.
+      1918. Biblio.
+
+      Work, Paul. Nitrate of soda in the nutrition of the tomato.
+      Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 75. 1924.
+
+      Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, John M. Some effects
+      of artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition
+      of plants. Amer. Jour. of Botany, 17: 416-482. 1930.
+
+      Murneek, A. E. Physiology of reproduction in horticultural
+      plants. (1) Reproduction and metabolic efficiency in the
+      tomato. Mo. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 90. 1926.
+
+      Murneek, A. E. Effects of correlation between vegetative and
+      reproductive functions in the tomato. Plant Physiology, Vol.
+      I, No. 1. 1926.
+
+      Nightingale, G. T. The chemical composition of plants in
+      relation to photo-periodic changes. Wis. Exp. Sta. Research
+      Bul. 74. 1927.
+
+      Porter, A. M. Effect of light intensity on the photosynthetic
+      efficiency of tomato plants. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12: pp.
+      225-252. 1937.
+
+      Nightingale, G. T. Effects of temperature on metabolism in
+      tomato. Botanical Gazette, Vol. 95, No. 1. 1933.
+
+      Phillips, T. G., Smith, T. O. and Hepler, J. R. Some effects
+      of potassium and nitrogen on the composition of the tomato
+      plant. N.H. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 73. 1939.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of
+      the tomato plant. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 34, No. 2. pp.
+      97-127. 1927.
+
+      Janssen, G., Bartholomew, R. R. and Watts, V. M. Some effects
+      of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium on the composition and
+      growth of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 310. 1934.
+
+      Eckerson, Sophia H. Influence of phosphorus deficiency on
+      metabolism of the tomato. Contribs. of Boyce Thompson
+      Institute. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 197-218. 1931.
+
+      Fisher, P. L. Responses of the tomato in solution cultures
+      with deficiencies and excesses of certain essential elements.
+      Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 375. 1935.
+
+      Howlett, F. S. Effect of carbohydrate deficiency upon
+      formation of sex cells in tomato. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 532.
+      1934.
+
+      Howlett, F. S. The modification of flower structure by
+      environment in varieties of Lycopersicum esculentum. Jour. of
+      Agr. Research, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 79-117. 1939.
+
+      Watts, V. M. Some factors which influence growth and fruiting
+      of the tomato. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 267. 1931.
+
+      Watts, V. M. Growth and fruiting responses to pruning and
+      defloration of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 347. 1937.
+
+      Smith, Ora. Pollination and life-history studies of the tomato
+      (Lycopersicon esculentum mill.) Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 184.
+      1935.
+
+      Smith, Ora. Relation of temperature to anthesis and blossom
+      drop of the tomato together with a histological study of the
+      pistils. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 183-190.
+      1932.
+
+      Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen
+      germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Exp. Sta.
+      Memoir 175. 1935.
+
+      Smith, Ora. Effects of light on carotenoid formation in tomato
+      fruits. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 187. 1936.
+
+      Reid, Mary E. Growth of tomato cuttings in relation to stored
+      carbohydrate and nitrogenous compounds. Amer. Jour. of Botany,
+      Vol. 13: pp. 548-574. 1926.
+
+      Foster, A. C. and Tatman, E. C. Influence of certain
+      environment conditions of congestion of starch in tomato plant
+      stems. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 56, No. 12, pp. 869-882.
+      1938.
+
+
+      Diseases and Insects
+
+      Chupp, Chas. Manual of vegetable-garden diseases. Macmillan.
+      1925.
+
+      Kadow, K. J. and Shropshire, L. H. Tomato diseases and insect
+      pests. (Identification and control.) Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 428.
+      1935.
+
+      Weber, G. F. and Kelbert, D. G. A. Seasonal occurrence of
+      tomato diseases in Florida. Fla. Sta. Bul. 345. 1940.
+
+      Samson, R. W. and Thomas, H. Rex. Tomato diseases in Indiana.
+      Ind. Exp. Sta. Cir. 257. 1940.
+
+      Strong, M. C. Tomato diseases in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta.
+      Cir. Bul. 139. 1932.
+
+      Young, P. A., Harrison, A. L. and Altstatt, G. E. Common
+      diseases of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Cir. 86. 1940.
+
+      Horsfall, J. G., Magie, R. O. and Suit, R. F. Bordeaux injury
+      to tomatoes and its effect on ripening. N.Y. Exp. Sta.
+      Geneva. Tech. Bul. 251. 1938.
+
+      Ramsey, G. B. and Link, G. K. K. Market diseases of fruits and
+      vegetables: Tomatoes, peppers, eggplants. U.S. Dept. of Agr.
+      Misc. Pub. 121. 1932.
+
+
+      Marketing
+
+      Parsons, F. E. Preparation of fresh tomatoes for market. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1291. Rev. 1930.
+
+      Wright, R. C. and Gorman, E. A., Jr. Ripening and repacking of
+      mature green tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 566. 1940.
+
+      Sando, Charles E. The process of ripening in the tomato,
+      considered especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Bul. 859. 1920.
+
+      Wright, R. C., Pentzer, W. T. et al. Effect of various
+      temperatures on the storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931.
+
+      Frazier, W. A. Cracks in tomato fruits. American Soc. for
+      Hort. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 519-523. 1934.
+
+      Brown, H. D. and Price, C. V. Effect of irrigation, degree of
+      maturity and shading upon yield and degree of cracking of
+      tomatoes. Amer. Soc. for Horti. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 524-528.
+      1934.
+
+      Yarnell, S. H., Friend, W. H. and Wood, J. F. Factors
+      affecting the amount of puffing in tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 541. 1937.
+
+      LeCrone, Freddie and Haber, E. S. Changes in the pectic
+      constituents of tomatoes in storage. Iowa State College Jour.
+      of Sci. Vol. 12, No. 4. pp. 467-476. 1933. Good biblio.
+
+      Work, Paul. Ethylene ripening of tomatoes in relation to stage
+      of maturity. Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci. 1928. pp. 61-64.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the
+      tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931.
+
+      Vogele, A. C. Effect of environmental factors upon the color
+      of the tomato and the watermelon. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12,
+      pp. 929-955. 1937.
+
+      Lanham, W. B. Effect of potash fertilizer on the carrying
+      quality of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 357. 1927.
+
+      Wardlaw, C. W., and McGuire, L. P. The storage of
+      tropically-grown tomatoes. (Low Temp. Sta., Imperial College
+      of Tropical Agr. Trinidad, B.W.I.) E.M.B. 59. 1932.
+
+      Rosa, J. T. Ripening and storage of tomatoes. 1926 Proceedings
+      of the American Soc. for Hort. Sci. pp. 1-10.
+
+      Haber, E. S. Acidity and color changes in tomatoes under
+      various storage temperatures. Iowa State College Jour. of Sci.
+      Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 171-184. 1931.
+
+      Diehl, H. C. The chilling of tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agri.
+      Dept. Cir. 315. 1924.
+
+      Some problems in marketing tomatoes grown in the lower Rio
+      Grande Valley of Texas. U.S. Dept. of Agri. Marketing
+      Information Series G.C.M.4. 1938.
+
+
+      Costs and Economics
+
+      Campbell, C. E. An economic study of tomato production for
+      canning in Arkansas. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 225. 1928.
+
+      Walker, W. P. An economic study of the production of tomatoes
+      in Maryland. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 304. 1929.
+
+      Montgomery, T. M. Jr., and Efferson, J. N. A cost of
+      production study of tomatoes in North Louisiana, 1939. La.
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 329. 1941.
+
+      Carncross, J. W., Cathcart, C. S. et al. Economic review of
+      New Jersey Agriculture. Ext. Service No. 72. pp. 89-96. 1931.
+
+      Carncross, J. W. and Nissley, C. H. New Jersey Can-house
+      tomato production. Costs and recommendations for 1932. N.J.
+      Ext. Bul. 96. 1932.
+
+      Hawthorne, H. W. Cost of production of tomatoes (20 states
+      1913-1934) Mimeo. Bul. of Agr. Eco., U.S. Dept. of Agr., Nov.
+      1936.
+
+
+
+
+  INDEX
+
+
+    Ammo-phos, 35
+
+    Aphis, 90
+
+    Arnon, D. I., 20
+
+    Arthur, J. M., 21
+
+
+    Barrons, K. C., 47
+
+    Bison, 46
+
+    Blight, 86, 88
+
+    Blocking plants, 62
+
+    Blossom end rot, 83
+
+    Bonny Best, 47
+
+    Botany, 20
+
+    Bounty, 47
+
+    Breeding, 38
+
+
+    Cannery, 14, 54, 108, 113, 117
+
+    Carbohydrate, 29
+
+    Car loading, 105
+
+    Certification, plants, 57
+
+    Certification, seeds, 41
+
+    Chalk Jewel, 47
+
+    Chili sauce, 14
+
+    Chromosomes, 41
+
+    Climate, 20, 71
+
+    Cochran, H. L., 23
+
+    Cold frames, 57
+
+    Comet, 50
+
+    Composition, 15
+
+    Compost, 63
+
+    Condiments, 14
+
+    Costs, 17, 117
+
+    Cracking, 83
+
+    Crown Seed, 40
+
+    Cultivation, 75
+
+    Curly top, 88
+
+    Cut worms, 91
+
+
+    Damping off, 65, 90
+
+    Description of tomato, 20
+
+    Determinate habit, 22
+
+    Dirt bands, 57, 62
+
+    Diseases, 85
+
+
+    Earliana, 46
+
+    Earliness, 33, 53
+
+    Economics, 11, 16, 116
+
+    Embryo, 38
+
+    Emerson, R. A., 78
+
+
+    Fertilization, 25
+
+    Field containers, 94
+
+    Flats for plants, 60
+
+    Flea beetles, 92
+
+    Floral characters, 22
+
+    Forcing, 18
+
+    Fruitfulness, 29
+
+    Fruit worm, 91
+
+    Fusarium, 38, 42, 49, 50, 86
+
+
+    Geography, 17
+
+    Germination, 38
+
+    Grading, 100
+
+    Greater Baltimore, 50
+
+    Green wraps, 96
+
+    Greenhouse culture, 18
+
+    Greenhouses for plant growing, 58
+
+    Ground cherry, 51
+
+    Gulf State Market, 50
+
+    Guthrie, J. D., 21
+
+
+    Hardening, 68
+
+    Harvesting, 93
+
+    Harvey, R. B., 69
+
+    Hepler, J. H., 33
+
+    Heterosis, 39
+
+    History, 15
+
+    Hitchcock, A. E., 24
+
+    Hoagland, D. R., 20
+
+    Home garden, 11, 26, 54, 79
+
+    Home Garden, variety, 47
+
+    Horn worms, 92
+
+    Hot beds, 57
+
+    Howlett, F. S., 24
+
+    Husk tomato, 51
+
+    Hybrid vigor, 39
+
+
+    Ideal variety, 42
+
+    Immature green, 95
+
+    Insects, 91
+
+    Internal nutrition, 29
+
+    Irrigation, 76
+
+
+    Jamison, F. S., 98
+
+    John Baer, 47
+
+    Juice, 14
+
+
+    Ketchup, 14
+
+    King Humbert, 51
+
+    Klebs, 29
+
+    Kraus, E. J., 29
+
+    Kraybill, H. R., 29, 33
+
+
+    Lanham, W. B., 34
+
+    Leaf blight, 86, 88
+
+    Lime, 25
+
+    Lindstrom, E. W., 41
+
+    Longevity, 38
+
+    Loomis, W. E., 66, 69
+
+    Lug box, 103
+
+
+    MacGillivray, J. H., 33, 95
+
+    Mack, W. B., 35
+
+    Manure, animal, 34
+
+    Marglobe, 48
+
+    Market diseases, 90
+
+    Marketing, 93
+
+    Mature green, 95
+
+    Maturity, 94
+
+    Mosaic, 88
+
+    Mulch, 76, 78
+
+    Murneek, A. E., 31
+
+    Myers, C. E., 47
+
+
+    Newell, J. M., 21
+
+    Nitrogen, 26, 28, 37
+
+    Nutritive value, 11, 15, 18
+
+
+    Packing, 103
+
+    Parthenocarpy, 24
+
+    Penn State, 47
+
+    Per capita consumption, 18
+
+    Phosphorus, 26, 32, 35
+
+    Physalis, 51
+
+    Placement of fertilizer, 35
+
+    Plant beds, open, 56
+
+    Plants for transplanting, 53
+
+    Pollination, 23, 39
+
+    Ponderosa, 51
+
+    Potash, 26, 34
+
+    Potassium nitrate, 35
+
+    Potato beetle, 91
+
+    Pots, clay, 60
+
+    Pots, paper, 60
+
+    Price, 16
+
+    Pritchard, variety, 50
+
+    Pritchard, F. J., Frontispiece, 48, 87
+
+    Protectors, 72
+
+    Pruning, 67, 79
+
+    Puffiness, 102
+
+    Purdum, L. W., & Sons, 78
+
+    Puree and paste, 14
+
+
+    Rahn, E. M., 35
+
+    References, 11, 12, 119
+
+    Requirements, 20
+
+    Ripening, 96
+
+    Roadside selling, 112
+
+    Rosa, J. T., 69
+
+    Running to vine, 29
+
+    Rutgers, 50
+
+
+    Sando, C. E., 96
+
+    San Marzano, 51
+
+    Saving seed, 39, 40
+
+    Sayre, C. B., 35
+
+    Scarlet Dawn, 48
+
+    Seed, 38
+
+    Seed Sowing, 56, 63
+
+    Seed treatment, 63
+
+    Seedless fruits, 24
+
+    Selection, 40
+
+    Selling, 93, 110
+
+    Septoria, 86
+
+    Setting fruit, 29
+
+    Side dressing, 35, 37
+
+    Smith, Ora, 23
+
+    Soil, field, 25
+
+    Soil, plant growing, 63
+
+    Solution culture, 18
+
+    Southern plants, 56
+
+    Spacing in field, 73
+
+    Staking, 79
+
+    Stalk borer, 92
+
+    Starter solutions, 35, 75
+
+    Statistics, 16
+
+    Sterilizing soil, 63, 90
+
+    Stokesdale, 48
+
+    Stout, G. J., 35
+
+    Sunscald, 83
+
+
+    Temperature for plant growing, 65
+
+    Thompson, H. C, 82, 83, 98
+
+    Tiedjens, V. H., 37
+
+    Training, 79
+
+    Transplanters, 74
+
+    Transplanting, 66, 74
+
+    Trellis system, 79
+
+
+    Uses, 14
+
+
+    Varieties, 46
+
+    Vegetation and fruitfulness, 29
+
+    Victor, 47
+
+    Virus, 88
+
+
+    Water culture, 18
+
+    Watering, 74
+
+    Watering plants, 65
+
+    Watts, V. M., 70
+
+    Wellington, Richard, 39
+
+    Work, Paul, 31
+
+    Wright, R. C., 98
+
+
+    Yeager, A. F., 46, 47
+
+    Yellows (See also fusarium), 88
+
+    Yield, 16, 17, 117
+
+
+    Zimmerman, P. W., 24
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] Hoagland, D. R. and Arnon, D. I. The water culture method for
+growing plants without soil. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 347. Dec. 1938.
+
+[2] Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, J. M. Some effects of
+artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition of plants.
+Amer. Jour. Bot. 17:416-482. 1930.
+
+[3] Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen
+germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Memoir 175. 1935.
+
+[4] Howlett, F. S. Use of chemicals to stimulate fruitfulness in
+tomatoes. Veg. Growers Asso. of America Rept. 1941, pp. 203-214. 1941.
+
+Zimmerman, P. W. and Hitchcock, A. E. Formative effects induced with
+B-Naphthoxyacetic acid. Contribution from Boyce Thompson Inst.
+Vol. 12 #1, April-June, 1941.
+
+[5] Fertilizer recommendations are best given in form of pounds per acre
+of nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P_{2}O_{5}) and potash (K_{2}O). These
+figures are then translated into pounds per acre of materials or of
+mixed fertilizers.
+
+[6] Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction with
+special reference to the tomato. Oreg. Bul. 149. 1918.
+
+[7] Work, Paul. Nitrate of Soda in the nutrition of the tomato. Cornell
+Memoir 75. 1924.
+
+[8] Murneek, A. E. The effects of fruit on vegetative growth in plants.
+Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Rpt. 1924, pp. 274-276.
+
+[9] MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of the
+tomato plant. Jour. Agr. Res. 34: 97-127. 1927.
+
+[10] Hepler, J. H. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon yield
+and maturity of the tomato. N. H. Tech. Bul. 28. 1925.
+
+[11] Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J., and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer experiments
+with tomatoes. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940.
+
+[12] Sayre, C. B. Starter Solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Expt. Sta.)
+Vols. V, VI, and VII, No. 2, April, 1939, 1940, and 1941.
+
+[13] Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato crosses
+and their parents. Minn. Tech. Bul. 6. 1922.
+
+[14] Loomis, W. E. Studies in the transplanting of vegetable plants.
+Cornell Memoir 87. 1925.
+
+[15] Watts, V. M. Factors affecting production of wrinkled tomato
+fruits. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30: 513-517. 1934.
+
+[16] Emerson, R. A. Experiments in mulching garden vegetables. Neb. Bul.
+80. 1903.
+
+[17] Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Sta. Bul.
+580. 1934.
+
+[18] MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in canning.
+Ind. Bul. 350. 1931.
+
+[19] Sando, C. E. The process of ripening in the tomato, considered
+especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S.D.A. Bul. 859. 1920.
+
+[20] Wright, R. C. et al. Effect of various storage temperatures on
+storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931.
+
+[21] Platenius, H., Jamison, F. S., and Thompson, H. C. Studies on cold
+storage of vegetables. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 602. 1934.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
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+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
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+Title: The Tomato
+
+Author: Paul Work
+
+Release Date: November 18, 2011 [EBook #38051]
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOMATO ***
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+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Betsie Bush, Scanned by Ray
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+</pre>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h1>THE TOMATO</h1>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> </p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>THE TOMATO</h1>
+<h4><i>By</i></h4>
+<h2>PAUL WORK</h2>
+<p class="center"><i>Professor of Vegetable Crops, Cornell University<br />
+    Editor of Market Growers Journal</i></p>
+<p class="center">&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></h3>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> <img src="images/i002.jpg" width="100" height="93" alt="logo" /> </div>
+<h4>NEW YORK</h4>
+<h3><span class="smcap">ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, Inc.<br />
+    </span>1945</h3>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1942, by</span></h4>
+<h4>ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.</h4>
+<h5>PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</h5>
+
+    <div align="center">
+
+    <table border="0" summary="copyright" width="340">
+        <tr>
+            <td><p class="center" style="text-align: justify"><i>This book or any part thereof, may not be reproduced
+                    without permission of the publishers, except
+                    by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages
+                    in connection with a review written for inclusion&nbsp;
+                    in a magazine or newspaper.</i></p></td>
+        </tr>
+    </table>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention<br />
+    of the Pan American Republics and the<br />
+    United States. August 11, 1910</p>
+<p class="center">&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;"> <img src="images/i004.jpg" width="349" height="600" alt="FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD&lt;/p&gt;
+
+&lt;p&gt;1874-1931&lt;/p&gt;
+
+&lt;p&gt;Originator of tomato varieties of improved type
+and resistant to disease" title="" /> <span class="caption">FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD<br />
+    1874-1931<br />
+    <i>Originator of tomato varieties of improved type
+    and resistant to disease</i></span> </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2>
+<div class="center">
+    <table border="0" summary="toc" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="80%">
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
+            <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Introduction</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">I.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Tomato is a Great Food and Crop Plant</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">II.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Choose the Soil and Feed the Plant</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">III.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Best in Seed is None too Good</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">IV.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Strong Plants for Early Maturity and Heavy Crop</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">V.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Good Culture Favors Good Returns</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">VI.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To Train Them Up or Let Them Spread</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">VII.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Eternal Battle with Insects and Diseases</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">VIII.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Skillful Selling Crowns the Enterprise</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">IX.</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Operating in the Red or in the Black</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; References</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right">&nbsp;</td>
+            <td align="left"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Index</span></td>
+            <td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+        </tr>
+    </table>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+    <div align="center">
+
+    <table border="0" summary="toc" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="80%">
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+                F. J. Pritchard</td>
+            <td align="right" colspan="2"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left" colspan="4"><small>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; FIGURE</small></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">1.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i017">The tomato is the leader among greenhouse vegetables</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">19</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">2.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i020">The tomato flower</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">22</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">3.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i021">Long section of tomato flower</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">23</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">4.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i025">How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato growth</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">27</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">5.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i031">Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">33</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">6.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i034">Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">36</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">7.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i041">Types of tomato interiors</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">43</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">8.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i043">The Earliana tomato</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">45</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">9.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i046">Marglobe plant</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">48</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">10.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i047">Marglobe fruit</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">49</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">11.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i056">A good small greenhouse for plant growing</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">58</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">12.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i059">Plants for the early crop</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">61</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">13.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i064">Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">64</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">14.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i067">Plants that have been crowded and overgrown</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">69</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">15.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i078">Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">80</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">16.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i079">Fine clusters on trained plants</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">81</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">17.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i085">Resistance to fusarium wilt</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">87</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">18.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i087">Diseases of the tomato</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">89</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">19.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i097">Packing tomatoes on a farm</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">99</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">20.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#i099">A California packing house</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">101</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">21.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#fig21">Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">102</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">22.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#fig22">The lug box</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">104</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">23.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#fig23">Lug boxes as loaded in car</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">105</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">24.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#fig24">The square braid basket</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">106</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">25.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#fig25">The Connecticut half bushel box</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">107</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">26.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#fig26">Repacked tomatoes</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">108</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="right" width="10%">27.</td>
+            <td align="left" colspan="2">&nbsp; <a href="#fig27">Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes</a></td>
+            <td align="right" width="14%">109</td>
+        </tr>
+    </table>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+<p>Why should there be a book on tomatoes? The
+    world is full of bulletins of experiment stations,
+    of articles in periodicals and of general books on
+    vegetables which include discussion of tomatoes.</p>
+<p>An incomplete set of tomato bulletins includes
+    over 350 documents. Many of these are no longer
+    available. Many are of no great value but contribute
+    this or that small item.</p>
+<p>The task of a book like this is to offer between
+    two covers, a summary of what seem the most significant
+    facts and opinions about the third most
+    important vegetable crop in the United States.</p>
+<p>The tomato is one of the most rewarding crops
+    for the home garden. A little space yields heavily,
+    from half a peck to a peck per plant without difficulty.
+    It grows well practically everywhere in the
+    States, affording high nutritional values whether
+    used fresh or canned. And people do like tomatoes,
+    whether as salad, cooked vegetable, or
+    condiment.</p>
+<p>Competition among growers and among districts
+    makes three elements necessary for commercial <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> success:&mdash;quality in the goods, economy in
+    production, and effectiveness in marketing.</p>
+<p>The grower must know his plant, what it is like
+    and how it behaves under various conditions and
+    treatments. Then, he needs an understanding of
+    the economic factors that surround his enterprise.</p>
+<p>Conditions in various sections and production
+    for various purposes are so diverse that dogmatic
+    statement and general advice are precluded. The
+    aim is rather by means of available information to
+    help the reader to an understanding that will
+    enable him to answer his own questions for his
+    own conditions and this far better than any broad
+    prescription could possibly do. Principles, possible
+    practices and examples of field programs are
+    offered as guides for self-help for home, school,
+    hobby as well as commercial production.</p>
+<p>A person who studies on this basis will not be
+    thwarted by a sudden shift of weather or market
+    but will have at hand the necessary facts and ideas
+    to adjust his plan to changed conditions.</p>
+<p>No attempt has been made toward complete citation
+    of reference. Those given will lead to others
+    making possible a full survey of the extensive literature.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>The Tomato</h2>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>I</h2>
+<h2>THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD<br />
+    AND CROP PLANT</h2>
+<p>Vegetable, Fruit or Berry,&mdash;what is the tomato?
+    A standard query this is and many an argument
+    has raged about it. The answer is easy. It is all
+    three. By culture and use, it is a vegetable; botanically
+    it is a fruit and among the fruits, it is a
+    berry being indehiscent (non-shedding), pulpy,
+    with one or more seeds that are not stones. And
+    they say the tomato is more truly a berry than the
+    raspberry.</p>
+<p>But that doesn't make much difference. The
+    thing that matters is that people like the tomato.
+    It is easy to grow and nearly every home garden
+    has it. It is good to look upon&mdash;shapely, colorful
+    and of glossy sheen. A trained single stem plant
+    with ripening fruit is a genuine ornament in the
+    garden. It is most gratifying to the palate, fresh
+    or cooked; soft and grainy, smooth and juicy in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> texture, sweet and tart and with an appealing
+    flavor all of its own that few fail to relish. As
+    juice or cocktail, adding color and flavor to soup,
+    as condiment or as side dish with the entree, as
+    salad freshly sliced or in jell, it is welcome with almost
+    every course and some ingenious chef or,
+    more likely, some clever housewife will, one of
+    these days, fashion from it the dessert supreme.</p>
+<p>Nor have we exhausted the list of forms in
+    which the tomato may be served. In addition to
+    its simplest cooked form, stewed or turned hot
+    from the can, it may also be baked, stuffed or not,
+    or it may be escalloped and cooked with rice, spaghetti
+    or other foods. Fried, before fully ripe, and
+    served with brown gravy, it is most popular in
+    many a home.</p>
+<p>Ketchup or catsup is one of our most widely
+    used condiments and chili sauce many like even
+    better. Green tomato pickles, chow chow, piccalilli
+    carry the piquant tang of the tomato to enliven
+    the winter table. And tomato juice, plain or
+    dressed up with spices, vinegar or lemon juice has
+    become a great staple of our groceries, a standard
+    send-off for any meal from breakfast snatched on
+    the morning sprint to work on through to the
+    most elaborate of banquets.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
+<p>The tomato, by reason of its natural acidity, is
+    readily sterilized and so can be preserved easily in
+    glass or tin. It ranks first among the &quot;big three&quot;
+    canned vegetables; the other two being sweet corn
+    and peas. By far the great bulk that goes to the
+    factory is put up with the addition of nothing
+    more than salt. In addition to the condiments,
+    puree and paste are manufactured in commercial
+    quantities. The Italians dry tomatoes extensively
+    in the sun, slicing the fruits, and later flavoring
+    them to taste for various winter uses.</p>
+<p>Though the tomato was not recognized as a valuable
+    food until about a century ago, its merit is
+    now universally accepted. Bob Adams used to
+    call it &quot;the poor man's orange&quot; for it is rich in
+    vitamins and in malic and citric acid, possessing
+    besides, a fine appetizing flavor which is as truly a
+    value in nutrition as it is a pleasure.</p>
+<p>Actually, the tomato is mostly water, of rather
+    low protein and carbohydrate content but this
+    does not detract, for other foods are dependable
+    for these staples of nutrition and most of us eat
+    too much of them.</p>
+<p>The tomato is a youngster among the vegetables.
+    In contrast to the onion of Egyptian lore
+    and the cucumber reputed to have been used in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> Western Asia many centuries ago, the tomato is
+    not reported until the herbalists of the 16th century
+    recorded its culture in Italy and England&mdash;but
+    with little of the esteem now accorded. The
+    name seems to be of Aztec origin and two distinct
+    wild forms&mdash;one corresponding to our cherry or
+    currant varieties and the other to our larger, flatter,
+    less regular fruits of many cells,&mdash;are to be
+    found wild in Latin America. Its American origin
+    is generally accepted.</p>
+<p>Commercially, the tomato is a great crop.
+    Among the vegetables, it is outranked only by the
+    potato and the sweet potato.</p>
+<p>The following table gives a few figures on the
+    tomato crop:</p>
+
+    <div align="center">
+
+    <table border="0" summary="crop" width="80%" cellpadding="2"
+ style="border-collapse: collapse">
+        <tr>
+            <td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+            <td rowspan="2" align="center"><i>1929-38<br />
+                Average</i></td>
+            <td colspan="2" align="center"><i>Acres<br />
+                Thousands</i></td>
+            <td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Value<br />
+                Million dollars</i></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="center"><i>1939</i></td>
+            <td align="center"><i>1940</i></td>
+            <td align="center"><i>1929-38<br />
+                Average</i></td>
+            <td align="center"><i>1939</i></td>
+            <td align="center"><i>1940</i></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">U.S. for canning</td>
+            <td align="center">369</td>
+            <td align="center">358</td>
+            <td align="center">386</td>
+            <td align="center">19</td>
+            <td align="center">24</td>
+            <td align="center">24</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="center">for fresh market</td>
+            <td align="center">177</td>
+            <td align="center">210</td>
+            <td align="center">204</td>
+            <td align="center">24</td>
+            <td align="center">34</td>
+            <td align="center">29</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="center">Total </td>
+            <td align="center">546</td>
+            <td align="center">568</td>
+            <td align="center">590</td>
+            <td align="center">43</td>
+            <td align="center">58</td>
+            <td align="center">53</td>
+        </tr>
+    </table>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Average yield for market is about 116 bushels
+    per acre and the average price $1.26 per bushel. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> The government reckons a bushel at 53 pounds,
+    or about 38 bushels per ton.</p>
+<p>The average cannery yield for 1929-38 was 4.15
+    tons; for 1939, 5.58 tons; and 1940, 5.39 tons. This
+    shows a material increase. The average cannery
+    price for 1929-38 was $12.54 per ton. Yields by
+    states varied widely in 1940 from 2.7 tons per acre
+    in Arkansas with Indiana at 5.5 to 7.5 in California.
+    In northeastern states, it is considered that
+    about a seven ton yield is necessary for the farmer
+    to break even. In New York, it costs about $60.00
+    to grow an acre of tomatoes to first picking. With
+    a good yield, picking and delivery costs about
+    $3.00 a ton.</p>
+<p>Leading market states are Texas, 40,000 acres;
+    Florida, 31,000 and California, 22,000. Tomatoes
+    are grown in a very large number of states&mdash;23 or
+    24 states showing 1,000 acres or more for market.</p>
+<p>Leading cannery states are Indiana, 74,000
+    acres; California, 52,000; Maryland, 51,000; and
+    New Jersey, 33,000. California, also Pennsylvania
+    and Ohio have shown recent large gains.</p>
+<p>Large quantities grown in town and country
+    home gardens are not included in these figures
+    and probably also many grown on small scale for
+    market.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p>
+<p>After all, however, the United States Department
+    of Agriculture estimated per capita consumption
+    of fresh tomatoes at 17.7 pounds, about
+    one medium sized fruit per week per person. Consumption
+    of canned tomatoes is less than a third
+    of the fresh consumption. These figures include
+    estimates for rural and urban home gardens. So,
+    we can hardly be said to be gluttons for tomatoes
+    nor even to meet a fair health standard, even considering
+    all vegetables together. After all, it does
+    not have to be tomatoes even though their high
+    nutritional value is <a name="i017" id="i017">recognized</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 438px;"> <img src="images/i017.jpg" width="438" height="800" alt="Figure 1.&mdash;The tomato is the leader among greenhouse
+vegetables." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 1.</span>&mdash;The
+    tomato is the leader among greenhouse vegetables.</span> </div>
+<p>In commercial greenhouses, the tomato has replaced
+    lettuce as the principal crop and it is likely
+    to remain an important under-glass crop until
+    such time as the South finds practical means of
+    getting it to market with first-class quality&mdash;perhaps,
+    harvesting the fruit when it first shows color.</p>
+<h3>Solution Culture</h3>
+<p>The tomato has been widely used in experiments
+    in solution-culture of plants, sometimes
+    called &quot;hydroponics.&quot; The method has been in
+    use for decades for research purposes, but has been
+    widely publicized of recent years as a possible <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> method of commercial culture. A high degree of
+    control of factors governing growth is undertaken
+    and difficulties are proportionately increased.
+    Hence no extensive commercial development has
+    occurred. A good presentation of the method has
+    been offered by Hoagland and Arnon. <a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+<h3>The Tomato Plant</h3>
+<p>To manage a crop, one must needs know the
+    plant. To know the various characters of the tomato
+    helps one to master its culture.</p>
+<p>The tomato belongs to the night shade family,
+    the Solanaceae of the botanist, along with the potato,
+    tobacco, petunia, pepper, eggplant, night
+    shade, jimson weed and many other plants useful
+    and noxious.</p>
+<p>The tomato is a warm-season crop, sensitive to
+    frost but reasonably resistant to heat and drought,
+    thriving under a wide range of climate and soil.
+    A frost free season of seventy-five to ninety days
+    will mature home garden tomatoes in useful quantities
+    if good plants are set but over 120 days are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> needed for economical commercial production.
+    Plant growing requires six to eight weeks previous
+    to setting out-of-doors. Each fruit requires about
+    six weeks from blossom to ripeness. The fruit
+    ripens best for yield, color and quality when the
+    weather is warm and sunny. Low temperatures
+    without frost are not favorable for growth and
+    prolonged conditions of this sort may &quot;check&quot; the
+    plant and retard the response when higher temperatures
+    come.</p>
+<p>The tomato is sensitive to extreme day-length,
+    setting fruit at 7 to 19 hours but not at 5 or 24
+    hours.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<p>The tomato responds readily to fertilizers and
+    to moisture, coming quickly into vigorous growth
+    after unfavorable conditions, unless too badly
+    stunted.</p>
+<p>As long as moisture and nutrients are available
+    and other conditions are favorable, a tomato plant
+    will continue to branch and blossom and make
+    fruit almost indefinitely. A pruned single stem
+    plant in a greenhouse at Cornell once reached a
+    length of over 40 feet during a year and a half of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> growth. Thus, it is really a herbaceous perennial
+    grown in northern climates as an annual.</p>
+<p>The plant branches freely at leaf joints but fruit
+    clusters are formed along the bare stem,&mdash;a habit
+    not common among plants. Some varieties are
+    &quot;determinate&quot; in habit, sometimes miscalled &quot;self-pruning,&quot;
+    as branches only attain limited <a name="i020" id="i020">length</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;">
+    <p style="text-align: justify"> <img src="images/i020.jpg" width="361" height="400" alt="Figure 2.&mdash;The tomato flower. Varieties differ in" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 2.</span>&mdash;The tomato flower.
+        Varieties differ in protrusion of pistil beyond the stamen column. If style is
+        too short, pollination may fail; also, if too long. A long pistil increases
+        danger of damage from heat and drying out.</span> </p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+<p>Hot, dry winds often damage floral parts and
+    the blossoms drop without setting fruit.</p>
+<p>Smith<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> has shown that pollen grains germinate
+    best at 85&deg; F., almost as well at 70&deg; F., poorly at
+    50&deg; F. and very <a name="i021" id="i021">poorly </a>at 100&deg; F.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/i021.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="Figure 3.&mdash;Long section of tomato flower." /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 3.</span>&mdash;Long section of
+    tomato flower.</span> </div>
+<p>The flowers of the tomato are borne in simple
+    racemes or, in some varieties, in compound clusters.
+    The flowers are normally on the plan of 5
+    but cultivated varieties may have six or eight <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> sepals and petals. Sepals are narrow and may be
+    as much as an inch long. Petals are united at the
+    base. Stamens are united by the anthers surrounding
+    the style and stigma. The ovary or little tomato
+    is above the calyx but, as it grows, it carries
+    corolla and stamens outward until they, with stigma
+    and style, drop off. Length of style is a fairly
+    important character in its bearing on pollination
+    and on susceptibility to heat and wind injury.</p>
+<h3>Seedless Fruits</h3>
+<p>Recent experiments by several workers have
+    demonstrated the possibilities of inducing development
+    of fruits without pollination (parthenocarpy)
+    by means of certain chemical compounds,
+    notably indolebutyric acid, although others are
+    effective.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> This method yields seedless fruits and
+    promises to be of value in insuring a yield of fruits
+    under conditions unfavorable for natural setting.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>II</h2>
+<h2>CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED<br />
+    THE PLANT</h2>
+<p>Almost anywhere that other things will grow,
+    the tomato thrives&mdash;so far as soil type is concerned.</p>
+<p>Florida grows tomatoes on coral soils that appear
+    too poor to produce any useful crop. The
+    fields of South Jersey are very sandy but tomatoes
+    do well despite costly control of moisture and fertility.
+    In some canning sections, clay loams and
+    even clay soils are used. The ideal is a medium
+    sandy loam, well supplied with humus for good
+    water holding capacity. Lighter soils are generally
+    earlier. Tomatoes on drouthy soils are likely
+    to suffer from blossom end rot as well as from
+    poor growth. Good drainage is required. Muck
+    or peat soils will grow tomatoes but they are not
+    commonly used for commercial production.</p>
+<p>Liming is not important for tomatoes even on
+    fairly acid soils, assuming, of course, that the very
+    small actual calcium requirement of the plant is
+    met. This is generally confirmed by experiments
+    but it does not preclude the merit of lime in favoring <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> green manure crops which, in turn, make the
+    soil more suitable for tomatoes.</p>
+<p>The dominant element in most sound tomato
+    fertility programs is phosphorus with nitrogen
+    second and potash third. Recommendations of
+    general application are not possible but each need
+    must be met before other beneficial additions can
+    be fully effective.</p>
+<p>In the home garden, a program that keeps up
+    fertility for other crops will suffice for tomatoes.
+    In commercial production, especially for canning,
+    where prices received are usually low, the program
+    must be neatly cut to fit the soil, the crop system,
+    the value of the tomatoes and the costs of materials.
+    A canning crop in those sections where
+    yields are almost bound to be low, will not justify
+    heavy investment in fertilizer. Where much is
+    spent for irrigation, plant growing, staking and
+    pruning, one cannot afford to curtail the fertilizer
+    investment that will bring maximum <a name="i025" id="i025">return</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+    <p style="text-align: justify"> <img src="images/i025.jpg" width="700"
+ height="450"
+ alt="Figure 4.&mdash;How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato growth. Plants, grown in quartz sand, with plenty of other nutrients," /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 4.</span>&mdash;How nitrate nitrogen
+        affects tomato growth. Plants, grown in quartz sand, with plenty of other
+        nutrients, received definite amounts of nitrate, in one application. A4, None.
+        D5, 8 grams. F2, 32 grams. J4, 256 grams. N4, Soil and manure. (1 ounce = about
+        28 grams).</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The task of this chapter is not to tell the grower
+    how best to provide fertilizer for tomatoes but to
+    help him in making his own plan for his own
+    need. Research results and practical experience
+    both contribute. One may well consult neighbors, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> county agent and extension specialist, as well as
+    the many books and bulletins that are available.</p>
+<h3>Nitrogen</h3>
+<p>Nitrogen is very important to insure the growth
+    of vine without which a good crop may not be
+    expected. Lands vary more widely in nitrogen
+    content than in phosphorus and potash. Sandy
+    soils are commonly deficient in this element and
+    often difficult to keep supplied. Here liberal applications
+    are needed. Up to a hundred pounds <a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of actual nitrogen may prove profitable where
+    other conditions justify. Heavier soils, well managed
+    and manured during rotation, require less
+    nitrogen and fair results may be obtained with no
+    fertilizer where investment must be kept to a
+    minimum.</p>
+<p>Form of nitrogen to be used is largely a matter
+    of economy though nitrate for part of it may be
+    desirable early in the season when soil is cold and
+    nitrification slow. Nitrate is desirable for side <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> dressing but even here ammonia and other forms
+    are now considered suitable when the soil is
+    warm.</p>
+<h3>Failure to Set Fruit</h3>
+<p>Why do tomatoes sometimes run to vine with
+    failure to set fruit? This is an old, old query and,
+    since 1918, has been, directly or indirectly, the
+    occasion of more research projects than any other
+    horticultural topic. Kraus and Kraybill <a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> set the
+    ball a-rolling with a paper which called attention
+    first to the observations of Klebs in Germany
+    in which he emphasized the fact that external
+    conditions influence conditions within the plant
+    which in turn influence performance&mdash;a veritable
+    chain of causation. Kraus and Kraybill then undertook
+    to relate performance (vegetative growth
+    and fruitfulness) to internal conditions, chiefly
+    carbohydrate and nitrogen content of the plant
+    tissues. These, in turn, were traced back to treatments
+    applied to the soil.</p>
+<p>They suggested four combinations of vegetation
+    and fruitfulness in plants as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>1. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. Plants <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> whose carbohydrate supply has been cut off, say by
+        removal of leaves which make carbohydrates.
+        These plants were low in carbohydrate and high
+        in nitrogen.</p>
+    <p>2. Vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants
+        were well supplied with both carbohydrates and
+        nitrogen. They were of the sort we describe as
+        having &quot;run to vine.&quot;</p>
+    <p>3. Vegetative and fruitful. These plants were
+        well supplied with carbohydrates, but not so liberally
+        supplied with nitrogen, thus, providing a
+        balance between the two that was favorable for
+        a good crop.</p>
+    <p>4. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. These
+        plants had ample opportunity for carbohydrate
+        making, but were underfed with nitrogen and so
+        could not perform well in either vegetation or
+        fruit-making.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Kraus and Kraybill conclude that there are
+    certain balances between these two groups of compounds&mdash;nitrogenous
+    and carbohydrate&mdash;which determine
+    the nature of the plant's performance&mdash;whether
+    there will be too little vegetative
+    growth to permit a crop, whether the plants will
+    &quot;run to vine&quot; or whether they will show good
+    growth of both foliage and fruit.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+<p>From experiments in the same field, using definite
+    amounts of nitrate of soda per plant, Work <a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> concluded that while adequate carbohydrate supply
+    is necessary for fruiting, excess carbohydrate
+    did not, in itself, occasion unfruitfulness but was
+    more likely to represent an accumulation of material
+    unused by reason of deficiency in some
+    other factor&mdash;often nitrogen.</p>
+<p>It was shown that nitrate of soda does not injure
+    tomatoes until a concentration in the soil is
+    attained which is strong enough to plasmolyze the
+    cells, that is to withdraw water from them by
+    osmosis. Nor were a wide variety of nitrogen and
+    moisture and manure treatments sufficient to induce
+    the Bonny Best variety to &quot;run to vine.&quot;
+    Some varieties are subject to this trouble, mostly
+    of the large, late types.</p>
+<p>Murneek<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> has shown that the fruitfulness of a
+    plant may greatly affect its internal condition, its
+    vegetative performance and its later setting of
+    fruit. A heavy load of developing fruit, with limited
+    soil resources, tends to limit growth and setting.
+    Removal of fruit induces renewal of vegetative <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> growth and of fruit setting. Failure to set
+    fruit favors vigorous vine growth. This failure
+    may be traceable to various causes. (1) To damage
+    to floral parts as the blasting of the pistil by heat
+    and drouth. Flowers of some varieties show tendency
+    toward elongation of pistils with subsequent
+    failure to develop normal fruit. Smith and Howlett
+    have shown that environmental conditions as
+    well as heredity influence this elongation. (2) To
+    injury by insects as thrips. (3) To the character
+    of the variety used, the Bonny group being very
+    slightly susceptible to failure from over feeding
+    with nitrogen while some late sorts readily &quot;run
+    to vine.&quot; (4) Shortage of nutrient elements as nitrogen
+    or phosphorus or others. (5) Lack of adequate
+    light or short day. In such cases, there may
+    be excess of nitrogen for current need with resultant
+    over-development of leafage. Thus, excess
+    vegetative growth may be a result as well as a
+    cause of poor setting.</p>
+<h3>Phosphorus</h3>
+<p>Fertilizer experiments fairly generally point to
+    the frequency with which phosphorus is the limiting
+    factor among nutrients in tomato production. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> MacGillivray<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> has studied the phosphorus content
+    of the various parts of the plant, concluding
+    that this element is important throughout and not
+    alone in seed making or in rapidly growing parts
+    as has been believed. Hepler and Kraybill<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> found
+    some years ago and others more recently have confirmed
+    the influence of liberal phosphorus treatments
+    upon <a name="i031" id="i031">earliness</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> <img src="images/i031.jpg" width="800" height="532" alt="Figure 5.&mdash;Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer
+in Western New York." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 5.</span>&mdash;Effect
+    of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer in Western New York.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Potash</h3>
+<p>The potash requirement of the tomato has not
+    been as thoroughly studied as the requirement
+    for the other two major elements. It is thought
+    that potash has a part in building up sugars into
+    more complex carbohydrates.</p>
+<p>The consensus of fertilizer experiments suggests
+    that potash is less important on most soils than
+    phosphorus and nitrogen but that if these elements
+    are in good supply, increased yields from
+    potash are likely.</p>
+<p>Lanham in Texas was unable to find a relation
+    between potash fertilization and resistance to
+    shipping hazards.</p>
+<h3>Stable Manure</h3>
+<p>Stable manure has long been recognized as useful
+    for tomatoes. It is generally considered better
+    to apply it to the preceding crop or at least the
+    preceding fall than to use it just before setting of
+    plants. If spring application is necessary, it is better
+    to use well rotted manure. Stable manure is
+    low in phosphorus. An approximate statement
+    would be that 10 tons of manure is roughly equivalent <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> to one ton of a 6-3-6 fertilizer. Thus, 1,000
+    pounds of 18% superphosphate would bring the
+    analysis to 6-12-6 which would be generally regarded
+    as a good balance.</p>
+<p>A recent publication<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> from Pennsylvania emphasizes
+    the value of manures and of phosphorus.</p>
+<h3>Placement and Side Dressing</h3>
+<p>Recent experiments have shown the desirability
+    of placing fertilizer close to but not in contact
+    with the roots of the young plants. When newly
+    set and before new roots have developed is the
+    time when nutrient material close at hand is
+    needed to give the plant a vigorous send-off.
+    Transplanters have been devised with attachments
+    to place the fertilizer in bands at each side
+    of the row of tomatoes and about two inches deep.</p>
+<p>Recent experiments, notably by Sayre<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> of New
+    York, have shown the advantage of dissolving fertilizer
+    materials in the water used for transplanting
+    tomatoes. One combination of materials
+    consists of ammo-phos, 14-48, 2 parts and potassium <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> nitrate, 1 part. Five to eight pounds of this
+    mixture are dissolved in 50 gallons of water and
+    about &frac14; pint or &frac12; cup is applied to each plant,
+    usually by the transplanting machine. There are
+    other suitable mixtures of nutrients for this purpose.
+    A very small investment in starter solutions
+    has shown material increase in total yield. The
+    practice places immediately available nutrients in
+    the soil at the time and place to be of maximum
+    usefulness to plants that have been severely root-pruned
+    and have not yet had opportunity to rebuild
+    the root <a name="i034" id="i034">system</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> <img src="images/i034.jpg" width="800" height="571" alt="
+Courtesy Campbell Soup Co. Figure 6.&mdash;Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 6.</span>&mdash;Cultivating and
+    side-dressing tomatoes.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p>
+<p>Another critical stage in tomato growth comes
+    when much fruit has been set in the clusters and
+    demands upon plant and soil are especially heavy.
+    At this stage, side dressing with nitrogen is helpful
+    in maintaining plant growth and providing
+    resources for growth and maturing of fruit. On
+    sandy or nutrient-deficient soils, more than one
+    side dressing may be advisable. Sodium nitrate
+    is commonly used but other materials are suitable
+    after the soil has warmed up. Side dressing with
+    fertilizer in solution has been recommended recently
+    by Tiedjens of New Jersey.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>III</h2>
+<h2>THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE<br />
+    TOO GOOD</h2>
+<p>A tomato crop may be much poorer than the
+    seed from which it grows but it can be no better.</p>
+<p>The tomato seed is short-oval and flattened in
+    shape, covered thickly with short silky hairs. The
+    embryo or baby plant is coiled in a spiral and imbedded
+    in the endosperm (reserve food supply).
+    Three or four years is generally given as the life
+    of the seed but it often remains viable much
+    longer&mdash;up to 10 or 12 years in extreme cases.
+    Good seed should germinate 85% to 90%.</p>
+<p>Tomato seed sprouts readily, requiring fairly
+    warm temperature, say, 70&deg; to 75&deg; F. for best results.
+    It germinates very slowly at 40&deg; to 50&deg; F.</p>
+<h3>Breeding</h3>
+<p>Being a major vegetable crop, the tomato has
+    received much attention from plant breeders.
+    Objectives sought include good cannery type, resistance
+    to the fusarium wilt and other diseases, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> better greenhouse forms, improved general market
+    and home garden sorts, and varieties adapted
+    for arduous conditions such as hot and dry summers
+    or very short growing seasons.</p>
+<p>The tomato is largely but not wholly self pollinated
+    and pollen is not carried far. Thus, it is
+    not difficult to breed to practically a pure-line
+    condition.</p>
+<p>Tomatoes for seed are usually ground up and
+    the seed and fine pulp are separated from the
+    skins and coarse material by screening. The juice,
+    fine pulp and seeds are allowed to ferment from
+    24 to 48 hours, or until the jelly-like pulp is readily
+    washed away. After washing, the seed is dried
+    in thin layers and stored. A bushel of tomatoes
+    may be expected to yield 2&frac12; to 4 ounces of seed
+    and an acre of tomatoes, from 100 to 225 pounds.
+    These vary greatly according to varieties and conditions.</p>
+<p>Wellington<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> and others have shown that first
+    generation seed from crosses of suitable varieties
+    show a marked increase of vigor (heterosis or hybrid
+    vigor) over either parent or over the later
+    generations. This fact would seem to offer possibilities <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> in practical use, but it has not thus far
+    proved of value.</p>
+<h3>Selection Methods</h3>
+<p>Many growers find it profitable to save their
+    own tomato seed. The plant is an annual, the
+    important characters are quite readily observed
+    and natural crossing is not serious. For these reasons,
+    the enterprise is not as difficult as with most
+    vegetables, although, if done well, it makes heavy
+    demands in labor and care at a time when the
+    grower has much else to do.</p>
+<p>The first step in selection is to establish clearly
+    the ideal to be sought, recording it in detail on
+    paper for future reference. Selections should be
+    made on the basis of the plant, not of the individual
+    fruit. It is the plant that is reproduced and
+    the seed from &quot;crown clusters&quot; is no earlier than
+    seed from later settings. The field should be
+    searched soon after blooming time and plants that
+    appear promising should be marked. These plants
+    should be examined three or four times as the
+    season advances, and markers pulled from plants
+    that do not measure up to the desired standard.
+    Suppose ten plants remain; all fruits from each of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> these may be saved, keeping the seed of each plant
+    separate. All or part of the seed may be planted
+    in separate rows the next year for further selection
+    and to note which parents best transmit their
+    excellent points. If only a small amount of seed
+    is required, direct selections may be made for use
+    in planting for the general crop. If a larger
+    amount of seed is required, seed from one or two
+    of the best plants should be planted in multiplication
+    plats. Off-type plants should be removed
+    from such plantings, but otherwise all the seed
+    may be saved for use. Repeated selection results
+    in constant improvement until the stock becomes
+    a &quot;pure line&quot; or practically so.</p>
+<p>Lindstrom of Iowa has led in research on the
+    genetics of tomatoes, chromosome relations and
+    mode of inheritance. Many scientific papers deal
+    with inheritance methods and results. The Yearbook
+    of Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) for 1937 contains
+    a valuable chapter on tomato breeding. It
+    may also be had as Yearbook Separate 1581.</p>
+<h3>Certification</h3>
+<p>As with certain other kinds of seeds, certification
+    service for tomatoes has now been set up in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> several states. Certification is a most useful incentive
+    toward care in breeding and handling and
+    affords valuable assurance to the buyer. It is necessary
+    to know just what is guaranteed by the certificate.
+    It is at the same time wise to be informed
+    as to the inclusiveness and methods of the certification.</p>
+<h3>The Ideal Variety</h3>
+<p>In breeding for better varieties of tomatoes, the
+    following are some of the characters to be sought:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>(1) A vigorous vine which is necessary to produce
+        abundant fruit and to protect from
+        sunscald.</p>
+    <p>(2) Resistance to disease especially to fusarium.</p>
+    <p>(3) High productiveness with moderate number
+        of fruits per cluster&mdash;say, <a name="i041" id="i041">5 to 8</a>.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> <img src="images/i041.jpg" width="800" height="542" alt="Figure 7.&mdash;Types of tomato interiors. 1, 5. Small fruited sorts. 2, 6, 9. Bonny Best. 3, 7, 10. Chalk
+Jewel. 3, 7, 11. Stone. 4, 8. Earliana. 12. Ponderosa." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 7.</span>&mdash;Types of tomato
+    interiors. 1, 5. Small fruited sorts. 2, 6, 9. Bonny Best. 3, 7, 10. Chalk
+    Jewel. 3, 7, 11. Stone. 4, 8. Earliana. 12. Ponderosa.</span> </div>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>(4) Evenness of maturity. This is somewhat
+        out of line with the nature of the tomato
+        but much could be accomplished toward
+        the goal of varieties that make their crop
+        and are gone, eliminating long picking periods
+        and the drag of inferior fruit toward
+        the end of the season. The so-called determinate <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> habit of some varieties such as
+        Pritchard is a step in this direction.</p>
+    <p>(5) Size suitable for expected use and for market
+        demand. Greenhouse tomatoes are
+        generally smaller than those for cannery.
+        Uniformity of size is increasingly important
+        with wide-spread use of the lug-box pack
+        and of small consumer cartons.</p>
+    <p>(6) Globular to oblong shape is desirable for
+        market but is less important for cannery.
+        Form should be symmetrical, even and
+        smooth.</p>
+    <p>(7) Color should be deep and rich, fully and
+        evenly developed, inside and out. Red is
+        generally preferred to pink. The difference
+        between red and pink tomatoes does not
+        reside in the flesh but in the presence of
+        yellow pigment in the skin of the former
+        while the skin of the latter is without pigment.
+        Yellow tomatoes are also <a name="i043" id="i043">extan</a>t.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+    <p style="text-align: justify"> <img src="images/i043.jpg" width="800" height="542" alt="Figure 8.&mdash;The Earliana tomato. A picture of a single fruit cannot adequately describe a variety.
+1-3. Rough types, common in older strains. 4. Typical interior. 5, 6. Stem end. 7-9. Good type
+resulting from selection. 10-12. Pointed-round type occurring frequently in improved strains. A.
+Unusually large cluster. B. Typical Earliana cluster showing compound branching. C. Unbranched
+cluster of Bonny Best for comparison." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 8.</span>&mdash;he Earliana tomato. A picture of a single fruit cannot adequately describe a variety.
+        1-3. Rough types, common in older strains. 4. Typical interior. 5, 6. Stem end. 7-9. Good type
+        resulting from selection. 10-12. Pointed-round type occurring frequently in improved strains. A.
+        Unusually large cluster. B. Typical Earliana cluster showing compound branching. C. Unbranched
+        cluster of Bonny Best for comparison.</span> </p>
+</div>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>(8) Skin should be thick and tough. This safeguards
+        against damage on the way to market
+        and favors ease of peeling. Those saladists
+        who serve sliced tomatoes with skins
+        unremoved, may call for a thin, tender <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> skin but this practice finds no encouragement
+        from discriminating partakers.</p>
+    <p>(9) Flesh should be abundant in thick walls
+        with a minimum of watery pulp surrounding
+        seeds. In general, a structure of many
+        small cells is desirable.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<h3>Varieties</h3>
+<p><i>Earliana.</i>&mdash;The earliness of this old and popular
+    variety outweighs its demerits where this character
+    is required. The past ten years have seen
+    material improvement.</p>
+<p>Earliana is early, of small vine, with small
+    leaves and leaflets. Clusters are compoundly
+    branched, with many fruits. The fruits are of medium
+    size, deep oblate, cross section often elliptical
+    rather than circular. There are many rough
+    irregular fruits, varying in this respect with breeding
+    and conditions of growth. Color is red, not
+    too deep and tending to be poorly developed at
+    the stem end. Interior consists of many small cells
+    with thin walls.</p>
+<p><i>Bison.</i>&mdash;represents a group of varieties bred for
+    rigorous climates of our most northerly states. A.
+    F. Yeager formerly of North Dakota, later of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> Michigan, now of New Hampshire has led in this
+    development.</p>
+<p><i>Victor.</i>&mdash;is a new variety bred originally by
+    Yeager but introduced by K. C. Barrons of Michigan.
+    It affords smoother, deeper and better colored
+    fruits about as early as Earliana. It is determinate
+    in habit and shy in foliage, increasing
+    danger of sunscald. Rich soil and ample moisture
+    are needed for its best development. <i>Bounty</i> and <i>Home Garden</i> are similar.</p>
+<p><i>Penn State.</i>&mdash;Penn State, developed by C. E.
+    Myers of Pennsylvania, is not as early as Earliana.
+    It is similar in fruit characters though distinctly
+    better in color and shape. It is marked by short
+    branches (determinate habit) and is designed to
+    give an early crop to be followed by prompt abandonment
+    of the planting. It is not to be confused
+    with Penn State Earliana.</p>
+<p><i>Bonny Group.</i>&mdash;This group embraces our leading
+    second early varieties widely used for home
+    garden, greenhouse, market and cannery in the
+    north. It includes <i>Bonny Best</i>, <i>John Baer</i> and <i>Chalk Jewel</i> with many additional names and
+    with much confusion of characters among them.</p>
+<p>Bonny Best is second early and of medium plant
+    growth. Fruits are deep oblate to flattened globe, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> even and smooth, of good red color, with few
+    large, thick-walled cells.</p>
+<p>Varieties and strains of this group vary in
+    growth and yield, in size, shape and earliness of
+    fruit and in suitability for greenhouse, market,
+    cannery and juice. <i>Stokesdale</i> and <i>Scarlet Dawn</i> are meritorious newer names in the <a name="i046" id="i046">group</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> <img src="images/i046.jpg" width="800" height="523" alt="Figure 9.&mdash;Marglobe plant." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 9.</span>&mdash;Marglobe plant.</span> </div>
+<p><i>Marglobe.</i>&mdash;This variety was developed by the
+    late Dr. F. J. Pritchard from a cross between Marvel,
+    a French variety lending resistance to fusarium
+    and Globe, an old variety of fine size and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> shape. It is widely used, north and south, for
+    market&mdash;green or ripe, for cannery and to some
+    extent, for <a name="i047" id="i047">forcing</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i047.jpg" width="600" height="508" alt="Figure 10.&mdash;Marglobe fruit." /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 10.</span>&mdash;Marglobe fruit.</span> </div>
+<p>Marglobe is a midseason variety, with large vine
+    and foliage, resistant to fusarium and nailhead
+    spot. Fruits are nearly globular, shapely and
+    smooth, medium to large, scarlet red, with medium
+    number of thick walled cells. Marglobe is
+    rather subject to deep radial cracks.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+<p><i>Pritchard</i> is of the general type of Marglobe
+    but is earlier, with short branching habit and resistance
+    to nailhead rust and to fusarium, and, perhaps,
+    is less subject to cracking.</p>
+<p><i>Greater Baltimore</i> is used chiefly for canning in
+    long-season districts. It is late, with large vine,
+    large flat fruits of excellent scarlet red, outside
+    and in, with many thick walled cells. <i>Indiana
+    Baltimore</i> is a variant widely grown in the mid-west
+    for cannery.</p>
+<p><i>Rutgers</i> was developed by L. G. Schermerhorn
+    at the New Jersey Experiment Station for fine
+    juice and canning characters&mdash;color, flavor and
+    substance. Growth is vigorous and yields are
+    heavy; fruits are large, flattened and well colored.</p>
+<p><i>Gulf State Market</i> is a second early shipping
+    tomato, generally harvested green. It is flattened
+    in shape, of well developed pink color and good
+    interior.</p>
+<p><i>Comet Group.</i>&mdash;These trace mostly to English
+    or other European origin and are increasingly
+    used for greenhouse and for staking out-of-doors.
+    Comet is small, flattened, slightly corrugated
+    about the stem, of fine even red color, very firm
+    and solid, with few very thick walled cells.
+    Other names are <i>Sunrise</i>, and <i>Lord Roberts</i>. Several <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> American forcing strains have been developed
+    with at least one parent of this group&mdash;<i>Ideal</i>, <i>Grand Rapids Forcing</i>, <i>Field Station Comet</i>, <i>Trellis</i>, <i>Michigan State Forcing</i>, <i>Lloyd Forcing</i>, <i>Blair
+    Forcing</i> and others.</p>
+<p><i>King Humbert</i> and <i>San Marzano</i> represent the
+    small Italian oblong tomatoes that are prized for
+    their thick walls, fine color and suitability for
+    puree, paste and soup.</p>
+<p><i>Ponderosa</i> is popular for home garden, a &quot;beef-steak&quot;
+    tomato of very large size, irregular shape,
+    flat, pink, with many small cells and of very mild
+    sub-acid flavor. It is best grown to single stem. <i>Oxheart</i> is large, heart shaped, pink and very
+    meaty. Others of this general type may be had in
+    red, yellow and orange flesh. In general, the
+    whole group lacks in prolificacy.</p>
+<p><i>Oddities.</i>&mdash;Tomato fanciers often plant seed of
+    Red and Yellow Pear, Cherry, Currant, Peach
+    with its fuzzy skin, Plum and others. They are
+    prized for preserves and for decoration. Ground
+    Cherry or Husk Tomato is not a true tomato but
+    belongs to a different genus (Physalis). It makes
+    excellent preserves. Well do I remember sneaking
+    off from the other kids for solitary plunder of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> the little row that was usually in Grandma's
+    garden.</p>
+<p>Comprehensive descriptions of leading varieties
+    of tomatoes have been published by the United
+    States Department of Agriculture in Miscellaneous
+    Publication 160, the result of statistical and
+    verbal notations over several years at five widely
+    scattered stations of the country.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>IV</h2>
+<h2>STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY<br />
+    MATURITY AND HEAVY<br />
+    CROP</h2>
+<p>One of the ways to make money from tomatoes
+    is to mature them early, selling while the price is
+    still high. There is a big difference between $.10
+    a pound and $.10 a basket. Shipped and ripened
+    green wrap tomatoes cannot be very cheap on
+    northern markets even though Southern growers
+    may realize little for them.</p>
+<p>Another way to profit is to grow good plants to
+    sell. Judging by the spindling, crowded, soft or
+    over-hardened plants so common in stores, there
+    should be great opportunity here and, as a matter
+    of fact, many market gardeners do well in this
+    business realizing welcome returns when other income
+    is negligible.</p>
+<p>To market ten-cent-a-pound tomatoes from out-doors
+    requires good plants&mdash;plants that have
+    passed through their youth nearly or fully up to
+    blossoming time with benefit of heat and shelter
+    and that are ready to keep up vigorous growth in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> face of the demands of fruiting. A few scattering
+    fruits matured early do not suffice.</p>
+<p>Even for cannery, good plants are required. In
+    most regions, plants are not as good as they should
+    be. All too often, outdoor seed bed plants are set
+    where cold frame or at least cloth cover should be
+    employed. Further north, cold frame plants or
+    second run or other inferior plants are used instead
+    of the best. That is why many canning companies
+    have greenhouses and grow plants for their
+    farmers.</p>
+<p>And in the home garden, the quality of vine
+    ripened fruit along with the satisfaction of early
+    maturity are goals worth striving for.</p>
+<p>Plant growing is a game of skill. It calls for keen
+    observation, constant and faithful attention to
+    small details, and a high order of workmanship in
+    the various operations. Furthermore, when a considerable
+    number of plants are to be grown, it
+    calls for good organization and rapid work if costs
+    are not to be unduly increased. A transplanter
+    who makes three motions where two will suffice is
+    likely to turn profit into loss, for the loss of a second
+    when repeated thousands of times makes
+    many hours.</p>
+<p>The grower who is producing tomatoes for first-early <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> maturity wants a plant that will withstand
+    the rigors of transplanting and of inclement
+    weather which may follow, that will start immediately
+    into growth, and that will mature fruit in
+    good quantity at the earliest possible date. This
+    usually means a plant about ten inches tall, with
+    heavy, firm, dark-colored stem (though not over-hardened),
+    a heavy body of dark, healthy foliage,
+    and a cluster of blossoms, with possibly a fruit or
+    two already set. If the buds in the axils of the
+    leaves have begun growth, no harm will be done.</p>
+<p>Many growers are doubtful whether it is well to
+    have fruit set on plants when they are transplanted
+    in the field, as they claim that the little tomatoes
+    are often lost and in any case the progress of the
+    plant is retarded. Such plants must be handled
+    with great skill. If they are severely checked when
+    taken to the field, other and less advanced plants
+    may do as well. There is danger in having plants
+    too far advanced, and an unexpected delay in field
+    setting may result in spindling and over-hardening
+    that may prove disastrous. A vigorous and
+    properly hardened plant that is younger will do
+    better under such circumstances. Some growers
+    protect themselves by having plants of more than
+    one sort.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Open-bed Plant Growing</h3>
+<p>With favorable conditions and careful methods,
+    good plants can be grown in open beds but they
+    must be grown and used where the season is long
+    or be grown in the south and shipped north.</p>
+<p>Soil should be free of disease and nematodes, of
+    good physical character, full of humus and nutrients.</p>
+<p>Seed may be sowed a week or two after &quot;average
+    date of last killing frost&quot; which may be learned
+    from county agent or weather bureau. Further
+    south planting times are gauged by the time tomatoes
+    are to be set and by experience as to safe
+    or reasonably safe sowing dates. Rows are usually
+    a foot apart, more or less. Good plants call for
+    sowing thinly, 6 to 12 seeds per foot, but several
+    seeds per inch are not unusual. One may expect a
+    million plants per acre with close planting or
+    40,000 plants per pound of seed.</p>
+<h3>Southern Plants</h3>
+<p>Many millions of tomato plants are grown in
+    open fields in the south to be sent to home gardeners
+    in small parcels on seedsmen's orders, to be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> sold to commercial growers or to be delivered on
+    contract to canners.</p>
+<p>A suitable climate and soil, good seed, freedom
+    from disease and insects and good handling and
+    packing are all required for satisfactory results. In
+    far too many cases, these requirements have been
+    sadly neglected and a good deal of distrust has
+    been engendered. Here, as in buying seed, one
+    must discriminate among good and poor growers.
+    Canners who order in millions can send men south
+    to investigate and supervise with good results.</p>
+<p>Georgia now has a certification service for plants
+    that helps greatly to build up and maintain high
+    standards.</p>
+<h3>Growing Early Plants in the North</h3>
+<p>Varied programs of plant growing are in vogue
+    in the temperate and cooler regions. A simple cold
+    frame with or without transplanting may be employed.
+    Seedlings may be started in hotbed or
+    greenhouse and then transplanted to cold frames
+    to finish the job. Some sow seed early, transplant
+    once in the greenhouse at 1&frac12; or 2 inches each
+    way and then again to cold frame with wide spacing
+    say, 4 &times; 4 inches or using pots or dirt bands.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+<p>For this method, as much as twelve weeks may be
+    allowed but if space permits, excellent results may
+    be achieved in seven or eight weeks transplanting
+    but once to pots or to 4 &times; 4 inches in <a name="i056" id="i056">flat or bed</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> <img src="images/i056.jpg" width="800" height="424" alt="Figure 11.&mdash;A good small greenhouse for plant growing." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 11.</span>&mdash;A good small
+    greenhouse for plant growing.</span> </div>
+<h3>The Place to Grow Plants</h3>
+<p>For northern climates, greenhouses are practically
+    required. Canneries or other large growers,
+    have wide houses similar to those used for winter
+    maturing crops. A market gardener may have a
+    little house of 10&acute; &times; 20&acute; to 20&acute; &times; 60&acute; or larger as
+    needed. If one does not object to some inconvenience
+    and discomfort, a hotbed may be used&mdash;heated
+    with hot water or electricity, or as in years <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> past, with fermenting manure. Cold frames may
+    be covered with glass sash as in the case of hotbeds,
+    or cloth may be used. There are also materials
+    consisting of wire cloth filled with cellulose film.
+    Special mats of straw or of quilted burlap may be
+    used for extra cover and large growers often employ
+    coarse manure, straw or marsh hay.</p>
+<p>Many a tomato gets its start in life in a small flat
+    in a kitchen window&mdash;perhaps, in a cigar box.
+    Such seedlings may then be carried forward in hot
+    bed or cold frame.</p>
+<h3>Beds, Flats and Pots</h3>
+<p>Growing plants directly in ground beds in the
+    greenhouse and directly in the soil in the hotbeds
+    or cold frames, is rather common. However, the
+    use of flats or plant boxes in plant growing offers
+    a number of advantages as compared with planting
+    in the bed. Transplanting can be done at
+    benches under conditions of comfort and convenience
+    which make for efficiency. Moisture can be
+    more precisely controlled and flats can be shifted
+    if some plants grow faster than others. Plants can
+    be moved with more dirt on the roots, and this is
+    a great advantage when plants are sold and hauled <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> some distance, though, of course, pulled plants are
+    handled more cheaply. On the other hand, the
+    first cost, and the maintenance and storage of the
+    flats must be considered. Flats may be set on the
+    ground in the greenhouse without use of benches.</p>
+<p>Flats are of many dimensions, ordinarily six to
+    ten per sash or about 18 &times; 22 inches or 13 &times; 18
+    inches outside measure. They may be made of
+    lumber from used boxes, but they ought to be
+    uniform in size and made to fit beds without loss
+    of space. The more durable kinds of wood, cypress
+    or chestnut are preferred. Some growers
+    make the bottoms of the flats of square-mesh galvanized
+    screen (hardware cloth), about five or six
+    meshes to the inch. This allows roots to penetrate
+    the soil of the beds, permits root pruning by shifting,
+    and there is no wooden bottom to rot.</p>
+<p>Some growers use clay pots for plants which are
+    receiving special care. Their cost is an obstacle
+    though they are used repeatedly. Such pots also
+    hold less soil for the area occupied than flats or
+    square <a name="i059" id="i059">dirt bands</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> <img src="images/i059.jpg" width="800" height="400" alt="Figure 12.&mdash;Plants for the early crop. 1. Shows plants in paper bands of excellent proportion and thrift but
+not yet in bloom. 2. In blossom but fruit has not yet set. 3. Similar to 2 but a little further advanced and
+has actually set fruit." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 12.</span>&mdash;Plants
+    for the early crop. 1. Shows plants in paper bands of excellent proportion and
+    thrift but not yet in bloom. 2. In blossom but fruit has not yet set. 3. Similar
+    to 2 but a little further advanced and has actually set fruit.</span> </div>
+<p>Paper pots are used to some extent. Organisms
+    decomposing the paper may use and so render unavailable
+    some of the nitrogen of the soil thus
+    hindering the growth of the plants. This may be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> corrected by seeing that abundant nitrogen is present
+    in the soil either when made up or by later
+    application of nitrate sowed upon the soil while
+    plants are dry or applied in solution in watering.</p>
+<p>Dirt bands of veneer are used and are very satisfactory.
+    Blocking as practiced by many growers is
+    a cheap and effective way of attaining much the
+    same results.</p>
+<h3>The Blocking System</h3>
+<p>When the cold frame is prepared for the last
+    transplanting, two inches of fairly well-rotted manure
+    is laid down and two or three inches of prepared
+    soil is placed on top. Plants are set about
+    four inches apart each way. About a week before
+    field setting, a butcher knife, or a hoe which has
+    been straightened and sharpened, is run between
+    rows both ways. This cuts the roots whereupon
+    the plant at once begins to form new feeders
+    within the block thus reducing, to some extent at
+    least, the damage which might be caused by transplanting.
+    The method is also used with flats.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Soil</h3>
+<p>Soil for plant growing should be free of disease
+    and nematodes, friable, not readily forming a
+    crust, receiving and retaining moisture well, but
+    drying off quickly on the surface after watering
+    and well supplied with nutrients. A sandy loam
+    base with good humus content is desirable. It may
+    be prepared, beginning a year or two ahead by
+    growing and plowing under well fertilized green
+    manure crops. Or a compost heap may be prepared
+    with successive layers of soil and manure or
+    other humus making material. In either case, it is
+    usually mixed a time or two by shoveling over or
+    by passing through a shredding machine or a
+    coarse screen.</p>
+<p>If trouble is likely to be experienced from
+    damping-off fungi, the soil may be heated to
+    200&deg; F. and held there for an hour, using oven or
+    electric or steam sterilizer. Seed may also be
+    treated with red copper oxid or semesan.</p>
+<h3>Seed and Seed Sowing</h3>
+<p>Tomato seed runs about 125,000 to 150,000 per
+    pound. An ounce of seed is usually depended <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> upon for plants for an acre. For growing seedlings,
+    seed may be sowed up to 100 or more per foot of
+    row. For a maximum number of strong seedlings
+    from a small amount of seed, thinner sowing is
+    desirable. Rows are usually about two inches
+    apart, and a quarter of an inch is sufficient cover.
+    The seedlings break ground in a week or <a name="i064" id="i064">ten days</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 256px;"> <img src="images/i064.jpg" width="256"
+ height="400" alt="Figure 13.&mdash;Tin can" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 13.</span>&mdash;Tin can prepared for
+    sowing tomato seed.</span> </div>
+<p>Uniformity of depth of rows and of covering is
+    important. Otherwise, seedlings will come up
+    unevenly and there will be considerable waste.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Care of Seedlings</h3>
+<p>Water and heat should be provided to permit
+    a steady and moderate rate of growth in plants.
+    Over-watering and high temperature yield soft
+    and spindling plants and also plants that are overgrown
+    and that are liable to severe checking before
+    field setting. Under-watering and low temperature
+    give stunted plants. The thermometer at the
+    earlier stages of growth may well stand around 70
+    to 75 degrees by day and 10 degrees lower at night.
+    A reasonable range of temperature and moisture
+    gives opportunity for the skillful grower to forward
+    or retard his plants as seems best. Great care
+    should be exercised to water evenly. It is necessary
+    to watch the plants constantly to detect the
+    slightest variations in growth. The watering may
+    then be modified and even progress insured.</p>
+<p>Ventilation finds its chief significance as a means
+    of controlling temperature and humidity, though
+    actual change of air may be a factor.</p>
+<p>High soil moisture, high humidity, high temperature,
+    and faulty ventilation, all favor the ravages
+    of the various damping-off fungi mentioned
+    above which cause little plants to rot off near the
+    ground.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Transplanting</h3>
+<p>The main advantage of transplanting plants before
+    they are set in the field is to give them increased
+    space, or, in other words, to conserve space
+    in greenhouses and frames. Other advantages have
+    been claimed, but in many instances the gains have
+    resulted from more space rather than from the
+    actual shift. Transplanting checks growth through
+    breakage and disturbance of the root system.
+    Loomis<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> finds that &quot;the immediate effect of transplanting
+    is a reduction in the water supply, and
+    the immediate and long-time results are dependent
+    upon the severity and duration of such reduction.&quot;
+    Transplanting has little effect upon very
+    young plants and a shift at the age of six or eight
+    weeks checks the plant about as much as two earlier
+    transplantings. The tomato falls in the group
+    of plants that stand transplanting well, roots being
+    rapidly replaced. Transplanting breaks roots and
+    so results in the growth of branches which are
+    shorter than the members of the old system. The
+    new system is accordingly less severely damaged in
+    later transplantings.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+<p>To insure efficiency, the work of transplanting
+    merits careful attention. Carelessness as to details
+    means loss through unevenness of plants. For example,
+    if soil is not carefully packed at the edges
+    and corners of the flats, irregular water supply and
+    irregular growth result. If much transplanting is
+    to be done, it pays to divide up the work, as is
+    done in a factory. Have a good place for doing
+    the work&mdash;a warm, light, and comfortable room.
+    Tired workers are not efficient. Spotting boards
+    are of service if properly made and correctly used.
+    Soil should always contain just the right degree of
+    moisture to allow holes to stand open. Care must
+    be taken that the workers in setting plants do not
+    double the roots or close the holes at the top leaving
+    the roots dangling in an open space below.</p>
+<p>It is said that a good worker will prick out
+    10,000 plants per day, though everything must be
+    convenient to accomplish this and many growers
+    regard 6,000 plants as a good day's work.</p>
+<h3>Pruning Young Plants</h3>
+<p>Pruning of tops injures rather than helps the
+    plant, for it destroys leaves which are the machines
+    that make carbohydrates, the principal material <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> for growth. Pruning to cure legginess is bad.
+    Proper management of time, temperature and water
+    will provide adequate control and if plants
+    should become leggy, it is better to plant them by
+    laying them down in a trench with a few inches
+    of top above ground than it is to prune them.</p>
+<p>Nipping out the growing point with the first
+    cluster of flower buds is sometimes practiced to
+    encourage branching and a heavier yield of early
+    fruit. If this is done, ample space and nutrients
+    must accompany careful management. Otherwise,
+    the plant finds itself with inadequate resources to
+    do a big job.</p>
+<h3>Hardening</h3>
+<p>Tomato plants cannot be made frost proof, but
+    low temperature, reduced moisture supply, partial
+    starvation, and crowding all tend to make plants
+    more resistant to cold, to drying winds, to heat, to
+    mechanical injury such as breakage of leaves and
+    stems, and even to cut-worm attacks. Plants can
+    be hardened appreciably in a short time&mdash;say a
+    week. It is now generally accepted that moisture
+    control is more useful than reduced temperature
+    as a means of hardening. Starving and crowding
+    are not desirable methods. Plants can be kept on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> the dry side if glass or other water-shedding cover
+    is available.</p>
+<p>Great care must be exercised to avoid over-hardening
+    of tomato plants, for in this way a check
+    in growth is incurred from which they recover
+    slowly, and perhaps never fully.</p>
+<p>Much study has been given to the changes in
+    plants which underlie the hardening process, and
+    papers by Harvey, Rosa, Loomis, and others
+    should be consulted in this <a name="i067" id="i067">connection.</a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/i067.jpg" width="500" height="380" alt="Figure 14.&mdash;Plants that have been crowded and overgrown," /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 14.</span>&mdash;Plants
+    that have been crowded and overgrown, probably undernourished and over-hardened.
+    Plants like this are very often set in the field. They are definitely slow in
+    starting growth.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+<p>Watts<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> has shown that adverse conditions, especially
+    low temperature and water deficiency prevailing
+    at the time when fruit clusters are barely
+    beginning to form, commonly occasion the development
+    of misshapen fruits.</p>
+<p>Faithful spraying or dusting with Bordeaux in
+    the plant bed has proved a useful means of forestalling
+    destructive leaf blights which often devastate
+    whole fields.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>V</h2>
+<h2>GOOD CULTURE FAVORS<br />
+    GOOD RETURNS</h2>
+<p>The tomato is not especially exacting as to care
+    after it has been set out-of-doors. It will do business
+    if given half a chance. At the same time,
+    much can be done to favor earliness, good yield
+    and high quality.</p>
+<h3>Time of Planting</h3>
+<p>In general, tomatoes are set in field or garden as
+    soon as danger of frost is reasonably past. Suppose
+    May 1st is average date of last killing frost. Growers
+    would make general plantings from May 18th
+    to 25th though, in rare instances, frost might occur
+    as late as May 28th or 30th. The last week of
+    May is planting time over a vast area of the North.
+    Venturesome souls will set home garden plants as
+    early as May 10th, standing ready to replant if
+    necessary. There is little gain in rushing the season
+    too much, however, for the tomato is not only
+    sensitive to frost but it does not thrive under what <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> people call &quot;raw, mean, chilly weather.&quot; Such
+    conditions may also be responsible for misshapen
+    fruits. A grower for local market not infrequently
+    risks a share of his plants before safe setting time
+    in the hope that warm weather may give the crop
+    a good start toward early ripe fruit to sell at high
+    prices.</p>
+<p>Delayed planting and use of plants that do not
+    start quickly into vigorous growth is the cause of
+    heavy losses in the north, especially among cannery
+    growers. Better quality and heavier yields
+    are attained if the bulk of the crop matures before
+    cool weather in the fall. In the south, it is necessary
+    to get good plant development and a full set
+    of fruit before hot weather which often destroys
+    the blossoms.</p>
+<h3>Plant Protectors</h3>
+<p>Many forms of plant protectors are on the
+    market&mdash;of paper and of other materials. These
+    act as little greenhouses for the individual plant,
+    protecting against frost and promoting growth.
+    Plants may be set out-of-doors a couple of weeks
+    earlier by their use. The most common forms are
+    of translucent paper reinforced by pasted strips of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> paper or by wire. The trick is to devise one that
+    is cheap, that will admit maximum light and that
+    will withstand the weather. For tomatoes, they
+    need to be tall, which makes the problem of wind
+    resistance more serious.</p>
+<p>For emergencies, opaque cover, baskets upside
+    down or even newspaper may be used. Many a
+    field has been saved by burying the plants when
+    frost threatened, carefully uncovering when danger
+    is past.</p>
+<h3>Spacing</h3>
+<p>Untrained tomatoes are set at distances from
+    3&frac12; feet each way to 7 &times; 7 feet or even more. The
+    extreme width is found on rich irrigated lands in
+    California where plants make tremendous growth.
+    The closer spacings are found on lighter soils
+    where humus, plant food, and moisture are not
+    too abundant. The variety should also be considered.
+    Sixteen square feet per plant is about average.</p>
+<p>Check row planting is common, though it is not
+    feasible where transplanters are used. Wider spacing
+    between the rows than between plants is desirable
+    as it permits later cultivation one way and
+    leaves a better passage for pickers with less damage <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> to plants and fruits. Thus, 3&frac12; &times; 4&frac12; feet
+    might be preferred to 4 &times; 4 feet.</p>
+<p>Rows for single stem, staked and pruned plants
+    may be as close as three feet and plants may be
+    as close as eighteen or even twelve inches, though
+    some growers contend that two feet is close
+    enough.</p>
+<h3>Methods of Planting</h3>
+<p>The essential point in field setting is to pack
+    the soil firmly about the roots, thus establishing
+    maximum contact for moisture absorption. Whatever
+    the method of planting, the aim should be to
+    get the plants from the old home to the new with
+    as little delay and check in growth as possible. For
+    the first-early crop, they should be moved so that
+    &quot;they never know it.&quot; With bands, pots or blocking
+    in flats or beds, it is feasible to avoid practically
+    all disturbance of roots.</p>
+<p>The tomato will, under ordinary favorable conditions,
+    take hold and grow even if shaken quite
+    free of earth. Plants, however, should be dug
+    loose rather than pulled, to prevent undue breakage
+    of roots.</p>
+<p>Plants ought to be watered well some hours before
+    transplanting. Transplanting machines and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> hand planters of the Masters type give a little shot
+    of water at the root, thus helping to establish contact
+    with the soil. Starter solutions are discussed
+    on page 35. These machines are commonly used
+    for cannery setting and, to some extent, for market
+    tomatoes. Blocked plants can be set pretty fast by
+    hand with much less disturbance of roots. Some
+    manage to set potted or blocked plants by machine,
+    keeping a ball of earth about the roots.</p>
+<p>The rows are usually marked out fairly deeply,
+    plants are dropped in fours between rows and it is
+    a very short job to pack soil about the clod of
+    earth in which the plant is growing. Another
+    method is for one worker to make an opening with
+    a spade. A second places the plant in the wedge-like
+    opening and the first steps on the soil to firm
+    it solidly about the roots.</p>
+<p>Plants are generally set a little deeper than in
+    the plant bed.</p>
+<h3>Cultivation</h3>
+<p>The old idea about cultivation was &quot;the more,
+    the better.&quot; More recent experiments notably
+    those by Thompson have shown that little need
+    be done beyond controlling weeds. He found that
+    stirring the soil gave no significant increase in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> yield over mere scraping sufficient to destroy
+    weeds. It is pretty hard to convince many old time
+    gardeners of this. The value of dust mulch for
+    conservation of moisture has been pretty well discredited
+    by experimental comparisons.</p>
+<h3>Irrigation</h3>
+<p>Irrigation is not essential for tomato production
+    in humid climates and is seldom provided except
+    under market garden conditions. Water is occasionally
+    an asset in a dry season and, of course, the
+    grower who waters at such times reaps a harvest
+    in higher prices as well as in increased yield. The
+    advantage of irrigation is especially marked if dry
+    weather retards plant growth and delays maturity
+    of the first of the crop, for the high prices of the
+    early market are involved. Judicious irrigation
+    will sometimes continue production for late fall
+    market. Yet gardeners seldom plan permanent
+    overhead equipment for tomatoes. The movable
+    lines that are now used to a considerable extent
+    serve well for the tomato crop.</p>
+<p>The furrow method of irrigating tomatoes is the
+    most common in the West. This plan allows the
+    water to make its way down the rows, slowly soaking <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> in all along the line. The tomato stands
+    drouth better than many of our crops, especially
+    if the soil holds moisture fairly well, either naturally
+    or through a liberal humus content. Excessive
+    moisture is doubtless a factor in causing the
+    plants to run to vine and drop their blossoms.
+    Hence, in western sections, it is customary to water
+    thoroughly just before or just after setting the
+    plants and then to avoid applications until the setting
+    of fruit is well advanced.</p>
+<p>Thorough soaking is better than frequent light
+    waterings, as it encourages a better development
+    of root system. An Idaho bulletin suggests three
+    irrigations. Late irrigations tend to delay ripening
+    of fruit, but this object is sought in the late
+    fall shipping districts of California which find
+    their best markets after eastern crops have been
+    nipped by frost.</p>
+<p>Irrigation must be handled with care to avoid
+    cracking of fruit, which occurs when soil becomes
+    rather dry and then is heavily watered. Watering
+    late in the season is said to make fruit watery and
+    of poor quality.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Mulching</h3>
+<p>R. A. Emerson<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> in 1903 reported results of
+    careful comparisons between vegetables that were
+    cultivated and others that were mulched with
+    straw. These results indicate that mulching gives
+    good results with tomatoes, both as to yield and
+    quality. However, frost injury was more severe on
+    mulched plats, and Emerson points out that the
+    mulch should not be applied until the plants are
+    well established.</p>
+<p>Mulching is recommended by a good many
+    writers and growers and it seems to be practiced
+    to some extent in Missouri. The advantages
+    claimed are conservation of moisture and clean,
+    fine quality fruit. L. W. Purdum and Sons of
+    Virginia use 4-5 tons per acre of wheat straw, staking
+    their plants and irrigating. They report unusually
+    heavy returns per acre under these methods.
+    The Missouri people apply as much as sixteen
+    tons per acre, making the cover five or six inches
+    thick. The practice of mulching, however, is not
+    common, and the cost will likely prevent its general
+    use.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>VI</h2>
+<h2>TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET<br />
+    THEM SPREAD</h2>
+<p>Growers attending conventions will often stay
+    up half the night to argue about training and
+    pruning tomatoes and to debate the details of their
+    favorite procedures.</p>
+<p>For home garden, the method is strongly commended.
+    Many market gardeners follow the practice
+    and it has gained materially of recent years in
+    New England. Some market reports quote staked
+    tomatoes separately and at a materially higher
+    level than fruit from unpruned plants.</p>
+<p>Most of the southern shipping sections follow
+    the practice and it is practically universal in greenhouses.</p>
+<p>One way is to drive a stake by each plant tying
+    at several points along the stem with cheap twine.
+    The other plan, recently gaining in favor, is to set
+    posts every 25 feet or so, string a heavy wire on
+    top, and another a foot from the ground. Cheap
+    jute twine is strung between wires and the tomato
+    plants are merely twisted around the string. Tying <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> is not required. Some omit the lower wire, tying
+    a non-slipping bowline loop around the plant near
+    the ground. In either case, plants are kept
+    trimmed to a single stem though occasionally an
+    extra branch is allowed to grow. In southern Illinois,
+    plants are tied to a short stake <a name="i078" id="i078">without pruning</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;"> <img src="images/i078.jpg" width="487" height="700" alt="Figure 15.&mdash;Tomatoes pruned and
+trained with post, wire and twine. This
+is the trellis system of New England." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure
+    15.</span>&mdash;Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and
+    twine. This is the trellis system of <a name="i079" id="i079">New England</a>.</span>
+    <p>&nbsp;</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"> <img src="images/i079.jpg" width="416" height="600" alt="Figure 16.&mdash;Fine clusters on trained plants." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 16.</span>&mdash;Fine clusters on
+    trained plants.</span> </div>
+<h3>Pro and Con</h3>
+<p>The advantages claimed for pruning and training
+    are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Earliness.<br />
+        High yield per acre.<br />
+        <span class="pagenum"> <a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>Ease of cultivating and spraying.<br />
+        Ease of picking.<br />
+        No injury from snails and wire worms.<br />
+        Quality of fruit:&mdash;size, color, smoothness and cleanliness.<br />
+        Crop finished earlier.<br />
+        Less sunscald.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>The disadvantages claimed are:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Many plants required.<br />
+        Reduced yield.<br />
+        More blossom-end rot.<br />
+        Higher cost of labor.<br />
+        Cost and care of stakes and wire.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>The validity of each of these points varies
+    greatly with conditions; in fact, the answer to the
+    whole question depends largely upon the location
+    and the ideas of the grower. In trying to reach a
+    conclusion, it is well to realize that training makes
+    certain radical changes in the plant. It loses leaves
+    through pruning, it is supported from the ground,
+    and it is spaced differently. Since the leaves manufacture
+    the basic substance for themselves, and for
+    the rest of the plant, removal of leaves reduces the
+    resources of the plant. H. C. Thompson<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> found that the root system is reduced about in
+    proportion to leaf reduction. It is fairly clear that
+    single-stem training greatly reduces the yield per
+    plant, and other methods result similarly in proportion
+    to the severity of pruning. When plants
+    are spaced closely enough together the yield may
+    be brought up to that of areas unpruned and unstaked.
+    Idaho experiments indicate that staking
+    alone does not affect the total yield, but that it
+    does favor early maturity under the different
+    pruning systems. The disadvantages of training
+    are largely economic. Will the marketing conditions
+    justify the extra cost of staking and pruning?</p>
+<p>Experiments have shown pretty clearly that sunscald,
+    blossom-end rot and cracking are worse on
+    trained plants. Using varieties of good foliage will
+    help the first trouble while uniform and adequate
+    water supply achieved by selection of suitable
+    land, by building humus content of the soil and by
+    irrigation will solve the latter two problems.
+    Thompson found increased yield of early fruit.
+    Other evidence is somewhat conflicting but, in
+    general, it supports Thompson. It is generally
+    agreed that pruned plants yield larger, cleaner and
+    more perfectly formed and colored fruits. Ease of
+    spraying or dusting and of picking is important.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+<p>For pruned plants, 3&frac12; feet between rows and
+    1&frac12;-2 feet between plants is about right.</p>
+<p>To train or not to train is a question that one
+    must answer for himself as the controlling factors
+    vary too widely&mdash;costs of stakes, wire and labor,
+    prices of early tomatoes and possibility of cultivating
+    a more or less fancy trade.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>VII</h2>
+<h2>THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH<br />
+    INSECTS AND DISEASES</h2>
+<p>The tomato, in most regions, is not one of our
+    most &quot;pestered&quot; crops. Although over thirty diseases
+    of tomatoes are discussed in books and bulletins,
+    most of them are only occasionally serious or
+    are subject to definite control methods. Enemies
+    are generally worse in the warmer climates.</p>
+<p>Most home garden tomatoes and many commercial
+    crops are grown without benefit of spray
+    or dust. If trouble arises, county agent or college
+    specialist can usually advise, suggesting methods
+    suitable for local conditions.</p>
+<p>Experience must, of necessity, be the guide in
+    shaping a program and costs must be carefully balanced
+    against results.</p>
+<p>The principal measures that are widely used are
+    seed treatment against damping off, use of resistant
+    strains against fusarium wilt and application
+    of bordeaux mixture against leaf blights.</p>
+<p>As with all plants, thoroughness must be the
+    watchword in spraying or dusting. Timeliness, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> choice of weather conditions so far as possible, and
+    covering all surface lightly rather than throwing
+    on heavy blotches of spray or dust all require careful
+    attention.</p>
+<p><i>Fusarium Wilt</i> (Fusarium lycopersici) is perhaps
+    the most serious of all the tomato diseases
+    although it occasions little trouble in the more
+    northerly states. It is troublesome as far north as
+    New Jersey to Iowa.</p>
+<p>The fungus winters in the soil, enters through
+    the roots and blocks the water passages of the plant
+    causing wilting, yellowing, and finally, death. Water
+    vessels in the stem are discolored,&mdash;another
+    means of identifying the disease.</p>
+<p>Spraying or dusting are of no service since the
+    fungus is within. Long time rotation and use of
+    the many resistant strains are <a name="i085" id="i085">effective means of</a> control.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/i085.jpg" width="700" height="427" alt="Figure 17.&mdash;Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on
+right with one of F. J. Pritchard's wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant attacked by wilt fungus." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 17.</span>&mdash;Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on
+    right with one of F. J. Pritchard&#39;s wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant attacked by wilt fungus.</span> </div>
+<p><i>Leaf Spot</i>, <i>Septoria Blight</i> (Septoria lycopersici)
+    causes heavy loss by destroying the foliage and so
+    the fruit-making power of the plant. It also opens
+    the fruits to sunscald. The spots appear as small
+    dark water soaked areas which enlarge but little
+    though they increase in number and turn brown.
+    Tiny black dots, the fruiting bodies of the fungus,
+    appear. The spores germinate only on moist leaves <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> and the disease is spread by wind, rain, workers
+    and the like. It winters on refuse of the tomato
+    and related plants.</p>
+<p>Fall plowing helps to control. Bordeaux spraying
+    beginning in the seed bed and carried faithfully
+    through the season will usually hold the
+    trouble in check.</p>
+<p><i>Late Blight</i> (Phytophthora infestans) is the
+    same fungus as the late blight of potatoes, affecting
+    both foliage and fruit. It is often troublesome
+    the first few weeks after plants are set out-of-doors.
+    Clean soil in seed bed and bordeaux spraying are
+    helpful.</p>
+<p><i>Western Blight</i>, <i>Yellows</i>, <i>Curly Top</i>,&mdash;cause unknown,&mdash;is
+    prevalent in California. Leaves roll
+    and become thickened and brittle, later turning
+    a sulfury yellow. Veins become purplish. The
+    trouble prevails in hot weather. The cause is
+    likely a virus, similar to or identical with the curly
+    top of beets. It is apparently spread by leaf hoppers.
+    No satisfactory control has been devised
+    though there is some promise in <a name="i087" id="i087">resistant strains</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> <img src="images/i087.jpg" width="650" height="384" alt="Figure 18.&mdash;Diseases of the tomato. 1. Septoria or leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 18.</span>&mdash;Diseases of the
+    tomato. 1. Septoria or leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform.</span> </div>
+<p><i>Mosaic.</i>&mdash;No organism has been definitely connected
+    with the mosaic diseases of tomatoes, but
+    they are highly infectious, being spread by means
+    of what is called a &quot;virus,&quot; which passes the finest <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> filters. It is spread by insects, notably aphids,
+    which carry plant juice, and in the handling of
+    plants, but it does not persist in seeds or in litter.
+    It is wintered on horse nettles and three species of
+    ground cherries. Control suggestions include
+    roguing affected plants, eliminating weeds, and
+    controlling carrying insects. The symptoms are
+    widely various, the most common being mottling
+    of leaves, stunting and malformation of leaflets,
+    which sometimes become fine ribbons or threads,
+    curling, appearance of small brown dead areas,
+    and spots and cracks on fruits.</p>
+<p><i>Damping off</i> is caused by various fungi in the
+    seed bed which attack the stem near the surface
+    of the soil and cause the plant to drop over and
+    die. Clean soil, heating of soil, commonly called
+    sterilization, and care in watering are all helpful.
+    It is now common practice to dust seed with formaldehyde
+    dust, or with red copper oxid or with
+    an organic mercury disinfectant. If trouble is
+    serious, a watering with semesan just before seedlings
+    emerge may be helpful.</p>
+<p>A government bulletin on &quot;Market Diseases of
+    Tomatoes&quot; (Miscellaneous Publication 121, 1932)
+    is an excellent summary with colored plates to
+    help in recognizing the various troubles.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Insects</h3>
+<p><i>The Fruit Worm</i> (Chloridea obsoleta) is probably
+    the worst of the tomato insects, but is not
+    prevalent in the North. It is the same as the corn
+    ear-worm or the cotton boll-worm, and bores into
+    green or ripening fruits. It winters in the soil
+    and fall plowing is recommended for its control.
+    Planting corn as a trap crop is also suggested.
+    The Virginia Truck Experiment Station finds
+    that the addition of two pounds of calcium arsenate
+    to 50 gallons of the Bordeaux used for
+    disease control helps materially.</p>
+<p><i>Cut-worms</i> (various species of the family Noctuidae)
+    cause severe losses at the time of field setting.
+    They winter in the soil and are worse when
+    sod has been plowed under, or following other
+    host plants. Poison bran mash is commonly used
+    to combat them, using a spoonful to each plant.
+    Hand picking and the use of paper collars are
+    resorted to on a small scale. Well-hardened plants
+    seem less subject to injury by these pests than tender
+    plants.</p>
+<p><i>Colorado Potato Beetle</i> (Leptinotarsa decemlineata)
+    can cause a world of damage to young
+    plants. Arsenical spray or dust will ordinarily <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> control them. The old-fashioned potato bug (family
+    Meloidae), is reported as troublesome in Missouri.
+    When they appear in droves, the only
+    control is to drive them with brush. Arsenical
+    spray or dust is of some value.</p>
+<p><i>Flea Beetles</i> (family Chrysomelidae) are the little
+    black jumping fellows that perforate leaves in
+    plant beds and in the field. They are also accused
+    of injuring blossoms and reducing the set of fruit.
+    Their attacks upon young plants are sometimes
+    ruinous. Bordeaux with arsenical serves as a repellant.
+    Dusting with nicotine sulphate dust is
+    also suggested.</p>
+<p><i>Green Tomato Worms</i>, or <i>Horn Worms</i> (Phlegethontius
+    sexta) are big, green fellows and have
+    a great capacity for tomato foliage. Hand-picking
+    and arsenical spray or dust are usual means of
+    combat.</p>
+<p><i>The stalk-borer</i> (Papaipema nitela) is a slender
+    caterpillar which is reported as serious in Indiana.
+    No satisfactory control is suggested except clean
+    culture around fields and pinching the stems to
+    destroy the pest.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>VIII</h2>
+<h2>SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS<br />
+    THE ENTERPRISE</h2>
+<p>The most skillful production is in vain if marketing
+    is not done well. At the same time, the
+    quality of the goods is the principal factor in making
+    the price and in moving the goods. Even then,
+    if costs in production and marketing are too high,
+    the enterprise is a failure.</p>
+<p>The differences between high and low quotations
+    on the same market the same day, are usually
+    fairly wide,&mdash;say, $1.75 to $2.50; or $0.75 to $1.25;
+    or $0.20 to $0.25 per basket. These differences
+    are sufficient to make the difference between profit
+    and loss. Small differences in quality of the product,
+    in handling and dress-up of the market pack
+    and skill in finding buyers may easily result in
+    price differences as great or greater than those
+    indicated.</p>
+<h3>Harvesting</h3>
+<p>Picking in the field calls for the closest care and
+    supervision to prevent damage to the fruits and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> vines. Stems should be removed to avoid punching
+    other fruits, and long finger-nails do great
+    harm by cutting the skin and admitting infection.
+    Containers should not be too large to be handled
+    conveniently. Round half-bushel stave baskets
+    and galvanized pails are excellent. Baskets made
+    of quarter-inch staves rather than veneer are
+    smooth and durable, but the investment is rather
+    heavy unless dumping is resorted to. In practice,
+    all sorts of boxes and crates are used, often the
+    package that is used for marketing. No container
+    as deep as a bushel basket should be used.</p>
+<p>The stage of ripeness at which tomatoes are
+    picked depends upon the time and distance to
+    market. For home use or local market, fruit may
+    range from the first turn to almost fully colored.</p>
+<p>A few growers pick at the turn and use ripening
+    rooms to prepare for local selling. In this way
+    cracking, injury by soil, by insects, and by uneven
+    coloring are avoided. Fruits are wiped and
+    handled with less loss and may even be washed
+    if need be.</p>
+<p>Fully ripened fruit will not stand handling and
+    hauling and will quickly deteriorate, reaching the
+    consumer in bad condition.</p>
+<p>For cannery, full ripening is desired with even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> coloring. MacGillivray<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> has shown that success
+    in this is largely a matter of care in picking. Cracking
+    and slight softening are not serious defects for
+    this purpose, but molds and bacteria in broken
+    places are serious as they throw the product out of
+    grade or occasion rejection.</p>
+<h3>Picking Green</h3>
+<p>Most tomatoes for long distance shipment, are
+    picked before color appears,&mdash;at the mature-green
+    stage. One of the great difficulties is to judge this
+    stage correctly; to train ordinary labor to pick by
+    maturity and not by size. Immature-green tomatoes
+    ripen slowly and do not achieve good appearance
+    or table quality.</p>
+<p>It is almost impossible to describe the ear marks
+    of a mature-green tomato. Most of those usually
+    cited are of doubtful value&mdash;glossy surface, whitish
+    cast of color and the dark ring at the stem scar.
+    The jelly-like or mucilaginous material in the
+    seed cells has sufficiently developed in a mature
+    green tomato so that the fruit may be sliced without
+    cutting seeds. Of course, the tomato is ruined <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> but the method can be used to check one's judgment
+    based on the exterior. Also, one can learn
+    by laying aside tomatoes judged mature-green and
+    immature-green to ripen.</p>
+<p>Some efforts have recently been made in Florida
+    to pick tomatoes at the turn, that is, at the
+    first show of color, a practice suggested by Sando<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> some years ago. This should provide fruits of
+    uniform degree of maturity, that would be about
+    ready to sell on arrival and it would eliminate the
+    serious problem of immature-greens. It would
+    require more frequent picking of fields and there
+    could be no delay in packing. There would,
+    doubtless, also be problems of temperature and
+    ventilation in transit. Results of tests thus far
+    have been rather encouraging.</p>
+<h3>Ripening</h3>
+<p>Green wrap tomatoes are received at terminal
+    markets by produce houses that have special
+    ripening rooms where temperature is kept at
+    about 70&deg;, with high humidity to prevent wilting
+    or shriveling. Ethylene gas is used by some to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> hasten ripening. It does not change the nature of
+    the process, merely speeding it up. Some of these
+    repackers have elaborate equipment for sorting
+    and packing.</p>
+<p>The tomatoes, on arrival, are shaken out of
+    their paper wraps. Any that have ripened in
+    transit are taken out and packed while the greens
+    go into the ripening rooms. They may have to be
+    sorted over two or three times as ripening progresses.</p>
+<p>The ripening process in tomatoes has been
+    rather thoroughly studied. Sando found that tomatoes
+    ripen uniformly, regardless of size, at a
+    certain age, dating from the setting of the fruit.
+    This time, which, of course, varies according to
+    weather conditions, was eight weeks when the
+    studies were made. Ripening is accompanied by
+    an increase in moisture, acids and sugars, with decrease
+    of solids, nitrogen, starch, pentisans, crude
+    fibre and ash. Sugars increase from about a quarter
+    to about half of the dry weight. Chemical
+    analysis did not show differences sufficient to account
+    for the difference in quality between vine-ripened
+    fruit and green fruit ripened in the
+    laboratory. Lack of ventilation seems to be detrimental.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
+<p>It is commonly held that tomatoes chilled without
+    freezing will not ripen satisfactorily afterward.
+    This belief is discounted by results of Wright and
+    associates and of Platenius who found little effect
+    of low temperatures upon later ripening.</p>
+<p>Wright<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> and Platenius<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> have both found that
+    tomatoes should not be stored at low temperatures,
+    50&deg; to 60&deg; F. being best. Storage is not
+    likely to be satisfactory for more than a month.</p>
+<h3>Waxing</h3>
+<p>Waxing of tomatoes by immersion in a dilute
+    water emulsion of paraffine and carnauba waxes
+    is being tried out with very promising results.
+    Waxes are also dissolved in volatile hydrocarbons
+    and sprayed on. Moisture loss and shriveling are
+    materially retarded, and interference with the
+    ripening process is negligible. The wax coating is
+    very thin, adds an attractive gloss and is <a name="i097" id="i097">entirely
+    harmless</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+    <p style="text-align: justify"> <img src="images/i097.jpg" width="800" height="441" alt="Figure 19.&mdash;Packing tomatoes on a farm in Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting.
+The others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on before packing and the bottom
+is nailed on at the finish of the job. A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from
+falling out." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 19.</span>&mdash;Packing tomatoes on
+        a farm in Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The others
+        are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on before packing and
+        the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job. A board which is turned over
+        with the box keeps tomatoes from falling out.</span> </p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Grading</h3>
+<p>It is generally true that at market the poorest
+    products in a given lot tend to fix the price. When
+    the buyer finds a few inferior specimens he assumes
+    there are many more. Imperfect and diseased
+    specimens infect others. Grading enhances
+    the appearance <a name="i099" id="i099">of the pack</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> <img src="images/i099.jpg" width="800" height="498" alt="Courtesy Tripak Mach. Service&lt;/p&gt;
+
+&lt;p&gt;Figure 20.&mdash;A California packing house with elaborate machinery and fully organized." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 20.</span>&mdash;A California packing house with elaborate machinery and fully organized.</span> </div>
+<p>Of course, the grower who picks marketable
+    tomatoes and leaves unmarketable fruits on the
+    vine is engaged in a form of grading&mdash;informal
+    and subconscious. Methods may range from this
+    simple practice to the elaborate schemes adopted
+    in large packing houses. There is no difficulty in
+    adopting methods for the farm that are easily managed
+    and perfectly practical. In general, two
+    grades to sell represent a good plan, leaving culls
+    at home unless prices are high and there is good
+    demand for them. The set-up may involve no
+    more than a worker at a table with three baskets&mdash;one
+    with tomatoes from the field; another for #1's
+    and a third for #2's. The worker may well use a
+    cotton flannel glove or cloth to wipe the tomatoes
+    and the fruits should be placed in layers to bring
+    the package to a good face. With some practice,
+    this slows the operation but very little. Shed packing <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> should be more common than it is though the
+    practice seems to be gaining.</p>
+<p>Shippers scattered from Cuba and California
+    to New York state have packing houses set up to
+    all degrees of elaborateness. Some have machines
+    and conveyors that wash, sort for size, provide for
+    hand sorting for grade and deliver to bins for
+    packing. Experienced packers advance with the
+    season from Florida to Lake Erie. These workers
+    become almost incredibly expert and speedy. It
+    is not uncommon for a worker to pick up, wrap
+    and place in the lug box 60 or 70 tomatoes per
+    minute&mdash;not as a show-off but in course <a name="fig21" id="fig21">of regular
+    work</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;"> <img src="images/fig21.jpg"
+ width="471" height="230"
+ alt="Figure 21.&mdash;Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes, especially" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure
+    21.</span>&mdash;Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes,
+    especially when grown in the winter in the South.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+<p>The federal government has worked out and
+    published standards for the grades of tomatoes
+    along with most other vegetables. These standards
+    are practical and have found wide acceptance
+    as furnishing common language between seller
+    and buyer, especially for long distance shipment.
+    The one who grades may, however, set up a standard
+    of his own to meet the needs of his conditions
+    and market.</p>
+<p>U.S. Standards for cannery tomatoes are widely
+    used as a basis of payment to the grower and this
+    practice is to be commended.</p>
+<h3>Packaging</h3>
+<p>The lug box has almost wholly replaced the
+    older 6-basket carrier and 4-basket flat for shipment
+    of tomatoes. It is in almost every respect, a
+    good package for tomatoes. It is built with solid
+    board ends, with veneer or sawed sides, bottom
+    and cover. Cleats on the ends serve to raise the
+    lids so that a bulge pack will not be injured by
+    pressure. Veneer covers and bottoms are held together
+    by stitched veneer cross pieces. The lug
+    box is packed in three layers and holds about 30
+    pounds net of tomatoes though it is often over-packed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> to carry considerably more. The bulge
+    pack is desirable only so far as it is necessary to
+    insure a tight pack and to take up the small
+    shrinkage that takes place in transit. Ordinarily,
+    it goes beyond this. It results in delivery of more
+    tomatoes than are paid for, and in bruising because
+    the top <a name="fig22" id="fig22">center is too high</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/i102.jpg" width="500" height="366" alt="Courtesy Southern Arkansas Growers Association&lt;/p&gt;
+
+&lt;p&gt;Figure 22.&mdash;The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato
+packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much
+bulge making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing
+danger of bruising the upper fruits." title="" />
+    <p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 22.</span>&mdash;The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato
+        packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much
+        bulge making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing
+        danger of bruising the upper fruits.</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>The late M. R. Ensign in Florida, was working
+    with a wire-bound lug to carry 20 pounds of
+    tomatoes in two layers without bulge.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+<p>The lug box is packed in three layers and the
+    size of fruits is designated by the number of tomatoes
+    each way,&mdash;6 x 6, 6 x 7, and 7 x 7 being
+    the commonest sizes. Each tomato is wrapped in
+    a square of tissue paper which may or may not
+    be printed. The principal advantage of the paper
+    is to cushion the pack and protect the tomatoes
+    against rubbing and abrasion. Where tomatoes
+    are small, U.S. Standards provide for &quot;bridge
+    pack&quot; or partial extra layers, for extra rows and
+    for double wraps or two tomatoes <a name="fig23" id="fig23">in one paper.</a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/i103.jpg" width="700" height="427" alt="Figure 23.&mdash;Lug boxes as loaded in car." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 23.</span>&mdash;Lug boxes as loaded
+    in car.</span> </div>
+<p>Lug boxes were formerly loaded lengthwise of
+    the car but are now generally loaded crosswise,&mdash;that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> is, the side of the box is crosswise throwing
+    the heavy endwise thrust against the substantial
+    end of the box. Thin strips are nailed between
+    layers, butting against the sides of the car to prevent
+    shifting of the load and closing of ventilation
+    channels. Refrigerated cars are generally used <a name="fig24" id="fig24">but
+    icing is not usual</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/i104.jpg" width="700" height="548" alt="Figure 24.&mdash;The square braid basket is widely used as a local market
+package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and is easily put
+up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 24.</span>&mdash;The square braid basket is widely used
+    as a local market package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and is
+    easily put up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high.</span> </div>
+<p>A few shipping sections, notably New Jersey,
+    still use the 12-quart climax basket for tomatoes.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+<p>Local markets use various containers for tomatoes,&mdash;the
+    Boston bushel box; a half bushel of the
+    same depth also used in New England; lug boxes;
+    the Jersey tomato crate; and very commonly, 8
+    and 12-quart square braid veneer market baskets.
+    Peach baskets and bushel baskets are now used
+    but little, being too deep for good carrying. The
+    diamond market basket of earlier years has about
+    disappeared&mdash;being too flexible and not suited for
+    stacking. The square braid with suitable cover
+    may be stacked very satisfactorily in trucks but
+    is hardly substantial <a name="fig25" id="fig25">enough for rail shipment</a>.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/i105.jpg" width="700" height="403" alt="Figure 25.&mdash;The Connecticut half bushel box. Figure 19
+shows how this is packed." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 25.</span>&mdash;The
+    Connecticut half bushel box. Figure 19 shows how this is packed.</span> </div>
+<p>Hot house tomatoes travel in square braid,
+    climax or paper fibre baskets, now rather commonly, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> the latter. The Cleveland section sells
+    some millions of baskets of 8-quart capacity but
+    carrying 8 pounds of tomatoes in two layers, usually
+    with stems on, usually wrapped and sometimes
+    with a paper divider<a name="fig26" id="fig26"> between layers.</a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/i106.jpg" width="700" height="484" alt="Figure 26.&mdash;Repacked tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go to wholesale
+houses that specialize in ripening and repacking. Many kinds of
+packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of the popular
+packs especially in the Boston area." title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 26.</span>&mdash;Repacked
+    tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go to wholesale houses that specialize in ripening
+    and repacking. Many kinds of packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of
+    the popular packs especially in the<a name="fig27" id="fig27"> Boston area</a>.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/i107.jpg" width="700" height="400" alt="Cellulose" title="" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 27.</span>&mdash;Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes.</span> </div>
+<p>Cannery tomatoes move in field crates belonging
+    to the canner or, in Jersey, in 5/8 bushel baskets,
+    about as awkward a container as could be
+    readily devised unless it should be the Jersey <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> tomato crate with its two cover strips permanently
+    fastened.</p>
+<p>Repack tomatoes are sometimes replaced in lugs
+    or in half lugs. Ten pound corrugated cartons
+    are widely used, newer and fancier packs being
+    but one layer deep. Fruits are wrapped with
+    paper or cellulose film. An increasing proportion
+    of repacks are now put up in one-pound cartons
+    with a window of cellulose film, carrying four or
+    five tomatoes. A variation is a paper tray wrapped
+    with cellulose film.</p>
+<p>Good marketing calls for a good label for whatever
+    package is used. These are usually pasted on
+    the package. Paper containers are often printed
+    directly but the problem of misuse of second hand
+    packages is coming to the fore.</p>
+<h3>Selling</h3>
+<p>Success in selling demands in the producer the
+    qualities which we ordinarily expect in the business
+    man. The good grower is a business man if
+    he succeeds, and this will be more true in the
+    future than in the past, as competition increases.
+    It is necessary to judge the men one deals with,
+    forming estimates as to reliability and character. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> Mutual confidence is essential to satisfactory dealings.
+    It is worth while to study the produce business
+    and to learn its ins and outs, reading a trade
+    paper, talking with dealers, and making trips to
+    markets.</p>
+<p>Shipments are made on &quot;f.o.b.&quot; or track sale,
+    on consignment, or on joint account. The first
+    plan of outright sale is the most desirable and is
+    possible where there is enough business at a given
+    point to attract buyers or where grades and business
+    standing are well enough established to assure
+    the purchaser of what he is getting. When
+    the quality of the product is uncertain or when
+    markets are glutted, consignment must be resorted
+    to. Under this plan, the shipper owns the
+    goods until the receiver makes a sale and all the
+    risks up to this point are his. There are many
+    consignment houses of high character if the shipper
+    will take the trouble to find them instead of
+    shipping to any one who writes a good letter, and
+    there is vigorous competition in the trade. These
+    factors make it possible to secure fairly good service
+    most of the time. Joint account selling,
+    where shipper and receiver agree on how returns
+    shall be divided, is sometimes undertaken where
+    mutual acquaintance justifies it.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+<p>Selling on distant markets is more complex and
+    difficult than local selling for many reasons. Shoving
+    crates off the wagon into the car and forgetting
+    them is not selling. Co-operative organization has
+    helped many communities through pooling of resources,
+    standardizing, grading and packing the
+    product, encouraging better field practices, and
+    securing the services of able managers and salesmen.</p>
+<h3>Local Selling</h3>
+<p>A very small amount of produce is sold by producers
+    directly to the consumer at his home, but
+    the roadside market has greatly developed retail
+    activity by growers. Here fine quality, attractive
+    appearance, moderate prices, and fair dealing are
+    effective in building business. Stands that plan to
+    &quot;fleece them as they pass&quot; do not last long. It is
+    the return business that counts. The bulk of local
+    selling is done directly to retailers&mdash;grocers or
+    hucksters&mdash;either at market or store-door. The
+    costliness of this system is being realized and local
+    commission business is growing, in many cases
+    through the establishment of commission houses
+    co-operatively owned and managed by growers, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> as in Providence, Cleveland, Chicago and other
+    markets.</p>
+<p>Some effort has been made to increase the use
+    of tomatoes as has been successfully done with
+    oranges and bananas. These efforts have been
+    sporadic and results have been hardly more consistent
+    than the efforts. Co-operative publicity,
+    especially at times when large quantities are to be
+    moved, would seem to offer fine possibilities.
+    Growers of some crops are finding chain store
+    groups very ready to help in moving out large
+    volumes of produce when the supply is large.</p>
+<h3>Cannery Selling</h3>
+<p>Cannery sales are generally made at a stipulated
+    price on contracts closed in advance of planting.
+    These contracts have usually devoted more words
+    to protecting the interests of the packer than those
+    of the grower, largely because the grower has accepted
+    the canner's initiative with little question.
+    Farseeing companies have been fair in enforcement
+    of terms and liberal in their dealings, realizing
+    that prosperity must be mutual for the
+    highest success. A few canners have contract provisions
+    that enable the grower to share in prices <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> realized for the packed product when they rise
+    beyond a certain figure. Too many canners have
+    lacked vision, however, and have taken all they
+    could get. Farmers have known little about costs
+    and so have frequently been lured by the prospect
+    of cash return even though they see no money
+    until the packed tomatoes are actually sold. During
+    recent years, much has been learned about
+    the business side of growing for cannery purposes
+    and the knowledge has been made available
+    through extension channels. Growers have shown
+    some tendency to organize and some canners welcome
+    this movement as helping them to set their
+    affairs on a plane of definite understanding. Canners
+    have suffered sadly through failure of growers
+    to live up to contracts if it suited them better to
+    evade the terms, and organization helps greatly
+    to develop the producer's sense of responsibility.
+    Indiana has formed a federation of locals, but an
+    organization movement in another state failed,
+    more because the directors and members did not
+    live up to their duties than through opposition of
+    certain hostile canners. Co-operation in this field
+    has the same possibilities, requirements and dangers
+    as in other fields. With time and experience, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> co-operation will be an increasing and beneficial
+    factor in the business.</p>
+<p>In some sections, most of the cannery tomatoes
+    are sold on open market, and in others, the early
+    part of the crop is free for local sale or shipment.
+    This arrangement would seem to have possibilities
+    for further development by the use of good
+    plants and good culture.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>IX</h2>
+<h2>OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN<br />
+    THE BLACK</h2>
+<p>Happily, the home gardener does not need to
+    keep books with his tomatoes. If he likes the
+    culture and the product, he need not inquire
+    further.</p>
+<p>Not so with the commercial grower. After all
+    skill has been exercised in growing and selling,
+    the books must show black and not red. This calls
+    for good management and judgment not only as
+    to what is best for the tomatoes and for the consumer
+    but also how much one can afford to spend
+    to gain a given advantage.</p>
+<p>Fortunately, quality, yield and economy generally
+    go hand in hand. One of the best ways to
+    achieve low unit cost is to win a high yield per
+    acre.</p>
+<p>For the cannery crop, conditions are sometimes
+    such that one cannot afford to apply, say, optimum
+    fertilizer because some other factor not
+    readily controlled may limit the returns and so
+    make heavy feeding uneconomical.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+<p><i>Yield.</i>&mdash;The average yield per acre of cannery
+    tomatoes for the United States was, in 1940, 5.39
+    tons per acre and the 10-year average, to 1938,
+    was 4.15 tons per acre. For tomatoes for fresh
+    market, the average yield for 1940 was 148 bushels
+    per acre, 14 bushels above the 10-year average.
+    Of course, these yields would not satisfy a grower
+    who calls himself successful. In the canning sections
+    of New York, it takes about 7 tons per acre
+    to cover costs of production. Some years ago a
+    survey in Arkansas recorded costs as low as $36
+    per acre. However, the same survey showed cost
+    per ton as $13.64. Cannery contracts that year
+    averaged about $12.75 per ton. That does not
+    yield much money to bank even if ten or twenty
+    acres are grown. Rarely yields run to 25 tons per
+    acre.</p>
+<p>It is accordingly necessary to keep costs down
+    and to bring yields up. Each item of cost must be
+    scrutinized and adjusted to bring lowest cost per
+    ton or per package.</p>
+<p>In counting costs, it is necessary to include
+    every element. The following summary from 118
+    Western New York farms for 1934 for cannery
+    tomatoes illustrates the various items:</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>
+
+    <div align="center">
+
+    <table border="0" summary="costs" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="80%">
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+            <td align="right"> Per cent</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+            <td align="right"> of total</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Growing costs:</td>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Land</td>
+            <td align="right"> $ 7.66</td>
+            <td align="right"> 9.17</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Manure</td>
+            <td align="right"> 3.91</td>
+            <td align="right"> 4.68</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Commercial fertilizer</td>
+            <td align="right"> 8.21</td>
+            <td align="right"> 9.83</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Plants</td>
+            <td align="right"> 15.55</td>
+            <td align="right"> 18.62</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Plowing</td>
+            <td align="right"> 3.40</td>
+            <td align="right"> 24.10</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Fitting</td>
+            <td align="right"> 3.83</td>
+            <td align="right"> 4.59</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Applying fertilizer</td>
+            <td align="right"> 1.65</td>
+            <td align="right"> 1.98</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Setting</td>
+            <td align="right"> 5.41</td>
+            <td align="right"> 6.48</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Cultivating</td>
+            <td align="right"> 6.38</td>
+            <td align="right"> 7.64</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">All other growing costs</td>
+            <td align="right"> 2.14</td>
+            <td align="right"> 2.56</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+            <td align="right">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+            <td align="right">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left">Total growing costs per acre</td>
+            <td align="right"> $58.16</td>
+            <td align="right"> 69.65</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="center"> Harvesting and delivering (8.2 tons)</td>
+            <td align="right"> 25.34</td>
+            <td align="right"> 30.35</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="left"></td>
+            <td align="right">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+            <td align="right">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+            <td align="center"> Total costs</td>
+            <td align="right"> $83.50</td>
+            <td align="right"> 100.00</td>
+        </tr>
+    </table>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>All too often, growers think they are counting
+    costs when such important items as interest, use of
+    truck and machinery or others are omitted. One
+    sometimes sees such figures in print.</p>
+<p>One good way to view returns is in terms of
+    cents per hour for labor. Cost accounts in New
+    York have showed that a group of farmers who
+    raised cannery tomatoes the nine years up to 1937
+    and whose records were studied, realized $0.34
+    per hour for their time given to tomatoes, $0.51
+    for potatoes, $0.24 for wheat, and $0.11 for oats.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>SELECTED REFERENCES</h2>
+<p>This book is not a monograph in the scientific
+    sense and no attempt has been made to cite references
+    for all statements. This list is intended to
+    include the publications that are likely to prove
+    most useful to one who wishes to read further
+    about tomatoes. There are many others of great
+    value, most of them being included in bibliographies
+    in the works cited below.</p>
+<p>Unless otherwise stated, references are to publications
+    of the state experiment stations, addresses
+    of which may be obtained by writing Office of Experiment
+    Stations, United States Department of
+    Agriculture, Washington, D. C.</p>
+<h3>General</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Beattie, W. R. <i>Tomatoes as a truck crop.</i> U.S. Dept.
+        of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1338. 1923.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Snyder, G. B. and Dempsey, P. W. <i>Tomato production
+        in Massachusetts.</i> Mass. Ext. Leaf. 51. May, 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Porter, D. R. and MacGillivray, John H. <i>The production
+        of tomatoes in California.</i> Calif. Exp.
+        Sta. Cir. 104. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Cochran, H. L. <i>Improved methods of tomato production
+        in Georgia.</i> Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206. 1940.</p>
+    <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Huelsen, W. A. <i>Growing tomatoes in Illinois.</i> Ill.
+        Exp. Sta. Cir. 451. 1936.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Balch, W. B. <i>Growing tomatoes in Kansas.</i> Kan.
+        Exp. Sta. Cir. 172. 1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Seaton, H. L. <i>Tomato growing in Michigan.</i> Mich.
+        Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 156. 1936.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Allen, E. J. and Talbert, T. J. <i>Tomato culture in
+        Missouri.</i> Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 173. 1934.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Schermerhorn, L. G., Tiedjens, V. A., et al. <i>Questions
+        and answers relative to tomato production.</i> N.J. Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 174. 1936.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Raleigh, G. J. <i>Growing tomatoes for market.</i> Cornell
+        Ext. Bul. 377. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Tracy, W. <i>Tomato culture.</i> Orange Judd Co. 1907.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Work, Paul. <i>Tomato production.</i> Orange Judd Co.
+        1926.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Pellett, F. C. and M. A. <i>Practical tomato culture.</i> A. T. De La More Co. 1930.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Food Value</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Atwater, W. O., and Woods, C. D. <i>The chemical composition
+        of American food materials.</i> U.S. Dept.
+        of Agr., Office of Expt. Stas. Bul. 28. 1896.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Sherman, H. C. <i>Food products.</i> Macmillan. 1924.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Miller, Elna. <i>Tomatoes, their value and uses.</i> Utah
+        Exp. Sta. Cir. 47. 1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Ellis, Eliz. E. <i>Using tomatoes in family meals.</i> N.H.
+        Exp. Sta. Cir. 225. 1940.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Cannery</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Beattie, J. H. <i>Tomatoes for canning and manufacturing.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1233.
+        Rev. 1930.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Lancashire, E. R., Parks, T. H. and Pierstorff, A. L. <i>Tomatoes for canning.</i> Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 114.
+        1935.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hester, J. B. <i>Good, fair or poor tomatoes from your
+        soil.</i> Campbell Soup Co., Bul. 2. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Cruess, W. V. <i>Commercial fruit and vegetable products.</i> McGraw-Hill. 1924.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Pederson, C. S. <i>Preparation of tomato products.</i> N.Y. Exp. Sta. Cir. 178. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Gaylord, F. C. and Fawcett, K. L. <i>A study of grade,
+        quality and price of canned tomatoes sold at retail
+        in Indiana.</i> Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1939.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Saywell, L. G. and Cruess, W. V. <i>The composition
+        of canning tomatoes.</i> Calif. Exp. Sta. Bul. 545.
+        1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">MacGillivray, J. H. and Ford, O. W. <i>Tomato quality
+        as influenced by the relative amount of outer and
+        inner wall region.</i> Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 327. 1928.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">MacGillivray, J. H. <i>Tomato color as related to
+        quality in the tomato canning industry.</i> Ind. Exp.
+        Sta. Bul. 350. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Gaylord, F. C. and MacGillivray, J. H. <i>Tomato
+        quality studies. Field and harvest factors affecting
+        grade.</i> Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 394. 1934.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hauck, C. W. <i>Marketing cannery tomatoes on grade
+        in Ohio.</i> Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 504. 1932.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Greenhouse</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Beattie, J. H. <i>Greenhouse tomatoes.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1431. Rev. 1939.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hoffman, I. C. <i>Growing of greenhouse tomatoes.</i> Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 499. 1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Burk, E. F. and Roberts, R. H. <i>Growing greenhouse
+        tomatoes.</i> Wisc. Exp. Sta. Bul. 418. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. <i>Relative efficiency
+        of various organic supplements in the growth of
+        greenhouse tomatoes.</i> R. I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 236.
+        1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. <i>Economical
+        amounts of nitrate of soda to apply in the greenhouse
+        for the growth of tomatoes.</i> R. I. Exp. Sta.
+        Bul. 252. 1935.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Bouquet, A. G. P. <i>An analysis of the characters of
+        the inflorescence and fruiting habit of some varieties
+        of greenhouse tomatoes.</i> Cornell Exp. Sta.
+        Memoir 139. 1932. Biblio.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Seaton, H. L. and Gray, G. F. <i>Histological study of
+        tissues from greenhouse tomatoes affected by
+        blotchy ripening.</i> Jour. Agr. Research (U.S.
+        Dept. of Agr.), Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 217-224. 1936.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+<h3>Breeding and Varieties</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Boswell, V. R. <i>Improvement and genetics of tomatoes,
+        peppers, and eggplant.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr.
+        Yearbook. 1937. pp. 176-206. Full biblio.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Boswell, V. R., et al. <i>Description of American varieties
+        of tomatoes.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ.
+        160. 1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Muller, C. H. <i>A revision of the genus Lycopersicon.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 382. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Morrison, Gordon. <i>Tomato varieties.</i> Mich. Exp.
+        Sta. Spec. Bul. 290. 1938.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Myers, C. E. and Lewis, M. T. <i>The effect of selection
+        in the tomato.</i> Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 248. Rev.
+        May 2, 1930.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Yeager, A. F. <i>Tomato breeding.</i> N.D. Exp. Sta. Bul.
+        276. 1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Pritchard, F. J. <i>Development of wilt-resistant tomatoes.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1015. 1922.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Wellington, Richard. <i>Comparison of first generation
+        tomato crosses and their parents.</i> Minn. Exp. Sta.
+        Tech. Bul. 6. Rev. 1923.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Groth, B. H. A. <i>The F<sub>1</sub> hereditary of size, shape, and
+        number in tomato fruits.</i> N.J. Exp. Sta. Bul. 242.
+        1912.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Lindstrom, E. W. <i>Hereditary correlation of size and color characters in tomatoes.</i> Iowa Exp. Sta. Research
+        Bul. 93. 1926.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Porte, W. S. and Wellman, F. L. <i>Development of interspecific</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> <i>tomato hybrids.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir.
+        584. 1941.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Babb, M. F. and Kraus, J. E. <i>Results of tomato variety
+        tests in the great plains region.</i> U.S. Dept.
+        of Agr. Cir. 533. 1939.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Anon. <i>A haploid marglobe tomato.</i> Jour. of Heredity,
+        Washington, D. C. Vol. 27, No. 11, 1936.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Huelsen, W. A. <i>New wilt-resistant tomato varieties
+        for field and greenhouse.</i> Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 448.
+        1936.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Plants for Transplanting</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Nissley, C. H. <i>Plant growing and plant growing
+        structures.</i> N.J. Ext. Bul. 51. 1926.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Tussing, E. B. and Lancashire, E. R. <i>Growing vegetable
+        plants.</i> Ohio Ext. Bul. 103. 1930.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Raleigh, G. J. <i>Starting vegetable plants.</i> Cornell
+        Ext. Bul. 448. Oct. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Crist, J. W. <i>Ultimate effect of hardening tomato
+        plants.</i> Mich. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 89. 1928.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Harvey, R. B. and Wright, R. C. <i>Frost injury to tomatoes.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1099. 1922.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Seaton, H. L. and Strong, M. C. <i>Southern-grown vs.
+        locally grown tomato plants.</i> Mich. Quarterly
+        Bul. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 131-141. 1938.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Alexander, L. J., Young, H. C. and Kiger, C. M. <i>The
+        causes and control of damping-off of tomato seedlings.</i> Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 496. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Van Haltern, Frank. <i>Control of tomato seedbed diseases</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> <i>of southern plants.</i> Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 187.
+        1935.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Fertilizers</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Work, Paul. <i>Tomato fertilizer experiments in Chautauqua
+        County, New York.</i> Cornell Exp. Sta.
+        Bul. 467. 1928.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hartman, J. D., Work, Paul Wessels, P. H. <i>Tomato
+        fertilizer experiments on Long Island.</i> Cornell
+        Exp. Sta. Bul. 676. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J. and Rahn, E. M. <i>Fertilizer
+        experiments with tomatoes.</i> Penna. Exp. Sta. Bul.
+        393. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Sayre, C. B. <i>Effects of fertilizers and rotation on earliness
+        and total yields of tomatoes.</i> N.Y. Exp. Sta.
+        Bul. 619. 1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Sayre, C. B. <i>Starter solutions.</i> Farm Research (N.Y.
+        Exp. Sta. Geneva) Vols. 5, 6, and 7, No. 2. April
+        1939, '40, '41.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Parker, M. M. <i>Tomato fertilization. (1) The effect
+        of different fertilizer ratios on the yield to tomatoes.</i> Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 80. 1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Carolus, R. L. <i>Tomato fertilization. (2) The effect
+        of different fertilizer ratios on the chemical
+        composition of tomatoes.</i> Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 81.
+        1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Thomas, R. P. <i>Effect of fertilizer treatments of a soil
+        on the quality and yield of tomatoes.</i> Md. Exp.
+        Sta. Bul. 386. 1935.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Friend, W. H. <i>Tomato varieties and fertilizers for </i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span><i>the lower Rio Grande valley of Texas.</i> Texas
+        Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Comin, Donald and Bushnell, John. <i>Fertilizers for
+        early cabbage, tomatoes, cucumbers, and sweet
+        corn.</i> Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 420. 1928.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hepler, J. R. and Kraybill, H. R. <i>Effect of phosphorus
+        upon the yield and time of maturity of
+        the tomato.</i> N.H. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 28. Rev.
+        1926.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hester, J. B. <i>Soil fertility in tomato production.</i> Campbell Soup Co. Bul. 3. 1941.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Cultural Practices</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Thompson, H. C. <i>Pruning and training tomatoes.</i> Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 580. 1934.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Watts, V. M. <i>Pruning and training tomatoes in Arkansas.</i> Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 292. 1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hibbard, R. P. <i>The various effects of frost protectors
+        on tomato plants.</i> Mich. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 124.
+        1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Thompson, H. C. <i>Experimental studies of the effects
+        of cultivation of certain vegetable crops.</i> Cornell
+        Expt. Sta. Memoir 107. 1927.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Physiology</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. <i>Vegetation and reproduction
+        with special reference to the tomato.</i> Ore. Exp. Sta. Bul. 149. 1918. Biblio.</p>
+    <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Work, Paul. <i>Nitrate of soda in the nutrition of the
+        tomato.</i> Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 75. 1924.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, John M. <i>Some effects of artificial climates on the growth
+        and chemical composition of plants.</i> Amer. Jour.
+        of Botany, 17: 416-482. 1930.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Murneek, A. E. <i>Physiology of reproduction in horticultural
+        plants. (1) Reproduction and metabolic
+        efficiency in the tomato.</i> Mo. Exp. Sta. Research
+        Bul. 90. 1926.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Murneek, A. E. <i>Effects of correlation between vegetative
+        and reproductive functions in the tomato.</i> Plant Physiology, Vol. I, No. 1. 1926.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Nightingale, G. T. <i>The chemical composition of
+        plants in relation to photo-periodic changes.</i> Wis.
+        Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 74. 1927.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Porter, A. M. <i>Effect of light intensity on the photosynthetic
+        efficiency of tomato plants.</i> Plant Physiology,
+        Vol. 12: pp. 225-252. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Nightingale, G. T. <i>Effects of temperature on metabolism
+        in tomato.</i> Botanical Gazette, Vol. 95, No.
+        1. 1933.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Phillips, T. G., Smith, T. O. and Hepler, J. R. <i>Some
+        effects of potassium and nitrogen on the composition
+        of the tomato plant.</i> N.H. Exp. Sta. Tech.
+        Bul. 73. 1939.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">MacGillivray, J. H. <i>Effect of phosphorus on the composition
+        of the tomato plant.</i> Jour. of Agr. Research.
+        Vol. 34, No. 2. pp. 97-127. 1927.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Janssen, G., Bartholomew, R. R. and Watts, V. M.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> <i>Some effects of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
+        on the composition and growth of tomato
+        plants.</i> Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 310. 1934.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Eckerson, Sophia H. <i>Influence of phosphorus deficiency
+        on metabolism of the tomato.</i> Contribs.
+        of Boyce Thompson Institute. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.
+        197-218. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Fisher, P. L. <i>Responses of the tomato in solution cultures
+        with deficiencies and excesses of certain essential
+        elements.</i> Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 375. 1935.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Howlett, F. S. <i>Effect of carbohydrate deficiency upon
+        formation of sex cells in tomato.</i> Ohio Exp. Sta.
+        Bul. 532. 1934.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Howlett, F. S. <i>The modification of flower structure
+        by environment in varieties of Lycopersicum esculentum.</i> Jour. of Agr. Research, Vol. 58, No. 2,
+        pp. 79-117. 1939.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Watts, V. M. <i>Some factors which influence growth
+        and fruiting of the tomato.</i> Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul.
+        267. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Watts, V. M. <i>Growth and fruiting responses to pruning
+        and defloration of tomato plants.</i> Ark. Exp.
+        Sta. Bul. 347. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Smith, Ora. <i>Pollination and life-history studies of
+        the tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum mill.)</i> Cornell
+        Exp. Sta. Memoir 184. 1935.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Smith, Ora. <i>Relation of temperature to anthesis and
+        blossom drop of the tomato together with a histological
+        study of the pistils.</i> Jour. of Agr. Research.
+        Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 183-190. 1932.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. <i>Effect of temperature
+        on pollen germination and tube growth in
+        the tomato.</i> Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 175. 1935.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Smith, Ora. <i>Effects of light on carotenoid formation
+        in tomato fruits.</i> Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 187.
+        1936.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Reid, Mary E. <i>Growth of tomato cuttings in relation
+        to stored carbohydrate and nitrogenous compounds.</i> Amer. Jour. of Botany, Vol. 13: pp. 548-574.
+        1926.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Foster, A. C. and Tatman, E. C. <i>Influence of certain
+        environment conditions of congestion of starch
+        in tomato plant stems.</i> Jour. of Agr. Research.
+        Vol. 56, No. 12, pp. 869-882. 1938.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Diseases and Insects</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Chupp, Chas. <i>Manual of vegetable-garden diseases.</i> Macmillan. 1925.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Kadow, K. J. and Shropshire, L. H. <i>Tomato diseases
+        and insect pests. (Identification and control.)</i> Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 428. 1935.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Weber, G. F. and Kelbert, D. G. A. <i>Seasonal occurrence
+        of tomato diseases in Florida.</i> Fla. Sta. Bul.
+        345. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Samson, R. W. and Thomas, H. Rex. <i>Tomato diseases
+        in Indiana.</i> Ind. Exp. Sta. Cir. 257. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Strong, M. C. <i>Tomato diseases in Michigan.</i> Mich.
+        Exp. Sta. Cir. Bul. 139. 1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Young, P. A., Harrison, A. L. and Altstatt, G. E.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> <i>Common diseases of tomatoes.</i> Texas Exp. Sta.
+        Cir. 86. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Horsfall, J. G., Magie, R. O. and Suit, R. F. <i>Bordeaux
+        injury to tomatoes and its effect on ripening.</i> N.Y.
+        Exp. Sta. Geneva. Tech. Bul. 251. 1938.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Ramsey, G. B. and Link, G. K. K. <i>Market diseases
+        of fruits and vegetables: Tomatoes, peppers, eggplants.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Pub. 121. 1932.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Marketing</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Parsons, F. E. <i>Preparation of fresh tomatoes for market.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1291. Rev.
+        1930.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Wright, R. C. and Gorman, E. A., Jr. <i>Ripening and
+        repacking of mature green tomatoes.</i> U.S. Dept.
+        of Agr. Cir. 566. 1940.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Sando, Charles E. <i>The process of ripening in the tomato,
+        considered especially from the commercial
+        standpoint.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 859. 1920.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Wright, R. C., Pentzer, W. T. et al. <i>Effect of various
+        temperatures on the storage and ripening of tomatoes.</i> U.S. Dept. of Agr. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Frazier, W. A. <i>Cracks in tomato fruits.</i> American
+        Soc. for Hort. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 519-523. 1934.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Brown, H. D. and Price, C. V. <i>Effect of irrigation,
+        degree of maturity and shading upon yield and
+        degree of cracking of tomatoes.</i> Amer. Soc. for Horti. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 524-528. 1934.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Yarnell, S. H., Friend, W. H. and Wood, J. F. <i>Factors</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> <i>affecting the amount of puffing in tomatoes.</i> Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 541. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">LeCrone, Freddie and Haber, E. S. <i>Changes in the pectic constituents of tomatoes in storage.</i> Iowa
+        State College Jour. of Sci. Vol. 12, No. 4. pp.
+        467-476. 1933. Good biblio.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Work, Paul. <i>Ethylene ripening of tomatoes in relation
+        to stage of maturity.</i> Amer. Soc. for Hort.
+        Sci. 1928. pp. 61-64.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">MacGillivray, J. H. <i>Tomato color as related to quality
+        in the tomato canning industry.</i> Ind. Exp. Sta.
+        Bul. 350. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Vogele, A. C. <i>Effect of environmental factors upon
+        the color of the tomato and the watermelon.</i> Plant
+        Physiology, Vol. 12, pp. 929-955. 1937.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Lanham, W. B. <i>Effect of potash fertilizer on the carrying
+        quality of tomatoes.</i> Texas Exp. Sta. Bul.
+        357. 1927.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Wardlaw, C. W., and McGuire, L. P. <i>The storage
+        of tropically-grown tomatoes.</i> (Low Temp. Sta.,
+        Imperial College of Tropical Agr. Trinidad,
+        B.W.I.) E.M.B. 59. 1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Rosa, J. T. <i>Ripening and storage of tomatoes.</i> 1926
+        Proceedings of the American Soc. for Hort. Sci.
+        pp. 1-10.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Haber, E. S. <i>Acidity and color changes in tomatoes
+        under various storage temperatures.</i> Iowa State
+        College Jour. of Sci. Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 171-184.
+        1931.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Diehl, H. C. <i>The chilling of tomatoes.</i> U.S. Dept.
+        of Agri. Dept. Cir. 315. 1924.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em"><i>Some problems in marketing tomatoes grown in the
+        lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas.</i> U.S. Dept.
+        of Agri. Marketing Information Series G.C.M. 4.
+        1938.</p>
+</div>
+<h3>Costs and Economics</h3>
+<div class="blockquot">
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Campbell, C. E. <i>An economic study of tomato production
+        for canning in Arkansas.</i> Ark. Exp. Sta.
+        Bul. 225. 1928.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Walker, W. P. <i>An economic study of the production
+        of tomatoes in Maryland.</i> Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 304.
+        1929.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Montgomery, T. M. Jr., and Efferson, J. N. <i>A cost of
+        production study of tomatoes in North Louisiana,
+        1939.</i> La. Exp. Sta. Bul. 329. 1941.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Carncross, J. W., Cathcart, C. S. et al. <i>Economic review
+        of New Jersey Agriculture.</i> Ext. Service No.
+        72. pp. 89-96. 1931.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Carncross, J. W. and Nissley, C. H. <i>New Jersey Can-house
+        tomato production.</i> Costs and recommendations
+        for 1932. N.J. Ext. Bul. 96. 1932.</p>
+    <p style="text-indent: -2em; margin-left: 2em">Hawthorne, H. W. <i>Cost of production of tomatoes
+        (20 states 1913-1934) Mimeo.</i> Bul. of Agr. Eco.,
+        U.S. Dept. of Agr., Nov. 1936.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+<p style="margin-left: 25%">Ammo-phos, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Aphis, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Arnon, D. I., <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Arthur, J. M., <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Barrons, K. C., <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Bison, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Blight, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Blocking plants, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Blossom end rot, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Bonny Best, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Botany, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Bounty, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Breeding, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Cannery, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Carbohydrate, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Car loading, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Certification, plants, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Certification, seeds, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Chalk Jewel, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Chili sauce, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Chromosomes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Climate, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cochran, H. L., <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cold frames, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Comet, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Composition, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Compost, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Condiments, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Costs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cracking, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Crown Seed, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cultivation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Curly top, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cut worms, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Damping off, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Description of tomato, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Determinate habit, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Dirt bands, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Diseases, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Earliana, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Earliness, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Economics, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Embryo, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Emerson, R. A., <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Fertilization, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Field containers, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Flats for plants, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Flea beetles, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Floral characters, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Forcing, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Fruitfulness, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Fruit worm, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Fusarium, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Geography, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Germination, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Grading, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Greater Baltimore, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Green wraps, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Greenhouse culture, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Greenhouses for plant growing, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Ground cherry, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Gulf State Market, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Guthrie, J. D., <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Hardening, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Harvesting, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Harvey, R. B., <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Hepler, J. H., <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> Heterosis, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+    <br />
+    History, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Hitchcock, A. E., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Hoagland, D. R., <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Home garden, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Home Garden, variety, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Horn worms, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Hot beds, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Howlett, F. S., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Husk tomato, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Hybrid vigor, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Ideal variety, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Immature green, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Insects, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Internal nutrition, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Irrigation, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Jamison, F. S., <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+    <br />
+    John Baer, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Juice, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Ketchup, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+    <br />
+    King Humbert, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Klebs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Kraus, E. J., <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Kraybill, H. R., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Lanham, W. B., <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Leaf blight, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Lime, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Lindstrom, E. W., <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Longevity, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Loomis, W. E., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Lug box, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    MacGillivray, J. H., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Mack, W. B., <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Manure, animal, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Marglobe, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Market diseases, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Marketing, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Mature green, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Maturity, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Mosaic, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Mulch, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Murneek, A. E., <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Myers, C. E., <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Newell, J. M., <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nitrogen, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nutritive value, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Packing, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Parthenocarpy, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Penn State, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Per capita consumption, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Phosphorus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Physalis, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Placement of fertilizer, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Plant beds, open, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Plants for transplanting, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pollination, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Ponderosa, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Potash, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Potassium nitrate, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Potato beetle, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pots, clay, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pots, paper, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Price, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pritchard, variety, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pritchard, F. J., Frontispiece, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#i085">87</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Protectors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pruning, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Puffiness, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Purdum, L. W., &amp; Sons, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Puree and paste, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Rahn, E. M., <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    References, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Requirements, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Ripening, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Roadside selling, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Rosa, J. T., <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Running to vine, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> Rutgers, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Sando, C. E., <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+    <br />
+    San Marzano, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Saving seed, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Sayre, C. B., <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Scarlet Dawn, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Seed, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Seed Sowing, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Seed treatment, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Seedless fruits, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Selection, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Selling, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Septoria, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Setting fruit, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Side dressing, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Smith, Ora, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Soil, field, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Soil, plant growing, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Solution culture, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Southern plants, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Spacing in field, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Staking, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Stalk borer, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Starter solutions, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Statistics, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Sterilizing soil, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Stokesdale, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Stout, G. J., <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Sunscald, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Temperature for plant growing, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Thompson, H. C, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Tiedjens, V. H., <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Training, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Transplanters, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Transplanting, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Trellis system, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Uses, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Varieties, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Vegetation and fruitfulness, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Victor, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Virus, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Water culture, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Watering, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Watering plants, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Watts, V. M., <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Wellington, Richard, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Work, Paul, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Wright, R. C., <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Yeager, A. F., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Yellows (See also fusarium), <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Yield, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Zimmerman, P. W., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Hoagland, D. R. and Arnon, D. I. The water culture method
+        for growing plants without soil. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 347. Dec.
+        1938.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, J. M. Some effects
+        of artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition of
+        plants. Amer. Jour. Bot. 17:416-482. 1930.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen
+        germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Memoir 175.
+        1935.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Howlett, F. S. Use of chemicals to stimulate fruitfulness in
+        tomatoes. Veg. Growers Asso. of America Rept. 1941, pp. 203-214.
+        1941. </p>
+    <p> Zimmerman, P. W. and Hitchcock, A. E. Formative effects induced
+        with B-Naphthoxyacetic acid. Contribution from Boyce
+        Thompson Inst. Vol. 12 #1, April-June, 1941.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Fertilizer recommendations are best given in form of pounds
+        per acre of nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>) and potash (K<sub>2</sub>O).
+        These figures are then translated into pounds per acre of materials
+        or of mixed fertilizers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction
+        with special reference to the tomato. Oreg. Bul. 149. 1918.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Work, Paul. Nitrate of Soda in the nutrition of the tomato.
+        Cornell Memoir 75. 1924.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Murneek, A. E. The effects of fruit on vegetative growth in
+        plants. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Rpt. 1924, pp. 274-276.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of
+        the tomato plant. Jour. Agr. Res. 34: 97-127. 1927.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Hepler, J. H. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon
+        yield and maturity of the tomato. N.H. Tech. Bul. 28. 1925.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J., and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer experiments
+        with tomatoes. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Sayre, C. B. Starter Solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Expt. Sta.)
+        Vols. V, VI, and VII, No. 2, April, 1939, 1940, and 1941.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato
+        crosses and their parents. Minn. Tech. Bul. 6. 1922.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Loomis, W. E. Studies in the transplanting of vegetable plants.
+        Cornell Memoir 87. 1925.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Watts, V. M. Factors affecting production of wrinkled tomato
+        fruits. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30: 513-517. 1934.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Emerson, R. A. Experiments in mulching garden vegetables.
+        Neb. Bul. 80. 1903.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Sta.
+        Bul. 580. 1934.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in canning.
+        Ind. Bul. 350. 1931.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Sando, C. E. The process of ripening in the tomato, considered
+        especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S.D.A. Bul. 859.
+        1920.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Wright, R. C. et al. Effect of various storage temperatures on
+        storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Platenius, H., Jamison, F. S., and Thompson, H. C. Studies on
+        cold storage of vegetables. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 602. 1934.</p>
+    <p>&nbsp;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="technt">
+
+		<h2>Transcriber's Notes. </h2>
+    <p>This file was derived from scanned images. With the exception of the
+	alterations listed, the original
+        text is presented. </p>
+	<p>In an attempt to present the book titles listed in 'Selected References' in a more readable form the titles have been italicised. They do not appear as such in the original printed example. </p>
+		<p>Hyphenation has been standardized.</p>
+		<p><br />
+    </p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Tomato
+
+Author: Paul Work
+
+Release Date: November 18, 2011 [EBook #38051]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TOMATO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Betsie Bush, Scanned by Ray
+Bush and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+        --------------------------------------
+                     Transcriber's Note.
+
+Hyphenation has been standardized.
+        --------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+      THE TOMATO
+
+
+
+
+      THE TOMATO
+
+      _By_ PAUL WORK
+
+      _Professor of Vegetable Crops, Cornell University_
+      _Editor of Market Growers Journal_
+
+      _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+      [Illustration: Printer's Logo]
+
+      NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 1945
+
+
+
+
+      COPYRIGHT, 1942, BY ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.
+
+      PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+_This book or any part thereof, may not be reproduced without
+permission of the publishers, except by a reviewer who wishes to
+quote brief passages in connection with a review written for
+inclusion in a magazine or newspaper._
+
+
+Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan
+American Republics and the United States August 11, 1910
+
+[Illustration: FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD
+
+1874-1931
+
+_Originator of tomato varieties of improved type and resistant to
+disease_]
+
+
+
+
+      TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+    CHAPTER                                                     PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                  11
+
+       I. THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT               13
+
+      II. CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT                      25
+
+     III. THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD                       38
+
+      IV. STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP         53
+
+       V. GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS                        71
+
+      VI. TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD                     79
+
+     VII. THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES            85
+
+    VIII. SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE                  93
+
+      IX. OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK                   116
+
+    REFERENCES                                                   119
+
+    INDEX                                                        133
+
+
+
+
+      ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    F. J. Pritchard                                  _Frontispiece_
+
+    FIGURE
+
+     1. The tomato is the leader among greenhouse vegetables      19
+
+     2. The tomato flower                                         22
+
+     3. Long section of tomato flower                             23
+
+     4. How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato growth                27
+
+     5. Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer 33
+
+     6. Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes                    36
+
+     7. Types of tomato interiors                                 43
+
+     8. The Earliana tomato                                       45
+
+     9. Marglobe plant                                            48
+
+    10. Marglobe fruit                                            49
+
+    11. A good small greenhouse for plant growing                 58
+
+    12. Plants for the early crop                                 61
+
+    13. Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed                   64
+
+    14. Plants that have been crowded and overgrown               69
+
+    15. Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine     80
+
+    16. Fine clusters on trained plants                           81
+
+    17. Resistance to fusarium wilt                               87
+
+    18. Diseases of the tomato                                    89
+
+    19. Packing tomatoes on a farm                                99
+
+    20. A California packing house                               101
+
+    21. Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes                 102
+
+    22. The lug box                                              104
+
+    23. Lug boxes as loaded in car                               105
+
+    24. The square braid basket                                  106
+
+    25. The Connecticut half bushel box                          107
+
+    26. Repacked tomatoes                                        108
+
+    27. Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes             109
+
+
+
+
+      INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Why should there be a book on tomatoes? The world is full of
+bulletins of experiment stations, of articles in periodicals and of
+general books on vegetables which include discussion of tomatoes.
+
+An incomplete set of tomato bulletins includes over 350 documents.
+Many of these are no longer available. Many are of no great value
+but contribute this or that small item.
+
+The task of a book like this is to offer between two covers, a
+summary of what seem the most significant facts and opinions about
+the third most important vegetable crop in the United States.
+
+The tomato is one of the most rewarding crops for the home garden. A
+little space yields heavily, from half a peck to a peck per plant
+without difficulty. It grows well practically everywhere in the
+States, affording high nutritional values whether used fresh or
+canned. And people do like tomatoes, whether as salad, cooked
+vegetable, or condiment.
+
+Competition among growers and among districts makes three elements
+necessary for commercial success:--quality in the goods, economy in
+production, and effectiveness in marketing.
+
+The grower must know his plant, what it is like and how it behaves
+under various conditions and treatments. Then, he needs an
+understanding of the economic factors that surround his enterprise.
+
+Conditions in various sections and production for various purposes
+are so diverse that dogmatic statement and general advice are
+precluded. The aim is rather by means of available information to
+help the reader to an understanding that will enable him to answer
+his own questions for his own conditions and this far better than
+any broad prescription could possibly do. Principles, possible
+practices and examples of field programs are offered as guides for
+self-help for home, school, hobby as well as commercial production.
+
+A person who studies on this basis will not be thwarted by a sudden
+shift of weather or market but will have at hand the necessary facts
+and ideas to adjust his plan to changed conditions.
+
+No attempt has been made toward complete citation of reference.
+Those given will lead to others making possible a full survey of the
+extensive literature.
+
+
+
+
+      The Tomato
+
+
+
+
+      I
+
+      THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT
+
+
+Vegetable, Fruit or Berry,--what is the tomato? A standard query
+this is and many an argument has raged about it. The answer is easy.
+It is all three. By culture and use, it is a vegetable; botanically
+it is a fruit and among the fruits, it is a berry being indehiscent
+(non-shedding), pulpy, with one or more seeds that are not stones.
+And they say the tomato is more truly a berry than the raspberry.
+
+But that doesn't make much difference. The thing that matters is
+that people like the tomato. It is easy to grow and nearly every
+home garden has it. It is good to look upon--shapely, colorful and
+of glossy sheen. A trained single stem plant with ripening fruit is
+a genuine ornament in the garden. It is most gratifying to the
+palate, fresh or cooked; soft and grainy, smooth and juicy in
+texture, sweet and tart and with an appealing flavor all of its own
+that few fail to relish. As juice or cocktail, adding color and
+flavor to soup, as condiment or as side dish with the entree, as
+salad freshly sliced or in jell, it is welcome with almost every
+course and some ingenious chef or, more likely, some clever
+housewife will, one of these days, fashion from it the dessert
+supreme.
+
+Nor have we exhausted the list of forms in which the tomato may be
+served. In addition to its simplest cooked form, stewed or turned
+hot from the can, it may also be baked, stuffed or not, or it may be
+escalloped and cooked with rice, spaghetti or other foods. Fried,
+before fully ripe, and served with brown gravy, it is most popular
+in many a home.
+
+Ketchup or catsup is one of our most widely used condiments and
+chili sauce many like even better. Green tomato pickles, chow chow,
+piccalilli carry the piquant tang of the tomato to enliven the
+winter table. And tomato juice, plain or dressed up with spices,
+vinegar or lemon juice has become a great staple of our groceries, a
+standard send-off for any meal from breakfast snatched on the
+morning sprint to work on through to the most elaborate of
+banquets.
+
+The tomato, by reason of its natural acidity, is readily sterilized
+and so can be preserved easily in glass or tin. It ranks first among
+the "big three" canned vegetables; the other two being sweet corn
+and peas. By far the great bulk that goes to the factory is put up
+with the addition of nothing more than salt. In addition to the
+condiments, puree and paste are manufactured in commercial
+quantities. The Italians dry tomatoes extensively in the sun,
+slicing the fruits, and later flavoring them to taste for various
+winter uses.
+
+Though the tomato was not recognized as a valuable food until about
+a century ago, its merit is now universally accepted. Bob Adams used
+to call it "the poor man's orange" for it is rich in vitamins and in
+malic and citric acid, possessing besides, a fine appetizing flavor
+which is as truly a value in nutrition as it is a pleasure.
+
+Actually, the tomato is mostly water, of rather low protein and
+carbohydrate content but this does not detract, for other foods are
+dependable for these staples of nutrition and most of us eat too
+much of them.
+
+The tomato is a youngster among the vegetables. In contrast to the
+onion of Egyptian lore and the cucumber reputed to have been used
+in Western Asia many centuries ago, the tomato is not reported
+until the herbalists of the 16th century recorded its culture in
+Italy and England--but with little of the esteem now accorded. The
+name seems to be of Aztec origin and two distinct wild forms--one
+corresponding to our cherry or currant varieties and the other to
+our larger, flatter, less regular fruits of many cells,--are to be
+found wild in Latin America. Its American origin is generally
+accepted.
+
+Commercially, the tomato is a great crop. Among the vegetables, it
+is outranked only by the potato and the sweet potato.
+
+The following table gives a few figures on the tomato crop:
+
+  ======================================================================
+                        |         |   _Acres_   |       _Value_
+                        |         | _Thousands_ |  _Million dollars_
+                        |_1929-38_+-------------+---------+------+------
+                        |_Average_|      |      |_1929-38_|      |
+                        |         |_1939_|_1940_|_Average_|_1939_|_1940_
+  ----------------------+---------+------+------+---------+------+------
+  U.S. for canning      |   369   |  358 |  386 |   19    |  24  |  24
+       for fresh market |   177   |  210 |  204 |   24    |  34  |  29
+                        +---------+------+------+---------+------+------
+            Total       |   546   |  568 |  590 |   43    |  58  |  53
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+Average yield for market is about 116 bushels per acre and the
+average price $1.26 per bushel. The government reckons a bushel at
+53 pounds, or about 38 bushels per ton.
+
+The average cannery yield for 1929-38 was 4.15 tons; for 1939, 5.58
+tons; and 1940, 5.39 tons. This shows a material increase. The
+average cannery price for 1929-38 was $12.54 per ton. Yields by
+states varied widely in 1940 from 2.7 tons per acre in Arkansas with
+Indiana at 5.5 to 7.5 in California. In northeastern states, it is
+considered that about a seven ton yield is necessary for the farmer
+to break even. In New York, it costs about $60.00 to grow an acre of
+tomatoes to first picking. With a good yield, picking and delivery
+costs about $3.00 a ton.
+
+Leading market states are Texas, 40,000 acres; Florida, 31,000 and
+California, 22,000. Tomatoes are grown in a very large number of
+states--23 or 24 states showing 1,000 acres or more for market.
+
+Leading cannery states are Indiana, 74,000 acres; California,
+52,000; Maryland, 51,000; and New Jersey, 33,000. California, also
+Pennsylvania and Ohio have shown recent large gains.
+
+Large quantities grown in town and country home gardens are not
+included in these figures and probably also many grown on small
+scale for market.
+
+After all, however, the United States Department of Agriculture
+estimated per capita consumption of fresh tomatoes at 17.7 pounds,
+about one medium sized fruit per week per person. Consumption of
+canned tomatoes is less than a third of the fresh consumption. These
+figures include estimates for rural and urban home gardens. So, we
+can hardly be said to be gluttons for tomatoes nor even to meet a
+fair health standard, even considering all vegetables together.
+After all, it does not have to be tomatoes even though their high
+nutritional value is recognized.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--The tomato is the leader among greenhouse
+vegetables.]
+
+In commercial greenhouses, the tomato has replaced lettuce as the
+principal crop and it is likely to remain an important under-glass
+crop until such time as the South finds practical means of getting
+it to market with first-class quality--perhaps, harvesting the fruit
+when it first shows color.
+
+
+      Solution Culture
+
+The tomato has been widely used in experiments in solution-culture
+of plants, sometimes called "hydroponics." The method has been in
+use for decades for research purposes, but has been widely
+publicized of recent years as a possible method of commercial
+culture. A high degree of control of factors governing growth is
+undertaken and difficulties are proportionately increased. Hence no
+extensive commercial development has occurred. A good presentation
+of the method has been offered by Hoagland and Arnon.[1]
+
+
+      The Tomato Plant
+
+To manage a crop, one must needs know the plant. To know the various
+characters of the tomato helps one to master its culture.
+
+The tomato belongs to the night shade family, the Solanaceae of the
+botanist, along with the potato, tobacco, petunia, pepper, eggplant,
+night shade, jimson weed and many other plants useful and noxious.
+
+The tomato is a warm-season crop, sensitive to frost but reasonably
+resistant to heat and drought, thriving under a wide range of
+climate and soil. A frost free season of seventy-five to ninety days
+will mature home garden tomatoes in useful quantities if good plants
+are set but over 120 days are needed for economical commercial
+production. Plant growing requires six to eight weeks previous to
+setting out-of-doors. Each fruit requires about six weeks from
+blossom to ripeness. The fruit ripens best for yield, color and
+quality when the weather is warm and sunny. Low temperatures without
+frost are not favorable for growth and prolonged conditions of this
+sort may "check" the plant and retard the response when higher
+temperatures come.
+
+The tomato is sensitive to extreme day-length, setting fruit at 7 to
+19 hours but not at 5 or 24 hours.[2]
+
+The tomato responds readily to fertilizers and to moisture, coming
+quickly into vigorous growth after unfavorable conditions, unless
+too badly stunted.
+
+As long as moisture and nutrients are available and other conditions
+are favorable, a tomato plant will continue to branch and blossom
+and make fruit almost indefinitely. A pruned single stem plant in a
+greenhouse at Cornell once reached a length of over 40 feet during a
+year and a half of growth. Thus, it is really a herbaceous
+perennial grown in northern climates as an annual.
+
+The plant branches freely at leaf joints but fruit clusters are
+formed along the bare stem,--a habit not common among plants. Some
+varieties are "determinate" in habit, sometimes miscalled
+"self-pruning," as branches only attain limited length.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--The tomato flower. Varieties differ in
+protrusion of pistil beyond the stamen column. If style is too
+short, pollination may fail; also, if too long. A long pistil
+increases danger of damage from heat and drying out.]
+
+Hot, dry winds often damage floral parts and the blossoms drop
+without setting fruit.
+
+Smith[3] has shown that pollen grains germinate best at 85 deg. F.,
+almost as well at 70 deg. F., poorly at 50 deg. F. and very poorly at 100 deg.
+F.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 3.--Long section of tomato flower.]
+
+The flowers of the tomato are borne in simple racemes or, in some
+varieties, in compound clusters. The flowers are normally on the
+plan of 5 but cultivated varieties may have six or eight sepals and
+petals. Sepals are narrow and may be as much as an inch long. Petals
+are united at the base. Stamens are united by the anthers
+surrounding the style and stigma. The ovary or little tomato is
+above the calyx but, as it grows, it carries corolla and stamens
+outward until they, with stigma and style, drop off. Length of style
+is a fairly important character in its bearing on pollination and on
+susceptibility to heat and wind injury.
+
+
+      Seedless Fruits
+
+Recent experiments by several workers have demonstrated the
+possibilities of inducing development of fruits without pollination
+(parthenocarpy) by means of certain chemical compounds, notably
+indolebutyric acid, although others are effective.[4] This method
+yields seedless fruits and promises to be of value in insuring a
+yield of fruits under conditions unfavorable for natural setting.
+
+
+
+
+      II
+
+      CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT
+
+
+Almost anywhere that other things will grow, the tomato thrives--so
+far as soil type is concerned.
+
+Florida grows tomatoes on coral soils that appear too poor to
+produce any useful crop. The fields of South Jersey are very sandy
+but tomatoes do well despite costly control of moisture and
+fertility. In some canning sections, clay loams and even clay soils
+are used. The ideal is a medium sandy loam, well supplied with humus
+for good water holding capacity. Lighter soils are generally
+earlier. Tomatoes on drouthy soils are likely to suffer from blossom
+end rot as well as from poor growth. Good drainage is required. Muck
+or peat soils will grow tomatoes but they are not commonly used for
+commercial production.
+
+Liming is not important for tomatoes even on fairly acid soils,
+assuming, of course, that the very small actual calcium requirement
+of the plant is met. This is generally confirmed by experiments but
+it does not preclude the merit of lime in favoring green manure
+crops which, in turn, make the soil more suitable for tomatoes.
+
+The dominant element in most sound tomato fertility programs is
+phosphorus with nitrogen second and potash third. Recommendations of
+general application are not possible but each need must be met
+before other beneficial additions can be fully effective.
+
+In the home garden, a program that keeps up fertility for other
+crops will suffice for tomatoes. In commercial production,
+especially for canning, where prices received are usually low, the
+program must be neatly cut to fit the soil, the crop system, the
+value of the tomatoes and the costs of materials. A canning crop in
+those sections where yields are almost bound to be low, will not
+justify heavy investment in fertilizer. Where much is spent for
+irrigation, plant growing, staking and pruning, one cannot afford to
+curtail the fertilizer investment that will bring maximum return.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato
+growth. Plants, grown in quartz sand, with plenty of other
+nutrients, received definite amounts of nitrate, in one application.
+A4, None. D5, 8 grams. F2, 32 grams. J4, 256 grams. N4, Soil and
+manure. (1 ounce = about 28 grams).]
+
+The task of this chapter is not to tell the grower how best to
+provide fertilizer for tomatoes but to help him in making his own
+plan for his own need. Research results and practical experience
+both contribute. One may well consult neighbors, county agent and
+extension specialist, as well as the many books and bulletins that
+are available.
+
+
+      Nitrogen
+
+Nitrogen is very important to insure the growth of vine without
+which a good crop may not be expected. Lands vary more widely in
+nitrogen content than in phosphorus and potash. Sandy soils are
+commonly deficient in this element and often difficult to keep
+supplied. Here liberal applications are needed. Up to a hundred
+pounds[5] of actual nitrogen may prove profitable where other
+conditions justify. Heavier soils, well managed and manured during
+rotation, require less nitrogen and fair results may be obtained
+with no fertilizer where investment must be kept to a minimum.
+
+Form of nitrogen to be used is largely a matter of economy though
+nitrate for part of it may be desirable early in the season when
+soil is cold and nitrification slow. Nitrate is desirable for side
+dressing but even here ammonia and other forms are now considered
+suitable when the soil is warm.
+
+
+      Failure to Set Fruit
+
+Why do tomatoes sometimes run to vine with failure to set fruit?
+This is an old, old query and, since 1918, has been, directly or
+indirectly, the occasion of more research projects than any other
+horticultural topic. Kraus and Kraybill[6] set the ball a-rolling
+with a paper which called attention first to the observations of
+Klebs in Germany in which he emphasized the fact that external
+conditions influence conditions within the plant which in turn
+influence performance--a veritable chain of causation. Kraus and
+Kraybill then undertook to relate performance (vegetative growth and
+fruitfulness) to internal conditions, chiefly carbohydrate and
+nitrogen content of the plant tissues. These, in turn, were traced
+back to treatments applied to the soil.
+
+They suggested four combinations of vegetation and fruitfulness in
+plants as follows:
+
+      1. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. Plants whose carbohydrate
+      supply has been cut off, say by removal of leaves which make
+      carbohydrates. These plants were low in carbohydrate and high
+      in nitrogen.
+
+      2. Vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants were well
+      supplied with both carbohydrates and nitrogen. They were of
+      the sort we describe as having "run to vine."
+
+      3. Vegetative and fruitful. These plants were well supplied
+      with carbohydrates, but not so liberally supplied with
+      nitrogen, thus, providing a balance between the two that was
+      favorable for a good crop.
+
+      4. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants had ample
+      opportunity for carbohydrate making, but were underfed with
+      nitrogen and so could not perform well in either vegetation or
+      fruit-making.
+
+Kraus and Kraybill conclude that there are certain balances between
+these two groups of compounds--nitrogenous and carbohydrate--which
+determine the nature of the plant's performance--whether there will
+be too little vegetative growth to permit a crop, whether the plants
+will "run to vine" or whether they will show good growth of both
+foliage and fruit.
+
+From experiments in the same field, using definite amounts of
+nitrate of soda per plant, Work[7] concluded that while adequate
+carbohydrate supply is necessary for fruiting, excess carbohydrate
+did not, in itself, occasion unfruitfulness but was more likely to
+represent an accumulation of material unused by reason of deficiency
+in some other factor--often nitrogen.
+
+It was shown that nitrate of soda does not injure tomatoes until a
+concentration in the soil is attained which is strong enough to
+plasmolyze the cells, that is to withdraw water from them by
+osmosis. Nor were a wide variety of nitrogen and moisture and manure
+treatments sufficient to induce the Bonny Best variety to "run to
+vine." Some varieties are subject to this trouble, mostly of the
+large, late types.
+
+Murneek[8] has shown that the fruitfulness of a plant may greatly
+affect its internal condition, its vegetative performance and its
+later setting of fruit. A heavy load of developing fruit, with
+limited soil resources, tends to limit growth and setting. Removal
+of fruit induces renewal of vegetative growth and of fruit setting.
+Failure to set fruit favors vigorous vine growth. This failure may
+be traceable to various causes. (1) To damage to floral parts as the
+blasting of the pistil by heat and drouth. Flowers of some varieties
+show tendency toward elongation of pistils with subsequent failure
+to develop normal fruit. Smith and Howlett have shown that
+environmental conditions as well as heredity influence this
+elongation. (2) To injury by insects as thrips. (3) To the character
+of the variety used, the Bonny group being very slightly susceptible
+to failure from over feeding with nitrogen while some late sorts
+readily "run to vine." (4) Shortage of nutrient elements as nitrogen
+or phosphorus or others. (5) Lack of adequate light or short day. In
+such cases, there may be excess of nitrogen for current need with
+resultant over-development of leafage. Thus, excess vegetative
+growth may be a result as well as a cause of poor setting.
+
+
+      Phosphorus
+
+Fertilizer experiments fairly generally point to the frequency with
+which phosphorus is the limiting factor among nutrients in tomato
+production. MacGillivray[9] has studied the phosphorus content of the
+various parts of the plant, concluding that this element is important
+throughout and not alone in seed making or in rapidly growing parts as
+has been believed. Hepler and Kraybill[10] found some years ago and
+others more recently have confirmed the influence of liberal phosphorus
+treatments upon earliness.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete
+fertilizer in Western New York.]
+
+
+      Potash
+
+The potash requirement of the tomato has not been as thoroughly
+studied as the requirement for the other two major elements. It is
+thought that potash has a part in building up sugars into more
+complex carbohydrates.
+
+The consensus of fertilizer experiments suggests that potash is less
+important on most soils than phosphorus and nitrogen but that if
+these elements are in good supply, increased yields from potash are
+likely.
+
+Lanham in Texas was unable to find a relation between potash
+fertilization and resistance to shipping hazards.
+
+
+      Stable Manure
+
+Stable manure has long been recognized as useful for tomatoes. It is
+generally considered better to apply it to the preceding crop or at
+least the preceding fall than to use it just before setting of
+plants. If spring application is necessary, it is better to use well
+rotted manure. Stable manure is low in phosphorus. An approximate
+statement would be that 10 tons of manure is roughly equivalent to
+one ton of a 6-3-6 fertilizer. Thus, 1,000 pounds of 18%
+superphosphate would bring the analysis to 6-12-6 which would be
+generally regarded as a good balance.
+
+A recent publication[11] from Pennsylvania emphasizes the value of
+manures and of phosphorus.
+
+
+      Placement and Side Dressing
+
+Recent experiments have shown the desirability of placing fertilizer
+close to but not in contact with the roots of the young plants. When
+newly set and before new roots have developed is the time when
+nutrient material close at hand is needed to give the plant a
+vigorous send-off. Transplanters have been devised with attachments
+to place the fertilizer in bands at each side of the row of tomatoes
+and about two inches deep.
+
+Recent experiments, notably by Sayre[12] of New York, have shown the
+advantage of dissolving fertilizer materials in the water used for
+transplanting tomatoes. One combination of materials consists of
+ammo-phos, 14-48, 2 parts and potassium nitrate, 1 part. Five to
+eight pounds of this mixture are dissolved in 50 gallons of water
+and about 1/4 pint or 1/2 cup is applied to each plant, usually by
+the transplanting machine. There are other suitable mixtures of
+nutrients for this purpose. A very small investment in starter
+solutions has shown material increase in total yield. The practice
+places immediately available nutrients in the soil at the time and
+place to be of maximum usefulness to plants that have been severely
+root-pruned and have not yet had opportunity to rebuild the root
+system.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    _Courtesy Campbell Soup Co._
+
+FIGURE 6.--Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes.]
+
+Another critical stage in tomato growth comes when much fruit has
+been set in the clusters and demands upon plant and soil are
+especially heavy. At this stage, side dressing with nitrogen is
+helpful in maintaining plant growth and providing resources for
+growth and maturing of fruit. On sandy or nutrient-deficient soils,
+more than one side dressing may be advisable. Sodium nitrate is
+commonly used but other materials are suitable after the soil has
+warmed up. Side dressing with fertilizer in solution has been
+recommended recently by Tiedjens of New Jersey.
+
+
+
+
+      III
+
+      THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD
+
+
+A tomato crop may be much poorer than the seed from which it grows
+but it can be no better.
+
+The tomato seed is short-oval and flattened in shape, covered
+thickly with short silky hairs. The embryo or baby plant is coiled
+in a spiral and imbedded in the endosperm (reserve food supply).
+Three or four years is generally given as the life of the seed but
+it often remains viable much longer--up to 10 or 12 years in extreme
+cases. Good seed should germinate 85% to 90%.
+
+Tomato seed sprouts readily, requiring fairly warm temperature, say,
+70 deg. to 75 deg. F. for best results. It germinates very slowly at 40 deg. to
+50 deg. F.
+
+
+      Breeding
+
+Being a major vegetable crop, the tomato has received much attention
+from plant breeders. Objectives sought include good cannery type,
+resistance to the fusarium wilt and other diseases, better
+greenhouse forms, improved general market and home garden sorts, and
+varieties adapted for arduous conditions such as hot and dry summers
+or very short growing seasons.
+
+The tomato is largely but not wholly self pollinated and pollen is
+not carried far. Thus, it is not difficult to breed to practically a
+pure-line condition.
+
+Tomatoes for seed are usually ground up and the seed and fine pulp
+are separated from the skins and coarse material by screening. The
+juice, fine pulp and seeds are allowed to ferment from 24 to 48
+hours, or until the jelly-like pulp is readily washed away. After
+washing, the seed is dried in thin layers and stored. A bushel of
+tomatoes may be expected to yield 2-1/2 to 4 ounces of seed and an
+acre of tomatoes, from 100 to 225 pounds. These vary greatly
+according to varieties and conditions.
+
+Wellington[13] and others have shown that first generation seed from
+crosses of suitable varieties show a marked increase of vigor
+(heterosis or hybrid vigor) over either parent or over the later
+generations. This fact would seem to offer possibilities in
+practical use, but it has not thus far proved of value.
+
+
+      Selection Methods
+
+Many growers find it profitable to save their own tomato seed. The
+plant is an annual, the important characters are quite readily
+observed and natural crossing is not serious. For these reasons, the
+enterprise is not as difficult as with most vegetables, although, if
+done well, it makes heavy demands in labor and care at a time when
+the grower has much else to do.
+
+The first step in selection is to establish clearly the ideal to be
+sought, recording it in detail on paper for future reference.
+Selections should be made on the basis of the plant, not of the
+individual fruit. It is the plant that is reproduced and the seed
+from "crown clusters" is no earlier than seed from later settings.
+The field should be searched soon after blooming time and plants
+that appear promising should be marked. These plants should be
+examined three or four times as the season advances, and markers
+pulled from plants that do not measure up to the desired standard.
+Suppose ten plants remain; all fruits from each of these may be
+saved, keeping the seed of each plant separate. All or part of the
+seed may be planted in separate rows the next year for further
+selection and to note which parents best transmit their excellent
+points. If only a small amount of seed is required, direct
+selections may be made for use in planting for the general crop. If
+a larger amount of seed is required, seed from one or two of the
+best plants should be planted in multiplication plats. Off-type
+plants should be removed from such plantings, but otherwise all the
+seed may be saved for use. Repeated selection results in constant
+improvement until the stock becomes a "pure line" or practically so.
+
+Lindstrom of Iowa has led in research on the genetics of tomatoes,
+chromosome relations and mode of inheritance. Many scientific papers
+deal with inheritance methods and results. The Yearbook of
+Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) for 1937 contains a valuable chapter on
+tomato breeding. It may also be had as Yearbook Separate 1581.
+
+
+      Certification
+
+As with certain other kinds of seeds, certification service for tomatoes
+has now been set up in several states. Certification is a most useful
+incentive toward care in breeding and handling and affords valuable
+assurance to the buyer. It is necessary to know just what is guaranteed
+by the certificate. It is at the same time wise to be informed as to the
+inclusiveness and methods of the certification.
+
+
+      The Ideal Variety
+
+In breeding for better varieties of tomatoes, the following are some of
+the characters to be sought:
+
+      (1) A vigorous vine which is necessary to produce abundant
+      fruit and to protect from sunscald.
+
+      (2) Resistance to disease especially to fusarium.
+
+      (3) High productiveness with moderate number of fruits per
+      cluster--say, 5 to 8.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--Types of tomato interiors. 1, 5. Small fruited
+sorts. 2, 6, 9. Bonny Best. 3, 7, 10. Chalk Jewel. 3, 7, 11. Stone. 4,
+8. Earliana. 12. Ponderosa.]
+
+      (4) Evenness of maturity. This is somewhat out of line with
+      the nature of the tomato but much could be accomplished toward
+      the goal of varieties that make their crop and are gone,
+      eliminating long picking periods and the drag of inferior
+      fruit toward the end of the season. The so-called
+      determinate habit of some varieties such as Pritchard is a
+      step in this direction.
+
+      (5) Size suitable for expected use and for market demand.
+      Greenhouse tomatoes are generally smaller than those for
+      cannery. Uniformity of size is increasingly important with
+      wide-spread use of the lug-box pack and of small consumer
+      cartons.
+
+      (6) Globular to oblong shape is desirable for market but is
+      less important for cannery. Form should be symmetrical, even
+      and smooth.
+
+      (7) Color should be deep and rich, fully and evenly developed,
+      inside and out. Red is generally preferred to pink. The
+      difference between red and pink tomatoes does not reside in
+      the flesh but in the presence of yellow pigment in the skin of
+      the former while the skin of the latter is without pigment.
+      Yellow tomatoes are also extant.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 8.--The Earliana tomato. A picture of a single
+fruit cannot adequately describe a variety. 1-3. Rough types, common in
+older strains. 4. Typical interior. 5, 6. Stem end. 7-9. Good type
+resulting from selection. 10-12. Pointed-round type occurring frequently
+in improved strains. A. Unusually large cluster. B. Typical Earliana
+cluster showing compound branching. C. Unbranched cluster of Bonny Best
+for comparison.]
+
+      (8) Skin should be thick and tough. This safeguards against
+      damage on the way to market and favors ease of peeling. Those
+      saladists who serve sliced tomatoes with skins unremoved, may
+      call for a thin, tender skin but this practice finds no
+      encouragement from discriminating partakers.
+
+      (9) Flesh should be abundant in thick walls with a minimum of
+      watery pulp surrounding seeds. In general, a structure of many
+      small cells is desirable.
+
+
+      Varieties
+
+_Earliana._--The earliness of this old and popular variety outweighs
+its demerits where this character is required. The past ten years
+have seen material improvement.
+
+Earliana is early, of small vine, with small leaves and leaflets.
+Clusters are compoundly branched, with many fruits. The fruits are
+of medium size, deep oblate, cross section often elliptical rather
+than circular. There are many rough irregular fruits, varying in
+this respect with breeding and conditions of growth. Color is red,
+not too deep and tending to be poorly developed at the stem end.
+Interior consists of many small cells with thin walls.
+
+_Bison._--represents a group of varieties bred for rigorous climates
+of our most northerly states. A. F. Yeager formerly of North Dakota,
+later of Michigan, now of New Hampshire has led in this
+development.
+
+_Victor._--is a new variety bred originally by Yeager but introduced
+by K. C. Barrons of Michigan. It affords smoother, deeper and better
+colored fruits about as early as Earliana. It is determinate in
+habit and shy in foliage, increasing danger of sunscald. Rich soil
+and ample moisture are needed for its best development. _Bounty_ and
+_Home Garden_ are similar.
+
+_Penn State._--Penn State, developed by C. E. Myers of Pennsylvania,
+is not as early as Earliana. It is similar in fruit characters
+though distinctly better in color and shape. It is marked by short
+branches (determinate habit) and is designed to give an early crop
+to be followed by prompt abandonment of the planting. It is not to
+be confused with Penn State Earliana.
+
+_Bonny Group._--This group embraces our leading second early
+varieties widely used for home garden, greenhouse, market and
+cannery in the north. It includes _Bonny Best_, _John Baer_ and
+_Chalk Jewel_ with many additional names and with much confusion of
+characters among them.
+
+Bonny Best is second early and of medium plant growth. Fruits are
+deep oblate to flattened globe, even and smooth, of good red color,
+with few large, thick-walled cells.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 9.--Marglobe plant.]
+
+Varieties and strains of this group vary in growth and yield, in
+size, shape and earliness of fruit and in suitability for
+greenhouse, market, cannery and juice. _Stokesdale_ and _Scarlet
+Dawn_ are meritorious newer names in the group.
+
+_Marglobe._--This variety was developed by the late Dr. F. J.
+Pritchard from a cross between Marvel, a French variety lending
+resistance to fusarium and Globe, an old variety of fine size and
+shape. It is widely used, north and south, for market--green or
+ripe, for cannery and to some extent, for forcing.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--Marglobe fruit.]
+
+Marglobe is a midseason variety, with large vine and foliage,
+resistant to fusarium and nailhead spot. Fruits are nearly globular,
+shapely and smooth, medium to large, scarlet red, with medium number
+of thick walled cells. Marglobe is rather subject to deep radial
+cracks.
+
+_Pritchard_ is of the general type of Marglobe but is earlier, with
+short branching habit and resistance to nailhead rust and to
+fusarium, and, perhaps, is less subject to cracking.
+
+_Greater Baltimore_ is used chiefly for canning in long-season
+districts. It is late, with large vine, large flat fruits of
+excellent scarlet red, outside and in, with many thick walled cells.
+_Indiana Baltimore_ is a variant widely grown in the mid-west for
+cannery.
+
+_Rutgers_ was developed by L. G. Schermerhorn at the New Jersey
+Experiment Station for fine juice and canning characters--color,
+flavor and substance. Growth is vigorous and yields are heavy;
+fruits are large, flattened and well colored.
+
+_Gulf State Market_ is a second early shipping tomato, generally
+harvested green. It is flattened in shape, of well developed pink
+color and good interior.
+
+_Comet Group._--These trace mostly to English or other European
+origin and are increasingly used for greenhouse and for staking
+out-of-doors. Comet is small, flattened, slightly corrugated about
+the stem, of fine even red color, very firm and solid, with few very
+thick walled cells. Other names are _Sunrise_, and _Lord Roberts_.
+Several American forcing strains have been developed with at least
+one parent of this group--_Ideal_, _Grand Rapids Forcing_, _Field
+Station Comet_, _Trellis_, _Michigan State Forcing_, _Lloyd
+Forcing_, _Blair Forcing_ and others.
+
+_King Humbert_ and _San Marzano_ represent the small Italian oblong
+tomatoes that are prized for their thick walls, fine color and
+suitability for puree, paste and soup.
+
+_Ponderosa_ is popular for home garden, a "beef-steak" tomato of
+very large size, irregular shape, flat, pink, with many small cells
+and of very mild sub-acid flavor. It is best grown to single stem.
+_Oxheart_ is large, heart shaped, pink and very meaty. Others of
+this general type may be had in red, yellow and orange flesh. In
+general, the whole group lacks in prolificacy.
+
+_Oddities._--Tomato fanciers often plant seed of Red and Yellow
+Pear, Cherry, Currant, Peach with its fuzzy skin, Plum and others.
+They are prized for preserves and for decoration. Ground Cherry or
+Husk Tomato is not a true tomato but belongs to a different genus
+(Physalis). It makes excellent preserves. Well do I remember
+sneaking off from the other kids for solitary plunder of the little
+row that was usually in Grandma's garden.
+
+Comprehensive descriptions of leading varieties of tomatoes have
+been published by the United States Department of Agriculture in
+Miscellaneous Publication 160, the result of statistical and verbal
+notations over several years at five widely scattered stations of
+the country.
+
+
+
+
+      IV
+
+      STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP
+
+
+One of the ways to make money from tomatoes is to mature them early,
+selling while the price is still high. There is a big difference
+between $.10 a pound and $.10 a basket. Shipped and ripened green
+wrap tomatoes cannot be very cheap on northern markets even though
+Southern growers may realize little for them.
+
+Another way to profit is to grow good plants to sell. Judging by the
+spindling, crowded, soft or over-hardened plants so common in stores,
+there should be great opportunity here and, as a matter of fact,
+many market gardeners do well in this business realizing welcome
+returns when other income is negligible.
+
+To market ten-cent-a-pound tomatoes from out-doors requires good
+plants--plants that have passed through their youth nearly or fully
+up to blossoming time with benefit of heat and shelter and that are
+ready to keep up vigorous growth in face of the demands of
+fruiting. A few scattering fruits matured early do not suffice.
+
+Even for cannery, good plants are required. In most regions, plants
+are not as good as they should be. All too often, outdoor seed bed
+plants are set where cold frame or at least cloth cover should be
+employed. Further north, cold frame plants or second run or other
+inferior plants are used instead of the best. That is why many
+canning companies have greenhouses and grow plants for their
+farmers.
+
+And in the home garden, the quality of vine ripened fruit along with
+the satisfaction of early maturity are goals worth striving for.
+
+Plant growing is a game of skill. It calls for keen observation,
+constant and faithful attention to small details, and a high order
+of workmanship in the various operations. Furthermore, when a
+considerable number of plants are to be grown, it calls for good
+organization and rapid work if costs are not to be unduly increased.
+A transplanter who makes three motions where two will suffice is
+likely to turn profit into loss, for the loss of a second when
+repeated thousands of times makes many hours.
+
+The grower who is producing tomatoes for first-early maturity wants
+a plant that will withstand the rigors of transplanting and of
+inclement weather which may follow, that will start immediately into
+growth, and that will mature fruit in good quantity at the earliest
+possible date. This usually means a plant about ten inches tall,
+with heavy, firm, dark-colored stem (though not over-hardened), a
+heavy body of dark, healthy foliage, and a cluster of blossoms, with
+possibly a fruit or two already set. If the buds in the axils of the
+leaves have begun growth, no harm will be done.
+
+Many growers are doubtful whether it is well to have fruit set on
+plants when they are transplanted in the field, as they claim that
+the little tomatoes are often lost and in any case the progress of
+the plant is retarded. Such plants must be handled with great skill.
+If they are severely checked when taken to the field, other and less
+advanced plants may do as well. There is danger in having plants too
+far advanced, and an unexpected delay in field setting may result in
+spindling and over-hardening that may prove disastrous. A vigorous
+and properly hardened plant that is younger will do better under
+such circumstances. Some growers protect themselves by having plants
+of more than one sort.
+
+
+      Open-bed Plant Growing
+
+With favorable conditions and careful methods, good plants can be
+grown in open beds but they must be grown and used where the season
+is long or be grown in the south and shipped north.
+
+Soil should be free of disease and nematodes, of good physical
+character, full of humus and nutrients.
+
+Seed may be sowed a week or two after "average date of last killing
+frost" which may be learned from county agent or weather bureau.
+Further south planting times are gauged by the time tomatoes are to
+be set and by experience as to safe or reasonably safe sowing dates.
+Rows are usually a foot apart, more or less. Good plants call for
+sowing thinly, 6 to 12 seeds per foot, but several seeds per inch
+are not unusual. One may expect a million plants per acre with close
+planting or 40,000 plants per pound of seed.
+
+
+      Southern Plants
+
+Many millions of tomato plants are grown in open fields in the south
+to be sent to home gardeners in small parcels on seedsmen's orders,
+to be sold to commercial growers or to be delivered on contract to
+canners.
+
+A suitable climate and soil, good seed, freedom from disease and
+insects and good handling and packing are all required for
+satisfactory results. In far too many cases, these requirements have
+been sadly neglected and a good deal of distrust has been
+engendered. Here, as in buying seed, one must discriminate among
+good and poor growers. Canners who order in millions can send men
+south to investigate and supervise with good results.
+
+Georgia now has a certification service for plants that helps
+greatly to build up and maintain high standards.
+
+
+      Growing Early Plants in the North
+
+Varied programs of plant growing are in vogue in the temperate and
+cooler regions. A simple cold frame with or without transplanting
+may be employed. Seedlings may be started in hotbed or greenhouse
+and then transplanted to cold frames to finish the job. Some sow
+seed early, transplant once in the greenhouse at 1-1/2 or 2 inches
+each way and then again to cold frame with wide spacing say, 4 x 4
+inches or using pots or dirt bands.
+
+For this method, as much as twelve weeks may be allowed but if space
+permits, excellent results may be achieved in seven or eight weeks
+transplanting but once to pots or to 4 x 4 inches in flat or bed.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--A good small greenhouse for plant
+growing.]
+
+
+      The Place to Grow Plants
+
+For northern climates, greenhouses are practically required.
+Canneries or other large growers, have wide houses similar to those
+used for winter maturing crops. A market gardener may have a little
+house of 10' x 20' to 20' x 60' or larger as needed. If one does not
+object to some inconvenience and discomfort, a hotbed may be
+used--heated with hot water or electricity, or as in years past,
+with fermenting manure. Cold frames may be covered with glass sash
+as in the case of hotbeds, or cloth may be used. There are also
+materials consisting of wire cloth filled with cellulose film.
+Special mats of straw or of quilted burlap may be used for extra
+cover and large growers often employ coarse manure, straw or marsh
+hay.
+
+Many a tomato gets its start in life in a small flat in a kitchen
+window--perhaps, in a cigar box. Such seedlings may then be carried
+forward in hot bed or cold frame.
+
+
+      Beds, Flats and Pots
+
+Growing plants directly in ground beds in the greenhouse and
+directly in the soil in the hotbeds or cold frames, is rather
+common. However, the use of flats or plant boxes in plant growing
+offers a number of advantages as compared with planting in the bed.
+Transplanting can be done at benches under conditions of comfort and
+convenience which make for efficiency. Moisture can be more
+precisely controlled and flats can be shifted if some plants grow
+faster than others. Plants can be moved with more dirt on the roots,
+and this is a great advantage when plants are sold and hauled some
+distance, though, of course, pulled plants are handled more cheaply.
+On the other hand, the first cost, and the maintenance and storage
+of the flats must be considered. Flats may be set on the ground in
+the greenhouse without use of benches.
+
+Flats are of many dimensions, ordinarily six to ten per sash or
+about 18 x 22 inches or 13 x 18 inches outside measure. They may be
+made of lumber from used boxes, but they ought to be uniform in size
+and made to fit beds without loss of space. The more durable kinds
+of wood, cypress or chestnut are preferred. Some growers make the
+bottoms of the flats of square-mesh galvanized screen (hardware
+cloth), about five or six meshes to the inch. This allows roots to
+penetrate the soil of the beds, permits root pruning by shifting,
+and there is no wooden bottom to rot.
+
+Some growers use clay pots for plants which are receiving special
+care. Their cost is an obstacle though they are used repeatedly.
+Such pots also hold less soil for the area occupied than flats or
+square dirt bands.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Plants for the early crop. 1. Shows
+plants in paper bands of excellent proportion and thrift but not yet
+in bloom. 2. In blossom but fruit has not yet set. 3. Similar to 2
+but a little further advanced and has actually set fruit.]
+
+Paper pots are used to some extent. Organisms decomposing the paper
+may use and so render unavailable some of the nitrogen of the soil
+thus hindering the growth of the plants. This may be corrected by
+seeing that abundant nitrogen is present in the soil either when
+made up or by later application of nitrate sowed upon the soil while
+plants are dry or applied in solution in watering.
+
+Dirt bands of veneer are used and are very satisfactory. Blocking as
+practiced by many growers is a cheap and effective way of attaining
+much the same results.
+
+
+      The Blocking System
+
+When the cold frame is prepared for the last transplanting, two
+inches of fairly well-rotted manure is laid down and two or three
+inches of prepared soil is placed on top. Plants are set about four
+inches apart each way. About a week before field setting, a butcher
+knife, or a hoe which has been straightened and sharpened, is run
+between rows both ways. This cuts the roots whereupon the plant at
+once begins to form new feeders within the block thus reducing, to
+some extent at least, the damage which might be caused by
+transplanting. The method is also used with flats.
+
+
+      Soil
+
+Soil for plant growing should be free of disease and nematodes,
+friable, not readily forming a crust, receiving and retaining
+moisture well, but drying off quickly on the surface after watering
+and well supplied with nutrients. A sandy loam base with good humus
+content is desirable. It may be prepared, beginning a year or two
+ahead by growing and plowing under well fertilized green manure
+crops. Or a compost heap may be prepared with successive layers of
+soil and manure or other humus making material. In either case, it
+is usually mixed a time or two by shoveling over or by passing
+through a shredding machine or a coarse screen.
+
+If trouble is likely to be experienced from damping-off fungi, the
+soil may be heated to 200 deg. F. and held there for an hour, using oven
+or electric or steam sterilizer. Seed may also be treated with red
+copper oxid or semesan.
+
+
+      Seed and Seed Sowing
+
+Tomato seed runs about 125,000 to 150,000 per pound. An ounce of
+seed is usually depended upon for plants for an acre. For growing
+seedlings, seed may be sowed up to 100 or more per foot of row. For
+a maximum number of strong seedlings from a small amount of seed,
+thinner sowing is desirable. Rows are usually about two inches
+apart, and a quarter of an inch is sufficient cover. The seedlings
+break ground in a week or ten days.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed.]
+
+Uniformity of depth of rows and of covering is important. Otherwise,
+seedlings will come up unevenly and there will be considerable
+waste.
+
+
+      Care of Seedlings
+
+Water and heat should be provided to permit a steady and moderate
+rate of growth in plants. Over-watering and high temperature yield
+soft and spindling plants and also plants that are overgrown and
+that are liable to severe checking before field setting.
+Under-watering and low temperature give stunted plants. The
+thermometer at the earlier stages of growth may well stand around 70
+to 75 degrees by day and 10 degrees lower at night. A reasonable
+range of temperature and moisture gives opportunity for the skillful
+grower to forward or retard his plants as seems best. Great care
+should be exercised to water evenly. It is necessary to watch the
+plants constantly to detect the slightest variations in growth. The
+watering may then be modified and even progress insured.
+
+Ventilation finds its chief significance as a means of controlling
+temperature and humidity, though actual change of air may be a
+factor.
+
+High soil moisture, high humidity, high temperature, and faulty
+ventilation, all favor the ravages of the various damping-off fungi
+mentioned above which cause little plants to rot off near the
+ground.
+
+
+      Transplanting
+
+The main advantage of transplanting plants before they are set in
+the field is to give them increased space, or, in other words, to
+conserve space in greenhouses and frames. Other advantages have been
+claimed, but in many instances the gains have resulted from more
+space rather than from the actual shift. Transplanting checks growth
+through breakage and disturbance of the root system. Loomis[14]
+finds that "the immediate effect of transplanting is a reduction in
+the water supply, and the immediate and long-time results are
+dependent upon the severity and duration of such reduction."
+Transplanting has little effect upon very young plants and a shift
+at the age of six or eight weeks checks the plant about as much as
+two earlier transplantings. The tomato falls in the group of plants
+that stand transplanting well, roots being rapidly replaced.
+Transplanting breaks roots and so results in the growth of branches
+which are shorter than the members of the old system. The new system
+is accordingly less severely damaged in later transplantings.
+
+To insure efficiency, the work of transplanting merits careful
+attention. Carelessness as to details means loss through unevenness
+of plants. For example, if soil is not carefully packed at the edges
+and corners of the flats, irregular water supply and irregular
+growth result. If much transplanting is to be done, it pays to
+divide up the work, as is done in a factory. Have a good place for
+doing the work--a warm, light, and comfortable room. Tired workers
+are not efficient. Spotting boards are of service if properly made
+and correctly used. Soil should always contain just the right degree
+of moisture to allow holes to stand open. Care must be taken that
+the workers in setting plants do not double the roots or close the
+holes at the top leaving the roots dangling in an open space below.
+
+It is said that a good worker will prick out 10,000 plants per day,
+though everything must be convenient to accomplish this and many
+growers regard 6,000 plants as a good day's work.
+
+
+      Pruning Young Plants
+
+Pruning of tops injures rather than helps the plant, for it destroys
+leaves which are the machines that make carbohydrates, the principal
+material for growth. Pruning to cure legginess is bad. Proper
+management of time, temperature and water will provide adequate
+control and if plants should become leggy, it is better to plant
+them by laying them down in a trench with a few inches of top above
+ground than it is to prune them.
+
+Nipping out the growing point with the first cluster of flower buds
+is sometimes practiced to encourage branching and a heavier yield of
+early fruit. If this is done, ample space and nutrients must
+accompany careful management. Otherwise, the plant finds itself with
+inadequate resources to do a big job.
+
+
+      Hardening
+
+Tomato plants cannot be made frost proof, but low temperature,
+reduced moisture supply, partial starvation, and crowding all tend
+to make plants more resistant to cold, to drying winds, to heat, to
+mechanical injury such as breakage of leaves and stems, and even to
+cut-worm attacks. Plants can be hardened appreciably in a short
+time--say a week. It is now generally accepted that moisture control
+is more useful than reduced temperature as a means of hardening.
+Starving and crowding are not desirable methods. Plants can be kept
+on the dry side if glass or other water-shedding cover is
+available.
+
+Great care must be exercised to avoid over-hardening of tomato
+plants, for in this way a check in growth is incurred from which
+they recover slowly, and perhaps never fully.
+
+Much study has been given to the changes in plants which underlie
+the hardening process, and papers by Harvey, Rosa, Loomis, and
+others should be consulted in this connection.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Plants that have been crowded and
+overgrown, probably undernourished and over-hardened. Plants like
+this are very often set in the field. They are definitely slow in
+starting growth.]
+
+Watts[15] has shown that adverse conditions, especially low
+temperature and water deficiency prevailing at the time when fruit
+clusters are barely beginning to form, commonly occasion the
+development of misshapen fruits.
+
+Faithful spraying or dusting with Bordeaux in the plant bed has
+proved a useful means of forestalling destructive leaf blights which
+often devastate whole fields.
+
+
+
+
+      V
+
+      GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS
+
+
+The tomato is not especially exacting as to care after it has been
+set out-of-doors. It will do business if given half a chance. At the
+same time, much can be done to favor earliness, good yield and high
+quality.
+
+
+      Time of Planting
+
+In general, tomatoes are set in field or garden as soon as danger of
+frost is reasonably past. Suppose May 1st is average date of last
+killing frost. Growers would make general plantings from May 18th to
+25th though, in rare instances, frost might occur as late as May
+28th or 30th. The last week of May is planting time over a vast area
+of the North. Venturesome souls will set home garden plants as early
+as May 10th, standing ready to replant if necessary. There is little
+gain in rushing the season too much, however, for the tomato is not
+only sensitive to frost but it does not thrive under what people
+call "raw, mean, chilly weather." Such conditions may also be
+responsible for misshapen fruits. A grower for local market not
+infrequently risks a share of his plants before safe setting time in
+the hope that warm weather may give the crop a good start toward
+early ripe fruit to sell at high prices.
+
+Delayed planting and use of plants that do not start quickly into
+vigorous growth is the cause of heavy losses in the north,
+especially among cannery growers. Better quality and heavier yields
+are attained if the bulk of the crop matures before cool weather in
+the fall. In the south, it is necessary to get good plant
+development and a full set of fruit before hot weather which often
+destroys the blossoms.
+
+
+      Plant Protectors
+
+Many forms of plant protectors are on the market--of paper and of
+other materials. These act as little greenhouses for the individual
+plant, protecting against frost and promoting growth. Plants may be
+set out-of-doors a couple of weeks earlier by their use. The most
+common forms are of translucent paper reinforced by pasted strips
+of paper or by wire. The trick is to devise one that is cheap, that
+will admit maximum light and that will withstand the weather. For
+tomatoes, they need to be tall, which makes the problem of wind
+resistance more serious.
+
+For emergencies, opaque cover, baskets upside down or even newspaper
+may be used. Many a field has been saved by burying the plants when
+frost threatened, carefully uncovering when danger is past.
+
+
+      Spacing
+
+Untrained tomatoes are set at distances from 3-1/2 feet each way to
+7 x 7 feet or even more. The extreme width is found on rich
+irrigated lands in California where plants make tremendous growth.
+The closer spacings are found on lighter soils where humus, plant
+food, and moisture are not too abundant. The variety should also be
+considered. Sixteen square feet per plant is about average.
+
+Check row planting is common, though it is not feasible where
+transplanters are used. Wider spacing between the rows than between
+plants is desirable as it permits later cultivation one way and
+leaves a better passage for pickers with less damage to plants and
+fruits. Thus, 3-1/2 x 4-1/2 feet might be preferred to 4 x 4 feet.
+
+Rows for single stem, staked and pruned plants may be as close as
+three feet and plants may be as close as eighteen or even twelve
+inches, though some growers contend that two feet is close enough.
+
+
+      Methods of Planting
+
+The essential point in field setting is to pack the soil firmly
+about the roots, thus establishing maximum contact for moisture
+absorption. Whatever the method of planting, the aim should be to
+get the plants from the old home to the new with as little delay and
+check in growth as possible. For the first-early crop, they should
+be moved so that "they never know it." With bands, pots or blocking
+in flats or beds, it is feasible to avoid practically all
+disturbance of roots.
+
+The tomato will, under ordinary favorable conditions, take hold and
+grow even if shaken quite free of earth. Plants, however, should be
+dug loose rather than pulled, to prevent undue breakage of roots.
+
+Plants ought to be watered well some hours before transplanting.
+Transplanting machines and hand planters of the Masters type give a
+little shot of water at the root, thus helping to establish contact
+with the soil. Starter solutions are discussed on page 35. These
+machines are commonly used for cannery setting and, to some extent,
+for market tomatoes. Blocked plants can be set pretty fast by hand
+with much less disturbance of roots. Some manage to set potted or
+blocked plants by machine, keeping a ball of earth about the roots.
+
+The rows are usually marked out fairly deeply, plants are dropped in
+fours between rows and it is a very short job to pack soil about the
+clod of earth in which the plant is growing. Another method is for
+one worker to make an opening with a spade. A second places the
+plant in the wedge-like opening and the first steps on the soil to
+firm it solidly about the roots.
+
+Plants are generally set a little deeper than in the plant bed.
+
+
+      Cultivation
+
+The old idea about cultivation was "the more, the better." More
+recent experiments notably those by Thompson have shown that little
+need be done beyond controlling weeds. He found that stirring the
+soil gave no significant increase in yield over mere scraping
+sufficient to destroy weeds. It is pretty hard to convince many old
+time gardeners of this. The value of dust mulch for conservation of
+moisture has been pretty well discredited by experimental
+comparisons.
+
+
+      Irrigation
+
+Irrigation is not essential for tomato production in humid climates
+and is seldom provided except under market garden conditions. Water
+is occasionally an asset in a dry season and, of course, the grower
+who waters at such times reaps a harvest in higher prices as well as
+in increased yield. The advantage of irrigation is especially marked
+if dry weather retards plant growth and delays maturity of the first
+of the crop, for the high prices of the early market are involved.
+Judicious irrigation will sometimes continue production for late
+fall market. Yet gardeners seldom plan permanent overhead equipment
+for tomatoes. The movable lines that are now used to a considerable
+extent serve well for the tomato crop.
+
+The furrow method of irrigating tomatoes is the most common in the
+West. This plan allows the water to make its way down the rows,
+slowly soaking in all along the line. The tomato stands drouth
+better than many of our crops, especially if the soil holds moisture
+fairly well, either naturally or through a liberal humus content.
+Excessive moisture is doubtless a factor in causing the plants to
+run to vine and drop their blossoms. Hence, in western sections, it
+is customary to water thoroughly just before or just after setting
+the plants and then to avoid applications until the setting of fruit
+is well advanced.
+
+Thorough soaking is better than frequent light waterings, as it
+encourages a better development of root system. An Idaho bulletin
+suggests three irrigations. Late irrigations tend to delay ripening
+of fruit, but this object is sought in the late fall shipping
+districts of California which find their best markets after eastern
+crops have been nipped by frost.
+
+Irrigation must be handled with care to avoid cracking of fruit,
+which occurs when soil becomes rather dry and then is heavily
+watered. Watering late in the season is said to make fruit watery
+and of poor quality.
+
+
+      Mulching
+
+R. A. Emerson[16] in 1903 reported results of careful comparisons
+between vegetables that were cultivated and others that were mulched
+with straw. These results indicate that mulching gives good results
+with tomatoes, both as to yield and quality. However, frost injury
+was more severe on mulched plats, and Emerson points out that the
+mulch should not be applied until the plants are well established.
+
+Mulching is recommended by a good many writers and growers and it
+seems to be practiced to some extent in Missouri. The advantages
+claimed are conservation of moisture and clean, fine quality fruit.
+L. W. Purdum and Sons of Virginia use 4-5 tons per acre of wheat
+straw, staking their plants and irrigating. They report unusually
+heavy returns per acre under these methods. The Missouri people
+apply as much as sixteen tons per acre, making the cover five or six
+inches thick. The practice of mulching, however, is not common, and
+the cost will likely prevent its general use.
+
+
+
+
+      VI
+
+      TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD
+
+
+Growers attending conventions will often stay up half the night to
+argue about training and pruning tomatoes and to debate the details
+of their favorite procedures.
+
+For home garden, the method is strongly commended. Many market
+gardeners follow the practice and it has gained materially of recent
+years in New England. Some market reports quote staked tomatoes
+separately and at a materially higher level than fruit from unpruned
+plants.
+
+Most of the southern shipping sections follow the practice and it is
+practically universal in greenhouses.
+
+One way is to drive a stake by each plant tying at several points
+along the stem with cheap twine. The other plan, recently gaining in
+favor, is to set posts every 25 feet or so, string a heavy wire on
+top, and another a foot from the ground. Cheap jute twine is strung
+between wires and the tomato plants are merely twisted around the
+string. Tying is not required. Some omit the lower wire, tying a
+non-slipping bowline loop around the plant near the ground. In
+either case, plants are kept trimmed to a single stem though
+occasionally an extra branch is allowed to grow. In southern
+Illinois, plants are tied to a short stake without pruning.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Tomatoes pruned and trained with post,
+wire and twine. This is the trellis system of New England.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Fine clusters on trained plants.]
+
+
+      Pro and Con
+
+The advantages claimed for pruning and training are:
+
+    Earliness.
+    High yield per acre.
+    Ease of cultivating and spraying.
+    Ease of picking.
+    No injury from snails and wire worms.
+    Quality of fruit:--size, color, smoothness and cleanliness.
+    Crop finished earlier.
+    Less sunscald.
+
+The disadvantages claimed are:
+
+    Many plants required.
+    Reduced yield.
+    More blossom-end rot.
+    Higher cost of labor.
+    Cost and care of stakes and wire.
+
+The validity of each of these points varies greatly with conditions;
+in fact, the answer to the whole question depends largely upon the
+location and the ideas of the grower. In trying to reach a
+conclusion, it is well to realize that training makes certain
+radical changes in the plant. It loses leaves through pruning, it is
+supported from the ground, and it is spaced differently. Since the
+leaves manufacture the basic substance for themselves, and for the
+rest of the plant, removal of leaves reduces the resources of the
+plant. H. C. Thompson[17] has found that the root system is reduced
+about in proportion to leaf reduction. It is fairly clear that
+single-stem training greatly reduces the yield per plant, and other
+methods result similarly in proportion to the severity of pruning.
+When plants are spaced closely enough together the yield may be
+brought up to that of areas unpruned and unstaked. Idaho experiments
+indicate that staking alone does not affect the total yield, but
+that it does favor early maturity under the different pruning
+systems. The disadvantages of training are largely economic. Will
+the marketing conditions justify the extra cost of staking and
+pruning?
+
+Experiments have shown pretty clearly that sunscald, blossom-end rot
+and cracking are worse on trained plants. Using varieties of good
+foliage will help the first trouble while uniform and adequate water
+supply achieved by selection of suitable land, by building humus
+content of the soil and by irrigation will solve the latter two
+problems. Thompson found increased yield of early fruit. Other
+evidence is somewhat conflicting but, in general, it supports
+Thompson. It is generally agreed that pruned plants yield larger,
+cleaner and more perfectly formed and colored fruits. Ease of
+spraying or dusting and of picking is important.
+
+For pruned plants, 3-1/2 feet between rows and 1-1/2-2 feet between
+plants is about right.
+
+To train or not to train is a question that one must answer for
+himself as the controlling factors vary too widely--costs of stakes,
+wire and labor, prices of early tomatoes and possibility of
+cultivating a more or less fancy trade.
+
+
+
+
+      VII
+
+      THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES
+
+
+The tomato, in most regions, is not one of our most "pestered"
+crops. Although over thirty diseases of tomatoes are discussed in
+books and bulletins, most of them are only occasionally serious or
+are subject to definite control methods. Enemies are generally worse
+in the warmer climates.
+
+Most home garden tomatoes and many commercial crops are grown
+without benefit of spray or dust. If trouble arises, county agent or
+college specialist can usually advise, suggesting methods suitable
+for local conditions.
+
+Experience must, of necessity, be the guide in shaping a program and
+costs must be carefully balanced against results.
+
+The principal measures that are widely used are seed treatment
+against damping off, use of resistant strains against fusarium wilt
+and application of bordeaux mixture against leaf blights.
+
+As with all plants, thoroughness must be the watchword in spraying
+or dusting. Timeliness, choice of weather conditions so far as
+possible, and covering all surface lightly rather than throwing on
+heavy blotches of spray or dust all require careful attention.
+
+_Fusarium Wilt_ (Fusarium lycopersici) is perhaps the most serious
+of all the tomato diseases although it occasions little trouble in
+the more northerly states. It is troublesome as far north as New
+Jersey to Iowa.
+
+The fungus winters in the soil, enters through the roots and blocks
+the water passages of the plant causing wilting, yellowing, and
+finally, death. Water vessels in the stem are discolored,--another
+means of identifying the disease.
+
+Spraying or dusting are of no service since the fungus is within.
+Long time rotation and use of the many resistant strains are
+effective means of control.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left
+center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on right with one of
+F. J. Pritchard's wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant
+attacked by wilt fungus.]
+
+_Leaf Spot_, _Septoria Blight_ (Septoria lycopersici) causes heavy
+loss by destroying the foliage and so the fruit-making power of the
+plant. It also opens the fruits to sunscald. The spots appear as
+small dark water soaked areas which enlarge but little though they
+increase in number and turn brown. Tiny black dots, the fruiting
+bodies of the fungus, appear. The spores germinate only on moist
+leaves and the disease is spread by wind, rain, workers and the
+like. It winters on refuse of the tomato and related plants.
+
+Fall plowing helps to control. Bordeaux spraying beginning in the
+seed bed and carried faithfully through the season will usually hold
+the trouble in check.
+
+_Late Blight_ (Phytophthora infestans) is the same fungus as the
+late blight of potatoes, affecting both foliage and fruit. It is
+often troublesome the first few weeks after plants are set
+out-of-doors. Clean soil in seed bed and bordeaux spraying are
+helpful.
+
+_Western Blight_, _Yellows_, _Curly Top_,--cause unknown,--is
+prevalent in California. Leaves roll and become thickened and
+brittle, later turning a sulfury yellow. Veins become purplish. The
+trouble prevails in hot weather. The cause is likely a virus,
+similar to or identical with the curly top of beets. It is
+apparently spread by leaf hoppers. No satisfactory control has been
+devised though there is some promise in resistant strains.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Diseases of the tomato. 1. Septoria or
+leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform.]
+
+_Mosaic._--No organism has been definitely connected with the mosaic
+diseases of tomatoes, but they are highly infectious, being spread
+by means of what is called a "virus," which passes the finest
+filters. It is spread by insects, notably aphids, which carry plant
+juice, and in the handling of plants, but it does not persist in
+seeds or in litter. It is wintered on horse nettles and three
+species of ground cherries. Control suggestions include roguing
+affected plants, eliminating weeds, and controlling carrying
+insects. The symptoms are widely various, the most common being
+mottling of leaves, stunting and malformation of leaflets, which
+sometimes become fine ribbons or threads, curling, appearance of
+small brown dead areas, and spots and cracks on fruits.
+
+_Damping off_ is caused by various fungi in the seed bed which
+attack the stem near the surface of the soil and cause the plant to
+drop over and die. Clean soil, heating of soil, commonly called
+sterilization, and care in watering are all helpful. It is now
+common practice to dust seed with formaldehyde dust, or with red
+copper oxid or with an organic mercury disinfectant. If trouble is
+serious, a watering with semesan just before seedlings emerge may be
+helpful.
+
+A government bulletin on "Market Diseases of Tomatoes"
+(Miscellaneous Publication 121, 1932) is an excellent summary with
+colored plates to help in recognizing the various troubles.
+
+
+      Insects
+
+_The Fruit Worm_ (Chloridea obsoleta) is probably the worst of the
+tomato insects, but is not prevalent in the North. It is the same as
+the corn ear-worm or the cotton boll-worm, and bores into green or
+ripening fruits. It winters in the soil and fall plowing is
+recommended for its control. Planting corn as a trap crop is also
+suggested. The Virginia Truck Experiment Station finds that the
+addition of two pounds of calcium arsenate to 50 gallons of the
+Bordeaux used for disease control helps materially.
+
+_Cut-worms_ (various species of the family Noctuidae) cause severe
+losses at the time of field setting. They winter in the soil and are
+worse when sod has been plowed under, or following other host
+plants. Poison bran mash is commonly used to combat them, using a
+spoonful to each plant. Hand picking and the use of paper collars
+are resorted to on a small scale. Well-hardened plants seem less
+subject to injury by these pests than tender plants.
+
+_Colorado Potato Beetle_ (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) can cause a
+world of damage to young plants. Arsenical spray or dust will
+ordinarily control them. The old-fashioned potato bug (family
+Meloidae), is reported as troublesome in Missouri. When they appear
+in droves, the only control is to drive them with brush. Arsenical
+spray or dust is of some value.
+
+_Flea Beetles_ (family Chrysomelidae) are the little black jumping
+fellows that perforate leaves in plant beds and in the field. They
+are also accused of injuring blossoms and reducing the set of fruit.
+Their attacks upon young plants are sometimes ruinous. Bordeaux with
+arsenical serves as a repellant. Dusting with nicotine sulphate dust
+is also suggested.
+
+_Green Tomato Worms_, or _Horn Worms_ (Phlegethontius sexta) are
+big, green fellows and have a great capacity for tomato foliage.
+Hand-picking and arsenical spray or dust are usual means of combat.
+
+_The stalk-borer_ (Papaipema nitela) is a slender caterpillar which
+is reported as serious in Indiana. No satisfactory control is
+suggested except clean culture around fields and pinching the stems
+to destroy the pest.
+
+
+
+
+      VIII
+
+      SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE
+
+
+The most skillful production is in vain if marketing is not done
+well. At the same time, the quality of the goods is the principal
+factor in making the price and in moving the goods. Even then, if
+costs in production and marketing are too high, the enterprise is a
+failure.
+
+The differences between high and low quotations on the same market
+the same day, are usually fairly wide,--say, $1.75 to $2.50; or
+$0.75 to $1.25; or $0.20 to $0.25 per basket. These differences are
+sufficient to make the difference between profit and loss. Small
+differences in quality of the product, in handling and dress-up of
+the market pack and skill in finding buyers may easily result in
+price differences as great or greater than those indicated.
+
+
+      Harvesting
+
+Picking in the field calls for the closest care and supervision to
+prevent damage to the fruits and vines. Stems should be removed to
+avoid punching other fruits, and long finger-nails do great harm by
+cutting the skin and admitting infection. Containers should not be
+too large to be handled conveniently. Round half-bushel stave
+baskets and galvanized pails are excellent. Baskets made of
+quarter-inch staves rather than veneer are smooth and durable, but
+the investment is rather heavy unless dumping is resorted to. In
+practice, all sorts of boxes and crates are used, often the package
+that is used for marketing. No container as deep as a bushel basket
+should be used.
+
+The stage of ripeness at which tomatoes are picked depends upon the
+time and distance to market. For home use or local market, fruit may
+range from the first turn to almost fully colored.
+
+A few growers pick at the turn and use ripening rooms to prepare for
+local selling. In this way cracking, injury by soil, by insects, and
+by uneven coloring are avoided. Fruits are wiped and handled with
+less loss and may even be washed if need be.
+
+Fully ripened fruit will not stand handling and hauling and will
+quickly deteriorate, reaching the consumer in bad condition.
+
+For cannery, full ripening is desired with even coloring.
+MacGillivray[18] has shown that success in this is largely a matter
+of care in picking. Cracking and slight softening are not serious
+defects for this purpose, but molds and bacteria in broken places
+are serious as they throw the product out of grade or occasion
+rejection.
+
+
+      Picking Green
+
+Most tomatoes for long distance shipment, are picked before color
+appears,--at the mature-green stage. One of the great difficulties
+is to judge this stage correctly; to train ordinary labor to pick by
+maturity and not by size. Immature-green tomatoes ripen slowly and
+do not achieve good appearance or table quality.
+
+It is almost impossible to describe the ear marks of a mature-green
+tomato. Most of those usually cited are of doubtful value--glossy
+surface, whitish cast of color and the dark ring at the stem scar.
+The jelly-like or mucilaginous material in the seed cells has
+sufficiently developed in a mature green tomato so that the fruit
+may be sliced without cutting seeds. Of course, the tomato is
+ruined but the method can be used to check one's judgment based on
+the exterior. Also, one can learn by laying aside tomatoes judged
+mature-green and immature-green to ripen.
+
+Some efforts have recently been made in Florida to pick tomatoes at
+the turn, that is, at the first show of color, a practice suggested
+by Sando[19] some years ago. This should provide fruits of uniform
+degree of maturity, that would be about ready to sell on arrival and
+it would eliminate the serious problem of immature-greens. It would
+require more frequent picking of fields and there could be no delay
+in packing. There would, doubtless, also be problems of temperature
+and ventilation in transit. Results of tests thus far have been
+rather encouraging.
+
+
+      Ripening
+
+Green wrap tomatoes are received at terminal markets by produce
+houses that have special ripening rooms where temperature is kept at
+about 70 deg., with high humidity to prevent wilting or shriveling.
+Ethylene gas is used by some to hasten ripening. It does not change
+the nature of the process, merely speeding it up. Some of these
+repackers have elaborate equipment for sorting and packing.
+
+The tomatoes, on arrival, are shaken out of their paper wraps. Any
+that have ripened in transit are taken out and packed while the
+greens go into the ripening rooms. They may have to be sorted over
+two or three times as ripening progresses.
+
+The ripening process in tomatoes has been rather thoroughly studied.
+Sando found that tomatoes ripen uniformly, regardless of size, at a
+certain age, dating from the setting of the fruit. This time, which,
+of course, varies according to weather conditions, was eight weeks
+when the studies were made. Ripening is accompanied by an increase
+in moisture, acids and sugars, with decrease of solids, nitrogen,
+starch, pentisans, crude fibre and ash. Sugars increase from about a
+quarter to about half of the dry weight. Chemical analysis did not
+show differences sufficient to account for the difference in quality
+between vine-ripened fruit and green fruit ripened in the
+laboratory. Lack of ventilation seems to be detrimental.
+
+It is commonly held that tomatoes chilled without freezing will not
+ripen satisfactorily afterward. This belief is discounted by results
+of Wright and associates and of Platenius who found little effect of
+low temperatures upon later ripening.
+
+Wright[20] and Platenius[21] have both found that tomatoes should
+not be stored at low temperatures, 50 deg. to 60 deg. F. being best. Storage
+is not likely to be satisfactory for more than a month.
+
+
+      Waxing
+
+Waxing of tomatoes by immersion in a dilute water emulsion of
+paraffine and carnauba waxes is being tried out with very promising
+results. Waxes are also dissolved in volatile hydrocarbons and
+sprayed on. Moisture loss and shriveling are materially retarded,
+and interference with the ripening process is negligible. The wax
+coating is very thin, adds an attractive gloss and is entirely
+harmless.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Packing tomatoes on a farm in
+Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The
+others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on
+before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job.
+A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from
+falling out.]
+
+
+      Grading
+
+It is generally true that at market the poorest products in a given
+lot tend to fix the price. When the buyer finds a few inferior
+specimens he assumes there are many more. Imperfect and diseased
+specimens infect others. Grading enhances the appearance of the
+pack.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy Tripak Mach. Service_
+
+FIGURE 20.--A California packing house with elaborate machinery and
+fully organized.]
+
+Of course, the grower who picks marketable tomatoes and leaves
+unmarketable fruits on the vine is engaged in a form of
+grading--informal and subconscious. Methods may range from this
+simple practice to the elaborate schemes adopted in large packing
+houses. There is no difficulty in adopting methods for the farm that
+are easily managed and perfectly practical. In general, two grades
+to sell represent a good plan, leaving culls at home unless prices
+are high and there is good demand for them. The set-up may involve
+no more than a worker at a table with three baskets--one with
+tomatoes from the field; another for #1's and a third for #2's. The
+worker may well use a cotton flannel glove or cloth to wipe the
+tomatoes and the fruits should be placed in layers to bring the
+package to a good face. With some practice, this slows the operation
+but very little. Shed packing should be more common than it is
+though the practice seems to be gaining.
+
+Shippers scattered from Cuba and California to New York state have
+packing houses set up to all degrees of elaborateness. Some have
+machines and conveyors that wash, sort for size, provide for hand
+sorting for grade and deliver to bins for packing. Experienced
+packers advance with the season from Florida to Lake Erie. These
+workers become almost incredibly expert and speedy. It is not
+uncommon for a worker to pick up, wrap and place in the lug box 60
+or 70 tomatoes per minute--not as a show-off but in course of
+regular work.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 21.--Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes,
+especially when grown in the winter in the South.]
+
+The federal government has worked out and published standards for
+the grades of tomatoes along with most other vegetables. These
+standards are practical and have found wide acceptance as furnishing
+common language between seller and buyer, especially for long
+distance shipment. The one who grades may, however, set up a
+standard of his own to meet the needs of his conditions and market.
+
+U.S. Standards for cannery tomatoes are widely used as a basis of
+payment to the grower and this practice is to be commended.
+
+
+      Packaging
+
+The lug box has almost wholly replaced the older 6-basket carrier
+and 4-basket flat for shipment of tomatoes. It is in almost every
+respect, a good package for tomatoes. It is built with solid board
+ends, with veneer or sawed sides, bottom and cover. Cleats on the
+ends serve to raise the lids so that a bulge pack will not be
+injured by pressure. Veneer covers and bottoms are held together by
+stitched veneer cross pieces. The lug box is packed in three layers
+and holds about 30 pounds net of tomatoes though it is often
+over-packed to carry considerably more. The bulge pack is desirable
+only so far as it is necessary to insure a tight pack and to take up
+the small shrinkage that takes place in transit. Ordinarily, it goes
+beyond this. It results in delivery of more tomatoes than are paid
+for, and in bruising because the top center is too high.
+
+[Illustration: _Courtesy Southern Arkansas Growers Association_
+
+FIGURE 22.--The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato
+packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much bulge
+making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing danger
+of bruising the upper fruits.]
+
+The late M. R. Ensign in Florida, was working with a wire-bound lug
+to carry 20 pounds of tomatoes in two layers without bulge.
+
+The lug box is packed in three layers and the size of fruits is
+designated by the number of tomatoes each way,--6 x 6, 6 x 7, and 7
+x 7 being the commonest sizes. Each tomato is wrapped in a square of
+tissue paper which may or may not be printed. The principal
+advantage of the paper is to cushion the pack and protect the
+tomatoes against rubbing and abrasion. Where tomatoes are small,
+U.S. Standards provide for "bridge pack" or partial extra layers,
+for extra rows and for double wraps or two tomatoes in one paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 23.--Lug boxes as loaded in car.]
+
+Lug boxes were formerly loaded lengthwise of the car but are now
+generally loaded crosswise,--that is, the side of the box is
+crosswise throwing the heavy endwise thrust against the substantial
+end of the box. Thin strips are nailed between layers, butting
+against the sides of the car to prevent shifting of the load and
+closing of ventilation channels. Refrigerated cars are generally
+used but icing is not usual.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 24.--The square braid basket is widely used as
+a local market package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and
+is easily put up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high.]
+
+A few shipping sections, notably New Jersey, still use the 12-quart
+climax basket for tomatoes.
+
+Local markets use various containers for tomatoes,--the Boston
+bushel box; a half bushel of the same depth also used in New
+England; lug boxes; the Jersey tomato crate; and very commonly, 8
+and 12-quart square braid veneer market baskets. Peach baskets and
+bushel baskets are now used but little, being too deep for good
+carrying. The diamond market basket of earlier years has about
+disappeared--being too flexible and not suited for stacking. The
+square braid with suitable cover may be stacked very satisfactorily
+in trucks but is hardly substantial enough for rail shipment.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 25.--The Connecticut half bushel box. Figure
+19 shows how this is packed.]
+
+Hot house tomatoes travel in square braid, climax or paper fibre
+baskets, now rather commonly, the latter. The Cleveland section
+sells some millions of baskets of 8-quart capacity but carrying 8
+pounds of tomatoes in two layers, usually with stems on, usually
+wrapped and sometimes with a paper divider between layers.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--Repacked tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go
+to wholesale houses that specialize in ripening and repacking. Many
+kinds of packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of the
+popular packs especially in the Boston area.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 27.--Cellulose film is used for repacked
+tomatoes.]
+
+Cannery tomatoes move in field crates belonging to the canner or, in
+Jersey, in 5/8 bushel baskets, about as awkward a container as could
+be readily devised unless it should be the Jersey tomato crate
+with its two cover strips permanently fastened.
+
+Repack tomatoes are sometimes replaced in lugs or in half lugs. Ten
+pound corrugated cartons are widely used, newer and fancier packs
+being but one layer deep. Fruits are wrapped with paper or cellulose
+film. An increasing proportion of repacks are now put up in
+one-pound cartons with a window of cellulose film, carrying four or
+five tomatoes. A variation is a paper tray wrapped with cellulose
+film.
+
+Good marketing calls for a good label for whatever package is used.
+These are usually pasted on the package. Paper containers are often
+printed directly but the problem of misuse of second hand packages
+is coming to the fore.
+
+
+      Selling
+
+Success in selling demands in the producer the qualities which we
+ordinarily expect in the business man. The good grower is a business
+man if he succeeds, and this will be more true in the future than in
+the past, as competition increases. It is necessary to judge the men
+one deals with, forming estimates as to reliability and character.
+Mutual confidence is essential to satisfactory dealings. It is worth
+while to study the produce business and to learn its ins and outs,
+reading a trade paper, talking with dealers, and making trips to
+markets.
+
+Shipments are made on "f.o.b." or track sale, on consignment, or on
+joint account. The first plan of outright sale is the most desirable
+and is possible where there is enough business at a given point to
+attract buyers or where grades and business standing are well enough
+established to assure the purchaser of what he is getting. When the
+quality of the product is uncertain or when markets are glutted,
+consignment must be resorted to. Under this plan, the shipper owns
+the goods until the receiver makes a sale and all the risks up to
+this point are his. There are many consignment houses of high
+character if the shipper will take the trouble to find them instead
+of shipping to any one who writes a good letter, and there is
+vigorous competition in the trade. These factors make it possible to
+secure fairly good service most of the time. Joint account selling,
+where shipper and receiver agree on how returns shall be divided, is
+sometimes undertaken where mutual acquaintance justifies it.
+
+Selling on distant markets is more complex and difficult than local
+selling for many reasons. Shoving crates off the wagon into the car
+and forgetting them is not selling. Co-operative organization has
+helped many communities through pooling of resources, standardizing,
+grading and packing the product, encouraging better field practices,
+and securing the services of able managers and salesmen.
+
+
+      Local Selling
+
+A very small amount of produce is sold by producers directly to the
+consumer at his home, but the roadside market has greatly developed
+retail activity by growers. Here fine quality, attractive
+appearance, moderate prices, and fair dealing are effective in
+building business. Stands that plan to "fleece them as they pass" do
+not last long. It is the return business that counts. The bulk of
+local selling is done directly to retailers--grocers or
+hucksters--either at market or store-door. The costliness of this
+system is being realized and local commission business is growing,
+in many cases through the establishment of commission houses
+co-operatively owned and managed by growers, as in Providence,
+Cleveland, Chicago and other markets.
+
+Some effort has been made to increase the use of tomatoes as has
+been successfully done with oranges and bananas. These efforts have
+been sporadic and results have been hardly more consistent than the
+efforts. Co-operative publicity, especially at times when large
+quantities are to be moved, would seem to offer fine possibilities.
+Growers of some crops are finding chain store groups very ready to
+help in moving out large volumes of produce when the supply is
+large.
+
+
+      Cannery Selling
+
+Cannery sales are generally made at a stipulated price on contracts
+closed in advance of planting. These contracts have usually devoted
+more words to protecting the interests of the packer than those of
+the grower, largely because the grower has accepted the canner's
+initiative with little question. Farseeing companies have been fair
+in enforcement of terms and liberal in their dealings, realizing
+that prosperity must be mutual for the highest success. A few
+canners have contract provisions that enable the grower to share in
+prices realized for the packed product when they rise beyond a
+certain figure. Too many canners have lacked vision, however, and
+have taken all they could get. Farmers have known little about costs
+and so have frequently been lured by the prospect of cash return
+even though they see no money until the packed tomatoes are actually
+sold. During recent years, much has been learned about the business
+side of growing for cannery purposes and the knowledge has been made
+available through extension channels. Growers have shown some
+tendency to organize and some canners welcome this movement as
+helping them to set their affairs on a plane of definite
+understanding. Canners have suffered sadly through failure of
+growers to live up to contracts if it suited them better to evade
+the terms, and organization helps greatly to develop the producer's
+sense of responsibility. Indiana has formed a federation of locals,
+but an organization movement in another state failed, more because
+the directors and members did not live up to their duties than
+through opposition of certain hostile canners. Co-operation in this
+field has the same possibilities, requirements and dangers as in
+other fields. With time and experience, co-operation will be an
+increasing and beneficial factor in the business.
+
+In some sections, most of the cannery tomatoes are sold on open
+market, and in others, the early part of the crop is free for local
+sale or shipment. This arrangement would seem to have possibilities
+for further development by the use of good plants and good culture.
+
+
+
+
+      IX
+
+      OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK
+
+
+Happily, the home gardener does not need to keep books with his
+tomatoes. If he likes the culture and the product, he need not
+inquire further.
+
+Not so with the commercial grower. After all skill has been
+exercised in growing and selling, the books must show black and not
+red. This calls for good management and judgment not only as to what
+is best for the tomatoes and for the consumer but also how much one
+can afford to spend to gain a given advantage.
+
+Fortunately, quality, yield and economy generally go hand in hand.
+One of the best ways to achieve low unit cost is to win a high yield
+per acre.
+
+For the cannery crop, conditions are sometimes such that one cannot
+afford to apply, say, optimum fertilizer because some other factor
+not readily controlled may limit the returns and so make heavy
+feeding uneconomical.
+
+_Yield._--The average yield per acre of cannery tomatoes for the
+United States was, in 1940, 5.39 tons per acre and the 10-year
+average, to 1938, was 4.15 tons per acre. For tomatoes for fresh
+market, the average yield for 1940 was 148 bushels per acre, 14
+bushels above the 10-year average. Of course, these yields would not
+satisfy a grower who calls himself successful. In the canning
+sections of New York, it takes about 7 tons per acre to cover costs
+of production. Some years ago a survey in Arkansas recorded costs as
+low as $36 per acre. However, the same survey showed cost per ton as
+$13.64. Cannery contracts that year averaged about $12.75 per ton.
+That does not yield much money to bank even if ten or twenty acres
+are grown. Rarely yields run to 25 tons per acre.
+
+It is accordingly necessary to keep costs down and to bring yields
+up. Each item of cost must be scrutinized and adjusted to bring
+lowest cost per ton or per package.
+
+In counting costs, it is necessary to include every element. The
+following summary from 118 Western New York farms for 1934 for
+cannery tomatoes illustrates the various items:
+
+    -----------------------------------------------------------
+                                         |        | _Per cent_
+                                         |        | _of total_
+    Growing costs:                       |        |
+      Land                               | $ 7.66 |   9.17
+      Manure                             |   3.91 |   4.68
+      Commercial fertilizer              |   8.21 |   9.83
+      Plants                             |  15.55 |  18.62
+      Plowing                            |   3.42 |   4.10
+      Fitting                            |   3.83 |   4.59
+      Applying fertilizer                |   1.65 |   1.98
+      Setting                            |   5.41 |   6.48
+      Cultivating                        |   6.38 |   7.64
+      All other growing costs            |   2.14 |   2.56
+                                         |---------------------
+            Total growing costs per acre | $58.16 |  69.65
+    Harvesting and delivering (8.2 tons) |  25.34 |  30.35
+                                         |---------------------
+    Total costs                          | $83.50 |100.00
+    -----------------------------------------------------------
+
+All too often, growers think they are counting costs when such
+important items as interest, use of truck and machinery or others
+are omitted. One sometimes sees such figures in print.
+
+One good way to view returns is in terms of cents per hour for
+labor. Cost accounts in New York have showed that a group of farmers
+who raised cannery tomatoes the nine years up to 1937 and whose
+records were studied, realized $0.34 per hour for their time given
+to tomatoes, $0.51 for potatoes, $0.24 for wheat, and $0.11 for
+oats.
+
+
+
+
+      SELECTED REFERENCES
+
+
+This book is not a monograph in the scientific sense and no attempt
+has been made to cite references for all statements. This list is
+intended to include the publications that are likely to prove most
+useful to one who wishes to read further about tomatoes. There are
+many others of great value, most of them being included in
+bibliographies in the works cited below.
+
+Unless otherwise stated, references are to publications of the state
+experiment stations, addresses of which may be obtained by writing
+Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of
+Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
+
+
+      General
+
+      Beattie, W. R. Tomatoes as a truck crop. U.S. Dept. of Agr.
+      Farmers Bul. 1338. 1923.
+
+      Snyder, G. B. and Dempsey, P. W. Tomato production in
+      Massachusetts. Mass. Ext. Leaf. 51. May, 1937.
+
+      Porter, D. R. and MacGillivray, John H. The production of
+      tomatoes in California. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 104. 1937.
+
+      Cochran, H. L. Improved methods of tomato production in
+      Georgia. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206. 1940.
+
+      Huelsen, W. A. Growing tomatoes in Illinois. Ill. Exp. Sta.
+      Cir. 451. 1936.
+
+      Balch, W. B. Growing tomatoes in Kansas. Kan. Exp. Sta. Cir.
+      172. 1933.
+
+      Seaton, H. L. Tomato growing in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta. Ext.
+      Bul. 156. 1936.
+
+      Allen, E. J. and Talbert, T. J. Tomato culture in Missouri.
+      Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 173. 1934.
+
+      Schermerhorn, L. G., Tiedjens, V. A., et al. Questions and
+      answers relative to tomato production. N.J. Exp. Sta. Ext.
+      Bul. 174. 1936.
+
+      Raleigh, G. J. Growing tomatoes for market. Cornell Ext. Bul.
+      377. 1937.
+
+      Tracy, W. Tomato culture. Orange Judd Co. 1907.
+
+      Work, Paul. Tomato production. Orange Judd Co. 1926.
+
+      Pellett, F. C. and M. A. Practical tomato culture. A. T. De La
+      More Co. 1930.
+
+
+      Food Value
+
+      Atwater, W. O., and Woods, C. D. The chemical composition of
+      American food materials. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Expt.
+      Stas. Bul. 28. 1896.
+
+      Sherman, H. C. Food products. Macmillan. 1924.
+
+      Miller, Elna. Tomatoes, their value and uses. Utah Exp. Sta.
+      Cir. 47. 1932.
+
+      Ellis, Eliz. E. Using tomatoes in family meals. N.H. Exp.
+      Sta. Cir. 225. 1940.
+
+
+      Cannery
+
+      Beattie, J. H. Tomatoes for canning and manufacturing. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1233. Rev. 1930.
+
+      Lancashire, E. R., Parks, T. H. and Pierstorff, A. L. Tomatoes
+      for canning. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 114. 1935.
+
+      Hester, J. B. Good, fair or poor tomatoes from your soil.
+      Campbell Soup Co., Bul. 2. 1940.
+
+      Cruess, W. V. Commercial fruit and vegetable products.
+      McGraw-Hill. 1924.
+
+      Pederson, C. S. Preparation of tomato products. N.Y. Exp.
+      Sta. Cir. 178. 1937.
+
+      Gaylord, F. C. and Fawcett, K. L. A study of grade, quality
+      and price of canned tomatoes sold at retail in Indiana. Ind.
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1939.
+
+      Saywell, L. G. and Cruess, W. V. The composition of canning
+      tomatoes. Calif. Exp. Sta. Bul. 545. 1932.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. and Ford, O. W. Tomato quality as
+      influenced by the relative amount of outer and inner wall
+      region. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 327. 1928.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the
+      tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931.
+
+      Gaylord, F. C. and MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato quality studies.
+      Field and harvest factors affecting grade. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul.
+      394. 1934.
+
+      Hauck, C. W. Marketing cannery tomatoes on grade in Ohio. Ohio
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 504. 1932.
+
+
+      Greenhouse
+
+      Beattie, J. H. Greenhouse tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr.
+      Farmers Bul. 1431. Rev. 1939.
+
+      Hoffman, I. C. Growing of greenhouse tomatoes. Ohio Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 499. 1932.
+
+      Burk, E. F. and Roberts, R. H. Growing greenhouse tomatoes.
+      Wisc. Exp. Sta. Bul. 418. 1931.
+
+      Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Relative efficiency of
+      various organic supplements in the growth of greenhouse
+      tomatoes. R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 236. 1932.
+
+      Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Economical amounts of nitrate
+      of soda to apply in the greenhouse for the growth of tomatoes.
+      R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 252. 1935.
+
+      Bouquet, A. G. P. An analysis of the characters of the
+      inflorescence and fruiting habit of some varieties of
+      greenhouse tomatoes. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 139. 1932.
+      Biblio.
+
+      Seaton, H. L. and Gray, G. F. Histological study of tissues
+      from greenhouse tomatoes affected by blotchy ripening. Jour.
+      Agr. Research (U.S. Dept. of Agr.), Vol. 52, No. 3, pp.
+      217-224. 1936.
+
+
+      Breeding and Varieties
+
+      Boswell, V. R. Improvement and genetics of tomatoes, peppers,
+      and eggplant. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook. 1937. pp. 176-206.
+      Full biblio.
+
+      Boswell, V. R., et al. Description of American varieties of
+      tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 160. 1933.
+
+      Muller, C. H. A revision of the genus Lycopersicon. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 382. 1940.
+
+      Morrison, Gordon. Tomato varieties. Mich. Exp. Sta. Spec. Bul.
+      290. 1938.
+
+      Myers, C. E. and Lewis, M. T. The effect of selection in the
+      tomato. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 248. Rev. May 2, 1930.
+
+      Yeager, A. F. Tomato breeding. N.D. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276. 1933.
+
+      Pritchard, F. J. Development of wilt-resistant tomatoes. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1015. 1922.
+
+      Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato
+      crosses and their parents. Minn. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 6. Rev.
+      1923.
+
+      Groth, B. H. A. The F_{1} hereditary of size, shape, and
+      number in tomato fruits. N.J. Exp. Sta. Bul. 242. 1912.
+
+      Lindstrom, E. W. Hereditary correlation of size and color
+      characters in tomatoes. Iowa Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 93. 1926.
+
+      Porte, W. S. and Wellman, F. L. Development of interspecific
+      tomato hybrids. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 584. 1941.
+
+      Babb, M. F. and Kraus, J. E. Results of tomato variety tests
+      in the great plains region. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 533.
+      1939.
+
+      Anon. A haploid marglobe tomato. Jour. of Heredity,
+      Washington, D.C. Vol. 27, No. 11, 1936.
+
+      Huelsen, W. A. New wilt-resistant tomato varieties for field
+      and greenhouse. Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 448. 1936.
+
+
+      Plants for Transplanting
+
+      Nissley, C. H. Plant growing and plant growing structures.
+      N.J. Ext. Bul. 51. 1926.
+
+      Tussing, E. B. and Lancashire, E. R. Growing vegetable plants.
+      Ohio Ext. Bul. 103. 1930.
+
+      Raleigh, G. J. Starting vegetable plants. Cornell Ext. Bul.
+      448. Oct. 1940.
+
+      Crist, J. W. Ultimate effect of hardening tomato plants. Mich.
+      Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 89. 1928.
+
+      Harvey, R. B. and Wright, R. C. Frost injury to tomatoes.
+      U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1099. 1922.
+
+      Seaton, H. L. and Strong, M. C. Southern-grown vs. locally
+      grown tomato plants. Mich. Quarterly Bul. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp.
+      131-141. 1938.
+
+      Alexander, L. J., Young, H. C. and Kiger, C. M. The causes and
+      control of damping-off of tomato seedlings. Ohio Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 496. 1931.
+
+      Van Haltern, Frank. Control of tomato seedbed diseases of
+      southern plants. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 187. 1935.
+
+
+      Fertilizers
+
+      Work, Paul. Tomato fertilizer experiments in Chautauqua
+      County, New York. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 467. 1928.
+
+      Hartman, J. D., Work, Paul Wessels, P. H. Tomato fertilizer
+      experiments on Long Island. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 676. 1937.
+
+      Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J. and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer
+      experiments with tomatoes. Penna. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940.
+
+      Sayre, C. B. Effects of fertilizers and rotation on earliness
+      and total yields of tomatoes. N.Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 619. 1933.
+
+      Sayre, C. B. Starter solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Exp. Sta.
+      Geneva) Vols. 5, 6, and 7, No. 2. April 1939, '40, '41.
+
+      Parker, M. M. Tomato fertilization. (1) The effect of
+      different fertilizer ratios on the yield to tomatoes. Va. Exp.
+      Sta. Bul. 80. 1933.
+
+      Carolus, R. L. Tomato fertilization. (2) The effect of
+      different fertilizer ratios on the chemical composition of
+      tomatoes. Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 81. 1933.
+
+      Thomas, R. P. Effect of fertilizer treatments of a soil on the
+      quality and yield of tomatoes. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 386. 1935.
+
+      Friend, W. H. Tomato varieties and fertilizers for the lower
+      Rio Grande valley of Texas. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1931.
+
+      Comin, Donald and Bushnell, John. Fertilizers for early
+      cabbage, tomatoes, cucumbers, and sweet corn. Ohio Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 420. 1928.
+
+      Hepler, J. R. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon
+      the yield and time of maturity of the tomato. N.H. Exp. Sta.
+      Tech. Bul. 28. Rev. 1926.
+
+      Hester, J. B. Soil fertility in tomato production. Campbell
+      Soup Co. Bul. 3. 1941.
+
+
+      Cultural Practices
+
+      Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Exp.
+      Sta. Bul. 580. 1934.
+
+      Watts, V. M. Pruning and training tomatoes in Arkansas. Ark.
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 292. 1933.
+
+      Hibbard, R. P. The various effects of frost protectors on
+      tomato plants. Mich. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 124. 1932.
+
+      Thompson, H. C. Experimental studies of the effects of
+      cultivation of certain vegetable crops. Cornell Expt. Sta.
+      Memoir 107. 1927.
+
+
+      Physiology
+
+      Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction
+      with special reference to the tomato. Ore. Exp. Sta. Bul. 149.
+      1918. Biblio.
+
+      Work, Paul. Nitrate of soda in the nutrition of the tomato.
+      Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 75. 1924.
+
+      Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, John M. Some effects
+      of artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition
+      of plants. Amer. Jour. of Botany, 17: 416-482. 1930.
+
+      Murneek, A. E. Physiology of reproduction in horticultural
+      plants. (1) Reproduction and metabolic efficiency in the
+      tomato. Mo. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 90. 1926.
+
+      Murneek, A. E. Effects of correlation between vegetative and
+      reproductive functions in the tomato. Plant Physiology, Vol.
+      I, No. 1. 1926.
+
+      Nightingale, G. T. The chemical composition of plants in
+      relation to photo-periodic changes. Wis. Exp. Sta. Research
+      Bul. 74. 1927.
+
+      Porter, A. M. Effect of light intensity on the photosynthetic
+      efficiency of tomato plants. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12: pp.
+      225-252. 1937.
+
+      Nightingale, G. T. Effects of temperature on metabolism in
+      tomato. Botanical Gazette, Vol. 95, No. 1. 1933.
+
+      Phillips, T. G., Smith, T. O. and Hepler, J. R. Some effects
+      of potassium and nitrogen on the composition of the tomato
+      plant. N.H. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 73. 1939.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of
+      the tomato plant. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 34, No. 2. pp.
+      97-127. 1927.
+
+      Janssen, G., Bartholomew, R. R. and Watts, V. M. Some effects
+      of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium on the composition and
+      growth of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 310. 1934.
+
+      Eckerson, Sophia H. Influence of phosphorus deficiency on
+      metabolism of the tomato. Contribs. of Boyce Thompson
+      Institute. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 197-218. 1931.
+
+      Fisher, P. L. Responses of the tomato in solution cultures
+      with deficiencies and excesses of certain essential elements.
+      Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 375. 1935.
+
+      Howlett, F. S. Effect of carbohydrate deficiency upon
+      formation of sex cells in tomato. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 532.
+      1934.
+
+      Howlett, F. S. The modification of flower structure by
+      environment in varieties of Lycopersicum esculentum. Jour. of
+      Agr. Research, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 79-117. 1939.
+
+      Watts, V. M. Some factors which influence growth and fruiting
+      of the tomato. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 267. 1931.
+
+      Watts, V. M. Growth and fruiting responses to pruning and
+      defloration of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 347. 1937.
+
+      Smith, Ora. Pollination and life-history studies of the tomato
+      (Lycopersicon esculentum mill.) Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 184.
+      1935.
+
+      Smith, Ora. Relation of temperature to anthesis and blossom
+      drop of the tomato together with a histological study of the
+      pistils. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 183-190.
+      1932.
+
+      Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen
+      germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Exp. Sta.
+      Memoir 175. 1935.
+
+      Smith, Ora. Effects of light on carotenoid formation in tomato
+      fruits. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 187. 1936.
+
+      Reid, Mary E. Growth of tomato cuttings in relation to stored
+      carbohydrate and nitrogenous compounds. Amer. Jour. of Botany,
+      Vol. 13: pp. 548-574. 1926.
+
+      Foster, A. C. and Tatman, E. C. Influence of certain
+      environment conditions of congestion of starch in tomato plant
+      stems. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 56, No. 12, pp. 869-882.
+      1938.
+
+
+      Diseases and Insects
+
+      Chupp, Chas. Manual of vegetable-garden diseases. Macmillan.
+      1925.
+
+      Kadow, K. J. and Shropshire, L. H. Tomato diseases and insect
+      pests. (Identification and control.) Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 428.
+      1935.
+
+      Weber, G. F. and Kelbert, D. G. A. Seasonal occurrence of
+      tomato diseases in Florida. Fla. Sta. Bul. 345. 1940.
+
+      Samson, R. W. and Thomas, H. Rex. Tomato diseases in Indiana.
+      Ind. Exp. Sta. Cir. 257. 1940.
+
+      Strong, M. C. Tomato diseases in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta.
+      Cir. Bul. 139. 1932.
+
+      Young, P. A., Harrison, A. L. and Altstatt, G. E. Common
+      diseases of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Cir. 86. 1940.
+
+      Horsfall, J. G., Magie, R. O. and Suit, R. F. Bordeaux injury
+      to tomatoes and its effect on ripening. N.Y. Exp. Sta.
+      Geneva. Tech. Bul. 251. 1938.
+
+      Ramsey, G. B. and Link, G. K. K. Market diseases of fruits and
+      vegetables: Tomatoes, peppers, eggplants. U.S. Dept. of Agr.
+      Misc. Pub. 121. 1932.
+
+
+      Marketing
+
+      Parsons, F. E. Preparation of fresh tomatoes for market. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1291. Rev. 1930.
+
+      Wright, R. C. and Gorman, E. A., Jr. Ripening and repacking of
+      mature green tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 566. 1940.
+
+      Sando, Charles E. The process of ripening in the tomato,
+      considered especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Bul. 859. 1920.
+
+      Wright, R. C., Pentzer, W. T. et al. Effect of various
+      temperatures on the storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S.
+      Dept. of Agr. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931.
+
+      Frazier, W. A. Cracks in tomato fruits. American Soc. for
+      Hort. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 519-523. 1934.
+
+      Brown, H. D. and Price, C. V. Effect of irrigation, degree of
+      maturity and shading upon yield and degree of cracking of
+      tomatoes. Amer. Soc. for Horti. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 524-528.
+      1934.
+
+      Yarnell, S. H., Friend, W. H. and Wood, J. F. Factors
+      affecting the amount of puffing in tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta.
+      Bul. 541. 1937.
+
+      LeCrone, Freddie and Haber, E. S. Changes in the pectic
+      constituents of tomatoes in storage. Iowa State College Jour.
+      of Sci. Vol. 12, No. 4. pp. 467-476. 1933. Good biblio.
+
+      Work, Paul. Ethylene ripening of tomatoes in relation to stage
+      of maturity. Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci. 1928. pp. 61-64.
+
+      MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the
+      tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931.
+
+      Vogele, A. C. Effect of environmental factors upon the color
+      of the tomato and the watermelon. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12,
+      pp. 929-955. 1937.
+
+      Lanham, W. B. Effect of potash fertilizer on the carrying
+      quality of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 357. 1927.
+
+      Wardlaw, C. W., and McGuire, L. P. The storage of
+      tropically-grown tomatoes. (Low Temp. Sta., Imperial College
+      of Tropical Agr. Trinidad, B.W.I.) E.M.B. 59. 1932.
+
+      Rosa, J. T. Ripening and storage of tomatoes. 1926 Proceedings
+      of the American Soc. for Hort. Sci. pp. 1-10.
+
+      Haber, E. S. Acidity and color changes in tomatoes under
+      various storage temperatures. Iowa State College Jour. of Sci.
+      Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 171-184. 1931.
+
+      Diehl, H. C. The chilling of tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agri.
+      Dept. Cir. 315. 1924.
+
+      Some problems in marketing tomatoes grown in the lower Rio
+      Grande Valley of Texas. U.S. Dept. of Agri. Marketing
+      Information Series G.C.M.4. 1938.
+
+
+      Costs and Economics
+
+      Campbell, C. E. An economic study of tomato production for
+      canning in Arkansas. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 225. 1928.
+
+      Walker, W. P. An economic study of the production of tomatoes
+      in Maryland. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 304. 1929.
+
+      Montgomery, T. M. Jr., and Efferson, J. N. A cost of
+      production study of tomatoes in North Louisiana, 1939. La.
+      Exp. Sta. Bul. 329. 1941.
+
+      Carncross, J. W., Cathcart, C. S. et al. Economic review of
+      New Jersey Agriculture. Ext. Service No. 72. pp. 89-96. 1931.
+
+      Carncross, J. W. and Nissley, C. H. New Jersey Can-house
+      tomato production. Costs and recommendations for 1932. N.J.
+      Ext. Bul. 96. 1932.
+
+      Hawthorne, H. W. Cost of production of tomatoes (20 states
+      1913-1934) Mimeo. Bul. of Agr. Eco., U.S. Dept. of Agr., Nov.
+      1936.
+
+
+
+
+  INDEX
+
+
+    Ammo-phos, 35
+
+    Aphis, 90
+
+    Arnon, D. I., 20
+
+    Arthur, J. M., 21
+
+
+    Barrons, K. C., 47
+
+    Bison, 46
+
+    Blight, 86, 88
+
+    Blocking plants, 62
+
+    Blossom end rot, 83
+
+    Bonny Best, 47
+
+    Botany, 20
+
+    Bounty, 47
+
+    Breeding, 38
+
+
+    Cannery, 14, 54, 108, 113, 117
+
+    Carbohydrate, 29
+
+    Car loading, 105
+
+    Certification, plants, 57
+
+    Certification, seeds, 41
+
+    Chalk Jewel, 47
+
+    Chili sauce, 14
+
+    Chromosomes, 41
+
+    Climate, 20, 71
+
+    Cochran, H. L., 23
+
+    Cold frames, 57
+
+    Comet, 50
+
+    Composition, 15
+
+    Compost, 63
+
+    Condiments, 14
+
+    Costs, 17, 117
+
+    Cracking, 83
+
+    Crown Seed, 40
+
+    Cultivation, 75
+
+    Curly top, 88
+
+    Cut worms, 91
+
+
+    Damping off, 65, 90
+
+    Description of tomato, 20
+
+    Determinate habit, 22
+
+    Dirt bands, 57, 62
+
+    Diseases, 85
+
+
+    Earliana, 46
+
+    Earliness, 33, 53
+
+    Economics, 11, 16, 116
+
+    Embryo, 38
+
+    Emerson, R. A., 78
+
+
+    Fertilization, 25
+
+    Field containers, 94
+
+    Flats for plants, 60
+
+    Flea beetles, 92
+
+    Floral characters, 22
+
+    Forcing, 18
+
+    Fruitfulness, 29
+
+    Fruit worm, 91
+
+    Fusarium, 38, 42, 49, 50, 86
+
+
+    Geography, 17
+
+    Germination, 38
+
+    Grading, 100
+
+    Greater Baltimore, 50
+
+    Green wraps, 96
+
+    Greenhouse culture, 18
+
+    Greenhouses for plant growing, 58
+
+    Ground cherry, 51
+
+    Gulf State Market, 50
+
+    Guthrie, J. D., 21
+
+
+    Hardening, 68
+
+    Harvesting, 93
+
+    Harvey, R. B., 69
+
+    Hepler, J. H., 33
+
+    Heterosis, 39
+
+    History, 15
+
+    Hitchcock, A. E., 24
+
+    Hoagland, D. R., 20
+
+    Home garden, 11, 26, 54, 79
+
+    Home Garden, variety, 47
+
+    Horn worms, 92
+
+    Hot beds, 57
+
+    Howlett, F. S., 24
+
+    Husk tomato, 51
+
+    Hybrid vigor, 39
+
+
+    Ideal variety, 42
+
+    Immature green, 95
+
+    Insects, 91
+
+    Internal nutrition, 29
+
+    Irrigation, 76
+
+
+    Jamison, F. S., 98
+
+    John Baer, 47
+
+    Juice, 14
+
+
+    Ketchup, 14
+
+    King Humbert, 51
+
+    Klebs, 29
+
+    Kraus, E. J., 29
+
+    Kraybill, H. R., 29, 33
+
+
+    Lanham, W. B., 34
+
+    Leaf blight, 86, 88
+
+    Lime, 25
+
+    Lindstrom, E. W., 41
+
+    Longevity, 38
+
+    Loomis, W. E., 66, 69
+
+    Lug box, 103
+
+
+    MacGillivray, J. H., 33, 95
+
+    Mack, W. B., 35
+
+    Manure, animal, 34
+
+    Marglobe, 48
+
+    Market diseases, 90
+
+    Marketing, 93
+
+    Mature green, 95
+
+    Maturity, 94
+
+    Mosaic, 88
+
+    Mulch, 76, 78
+
+    Murneek, A. E., 31
+
+    Myers, C. E., 47
+
+
+    Newell, J. M., 21
+
+    Nitrogen, 26, 28, 37
+
+    Nutritive value, 11, 15, 18
+
+
+    Packing, 103
+
+    Parthenocarpy, 24
+
+    Penn State, 47
+
+    Per capita consumption, 18
+
+    Phosphorus, 26, 32, 35
+
+    Physalis, 51
+
+    Placement of fertilizer, 35
+
+    Plant beds, open, 56
+
+    Plants for transplanting, 53
+
+    Pollination, 23, 39
+
+    Ponderosa, 51
+
+    Potash, 26, 34
+
+    Potassium nitrate, 35
+
+    Potato beetle, 91
+
+    Pots, clay, 60
+
+    Pots, paper, 60
+
+    Price, 16
+
+    Pritchard, variety, 50
+
+    Pritchard, F. J., Frontispiece, 48, 87
+
+    Protectors, 72
+
+    Pruning, 67, 79
+
+    Puffiness, 102
+
+    Purdum, L. W., & Sons, 78
+
+    Puree and paste, 14
+
+
+    Rahn, E. M., 35
+
+    References, 11, 12, 119
+
+    Requirements, 20
+
+    Ripening, 96
+
+    Roadside selling, 112
+
+    Rosa, J. T., 69
+
+    Running to vine, 29
+
+    Rutgers, 50
+
+
+    Sando, C. E., 96
+
+    San Marzano, 51
+
+    Saving seed, 39, 40
+
+    Sayre, C. B., 35
+
+    Scarlet Dawn, 48
+
+    Seed, 38
+
+    Seed Sowing, 56, 63
+
+    Seed treatment, 63
+
+    Seedless fruits, 24
+
+    Selection, 40
+
+    Selling, 93, 110
+
+    Septoria, 86
+
+    Setting fruit, 29
+
+    Side dressing, 35, 37
+
+    Smith, Ora, 23
+
+    Soil, field, 25
+
+    Soil, plant growing, 63
+
+    Solution culture, 18
+
+    Southern plants, 56
+
+    Spacing in field, 73
+
+    Staking, 79
+
+    Stalk borer, 92
+
+    Starter solutions, 35, 75
+
+    Statistics, 16
+
+    Sterilizing soil, 63, 90
+
+    Stokesdale, 48
+
+    Stout, G. J., 35
+
+    Sunscald, 83
+
+
+    Temperature for plant growing, 65
+
+    Thompson, H. C, 82, 83, 98
+
+    Tiedjens, V. H., 37
+
+    Training, 79
+
+    Transplanters, 74
+
+    Transplanting, 66, 74
+
+    Trellis system, 79
+
+
+    Uses, 14
+
+
+    Varieties, 46
+
+    Vegetation and fruitfulness, 29
+
+    Victor, 47
+
+    Virus, 88
+
+
+    Water culture, 18
+
+    Watering, 74
+
+    Watering plants, 65
+
+    Watts, V. M., 70
+
+    Wellington, Richard, 39
+
+    Work, Paul, 31
+
+    Wright, R. C., 98
+
+
+    Yeager, A. F., 46, 47
+
+    Yellows (See also fusarium), 88
+
+    Yield, 16, 17, 117
+
+
+    Zimmerman, P. W., 24
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] Hoagland, D. R. and Arnon, D. I. The water culture method for
+growing plants without soil. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 347. Dec. 1938.
+
+[2] Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, J. M. Some effects of
+artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition of plants.
+Amer. Jour. Bot. 17:416-482. 1930.
+
+[3] Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen
+germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Memoir 175. 1935.
+
+[4] Howlett, F. S. Use of chemicals to stimulate fruitfulness in
+tomatoes. Veg. Growers Asso. of America Rept. 1941, pp. 203-214. 1941.
+
+Zimmerman, P. W. and Hitchcock, A. E. Formative effects induced with
+B-Naphthoxyacetic acid. Contribution from Boyce Thompson Inst.
+Vol. 12 #1, April-June, 1941.
+
+[5] Fertilizer recommendations are best given in form of pounds per acre
+of nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P_{2}O_{5}) and potash (K_{2}O). These
+figures are then translated into pounds per acre of materials or of
+mixed fertilizers.
+
+[6] Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction with
+special reference to the tomato. Oreg. Bul. 149. 1918.
+
+[7] Work, Paul. Nitrate of Soda in the nutrition of the tomato. Cornell
+Memoir 75. 1924.
+
+[8] Murneek, A. E. The effects of fruit on vegetative growth in plants.
+Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Rpt. 1924, pp. 274-276.
+
+[9] MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of the
+tomato plant. Jour. Agr. Res. 34: 97-127. 1927.
+
+[10] Hepler, J. H. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon yield
+and maturity of the tomato. N. H. Tech. Bul. 28. 1925.
+
+[11] Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J., and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer experiments
+with tomatoes. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940.
+
+[12] Sayre, C. B. Starter Solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Expt. Sta.)
+Vols. V, VI, and VII, No. 2, April, 1939, 1940, and 1941.
+
+[13] Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato crosses
+and their parents. Minn. Tech. Bul. 6. 1922.
+
+[14] Loomis, W. E. Studies in the transplanting of vegetable plants.
+Cornell Memoir 87. 1925.
+
+[15] Watts, V. M. Factors affecting production of wrinkled tomato
+fruits. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30: 513-517. 1934.
+
+[16] Emerson, R. A. Experiments in mulching garden vegetables. Neb. Bul.
+80. 1903.
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+[17] Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Sta. Bul.
+580. 1934.
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+[18] MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in canning.
+Ind. Bul. 350. 1931.
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+[19] Sando, C. E. The process of ripening in the tomato, considered
+especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S.D.A. Bul. 859. 1920.
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+[20] Wright, R. C. et al. Effect of various storage temperatures on
+storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931.
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+[21] Platenius, H., Jamison, F. S., and Thompson, H. C. Studies on cold
+storage of vegetables. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 602. 1934.
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+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Tomato, by Paul Work
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