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diff --git a/38046-8.txt b/38046-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9d56aa --- /dev/null +++ b/38046-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20915 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Business English, by Rose Buhlig + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Business English + A Practice Book + + +Author: Rose Buhlig + + + +Release Date: November 18, 2011 [eBook #38046] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH*** + + +E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes, Emmy, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 38046-h.htm or 38046-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38046/38046-h/38046-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38046/38046-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + + Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). + + Due to the constraints of a plain text file, not all letters + can be represented as originally printed. These letters are + represented as follows: + + [=x] letter with a macron above + [x=] letter with a macron below + [.x] letter with a dot above + [x.] letter with dot below + [x:] letter with diaresis below + [)x] letter withe a breve above + [+x] letter with a tack above + [~x] letter with tilde above + [\x] letter with a slash through it + + + + + +BUSINESS ENGLISH + +A Practice Book + +by + +ROSE BUHLIG + +Tilden High School, Chicago + + + + + + + +D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers +Boston New York Chicago + +Copyright, 1914, +By D. C. Heath & Co. +2FI + + + + +PREFACE + + +THE author of this book and the writer of this preface have never met. +Their respective fields of labor are a thousand miles apart. Yet such is +the force of ideas that many of their thoughts and sympathies are +common. + +Business English! The very name is an anomaly. From a literary point of +view there is no such thing. English is English whether it be used to +express the creations of our imagination, our aesthetic appreciations, +or our daily wants. There is no magical combination of words, phrases, +and sentences that is peculiar and distinctive to business transactions. +Business English as used in these pages means effective communication, +both oral and written. The author's aim throughout has been to teach the +art of using words in such a way as to make people think and act. To do +this she has applied the principles of literary composition to the +highly complex and ever increasing problems of our business life. She +realizes that business is vital, and that the problems of commerce are +not to be met and handled with dead forms and stereotyped expressions of +legal blanks. + +To use our language effectively it is necessary to have an understanding +of its elements. Thus the author has very wisely devoted much space to +word-study and English grammar. This is a field commonly neglected in +books on the subject. The people engaged in business are, on the whole, +woefully weak in the grammar of our language. It is believed that the +treatment herein will be a great aid in correcting this deficiency. If +we have ideas, we must express them in words, and our words should be so +chosen and arranged as not to offend, but to please and interest. This +result can be secured by a systematic study of Part I. + +Part II deals with oral and written composition. Here the author has +arranged her subjects in such a way as to give the whole a cumulative +effect. The method throughout is inductive, and sufficient examples are +always given to warrant the conclusions drawn. Most textbooks on +Business English neglect the subject of oral English. This book regards +the spoken word as important as the written word. + +If there be any one feature in this textbook more to be commended than +another, it is the exposition in Part III. The situations arising in +many different kinds of business are here analyzed. The author believes +that the way to become a good business correspondent is, first, to learn +what the situation demands and, second, to practice meeting the demands. +We must know before we write. Given a knowledge of the subject, we must +have much practice in expressing ourselves in such a way as to make our +composition effective. The author meets this need by supplying many and +varied exercises for practice. These exercises are live, practical, and +up-to-date. The problems to be solved are real, not imaginary. Thus the +power to be gained in meeting these situations and solving these +problems will prove a real asset to those who contemplate a business +career. It is confidently hoped that both teachers and pupils will find +in this work material which will help them to prepare themselves to meet +the many problems and demands of our growing commercial needs. + + DANIEL B. DUNCAN + + COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY + _January, 1914._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PART I--WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I INTERESTING WORDS 1 + II PRONUNCIATION 7 + III SPELLING RULES 18 + IV WORD ANALYSIS 29 + V THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 41 + VI THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN 57 + VII THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB 75 + VIII THE VERB 83 + IX THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION 116 + + + PART II--COMPOSITION: ORAL AND WRITTEN + + X ORAL ENGLISH 127 + XI CHOOSING SUBJECTS 146 + XII PUNCTUATION 158 + XIII THE CLEAR SENTENCE 199 + XIV THE PARAGRAPH 215 + XV BUSINESS LETTERS 229 + + + PART III--COMPOSITION: BUSINESS PRACTICE + + XVI MANUFACTURE 270 + XVII DISTRIBUTION 282 + XVIII ADVERTISING 308 + XIX REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE 321 + XX BANKING 332 + XXI THE CORPORATION 353 + + INDEX 369 + + + + +BUSINESS ENGLISH + + + + +PART I--WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTERESTING WORDS + + +BUSINESS English is the expression of our commercial life in English. It +is not synonymous with letter writing. To be sure, business letters are +important, but they form only a part of one of the two large divisions +into which the subject naturally falls. + +First, there is _oral expression_, important because so many of our +business transactions are conducted personally. Thousands of salesmen +daily move from place to place over the entire country, earning their +salaries by talking convincingly of the goods that they have to sell. A +still greater number of clerks, salesmen, managers, and officials orally +transact business in our shops, stores, offices, and banks. Complaints +are adjusted; difficulties are disentangled; and affairs of magnitude +are consummated in personal interviews, the matter under discussion +often being thought too important to be entrusted to correspondence. In +every business oral English is essential. + +Second, there is _written expression_. This takes account of the writing +of advertisements, circulars, booklets, and prospectuses, as well as of +letters. And in the preparation of these oral English is fundamental. It +precedes and practically includes the written expression. For example, +we say colloquially that a good advertisement "talks." We mean that the +writer has so fully realized the buyer's point of view that the words of +the advertisement seem to speak directly to the reader, arousing his +interest or perhaps answering his objection. Oral English is +fundamental, too, in the writing of letters, for most letters are +dictated and not written. The correspondent dictates them to his +stenographer or to a recording machine in the same tone, probably, that +he would use if the customer were sitting before him. + +But in taking this point of view, we should not minimize the importance +of written business English. In a way, it is more difficult to write +well than it is to talk well. In talking we are not troubled with the +problems of correct spelling, proper punctuation, and good paragraphing. +We may even repeat somewhat, if only we are persuasive. But in writing +we are confronted with the necessity of putting the best thoughts into +the clearest, most concise language, at the same time obeying all the +rules of spelling, punctuation, and grammar. The business man must be +sure of these details in order to know that his letters and advertising +matter are correct. The stenographer, especially, must be thoroughly +familiar with them, so that she may correctly transcribe what has been +dictated. + +Business English is much the same as any other English. It consists in +expression by means of words, sentences, and paragraphs. Moreover, they +are much the same kind of words, sentences, and paragraphs that appear +in any book that is written in what is commonly called the literary +style. In a business letter the words are largely those of every day +use, and but few are technical. It is the manner in which the words are +put together, the idea back of the sentence, that makes the only +difference. + +We shall begin the study of business English with a study of words, for +in all expression, whether oral or written, a knowledge of words, of +their meaning and suggestive power, is fundamental. On the choice of +words depends not only the correctness but also the effectiveness of +expression--the courtesy of a letter, the appeal of an advertisement, +the persuasiveness of a salesman's talk. A mastery of words cannot be +gained at once. Every time one speaks, he must consider what words will +best convey his idea. In this chapter only the barest beginning of such +study can be made. The exercises show the value of the subject. + +The study of words is interesting because words themselves are +interesting. Sometimes the interest consists in the story of the +derivation. As an example, consider the word _italic_. Many words in +this book are written in italic to draw attention to them. Literally the +word means "relating to Italy or its people." It is now applied to a +kind of type in which the letters slope toward the right. The type was +called italic because it was dedicated to the states of Italy by the +inventor, Manutius, about the year 1500. An unabridged dictionary will +tell all about the word. + +The word _salary_ tells a curious story. It is derived from a Latin +word, _salarium_, meaning "salt money." It was the name of the money +that was given to the Roman soldiers for salt, which was a part of their +pay. Finally, instead of signifying only the salt money, it came to mean +the total pay. + +Practically all of this information a good dictionary gives. In other +words, a dictionary is a story book containing not one, but hundreds of +thousands of stories. Whenever possible it tells what language a word +came from, how it got its different meanings, and how those meanings +have changed in the course of time. For it is natural that words should +change just as styles change, names of ancient things being lost and +names for new things being made. As the objects themselves have gone out +of use, their names have also gone. When a word has gone entirely out of +use, it is marked _obsolete_ in the dictionary. On the other hand, new +inventions must be named. Thus new words are constantly being added to +the language and the dictionary because they are needed. + +There is a large class of words that we shall not have time to +consider. They are called _technical_. Every profession, business, or +trade has its distinctive words. The technical words that a printer +would use are entirely different from those which a dentist, a +bookkeeper, or a lawyer would use. You will learn the technical terms of +your business most thoroughly after you enter it and see the use for +such terms. + +None of the words, therefore, that you will be asked to search out in +the dictionary are, strictly speaking, technical. It is evident that it +will do you no good to search out the words in the dictionary, unless +you learn them--unless you use them correctly in speaking and writing. +There is pleasure in thus employing new material, as everybody knows. +Use your eyes and ears. When you hear a new word, or read one, focus the +mind upon it for a moment until you can retain a mental picture of its +spelling and of its pronunciation. Then as soon as possible look it up +in the dictionary to fix its spelling, pronunciation, and definition. Do +this regularly, and you will have reason to be proud of your vocabulary. + +An excellent way to increase the number of words that you know is to +read the right kind of books. The careful study of the words used in the +speeches and addresses of noted men is good practice. The conditions +that called forth the speech were probably important, and the speech +itself interesting, or it would not be preserved. When a man has an +interesting or important message to give, he usually gives it in clear, +exact, simple language. Therefore the vocabulary that he uses is worth +copying. As for stories, there is a kind that furnishes a wealth of +material that modern authors are constantly using or referring to, and +this is found in stories of the Bible, stories of Greek and Northern +gods and goddesses, stories of the _Iliad_, the _Odyssey_, the _Æneid_, +stories of chivalry--all old stories. Every one should know them well, +because they are the basis of many allusions in which a single word +oftentimes suggests a whole story. The meaning of the word _herculean_, +for instance, is missed if you do not know the story of Hercules and +know that he was famous for his strength. + + +=Exercise 1= + +_Atlas_ is an interesting word. Originally it was the name of a Greek +god, who carried the world on his shoulders. Then it is supposed that in +the sixteenth century the famous geographer Mercator prefixed his +collection of maps with the picture of Atlas supporting the world. Thus +a collection of maps in a volume came to be called an _atlas_. Consult +an unabridged dictionary for the origin of each of the following: + + rival fortune cereal boycott + dollar finance china derrick + bankrupt milliner java mercury + cash pullman cashmere colossal + mint grocer macadam turbine + + +=Exercise 2= + +The days of the week and the months of the year are interesting in their +derivation. Monday, for example, represents the day sacred to the Moon +as a deity. Explain the origin of each of the following: + + Sunday Saturday May October + Tuesday January June November + Wednesday February July December + Thursday March August + Friday April September + + +=Exercise 3= + +Look up the derivation of the following: + + cancel bead ambition hospital + pecuniary paper influence pavilion + cheat book virtue mackintosh + speculation bayonet peevish chapel + phaëton tawdry disaster omnibus + + +=Exercise 4= + +Explain the origin of each of the following: + + curfew tulip turquoise good-bye + pompadour aster amethyst dismal + hyacinth dunce tantalize titanic + dandelion humor umbrella volcano + dahlia villain sandwich tangle + begonia echo lunatic babble + + +=Exercise 5= + +Name the image that each of the following suggests to you: + + howl sputter rasping munch + skim prance clatter trickle + squeal click wheeze shuffle + moan thud trudge bulge + squeak patter chuckle gobble + squawk spatter toddling swish + + +=Exercise 6= + +Bring to class a list of words which, because they are the names of +modern inventions, have come into the language in modern time. + + +=Exercise 7= + +How many words can you name which might be called the technical terms of +school life, words which always carry with them a suggestion of the +school room? Bring in a list of twenty such words. + + +=Exercise 8= + +How many words can you name which are used only in the business world? +Bring in a list of twenty such words. + + +=Exercise 9= + +How many words can you name which apply particularly to money and the +payment or non-payment of money? Bring in a list of twenty or more such +words. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PRONUNCIATION + + +WE are judged by our speech. If we clip syllables, run words together, +or pronounce them incorrectly, we shall merit the criticism of being +careless or even ignorant. Yet clear enunciation and correct +pronunciation are sometimes difficult. We learn most words by hearing +others say them, and, if we do not hear the true values given to the +different syllables, we shall find it hard to distinguish the correct +from the incorrect forms. Children whose parents speak a foreign +language usually have to watch their speech with especial care; Germans, +for example, find difficulty in saying _th_ and Irish people in saying +_oi_ as in _oil_. The exercises in this chapter are given for the +purpose of correcting such habits. The words in the exercises should be +pronounced repeatedly, until the correct forms are instinctive. + +Train the ear to hear the difference between sounds, as in _just_ and in +_jest_. Don't slide over the final consonant in such words as _going_ +and _reading_. Watch words containing _wh_. The dictionary tells us that +_where_ was originally written _hwar_, the _h_ coming before the _w_; +and we still pronounce it so, although we write the _w_ before the _h_. +The word _whether_ is of the same kind. The dictionary tells us that it +was first spelled _hweder_. Such words should be carefully noted and +their pronunciation practiced. + +Then there is the habit of slurring syllables. We may understand what is +meant by the expression "C'm' on" or "Waja say?", but most of us would +prefer not to be included in the class of people who use either. Correct +speech cannot be mastered without an effort. + +In the following exercises watch every vowel and every consonant so that +you may give each one its full value. + + +=Exercise 10--Diacritical Marks= + +Although an _a_ is always written _a_, it is not always given the same +quality or length of sound. When we discover a new word, it is important +that we know exactly the quality to give each of the vowels in it. For +this purpose _diacritical marks_ have been invented. They are +illustrated in the following list from Webster's _International +Dictionary_. + + [=a] as in [=a]te, f[=a]te, l[=a]b´or + [+a] " " sen´[+a]te, del´ic[+a]te, [+a]e´rial + â " " câre, shâre, pâr´ent + [)a] " " [)a]m, [)a]dd, r[)a]n´dom + ä " " ärm, fär, fä´ther + [.a] " " [.a]sk, gr[.a]ss, p[.a]ss, d[.a]nce + [a=] " " fi´n[a=]l, in´f[a=]nt, guid´[=a]nce + [a:] " " [a:]ll, [a:]we, sw[a:]rm, t[a:]lk + [=e] " " [=e]ve, m[=e]te, ser[=e]ne´ + [+e] " " [+e]vent´, d[+e]pend´, soci´[+e]ty + [)e] " " [)e]nd, m[)e]t, [)e]xcuse´, [)e]fface´ + [~e] " " f[~e]rn, h[~e]r, [~e]r´mine, ev´[~e]r + _e_ " " re´c_e_nt, de´c_e_ncy, pru´d_e_nce + [=i] " " [=i]ce, t[=i]me, s[=i]ght, insp[=i]re´ + [+i] " " [+i]dea´, tr[+i]bu´nal, b[+i]ol´ogy + [)i] " " [)i]ll, p[)i]n, p[)i]t´y, adm[)i]t´ + [=o] " " [=o]ld, n[=o]te, [=o]´ver, pr[=o]pose´ + [+o] " " [+o]bey´, t[+o]bac´co, sor´r[+o]w + ô " " ôrb, lôrd, ôr´der, abhôr´ + [)o] " " [)o]dd, n[)o]t, t[)o]r´rid, [)o]ccur´ + [=u] " " [=u]se, p[=u]re, d[=u]´ty, ass[=u]me´ + [+u] " " [+u]nite´, ac´t[+u]ate, ed[+u]ca´tion + [u:] " " r[u:]de, r[u:]´mor, intr[u:]de´ + [u.] " " f[u.]ll, p[u.]t, f[u.]lfill´ + [)u] " " [)u]p, t[)u]b, st[)u]d´y + û " " ûrn, fûr, concûr´ + [)y] " " pit´[)y], in´jur[)y], divin´it[)y] + [=oo] " " f[=oo]l, f[=oo]d, m[=oo]n + [)oo] " " f[)oo]t, w[)oo]l, b[)oo]k + ou " " out, thou, devour´ + oi " " oil, noi´sy, avoid´ + + [=a] is called long _a_, and is marked with the _macron_ + [)a] is called short _a_, and is marked with the _breve_ + â is called caret _a_, and is marked with the _caret_ + ä is called Italian _a_, and is marked with the _diaeresis_ + [.a] is called short Italian _a_, and is marked with the _dot_ + [~e] is called tilde _e_, and is marked with the _tilde_ or _wave_ + + +=Exercise 11--Vowels= + +Of the twenty-six letters in the alphabet, how many are vowels? Name +them. What are the other letters called? + +Compare the _[)a]_ in _hat_ and the _[=a]_ in _hate_. Which has more +nearly the sound of _a_ in the alphabet? This is called the natural or +long sound of the vowel. The other is called the short sound. + +Drop the _e_ from _hate_. Explain the result. + +Name other monosyllables ending in _e_ and containing the long _a_ +sound. + +Explain the difference in pronunciation between _Pete_, _pet_, _ripe_, +_rip_, _hope_, _hop_, _cube_, _cub_. + +Find other monosyllables ending in _e_ and containing a long vowel that +becomes short if the _e_ is dropped. + +=Monosyllables ending in silent _e_ usually contain a long vowel sound, +which becomes short when the final _e_ is dropped.= + + +=Exercise 12= + +Pronounce carefully the following words containing the short Italian +_a_: + + adv[.a]nce cl[.a]ss l[.a]nce pl[.a]ster + adv[.a]ntage contr[.a]st l[.a]st p[.a]stor + [.a]fter ench[.a]nt m[.a]sk pr[.a]nce + b[.a]sket Fr[.a]nce m[.a]ster r[.a]fter + br[.a]nch gl[.a]nce m[.a]stiff sh[.a]ft + br[.a]ss gl[.a]ss p[.a]ss surp[.a]ss + ch[.a]ff gr[.a]ss p[.a]st t[.a]sk + + +=Exercise 13= + +Pronounce the following carefully, noting each _a_ that is marked: + + hälf ide[.a] cälm aud[=a]cious + p[.a]th c[.a]n't [=a]pricot [.a]gh[.a]st + [.a]sk c[)a]tch m[.a]dr[)a]s [)a]lgebr[.a] + fäther v[+a]c[=a]tion [)a]gile forb[)a]de + d[.a]nce extr[.a] c[.a]st tr[.a]nce + l[.a]ss c[.a]sket gr[.a]nt [=a]vi[=a]tion + + +=Exercise 14= + +Pronounce the vowel _o_ in the following very carefully. Don't give the +sound _feller_ or _fella_ when you mean _fellow_. + + fellow swallow theory borrow + potato follow position heroism + window original factory donkey + pillow evaporate ivory memory + chocolate mosquito licorice oriental + + +=Exercise 15= + +The vowel _u_ needs particular attention. When it is long, it is sounded +naturally, as it is in the alphabet. Do not say _redooce_ for _reduce_. + + reduce picture educate figure + produce stupid judicial duty + conducive student calculate accumulate + endure genuine curiosity Tuesday + duration induce regular particular + singular avenue tune institute + nutriment constitution culinary January + revenue introduce opportunity manufacture + + +=Exercise 16= + +Using diacritical marks indicate the value of the vowels in the +following. Try marking them without first consulting a dictionary. After +you have marked them, compare your markings with those used in a +dictionary. + + pupil different diacritical gigantic + alphabet several radiating gymnasium + natural letter Wyoming system + result eraser typical merchant + + +=Exercise 17= + +Pronounce carefully, noting that in each word at least one consonant is +silent, and sometimes a vowel as well. Draw an oblique line through the +silent letter or letters in each. + + through chasten sword island + although often fasten daughter + wrong soften calf might + yacht subtle hasten bouquet + gnaw almond naughty honest + psalm glisten thumb palm + whistle salve should knack + salmon chestnut knowledge castle + answer folks listen thigh + knot right debt honor + + +=Exercise 18= + +Pronounce the following, paying particular attention to the vowels. +Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each group. + + accept bile least prevision + except boil lest provision + + affect carol eleven poor + effect coral leaven pure + + addition descent neither radish + edition dissent nether reddish + + assay emerge pasture sentry + essay immerge pastor century + + baron Francis pillar sit + barren Frances pillow set + + been jest point wrench + bean just pint rinse + gist + + +=Exercise 19= + +Enunciate the consonant sounds carefully in the following. Distinguish +between the meanings of the words in each group. + + acts close treaties rows + ax clothes treatise rouse + + advice crossed princes rues + advise across princess ruse + + alms formerly prince either + elms formally prints ether + + bodice grays price running + bodies grace prize ruin + + cease lose recent walking + seize loose resent walk in + + chance plaintive sects weather + chants plaintiff sex whether + + does pair news worst + dose payer noose worsted (yarn) + doze + + +=Exercise 20= + +Pronounce the following, making sure that each syllable is correct. +Guard against slurring the words in the last column. + + been such barrel Did you? + gone put faucet Don't you? + to with suburb Go on. + for tiny hearth Our education + aunt and nothing You are + far poem office You're not + our catch peril We're coming + kept toward forbade They're coming + says donkey spirit What did you say? + rid again semi Where are you going? + since against scared Where have you been? + sleek honest saucy I want to go. + creek savage turnip I'm going to go. + where swept roof To-morrow morning + boil velvet proof Next month + hoist direct hydrant Last Saturday + + +=Exercise 21= + +Enunciate carefully: + + salary gentleman supple gymnasium + because library subtle perspiration + ideal wrestle italic clapboards + suite vessel insect cupboard + thirty friendship orchid archangel + tomato judgment hovel candelabra + grimy cowardice several extraordinary + patron miserable pumpkin civilization + omelet guarantee accurate horseshoe + hundred gelatine guardian laboratory + coupon glycerine delinquent tenacious + awkward paraffine secretary measure + hurrah portrait audacious February + pigeon mercantile conquer cellar + history juvenile conquest perfect + diamond thousand congress grandmother + asylum overalls licorice generally + + +=Exercise 22= + +Be especially careful of the sounds _th_ and _wh_. Add no syllable to a +word and omit none. Consult a dictionary for any word below about which +you are not certain: + + when length diphthong generally + where strength diphtheria forget + while height anesthetic recognize + wharf width betrothal hungry + which depth theory geography + wheel there theme instead + wheeze them arithmetic isolated + why eleventh bathe writing + whiff twelfth lathe kettle + whence thought believe language + whet throat bronchitis leisure + what wreaths government volume + whale paths courteous column + wheat months different always + wheedle mouths engine once + whelp myths English twice + whimper breadths surprise arctic + whip moths deaf Italian + whit bath children picture + whither earth cruel often + + +=Exercise 23--Homonyms= + +A homonym is a word having the same sound as another but differing from +it in meaning. Use each of the following in a sentence to show its +meaning. + + aloud draft fowl principal + allowed draught foul principle + + ascent faint gate peal + assent feint gait peel + + aught canvas great quire + ought canvass grate choir + + bad cereal hew seen + bade serial hue scene + + bale cession kernel soul + bail session colonel sole + + berry cite leased strait + bury site least straight + + boy coarse lesser stair + buoy course lessor stare + + by compliment mite sweet + buy complement might suite + + council feign miner there + counsel fain minor their + + current flour need wood + currant flower knead would + + +=Exercise 24= + +Do the same with the following: + + aisle clause kill sail + isle claws kiln sale + awl climb key ring + all clime quay wring + + base draught lie serge + bass draft lye surge + + blew dew medal sole + blue due meddle soul + + bough done peer shone + bow dun pier shown + + bread dual pore steel + bred duel pour steal + + bear flue profit stationary + bare flew prophet stationery + + bridal freeze quarts wade + bridle frieze quartz weighed + + capital guilt rest wave + capitol gilt wrest waive + + ceiling heard root wrap + sealing herd route rap + + +=Exercise 25--Syllabication= + +What is a syllable? + +Choose a word and notice that every vowel sound in it makes a syllable. +Therefore, you never have two vowels in one syllable unless the two are +pronounced as one sound. + +In pronouncing notice carefully to which syllable a consonant belongs; +as in _dif-fer-ent_, _beau-ti-fy_, _dai-sy_. + +Divide the following words into syllables. If you cannot decide with +which syllable a consonant belongs, consult a dictionary. + + paper grocer rotate mystery + tomato erect repeat regular + vinegar polish general arithmetic + +If a syllable, especially an accented syllable, ends in a vowel, what is +usually the length of the vowel? + +If the syllable ends in a consonant, what is usually the length of the +vowel of the syllable? + +When a consonant is doubled, the division is usually made between the +two letters; as, + + blot-ter skip-ping remit-tance + neces-sary throt-tle span-ning + +As a rule, a prefix constitutes one syllable; as, + + pro-long pre-fer con-stant de-fect ad-mit + re-ceive se-lect dis-trust e-merge im-merse + +As a rule, a suffix constitutes one syllable; as, + + labor-er soft-ly beauti-fy selec-tion + mole-cule revolution-ist percent-age fanat-ic + +When two or more letters together give one sound, they must not be +divided; as, + + math-ematics ex-change paragraph-ing abolish-ing + bow-ing toil-ing nation-al gra-cious + +Can a word of one syllable be divided? + +Do not divide a syllable of one letter from the rest of the word. The +division _ever-y_ is wrong. + + +=Exercise 26= + +Divide the following words into syllables, using the suggestions given +in the preceding exercise: + + accountant dissatisfaction manufacturer reference + advertisement economy material repeatedly + anecdote employment mechanical salesman + annually energetic neighborhood security + application environment occupation separate + automobile especially opportunity signature + beginning establishment organized specification + collection expenditure permanent stenography + comparison factory preparation suburban + competent furniture president superintend + confirmation illustration quotation systematic + consequence impression realize telephone + correspondence improvement receptacle treasurer + counterfeit judgment recognition unanimous + customer machinist recommend unusual + + +=Exercise 27--Accent= + +What is accent? + +Divide into syllables, indicate the accent, and pronounce the following: + + expand volume defect interesting + mischievous usually incomparable theatre + exquisite tedious hospitable generally + column inquiry impious + +In the following words the meaning changes with the accent. Use each +word in a sentence to show its meaning. + + ob´ject subject contrast desert + ob-ject´ insult protest extract + tor´ment essay conflict compact + tor-ment´ transfer compound survey + minute (notice the vowel change) + refuse (notice the consonant change) + +Bring to class a list of words that you have heard mispronounced in your +classes. Be sure that you can pronounce them correctly. + + +=Exercise 28= + +The following words are frequently mispronounced. Divide them into +syllables, mark the accent, and pronounce carefully. + + municipal exquisite champion accurately + interesting gondola inquiry Genoa + influence finance inexplicable alias + illustrate deficit despicable expert + inventory pretense mischievous impious + alternate dirigible perfume detail + + + + +CHAPTER III + +SPELLING RULES + + +=Exercise 29--Plurals of Nouns= + + (_a_) dress, dresses (_b_) chair, chairs + splash, splashes wave, waves + business, businesses book, books + church, churches pencil, pencils + fox, foxes paper, papers + +The usual way of forming the plural of English nouns is illustrated by +the words in column (_b_) above. What is it? + +If you add _s_ to the singular form _dress_, could you distinguish the +pronunciation of the plural from the pronunciation of the singular? Does +this suggest a reason for adding _es_ to form the plural? + +How many syllables must you use to pronounce the plural of fox? Does +this suggest another reason for adding _es_ to form the plural? + +Every word that ends in a sibilant or hissing sound (_ch_, _s_, _sh_, +_ss_, _x_, _z_) forms its plural like _fox_. Give several illustrations. + +=Rule 1.--Nouns regularly form the plural by adding _s_, but those +ending in a sibilant must add_es_.= + + +=Exercise 30= + + (_a_) lady, ladies (_b_) valley, valleys + ally, allies alley, alleys + soliloquy, soliloquies journey, journeys + +Name five words belonging to group (_a_) above. Does a vowel or a +consonant precede the _y_ in each case? + +Name other words belonging to the group (_b_) above. Does a vowel or a +consonant precede the _y_ in each case? + +=Rule 2.--Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant (and nouns ending +in _quy_) form the plural by changing _y_ to _i_ and adding _es_.= + + +=Exercise 31--Words ending in o= + +(_a_) + + potato, potatoes hero, heroes mulatto, mulattoes + tomato, tomatoes buffalo, buffaloes cargo, cargoes + negro, negroes echo, echoes motto, mottoes + +(_b_) + + solo, solos piano, pianos memento, mementos + halo, halos lasso, lassos canto, cantos + zero, zeros quarto, quartos soprano, sopranos + stilletto, stillettos + +The older English words ending in _o_ form the plural by adding _es_, as +in potatoes; those more recently taken into the language form the plural +by adding _s_, as in quartos. + + +=Exercise 32--Nouns in f and fe= + + leaf, leaves calf, calves wife, wives + loaf, loaves sheaf, sheaves shelf, shelves + half, halves wolf, wolves elf, elves + life, lives beef, beeves wharf, wharves (or wharfs) + self, selves knife, knives + +With the exception of the words given above, nouns ending in an _f_ +sound form the plural in the regular way; as, + + hoof, hoofs scarf, scarfs beliefs, beliefs + chief, chiefs reef, reefs grief, griefs + + +=Exercise 33--Irregular Plurals= + +Some nouns form their plural by a change of vowel; as, + + man men foot feet + woman women tooth teeth + goose geese mouse mice + +A few words retain the old time plural _en_; as, + + brother brethren + child children ox oxen + +A few words are the same in both singular and plural; as, + + sheep, trout, deer + +Some nouns have two plurals which differ in meaning; as, + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + brother brothers brethren + penny pennies pence + pea peas pease + die dies dice + +Consult a dictionary for the difference in meaning between the two +plurals of each word. + + +=Exercise 34--Compound Nouns= + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + brother-in-law brothers-in-law + father-in-law fathers-in-law + court-martial courts-martial + commander-in-chief commanders-in-chief + man-of-war men-of-war + major general major generals + goose quill goose quills + bill of fare bills of fare + spoonful spoonfuls + cupful cupfuls + +=Rule 3.--Compound nouns usually add the sign of the plural to the +fundamental part of the word.= + + NOTE.--In _spoonfuls_ the thought is of one spoon many + times full. + +=Plural of Letters and Figures= + +=Rule 4.--Letters and figures form the plural by adding the apostrophe +(') and _s_; as,= + + a a's 3 3's + w w's 5 5's + +The same rule applies to the plural of words which ordinarily have no +plural; as, + + Don't use so many _and's_ and _if's_. + + +=Exercise 35--Foreign Plurals= + +Some nouns derived from foreign languages retain their original plural. +The following are in common use. + +Consult a dictionary for their pronunciation and definition. + + _Singular_ _Plural_ _Singular_ _Plural_ + + crisis crises stratum strata + thesis theses radius radii + hypothesis hypotheses parenthesis parentheses + focus foci synopsis synopses + datum data basis bases + alumnus alumni automaton automata + alumna alumnae analysis analyses + oasis oases nucleus nuclei + axis axes phenomenon phenomena + genus genera + +Some words admit of two plurals, one the foreign plural, and one the +regular English plural; as, + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + beau beaux beaus + formula formulae formulas + vertex vertices vertexes + index indices indexes + cherub cherubim cherubs + seraph seraphim seraphs + bandit banditti bandits + +Consult a dictionary to see whether there is any difference of meaning +between the two plurals of these words. + + +=Exercise 36--The Formation of Participles= + + _Rap_, _rapping_, _rapped_ _Reap_, _reaping_, _reaped_ + +_Rap_ is a monosyllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a +single vowel. The final consonant in such words is doubled before a +suffix beginning with a vowel is added. + +In _reap_ the final consonant is not doubled because it is preceded by +two vowels. + +Make the participles of the following verbs: + + chat lap suit step + cheat leap sit steep + rot train sop trot + root trim soap treat + + _Trap_, _trapping_, _trapped_ _Track_, _tracking_, _tracked_ + +Why is the final consonant in _trap_ doubled before _ing_ or _ed_ is +added? + +The final consonant in _track_ is not doubled because _track_ ends with +two consonants. + + _Pin_, _pinning_ _Pine_, _pining_ + +_Pine_ drops the silent _e_ because the tendency in English is to drop +endings that are not needed for pronunciation before adding a suffix +beginning with a vowel. + +Form the participles of the following verbs: + + knot rob flop + note robe elope + deal swim quit (_u_ is not here a vowel) + clap strike crawl (_w_ is here a vowel) + stop oil wax (_x_ equals _cks_) + peal rush bow (_w_ is here a vowel) + + +=Exercise 37= + +Exercise 36 applies also to words of more than one syllable accented on +the last syllable, if they retain the accent on the same syllable after +the suffix is added. Thus we have + +=Rule 5.--Monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, ending +in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final +consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.= + +Form participles from the following words that are accented on the last +syllable: + + prefer intervene escape expel + refer reveal acquire contain + occur repeal secure forbid + permit pursue conceal incur + interfere erase arrange forget + retain control acquit repel + +Form participles from the following words not accented on the last +syllable: + + benefit travel marvel shelter + revel answer exhibit render + quarrel profit shovel limit + +Words in which the accent changes do not double the final consonant +before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, + + confer conference infer inference + refer reference prefer preferable + +Explain why the final consonant is _not_ doubled in each of the +following words: + + neglect neglecting lean leaning + prefer preference select selecting + creep creeping receipt receipting + wonder wondering answer answering + + +=Exercise 38= + +=Rule 6.--In forming the present participle of verbs ending in _y_, +retain the _y_ before adding _ing_; as,= + + study studying obey obeying + carry carrying convey conveying + pity pitying + +In forming the perfect participle, if in the present tense the _y_ is +preceded by a consonant, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _ed_ added; if +the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, the _y_ is retained; as, + + study studied carry carried pity pitied + +but + + obey obeyed convey conveyed + +Compare with Rule 2. + + +=Exercise 39= + +=Rule 7.--In words containing a long _e_ sound spelled either _ie_ or +_ei_, _ei_ follows _c_; _ie_ follows one of the other consonants; as,= + + _ei_ _ie_ + deceive relieve siege + perceive believe yield + receive belief grief + conceive chief field + conceit priest piece + receipt niece wield + reprieve lien + +_Exceptions._--Either, neither, weird, seize, leisure. + +The following couplet may help in remembering when to write _ie_ and +when to write _ei_: + + When the letter _c_ you spy, + Put the _e_ before the _i_. + + +=Exercise 40--The Pronunciation of _c_ and _g_= + +The letter _c_ is pronounced sometimes like _s_ and sometimes like _k_. + +What sound does _c_ have before _a_? Illustrate. + +Before _e_? Illustrate. + +Before _i_? Illustrate. + +Before _o_? Illustrate. + +Before _u_? Illustrate. + +Before _y_? Illustrate. + +If _c_ is pronounced like _k_, it is called hard and is marked _[\c]_. + +If _c_ is pronounced like _s_, it is called soft and is marked _ç_. The +mark used to indicate the soft _c_ is called the _cedilla_. + +Make a statement telling when _c_ is hard and when it is soft. + +What sound does _g_ have before each of the vowels, as in _game_, +_gone_, _gymnasium_, _Gunther_, _gentle_? + +=Rule 8.--_C_ and _g_ usually are soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_.= + + +=Exercise 41= + +Words ending in silent _e_, according to Rule 5, drop the _e_ before a +suffix beginning with a vowel. Exceptions occur when the _e_ is needed +to preserve the soft sound of _c_ and _g_. Tell why _e_ is dropped in +_encouraging_ and retained in _courageous_. + +In words containing _dg_, as in _judge_ and _lodge_, the _d_ gives the +_g_ the soft sound, and there is no need to retain the _e_ before adding +a suffix, as in _judgment_. + +=Rule 9.--Words ending in silent _e_ usually drop the _e_ before adding +a suffix beginning with a vowel, unless the _e_ is needed to preserve +the pronunciation; as after soft _c_ and _g_, when the suffix begins +with _a_ or _o_.= + +Tell why the _e_ is retained before the suffix in the following: + + noticeable damageable pronounceable outrageous + courageous peaceable serviceable manageable + +Tell why the _e_ is dropped before adding the suffix in the following: + + managing curable erasure + besieging admirable realization + receiving obliging precedence + perseverance + +The fact that _c_ has two different sounds causes a slight peculiarity +in words ending in _c_. Final _c_ has the sound of _k_. When words end +in _c_, the letter _k_ is usually added before a suffix beginning with +either _e_, _i_, or _y_, to show that _c_ is not pronounced like _s_; +as, + + frolic frolicked frolicking + +If the _k_ is not added, the _c_ changes its pronunciation; as, + + public publicity + + +=Exercise 42= + +It follows by inference from Rule 9 that words ending in silent _e_ +retain the _e_ before a suffix beginning with a consonant; as, + + move movement disgrace disgraceful + defense defenseless fate fateful + arrange arrangement fierce fiercely + noise noiseless manage management + severe severely rude rudeness + +_Exceptions._--Truly, duly, wisdom, awful, wholly. + +Bring to class a list of twenty words that retain the final _e_ before a +suffix beginning with a consonant. + + +=Exercise 43= + +What spelling rule does each of the following words illustrate? + + advantageous gigantic boxes admittance + mimicking piece libraries occurrence + arrangement receipt keys acquittal + + +=Exercise 44--Abbreviations= + +Write abbreviations for the months of the year. Are there any that +should not be abbreviated? + +The abbreviations for the states and territories are: + + Alabama, Ala. Maryland, Md. + Arizona, Ariz. Massachusetts, Mass. + Arkansas, Ark. Michigan, Mich. + California, Cal. Minnesota, Minn. + Colorado, Colo. Mississippi, Miss. + Connecticut, Conn. Missouri, Mo. + Delaware, Del. Montana, Mont. + District of Columbia, D.C. Nebraska, Nebr. + Florida, Fla. Nevada, Nev. + Georgia, Ga. New Hampshire, N.H. + Idaho, Idaho New Mexico, N. Mex. + Illinois, Ill. New York, N.Y. + Indiana, Ind. New Jersey, N.J. + Iowa, Ia. North Carolina, N.C. + Kansas, Kans. North Dakota, N. Dak. + Kentucky, Ky. Ohio, O. + Louisiana, La. Oklahoma, Okla. + Maine, Me. Oregon, Ore. + Pennsylvania, Pa. Utah, Utah + Philippine Islands, P.I. Vermont, Vt. + Porto Rico, P.R. Virginia, Va. + South Carolina, S.C. Washington, Wash. + South Dakota, S.D. Wisconsin, Wis. + Tennessee, Tenn. West Virginia, W. Va. + Texas, Tex. Wyoming, Wyo. + + NOTE.--It is much better to write the full name rather + than the abbreviation whenever the former would make + the address clearer, especially as regards similar + abbreviations, such as Cal. and Colo. + + +=Exercise 45--Abbreviations of Commercial Terms= + + A 1, first class doz., dozen + @, at E. & O.E., errors and omissions excepted + acct., account ea., each + adv., advertisement e.g., for example + agt., agent etc., and so forth + a.m., forenoon exch., exchange + amt., amount ft., foot + app., appendix f.o.b., free on board + atty., attorney gal., gallon + av., average i.e., that is + avoir., avoirdupois imp., imported + bal., balance in., inches + bbl., barrel inst., this month (instant) + B/L, bill of lading Jr., junior + bldg., building kg., keg + B/S, bill of sale lb., pound + bu., bushel ltd., limited + C.B., cash book mdse., merchandise + C., hundred mem., memorandum + coll., collection, collector mo., month + Co., company M.S. (MSS)., manuscript + C.O.D., cash on delivery mtg., mortgage + cr., creditor N.B., take notice + cwt., hundredweight no., number + D., five hundred O.K., all right + dept., department per, by + disc., discount p.m., afternoon + do., ditto %, per cent + dr., debtor, debit St., street + pkg., package str., steamer + pp., pages ult., last month + pr., pair U.S.M., United States Mail + pc., piece viz., namely + pk., peck vol., volume + prox., next month W/B, way bill + pt., pint wt., weight + Sr., senior + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +WORD ANALYSIS + + +To learn English words thoroughly we must spend some thought on the way +in which they are made up, on the language from which they have been +derived, and on the changes in meaning made by adding prefixes and +suffixes. Three important influences in building the English have been +the Anglo-Saxon, the Greek, and the Latin languages. The simplest words +in the language are Anglo-Saxon. The following exercises illustrate how +words have been multiplied by Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes. + + +=Exercise 46= + +Name as many words as you can that make use of each of the following +prefixes. Give only such as are recognizable English words without the +prefix. + + _a_--aboard _mis_--misjudge + _be_--becalm _un_--unknown + _fore_--foretell _up_--uproot + +Give the meaning of each of the prefixes used above. + +What part of speech does each prefix make? + + +=Exercise 47= + +Using the following Teutonic suffixes, form English words. Be careful +that the root taken alone is an English word. + + _dom_--kingdom _ness_--goodness + _hood_--manhood _ship_--friendship + +What does each suffix mean? + +What part of speech does it make? + + +=Exercise 48= + +As above, form words using the following suffixes: + + _en_--darken _ful_--fearful + _en_--golden _ly_--smoothly + _ish_--sweetish _like_--childlike + _less_--fearless _some_--lonesome + +Define each suffix. + +What part of speech does it make? + + +=Exercise 49--Greek Roots= + +Below is given a list of common Greek roots with the English meaning of +each. Form words using one or more of the roots for each word, and +define the words you make. For instance, give the meaning of +_telephone_, _telegraph_, and _monarch_. + + _Greek_ _English_ _Greek_ _English_ + + _phon_--hear _chron_--time + _tele_--far _cycl_--circle + _graph_--write _geo_--earth + _scop_--see _polit_--government + _micro_--small _cra_--rule + _mono_--one _demo_--people + _arch_--chief _hydro_--water + _metr_--measure _poly_--many + _baro_--pressure, weight _pluto_--riches + +How many names of modern inventions have you made? + + +=Exercise 50= + +What words belonging to your vocabulary end in the following suffixes? +Choose only such as have an English word for the root. + +Adjective Suffixes + + 1. _able_, _ible_--able to be, fit to be + _Readable_, fit to be read. + + 2. _al_, _eal_, _ial_--relating to, having to do with + + 3. _ant_, _ent_--being, inclined to + + 4. _ate_--having the quality of, inclined to + + 5. _ic_--like, relating to + + 6. _ive_--relating to, of the nature of, belonging to + + 7. _ory_, _ary_--relating to + + 8. _ous_--full of, abounding in + +Verb Suffixes + + 1. _ate_--to make + + 2. _fy_, _ify_--to make + + 3. _ise_, _ize_--to make + +Noun Suffixes + + 1. _age_--condition, act, collection of + + 2. _ance_, _ancy_, _ence_, _ency_--state of being + + 3. _ary_, _ory_--one who, place where, that which + + 4. _ant_, _ent_--one who + + 5. _ist_, _ite_--one who + + 6. _ion_, _sion_, _tion_--act of, state of being + + 7. _ity_, _ty_--quality of being + + 8. _ment_--that which, act or state of being + + 9. _or_, _er_, _ar_--one who + + 10. _try_--state of + + 11. _tude_, _itude_--condition of being + + 12. _ure_--condition of being, that which + + +=Exercise 51= + +The following is a list of the more commonly used Latin prefixes: + + 1. _a_, _ab_--away from 16. _intro_--toward the inside + 2. _ad_--toward 17. _mono_--one + 3. _ante_--before 18. _non_--not + 4. _anti_--against 19. _ob_--in the way of, against + 5. _bi_--two, twice 20. _per_--through + 6. _circum_--around 21. _pre_--before + 7. _con_--together with, against 22. _post_--after + 8. _contra_--against 23. _pro_--before + 9. _de_--from, apart from, down from 24. _re_--again, back + 10. _dis_--apart, not 25. _semi_--half, partly + 11. _dia_--through 26. _se_--away from + 12. _ex_--out of 27. _sub_--under, below + 13. _in_, _en_--into 28. _super_--above, more than + _en_--to cause to be 29. _trans_--across + 14. _in_, _un_--not 30. _uni_--one + 15. _inter_--between + + +=Exercise 52= + +Analyze the following words, telling prefix, root, suffix, part of +speech, and meaning: + + business package truthfulness unsuccessful + useless anteroom workmanlike agreement + prefix monotone nervousness uniformity + beautify breakage disrespectful misguidance + semicircle pleasant perfection crystallize + kingship sameness progressive precaution + incase subway undeniable imaginary + enrich disown displeasure supernatural + pianist readmit endurance melodious + bicycle adjuster reaction interlineal + + +=Exercise 53= + +When the prefixes _ad_, _con_, and _in_ are used to form English words, +the final consonant of each is often changed to the initial consonant of +the root to which it is joined. + +_Ad_ assumes the forms _ab_, _ac_, _af_, _ag_, _al_, _an_, _ap_, _ar_, +_as_, _at_, assimilating the _d_ with the first letter of the word to +which it is prefixed; as, + + ab-breviate al-literation ar-rest + ac-cept al-lot as-sign + ac-cumulate an-nex as-sist + af-fect an-nounce at-tract + af-flict ap-position at-tribute + ag-gregate ap-prove at-tune + +_Con_ assumes the forms _col_, _cor_, _com_, by assimilation; it takes +the form _com_ before _p_; and it drops the _n_ before a vowel; as, + + col-lateral com-mercial com-pose + col-lect cor-relate co-operate + com-mission cor-respond co-ordinate + +_In_ assumes the forms _il_, _im_, _ir_, by assimilation and takes the +form of _im_ before _p_. + + il-lusion im-migrate ir-ruption im-port + + +=Exercise 54--Peculiar Adjective Endings= + +The suffixes _able_ and _ible_ are sometimes troublesome because it is +difficult to know which ending to write. As a rule, if the new word was +made from another English word, the ending is _able_, as _blamable_. The +words ending in _ible_ are derived from the Latin, and, as a rule, the +ending cannot easily be separated from the root and still leave the +latter an English word. Examples are: + + divisible intelligible digestible audible + visible permissible flexible incredible + possible terrible horrible indelible + +The suffixes _ant_ and _ent_ must also be carefully noted. No rule can +be given for using one rather than the other. Whenever in doubt, consult +a dictionary. Note the following: + + _ant_ _ent_ + important independent + pleasant convalescent + triumphant competent + luxuriant convenient + stagnant confident + +The endings _eous_ and _ious_, where _e_ and _i_ are often confused, are +illustrated in the following: + + _eous_ _ious_ + hideous delirious + miscellaneous impious + courteous studious + +The endings _cious_ and _tious_ are shown in the following: + + _cious_ _tious_ + conscious fictitious + precious superstitious + delicious cautious + gracious ambitious + suspicious nutritious + +The endings _gious_ and _geous_ are illustrated in the following: + + _gious_ _geous_ + religious courageous + + +=Exercise 55--Peculiar Noun and Verb Endings= + +Nouns in _ance_ and _ence_: + + _ance_ _ence_ + acceptance intelligence + appearance reference + annoyance patience + acquaintance negligence + remittance diligence + ignorance residence + +Nouns in _sion_, _cion_, and _tion_: + + _sion_ _cion_ _tion_ + exclusion coercion acquisition + aversion suspicion precaution + +Verbs in _ise_, _yze_, and _ize_: + + _ise_ _yze_ _ize_ + advise analyze baptize + supervise paralyze recognize + +Verbs in _ceed_, _sede_, and _cede_: + + _ceed_ _sede_ _cede_ + exceed supersede concede + proceed intercede + succeed precede + + +=Exercise 56= + +What other words can you form from the following? Explain what prefixes +or suffixes you use in each case and what part of speech you form. + + success consider real change + please doubt publish attend + occur apply regular satisfy + emphasize industry operate assess + second busy practice resist + expense distribute organ define + depend locate work sense + attract install desire preside + effect vital count sign + + +=Exercise 57= + +There are many words the meanings of which are easily confused. The +spelling and the definitions of such must be mastered. Analysis in this +exercise and in the one following does not require separation into +prefix, root, and suffix, but it necessitates a careful study of the +words, first, to note the difference in spelling; second, to consult a +dictionary, if necessary, for the difference in meaning. + +Define each word clearly. + +Use each in a sentence to illustrate its meaning. + + accept--except common--mutual + add--annex complementary--complimentary + advice--advise continual--continuous + affect--effect contraction--abbreviation + after--afterward contradiction--denial + ascend--assent currant--current + assure--promise defective--deficient + attain--obtain deprecate--depreciate + benefit--advantage effective--efficient + brief--concise eligible--illegible + center--middle eminent--prominent + claim--maintain expect--hope + combine--combination intelligent--intelligible + + +=Exercise 58= + +As above, define each word carefully and use it in a sentence to +illustrate its meaning. + + healthful--healthy proficient--efficient + inventory--invoice proscribe--prescribe + invite--invitation purpose--propose + last--latest quiet--quite + later--latter recommend--recommendation + liable--likely--apt refer--allude + loose--lose repair--fix + need--want requirement--requisite--requisition + perspective--prospective respectfully--respectively + positive--definite scarcely--hardly + practicable--practical stationary--stationery + precede--proceed therefore--accordingly + principal--principle + + +=500 SPELLING WORDS= + +Lesson 1 + + business losing surprising height + receive loosely Saturday depth + believe across Wednesday eighth + wholly whether excellent daily + obliged describe exercise earnest + +Lesson 2 + + attached decision probable seize + attacked buying usable siege + gentlemen studying salable friend + although relying desirable Messrs. + thoroughly occasion honorable nickel + +Lesson 3 + + disappoint knew acquittal stopped + disappear design occurrence referred + disapprove forty compelling planned + disagree fourth beginning swimming + anxious purpose permitted submitted + +Lesson 4 + + all right persuade Norwegian variety + already pursued possession prairie + tongue prepared accumulate neighbor + separate repaired dissatisfy soldier + crystal necessary dissolve shoulder + +Lesson 5 + + their awkward opportunity scheme + advise mucilage development schedule + advice familiar statistics accurately + laboratory peculiar accidental efficient + until similar competent Spaniard + +Lesson 6 + + policy patient merchandise conscious + rough ancient mercantile precious + disease partial scarcity suspicion + balance facial indebted physician + decease ambitious estimate caution + +Lesson 7 + + ascend noticeable vengeance emergency + assent serviceable address compliance + minute manageable salary reference + conceal exchangeable currency apparel + immense advantageous withhold typical + +Lesson 8 + + edition especially appreciate imitate + addition pamphlet essential initial + identify illustrate eligible official + illegal February legible curtain + nuisance punctual illegible adjacent + +Lesson 9 + + later crystallize lieutenant lenient + latter neutralize anthracite naphtha + weighed conceit bituminous liquid + destroy catarrh rheumatism gauge + indelible colonel influential sieve + +Lesson 10 + + duly interfered analyze attorneys + durable transferred analysis specialty + mutual reconcile paralyze sympathy + bargain accidental banana campaign + misspell irregular molasses mattress + +Lesson 11 + + ached designate vicinity recognize + social available guardian technical + forfeit adequately celebrate hygiene + opposite subordinate porcelain angel + parallel sufficient poultice angle + +Lesson 12 + + society associate rumored remittance + sirloin definitely courtesy remuneration + laborer spherical obstinacy restaurant + visitor commercial financial government + souvenir permissible sapphire acquaintance + +Lesson 13 + + quite appropriate convenient knowledge + least distinguish exaggerate principal, _a_ + written mysterious confidential stationary, _a_ + among appearance endeavoring judgment + psalm conference immediately implement + +Lesson 14 + + assure greatly embarrassment auxiliary + expect grateful organization conciliate + prompt deserve advertisement principle, _n_ + eliminate bureau assessment stationery, _n_ + illuminate deficient accommodate parenthesis + +Lesson 15 + + coupon indispensable measure proprietor + length innumerable condemn transient + vehicle investigate security persistent + customer incandescent liniment signature + costumer effervescent mosquito mischievous + +Lesson 16 + + canal company's repetition sulphur + channel real estate abbreviated benefited + liquid equivalent unabridged unanimous + recent assignment assurance itemize + trough extravagant pneumatic calcimine + +Lesson 17 + + precede freight authority leisure + proceed achieve mortgage neuralgia + procession between specimen dyspepsia + precision imagine solicitor substantial + extinguish autumn coöperates passenger + +Lesson 18 + + merely mechanical preliminary omitted + cashier permanent miscellaneous omission + urgent prominent subscription committee + hesitate precaution incredible commission + anchored interval anticipation precisely + +Lesson 19 + + specify preparation athletics deceit + equity coincidence excursion receipt + accrue irresolute suggestion obstacle + concrete vaccination courageous promissory + summary glycerine concession compulsory + +Lesson 20 + + deficit sceptical anniversary rhythm + mansion conscience presumption rhubarb + mention interruption guaranteed fatigue + reckoned approximately prejudice synopsis + license avoirdupois privilege emphatic + +Lesson 21 + + scholar Elkhart industrious collision + scissors Memphis hideous delusion + career Niagara artificial oxygen + sincere Raleigh cantaloupe martyr + chiffonier Oregon unscrupulous apology + +Lesson 22 + + receipt Cincinnati sovereign chemical + welfare Des Moines committee frontier + feigned Decatur ingredients fulfilled + chord Dubuque counterfeit facsimile + scythe Alleghany responsible identical + +Lesson 23 + + exceed Paducah foreign Cheyenne + succeed Eau Claire solemnity metallic + secede Peoria assassinate nauseated + immigrant Savannah pneumonia invariably + emigrant Manila diphtheria injurious + +Lesson 24 + + adoption Minneapolis fraudulent mahogany + scientific Indianapolis negligence corduroy + guidance Syracuse diligence Schenectady + syllable Milwaukee ridiculous duplicate + Fort Wayne Valparaiso comparative reënforce + +Lesson 25 + + Duluth Massachusetts preferable periodical + Missouri Connecticut preferred insertion + Wisconsin enthusiastic publicity excursion + luxurious acknowledgment prevailing plateau + twelfth professional damageable tragedy + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS + + +In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they are used singly. We +studied their pronunciation and the way in which they were formed to +express a definite meaning. In this chapter we shall begin a review of +grammar, a study of words not according to their pronunciation or their +definition, but according to their use as they are arranged with other +words to express complete ideas. The simplest group into which words are +thus arranged is the sentence, consisting of two important parts, the +subject and the predicate. The subject is the part about which something +is told, and the predicate is the part that tells about the subject; as, + + _Subject_ _Predicate_ + The sun shines brightly + +There are several different kinds of sentences, named according to the +meaning which they express. They are as follows: + + The _declarative_ sentence states a fact. + The _interrogative_ sentence asks a question. + The _imperative_ sentence commands or entreats. + The _exclamatory_ sentence expresses deep feeling. + +_Illustrations_ + + _Declarative_: John closed the door. + _Interrogative_: Did John close the door? + _Imperative_: Close the door. + _Exclamatory_: What a noise the door made! + +Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure or form. If +a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it is a _simple_ sentence. +If it is made up of two independent parts, it is a _compound_ sentence. +If it has one independent part and one or more dependent parts, each of +which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is +_complex_. The independent part of the sentence is called a _principal +clause_, and the dependent part is called a _subordinate clause_. A +_phrase_ is also a dependent part of a sentence, but it differs from a +subordinate clause in that it contains no subject or predicate. Both +phrases and subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns, +adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions: + +A _simple_ sentence contains one principal clause. + +A _compound_ sentence contains two or more principal clauses. + +A _complex_ sentence contains one principal clause and one or more +subordinate clauses. + +A _phrase_ is a group of related words used as a part of speech. (See +Exercises 68 and 69.) + +A _clause_ is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. A +subordinate clause is used as a part of speech. It usually has an +introductory word to distinguish it from a principal clause. (See +Exercise 71.) + +_Illustrations_ + + _Simple sentence_: To-day most of the world's big + questions are business questions. + + _Complex sentence_: The view _that_ business is only + humdrum routine and sordid money-making needs revising, + _since_ most of the world's big questions are business + questions. + + _Compound sentence_: Many people still belittle + business, calling it humdrum routine and sordid + money-making, _but_ this view needs revising. + + _Phrase_: (_a_) _of_ the world's big questions. + (_b_) _calling_ it humdrum routine and sordid + money-making. + + _Subordinate clause_: (_a_) _that_ business is only humdrum routine + and sordid money-making. + (_b_) _since_ most of the world's big questions + are business questions. + + +=Exercise 59= + +Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences: _a._ Declarative, +_b._ Interrogative, _c._ Imperative, _d._ Exclamatory. + +Examine each of the sentences below and tell + +_a._ Whether it is simple, complex, or compound. + +_b._ Its subject and its predicate. + +_c._ Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any). + + 1. Your subscription expires with this issue. + + 2. This special offer will continue until the tenth of + November. + + 3. The last shipment of castings that you made to us + is decidedly unsatisfactory. + + 4. Your imitation typewritten letters have greatly + assisted us in the sale of our property, and we thank + you for calling our attention to them. + + 5. The advertised poster was sent to you to-day in a + special tube. + + 6. Without doubt you will be interested in the booklet + which we enclose. + + 7. The machine which is standing there has just been + repaired. + + 8. The wheel that holds the type may be changed in an + instant by the operator. + + 9. Whenever he wishes, the operator may write in + different sizes of type on the same sheet of paper. + + 10. Many of our styles have been copied exactly from + the best designs that have recently been displayed in + the Parisian exhibits. + + 11. Why are the department stores acquiring motor + wagons? + + 12. One reason is the economy of the motor wagon. + + 13. Economy does not entirely explain the keenness + which department stores are displaying in acquiring + motor wagons. + + 14. In such establishments the quick delivery of + merchandise is a necessity. + + 15. The best means of transportation must be employed, + or a loss of trade will follow. + + 16. Any one can cite examples that prove that faults + in delivery cause a loss of trade. + + 17. Machine service develops fewer errors than horse + service (develops). + + 18. The area which department stores serve is being + greatly increased from year to year, and not even the + establishment of the parcel post has avoided the + necessity for sending package merchandise too far + distant for conveyance by horses. + + 19. Electric machines usually make the house-to-house + package deliveries, and gasoline trucks, besides + hauling furniture, transfer large loads from the store + or warehouse to the distributing stations. + + 20. In one store each transfer truck is loaded twice + daily with fifty trunks containing parcels. + +=Exercise 60--Sentence Errors= + +=S. 1.= THE BABY BLUNDER.--In writing, one of the most elementary forms +of correctness is shown in the proper division into sentences. The +ability instinctively to end a sentence at the right place is called the +"sentence sense." Students who do not possess it or who have not learned +the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and phrases +frequently make the mistake of setting off too much or too little for +one sentence. For example, they run two sentences together as one; as, + +_Wrong_: Motor wagons are economical, department stores of all large +cities are acquiring them. + +The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the sentence +error--one of the worst possible mistakes in writing. It is sometimes +called the _comma fault_ or the _baby blunder_. For brevity we shall +call it _S 1_ (sentence error number one). _Motor wagons are economical_ +is a principal clause. _Department stores of all large cities are +acquiring them_ is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not +stand in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct, +divide into two sentences; as, + +_Right_: Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of all large +cities are acquiring them. + +Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is closely connected. +In that case they may be put into the same sentence, provided they are +properly connected or separated. Use a comma _plus_ a coördinate +conjunction (as _and_, _or_, _but_) to connect them, or a semicolon (;) +to separate them. + +Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs _so_, _then_, +_therefore_, _thus_, _also_, _still_, _otherwise_, _however_, _hence_, +_consequently_, _moreover_, _nevertheless_. When they are used to join +the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is not sufficient +punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon or a comma and a coördinate +conjunction must be used. + +_Wrong_: He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to lose his +trade. + +_Right_: He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to lose his +trade. + +_Right_: He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry to lose his +trade. + +=S. 2.=--The first form of the sentence error (_S 1_) is made by using +too much for one sentence. The second form (_S 2_) is made by using too +little. It consists in writing a subordinate clause or a phrase as a +sentence; as, + +1. _Wrong_: I told her I would attend to the matter at my earliest +convenience. _Probably on my way from work in the evening._ + +2. _Wrong_: His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. _Which he decided +to do._ + + +=Exercise 61= + +Each sentence should express one complete thought. Some of the following +are really two sentences (_S 1_), and some are only parts of sentences +(_S 2_). Correct each, naming the mistake. + + 1. You will find the booklet interesting it is also + instructive. + + 2. Up to last January he was a salesman for Colgate & + Co. since then he has opened a business of his own. + + 3. I didn't know you had come, when did you arrive? + + 4. Did any one take the newspaper, I left it here only + a moment ago. + + 5. I shall take my vacation in September have you had + yours? + + 6. I must go now good-bye I'll see you on Saturday. + + 7. The opening sentence held the man's attention, he + read it again and again. + + 8. I'll have to run to catch the train, otherwise I + shall be late for work. + + 9. The advertisement is attractive, still it has not + paid well. + + 10. We wished to reduce office drudgery therefore we + installed adding and addressing machines. + + 11. These problems all require a knowledge of square + root for example, take the fourth. + + 12. Do you expect to come home for Christmas or shall + you stay in New York I don't remember now which you + said. + + 13. First I read a statement that recommended the + bonds then I read an article that condemned them + without question the result was that I didn't know + what to do. + + 14. One-half of the statements are here, the others + are in the safe. + + 15. If your name is not correct on this envelope, + please notify us we wish to insure your receiving our + bulletin regularly. + + 16. The supply of fruit was greater than the demand, + that is why fruit was cheap. + + 17. Flies are dangerous. Especially in a sick room + from which they carry germs to others. + + 18. In the country the trees were loaded with fruit, + their branches had to be propped so that they would + not break. + + 19. When he was twenty-three years of age, Richard T. + Crane, the late millionaire head of the immense Crane + Manufacturing Company, came to Chicago, he started a + brass foundry, which grew into the present giant + establishment. + + 20. We spent last summer in the Bitter Root Valley we + camped within view of Willoughby Falls. + + 21. I want to congratulate you on your appointment I + heard of it only yesterday. + + 22. It surely was not I whom you saw I wonder who it + could have been. + + 23. Not one of us has a salary of three thousand + dollars so we do not worry over the income tax. + + 24. Please send me the booklet you offered in the + Business Magazine, I'd also like particulars of your + advertised discount sale of typewriters. + + 25. Sooner or later shingles are sure to warp and + curl, thus they pull out the nails and allow the rain + to beat in, furthermore, shaded shingles soon rot and + allow the water to soak through. + + 26. This sealing and stamping machine is endorsed by + business men in all our large cities nevertheless it + is not expensive. + + 27. If you wish to prove the excellence of our paper, + just tear off a corner of this sheet then tear off a + corner of your present letterhead with a magnifying + glass examine both torn edges. + + 28. The superior paper will show long, linen fibers + the poorer, on the other hand, will have short, woody + fibers. + + 29. When a German army is on the march, it stops every + twenty minutes for a rest. Experiments having shown + that a soldier can cover more ground when he is given + this period of relaxation. + + 30. Two thousand convicts will be released according + to a plan worked out by the governor; five hundred + will be given their freedom at once, and, if the plan + is a success one thousand five hundred others will be + released. One-half their wages of fifty cents a day to + go to their families and one-half to the penitentiary + fund. If they leave the state or commit any crime + while they are on parole, to serve the balance of + their term and an extension of time. They will be put + to work on roads and bridges the counties need several + thousand such laborers but cannot pay union prices. + + +=Exercise 62= + +Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences: + +1 + + Dear Sir: + + There is no safer way to invest money than in a good + first mortgage on city real estate by a good mortgage + we mean one that is properly drawn and with such + security as absolutely insures the holder against loss + we have made a specialty of first mortgage loans, and + we offer investors the benefit of our wide experience + in such matters we investigate properties frequently + and keep investors informed on their investment we + look after all details and collections without extra + charge you will find it to your interest to consult + us. + + Yours truly, + +2 + + Stick to your legitimate business do not go out into + outside operations few men have brains enough for more + than one business to dabble in stocks, to put a few + thousand dollars into a mine, a few more into a + manufactory, and a few more into an invention is + enough to ruin any man be content with fair returns do + not become greedy do not think that men are happy in + proportion as they are rich and therefore do not aim + too high be content with moderate wealth make friends + a time will come when all the money in the world will + not be worth to you as much as one staunch friend. + +3 + + Sacramento City is a great commercial center its + wholesale and jobbing business extends hundreds of + miles to the north, south, west, and east it is fast + becoming a substantial manufacturing center large six + and eight story buildings are rapidly taking the place + of the old two story structures a new city hall has + just been completed which cost $150,000 and a new + court house $1,000,000 the city has recently issued + bonds amounting to $800,000 for new schools scarcely a + week passes without recording some new enterprise all + the main highways are macadamized so that automobile + travel is possible every day of the year and the + farmer can haul his produce to market at a minimum + cost market conditions are good and any class of + produce finds ready sale at remunerative + prices.--(From an advertisement.) + +Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing exercise: + + 1. According to meaning. + 2. According to form. + + +=Exercise 63--Parts of Speech= + +There are eight different kinds of words called parts of speech, which +are used to make sentences. They are as follows: + + _Noun_: The _horse_ is brown. + _Pronoun_: _He_ is the best horse of all. + _Verb_: He _galloped_ to town. + _Adjective_: The _brown_ horse is my favorite. + _Adverb_: He runs _swiftly_. + _Preposition_: We shall ride _to_ town. + _Conjunction_: The night is clear _and_ cold. + _Interjection_: _Oh!_ My horse stumbled. + +Thus a _noun_ names something. A word that stands for a noun is a +_pronoun_. Sometimes a different part of speech is used like a noun, and +for the time being it becomes a noun. The _verb_ is a very important +part of speech, since without it there can be no sentence. The verb +makes an assertion, asks a question, or gives a command. _Adjectives_ +are words that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go with +or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. _Prepositions_ and +_conjunctions_ connect. Prepositions join their objects to other words +in the sentence; conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. An +_interjection_, such as the exclamation _oh_, is used without having +grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. A preposition +always takes an object, the preposition and its object making a +_phrase_. Grouping this information, we have: + + {_Nouns_ are names of persons and things. + {_Pronouns_ are substitutes for nouns. + {_Verbs_ make assertions, ask questions, or give + { commands. + {_Adjectives_ modify nouns and pronouns. + PARTS OF SPEECH {_Adverbs_ modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. + { They usually answer the questions _how?_ _when?_ + { _where?_ _why?_ _to what degree?_ + {_Prepositions_ join object nouns or pronouns to other + { words in the sentence. + {_Conjunctions_ join words, phrases, and clauses. + {_Interjections_ are independent words used as + { exclamations. + + +A word is not always the same part of speech. We may say, "Did you +_starch_ the clothes?" in which case _starch_ is a verb. A grocer may +say, "The _starch_ in these packages is always clean." In this sentence +_starch_ is a noun. The part of speech depends entirely on the way the +word is used. + +In the following, name the part of speech of each word in italic. Judge +by the way the word is used in the sentence. + + 1. The desks have _green_ pads. + + 2. _Green_ is a restful color. + + 3. In the valley is a _mill_, which grinds _flour_. It + is a _flour_ mill. + + 4. I saw him _stretch_ out his hand. + + 5. The _stretch_ of _waste_ land amazed him. + + 6. Europeans say that Americans _waste_ more than they + use. + + 7. One of our great problems is how to lessen _waste_. + + 8. After the stormy _night_, the _day_ dawned bright + and clear. + + 9. He has been working _night_ and _day_. + + 10. The old man went _home_ sad and weary. + + 11. _Home_ is the best place in the world. + + 12. We must _fine_ you for such an offense. + + 13. Your _fine_ is five dollars. + + 14. We use _fine_ sand in our concrete. + + 15. I can talk _better_ than I can write. + + 16. John wrote the _better_ circular. + + 17. Talking will not _better_ the matter. + + 18. Young people should learn to respect their + _betters_. + + 19. Suddenly there was a _pause_ in the music. + + 20. Did you see those men _pause_? + + 21. He was our guide for he knew the _ins_ and _outs_ + of the place. + + 22. Have you ever been _in_ the house? + + 23. Where are you going--_in_ or _out_? + + 24. _Good_ apples are expensive. + + 25. The _good_ of the people is our first + consideration. + + 26. I shall not go _if_ it rains. + + 27. What is the use of saying _if_? + + 28. I _like_ to see her just _like_ this, for in + _like_ mood I do not know her _like_. + + 29. _Little_ drops of water make the mighty ocean. + + 30. I can do _little_ of the work until the typewriter + is repaired. + + 31. Do not _belittle_ your work. + + 32. She studies too _little_. + + +=Exercise 64= + +Each of the following may be used as different parts of speech. Write +sentences illustrating as many uses as possible for each word. + + sound paper dress ring + light shoe box dawn + ride long ink curb + iron warm walk use + hear cold rule cement + + +=Exercise 65= + +Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which are adverbs. +Remember that an adjective goes with a noun or pronoun; an adverb with +another adverb, an adjective, or a verb, and usually answers the +question _how?_ _when?_ _where?_ _why?_ _how much?_ or _how long?_ + + 1. You are walking too _fast_. + + 2. Send perishable articles by _fast_ freight. + + 3. He has been a _well_ man since he has stopped + working indoors. + + 4. He writes very _well_. + + 5. The fire is _bright_. + + 6. It burns _brightly_. + + 7. That is a _very poor_ reason. + + 8. The berries look _good_, but they taste _sour_. + + 9. They are not _good_ berries. + + 10. The sun shone _brilliant_ above us. (Compare with + _brilliantly_.) + + 11. The bookkeeper looks _angry_. + + 12. He looked at us _angrily_. + + 13. The flowers are _sweet_. + + 14. They smell _sweet_. (May we say, _The flowers + smell sweetly?_) + + 15. Act _frankly_, speak _gently_. + + 16. Let your actions be _frank_, your speech _gentle_. + + 17. Laborers complain that they have to work _too + hard_. + + +=Exercise 66= + +Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each case use both parts +of speech in sentences. + + cold sure polite courteous + smooth exact precise easy + bitter bad extreme nice + loud general honest glad + + +=Exercise 67= + +Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which are +adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase. It must be +followed by an object. + + 1. He is the best man _in_ the office. + + 2. John was leaving as I came _in_ this evening. + + 3. He did not have his coat _on_. + + 4. It was hanging _over_ his arm. + + 5. He stood _on_ the top step several minutes, + wondering whether he should wear the coat. + + 6. The handle fell _off_ as I took the cup _off_ the + shelf. + + 7. The aeroplane flies _over_ the city. + + 8. I am going _over_ to the factory. + +Write sentences using _above_, _across_, _down_, _up_, _underneath_ both +as adverbs and as prepositions. + + +=Exercise 68--Prepositional Phrases= + +_Illustrations_ + + _Adjective_: The opinions _of some people_ must be + taken with caution. + + _Adverb_: We shall return _within a year_. + + _Noun_: _From New York to San Francisco_ is a long + trip. + +What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below? Remember +that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb modifies a verb, an +adjective, or an adverb. + + 1. The waves are rolling in, white _with foam_. + + 2. A million dollars was invested _in the business_. + + 3. I will abide _on thy right side_ and keep the + bridge _with thee_. + + 4. _In summer_ milk soon turns sour. + + 5. I have come _for help_. + + 6. The people _on the bridge_ cheered _for hours_. + + 7. He threw up his hat _for joy_. + + 8. _On the table before them_ stood a deer roasted + whole. + + 9. We shall stay here _until spring_. + + 10. We came _in sight of the king's palace_. + + 11. We drove _to the factory_ today _with the + superintendent_. + + 12. He works _from sunrise to sunset_. + + +=Exercise 69= + +The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common. A list of +prepositions follows. They should be learned. + + about before except toward + above behind for under + aboard below from underneath + across beneath in until + after beside into up + against between of upon + along betwixt on with + amid beyond over within + amidst but (except) past without + among by through to the extent of + around concerning throughout from under + athwart down till according to + at during to except for + +Write three sentences containing prepositional _adjective_ phrases. + +Prepositional _adverbial_ phrases may express the following ideas: + + Time, telling _when_ something happened. + + Place, telling _where_ something happened. + + Manner, telling _how_ something happened. + + Means, telling _how_ something happened. + + Cause or purpose, telling _why_ something happened. + + Degree, telling _how long_ something lasted; _how far_ + it went; _how much_ it cost, etc. + + Agent, telling _by whom_ it was done. + + Accompaniment, telling _with whom_ it was done. + +Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling: + + 1. when 6. how far + 2. where 7. how much + 3. why 8. by whom + 4. in what way 9. with whom + 5. how long 10. by what means + + +=Exercise 70= + +Name all the prepositional phrases in Exercise 179, explaining whether +they are adjective or adverbial. + + +=Exercise 71--The Clause= + +A _subordinate clause_, like a phrase, is a group of words used as a +part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause must have a +subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced + + 1. By _relative pronouns_: + + who, whose, whom, which, what, that + + 2. By _subordinate conjunctions_: + + when because than unless + where since provided till + while if whereas until + as as soon as wherever before + as if as long as whether after + though in order that why for + although lest that whenever + +_Illustrations_ + + { A lamp that _smokes_ } + ADJECTIVE: { } is a torture to a student. + { A _smoking_ lamp } + + { _When she was good_ } + { } she was very, very good. + { _Sometimes_ } + ADVERB: { } + { _When she was bad_ } + { } she was horrid. + { _Sometimes_ } + +Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite idea? + + { _where he lives_. + NOUN: I know { + { _the house_. + +Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three illustrating +adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun clauses. + + +=Exercise 72= + +Name all the clauses in Exercises 179, 185, and 186. Explain the use of +each. + + +=Exercise 73= + +Write sentences using each of the following words to introduce a phrase, +and to introduce a clause. + + 1. after 3. for 5. until + 2. before 4. since + +Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by an _object_ to +form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed by a _subject_ to form a +clause. + +_Illustration_ + + { _Christmas_.--OBJECT. + I have not seen him _since_ { + { _he_ went away.--SUBJECT. + + +=Exercise 74= + +Name the complete subject in the following. Then name the simple +subject, explaining by what elements--words, phrases, or clauses--it is +modified. + +Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple predicate, explaining +by what elements the verb is modified. + + 1. Modern business cannot be carried on by + old-fashioned methods. + + 2. When a man engages in business, he buys or sells. + + 3. The great routes of trade have changed from time to + time. + + 4. Your order will be filled within a few days. + + 5. Both blanks were properly filled out at the time. + + 6. Means of travel have developed from the slowly + moving caravan to the palatial railway coach. + + 7. Commerce originated when one human being demanded + something which had to be supplied by some one else. + + 8. The latest American and European styles will be + displayed in our new millinery department, which will + be formally opened on the first of March. + + 9. The prosperity of nations rests very largely on the + six inches of soil between the surface and the subsoil + of the territory. + + 10. One of the greatest losses to the Ohio farm lands + in the floods of 1913 came about because the water + took off the top soil from the hillside and valleys + and carried the vegetable material with it. + + 11. The conserving of the top soil is one of the + greatest problems in national prosperity. + + 12. We trust that shipment about September 8 will be + satisfactory to you, as it is the best that we can do + under the circumstances. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN + + +FOR the plural of nouns see Chapter III. + +The classes to which nouns belong are distinguished as follows: + +A _common_ noun is the name given to an object to denote the class to +which it belongs; as, _book_, _man_. + +A _proper_ noun is the name given to a particular object to distinguish +it from others of the same class; as, _Mary_, _Republicans_, _England_. +Proper nouns should always be capitalized. + +A _collective_ noun is a name which in the singular denotes a +collection. It is usually plural in idea but singular in use; as, +_congregation_, _crowd_. + +An _abstract_ noun is the name denoting a quality of an object; as, +_power_, _purity_, _strength_. + +A _verbal_ noun is the name of an action. As its name suggests, it is +made from a verb; as, _Sweeping_ is good exercise. + + +=Exercise 75= + +In the following sentences supply necessary capital letters. Explain why +the same word in one expression needs a capital and in another does not. + + 1. I have just taken out an endowment policy in the + northwestern mutual life insurance company. + + 2. There are many mutual life insurance companies in + the country. + + 3. His refusing the terms was practically a + declaration of independence. + + 4. On the fourth of July we celebrate the signing of + the declaration of independence, the first step in the + revolutionary war. + + 5. Mexico has had many revolutionary wars. + + 6. And king Arthur said, "The king who fights his + people fights himself." + + 7. When does the bank close? + + 8. I have an account with the first national bank. + + 9. This is the first national bank that was ever + established in this country. + +Explain to which class each noun in the foregoing sentences belongs. Be +particularly careful to distinguish between common and proper nouns. + + +=Exercise 76--Pronouns= + +The different classes of pronouns are distinguished as follows: + +The _personal_ pronoun is used in place of the name of a person or +thing. The pronoun of the _first_ person indicates the speaker, the +pronoun of the _second_ person indicates the person spoken to, and the +pronoun of the _third_ person indicates the person spoken of. They are +declined as follows: + + _First person_ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + _Nom._ I we + _Poss._ my, mine our, ours + _Obj._ me us + + _Second person_ + + _Nom._ you (thou) you (ye) + _Poss._ your, yours (thy, thine) your, yours + _Obj._ you (thee) you + + +In modern usage _you_ is used for both the singular and the plural, but +the verb that goes with _you_ is always plural. + + _Third person_ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ + _Nom._ he she it they + _Poss._ his her, hers its their, theirs + _Obj._ him her it them + + NOTE.--The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_, + _ours_, _theirs_, and sometimes _his_ are possessive + case in form, but nominative or objective case in use. + That pencil is _mine_ really means, That pencil is _my_ + pencil. _Mine_ is used as a substitute for a possessive + pronoun and the noun it modifies. + +The personal pronouns compounded with _self_ are of two kinds: + +1. _Emphatic_ pronouns; as, + + The buyer _himself_ told me. + +2. _Reflexive_ pronouns, referring back to the subject and at the same +time being in the objective case; as, + + John slipped and hurt _himself_. + +The _relative_ pronoun is so called because it relates or refers to +another word, called its antecedent, to which it joins the clause that +it introduces. The relative pronouns are _who_, _which_, _what_, _that_; +and the compound relatives are _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, +_whichsoever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_. + +They are declined as follows: + + _Singular and Plural_ + + _Nom._ who which whoever whosoever + _Poss._ whose of which whosever whosesoever + _Obj._ whom which whomever whomsoever + +_That_, _what_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_, and _whatsoever_ +are not declined. They have the same form in the nominative and +objective cases, and are not used in the possessive case. + +_What_ is peculiar in that it never has an antecedent expressed, but +itself stands for both antecedent and relative. It is called the _double +relative_. Compare the following: + + I did not hear _the words that_ he said. + + I did not hear _that which_ he said. + + I did not hear _what_ he said. + +_That_ is called the restrictive relative, because it limits or +restricts its antecedent to the meaning expressed in the clause +introduced by _that_. A restrictive clause is one, therefore, that is +needed to make the meaning of the sentence clear. Compare the following: + + _Non-restrictive_: John Brown, _who_ has no disease, + needs no physician. + + _Restrictive_: He _that_ hath no disease needs no + physician. + +Notice that a restrictive, or necessary, clause is not separated from +the rest of the sentence by commas. + +_Who_ and _which_ are sometimes used with restrictive force; as, + + 1. Those _who_ have finished their work may leave. + (Not everybody.) + + 2. Have you read the book _which_ he recommended? (He + recommended but one.) + +_Interrogative_ pronouns are used in asking questions. They are _who_, +_which_, _what_. _Who_ refers to persons; _which_ refers to persons or +things, and is used to distinguish one object from another; _what_ +refers to things. They are declined as follows: + + _Singular and Plural_ + + _Nom._ who which what + _Poss._ whose (of which) (of what) + _Obj._ whom which what + +The interrogative pronouns _which_ and _what_ are frequently used as +adjectives. In this case they are called _pronominal adjectives_. +Compare: + + Pronoun: _Which_ of these hats do you prefer? + + Adjective: _Which_ hat do you prefer? + +The _demonstrative_ pronouns are _this_ and _that_ with their plurals +_these_ and _those_. They are always used to point out, or demonstrate, +the noun to which they refer. _This_ and _these_ are used for objects +near at hand, or recently named; _that_ and _those_ are used for objects +far away, or not recently named. + +The demonstrative pronouns are frequently used as adjectives; as, + + Pronoun: _That_ is my book. + Adjective: _That_ book is mine. + +_Indefinite_ pronouns refer to objects or persons, but do not define or +limit them. The indefinite pronouns are _each_, _every_, _either_, +_neither_, _one_, _none_, _other_, _another_, _few_, _all_, _many_, +_several_, _some_, _each other_, _one another_, and the compounds _any +one_, _some one_, _every one_, _something_, _nothing_. Indefinite +pronouns are frequently used as adjectives. _Each_, _every_, _either_, +_one_, _another_, _any one_, _some one_, _every one_, whether they are +used as pronouns or as adjectives, are singular in number. If another +pronoun is used to refer to one of them, it must be in the singular +number. + + +=Exercise 77--Classes of Pronouns= + +In the following sentences, explain which pronouns represent the person +speaking, which represent the person spoken to, and which represent the +person spoken of. Tell which pronouns ask questions; which are used as +adjectives; which are used to connect subordinate clauses to the word +for which they stand. If the antecedent is expressed, point it out. + + 1. Who is talking? + + 2. The man who is speaking is the head of the credit + department. + + 3. If you are going, get ready. + + 4. Which is the better piece of cloth? + + 5. This is the better piece of cloth. + + 6. The one who wishes to succeed must exercise great + care in his work. + + 7. He that would succeed must work. + + 8. Many men fail because of laziness. + + 9. What did you say? + + 10. Can you guess whom I saw? + + 11. He himself told us. + + 12. A cousin of ours is coming to town. + + 13. The man whose life is above criticism need fear no + one. + + 14. Whoever lives the truth need fear no criticism. + + 15. I wish you would remove those files. + + 16. Ink that is thick makes illegible writing. + + 17. What paper should I destroy? + + 18. I cannot understand what any one is saying. + + 19. This is not my umbrella. It is yours. + + 20. No friend of his would talk in that way. + + 21. This is no book of theirs; it belongs to us. + + 22. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it. + + 23. I shall ask whomever I see. + + 24. Each of us has his work assigned. + + 25. Every boy has his work assigned. + + +=Exercise 78= + +In the following sentences _he_, _his_, _they_, _their_, _them_, _it_, +or _its_ should be inserted. Give the reason for your choice. + + 1. No man is allowed to leave ---- desk untidy. + + 2. Every one must put ---- tools away before leaving + the shop. + + 3. Every office worker is required to be in ---- place + at eight-thirty every morning. + + 4. In my business a person must learn to make up ---- + mind quickly. + + 5. It was cold this morning. Every one wore ---- + wraps. + + 6. Every clerk must do ---- own work. + + 7. If an employee has ideas for the improvement of the + business, ---- is requested to report ---- suggestions + to the superintendent. + + 8. The superintendent is anxious to have every workman + feel that ---- (has, have) a definite place in the + organization, and that if ---- (does not, don't) do + ---- work, the business will suffer. + + 9. No goods will be accepted unless ---- (are, is) in + good condition. + + 10. Every newspaper is anxious to increase ---- + classified advertising. + + 11. No one cares to see ---- friends frown. + + 12. Every one must agree that ---- (has, have) ---- + faults. + + 13. Not one of the banks had ---- deposits decreased. + + 14. Will any one let me take ---- umbrella? + + 15. Every one says that ---- had a delightful evening. + + 16. Who was it said I had ---- book? + + 17. Does each state pay over a part of ---- taxes to + the federal government? + + 18. Every one will find in the current publications a + wealth of information applicable to ---- specific + needs, much of which ---- will wish to file for easy + reference, no matter in what department of the world's + work ---- interest centers. + + 19. If any one could tell beforehand when ---- + opportunities would arrive, ---- might be ready to + grasp each as ---- came. + + 20. If every one here would follow the directions that + ----(has, have) received, ---- would make fewer + mistakes in shipments. + + 21. Any one who wishes may give ---- opinion. + + 22. No one need expect to leave before ---- work is + finished. + + 23. Every one in the office took ---- vacation early + this year except me. + + 24. Each of the twenty banks sent ---- representative + to the meeting. + + 25. On applying for a position, each man is given a + blank that ---- must fill out carefully, making ---- + answers as definite as possible. + +Some of the following are right, and some are wrong. Correct those that +are wrong, explaining why they are wrong. + + 1. Neither one of them know what they are expected to + do. + + 2. Applicant after applicant handed in their names. + + 3. If any one has a complaint to make, he should + report it in writing to the superintendent. + + 4. Have either of the stenographers finished their + letters? + + 5. I wish everybody would do their own work and let me + do mine. + + 6. Each man did his work faithfully. + + 7. Has neither the carpenter nor the plumber yet + brought his tools? + + 8. Every one of the clerks must hand their report to + the head bookkeeper before five o'clock. + + 9. One of them must have neglected to hand in his + report. + + 10. Man after man yesterday promised me that they'd be + on hand to work this morning, and not one of them + showed themselves. + + +=Exercise 79= + +In the following exercise, tell which of the italicized pronouns +introduce restrictive, and which introduce non-restrictive clauses: + + 1. This is the best bargain _that_ we have ever + offered. + + 2. This is Mr. Burton, _whose_ work I recommended to + you. + + 3. The city _that_ I enjoyed most was Quebec. + + 4. I enjoyed walking on the old wall _that_ still + surrounds the town. + + 5. The club to _which_ I belong will hold a meeting + next week. + + 6. The club _that_ I belong to will hold a meeting + next Monday. + + 7. All those _whose_ daily work showed an improvement + were given an increase in salary. + + 8. The horse _that_ ran away belonged to my partner. + + 9. The greatest man is he _who_ feels himself the + least. + + 10. An old story tells us that when Caesar, _who_ was + a great Roman emperor, returned from a conquest + _which_ has ever since been famous, he brought back to + Rome a formula _that_ has revolutionized the world. It + was a formula for making soap, and was considered one + of the greatest treasures _that_ was captured during + the campaign. Caesar immediately saw the value _that_ + it would have in the eyes of the world, and he forced + the soap-makers to reveal their secret. + + 11. The garrison is a handful of invalid soldiers, + _whose_ principal duty is to guard some of the outer + towers. + + 12. This is the gentleman _whom_ we met in Boston. + + 13. Mr. Carter, _who_ was a member of our Boston firm, + will take charge of our city sales. + + 14. We honestly believe that our latest Style Book, + _which_ goes with this letter, offers you more for + every dollar _that_ you spend than you can get + elsewhere. + + +=Exercise 80--Case= + +Case is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which denotes its +relation to other words in the sentence. There are three cases: the +_nominative_, the _objective_, and the _possessive_. Although nouns are +used in all three cases, no change of form occurs except in the +possessive case. + +The _nominative_ case is used in the following ways: + +1. The principal use of the nominative case is as _subject_ of the +sentence; as, + + _Noun_: The _business_ is prosperous. + _Pronoun_: _It_ has been established for five years. + +2. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used to complete the meaning of such +verbs as _be_, _become_, _seem_, _appear_, _taste_, _feel_. Such a noun +is in the nominative case, and is called a _predicate nominative_, or a +_subjective complement_; as, + + _Noun_: Mr. Brown is the _manager_. + He seems a _gentleman_. + _Pronoun_: I think it is _she_. + +3. A noun in _apposition_ with another noun in the nominative case is +also in the nominative case; as, + + Mr. Brown, _the manager_, is very capable. + The man to whom you should apply is Mr. Brown, _the manager_. + +4. Sometimes a noun or a pronoun is used in direct address or in an +exclamation, without having any grammatical relation to the rest of the +sentence. It is then said to be _nominative independent_; as, + + _Mr. Brown_, a gentleman wishes to speak to you. + A _strike_! Why are they declaring a strike? + _You!_ I thought you were in South America. + +5. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used with a participle to express an +adverbial relation. Such a noun is in the nominative case, and is called +_nominative absolute_, because it has no grammatical relation to any +other part of the sentence; as, + + _Mr. Brown_ having gone, we told the gentleman to see + Mr. Jones. + + _He_ being the guide, we asked no questions. + +It is much better to use a clause to express such an idea; as, + + As Mr. Brown had gone, we told the gentleman to see + Mr. Jones. + +Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a pronoun in each +of the following uses of the nominative case: + + 1. Subject. + 2. Predicate Nominative. + +Write a sentence containing a noun used + + 1. In direct address. + 2. In exclamation. + 3. In apposition with another noun in the nominative case. + + +=Exercise 81--The Objective Case= + +A noun or a pronoun may be used in the objective case in the following +ways: + +1. Direct object of a transitive verb; as, + + I have a good _position_. + Do you know _him_? + +2. Object of a preposition; as, + + I have just returned from the _library._ + Bring the book to _me_. + +3. Indirect object of such verbs as _ask_, _give_, _teach_, showing the +person for whom or to whom the action is done; as, + + She brought _her mother_ some flowers. + I gave _her_ singing lessons. + +4. A noun as _second object_ after verbs of _making_, _choosing_, +_calling_, _electing_; as, + + They chose John _secretary_. + +5. A noun in _apposition_ with another objective; as, + + Send your report to the secretary, _John Wilson_. + +6. Adverbial modifier; as, We are going _home_. + +Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a pronoun in each +of the following uses of the objective case: + + 1. Direct object of a transitive verb. + 2. Indirect object. + 3. Object of a preposition. + +Write a sentence containing a noun used as + + 1. Adverbial objective. + 2. Second object. + 3. Appositive of another noun in the objective case. + + +=Exercise 82--The Possessive Case= + +To form the possessive case of nouns add an _apostrophe_ and _s_ to all +singular nouns, and to all plural nouns that do not end in _s_; if a +plural _noun_ ends in _s_ add only an apostrophe; as, _child's_, +_children's_, _boys'_. + + _Exception._--When, in long words, the additional _s_ + in the singular would cause a disagreeable sound, some + writers use only the apostrophe; as, + + We awaited the _princess's_ decision. We awaited the + _princess'_ decision. + +It is often better in such cases to use a phrase; as, + + We awaited the decision _of the princess_. + +Thus, an _of_ phrase may be used instead of the possessive case. In +speaking of an inanimate object one should use it instead of the +apostrophe and _s_; as, _the top of the mountain_. However, we use such +expressions as _last year's prices_. + +When, as in the name of a firm, two or more nouns are taken together +with the idea of common possession, the sign of the possessive is added +to the last noun only. If separate possession is implied, the sign of +the possessive is added to each noun; as, + + Have you seen _Wilson & King's_ new building? + This is _Mary and Helen's_ room. + Is this _Mary's or Helen's_ coat? + +A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case before a verbal noun; as, + + I prefer to have _John's_ studying done before dinner. + I prefer to have _his_ studying done before dinner. + +Write sentences expressing relation between the words in the following +pairs. Use one of them in the possessive case or use an _of_ phrase, +whichever seems better. + + the manager, desk city, harbor + desk, top drawer proprietor, private office + book, cover typewriter, keys + city, mayor ledger, first page + +Bring to class five incorrect possessive phrases taken from +advertisements. Explain and correct the mistakes. + + +=Exercise 83= + +Which of the italicized words would you use? Why? + + 1. Have you heard of _Mr. Bennett_, _Mr. Bennett's_ + being appointed chairman of the meeting? + + 2. It will probably delay _him_, _his_ coming here. + + 3. I don't understand _him_, _his_ refusing to accept + the position. + + 4. We have heard a great deal of _him_, _his_ making a + success of photography. + + 5. The man's industry has resulted in _him_, _his_ + gaining fame. + + 6. Will you sign this permit for _us_, _our_ visiting + the factory? + + 7. What do you say to _us_, _our_ making some candy? + + 8. I am very sorry that _me_, _my_ interrupting you + yesterday delayed your work. + + 9. The machine is in excellent condition. There is no + reason for _it_, _its_ needing any repair. + + 10. _Everybody_, _everybody's_ being on time is + absolutely necessary. + + +=Exercise 84= + +Each of the following sentences is incorrect because the sign of the +possessive case has been omitted. Insert the apostrophe or the +apostrophe and _s_, wherever either is needed. + + 1. There is a new boys school in our town. + + 2. James brother John is our new bookkeeper. + + 3. For entrance to this course three years work in + mathematics and one years work in German are + required. + + 4. This new building will be occupied by J. M. Hopkins + mail order department. + + 5. The superintendents inspection was thorough. + + 6. The trouble will be in John agreeing to the + proposition. + + 7. All applications for help should be made to the + Womens Committees. + + 8. The employees rest rooms are on the sunny side of + the building. + + 9. Our fifteen years experience in selling bonds has + convinced us that investments paying a low rate of + interest are the safest. + + 10. In to-days mail I received a very large order from + Graham & Moore's successors. + + 11. Jones Brothers new store is on the corner of + Madison Street. + + 12. Last month sales show an increase of two thousand + dollars. + + 13. Everybodys business is nobodys business. + + 14. It is when to-morrows burden is added to the + burden of to-day that the weight is more than a man + can bear. + + 15. The present governor was the peoples choice. + + 16. I prefer Tennysons poems to Longfellows. + + 17. I have read both Longfellow and Tennysons poems. + + 18. I bought the book at Barlow and Companys new + store. + + 19. We are going to insist on Mary taking a long + vacation this year. + + 20. I have had the pleasure of staying at both your + friends houses. + + +=Exercise 85--The Apostrophe= + +Some of the following sentences are right, and some are wrong. Correct +those that are wrong, explaining why they are wrong. + + 1. The man who's coming this way is Mr. Burton. + + 2. Whose coat is that? + + 3. The man who's place you are taking has been with + this firm for twenty years. + + 4. The next one whose to give a report is the + treasurer. + + 5. The next one whose report we must hear is the + treasurer. + + 6. Don't you think it's too early to start? + + 7. He is a ladies tailor. + + 8. Remember your to let us know at once who's elected. + + 9. Its too late now to change its wording. + + 10. Mr. Jones' house is being repaired. + + 11. The Joneses' house is being repaired. + + 12. There coming as fast as their horse will bring + them. + + 13. I think you're typewriter needs cleaning. + + 14. Your coming too, are'nt you? + + 15. Every business has it's problems. + + 16. The Bon Ton has a big sale in mens' and womens' + coat's. + + 17. Why, it's March! No wonder their having a sale. + + 18. We shall give you a special discount if you will + send your dealer's name. + + 19. Most of the dealer's advertise very little. + + 20. It's just a year ago since we received your last + order. + + 21. Its not willingness we lack; it's time. + + 22. If you use our safety device, you may leave you're + window open with security, and you will arise + refreshed, ready for a big days work. + + 23. Lets take our vacation when they take their's. + + 24. I think we shall have to take our's in August. Two + of us must stay during July, for the work will not do + it's self, you know. + + 25. In any explanation it should be the writers + purpose to so describe his good's that the reader will + desire them. A good salesman never shows a necktie in + a box. He takes it out and with a deft twist forms + it's length into a four-in-hand over his finger. The + customer then sees not only the scarf, it's color and + its weave, but he sees it in it's relation to himself, + as it will look when it's tied. + + +=Exercise 86= + +Supply _who_ or _whom_: + + 1. ---- did you take me for? + + 2. The shipping clerk, ---- I consider responsible for + the mistake, must go. + + 3. The shipping clerk, ---- I feel certain is + responsible for the mistake, must go. + + 4. ---- is it? + + 5. ---- shall I say called? + + 6. ---- do you wish to see? + + 7. ---- did you say was elected? + + 8. He is the one ---- every one thought should be + elected. + + 9. Choose the one ---- you think will give the best + service. + + 10. Choose the one ---- you think you can trust. + + 11. She asked me ---- did it. + + 12. ---- do you think is the best salesman in the + firm? + + 13. ---- do you regard as the best salesman in the + firm? + + 14. ---- was that ---- you were talking to? + + 15. He is the one ---- I was speaking about. + + 16. ---- do we play next week? + + 17. He is a workman ---- can be trusted. + + 18. He is a workman upon ---- you can depend. + + 19. This letter comes from Robert, ---- we all know + very well. + + 20. This letter comes from Robert, ---- we all know + writes good letters. + + 21. ---- do you consider to be most capable? [The + subject of the infinitive _to be_ must be in the + objective case.] + + 22. This booklet was written by the man ---- Mr. + Bardon considers [to be] the best correspondent in our + office. + + 23. He is the one ---- every one believes to be worthy + of the highest honors. + + 24. The critic ---- every one thought gave the most + truthful account of the performance is a man of great + culture. + +Supply _whoever_ or _whomever_: + + 1. Give the book to ---- needs it. + + 2. Give it to ---- you think best. + + 3. ---- I send can be trusted. + + 4. Send me ---- is there. + + 5. Send me ---- you find there. + + 6. ---- reaches the line first will receive the cup. + + 7. The cup will be given to ---- reaches the lines + first. + + 8. In the country lane he spoke to ---- he met. + + 9. ---- you choose may compete for the prize. + + 10. ---- you bring is welcome. + + +=Exercise 87= + +Read the following sentences, using one of the forms in italic. Be able +to give a reason for your choice. + + 1. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ are going camping next + summer. + + 2. It is a question that refers to you and _I_--_me_. + + 3. It is a question between you and _I_--_me_. + + 4. I am sure that it was _she_--_her_. + + 5. I am sure that we saw you and _he_--_him_. + + 6. _We_--_us_ boys are going camping. + + 7. Will you go camping with _we_--_us_ boys? + + 8. _They_--_them_ and their cousins are going camping. + + 9. We bought a large piece of ground so that my + brother and _I_--_me_ could have a garden. + + 10. It was bought for _he_--_him_ and _I_--_me_. + + 11. Is that _he_--_him_ entering the gate? Yes, that + is _he_--_him_. + + 12. _Who_--_whom_ should I meet at the station but old + Mr. McGregor, _who_--_whom_ I had not seen for several + years. + + 13. If I were _he_--_him_, I should start at once. + + 14. There is no need of _him_--_his_ staying any + longer. + + 15. He does not work so rapidly as _I_--_me_. + + 16. Mary and _she_--_her_ work in the same office. + + 17. There is no danger of _me_--_my_ failing. + + 18. Please let _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_ do the work + together. + + 19. There is no use of _us_--_our_ trying any more. + + 20. _Us_--_our_ giving up now will spoil everything. + + 21. My mother objected to _me_--_my_ going. + + 22. Why did you insist upon _us_--_our_ coming to-day? + + 23. I hardly think it is _he_--_him_ _who_--_whom_ is + to blame. + + 24. I should like to be _she_--_her_. + + 25. _They_--_them_ that do wrong shall be punished. + + 26. _They_--_them_ that do wrong I shall punish. + + 27. _He_--_him_ that is your friend you can call upon + in your hour of need. + + 28. _He_--_him_ that is your friend will respond to + your call. + + 29. The manager praised both the bookkeepers and + _we_--_us_ girls. + + 30. Was it you who called? Yes, it was _I_--_me_. + + 31. It surely was not _I_--_me_ whom you saw. + + 32. He reproved us both but _I_--_me_ more than + _she_--_her_. + + 33. Are you sure it's _I_--_me_ whom he appointed? + + 34. If it's really _I_--_me_ who was appointed, I'm + sure I should have been notified. + + 35. I'm sure it can't be _I_--_me_. + + +=Exercise 88--_Same_ as a Pronoun= + +One of the worst constructions found in business letters of today is the +use of _same_ as a pronoun. The word may be an adjective or a noun but +never a pronoun. + + _Wrong_: Will you please fill out the enclosed blank + and return _same_ as soon as possible? + + _Right_: Will you please fill out the enclosed blank + and return _it_ as soon as possible? + +In each of the following sentences substitute a noun or a pronoun for +_same_: + + 1. Will you not send us a check by Friday so that we + may use same for our pay roll on Saturday? + + 2. Do you wish to bid for our cinder output this year? + We have a sample car that we shall be glad to have you + inspect if you think you will have any use for same. + + 3. We have no use for the material this year, but we + thank you for giving us an opportunity to bid for + same. + + 4. If you are dissatisfied with the machine, return + same at our expense. + + 5. You state that you sent us an order on June 10, but + we cannot find any trace of same. + + 6. We are in the market for two dozen Standard clothes + wringers, and we should be glad to receive your lowest + price on same. + + 7. We have given you credit for this amount and desire + to thank you for your promptness in sending same. + + 8. We have your letter of November 6 and thank you for + same. + + 9. If you think you can use this type of machine, we + shall be glad to send you same on ten days' trial. + + 10. We have decided to use your machine if you will + give us a satisfactory guarantee as to strength, + efficiency, and freedom from leaks. As soon as + possible let us hear from you in regard to same. + + +=Exercise 89--Nouns and Pronouns Incorrectly Used= + + _Wrong_ _Right_ + 1. We saw _lots_ of curious things. We saw _a number_ of curious + things. + 2. Do you know that _party_? Do you know that _man_? + + 3. I stayed at home the _balance_ I stayed at home the _rest_ + of the day. + of the day. + 4. What _business_ have you to go? What _right_ have you to go? + + 5. The dress will be done in a The dress will be done in a + _couple_ of days. _few_ days. + + 6. I'll walk a _piece_ with you. I'll walk a _short distance_ + with you. + + 7. Did you get a _raise_ in pay? Did you get an _increase_ + in pay? + + 8. I'll send you a _postal_. I'll send you a _postal + card_. + + 9. Christmas is still a long _ways_ Christmas is still a long + off. _way_ off. + + 10. What _line_ of business are you What _kind_ of business are + you in now? + in now? + 11. If you expect to open a grocery, If you expect to open a + let me give you a little advice grocery, let me give you + _along that line_. a little advice _on the + subject_. + + 12. Have you anything new in the Have you any new neckwear? + neckwear _line_? + + 13. I have a _date_ with the dentist. I have an _appointment_ with + the dentist. + + 14. Have you a _date_ for this evening? Have you an _engagement_ for + this evening? + + 15. He always does his work in good He always does his work + _shape_. _well_. + + 16. That is a good _write-up_ on the That is a good _article_ on + tariff. the tariff. + + 17. _Yourself_ and friends are invited. _You_ and your friends are + invited. + + 18. Don't _they_ have street cars in Are there no street cars in + your town? your town? + + 19. _It_ said in this morning's paper This morning's paper said + that the traffic men would that the traffic men + strike. would strike. + + 20. The book _what_ he advised is not The book _that_ he advised + fiction. is not fiction. + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB + + +AS a rule, adverbs present more difficulty than do adjectives. Careless +pupils frequently use an adjective when an adverb is necessary; as, + + _Wrong_: He solved the problem very _quick_. + _Right_: He solved the problem very _quickly_. + + _Wrong_: This is _real_ good candy. + _Right_: This is _really_ (or _very_) good candy. + +Until the habit of correct usage is formed, every sentence must be +watched. When a word modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, +another adverb must be used, and an adjective may not correctly be +substituted. As a rule, adverbs express the following ideas: + + _Time_: We arrived _early_. + _Place_: We have been _here_ since January. + _Manner_: He walked _steadily_ onward. + _Cause_: _Why_ did you refuse the offer? + _Degree_: I am _very much_ surprised. + _Number_: I did it _once_ not _twice_. + _Assertion_: } + _Denial_: } I do _not_ agree. + + Adverb modifying a verb: See how _slowly_ the man + walks! + + Adverb modifying an adjective: The weather has been + _extremely_ warm. + + Adverb modifying an adverb: He dictates _very_ + rapidly. + +It must be remembered, however, that verbs of the senses--_taste_, +_feel_, _look_, _smell_, _sound_, and the like--are sometimes almost +equal in meaning to the verb _be_. In that case, they are followed by +adjectives and not by adverbs; as, + + _Adjective_: He looked _angry_. + _Adverb_: He looked _angrily_ at us. + + +=Exercise 90= + +Name the adjectives in the following selection, explaining with what +noun each belongs. + +Name the adverbs, explaining what part of speech each modifies. + + Since 1904 the number of live cattle exported from + this country has been steadily growing smaller. + Exports of dressed beef have also shrunk to such + insignificant proportions that the United States is no + longer an important factor in the foreign markets for + beef. Often has it been said that the competition of + cheap Argentine beef has deprived us of foreign + markets. It would be more nearly true to say that + foreigners buy the inferior article only because we + cannot supply them with all they want of the best + grade. Take, for instance, the Englishman's + willingness to pay considerably more for American + corn-fed beef than for Argentine. + + The raising of cattle is important, also, from the + standpoint of the leather business. Obviously, with a + 21 per cent increase in population in each decade, + many more shoes are necessary. Automobile and other + industries are making constantly increasing demands + for leather. Shoes cannot become cheaper in the face + of increased demand and diminished supply. Too much + depends upon the cattle industry for us to allow it to + wane. + + +=Exercise 91= + +Which of the italicized words should you use in the following, and why? + + 1. Why do you walk so _slow_--_slowly_? + + 2. Speak _louder_--_more loudly_. + + 3. I cannot explain why he spoke so + _gentle_--_gently_. + + 4. The automobile was going very _swift_--_swiftly_. + + 5. The well has been dug very _deep_--_deeply_. + + 6. He is not _near_--_nearly_ so tall as you are. + + 7. Are you cutting that _even_--_evenly_? + + 8. She does pen and ink sketches + _beautiful_--_beautifully_. + + 9. Why can't I grow _quicker_--_more quickly_? + + 10. I feel _bad_--_badly_ this morning. + + 11. Can you do all I have asked? _Easy_--_easily_. + + 12. She does her work _good_--_well_. + + 13. She does her work _fine_--_finely_. + + 14. I am _real_--_very much_ surprised to see you. + + 15. He became _real_--_very_ angry. + + 16. I'm afraid it's not _near_--_nearly_ big enough. + + 17. She works twice as _quick_--_quickly_ as you do. + + 18. He _sure_--_surely_ is a good speaker. He seems + _sure_--_surely_ of himself. + + 19. Are you going? _Sure_--_surely_? + + 20. He says he is _near_--_nearly_ starved. + + 21. He worked _steady_--_steadily_ all morning. The + others did not work _near_--_nearly_ so hard. + + 22. I am speaking as _serious_--_seriously_ as I can. + + 23. The orange tastes _bitter_--_bitterly_. + + 24. Don't you think he has been acting + _queer_--_queerly_? + + 25. The coat is finished _nice_--_nicely_. + + +=Exercise 92= + +Explain the proper position of the italicized adverbs in the following +sentences. Remember that an adverb must stand as closely as possible to +the word that it modifies, but remember also that an infinitive, +although made up of two parts, is _one_ word and should not be split by +an adverb. + + 1. I _merely_ want the Milwaukee list of customers. + + 2. You _almost_ write like her. + + 3. Your writing is like hers _almost_. + + 4. I can _not_ find one of the papers I had on the + desk. + + 5. He told me to _carefully_ add the figures in the + column. + + 6. I expect to _quickly_ finish my dictation. + + 7. I don't _even_ understand the first problem in the + lesson. + + 8. Don't say you don't _ever_ expect to go to school + again. + + 9. All the statements are _not_ on my desk. + + 10. He promised to _quickly_ settle the matter. + + 11. I wish you to _clearly_ understand the situation. + + 12. I _only_ have two more items to enter. + + 13. I _only_ expect to take a short vacation this + year. + + 14. He _only_ spoke of two causes of the loss in + trade. + + 15. I _only_ decided to take the Western instead of + the Eastern trip at the last moment. + + +=Exercise 93--Comparison= + +Adjectives are compared so as to express different degrees of quality. +There are three degrees of comparison, the _positive_, the +_comparative_, and the _superlative_. When the object modified or +described by the adjective is not compared with another, the first or +_positive_ degree is used. When two objects are compared, the second or +_comparative_ degree is used to denote more or less of the quality +expressed by the adjective. When several objects are compared, the +_superlative_ degree of the adjective is used to express the highest or +the lowest possible degree of the adjective. + +The usual method of comparing an adjective is to add _er_ to the +positive to form the comparative, and _est_ to form the superlative. +Frequently, however, especially for an adjective of two or more +syllables, the comparative is formed by prefixing _more_ or _less_ to +the positive, and the superlative by prefixing _most_ or _least_. +Besides the adjectives in these two classes there are some which do not +follow any regular method and must, therefore, be watched a little more +closely. + +The following table illustrates the different methods of comparison: + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + bright brighter brightest + dangerous more dangerous most dangerous + beautiful more beautiful most beautiful + good better best + bad worse worst + ill worse worst + +Be careful to avoid using a double sign for the comparative degree; as, + + _Wrong_: This writing is _more neater_ than yours. + +Some adverbs are also compared; as, + + _Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_ + well better best + quickly more quickly most quickly + +Some adjectives and adverbs cannot be compared because the positive +degree in itself expresses a complete or _absolute_ meaning; as, + + absolute,-ly eternal perfect sufficient + circular extreme perpendicular supreme + continual faultless perpetual unanimous + dead full right unique + decisive impossible round universal + empty incurable square white + +Compare those of the following adjectives that may be compared. Explain +why some do not admit of comparison. + + great spotless expensive wise + tall dear parallel high + desirable east old new + honorable early exclusive blank + + +=Exercise 94= + +In the following exercise, select the correct one of the two italicized +forms. Remember that the comparative degree is used in comparing two +objects, the superlative in comparing three or more. + + 1. I had three pens. I have lost the _better_--_best_ + one. + + 2. I have two clerks. John is the _older_--_oldest_. + + 3. Of the two colors, I think the tan is the + _more_--_most_ becoming to you. + + 4. You are the _taller_--_tallest_ of all the boys. + + 5. Of two professions, choose the _more_--_most_ + honorable. + + 6. He is the _faster_--_fastest_ workman in the shop. + + 7. Which of your hands is the _cleaner_--_cleanest_? + + 8. Which do you like _better_--_best_, skating or + sleighing? + + 9. Which of your eyes has the _better_--_best_ vision? + + 10. Of all the shops, she likes Leslie's + _better_--_best_. + + 11. Which is _more_--_most_ durable, serge or + broadcloth? + + 12. Which tree lives _longer_--_longest_, the poplar + or the elm? + + 13. Which is the _best_--_better_ policy, honesty or + dishonesty? + + 14. He is the _wittier_--_wittiest_ one in the class. + + 15. He is the _wittier_--_wittiest_ boy in the class. + There is only one boy in the class besides him. + + 16. Of our twenty salesmen, he is considered + _better_--_best_ because he is _quicker_--_quickest_ + witted than any other. + + 17. You should not mention the two men in one breath. + The _former_--_first_ is famous and the + _latter_--_last_ infamous. + + 18. Which of you two do you think deserves + _more_--_most_ praise? + + 19. Which of you two deserves _less_--_least_ praise? + + 20. Which of you two can run the _faster_--_fastest_? + + +=Exercise 95= + +Remember that the double negative is wrong; as, + + _Wrong_: I haven't no paper. + _Right_: I have no paper. + +Correct any of the following sentences that contain this mistake: + + 1. None of them didn't come. + + 2. I couldn't do the problem neither. + + 3. This paper isn't very good, I don't think. + + 4. Couldn't you find no better pen? + + 5. I didn't choose none of them. + + 6. I don't see nothing to complain of. + + 7. He couldn't hardly see across the street. + + 8. We didn't find the paper nowhere. + + 9. They can't scarcely believe the report. + + 10. She couldn't stay with us only a few minutes. + + +=Exercise 96--Fewer, Less= + +_Fewer_ refers to a smaller number by counting, _less_ refers to a +smaller quantity by measuring. Insert the correct word: + + 1. You are making ---- mistakes each day. + + 2. I am having ---- difficulty in writing shorthand. + + 3. There are ---- houses on this street than I had + thought. + + 4. The farther inland we went the ---- signs of + habitation we saw. + + 5. Each year there is ---- opportunity for an + uneducated man to rise. + + 6. Each year there are ---- opportunities for the + uneducated man to rise. + + +=Most, Almost= + +_Most_ refers to quantity or number; _almost_ means _not quite_. Insert +the correct word: + + 7. ---- people enjoy their work. + + 8. I have ---- finished the course in stenography. + + 9. ---- European cities are beautiful. + + 10. ---- all European cities are beautiful. + + +=Real, Very= + +_Real_ is an adjective meaning _actual_; _very_ is an adverb of degree. +Insert the correct word: + + 11. I'm ---- glad to see you. + + 12. Is your comb ---- amber? + + 13. The men of the Titanic were ---- heroes. + + 14. He is a ---- good soloist. + + 15. She is ---- entertaining in conversation; it was a + ----pleasure to meet her. + + +=Exercise 97--Adjectives and Adverbs Incorrectly Used= + + _Wrong_ _Right_ + 1. I don't like _those_ kind of pens. I don't like _that_ kind of + pens. + + 2. What sort of _a_ course are you What sort of course are you + taking? taking? + + 3. His statements made me _mad_. His statements made me _angry_. + + 4. Yours _respectively_. Yours _respectfully_. + (Consult a dictionary for the correct use of _respectively_) + + 5. Do you want _in_? Do you want _to come in_? + + 6. Go _some place_ with me. Go _somewhere_ with me. + + 7. My father is _some_ better. My father is _somewhat_ better. + + 8. He comes _every once in a while_. He comes _occasionally_. + + 9. Did you recognize the girl who Did you recognize the girl who + drove _past?_ drove _by_? + + 10. The two are _both_ alike. The two are alike. + + 11. He is _liable_ to come any minute. He is _likely_ to come at any + minute. + + 12. That ring has a _funny_ design. That ring has an _odd_ design. + + 13. I'd _sooner_ stay at home. I'd _rather_ stay at home. + + 14. Are you _most_ ready? Are you _almost_ ready? + + 15. I'm _kind of_ sleepy. I'm _rather_ sleepy. + + 16. What _size_ hat do you wear? What _sized_ hat do you wear? + + 17. _This here_ book is the one I wish. _This_ book is the one I wish. + + 18. He spoke _angry like_. He spoke _angrily_. + + 19. His ideas are _no_ good. His ideas are _worthless_ (or + _not good_). + + 20. He _seldom ever_ makes a mistake. He _seldom_ (_hardly ever_) + makes a mistake. + + 21. I didn't work _any_ last night. I didn't work _at all_ last + night. + + 22. I walked _this_ far yesterday. I walked _as far as this_ + yesterday. + + 23. I want to see you _badly_. I want to see you _very much_. + + 24. He sells insurance _on the side_. _In addition to his other + business_ he sells + insurance. + + 25. Don't talk _out loud_. Don't talk _aloud_. + + 26. She is _very_ disappointed. She is _very much_ + disappointed. + (Before a perfect participle _too_ or _very_ may not be used without + the addition of the adverb _much_) + + 27. She is a _cute_ (or _cunning_) She is a _pretty_ child. + child. + (Look up the words _cute_ and _cunning_ in a dictionary) + + 28. He was lying face _down_ on the He was lying face _downward_ + grass. on the grass. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE VERB + + +VERBS may be _transitive_ or _intransitive_. + +A verb is transitive when it needs an object to complete its meaning; +that is, when the action passes over (Latin, _transire_, to pass over) +from the subject or doer to the object or receiver; as, + + He _hit_ the ball. + +A verb is intransitive when it needs no object to complete its meaning; +as, + + The crowd _cheered_. + +Some intransitive verbs require a predicate noun or pronoun in the +nominative case, or an adjective, to complete their meaning. They are +the verbs _be_, _become_, _appear_, _seem_, _feel_, _taste_, _look_, +_smell_; as, + + _Adjective_: The berries taste _sour_. + _Noun_: John is my _brother_. + _Pronoun_: It is _I_. + +Such verbs are sometimes called _copulatives_. + + +=Exercise 98= + +Tell whether each verb in the following sentences is transitive or +intransitive and whether it is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the +nominative or the objective case or by a complementary adjective. + + 1. Primitive people have left traces of very early + commercial relations. + + 2. Explorers visited the Ohio valley and found articles + of remote manufacture. + + 3. Checks and drafts are great conveniences to the + business man. + + 4. The United States Supreme Court made a decision that + labor unions are punishable under trust penalties. + + 5. A labor union is different from a trust. + + 6. This is the opinion of the labor leader. + + 7. What is your opinion? + + 8. The total value of merchandise sent to Latin-America + from the United States exceeds that supplied by any + other single country. + +Write three sentences illustrating transitive verbs. + +Write three sentences illustrating intransitive verbs. + +Write three sentences illustrating copulative verbs. + + +=Exercise 99--Voice= + +Voice is that property of the verb that shows whether the subject acts +or is acted upon. If the subject acts, the verb is in the _active +voice_. If the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the _passive +voice_. Every sentence containing a transitive verb must have the +following parts: + + _Agent_(doer) _Action_ _Receiver_ + The runaway horse injured John. + +When the sentence is in the order shown above, the subject is the agent, +and the verb expresses the action of the agent. When the sentence is +written in this order, the verb is said to be in the _active voice_. + +However, without changing the meaning of the sentence, we may change the +order of the ideas; thus, + + _Receiver_ _Action_ _Agent_ + John was injured by the runaway horse. + +The receiver of the action has become the subject, and the agent has +become part of the predicate, being expressed in the phrase _by the +runaway horse_. When the sentence is expressed in this order, the +subject receiving or "suffering" the action, the verb is said to be in +the _passive voice_. Only transitive verbs, therefore, may be changed to +the passive voice. + + NOTE.--There are certain intransitive verbs that + sometimes have a preposition so closely connected with + them that the two are treated almost like a transitive + verb, and may be made passive; as, + + _Active_: The audience laughed _at_ the speaker. + _Passive_: The speaker was laughed _at_ by the audience. + +Write five sentences in the active voice. + +Change them to the passive voice. + +In the sentences that you have written, is the active form of the verb +or the passive form better? Which is more direct in its wording? Which, +then, is the better form to use regularly? + + +=Exercise 100--Number and Person= + +The number of the verb is decided by the number of the subject. If the +subject is a singular noun, or a pronoun that stands for a singular +noun, it requires a singular verb; if the subject is plural, it requires +a plural verb. As a rule, there is no difference between the singular +and the plural forms of the verb except in the form for the third person +singular; as, + + I say We say + You say You say + He says They say + +But as the third person of the verb is the one most often used, it must +be carefully noted. + +The following subjects of verbs are singular and require a singular verb +to accompany them: + +1. A collective noun that denotes a group of objects acting as one +thing; as, + + The crowd _is_ scattering. + +2. A group of words which, like a collective noun, is plural in form but +singular in meaning; as, + + Thirty dollars _is_ what I paid for the ring. + +3. A singular noun modified by _every_, _each_, _one_, _no_, _many a_; +or the pronouns _each_, _everybody_, _either_, _neither_, and _none_ +when it means _not one_; as, + + Each of us _has_ his lesson. + Many an opportunity _has_ been wasted. + Everybody _is_ here now. + +4. Singular[1] nouns or pronouns joined by _or_, _either--or_, +_neither--nor_; as, + + Either John or his father _is_ coming. + +5. Two nouns joined by _and_, denoting one person or thing; as, + + The bookkeeper and stenographer _is_ an expert. + + NOTE.--If two persons are meant, the article should be + repeated before the second noun. + +The following subjects of verbs are plural and require plural verbs: + +1. A collective noun denoting plurality; that is, referring to the +individuals that compose the group; as, + + The class _are_ all studious. + +2. A compound subject joined by _and_, when the objects joined are +different; as, + + The door and the window _are_ both open. + +3. The pronoun _you_, though it may denote only one person; as, + + _Right_: You _were_ right. + _Wrong_: You _was_ right. + + + +=Exercise 101= + +In the following sentences, decide which of the italicized forms is +correct. Give the reason for your choice. + + 1. Two dollars _is_--_are_ too much for you to pay. + + 2. Bread and butter _is_--_are_ what I prefer to eat. + + 3. Bread and butter _is_--_are_ both sold here. + + 4. His opinion and mine _is_--_are_ different. + + 5. The majority of the class _is_--_are_ present. + + 6. The class _is_--_are_ dismissed. + + 7. The congregation _is_--_are_ asked to remain a few + minutes after the close of the service. + + 8. The community _is_--_are_ rapidly changing. + + 9. A few of the books _was_--_were_ given to me. + + 10. There _was_--_were_ forty people present. + + 11. The secretary and treasurer _was_--_were_ asked to + read _his_--_their_ report. + + 12. One-third of the office _was_--_were_ late this + morning because the cars were not running. + + 13. He _don't_--_doesn't_ understand what I mean. + + 14. If the quality and the price _is_--_are_ right, + buy. + + 15. There _come_--_comes_ a crowd of people. + + 16. The library with its thousands of books + _was_--_were_ destroyed by fire. + + 17. There _don't_--_doesn't_ seem to be much + difference between the two. + + 18. The whole system of filing and indexing + _is_--_are_ wrong. + + 19. Safety as well as success _is_--_are_ at stake. + + 20. The state of public affairs _calls_--_call_ for + quick action. + + 21. Many a man _has_--_have_ neglected golden + opportunities. + + 22. Many men _has_--_have_ neglected golden + opportunities. + + 23. The committee _has_--_have_ given _its_--_their_ + report. + + 24. Our team _was_--_were_ beaten. + + 25. One of us surely _is_--_are_ mistaken. + + 26. Every one _was_--_were_ happy when Tom was elected + president. + + 27. Tom and James _is_--_are_ going skating. + + 28. Tom with his brother James _is_--_are_ going + skating. + + 29. The only thing I have not prepared for dinner + _is_--_are_ the potatoes. + + 30. Fifty feet of sidewalk _was_--_were_ laid to-day. + + 31. None of the boys _is_--_are_ studying stenography. + + 32. Neither Tom nor his brother _is_--_are_ studying + stenography. + + 33. Both Tom and his brother _is_--_are_ + stenographers. + + 34. Every one _is_--_are_ interested in the cost of + living. + +In the last sentence above substitute one of the following for _every +one_, using the correct form of the verb with each: + + each of us; everybody; all of us; several people; both + of the men; neither of the men; neither Mary nor John; + Mary and John; our club; our class; the nation; not + only Europe but America; Europe as well as America; + the nation as well as several of the larger cities + + +=Exercise 102--Tense= + +The tense of the verb indicates the time of the action. There are three +primary tenses, indicating action in the _present_, the _past_, and the +_future_. Each of these tenses has also a _perfect_ tense, which, +represents the action as being perfect or complete in the present, the +past, and the future. + +The _present_ tense is the simplest form. It denotes that the action +takes place now; as, + + I write We write + You write You write + He writes They write + +To be more exact, we may indicate that the action is continuing in the +present time, and then we say, + + I am writing We are writing + You are writing You are writing + He is writing They are writing + +This is called the _present progressive_ tense. + +It may be that you wish to be emphatic, and you say, + + I do write We do write + You do write You do write + He does write They do write + +This is called the _emphatic present_ tense. + +The _past_ tense indicates that the action took place in past time; as, + + I wrote We wrote + You wrote You wrote + He wrote They wrote + +or, the _past progressive_; as, + + I was writing We were writing + You were writing You were writing + He was writing They were writing + +or, the _past emphatic_; as, + + I did write We did write + You did write You did write + He did write They did write + +The emphatic form is used only in the present and the past tenses. + + * * * * * + +The _future_ tense denotes that the action will take place at some +future time. It is formed by using _shall_ or _will_ with the simplest +form of the verb; as, + + I shall write We shall write + You will write You will write + He will write They will write + +The progressive form is not common. It is + + I shall be writing We shall be writing + You will be writing You will be writing + He will be writing They will be writing + +The three perfect tenses are formed by using the verb _have_ with the +perfect participle of the verb. + +The _present perfect_ tense denotes that the action is complete at the +present time. It is formed by the present tense of _have_ and the +perfect participle of the verb; as, + + I have written We have written + You have written You have written + He has written They have written + +The progressive form is, + + I have been writing We have been writing + You have been writing You have been writing + He has been writing They have been writing + +The _past perfect_ denotes that the action was completed in past time. +It is formed by using the past tense of _have_ and the perfect +participle of the verb; as, + + I had written We had written + You had written You had written + He had written They had written + +The progressive form is, + + I had been writing We had been writing + You had been writing You had been writing + He had been writing They had been writing + +The _future perfect_ tense denotes that the action will be completed at +some future time. It is formed by the future of _have_ and the perfect +participle of the verb; as, + + I shall have written We shall have written + You will have written You will have written + He will have written They will have written + +The progressive form is rarely used. It is + + I shall have been writing We shall have been writing + You will have been writing You will have been writing + He will have been writing They will have been writing + +Giving all forms singular and plural, first, second, and third persons +of each tense constitutes the _conjugation_ of a verb. Giving one person +in each tense constitutes the _synopsis_ of the conjugation. + +The following is a synopsis of all the tenses of the active voice in the +first person singular number of the verb _write_: + + ACTIVE VOICE + + { { {I write (simple form) + { {_Present_ {I am writing (progressive form) + { { {I do write (emphatic form) + { { + {_Primary_ { {I wrote (simple) + { {_Past_ {I was writing (progressive) + { { {I did write (emphatic) + { { + { { {I shall write (simple) + { {_Future_ {I shall be writing (progressive) + TENSE { + { { {I have written (simple) + { {_Present Perfect_{I have been writing (progressive) + { { + {_Perfect_ { {I had written (simple) + {_or_ {_Past Perfect_ {I had been writing (progressive) + {_Secondary_{ + { { + { { {I shall have written (simple) + { {_Future Perfect_ {I shall have been writing + { { { (progressive) + + +=Exercise 103= + +Conjugate the following in the active voice: + + 1. Simple past tense of _walk_. + + 2. Present progressive tense of _walk_. + + 3. Present perfect of _drive_. (See Exercise 108 for + the principal parts.) + + 4. Present perfect progressive of _drive_. + + 5. Future progressive of _ride_. + + 6. Past of _ride_. + + 7. Present progressive of _ride_. + + 8. Past emphatic of _ride_. + + 9. Past perfect of _ride_. + + 10. Present perfect progressive of _ride_. + +Give a synopsis of the progressive tenses of _begin_, using _he_ as the +subject. + + +=Exercise 104--Shall and Will= + +The auxiliary verbs used to form the future tenses are _shall_ and +_will_. The two must be carefully distinguished because they denote +different ideas, according to the person with which they are used. The +rule is, to express simple future time, use _shall_ in the first person, +_will_ in the second and third persons. + +The future tense of the verb _walk_ is conjugated as follows: + + I shall walk We shall walk + You will walk You will walk + He will walk They will walk + +This is the form to use when you expect the action to take place +naturally. + +On the other hand, instead of letting things take their natural course +as they do in the simple future, you may force them to take place. You +may, for example, be determined to walk, or determined to make some one +else walk. In that case the use is reversed; as, + + I will walk We will walk + You shall walk You shall walk + He shall walk They shall walk + +This form is used whenever the speaker has authority to bring about the +action indicated by the verb. + +In questions of the first person always use _shall_. In questions of the +second and third persons use the same form that you expect in the +answer; as, + + _Shall_ you be at home to-morrow? I _shall_. + +In the following sentences insert _shall_ or _will_, giving the reason +for your choice: + + 1. I ---- finish the work by three o'clock, I think. + + 2. To-morrow he ---- feel sorry for this; I vow it. + + 3. I am sorry, but I ---- not be able to finish the + work before next week. + + 4. ---- you finish your business course in February or + in June? I ---- finish in June, I think. + + 5. ---- he finish in February? No, he ---- finish in + June. + + 6. The foreman declares he ---- not have another + chance. + + 7. He ---- see his mistake when it is too late. + + 8. They ---- surely be at the station to meet me. + + 9. I'm afraid you ---- be kicked if you go near that + horse. + + 10. If he doesn't take the examination, he ---- fail. + + 11. I am determined that I ---- win. + + 12. I ---- sail probably on the fifteenth. + + 13. He ---- be twenty-one to-morrow. + + 14. I ---- go in spite of him. + + 15. ---- you go by train, do you think? + + 16. I ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- send the + book at once. + + 17. I promise you John ---- know his lesson to-morrow. + + 18. ---- you be at home this evening? + + 19. ---- the train be on time? + + 20. ---- the store be open this evening? + +Conjugate the future and future perfect tenses of the following verbs: + + drive see go run sweep + ride choose sing eat sell + + +=Exercise 105--Should and Would= + +_Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses of _shall_ and _will_ and, in +general, express the same ideas as do _shall_ and _will_, except that +_should_ sometimes means _ought_; as, + + You _should_ not speak in that way. + +_Would_, also, sometimes indicates an action that occurs frequently; as, + + She _would_ often sit at the window all the morning. + +The use of _should_ and _would_ in indirect statements and questions is +sometimes puzzling. First of all, decide whether _shall_ or _will_ would +be used in the direct form of the sentence. If the direct form uses +_shall_, use _should_ in the indirect; if the direct uses _will_, use +_would_ in the indirect; as, + + _Direct_: The market _will_ improve. + + _Indirect_: He said that the market _would_ improve. + +In conditional clauses (_if_), use _should_ for all persons. + +Insert _should_ or _would_. + + 1. If I knew his address, I ---- send him a telegram. + + 2. He promised that he ---- not make the mistake + again. (The direct form would read, I will not ---- ) + + 3. I promised that I ---- not make the mistake again. + + 4. You promised that you ---- not make the mistake + again. + + 5. Do you think that I ---- go? + + 6. I ---- if I were you. + + 7. I ---- think he ---- know better than to apply for + that position. + + 8. John said that, no matter what we thought, he ---- + not go. + + 9. If you ---- decide to accept the offer, let me know + at once. + + 10. I am sorry he did that. He ---- not, of course. + + 11. If I ---- see him, I'd let him know. + + 12. If he ---- come during my absence, ask him to + wait. + + 13. I ---- think you would be more careful. + + 14. Let me know if you ---- not be able to come. + + +=Exercise 106= + +Change the italicized verbs to past tense, future, present perfect, past +perfect, future perfect. Wherever necessary, add sufficient to make the +meaning of the tense clear; as, + + _Present_: The manager _is now_ in his office. + + _Past_: The manager _was_ in his office _a few minutes + ago_. + + _Future_: The manager _will be_ in his office + _to-morrow at ten o'clock_. + + _Present Perfect_: The manager _has been_ in his + office _all the morning_. (It is still morning.) + + _Past Perfect_: The manager _had been_ in his office + _only a few moments when the president arrived_. + + _Future Perfect_: _In about five minutes_ the manager + _will have been_ in the president's office _exactly + three hours_. + + 1. The cashier _opens_ the safe in the morning. + + 2. The mechanic _earns_ good wages. + + 3. The buyer _leaves_ to-night. + + 4. The bookkeeper _makes_ out the statements. + + 5. The correspondent _writes_ the booklets. + + 6. The advertising manager _approves_ the copy. + + 7. The adding machine _is broken_. + + 8. The chief clerk _attends_ to the incoming mail. + + 9. The superintendent _visits_ the factory every day. + + 10. The salesman _is selling_ five thousand dollars' + worth of goods a week. + + +=Exercise 107= + +The present tense is used to indicate general truths--things true in +past time and still true. Omit the incorrect form in the following +sentences: + + 1. What did you say _is_--_was_ the meaning of the + term _bona fide_? + + 2. What _was_--_is_ the name of that book that you + enjoyed so much? + + 3. Didn't you know that the lion _is_--_was_ called + the king of beasts? + + 4. They told me that the legal rate of interest at + present _is_-_was_ six per cent. + + 5. Have you ever heard him try to prove that black + _is_--_was_ white? + + 6. What _is_--_was_ the name of the banker who + lectured to us yesterday? + + 7. I never could remember what the important products + of my county _are_--_were_. + + 8. The advocate of Equal Suffrage argued that mothers + _need_--_needed_ the ballot to protect their children. + + 9. She said that a democracy _is_--_was_ a government + of the people, by the people, and for the people, and + that women _are_-_were_ people as well as men. + + 10. The speaker asserted that this country + _needs_--_needed_ a tariff to protect home industries. + + +=Exercise 108--Principal Parts= + +No one can be certain of using the correct form of a verb unless he +knows the principal parts. Some verbs are regular; that is, they form +their past tense and their perfect participle by adding _ed_ to the +present tense; as, + + _Present_ _Past_ _Perfect Participle_ + walk walked walked + +Some verbs, however, are very irregular, having a different form for +each of the principal parts. A list of such verbs follows: + + _Present_ _Past_ _Perfect Participle_ + arise arose arisen + awake awoke or awaked awaked + be was been + bear (carry) bore borne + beat beat beaten + become became become + begin began begun + bid bade bidden + bite bit bitten + blow blew blown + break broke broken + choose chose chosen + come came come + do did done + draw drew drawn + drink drank drunk + drive drove driven + eat ate eaten + fall fell fallen + fly flew flown + forbid forbade forbidden + forsake forsook forsaken + freeze froze frozen + give gave given + go went gone + grow grew grown + hide hid hidden + know knew known + lie (to rest) lay lain + ride rode ridden + ring rang rung + rise rose risen + run ran run + see saw seen + shake shook shaken + show showed shown + shrink shrank shrunk + sing sang sung + slay slew slain + slide slid slidden + sow sowed sown + speak spoke spoken + spring sprang sprung + steal stole stolen + strive strove striven + swear swore sworn + swell swelled swelled, swollen + swim swam swum + take took taken + tear tore torn + throw threw thrown + wear wore worn + weave wove woven + write wrote written + + +=Exercise 109= + +Some verbs, though irregularly formed, have the past tense and perfect +participle alike. A list of such verbs follows: + + _Present_ _Past_ _Perfect Participle_ + bend bent bent + behold beheld beheld + beseech besought besought + bind bound bound + bleed bled bled + bless blessed, blest blessed, blest + bring brought brought + build built built + burn burned, burnt burned, burnt + buy bought bought + catch caught caught + cling clung clung + clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad + creep crept crept + deal dealt dealt + dig dug dug + dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt + dwell dwelt dwelt + flee fled fled + grind ground ground + hang hung, hanged hung, hanged + have had had + hear heard heard + hold held held + kneel knelt knelt + lay laid laid + lead led led + leap leapt leapt + lend lent lent + pay paid paid + say said said + shine shone shone + sit sat sat + sleep slept slept + sling slung slung + speed sped sped + spin spun spun + stand stood stood + sting stung stung + strike struck struck + string strung strung + sweep swept swept + swing swung swung + teach taught taught + think thought thought + weep wept wept + win won won + wind wound wound + wring wrung wrung + + +=Exercise 110= + +Some verbs have all three forms alike. A list of such follows: + + _Present_ _Past_ _Perfect Participle_ + bet bet bet + burst burst burst + cast cast cast + cost cost cost + cut cut cut + hit hit hit + hurt hurt hurt + knit knit knit + let let let + put put put + rid rid rid + set set set + shed shed shed + spread spread spread + sweat sweat sweat + wet wet wet + +FOOTNOTE: + +[1] If one of the words so joined is plural, the verb should be plural. + + + +=Exercise 111= + +Choose the correct form of the italicized words below, and give the +reason for your choice. + + 1. If it _don't_--_doesn't_ fit you, we shall alter + it. + + 2. I _knew_--_knowed_ I was right. + + 3. _Aren't_--_ain't_ you glad we came? + + 4. _Ain't_--_isn't_ he well? + + 5. We _done_--_did_ the right thing. + + 6. _Let_--_leave_ the book on the table. + + 7. _Let_--_leave_ me do as I planned. + + 8. Mary has _broke_--_broken_ her arm. + + 9. My mother has _gone_--_went_ to Boston. + + 10. Where _was_--_were_ you yesterday? + + 11. When the dinner bell _rang_--_rung_, we all + _come_--_came_ running in. + + 12. He _don't_--_doesn't_ know what you said. + + 13. To what hospital have they _taken_--_took_ him? + + 14. I _saw_--_seen_ him a few minutes ago. + + 15. I _saw_--_seen_ him yesterday. + + 16. I should _have_--_of_ brought my book. + + 17. My winter coat is _wore_--_worn_ out. + + 18. Have you ever _rode_--_ridden_ in an aeroplane? + + 19. I have _shown_--_showed_ you all the styles I + have. + + 20. _Don't_--_doesn't_ it seem odd that he + _don't_--_doesn't_ come? + + 21. She _don't_--_doesn't_ remember you. + + 22. We _began_--_begun_ the work yesterday. + + 23. I'm afraid my foot is _froze_--_frozen_. + + 24. We _ran_--_run_ all the way. + + 25. I've _shook_--_shaken_ him three times, but he + _don't_--_doesn't_ awake. + + 26. The bell _rang_--_rung_ just before you entered. + + 27. She _sang_--_sung_ very well. + + 28. He _swam_--_swum_ all yesterday morning. + + 29. Why _don't_--_doesn't_ some one tell John that his + coat is _tore_--_torn_? + + 30. _Don't_--_doesn't_ mother know that the vase is + _broke_--_broken_? + + +=Exercise 112--Troublesome Verbs= + +=Lie, Lay= + +_Lie_ is intransitive; _lay_ is transitive. _Lie_ signifies _to rest_; +_lay_, _to place_. Insert the correct form in the following: + + 1. He told me to ---- the book on the table. It ---- + there now. + + 2. I ---- all day waiting for help to arrive. + + 3. Where did you ---- the purse? + + 4. I ---- it on your desk. + + 5. I have ---- the letters on your desk. + + 6. They told me to ---- down. I ---- down for about + two hours. + + 7. As I wished to bleach the clothes, I ---- them on + the grass. + + 8. ---- the bundle down and listen to me. + + 9. You will probably find your cap ----ing where it + has ----since you dropped it. + + 10. They let the field ---- fallow. + + 11. How long has it ---- fallow? + + 12. Yesterday he ---- on the grass almost all day. + + 13. The hunter ---- still and watched. + + 14. He ---- his gun beside him and waited. + + 15. It will ---- undisturbed till morning. + + 16. ---- down awhile before dinner. + + 17. I don't know how long he has ---- here. + + 18. He let his tools ---- in the rain. + + +=Exercise 113--Troublesome Verbs= + +=Sit, Set= + +_Sit_ is intransitive and signifies _to rest_. _Set_ is transitive and +means _to place_. Insert the correct form: + + 1. I have ---- the ferns in the rain. + + 2. ---- down for a few minutes. + + 3. She drew up a chair and ---- down, while we were + ----ting down the probable expenses of the new house. + + 4. Why don't you ---- us a good example? + + 5. ----ting the table is not strenuous enough for one + who has been ----ting all day. + + 6. The hen is ----ting on her eggs. + + 7. The man is ----ting out trees. + + 8. ---- still; I'll go. + +=Fly, Flow, Flee= + +Remember that birds _fly_; rivers _flow_; hunted creatures _flee_. + + 9. Still the river ---- on its accustomed course. + + 10. Every autumn the birds ---- south. + + 11. The birds have not yet ---- away. + + 12. The deer ---- before the dogs. + +=Rise, Raise= + +_Rise_ is intransitive; _raise_ is transitive. + + 13. I have been trying all morning to ---- this + window. + + 14. I set the bread to ----. + + 15. He will surely ---- in his profession. + +=Teach, Learn= + + 16. Will you ---- me how to play tennis? + + 17. I thought you had ---- how to play tennis. + + 18. I ---- (past tense) her the new system of filing. + +=May, Can= + +_May_ signifies permission; _can_ denotes possibility. + + 19. ---- I use your book? + + 20. ---- you write shorthand? + + 21. ---- I go with you? + + 22. My mother says that I ---- go with you. + +=Might, Could= + +_Might_ is the past tense of _may_, and _could_ is the past tense of +_can_. + + 23. He said that I ---- go. + + 24. He ---- do the work if he wished. + + 25. Did you say I ---- use your typewriter? + + +=Exercise 114--Accept, Except= + +_Accept_ means _to receive_. _Except_ as a verb means _to exclude_; as a +preposition it means _with the exception of_. Insert the correct form in +the following: + + 1. Did you ---- the position? Yes, no one applied + for it ---- me. + + 2. I have no other reason for not ----ing your + invitation ---- that I shall not be in the city. + + 3. ---- Mary all ----ed the invitation. + + 4. He would not ---- the money ---- on one condition. + + 5. Why do you ---- him from the general offer that you + are making? + + 6. I agree with you ---- on one point. + + 7. He ----ed the rebuke in silence. + + 8. We were forced to ---- their conditions. + + 9. He said he would not ---- the money ---- that he + knew he could return it. + + 10. You have answered everything ---- what I asked + you. + + +=Exercise 115--Affect, Effect= + +_Affect_ means _to influence_. It is always a verb. _Effect_ as a verb +means _to bring to pass_; as a noun it means _result_. Insert the +correct form in the following sentences: + + 1. His opinion does not ---- the case. + + 2. How does war ---- trade? + + 3. His walking has had a good ---- upon his health. + + 4. The ruling did not ---- the wholesale dealers, but + it had a big ---- upon us. + + 5. What ---- did the loss have upon him? + + 6. The failure of the bank ----ed the small depositors + but had no ---- upon the big business men. + + 7. The ---- of the law has been startling because of + the number of people ----ed by it. + + 8. They ----ed the consolidation, but thereby produced + a bad ---- upon the price of their stock. + + 9. The accident seriously ----ed his nervous system. + In fact, the ---- of the fall is only gradually + disappearing. + + 10. Did the celebrated physician really ---- a cure? + + +=Exercise 116--Lose, Loose= + +_Lose_ is a verb, while _loose_ is usually an adjective. The two should +be carefully distinguished. Insert the correct form: + + 1. I have a note book with ---- leaves. + + 2. Aren't you afraid you will ---- some of the ---- + leaves of that book? + + 3. Be careful that you don't ---- that ---- bolt. + + 4. Do you remember that you had warned me that I'd + ---- the ---- button on my coat? I did ---- it not + five minutes afterward. + + 5. One of the hinges of the door has become ----. + + 6. Do not ---- the ---- change in that pocket. + + 7. He will ---- the parcel as the cord is ----. + + 8. Did you ---- the ---- leaf journal? + + 9. She may ---- the money, as the clasp of her purse + is ----. + + 10. I keep my ---- journal paper together by a rubber + band so that there will be no chance of ----ing it. + + +=Exercise 117--Had ought= + + _Wrong_: We had ought to go. + _Right_: We ought to go. + _Wrong_: We had ought to have gone. + _Right_: We ought to have gone. + +Correct the following sentences: + + 1. I had ought to have studied harder. + + 2. You ought to do it, hadn't you? + + 3. Hadn't you ought to have gone? + + 4. Yes, I had ought to have gone yesterday. + + 5. Do you think I had ought to have accepted? + + 6. He had ought to come to-morrow. + + 7. The tickets had ought to have come from the + printer's yesterday. + + 8. We had not ought to stay out so late. + + 9. You had ought to wear your coat. + + 10. He had ought to have become naturalized. + + 11. You had ought to have washed the dishes before you + went out. + + 12. You had ought to take an umbrella. + + 13. You had ought to have heard what she said. + + 14. We hadn't ought to disagree. + + 15. You ought to have invested, hadn't you? + + +=Exercise 118= + +Conjugation of the verb _be_ in the + +INDICATIVE MODE + + _Present Tense_ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I am We are + You are You are + He is They are + + _Past Tense_ + + I was We were + You were You were + He was They were + + _Future Tense_ + + I shall be We shall be + You will be You will be + He will be They will be + + _Present Perfect Tense_ + + I have been We have been + You have been You have been + He has been They have been + + _Past Perfect Tense_ + + I had been We had been + You had been You had been + He had been They had been + + _Future Perfect Tense_ + + I shall have been We shall have been + You will have been You will have been + He will have been They will have been + +The verb _be_ is used to form the progressive tenses of the active voice +(See Exercise 102) and the simple tenses of the passive voice; as, + +PASSIVE VOICE + + _Present Tense_ + + _Singular_ _Plural_ + + I am followed We are followed + You are followed You are followed + He is followed They are followed + + _Past Tense_ + + I was followed We were followed + You were followed You were followed + He was followed They were followed + + _Future Tense_ + + I shall be followed We shall be followed + You will be followed You will be followed + He will be followed They will be followed + + _Present Perfect Tense_ + + I have been followed We have been followed + You have been followed You have been followed + He has been followed They have been followed + + _Past Perfect Tense_ + + I had been followed We had been followed + You had been followed You had been followed + He had been followed They had been followed + + _Future Perfect Tense_ + + I shall have been followed We shall have been followed + You will have been followed You will have been followed + He will have been followed They will have been followed + +If we add the progressive form wherever it may be used, we have the +following synopsis of the indicative mood: + +PASSIVE VOICE + + { { _Present_ I am followed (simple) + { { I am being followed (progressive) + { { + { _Primary_ { _Past_ I was followed (simple) + { { I was being followed (progressive) + Tenses { { + { { _Future_ I shall be followed + { + { { _Present Perfect_ I have been followed + { _Perfect_ { _Past Perfect_ I had been followed + { { _Future Perfect_ I shall have been followed + + +=Exercise 119= + +Conjugate the following in the passive voice: + + 1. Simple present of _pay_. + + 2. Progressive past of _pay_. + + 3. Present perfect of _throw_. + + 4. Future of _praise_. + + 5. Past perfect of _forget_. + + 6. Progressive present of _choose_. + + 7. Past progressive of _choose_. + + 8. Future of _choose_. + + 9. Future perfect of _choose._ + + 10. Past perfect of _choose_. + + +=Exercise 120= + +Supply the verb forms indicated. Use the active unless the passive is +definitely called for. + + 1. The vegetables (present perfect of _lie_) in water + all the morning. + + 2. Rumors (past progressive passive of _spread_) far + and wide that Germany would fight England. + + 3. I thought the gingham (past perfect passive of + _shrink_) before the dress (past passive of _made_). + + 4. I am afraid my ear (present progressive of + _freeze_). + + 5. Is it true that your ring (present perfect passive + of _steal_)? + + 6. A sudden storm (past of _arise_) yesterday + afternoon, and a little boy (past passive of _drown_) + in the river where he and several of his companions + (past perfect progressive of _swim_) since noon. + + 7. I (present perfect of _speak_) of the matter to no + one. + + 8. I suppose that it (present perfect passive of + _break_). + + 9. I must (present perfect of _show_) him twenty + different styles, but he (past of _choose_) none of + them, for as soon as I (past of _show_) him one, he + (past of _shake_) his head. + + 10. She (past progressive of _wring_) out the clothes + when the door bell (past of _ring_). + + 11. I am afraid my purse (present passive of _lose_). + + 12. The knight (past of _say_) that he (past perfect + of _decide_) (infinitive of _follow_) the quest. + + 13. I thought I (past perfect of _bring_) you the + morning paper. + + 14. He (past of _swim_) the river twice yesterday. + + 15. There he stood (present participle of _ring_) the + dinner bell. + + 16. His coat (present perfect passive of _wet_) + through more than once. + + 17. The trip (past of _cost_) him a hundred dollars. + + 18. I (past of _see_) the superintendent yesterday, + but he said that there (present of _be_) no vacancies + at present. + + 19. They (past of _lay_) the clippings on the desk, + and then they (past of _sit_) down. + + 20. As he (past of _speak_), he (past progressive of + _shake_) from head to foot. + + 21. The clouds (past of _lie_) low on the horizon. + + 22. The building in which I work (present perfect + passive of _burn_). + + 23. Your employer (present perfect _deal_) fairly with + you. + + 24. I (present perfect of _have_) the same position + for three years. + + 25. I (future of _lend_) him no money. + + 26. The floor (past passive of _lay_) by an expert + workman. + + 27. The beads (past passive of _string_) on a waxed + thread. + + 28. He (present perfect of _throw_) the whole office + into confusion. + + 29. Before he came forward, he (past of _set_) the + child down. + + 30. After the storm, leaves and twigs (past + progressive of _lie_) thick upon the roads. + + 31. He (past of _drive_) to town yesterday. He (future + of _go_) again to-morrow. + + 32. The dictionary (present progressive of _lie_) on + the table where you (past of _lay_) it. + + 33. The dog (past of _lay_) the bone down, and then he + (past of _lie_) down. + + 34. He (past of _set_) the chair by the window and + then (past of _sit_) down. + + 35. I think we (future of _see_) him as we pass, for + he usually (present of _lie_) on a couch by the + window. + + 36. The snow (past perfect progressive of _fall_) for + several hours and now (past of _lie_) deep on every + path. + + 37. Everything (present perfect passive of _lay_) in + readiness. + + 38. (Present participle of _lie_) in the hammock, he + soon fell asleep. + + 39. I saw the man (present participle of _lie_) on the + ground. + + 40. After he (past perfect of _lie_) there a few + minutes, he suddenly (past of _sit_) up. + + 41. The biplane, which (past perfect progressive of + _lie_) in the hangar since it (past perfect passive of + _raise_) from the water in which it (past perfect of + _lie_) for two weeks, (past of _rise_) up over the + city. + + 42. Large crowds (past progressive of _sit_) on the + fields, (present participle of _wait_) for the + aeroplane (infinitive of rise). + + 43. Many people (past perfect of _set_) tents on the + field during the night and now (past progressive of + _get_) a good view of the flight. + + 44. All eyes (past progressive of _turn_) toward the + aeroplane, which (past progressive of _rise_) + steadily. + + 45. The biplane (past of _rise_) until it (past + perfect of _rise_) about five hundred feet above the + tallest building; then it (past passive of _raise_) + about fifty feet more to get it out of an air current + that (past progressive of _raise_) one end of it. + + +=Exercise 121--Infinitives and Participles= + +_Infinitives_ are verb forms that are used as nouns, as adjectives, or +as adverbs. _Participles_ are verb forms that are used as adjectives. +Thus at the same time each acts as two parts of speech. As verbs both +have the meaning of the verbs from which they are made; both have tense +and voice; both may be modified by adverbial expressions; and, if they +are made from transitive verbs, both may take objects. + +The Participle + +The tenses and voices of the participle are as follows: + + ACTIVE VOICE + + _Present_ + + _Simple_ _Progressive_ + selling ---- + + _Perfect_ + having sold having been selling + + + PASSIVE VOICE + + _Present_ + + being sold ---- + + _Perfect_ + having been sold ---- + +The participle frequently introduces a phrase. Usually the phrase is +used like an adjective; occasionally it is used like a noun (sometimes +called the _gerund_ phrase). + + _Adjective_: _Seeing your perplexity_, I'll offer a + suggestion. (Notice the punctuation.) + + _Noun_(Gerund): _Playing tennis_ is good exercise. + +The Infinitive + +The infinitive is distinguished by the word _to_, either expressed or +understood. The tenses and voices of the infinitive are as follows: + + ACTIVE VOICE + + _Present_ + + _Simple_ _Progressive_ + to sell to be selling + + _Perfect_ + to have sold to have been selling + + + PASSIVE VOICE + + _Present_ + to be sold ---- + + _Perfect_ + to have been sold ---- + +The infinitive is often used to introduce a phrase; as, + + _Noun_: _To get to the top of the hill_ was a difficult matter. + _Adverb_: I went _to buy the sugar_. + _Adjective_: It's a drawing _to be proud of_. + +Grouping all the facts that we have thus far learned about phrases, and +expressing them in diagram form, we have the following: + +Phrases may be classified: + + _According to Form_ _According to Use_ + Prepositional Adverbial + Participial (Gerund) Adjective + Infinitive Noun + +The prepositional and infinitive phrases may have all three uses; the +participial phrase has two--adjective and noun (gerund). + + +Variety of Expression[2] + +Phrases are important because, like clauses, they help us to vary the +form of our sentences. They help us, above all, to avoid the childish +_so_ habit. Thus, instead of _They wished to make the ice smooth so they +flooded the pond_, we may use, for example: + + _Subordinate clause_: Because (as, since) they wished + to make the ice smooth, they flooded the pond. + + _Participial phrase_: Wishing to make the ice smooth, + they flooded the pond. + + _Infinitive phrase_: To make the ice smooth, they + flooded the pond. + + _Gerund phrase_: Flooding the pond made the ice + smooth. + + _Prepositional phrase modifying noun subject_: The + flooding of the pond made the ice smooth. + + +Recast each of the following sentences in at least two of the ways shown +above: + + 1. They wished to finish the work so they stayed till + six o'clock. + + 2. John hoped to arrive before the others so he + started early. + + 3. He saw that the cars were not running so he walked + so he would be on time. + + 4. They needed some gasoline so they had to stop at a + garage. + + 5. He wished to make a tool chest so he bought some + lumber. + + 6. They saw that he liked to read so they gave him + several books. + + 7. She wished to make a good appearance at the party + so she bought a new dress. + + 8. He was in a hurry so he walked fast. + + 9. We were afraid that we'd be late so we ran. + + 10. The campers thought they'd like a fire so they + gathered a quantity of dry leaves and wood. + + 11. I was very tired when I reached home so I couldn't + go to the lecture. + + 12. The work was difficult so it took three hours to + finish it. + + 13. The clock needed repairing so he took it to a + jeweler's. + + 14. The coat did not fit so she sent it back. + + 15. She didn't know where to take the train so she + asked a policeman. + + +=Exercise 122--Mode= + +Mode is the form of the verb that indicates the manner of expressing the +thought. The _modes_, or _moods_, that every one should be able to +distinguish are the _indicative_ and the _subjunctive_. If the verb +indicates a fact, we say it is in the indicative mode; if it expresses a +supposition, a doubt, a statement contrary to fact, or a wish, we say it +is in the subjunctive mode. + + You _are_ good. (A fact--indicative.) + + I wish I _were_ good. (Contrary to fact, a wish--subjunctive.) + +In form the indicative and the subjunctive differ in the present and the +past tenses of the verb _to be_, as follows: + + =Indicative of _be_= + + _Present_ _Past_ + I am We are I was We were + You are You are You were You were + He is They are He was They were + + =Subjunctive of _be_= + + _Present_ _Past_ + If I be If we be If I were If we were + If you be If you be If you were If you were + If he be If they be If he were If they were + +Other verbs in the subjunctive mode do not end in _s_ in the third +person singular number, but use the same form as the other persons in +the singular number; as, _if he go_, _if she walk_. + +_If_, _though_, _although_, or _lest_ usually introduce the subjunctive +form. + +In modern English, the use of the subjunctive is becoming rare except in +the past and past perfect tenses in statements contrary to fact, and in +wishes, which are really statements contrary to fact; as, + + 1. If I were a king (but I'm not), I'd see that my + laws were obeyed. + + 2. I wish I were a king! (but I'm not). + + 3. If I had been careful, my work would be good. (I + was not careful.) + + 4. I wish I had been careful! (I was not.) + +Notice that the verb is in the past or in the past perfect tense. + +There are some careful writers who still use the present subjunctive to +show a _possibility_; as, + + Lest he start too late, remind him again that he must + meet the 4:15 train. + +In the following sentences, which form is better? May any of the +sentences use either form? + + 1. I wish I _was_--_were_ rich. + + 2. If I _was_--_were_ you, I should go at once. + + 3. If his work _was_--_were_ exact, he would have no + trouble in holding a position. + + 4. If it _was_--_were_ true, why didn't you say so? + + 5. If he _was_--_were_ a millionaire, he could not + have been more lavish. + + 6. If such a thing _was_--_were_ possible, our + government would be no government. + + 7. If the election _was_--_were_ postponed, we should + have been informed. + + +=Exercise 123= + +Insert _was_ or _were_ in each of the following sentences, in each case +giving a reason for your choice. Remember that the indicative _was_ is +used to denote a statement of fact in the past time, and the subjunctive +_were_ (singular and plural) is used to denote a possibility, something +that is supposed to be true, or a statement entirely contrary to fact, +as in a wish. + + 1. I wish I ---- going with you. + + 2. As he ---- not well, he could not go. + + 3. If he ---- well, he could go. + + 4. If he ---- attentive in class, he would not fail. + + 5. They treated me as if I ---- one of the family. + + 6. When I ---- in the South I visited New Orleans. + + 7. Suppose she ---- your guest, how would you + entertain her? + + 8. He would appear very tall ---- it not for the + breadth of his shoulders. + + 9. We decided that if it ---- still raining by seven + o'clock, we should not go. + + 10. If our strawberries ---- ripe, I'd give you some. + + 11. If the package ---- left yesterday, as you say, it + must have been while I ---- not at home. + + 12. If he ---- late yesterday, he must start earlier + to-day. + + 13. If every man ---- honest, business life would be + very pleasant. + + 14. I saw that he ---- not interested. + + 15. If he ---- not interested, he surely looked as if + he ----. + + 16. ---- I certain that the bonds ---- safe, I should + invest in them. + + 17. As the tablecloth ---- stained, we laid it on the + grass to bleach it. + + 18. If that stained tablecloth ---- mine, I'd try + bleaching it. + + 19. If I ---- as interested in farming as you are, I'd + buy a farm. + + 20. If her work ---- best, why didn't she get the + higher salary? + + +=Exercise 124--Verbs Incorrectly Used= + + _Wrong_ _Right_ + + 1. _Let_ the book on the table. _Leave_ the book on the table. + + 2. _Leave_ me go with you. _Let_ me go with you. + + 3. Don't _blame it on_ me. Don't _accuse_ me. + + 4. Do you _carry_ stationery? Do you _sell_ stationery? + + 5. The child _aggravates_ me. The child _irritates_ me. + + 6. Please _except_ my invitation. Please _accept_ my invitation. + + 7. Where have you _located_? Where have you _settled_? + (_Locate_ is a transitive verb.) + + 8. I _expect_ you are very busy. I _suppose_ you are very busy. + + 9. I _disremember_ seeing him. I _don't remember_ seeing him. + + 10. Do you _mind_ where you saw it? Do you _remember_ where you saw + it? + + 11. Where are you _stopping_? Where are you _staying_? + + 12. Did you _extend an invitation_ to him? Did you _invite_ him? + + 13. This clock needs _fixing_. This clock needs _repairing_. + + 14. I should _admire_ to go. I should _like_ to go. + + 15. I'd _love_ to go. I'd _like_ to go. + + 16. He didn't _show up_ on time. He didn't _appear_ on time. + + 17. I _had_ a strange thing A strange thing _happened_ to me + _happen_ to me yesterday. yesterday. + + 18. I didn't _get to go_. I _was unable to go_. + + 19. _Loan_ me your pencil. _Lend_ me your pencil. + (_May I borrow your pencil?_ is correct. _Loan_ is a noun.)[3] + + 20. I _can't seem_ to understand I _seem unable_ to understand + that problem. that problem. + 21. I don't _take any stock_ in I _have no confidence_ in such + such schemes. schemes. + 22. How do you _size up_ the What _do you think_ of the situation? + situation? + + 23. I _beg to state_.... Omit. + (This expression has been so overdone in business letters that it should + be avoided) + + 24. He _dove_ off the pier. He _dived_ off the pier. + + 25. He _claims_ that he was He _asserts_ (maintains) that he was + deceived. deceived. + 26. _Can_ I take your pencil? _May_ I take your pencil? + + 27. We expect to _get up_ a club. We expect to _organize_ a club. + + 28. Did you notice how that show Did you notice how that show + window was _got up_? window was _decorated_? + + 29. It is _going on_ ten o'clock. It is _almost_ ten o'clock. + + 30. He said _to go_ at once. He said _that we should go_ at once. + + NOTE.--The secretary's daily report will be found an + excellent means of securing variety of expression in + pupils' writing. A different pupil is elected each + Monday to act as the secretary of the class for the + ensuing week, his duty being to report each day the + doings of the class on the preceding day. The + conditions are that not more than one _and_ be used in + each report and not more than one sentence begin with + the subject. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] See note on page 115. + +[3] _Loan_ for _lend_, though common in the United States, is not in +approved use except sometimes in financial language.--_Webster's New +International Dictionary._ + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION + + +Prepositions + +IT is important in the study of prepositions to observe that there are +certain words that are followed by certain prepositions. To change the +preposition is to convey a different meaning from the one that the +speaker intended, or to convey no meaning at all. A partial list of such +words with their appropriate prepositions follows: + + accompanied with anything having no life + accompanied by anything having life + + acquit of + + accuse of + + adapted to a thing + adapted for a course, because of one's nature + adapted from an author + + agree to a plan or proposition + agree with a person + agree upon something that must be decided + + angry at a thing + angry with a person + + compare with to bring out similar qualities + compare to without analyzing + + comply with + + confer on meaning to give to + confer with meaning to talk to + + confide in meaning to put faith in + confide to meaning to commit to one's keeping + + conform to + + correspond to, with a thing, denoting similarity + correspond with meaning to write to + + different from + + dependent on a person + dependent for a thing + + independent of + + disappointed in + + employed at a certain place or salary + employed in a certain kind of business + employed by a certain person or company + + enter upon duties + enter at a door + + followed by + + influence over, upon + + expect of + + participate in + + profit by + + remonstrate against a thing + remonstrate with a person + + +=Exercise 125= + +Insert the correct preposition in the following: + + 1. I shall comply ---- your request. + + 2. The chairman came upon the platform accompanied + ---- the speaker. + + 3. He took a walk accompanied ---- his dog. + + 4. The lecture will be accompanied ---- stereopticon + views. + + 5. Strikes are usually accompanied ---- riots. + + 6. The years of prosperity were followed ---- years of + famine. + + 7. He was accused ---- theft, but was acquitted ---- + the accusation. + + 8. She is well adapted ---- the position that is open. + + 9. An electric iron is especially adapted ---- summer + use. + + 10. The selection was adapted ---- Irving. + + 11. This cloth is well adapted ---- summer clothing + because it is very light in weight. + + 12. I agree ---- you that the plan is impracticable. + + 13. Let us agree now ---- a place to spend our summer + vacation. + + 14. That is not a proposition ---- which I shall + agree. + + 15. It is silly to be angry ---- an inanimate object. + + 16. Don't be angry ---- a person because he tells you + your faults. + + 17. His report corresponds in all respects --- yours. + + 18. Mr. Giles suggested that you would be glad to have + us correspond ---- you concerning our new bond issues. + + 19. I shall confer ---- my lawyer. + + 20. The public has conferred a great honor ---- him. + + 21. One should always profit ---- his experiences. + + 22. The new device is entirely different ---- the old. + + 23. I am employed ---- a fairly large salary ---- a + business that is growing daily. + + 24. All employees must conform ---- the rules. + + 25. I am confiding ---- you because I know that I can + trust you. + + 26. She confided her child ---- the care of her + brother. + + 27. She is dependent ---- her brother ---- support. + + 28. You can have an influence for good ---- him. + + 29. I have remonstrated ---- the change several times. + + 30. Perhaps he will change his plans if we remonstrate + ---- him at once. + + +=Exercise 126--Prepositions Incorrectly Used= + +Each of the incorrect sentences given below contains an unnecessary +preposition. When the meaning of "Where are you going?" is entirely +clear, there is nothing gained by saying "Where are you going _to_?" +Omit such superfluous prepositions. + + _Wrong_ _Right_ + 1. I took it off _of_ the shelf. I took it off the shelf. + + 2. I shall accept _of_ your hospitality. I shall accept your + hospitality. + 3. Where are you _at_? Where are you? + + 4. Where are you going _to_? Where are you going? + + 5. It is a building _of from_ twenty It is a building twenty to + to thirty stories in height. thirty stories in height. + + 6. Look out _of_ the window. Look out the window. + + 7. John copies _after_ his father John copies his father in + in everything. everything. + + 8. I am wondering _about_ what I I am wondering what I + should do. should do. + + 9. I shall consult _with_ my lawyer. I shall consult my lawyer. + + 10. He sat opposite _to_ me. He sat opposite me. + + 11. I shall leave later _on_. I shall leave later. + +_and_ for _to_ + + 12. I shall try _and_ go. I shall try _to_ go. + +_of_ for _have_ + + 13. I might _of_ gone. I might _have_ gone. + +The wrong preposition + + 14. He fell _in_ the water. He fell _into_ the water. + + 15. She died _with_ diphtheria. She died _of_ diphtheria. + + 16. Divide the work _between_ the Divide the work _among_ the + four of us. four of us. + (_Between_ may be used in speaking of only two persons or things) + + 17. It will be done _inside_ of It will be done _within_ an + an hour. hour. + + 18. Are you angry _at_ me? Are you angry _with_ me? + +Preposition must be used + + 19. It's no use to try. It's _of_ no use to try. + + 20. My sister stayed home. My sister stayed _at_ home. + + 21. Why do you act that way? Why do you act _in_ that way? + + 22. We left the third of June. We left _on_ the third of + June. + + +=Exercise 127= + +The object of a preposition is always in the objective case. Some people +have great difficulty in recognizing that in such expressions as _for +you and me_, the pronoun _me_ is as much the object of the preposition +_for_ as the pronoun _you_. Both words must be in the objective case. +It is incorrect to say _for you and I_. + +In the following sentences omit the incorrect italicized form: + + 1. The invitation is for father and _I_--_me_. + + 2. Every one has finished his work except _he_--_him_ + and _I_--_me_. + + 3. It's a question that you and _I_--_me_ must decide; + it refers to you and _I_--_me_ alone. + + 4. Girls like you and _she_--_her_ should have a good + influence over the others. + + 5. All but you and _I_--_me_ have left. + + 6. He did it for you and _I_--_me_. + + 7. No one objected but _they_--_them_ and _we_--_us_. + + 8. She sat opposite you and _I_--_me_. + + 9. They were sitting near you and _I_--_me_. + + 10. We expect you to return with mother and _I_--_me_. + + 11. He wanted my brother and _I_--_me_ to go into + business with his brother and _he_--_him_. + + 12. Neither _she_--_her_ nor her sister have I seen + for several months. + + 13. My companion and _I_--_me_ took up the trail of + the bear at once. For some distance it led _he_--_him_ + and _I_--_me_ over the soft, yielding carpet of moss + and pine needles, and the footprints were quite easily + made out. + + 14. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ had, of course, to keep + a sharp lookout ahead and around for the grizzly. + + 15. All are going on the excursion except _he_--_him_ + and _I_--_me_. + + 16. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ went fishing. + + 17. The rule applies to _we_--_us_ all--the manager, + _they_--_them_ who keep books, you, and _I_--_me_. + + 18. She beckoned to my companion and _I_--_me_. + + 19. The letter was to be read by the president or + _I_--_me_. + + 20. He did it for the sake of my father and _I_--_me_. + + 21. We study Shakespeare with her sister and + _she_--_her_. + + 22. _She_--_her_ and her sister went to the lecture + with my sister and _I_--_me_. + + 23. They sent for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_, not you + and _he_--_him_. + + 24. The program was arranged by the president and + _I_--_me_. + + 25. They found that his father and _he_--_him_ had + already left. + + 26. Mother is going to buy a birthday present to-day + for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_. + + 27. The play is interesting not only to you older + people but to _we_--_us_ younger ones also. + + 28. They expected the work to be done by _she_--_her_ + and _I_--_me_. + + 29. The dispute between his neighbor and _he_--_him_ + over their lot line was settled by the surveyors this + morning. + + 30. He wants to speak to you and _I_--_me_. + + +=Exercise 128--Than, as= + +_Than_ and _as_ are not prepositions but conjunctions. They are used to +introduce subordinate clauses. Usually the clause is incomplete, but the +omitted part is easily understood from the preceding clause and must be +supplied to show the case of the noun or the pronoun that is expressed; +as, + + _Right_: She is as tall as I [am]. + _Right_: She is taller than he [is]. + _Right_: I should invite you rather than her [than I should + invite her]. + + +Use the correct one of the italicized pronouns in the following +sentences: + + 1. I'll agree that he is richer than _I_--_me_, but + riches are not everything. + + 2. I shall send her rather than _he_--_him_. + + 3. No one felt sorrier than _she_--_her_. + + 4. No one knows more about an automobile than + _he_--_him_. + + 5. You are more capable of doing the work than + _he_--_him_. + + 6. We were nearer the goal than you or _he_--_him_. + + 7. You finished the work almost as quickly as + _she_--_her_. + + 8. She writes fully as well as _he_--_him_. + + 9. The manager said he would rather send me than + _he_--_him_. + + 10. I secured a position sooner than _she_--_her_. + + 11. It seems to me that they ought to go rather than + _we_--_us_. + + 12. I am surprised that you arrived sooner than + _they_--_them_. + + 13. They should have elected him rather than + _I_--_me_. + + 14. I am not so well-fitted as _he_--_him_ to hold the + position. + + 15. You are more popular than _he_--_him_. + + +=Exercise 129--Correlatives= + +There are certain conjunctions, called _correlatives_, that are used in +pairs. They are + + both--and as--as, so--as + either--or not only--but also + neither--nor whether--or + so--that such--as + +_Illustrations_ + + Both--and He has both skill and energy. + + Either--or I shall leave either Monday or Tuesday. + + Neither--nor I can neither sing nor play. + + So--that It rained so hard that we stayed at home. + + As--as We shall come as early as we can. + + So--as She is not so tall as you are. + (Used in negative expressions.) + + Not only--but also We saw not only Mr. Brown but his wife also. + + Whether--or Whether I return to work or stay at + home depends on my mother's health. + + Such--as We shall buy only such goods as we + think we can sell. + + Be very careful not to use the correlative _so as_ + incorrectly for _so that_. _So as_ is used in negative + expressions of comparison; _so that_ is used to + express result. + + _Wrong_: We went early _so as_ we could get good seats. + _Right_: We went early _so that_ we could get good seats. + +In the illustrations given above, notice that the correlatives always +join two similar or _coördinate_ expressions. It is important that they +be placed each immediately before one of the two coördinate expressions. + + _Wrong_: I _neither_ can sing nor play. + _Right_: I can _neither_ sing nor play. + +Recast the following sentences, placing the correlative conjunctions +before coördinate expressions: + + 1. Either you ordered it late or not at all. + + 2. He said he neither had money nor time. + + 3. We not only bought the books you wished but the + games also. + + 4. We like the place in which we live both on account + of its quietness and its pleasant surroundings. + + 5. I shall either go to Quebec or Montreal. + + 6. Either he must spray his trees or expect no fruit. + + 7. I neither like the appearance of the shop nor the + attitude of the clerks. + + 8. They did it both for the sake of your brother and + you. + + 9. This sample not only is much darker but heavier + also. + + 10. They are barred who neither can read nor write. + + +=Exercise 130--Either--or, Neither--nor= + +These conjunctions are correctly used in speaking of two things only. +Care must be taken to use _or_ with _either_ and _nor_ with _neither_. +In comparing three or more things use _any of them_, _none of them_, or +_no_. + +In the following sentences use only the correct italicized forms: + + 1. Neither effort _nor_--_or_ money was spared in the + undertaking. + + 2. I have considered planting maple, oak, and elm + trees, but _neither_--_none_ of them seems to grow + well in this climate. + + 3. We do not believe in _either_ enduring oppression + _nor_--_or_ killing the oppressor. We believe in + arbitration. + + 4. He has _no_--_neither_ time, patience, _nor_--_or_ + energy. + + 5. If you ask me which of the three I prefer, I'll be + frank and tell you I like _neither_--_none_ of them. + + 6. Three courses will be given in the subject this + year; you may take _either_--_any_ one of them. + + 7. I had already passed three branch roads, but + _neither_--_none_ of them had looked familiar to me. + + 8. I hardly think he accepted _any_--_either_ of the + two offers he received. + + 9. Neither the doctor _or_--_nor_ his wife was at + home. + + 10. Both the books look shop-worn. I'll take + _neither_--_none_. + + +=Exercise 131--Except, Without, Unless= + +_Except_ and _without_ are prepositions, and are used, therefore, to +introduce phrases; _unless_ is a conjunction, and is used to introduce a +clause. + +In the following sentences insert the correct form, giving a reason for +your choice: + + 1. ---- you leave at once, you will miss your train. + + 2. I cannot learn to swim, ---- some one teaches me. + + 3. I cannot learn to swim ---- a teacher. + + 4. No one could do the work ---- me. + + 5. John expects to learn ---- studying. + + 6. John will discover that he cannot win promotion + ---- he works hard. + + 7. No one can learn how to spell ---- first learning + how to observe. + + 8. No one will learn to spell ---- he learns to + observe. + + 9. No one will succeed ---- he has energy and + patience. + + 10. No one will succeed ---- energy and patience. + + 11. You cannot succeed in any way ---- by seizing each + opportunity as it comes. + + 12. It is impossible to grow beautiful flowers ---- + the soil is good. + + +=Exercise 132--Like, as= + +_Like_ is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. _As_ is a +conjunction and introduces a clause, and is therefore followed by a +verb. _Like_ is not a conjunction and therefore may not be substituted +for _as_ or _as if_. + + _Wrong_: I wish I could play _like_ you can. + _Right_: I wish I could play _as_ you can. + +Insert the correct word in the following sentences: + + 1. The picture looks just ---- you. + + 2. I haven't a voice ---- my brother's. + + 3. I cannot sing ---- my brother can. + + 4. He walks just ---- you do. + + 5. I hope you will all enjoy the trip ---- I did. + + 6. For pleasure and exercise I think there is no game + ----tennis. + + 7. He said that the town looked just ---- it had when + he was a boy. + + 8. I cut the paper just ---- you said I should. + + 9. He talks ---- his father. + + 10. He has the same sort of drawl ---- his father + [has]. + + 11. She was there ---- you said she would be. + + 12. They worked ---- beavers. + + 13. He looked ---- a tramp. + + 14. To give the stitch the proper twist throw the + thread over the needle ---- I do. + + 15. He walks ---- he were lame. + + +=Exercise 133--As--as, So--as= + +Use _as_--_as_ in stating equality; use _so_--_as_ in negative +comparisons. + + 1. You will find the new clerks fully ---- courteous + as were the old. + + 2. You will not find the new clerks ---- courteous as + were the old. + + 3. Elms do not grow ---- well in this climate as do + poplars. + + 4. We did not carry ---- much advertising this year as + we did last year, and we find that our receipts are + smaller. + + 5. Under our system of individual instruction a + student may advance ---- rapidly as his ability + permits. + + 6. You are not ---- tall as your sister. + + 7. I do not seem to learn languages ---- easily as + mathematics. + + 8. This house is not ---- large as the other. + + 9. He is ---- active as he was twenty years ago. + + 10. He is not ---- active as he was twenty years ago. + + +=Exercise 134--Miscellaneous Blunders= + +=To, Too, Two= + +_To_ is a preposition; _too_ is an adverb, and means _excessively_ or +_also_; _two_ is a numeral adjective. Insert the correct form in each of +the following sentences: + + 1. The ---- sisters discovered that it was ---- late + for the 4:15 train. + + 2. It is ---- dark in that corner; come ---- the + light. + + 3. He spends ---- much time in dreaming, ---- little + in working. + + 4. He would have done better if he had not given ---- + little heed ---- the advice of his ---- older + brothers. + + 5. ---- more hours were passed in the all ---- weary + task of waiting. + + 6. It was ---- cold ---- stay out more than ---- + hours. + + 7. You may go ----, but don't stay ---- long. + + 8. ---- stay there for ---- weeks would be ---- + tiresome. + + 9. The doctor said that the ---- men were ---- sick + ---- go home alone, and I thought so ----. + + 10. About ---- hours ago I met Mary who said that she + was going ---- the country ----. + +=There, Their= + + 11. ---- are seven brothers in ---- family. + + 12. ---- books are ---- on the table. + + 13. ---- is no doubt that ---- knowledge of + mathematics is greater than ---- knowledge of English. + +=Were, Where= + + 14. ---- have you been? + + 15. ---- you ever on a farm ---- alfalfa is grown? + + 16. ---- ---- you when the report was read? + + 17. I was just ---- you ----. + +=Of, Have= + + 18. You should ---- read more distinctly. + + 19. I could ---- done the work if I had had more ---- + the necessary tools. + + 20. If I had tried harder, I might ---- done the work + better. + + + + +PART II--COMPOSITION: ORAL AND WRITTEN + + + + +CHAPTER X + +ORAL ENGLISH + + +=Exercise 135= + +RETELL a story that you know or one that the instructor has read to you. +See if you can tell the whole story in fairly long sentences without +using a single _and_. You will be allowed to use three _and's_. As soon +as you say the third, you must take your seat. Let the class keep count. + +The story may be an anecdote, a fable, or any other short incident that +can easily be told in one or two minutes. You probably have read many +such or have heard your father and your mother tell them. A joke that +can be told in two or three sentences will not be long enough. + +The excessive use of _and_ spoils the telling of many stories. It is a +mistake to think that the gap between the end of one sentence and the +beginning of the next appears as great to the listener as it does to us +as we are deliberating what to say next. To avoid the gap we bridge the +two sentences with _and_. Its use in this way is hardly ever necessary +if we think out a sentence to the end before we begin to speak it. When +we have finished the thought, we should finish the sentence without +trying to bind it artificially to the next one. The sentences will be +bound together if the thought of one grows out of the thought of the +preceding one. + +If the unfolding of the idea does not seem sufficient to tie the parts, +there are better expressions to use than _and_. There are short +expressions like _in this way_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _thus_, +_therefore_, _besides_, _as might be expected_, and _too_. Another way +to avoid _and_ is to change the form of the sentence: (1) better than +the form, "I opened the window _and saw_," is, "_Opening_ the window, I +saw;" (2) better than "I am going to the store _and buy_ some sugar," +is, "I am going to the store _to buy_ some sugar;" (3) better than +"There was a boy _and his name_ was John," is, "There was a boy _whose_ +name was John;" (4) better than "I reached home _and found_ that my +cousin had arrived," is, "_When_ I reached home, I found that my cousin +had arrived." In place of _and_, therefore, we may use (1) participles, +(2) infinitives, (3) relative pronouns, and (4) subordinate +conjunctions. + +Above all, avoid _and everything_, as in, "I washed the dishes and swept +the floor and everything." To try thus to complete an idea that is +already complete shows childishness. + + +=Exercise 136= + +Very likely in telling the story as suggested above you found yourself +frequently using the word _so_ to connect two sentences. Perhaps, too, +you used _why_ to begin sentences. + +Now tell one of your own experiences, being careful not to use _and_, +_so_, or _why_. Introduce as much conversation as possible. What, if +any, is the advantage of telling a story in the first person? Why is it +good to introduce conversation? + +In your conversation make use of several of the following words: + + replied whispered spoke inquired + answered agreed cried explained + asked exclaimed shouted remarked + questioned repeated continued suggested + promised maintained objected rejoined + interrupted quoted returned added + + +=Exercise 137= + +Far too many boys and girls pay but little regard to the matter of +choosing the word that will give the exact meaning that they wish to +convey. In order to lend force to their words they have formed the habit +of speaking in superlatives; like the girl who said, "We had a perfectly +grand time, but I'm so beastly tired now that I'm nearly dead," and yet +she showed no evidence of suffering. + +Isn't it a pity that our beautiful English language should be so +degraded in common usage that it loses all its force and meaning? +Instead of convincing people that she really was tired, the girl quoted +above made herself ridiculous by her exaggeration. Yet isn't the +quotation a fair example of the speech of many boys and girls? Surely +everything about us is not either grand or beastly. The habit thus +formed is difficult to break, but it must be broken if we wish to speak +our language correctly. + + * * * * * + +Make a list of the slang phrases that you have acquired. For each one +substitute a good English expression. + + * * * * * + +The reason we must watch our oral English closely is that it is in our +conversation that our habits of speech are formed. The expressions we +use then we unconsciously employ when we are writing or talking to the +class. If we are accustomed to use considerable slang when we speak, we +shall have difficulty in eliminating it from our writing or in finding a +good word to express the idea for which we usually use slang. As a rule, +slang and extravagant expressions of all kinds are used to serve such a +variety of meanings that the use of them tends to limit the vocabulary +to these expressions. Consider slang something undesirable and stop +using it. + + +=Exercise 138= + +Look up the words in each of the following groups. You will notice that +there is a resemblance of meaning between all the words of each group, +but that there is also a shade of difference in meaning that +distinguishes each word from its companions. Discover that shade of +difference. Use each word in a sentence. + + 1. Lovely, beautiful, pretty, handsome. + + 2. Awful, terrible, horrible, dreadful, fearful. + + 3. Nice, pleasant, delightful, dainty, fine, + agreeable. + + 4. Grand, imposing, splendid, impressive. + + 5. Love, like, adore, admire, revere. + + 6. Smart, clever, bright, quick-witted. + + 7. Fierce, ferocious, wild. + + 8. Guess, think, suppose, imagine. + + 9. Hate, dislike, despise, abhor, detest. + + 10. Scholar, student, pupil. + + +=Exercise 139= + +Carelessness in speaking frequently results in wordiness, since the +speaker in an effort to be clear or forceful repeats the idea two or +three times. Such speech is tiresome. In each of the following sentences +there are too many words to express the idea. See how many you can omit +and yet preserve the meaning. Sometimes the sentence needs revision. + + 1. I haven't got any time. + + 2. Where does he live at? + + 3. Don't stand up; there's a chair. + + 4. The woman she had an accident. + + 5. You had ought to take more exercise. + + 6. I was just going to go. + + 7. I excuse you because you are a new beginner. + + 8. I can finish the work in three days' time. + + 9. The offices are both alike in all respects. + + 10. He engaged the both of us. + + 11. We applied to Mr. Abbot, he being the manager. + + 12. My mind often reverts back to the time when I + began in business. + + 13. That high building that is going up on Twelfth + Street is going to be twenty stories high when it is + finished. + + 14. From his appearance he looked to be in very poor + circumstances. + + 15. He is afraid of the results that will ensue if he + follows the course that he has planned. + + 16. The present state of affairs that is now + confronting the public has become what it now is + because the citizens are not public spirited. + + 17. The reason why I was not at work yesterday was + because I was not feeling as well as I might. + + 18. I shall never forget the terrible sights that I + saw the time that I witnessed the street car + collision. + + 19. I have been debating in my mind whether I ought to + accept the offer. + + 20. He was a mere little child when he first began to + work in the mine. + + 21. Mix together both the butter and the sugar, and + rub the two of them to a cream. + + 22. The two pieces of cloth are just exactly the same + in every way. + + 23. You will find this chair equally as comfortable as + the other. + + 24. He said that when he started in his business that + he had almost no capital at all. + + 25. It was the office of Morgan & Son where I got my + experience. + + 26. China is undergoing a vast change at the present + time. + + 27. At about the age of fourteen years he left his + home town. + + 28. They did it gladly and willingly. + + 29. He always shows great deference and respect when + he speaks to those who are in authority. + + 30. He is the proprietor and owner of the News. + + 31. You can easily get the training that will make you + a competent and efficient high-salaried trained man. + + 32. For sale, a large, commodious house, arranged with + every convenience to make it comfortable. + + 33. We are making all the necessary improvements that + are needed. + + 34. I went to high school to take up stenography. + + +=Exercise 140--Making a Speech= + +One of the most profitable exercises to cultivate clear thinking and +consequent clear expression is the making of speeches, usually spoken of +as oral themes. In this exercise a pupil stands before the class to talk +upon a subject about which he has thought, but upon which he has +written nothing. He has two objects in view. First, he must choose those +facts that will make his subject clear and interesting to his audience. +Second, he must deliver them well; that is, he must stand in a good +position before the class, use good grammar, no slang, and enunciate so +that every one in the room can understand him. If his speech is to be +longer than one paragraph, he should have an outline prepared, in which +each division is clearly indicated, as well as the important details +within each division. + +In making a speech, the best way is to start with a clear statement of +the subject. Suppose you take (9) below. You might begin, "I am going to +talk of a street car transfer. First, I shall tell you how it looks; and +second, how it is used. Then first, a street car transfer--(describe it +fully). In the second place, it is used--(give details)." After you have +explained fully, to show that you have said all you intend to say, +finish with a sentence of conclusion. _Therefore_, _consequently_, _for +these reasons_, _thus we may see_, are instances of words which may be +used to begin a sentence of conclusion. + + * * * * * + +Use each of the following questions as the subject for a speech. Answer +each question clearly and completely. Use illustrations to show exactly +what you mean. + + 1. What does it mean to be a hero? + + 2. What does it mean to be successful? + + 3. What does it mean to be unfortunate? + + 4. What does it mean to be generous? + + 5. What does it mean to be lenient? + + 6. What does it mean to be mercenary? + + 7. What does it mean to be diffident? + + 8. What does it mean to be penurious? + + 9. What is a street car transfer? How does it look and + how is it used? + + 10. What occupation do you wish to follow, and why? + What preparations are you making? + + 11. Why do we have a smoke ordinance? + + 12. Why must buildings have fire escapes? + + 13. Why do the farmers of Kansas insure their barns + against cyclones? + + 14. What is fire insurance? + + 15. Why is ventilation important? + + 16. Why do so many immigrants come to this country? + + 17. Why do cities grow? + + 18. Why was the steam engine an important invention? + + 19. Why was the telephone an important invention? + + 20. What is the principle of vaccination? + + 21. What is the principle of anti-toxin? + + 22. Of what good is the trade union to the laborer? + + 23. Why does the employer object to the union? + + 24. What is a monopoly? + + 25. What is meant by a corner in wheat? + + +=Exercise 141= + +In your neighborhood you have frequently noticed a lawn and a garden +that are very poorly kept, the garden needing weeding and the lawn both +weeding and mowing. Imagine that you go to the owner to make him a +proposition. You know the man slightly, and you have heard that he has a +quick temper. Know exactly what work you will offer to do and how often +you will do it. Be careful of your first sentences. Let them be +especially courteous, so that you may not offend the gentleman by +suggesting that he does not take care of his property. Tell him frankly +that you would like to earn some money. + +In this exercise the class will represent the owner. Moreover, they will +watch carefully so that they may point out to the speaker wherein his +speech was not quite courteous or not quite clear. + + +=Exercise 142= + +From one of the newspapers cut an advertisement of a position for which +you think you can apply. Bring the advertisement with you and convince +the class that you are fitted for the position. + +In this exercise you must be exact. Choose an advertisement for a kind +of work about which you know something. If you have ever had any +experience that would fit you for the position, do not fail to tell of +it, since experience counts for much in the employer's estimate of an +applicant. + +Let the class judge whether the speaker has been convincing and whether +he has shown the properly courteous attitude toward an employer. Let +them ask themselves such questions as: Is he alert in his manner? Does +he make one feel that he is capable? Does he stand and talk as if he has +confidence in himself? Is he too meek? Does he seem over-confident? Let +each be able to offer suggestions for improvement. + + +=Exercise 143= + +Imagine that you are an agent. Choose an article that is especially +useful to housekeepers. Try to sell it to the class, or choose an +individual member to whom you wish to sell it. Bring a sample with you +for the purpose of demonstrating its usefulness. + +As in the preceding exercise the speaker must strive to be convincing. +He must know all there is to be known about the article that he is +demonstrating. If it is at all possible, he should have used it in order +that he may explain exactly how it is operated and why it is better than +a similar article that the housekeeper probably is at present using. + + +=Exercise 144= + +You wish to start a business and need a certain amount of money. Try to +convince the instructor or a selected pupil that you need it. + +Be sure that you are able to tell definitely the kind of business for +which you wish the money, where you will start the business, why you +think that this particular location is good, when you will be able to +return the money, and what security you can give. + +Don't make the mistake of choosing something too big for a boy or a girl +to carry through. Perhaps the following will be suggestive: + + 1. A newspaper stand. + + 2. A miniature truck farm in the empty lot next door. + + 3. A pop corn wagon. + + 4. A fruit cart or stand. + + 5. A shoe shining stand. + + 6. Raising ferns or flowers for sale. + + 7. Buying vegetables from a farmer and selling them to + housewives. + + 8. Printing business cards and blotters on a small + press. + + 9. Making place cards. + + 10. Making valentines. + + 11. Painting holiday postal cards or fancy cards for + Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving, and the like. + + 12. Printing on postal cards pretty scenes that you + have photographed perhaps in your town or at a summer + resort. + + 13. Making and selling cakes, doughnuts, and the like. + + 14. Selling crocheted or embroidered articles. + + +=Exercise 145--Elements of Success= + +Prepare a short speech on each of the following. Wherever possible make +your statements clear and forceful by using illustrations or examples. + + 1. Cheerfulness helps to bring success. + + 2. The habit of neatness is an asset. + + 3. The habit of punctuality is a necessity. + + 4. He was not promoted because he watched the clock. + + 5. He was not promoted because his excuse was always, + "I forgot." + + 6. He was not promoted because he learned nothing from + his mistakes. + + 7. He was not promoted because he was always + grumbling. + + 8. He was not promoted because he was content to be a + second-rate man. + + 9. He was not promoted because he ruined his ability + by half-doing things. + + 10. He was not promoted because he did not learn to + act on his own judgment. + + 11. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. + + 12. Experience is an expensive teacher. + + 13. Be not simply good--be good for something. + + 14. Not failure, but low aim, is crime. + + 15. To be successful one must have confidence in + himself. + + +=Exercise 146= + +As in the preceding exercise prepare a speech on each of the following: + + 1. A dishonest person cannot succeed. + + 2. There is no excuse for discouragement. + + 3. You may secure a position through another's + influence, but you keep it through your own merit. + + 4. There is always room at the top. + + 5. There is no such thing as luck. + + 6. The proper attitude toward an employer is one of + deference. + + 7. A business woman should dress simply. + + 8. Perseverance is the key to success. + + 9. To accomplish much one must work systematically. + + 10. It is possible to cultivate a good memory. + + 11. The ability to converse is a business asset. + + 12. The habit of exaggeration is dangerous. + + +=Exercise 147--Successful Men and Women= + +How can one measure the success of men or women? Is it by the money they +make? the land they acquire? the fame they win? the good they do? By +what means have they won success? Was it through favorable +circumstances? strength of character? favoritism? physical strength? +mental energy? daring? doing what they thought was right in spite of +opposition? or simply doing nothing and waiting for success to come? + +Study the life and character of one or more of the following. Have they +gained what you consider success? What qualities of character do you +recognize in them? Would you care to be like any of them? + +Make a list of the habits that you recognize in their life and in the +way they worked. + +Make a list of the characteristics of the ones that you study. + + Florence Nightingale Frances Willard Bismarck + David Maydole Ella Flagg Young Gladstone + R. L. Stevenson Helen Gould Shepard Marshall Field + Booker T. Washington Jane Addams Carnegie + Captain Scott Napoleon J. Pierpont Morgan + Mary Antin Franklin Edison + Daniel Boone Lincoln Roosevelt + Mary Lyon Nathan Hale Goethals + + +=Exercise 148--Debating= + +A very great asset in business is the ability to see the truth or the +falsity of a statement, and to advance proofs for or against it. This +ability we shall try to acquire through the practice of debating; that +is, through the making of speeches in which students take opposite sides +of the same subject, trying by the presentation of facts and +illustrations to prove that the side which they represent is the correct +one. The statement that is thus argued is called a _proposition_. + +Debating is excellent practice because it teaches not only clear-cut +reasoning, but also forceful expression. If a debater fails to make any +of his several arguments convincing, if he introduces irrelevant matter, +or, though he has prepared strong proofs, if he expresses them in +incorrect English, the result will be poor. In working out a debate, +therefore, observe the following carefully: + +1. Know your subject thoroughly. If you have insufficient knowledge, you +cannot be convincing. + +2. Understand your point of view exactly and explain it clearly. If you +and your opponent have different ideas of the word _trust_, for example, +you can never argue on a subject that concerns the trusts. Define your +position first of all. + +3. After you have gathered your facts, study them as a whole. What three +arguments, let us say, stand out clearly in your mind as being +irrefutable because of the strong proofs you have to back them? These +are the ones that you should use; the rest will probably be of little +value. Plan to give the weakest of the three first, so that your +argument will gain force as you advance. + +4. Work out the details of each argument. A mere statement of each is +not enough. It must be supported by many facts and illustrations. + +5. Prepare an outline. It will show you whether your arguments follow +each other clearly, whether you have so arranged them as to secure +climax. (See Exercise 152.) + +6. In talking, follow the plan explained in Exercise 140, being +especially careful in conclusion to summarize the proofs that you have +presented. + + * * * * * + +The conclusions that you reach in your arguments must be based upon +statements that are true. In the following, some of the statements are +false, and therefore the conclusions based upon them are false. Point +out wherein the falsity consists. In others of the following, irrelevant +matter has been introduced. Point it out, explaining why it is +irrelevant. + + 1. We shall forget a great many facts that we learn at + school. Therefore it is useless to learn them. + + 2. Oil should be used instead of water in sprinkling + our streets, because oil does not evaporate so quickly + as water, and so does not allow the dust to rise. + Moreover, as the street must be cleaned before the oil + is laid, there is less dust to rise. When the oil lies + on the streets, it is very sticky, and clings to + everyone's shoes. In this way it is tracked into the + houses and stores, making everything dirty. Therefore + I think the streets should be oiled instead of being + watered. + + 3. Half of the keys would not work on the typewriter + that I used yesterday. This machine will work no + better, as it is made by the same company. + + 4. Last year September was very warm, and the winter + was extreme. This year September has been very warm, + and therefore the winter will be extreme. + + 5. My cousin never went to high school, and when he + went to work he earned eight dollars a week. I have + gone to high school for one year. Therefore I shall + receive more than eight dollars a week when I go to + work. + + 6. When you are working, your employer will never ask + you the definition of a noun. Therefore it is + unnecessary to know any grammar. + + 7. Every one should be punctual in doing his work. If + he is punctual, he will be promoted and earn a larger + salary. Money is a very important item in this world, + but it is not everything. A person must be satisfied + with his work so that he can do it cheerfully; + otherwise he will not succeed. Therefore I think every + one ought to be on time. + + 8. The day is either sunny or it is not sunny. To-day + is not sunny; therefore it is sunny. + + 9. It always rains when I wear new shoes. I am wearing + new shoes; therefore it will rain to-day. + + +=Exercise 149= + +Find three reasons for each of the following propositions. State them +concisely, reserving the strongest for the last. + +As above, find three reasons against each of the following. + +Expand one of the reasons that you advanced for one of the propositions +given below. Using your statement as the opening sentence, develop it +into a paragraph by explanations and illustrations. + + 1. The high school should have the same session as the + grades. + + 2. The high school session should begin at eight + o'clock and close at one, with no recess for luncheon. + + 3. Final examinations shall be abolished. + + 4. Every high school should teach manual training. + + 5. Every high school should offer business courses. + + 6. Every high school pupil should receive a business + training. + + 7. Stenography (or bookkeeping) is a more important + study than wood-working. + + 8. If a pupil fails in the first semester of a + subject, he should be allowed to try the second + without repeating the first. + + 9. A pupil should not be expected to learn a lesson + that he does not enjoy. + + 10. Moving picture shows do more harm than good. + + +=Exercise 150= + +Let three or four pupils write upon the blackboard three arguments in +support of the same one of the following propositions. Then let the +class choose from all the arguments given those three or four that they +think are best, giving in each case reasons for their choice. + +In the same way let them work out the negative of the same proposition. + + 1. Every city should have a public park in the + business district. + + 2. The large department stores should be abolished and + smaller stores, selling only one kind of commodity, + established. + + 3. The mail order house should be abolished. + + 4. It is bad business policy to conduct cut-price + sales. + + 5. The newspapers are the greatest educators of the + time. + + 6. Billboard advertisements destroy the beauty of a + city. + + 7. Women should be allowed to vote. + + 8. Labor unions are a benefit to the public. + + 9. All government should be conducted on the civil + service plan. + + 10. Underselling a competitor ruins trade. + + +=Exercise 151= + +One or two weeks in advance let the class choose three members for each +side of one of the following propositions. On the day of the debate let +the rest of the class act as judges to decide which side has presented +the most convincing arguments in the best English. + + 1. It is better to be a farm hand than a factory + employee. + + 2. Every girl should prepare herself to earn her own + living. + + 3. Trusts should be regulated, not abolished. + + 4. Strikes should be considered illegal. + + 5. Advertising has increased the cost of living. (See + Exercise 152.) + + 6. Communism would lower the cost of living. + + 7. The business of a city should not be centralized. + + 8. Labor troubles are brought about because the poor + ape the rich. + + 9. Contentment is better than wealth. + + 10. Tariff increases the cost of living. + + +=Exercise 152--Outline for a Debate= + +Choose two or four members of the class to develop each side of the +following debate. Wherever possible, definite figures should be used. + +_Resolved_, THAT ADVERTISING HAS INCREASED THE COST OF LIVING. + +_Affirmative_ + + I. Modern advertising is world-wide in extent. + (_a_) Practically all classes of articles are now extensively + advertised. + (1) Food stuffs; e.g., breakfast foods. + (2) Clothing; e.g., men's suits. + (3) Luxuries; e.g., automobiles. + (4) Investments; e.g., real estate. + (_b_) Every possible medium is used. + (1) Newspapers. + (2) Magazines. + (3) Billboards and street cars. + (4) Circulars and booklets. + II. An enormous amount of money is spent in advertising. + (_a_) The use of advertising agencies is growing more widespread. + (1) One agency has made the statement that it has nine men + whose salaries amount to $227,000 annually. + (_b_) More and more companies are engaging advertising managers. + (1) They draw large salaries. + (_x_) In many cases, $10,000 annually. + (_c_) Advertising rates are very high; for example, + (1) The rate for a certain magazine is $1000 a page per issue. + (2) Metropolitan newspapers charge as high a rate as $500 + a page per issue. + (_d_) Many advertisers use each issue of a number of mediums, + making the cost run to an enormous total; for example, + (1) _Cream of Wheat_ is advertised in every issue of almost + every magazine. + III. The consumer pays for the advertising. + (_a_) The price that the consumer pays for an article must cover + the cost of production and the expense of distribution, + leaving fair margins of profit, since + (1) The manufacturer will no longer produce if his profit + ceases. + (2) He is not willing to take the cost of advertising from his + profit in manufacturing. + (3) The dealer will not take the advertising cost from his own + profit. + IV. Advertising increases prices. + (_a_) The cost of manufacture and the expense of distribution have + been steadily lowered, and yet prices of articles have + steadily advanced; therefore + (1) The rise is not due to the cost of manufacture. + (2) Nor to the expense of distribution. + (_b_) Competition necessitates an increased amount of advertising. + (1) If one firm begins to advertise, its competitors, for + self-protection, must follow suit. + (_c_) Competitive advertising raises expenses above the point where + there is a fair profit at the old price. + (1) For a given kind of goods there is usually a certain volume + of business, which grows with population. + (2) If all the firms competing in those goods increase their + expenses by advertising, they must raise prices to make the + same profit as previously. + (_d_) Advertised articles cost more than the unadvertised. + (1) Bulk rolled oats vs. package rolled oats. + (2) Bulk pickles and relishes vs. advertised brands. + (3) Bulk macaroni vs. package goods. + +_Negative_ + + I. The present increased advertising is the result of normal growth. + (_a_) Multiplied manufactures necessarily multiply advertisements. + (1) Every day new products are being put on the market. + (2) No product has the chance of a sale until it is known. + (3) In the present scope of community life the advertisement + is the most convenient means of acquainting consumers with + new products. + (_b_) Any unusual increase in advertising has a reasonable + explanation. + (1) Automobile advertising has increased as the automobile + has replaced the wagon and carriage, because of + (_x_) Greater convenience. + (_y_) Lower operating cost. + (2) Prepared breakfast food advertising has increased + as these foods have replaced cooked foods, because of + (_x_) Greater convenience. + II. Increased advertising is done on the scale of old prices. + (_a_) Merchants dare not raise prices to make the consumer pay + for the advertising, since + (1) They must compete with manufacturers who do not + advertise and who have no overhead advertising expense. + (_b_) The most widely advertised articles are the inexpensive + necessary accessories. + (1) Food products. + (2) Soaps and soap powders. + (3) Toilet articles. + (_c_) They have not advanced in price. + (1) Quaker Oats. + (2) Ivory Soap; Sapolio. + (3) Mennen's Talcum Powder. + III. Widespread advertising works to the advantage, not the + disadvantage, of the consumer. + (_a_) It gives new opportunities + (1) To compare values. + (2) To buy to the best advantage; for example, + (_x_) In advertised bargain sales. + (_b_) It reduces the cost of production and the selling expense, + thus tending to lower the price. + (1) By increasing sales, it reduces the cost per article. + (_x_) Maximum purchasing power means minimum cost to the + manufacturer. + (2) In taking the place of salesmen, it reduces expenses, thus + lowering the price; for example, + (_x_) In mail order firms. + (3) Therefore the advertising expense is unimportant in + influencing a higher price. + IV. The most marked price advances have been in the unadvertised + necessaries of life. + (_a_) In breadstuffs. + (1) Less in quantity for higher prices than formerly. + (_b_) In meats and poultry. + (1) An advance of from 25 per cent to 100 per cent and more. + (_c_) In butter and eggs. + (1) An advance similar to that shown in meats and poultry. + + +=Exercise 153--Additional Subjects for Debates= + + 1. The wages of women should be the same as those of + men in the same occupation. + + 2. The government should grant old age pensions. + + 3. Employers should be liable for the life and health + of employees. + + 4. The boycott is a legitimate method of obtaining + employees' demands. + + 5. National expositions do not benefit the cities in + which they are held. + + 6. Railroad combination lowers rates. + + 7. Piece-work should be prohibited by law. + + 8. National party lines should be discarded in + municipal elections. + + 9. City governments should be allowed to decide their + problems without intervention of the state + legislature. + + 10. Municipal offices should be appointive and not + elective. + + 11. The commission form of government is best for + large cities. + + 12. Immigration is the cause of municipal evils. + + 13. A personal property tax cannot be levied with + fairness. + + 14. The United States should not further extend its + colonial dependencies. + + 15. The President should be elected by a direct vote + of the people. + + 16. Ex-presidents of the United States should become + life members of the Senate. + + 17. The President and the Vice-President should be + prohibited from taking part in political campaigns. + + 18. The United States should subsidize a merchant + marine. + + 19. Foreign-built ships, owned by Americans, should be + granted the privilege of American register. + + 20. The governors of states should not have the power + to pardon. + + 21. A three-fourths vote of a jury should be + sufficient to render a verdict in criminal cases. + + 22. The coast defenses of the United States should be + increased. + + 23. The farmer is to blame for the high prices. + + 24. The results of Arctic explorations have not + justified the cost. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +CHOOSING SUBJECTS + + +IN Chapter X definite subjects were assigned for talks. Getting a +subject for yourself sometimes seems difficult; you are likely to think +that there is no topic upon which you can say more than a few sentences. +Isn't it true that when you are talking to your friends you seldom are +at a loss for something to say? Of course, what your companion says +often suggests an idea on which you give your opinion. You speak about +things that interest you, and the words come fairly easily. Why not +apply the same principle to more formal composition, whether oral or +written? Unless a subject interests you, do not use it. But be careful +that you do not reject it as uninteresting until you have thought about +it carefully, considering it from all sides. Often one subject will +suggest another akin to it, but more interesting to you because you know +more about it. For this reason choose very simple subjects, and become +thoroughly familiar with them by thinking or reading about them, before +you attempt to explain them. + +Sometimes, again, you will find that the subject you have chosen is not +good because it is not definite enough. You hardly know where or how to +begin to explain it, because it suggests no definite ideas. Perhaps, for +instance, you have decided to write on the automobile and can think of +nothing to say until you remember that you once saw an automobile race +about which you can tell several interesting details; or you have seen +an automobile accident and can write on the topic _A Runaway Electric_. +If you can speak or write on a topic taken from your own observation, +your composition will probably be good. You know the facts, you have an +interest in the subject, and you will very likely say something of +interest to others. Subjects taken from school life or neighborhood +happenings, especially such things as you yourself have seen, are +excellent. Perhaps on your way to school you noticed that several old +houses are being torn down. You remember that you heard that a candy +factory is to be erected. At once several suggestions for themes will +come to you; as, _Why the Factory is Being Erected in this +Neighborhood_, _How Neighborhoods Change in a Large City_, _The Work the +Wrecking Company Carries on_. Perhaps your father owns property in the +neighborhood, and you could write on _How Real Estate Values have +Changed in this Neighborhood_. + +Next to your own experience, the best source from which to draw subjects +is your reading. This may be divided into (1) books, (2) magazines and +newspapers. Recall one of the books that you read in the grammar grades, +perhaps _The Courtship of Miles Standish_. Drawing your material from +this source, you can write _A Picture of Early Plymouth Days_, or a +sketch of Miles Standish's character, using the title _Practice What You +Preach_. But to try to tell the whole story to any one in two or three +minutes would result in failure, for it would be a subject entirely too +big to treat in so short a time. All the interesting details would have +to be omitted, and, if the details are omitted, the story loses its +vitality. + +It is the newspaper or the magazine, however, that offers us the most +available source of subjects. Practically all that we know of the modern +world and of the wonderful progress being made in invention and +discovery, as well as of the accidents and disasters that take place, we +have learned first from the newspaper and have verified later by the +articles in magazines. Every issue of a newspaper or of a magazine +contains suggestions for many subjects. Such magazines as _The World's +Work_, _System_, _The Outlook_, _The Technical World_, and other +magazines that deal with technical subjects in a popular way are +excellent for this work. + +A third important source of subjects is the studies that you are now +pursuing. Every new study affords a new point of view, which should +suggest many topics for oral and written themes. Sometimes a good +subject is the comparison of two of your studies by which you try to +show, perhaps, how the one depends on the other. + +The subject, of course, is but the beginning of the composition. +Developing the subject is fully as important as having a subject to +develop. The ability to develop a subject clearly is very important in +the business world. A business man sells his goods either by talking or +by writing; by the salesman or by the letter and the advertisement. +Unless the salesman talks in a convincing way, he probably will sell few +goods. He must know not only what to say, but how to say it. + + +=Exercise 154--The Subject as a Whole= + +First, you must see your subject in its entirety, as one thing. Ask +yourself, "Just what does my title mean?" and if you have not as yet +selected a title, study your subject from all sides until you can see +how to narrow it to certain definite dimensions. Now you have set a sort +of fence around your subject. Nothing outside must enter, but nothing +inside must escape. The length of the composition you are to write +usually helps you decide on the limits of your subject. If you are +writing a book on Africa, you might include all that the title suggests +to you of exploration, colonization, civilization, and Christianization. +But if you are writing a very short theme--not over three pages--it is +evident that the subject must be narrowed. Would _The Transvaal_ be +good? _The Jungles of Africa?_ _Roosevelt in Africa?_ _African Mission +Stations?_ _When I think of Africa I think of Stanley?_ + + * * * * * + +Which of the following subjects would be good for short compositions, +either oral or written? The oral theme should occupy two or three +minutes, the written perhaps three pages. What is the objection to a one +word subject? + + 1. Manufacturing. 11. The dead letter office. + 2. Household uses of electricity. 12. The clearing house. + 3. The Constitution of the United States. 13. Business. + 4. Why we celebrate the Fourth of July. 14. Honesty in business. + 5. The destruction of our forests. 15. Physicians should + advertise. + 6. Europe. 16. Paper. + 7. The westernizing of China. 17. How an electric bell + works. + 8. How railroads build cities. 18. Electrifying the + railroads. + 9. The fire drill at school. 19. How to make candy. + 10. Education. 20. Vocational education in + Germany. + + +=Exercise 155--The Divisions of the Subject= + +After you have selected your subject, decide into what divisions it +naturally falls. If it is of the proper length, it probably will divide +itself into two or three divisions. Each of these will constitute +one-half or one-third of your composition, and within each division +illustrations, reasons, and explanatory details will appear. Arrange the +divisions in the order in which they naturally come, according to their +relative time of happening or according to their relative importance, +reserving the most important for the last. + +Sometimes this sort of division is difficult to make, because a subject +can frequently be treated from different points of view, the point of +view deciding the divisions. Sometimes you will find that you have made +a number of small divisions, in each of which you can say only one or +two sentences. This will at once suggest that you have not found the +main parts of the subject, but have made unimportant divisions. Again, +it may seem that you cannot divide your subject into satisfactory parts. +In that case, you probably do not know enough about it. Think about it +again, and, if you find that you really cannot divide it, choose +another. + + * * * * * + +Choose one of the following subjects. Is the title definite and clear? +If it is not, change it so that it will be. For example, _Photography_ +(5) is not a definite title. No one could attempt to explain the entire +subject of photography in a few minutes. A better title for a theme +would be one of the following: _How to Develop a Negative_; _How to +Intensify [_or_ reduce] a Negative_; _Our Camera Club_; _The Photography +Exhibit at the Art Museum_; _Kinematography_; _Flash Light Pictures +without Smoke or Odor_; _The Conditions Necessary for a Good Snap Shot +Picture_; _The Advantages of Using a Developing Machine_; _How My Camera +Helped Pay for My Vacation_. Can you suggest still others? + +After having selected your title, decide into what divisions the subject +naturally falls. For example, let us take (2) below. _A Ball Game_ is +not a definite title. Instead, let us choose _Last Saturday's Football +Game_. As stated above, a subject may be treated from different points +of view, the point of view deciding the divisions. Thus, in treating +_Last Saturday's Football Game_, we may divide: + + _a_ + + LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME + + I. The first quarter. + II. The second quarter. + III. The third quarter. + IV. The fourth quarter. + + _b_ + + LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME + + I. The excitement for a week before the game. + II. The tension during the struggle. + III. The celebration after the game. + + _c_ + + THE TWO DECISIVE PLAYS IN SATURDAY'S GAME + + I. The long forward pass. + II. The end run to the five-yard line. + +Still other divisions may be made if we consider the subject from the +point of view of the teams or the players themselves. Can you suggest +any such divisions? + +In the same way choose one of the subjects given below. Change it, if +necessary. Then write out the topic of each division in as few words as +possible. + + 1. An important electrical device. + 2. A ball game. + 3. Getting dinner. + 4. The aeroplane. + 5. Photography. + 6. How styles change. + 7. The back-to-the-farm movement. + 8. Why oriental rugs are expensive. + 9. Wireless telegraphy. + 10. The business course in this school. + + +=Exercise 156--The Outline= + +If your theme consists of more than one division, before you begin to +speak or write you should prepare a definite working plan or outline. It +should include enough to suggest the first sentence of each division and +the more important details within each. The outline will help you in +speaking or writing to arrange the topics so that they will follow one +another clearly. If you have an outline, there will be much less danger +of including details which do not belong to the subject and of omitting +details which should appear. + +In the following very simple outlines notice the use of indentation: + + 1 + + THE PROBLEM OF KEEPING OUR CITIES CLEAN + + I. The cleaning of streets. + (_a_) In summer. + (1) The cost of sprinkling. + (_b_) In winter. + (1) The cost of removing snow. + II. The cleaning of alleys. + (_a_) The disposal of garbage. + III. The smoke nuisance. + (_a_) Smoke consumers. + (_b_) Smoke inspection. + + 2 + + PUBLIC GYMNASIUMS + + I. Definition of a public gymnasium. + (_a_) Location. + (_b_) Equipment. + (_c_) Management. + II. Benefits to the public. + (_a_) Keeps children off the streets. + (1) Congested districts. + (_b_) Develops them physically. + (_c_) Affords them pleasure. + (1) Outdoor and indoor games. + (2) Bathing at beaches connected with gymnasiums. + +One more suggestion is in place here. In writing an outline, be careful +that you express similar subdivisions of a topic by similar grammatical +elements. For example, in the first outline above, (_a_) under I is a +phrase; (_b_) under I should be a similar phrase. It would be +incorrectly worded _Winter_ or _What the winter problem is_. What is the +advantage of such similarity? + + * * * * * + +Using the divisions you made for one of the subjects under Exercise 155, +develop an outline for a theme. + + +=Exercise 157= + +Choose one of the following subjects; restrict it or expand it, if +necessary; select a proper title; write an outline; and then write or +deliver your composition, following your outline closely. Notice that +the shorter your title the more it includes, and therefore the longer +your composition must be to deal adequately with the subject. + + 1. Giving talks before a class develops self-reliance. + + 2. Most inventors would not have succeeded without + perseverance. + + 3. The more training a man has, the better chance he + has to succeed. + + 4. Most rich men learned to save early. + + 5. The value of courtesy in a retail business. + + 6. The dangers of football. + + 7. The various methods of heating a house. + + 8. The sporting page often sells the newspaper. + + 9. Educational features of the modern newspaper. + + 10. Our national game. + + 11. Baseball is a better game than football. + + 12. The use of machinery has lowered the cost of + manufactured articles. + + 13. How to prevent taking colds. + + 14. Athletic contests develop courage. + + 15. Qualities essential to good salesmanship. + + 16. Our debate with ----. + + 17. The qualities of a good street car advertisement. + + 18. A good cartoon. + + 19. Learning to swim. + + 20. The trials of washing day. + + 21. Birds as money savers. + + 22. Birds as destroyers. + + 23. Open air as a cure for tuberculosis. + + 24. Making a raft. + + 25. Every one should open a savings account. + + 26. Laziness. + + 27. Tennis is better than baseball. + + 28. Our respiratory system. + + 29. The bad effects of ridicule. + + 30. The good effects of ridicule. + + +=Exercise 158= + +Recall one of the books that you have read recently. Name two subjects +that it suggests to you and that you can talk about. Write a careful +outline for each of them, and be prepared to speak on one. + + +=Exercise 159= + +Name a subject taken from one of your studies, history for example. Let +it be definite enough so that you can tell all the details that you know +about it in a speech lasting two or three minutes. Use examples and +illustrations to make the subject interesting and clear. Prepare an +outline. + + +=Exercise 160= + +Reproduce an article that you have read in a current magazine. Be +careful that you make the material your own before attempting to retell +it. Do not under any circumstances try to memorize the article. +Understand fully what it says, make an outline of the facts that you +wish to reproduce, and then give them as if they were your own ideas. At +the beginning of your speech tell the name and date of the magazine from +which you are taking the facts. + + +=Exercise 161= + +As has been said, most of us get our ideas of what is taking place in +the world from the articles that we read in current newspapers and +magazines. We cannot always form our opinion from what one newspaper on +one day says of a particular event. We must read what it says on +successive days and, if possible, consult other newspapers on the same +subject, for it is well known that not all newspapers are non-partisan. +If one in the city is known to be so, that is the paper to read for the +material for this exercise. Then, if we can read what one of the +magazines says on the same subject, our knowledge will probably be more +definite and more nearly true. + +Let the class be divided into different sections, representing different +kinds of news; for example, national, local, foreign, and business news. +Under national news, you can perhaps find articles on national politics, +legislative measures being discussed at Washington, rumors of war, +immigration; under local news, anything pertaining to the city or the +state in which you live; under foreign news, anything of interest to any +of the other countries of the world; under business news, the prices of +food products, strikes, panics, and their effect on business conditions. +These are but suggestions. Such topics change so rapidly that nothing +more definite can here be given. + +When you have been assigned to one of these divisions, prepare a talk on +a topic that you understand thoroughly. Begin your talk with a clear +statement of your subject, as explained in Exercise 140; amplify it by +details or illustrations; and end with a sentence of conclusion, +forecasting the future of your topic or restating what you have proved. + + +=Exercise 162= + +For a week follow the same current event as recorded in the newspaper, +taking notes as you read. Then choose from all your material only those +facts that belong strictly to one topic. Write an outline, setting forth +the facts in logical order. Deliver the speech, following your outline +closely. + + +=Exercise 163= + +Let the class choose four or six members one week in advance, who are to +prepare a debate on a topic of current interest. Let the other members +of the class act as judges or volunteer on either side, as the +instructor may see fit. Such debates should occur as often as possible. + + +=Exercise 164= + +About once a month devote a day to the production of a class paper. Let +the class choose a name. During the first year let the items be +developed into paragraphs. Longer compositions should be reserved for +the second year. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR ARTICLES FOR THE PAPER + + 1. A column of interesting business items clipped from leading papers. + 2. An important news item that would make a good "story." + 3. Original editorials on one or more of the following: + _a._ Needs or improvements in city, school, or home. + _b._ Recent city news. + _c._ Business news. + _d._ State news. + _e._ National news. + _f._ Foreign news. + 4. Personal experiences, amusing incidents, or anecdotes, preferably + of the business world. + + 5. For sale advertisements, or "want ads" that the class would + understand. + + +=Exercise 165= + +Criticise the following outlines. Each topic is supposed to represent a +division in thought. + +1 + +THE WHEAT HARVEST + + 1. A group of reapers. + 2. Their costumes. + 3. The field. + 4. Starting the harvest. + 5. Carting the sheaves to the barn. + 6. The stacks. + 7. The field after the harvest. + +2 + +THE TONGUE + + 1. What it is. + 2. It is a good thing. + 3. It instructs. + 4. Evils done by the tongue. + 5. Especially slander. + 6. Conclusion. + +3 + +THE NEWSPAPER STRIKE + + 1. The cause. + (_a_) Strikers want higher wages. + (_b_) Poverty of the families of the strikers. + (_c_) Police have to protect newsboys against strikers. + 2. Disadvantages. + (_a_) Newspapers are losing business. + (_b_) Newsboys sympathize with strikers. + 3. Riots. + (_a_) Newsboys hurt and newspapers burned. + (_b_) Police cannot watch all sections of city. + 4. Conclusion. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +PUNCTUATION + + +WHEN we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression that we put +into our words and sentences. Some sentences we say all in one breath +and with not much change in emphasis from one word to the next. We may +be pretty sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its +elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect compare the +sentences given below. + +Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word group: + + Steam and electricity are making one commercial + community of all nations. + +A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone; as, + + Steam and electricity, _which are the greatest of all + discoveries_, are making one commercial community of + all nations. + +In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first. Sometimes +for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial clause precedes the +subject. Such inversion is always indicated; as, + + _If the grape crop is large_, the price of grapes is + low. + +Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence to give clearness +or force; as, + + If, _on the other hand_, the season is poor, the price + of grapes is high. + + What, _then_, determines the price of grapes? + +We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate in tone +those groups of words that are subordinate in idea, and to bring out +clearly those groups which, for one reason or another, are emphatic. The +same thing is true in music. We cannot become good musicians until we +learn phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form +distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts, we cannot +indicate the tone in which the words are spoken. We must show in some +other way which groups of words belong together, which are important, +and which are subordinate in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks +have been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak the thoughts +to ourselves; we hear the divisions between the parts of ideas; and, if +we understand punctuation, we indicate the divisions. + + +Questions + +1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word from the next? In +ancient writing this was not done. + +2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next? + +3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain. + +4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is _separate_. If two words +belong together in idea, the two making one idea, allow them to stand +unseparated. If they give two ideas, separate them by a mark of +punctuation. What is the difference in thought in the two sentences that +follow? + + (_a_) She is a pretty, energetic girl. + (_b_) She is a pretty energetic girl. + + +=Exercise 166--The Apostrophe (')= + +The _apostrophe_ (') is used-- + +1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See Exercise 82); as, + + The _boy's_ writing is excellent. + +2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as, + + _I'll_ attend to the matter. + +3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that usually have +no plural; as, + + Your _3's_ are too much like your _5's_, your _a's_ + like your _u's_. + + Don't use so many _and's_. + +Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following words +correctly: + + you're we're who's they're + your were whose there + it's he's don't their + its his doesn't + +Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following: + + 1. I've received no reply. + + 2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one + thousand dollars. + + 3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much. + + 4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like + his 9's. + + 5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I + haven't. + +Point out the mistakes in the following: + + 1. For sale, A ladies fur coat. + + 2. The boy's have gone skating. + + 3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation. + + 4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation. + + 5. Dot your is and not your us. + + 6. Is this book your's or her's? + + +=Exercise 167--Capitals= + +_Capitals_ are used for-- + +1. The first word of every sentence. + +2. The first word of every line of poetry. + +3. The first word of a quotation (See Exercise 169). + +4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as, + + Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote. + +5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed separately in an +itemized list, as in an order for merchandise. + +6. The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ (not _oh_). + +7. The words _Bible_ and _Scripture_, the books of the Bible, all names +applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns referring to Him. + +8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are considered +proper nouns; as, + + _a._ Names of the days of the week, holidays, and + months of the year, but not names of the seasons. + + _b._ North, South, etc., when they refer to sections + of the country, but not when they refer to a direction + or a point of the compass. + + _c._ Official titles or titles of honor when they are + used in connection with names, but not when they are + used without names; as, + + Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt. + Nominations are now in order for vice-president. + + _d._ Names of political parties. + + _e._ Names of religious sects. + + _f._ Names of important events or documents; as, + + The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence. + + _g._ The salutation in a letter; as, + + Dear Sir, Gentlemen. + + _h._ Words indicating relationship, when they are used + in connection with a proper name, or when used alone + as a name, but not when used with a possessive + pronoun; as, + + We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock. + I expect my mother at four o'clock. + +9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition. +Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are not capitalized; as, + + The Call of the Wild. + +10. Such words as _Paragraph_, _Article_, or _Section_, when accompanied +with a number; as, + + Paragraph 26, Article 3. + +11. See Exercise 75. + + +=Exercise 168= + +The _period_ (.) is used-- + +1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as, + + The business is prosperous. + +2. To indicate an abbreviation; as, + + The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144 + Pleasant St., Erie, Pa. + +The _interrogation mark_ (?) is used-- + +To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question; as, + + When did you order the goods? + +The _exclamation mark_ (!) is used-- + +To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that shows strong +feeling; as, + + Such demands are inhuman! + +Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished his thought to +be understood is the punctuation. The same words may express different +ideas according to the mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the +following to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey by each. +Explain the circumstances under which each might have been spoken. + + 1. The price is too high. + 2. The price is too high! + 3. The price is too high? + 4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn. + 5. Corn! There'll be no corn! + 6. You didn't tell him that. + 7. You didn't tell him that! + 8. You didn't tell him that? + 9. You are enjoying yourself. + 10. You are enjoying yourself? + 11. You are enjoying yourself! + + +=Exercise 169--Quotation Marks (" ")= + +1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should be enclosed in +quotation marks. This is called a _direct quotation_. + + He said, "The business is growing." + +Notice that the word _said_ is followed by a comma, and that the +quotation begins with a capital letter. + +2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms part of a +declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation mark before the +quotation mark; as, + + Have you been waiting long? + She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?" + +3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an exclamation mark; +as, + + Look! + He cried, "Look!" + +4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted words, the +punctuation is as follows: + +(_a_) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a comma after +the quotation and begin the words of explanation with a small letter; +as, + + "The business is growing," he said. + +(_b_) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an +interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small +letter; as, + + "Have you been waiting long?" she asked. + +(_c_) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with an +exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small +letter; as, + + "Look!" he cried. + +5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the speaker's words, +the punctuation is as follows: + +(_a_) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated by any +punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows: + + I do not believe that the report is true. + "I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true." + +Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the words _he said_ do +not belong to the quoted words. + +(_b_) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear between the +interrupted parts must be used; as, + + (1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require + but little care. + + "I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem + to require but little care." + + (2) Oh! The flames are higher! + + "Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!" + +4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation just as elsewhere. +When the thought ends, the sentence must end. The different sentences, +however, must not be divided by quotation marks; as, + + "The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do + not see them in the waiting room. I think they did not + come." + +5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several paragraphs, +quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of the quotation, at +the beginning of each succeeding paragraph, and at the end of the +quotation--not at the end of each paragraph. + +6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one within is +distinguished by single marks; as, + + John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I + thought the work could be done more easily, he said, + 'Thank you for your suggestion.'" + +7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words quoted with a +special significance, such as slang, should be enclosed in quotation +marks; as, + + The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the + "good old way" is fast passing. + +8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate is not +enclosed in quotation marks; as, + + The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote? + + +=Exercise 170= + +Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever the sense +demands division: + + 1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown + + 2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion + + 3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion + + 4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I + think you can get definite information + + 5. How can we enforce the law asked the man + + 6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law + + 7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law + + 8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the + law + + 9. The question before us is how can we enforce the + law + + 10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you + may go + + 11. As I was walking along the river he continued I + heard a voice cry help + + 12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down + + 13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down + + 14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is + down + + 15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear + there is no other way to cross + + 16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one + know another way to cross + + 17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know + another way to cross + + 18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is + down + + 19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do + + 20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the + soldiers I heard a farmer shout you fellows better try + the bridge lower down + + +=Exercise 171--Indirect Discourse= + +In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct quotations, +or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's words were quoted +exactly. When the substance of the thought is given in slightly +different form, we have an indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in +which no quotation marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a +subordinate clause depending on a word of _thinking_, _saying_, +_telling_, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced by +_that_, and indirect questions by _when_, _where_, _why_, _whether_, +_if_, _who_, _which_, _what_, and the like. When a sentence is changed +from direct to indirect discourse, the person and usually the tense of +the direct quotation are changed; as, + + _Direct_: He said, "I do not believe the report." + _Indirect_: He said that he did not believe the report. + + _Direct_: He said, "Germany is over-populated." + _Indirect_: He said that Germany is over-populated. (See Exercise 107.) + + _Direct_: She said, "I did my work before I went to school." + _Indirect_: She said that she had done her work before she went to + school. + + _Direct_: "I have finished my work," said the girl. + _Indirect_: She says that she has finished her work. + + _Direct_: "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked. + _Indirect_: I asked why he had not succeeded. + + _Direct_: "When may I go?" she inquired. + _Indirect_: She inquired when she might go. + +In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations. Do +not change the paragraphing. + +1 + +THE SEAL'S LESSON + + The baby seal said _that he could not swim_. + + His mother answered _that he could try_. + + The little fellow persisted _that he could never + learn_. + + His mother looked at him sternly, and said _that every + seal must learn to swim_. + + He replied _that the water was cold and that he liked + the sand better_, but because his mother insisted, he + slid into the water whimpering. + + After he had gone a short distance, he turned around + and called out _that the water was much pleasanter + than the sand_. + + His mother said _that she knew that it would be so_. + She said _that young people must do as they are told + because they have not had enough experience to judge + for themselves_. + +2 + +A FAITHFUL SERVANT + + A certain old time king said _that he needed a servant + who could be depended upon_. He said he knew _that + such a man is difficult to secure, and in the hope of + getting the right one, he would hire two_. + + When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and, + showing them a large basket, told them _to fill it + with water_. He said _that he would return at night to + see what they had done_. + + The men were very much in earnest when they began the + work, but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of + water into the basket, one of them stopped and said + _that he did not see any use in doing that because, as + soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again, and + his time was lost_. + + His companion replied _that the kind of work that + their master gave them was no concern of theirs; that + they were paid to do the work; and, whether it seemed + useful to them or not, they ought to do it_. + + The first speaker said _that the other man could do as + he pleased, but, as for him, he did not expect to + waste his time on such foolish work_. Throwing his + bucket down, he walked off. + + The one that was left continued at the work until + about sunset, when he had nearly emptied the well. + Looking into the basket, he saw something glittering. + Stooping to look more closely, he found in the basket + a ring of great value which his bucket had scooped up + from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said _that + now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured + into the basket_. + + Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of + his officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew + that the man had obeyed him, and he said _that he knew + he could trust him, and as a reward for obedience he + would make him master over other servants_. + + +=Exercise 172--The Paragraph in Dialogue= + +In conversation the words of each speaker, together with the author's +words of explanation, form one paragraph. Whenever the speaker changes, +the paragraph changes; as, + + "Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old + guardian of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden, + "Mimer, let me drink of the waters of wisdom." + + "Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure + that you seek and one which many have sought before + but who, when they knew the price of it, turned back." + + Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for + wisdom willingly." + + "Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your + right hand, but your right eye, you must + give."--Keary: _The Heroes of Asgard_. + +However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says is formed into +paragraphs according to the divisions into which it falls. (See Chapter +XIV.) + +When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it is punctuated +as follows: + + This, however, was of use to me, the impression + continuing on my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy + some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, "Don't give + too much for the whistle," and I saved my money. + +Paragraph the following: + +1 + + On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when + we came to an extensive belt of woods, through the + midst of which ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an + appearance particularly muddy and treacherous. In + plunged the cart, but midway it stuck fast. Then + approached the long team and heavy wagon of our + friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice + is,--" began the captain, who had been anxiously + contemplating the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But + Wright, the muleteer, apparently had not as yet + decided the point in his own mind. He sat still in his + seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling in a low, + contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is," + resumed the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any + man five pounds that if we try to go through, we shall + stick fast." "By the powers, we shall stick fast!" + echoed Jack, the captain's brother, shaking his large + head with an air of conviction. "Drive on! drive on!" + petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain, + turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give + my advice; and if people won't be reasonable, why, + they won't, that's all!"--Parkman: _The Oregon Trail_. + +2 + + Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door. + There was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair, + husking corn, was a good-looking young man. Rebecca + was a trifle shy at this encounter, but there was + nothing to do except explain her presence; so she + asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I am the + lady of the house at present," said the stranger with + a whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you + ever heard of the--would you like--er I mean, do you + need any soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I + do?" he responded unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I + didn't mean that; I have some soap to sell; I mean I + would like to introduce to you a very remarkable soap, + the best now on the market. It is called the--" "Oh! I + must know that soap," said the gentleman genially. + "Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very + purest," corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not + a trace." "And yet a child could do the Monday washing + with it and use no force?" "A babe," corrected + Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh? That child grows younger + every year, instead of older--wise child!"--Wiggin: + _Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm_. + +Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and paragraph: + + When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a + day in early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay + cool on the grass. The boy said that the flowers + seemed brighter and the birds merrier than ever + before. When they came to a bend in the river, his + uncle said that this was a good place to try. He told + the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do + and move it on the surface of the water in imitation + of the leap of a frog. The boy did as he was told, but + he caught no fish. His uncle said that he should try + again. Suddenly the bait sank out of sight, and the + boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last. As he + spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said + that he should try again, because fishermen must have + patience. In a moment the boy felt something tug at + his line, and as he jerked it up, he saw a fine + pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable + excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to + look at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy + didn't have it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash + in the water, and the boy's hook hung empty. His uncle + assured him that there were more fish in the river, + but the boy would not be comforted. His uncle smiled + shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to brag + of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said + that he had seen older people doing that in more ways + than one, and so making fools of themselves. He said + that it was better not to boast of doing a thing until + it was done. + + +=Exercise 173--The Comma (,)= + +=Rule 1.--The comma is used to separate a direct quotation from the +words of explanation.= + +For illustration see the foregoing exercises. + +Write the following from dictation; then compare your version with the +original: + + Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other + occupations are hindered for want of men to do the + work. To test this statement thoroughly you need only + hunt up a first-class editor, reporter, business + manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or artist in any + branch of industry and try to hire him. You will find + that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious, + capable, reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get + a day's holiday except by courtesy of his employer, or + of his city, or of the great general public. But if + you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed, + unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters, + lawyers, doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.--_Mark + Twain._ + +=Rule 2.--The comma is used to separate the members of a series.= + + +=Exercise 174= + +Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary commas: + + Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy + he could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence + more quickly than any one else in the neighborhood his + perseverance in his boyhood helps us to appreciate the + firm true steady hand that guided our country through + its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly showed his wise + brain his great courage and his kindness of heart his + character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year + it was built up after years of yearning years of + striving and years of hard work. + +In the above point out the instances where the comma is used-- + +1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in the same case. + +2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying the same +noun. + +3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun. + +This kind of succession is called a _series_. Each new member gives a +new idea, the comma being used to help the reader to separate one from +the next with ease. Notice that the comma is used between the last two +members before the coördinate conjunction as well as between the other +members. + + +2 + + Dear Sir:[1] + + You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds + now the company supplies power to mines and towns of + Colorado Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light + and power to Ophir Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns + in Colorado in Utah it supplies light to Mescal Eureka + Provo Logan and Bingham it also furnishes power for + the street railway systems of Salt Lake City + Farmington and Ogden. + + The bonds offer such good security good interest and + ready convertibility that we expect our allotment to + be heavily oversubscribed will you therefore send us + your order before Monday + + Yours truly, + +3 + + Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie + forming a perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and + wild oats grazed short a herd of horses staring from + the slope I myself standing in the middle like a + ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse + performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully + he galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he + lifted forelegs to welcome he flung out hind legs to + repel he leaped as if springing over bayonets he + pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty + plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and + snuffed about me--just out of reach. + +4 + + Dear Madam:[4] + + Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's + styles for ladies misses and children it contains + illustrations of the latest kinds of long coats of + skirts in the most fashionable cuts and materials of + hats that are new and particularly becoming and of + dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are + especially sure that you will like our waists they are + artistic in design stylish in cut and excellent in + workmanship they are selected from the leading fashion + centers are the creations of the best costumers and + always have individuality twenty years of selling + goods by mail have given us experience skill and + knowledge that make it certain we can please you. + + The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five + dollar order one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten + dollar order and two dollars on an order for fifteen + dollars or more this offer expires September 30. + + Yours truly, + +5 + + Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower + efficiency for the hours worked have done more to + raise the cost of living than almost anything else + this higher cost of production we see on the farm in + the factory in transportation in merchandising and + even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of + excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and + expect not to double the rents that we must pay the + cost of building has increased as the demands of + laborers increased as their hours of work decreased + and as their wages advanced the materials that go into + a building the transportation of that material the + labor of assembling it and the labor of fashioning it + into a building have all advanced in price. + + Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the + high cost of living because it has made most of us + think that we must have more conveniences more + luxuries more clothes and more amusements than our + fathers had with a return to the thrift of our fathers + with a return to their desire for work we shall no + longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there + is a real danger to our nation in our extravagance in + our indifference to cost in our sweep toward ease and + idleness and in our growing antipathy for work. + + +=Exercise 175= + +Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five illustrating +series of phrases; and five illustrating series of clauses. + + +=Exercise 176= + +Write the following from dictation: + +1 + +THE GOVERNMENT'S LAUNDRY + + Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty + that one feels the need of gloves in handling it, and + the suspicion that it is germ laden might well be + verified. It has often been said that money spreads + contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be + questioned when one remembers that money goes into + every kind of home and is handled by many infected + persons. The government has long felt that something + should be done to lessen this means of spreading + disease, and a machine has finally been invented that + will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look + almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of + operating the device is hardly fifty cents for each + thousand bills, but it is estimated that it will save + the government as much as a million dollars a year. + + 2 + + LUCK AND LABOR + + Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor + with keen eyes and strong will turns something up. + Luck lies in bed and wishes the postman would bring + him news of a fortune; labor turns out at six o'clock + and with busy pen or ringing hammer lays the + foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor + whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on + character.--_Cobden._ + +The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence. Notice the +thought expressed in these sentences. There is usually an idea of +balance or contrast, and the two halves of the sentence express the two +halves of the idea. The two members are usually distinct enough to +require a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is omitted, a +semicolon must separate the two members, as in the second selection +above. + + =Rule 3.--The comma is used before the coördinate + conjunction in a compound sentence. If the conjunction + is omitted, a semicolon must be used.= + + +=Exercise 177= + +Separate the following into compound sentences and punctuate: + + 1 + + Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but + recent experiments in Boston have proved it to be + successful in quenching fires in tanks of oil and + other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments were + conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same + principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the + floating sawdust forms a blanket that shuts off the + air from the flames and the lack of oxygen causes the + fire to die out the experiments were tried with both + wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to + extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet. + +2 + + Select the kind of business that suits your natural + inclination and temperament some men are naturally + mechanics others have a strong aversion to machinery + because they do not understand it some men are + imaginative others are purely practical some prefer + active work others like sedentary employment all + should select those occupations that suit them best. + +3 + + Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a + new material for sleepers and they have been + experimenting for some time past with cocobolo or + Japanese oak the wood is so hard that it is almost + impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed spikes + in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a + trifle more than those made from American oak but they + are expected to last twenty-five or thirty years the + reason for experimenting with foreign woods is that + native oak is becoming scarce and it is deemed wise to + search in time for a substitute. + +4 + + Dear Sir: + + We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come + of your decision in regard to the investment you were + considering at 475 Second Avenue let us have your + order and we shall at once prepare the contract of + sale the building is an especially attractive offering + at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the + return from it unusually large. + + Yours very truly, + + +=Exercise 178= + +When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase is put at the +beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis, it is called an _initial_ +clause or participial phrase. A comma separates it from the independent +clause to help the reader to see where the subordinate idea ends and +where the main idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation, +noticing the punctuation of initial elements: + + If a city is to be kept in good condition, every + citizen must pay his share of the expense. If the + dreadful epidemics are to be exterminated, there must + be a good board of health to see that everything is + kept sanitary. When the health officers do their work + well, the health of the city improves. In order that + the decrees of the health department and of the courts + may be enforced, there must be a good police + department. Besides having these advantages, cities + need good streets and good schools. Because all of + these good things cost a great deal of money, high + taxes must be levied to pay for them. + +=Rule 4.--An initial clause or participial phrase must be set off from +the rest of the sentence by a comma.= + + +=Exercise 179= + +Punctuate the following: + +1 + + Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than + rubbish there now come from it every year millions of + dollars in profit. Formerly if it was not hauled away + to rot it was usually dumped into a neighboring stream + and there it did much harm even if we had the space it + would be impossible to explain all the products now + made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for + cattle may be made from the hulls but the most + important products are made from the kernels besides + making meal for cattle they are readily converted into + crude oil according to the degree of refining that it + receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps + lard compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the + way in which modern manufacturers utilize former waste + products the cotton seed is supreme. + +2 + + When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you + know that they come back to you as writing paper + because the metal buttons buckles and hooks that are + often left on the garments cannot be converted into + paper they used to be a source of annoyance to the + papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to remove + them before the garments went into the pulp vats some + were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp + they tore holes in the paper and often damaged the + rollers in order that such danger may be avoided the + pulp is now passed through a series of magnetized + rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every bit of + metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of + iron is collected it is sent to the foundry to return + to us in many new forms. + +3 + + Dear Sir: + + Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we + found that the furniture which you ordered on the + tenth of last month left our factory on the fifteenth + if all had gone well you would have received the + articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised the + delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake + on the part of the railroad company although the goods + were properly billed to you they were allowed to go on + to Columbus if you do not receive them within ten + days' time let us hear from you again. + + Yours truly, + +4 + + Dear Sir: + + Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am + sending you particulars of the property which I wish + to sell as I told you when I was in your office last + week the price at which I am holding the building is + $20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the + mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to + agree to accept present payment for the note that he + holds against me unless the buyer agrees to pay the + unpaid taxes for last year and the assessments levied + for improvements already made I shall not consider a + sale. + + After all preliminary arrangements are made if you + will prepare a contract of sale and forward it to me I + will have the abstract brought down to date and + secured by a guaranty policy. + + Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has + examined the property and is satisfied to pay the + price for it in its present condition I would suggest + that you do nothing more toward securing bids for + rebuilding the porches. + + Yours very truly, + + +=Exercise 180= + +Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases. + +Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses. + + +=Exercise 181= + +The comma is used to separate the month from the year, the city from the +county or state, the company from the place in which it is operated, or +the like; as, + + In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle, + Washington. + +This use of the comma indicates that words have been omitted, the +sentence above really meaning, + + In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from + Seattle in the state of Washington. + +The same use is shown in such sentences as, + + Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen + dollars a week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten. + +=Rule 5.--The comma is used to indicate the omission of words.= + +Supply the necessary commas in the following: + + 1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1 + 1934. + + 2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding + $4,000,000 of stock of the par value of one dollar a + share. + + 3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah. + + 4. The transaction was officially conducted between + the Power Bond & Share Co. New York and the Pacific + Power Co. Tacoma Washington. + + 5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us + that the center of population of the United States is + four and one-quarter miles south of Unionville Monroe + County Indiana. + + 6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced + to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog + suggests the plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge; + the toadstool the umbrella; the duck the ship; the + fungus growth on trees the bracket. + + 7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United + States in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four + cents; in 1840 eighty-two cents; in 1850 $1.87; in + 1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880 $16.33; in 1890 + $24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it is + still increasing. + + 8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910 + 90,000,000. + + 9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the + United States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central + American states from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba + 52%. + + 10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America + have shown an increase of 222%; those of the United + Kingdom an increase of 115%; and those of the United + States an increase of 130%. + +Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5. + + +=Exercise 182--Explanatory Expressions= + +There are a number of expressions--words, phrases, and clauses--which +are inserted into the sentence for clearness or emphasis. They add a bit +of explanation but are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they +might be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These may be of +various kinds but are all similar in use. They should be set off by +commas so that the reader will easily see that they are subordinate to +the main idea of the sentence. + +A. The _appositive_ is a word or a group of words inserted lo explain +the noun that it follows. (See Exercise 80.) + +Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences: + + 1. William E. Curtis, _one of the world's ablest + newspaper correspondents_, in his will expressed the + hope that his grandson would continue his life-work, + _a recital of the good that men had done and not of + the crimes they had committed_. + + 2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly + lessened office drudgery. + + 3. Wall street, the great center of business life, + fixes stock prices. + + 4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent + middle class of a country, suffer most from the strain + of high prices. + + 5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to + introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business + in the winter of 1861 with a very simple equipment, + two horse-drawn sleighs. + + 6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping + melons grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and + the Emerald Green varieties. + + 7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for + this year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise + Box," one hundred packages of selected vegetable and + flower seeds. + + 8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper, + produces branching plants about two feet in height. + + 9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a + native of Norway. + +=Rule 6.--The comma is used to separate an appositive from the rest of +the sentence.= + +Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to set off an +appositive. + + +=Exercise 183--Explanatory Expressions= + +Similar in use to appositives are-- + +B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject from the +predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the like. + +In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately follows the +subject and the object follows the verb. When, for the purpose of +explanation, something is inserted between the two, it should be set off +from the rest of the sentence by commas. Words that are thus inserted +are called appositive or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated +in the following: + + In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals, + _evidently taking the suggestion from the popular + rural delivery service_, have established ice cream + routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads at + stated times so that, _with no more trouble than is + required to answer the postman's whistle_, dwellers on + the farms can now secure the hot weather luxury at + reasonable prices. The plan, _so far as one can tell + from present indications_, gives promise of meeting + with great success. + +=Rule 7.--Parenthetical expressions should be set off by commas.= + +Punctuate the following: + +1 + + The politics of the city as well as those of the + nation must be kept clean. The most intelligent men of + the community not the least intelligent should make + our political speeches and be our political leaders. + The very opposite we must confess is what we see too + often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own + ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time + to politics. We need not search far to discover that + too many of them even if they have the time do not + care to give it. At election the most influential + business and professional men either through lack of + interest or through laziness stay at home instead of + going to the polls. The men who are elected in nine + cases out of ten are not fit to hold office. The blame + belongs every one will agree to those who do not vote. + +2 + + England as most people know is becoming vastly + interested in the production of cotton in the Soudan. + This state of affairs for more reasons than one is a + matter of interest to the American manufacturer as + well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian + cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length + and strength of fiber is wanted because of the + brilliant finish it gives. For the manufacture of fine + goods including sateens India linens and mercerized + goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been + found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the + enlargement of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem + about a million acres from the desert in Lower Egypt + and although not more than half will probably be + planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's output + about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of + Agriculture after having experimented for years has + developed and acclimated in California a variety of + Egyptian cotton superior several experts say to the + real Egyptian. It now rests with the planters any one + can see to decide whether American manufacturers will + get their fine cotton at home or abroad.--_The Wall + Street Journal._ + +3 + + For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy + people on both sides of the Atlantic are talking of + the perils of a "yellow" invasion. It is true that in + the past various invasions have been attended with + evil but civilization has passed on into an age when + migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen + are taking place silently and steadily for the good of + all. There is no reason to suppose that the overflow + and interflow of nations heretofore synonymous with + the progress of humanity should bring to us anything + but good. Commerce is to lead the van in the new + movement of the nations as it has in the past and the + merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to + anticipate and guide the statesman.--_The Commercial + and Financial Chronicle._ + +4 + + The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class + of young business men seems to be that the saving of + little things in the course of the day consumes time + entirely out of proportion to the value of the things + saved but like all general rules it is carried too far + by young men who could hardly employ their time to + better advantage than in saving good though minor + materials that would otherwise be lost. The man who + originated the idea probably found it correct for + himself but like all principles catering to + indifference regarding details the idea is too readily + adopted by many young men who can ill afford its + practice. No one wishes a man to be parsimonious but + he should not allow anything to be wasted which can + with a reasonable exercise of effort be saved. + + +=Exercise 184--Explanatory Expressions= + +C. _Independent elements_ are words, phrases, or clauses that have no +direct grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. They +are really a kind of parenthetical expression, but have less connection +with the sentence than those given under B. + +The following is an argument against the trusts. The italicized +expressions are independent elements. What different kinds do you +discover? + + _Gentlemen_, the big problem before us to-day, + _therefore_, is the trusts. Shall the people control + the trusts, or shall the trusts control the people? + _To state the question differently_, shall we all + continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we + turn our power over into the hands of a few and let + their word be law? This centralizing of power, _by the + way_, was the evil men tried to remedy by forming + republics, and shall we Americans, _do you think_, be + willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us + of liberty? _The answer being self-evident_, let us + proceed. It seems that the little violator of law can + be punished; the big violator cannot be, or, _at any + rate_, is not punished. The trusts, _most people + know_, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason + for destroying competition, _evidently_, is to swell + profits by charging all that the trade will bear. The + trust, _finally_, is not a method of doing business, + but a scheme for levying tribute. + +=Rule 8.--Independent elements are separated from the rest of the +sentence by commas.= + +Punctuate the following: + +1 + + NEW YORK, May 12, 19--. + + Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson, + 5010 Prospect Ave., + Milwaukee, Wis. + + Dear Sir: + + You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation + before you make any new plans however consider the + opportunity that we are offering you to see a new and + marvelously beautiful world for little more very + likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation at the + summer hotel to which you usually go. + + The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is + new to you comparatively few people unfortunately have + yet awakened to its possibilities they do not realize + at least not fully that the climate in Jamaica Panama + and the Central and South American countries is + practically the same throughout the year moreover the + transportation rates are much lower than they are in + the North and the incidental expenses of travel such + as carriage fare and the cost of curios are + considerably less rough weather too is almost unknown + in the summer. + + Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan + you have been considering a week's cruise of the great + lakes at an expense certainly of $40 or more and along + coasts that you have seen doubtless many times before + we offer a number of trips varying in length from + twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50 to + $130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America + thus for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long + pass shores much more beautiful visit cities far more + strange and return with a new almost magical store of + memories. + + You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer + these remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is + that our ships carry an exceptionally large amount of + freight however do not think merely because our ships + carry freight that they are not splendidly equipped + for passenger travel on the other hand they are so + luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted + for tropical cruises you are missing an unusual + opportunity we assure you if you do not more fully + investigate our offer. + + Yours very truly, + +2 + + We are learning year by year that as a rule financial + independence cannot be secured by most men except by + saving the savings bank is of course the first place + to invest savings because it will receive small sums + and pay an interest on them when a man's savings + however have reached $1000 for example what shall he + do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge + probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore + to put his money where it will be safe where it will + earn a fair rate of interest and if possible where he + can on short notice convert it into cash. + +3 + + A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his + savings a woman on the other hand invests because she + has received a legacy this may take the form of course + of property securities cash or life insurance it is + the function of sound investment most people know to + surround funds of this nature with strong security the + selection of conservative investments it is evident + must be made with care those companies naturally that + deal in conservative securities are the ones a + prospective investor should consult. + +4 + + Not long ago the editor of a financial journal + received a letter of inquiry from a woman she had she + said only two thousand dollars if she invested it as + some of her friends had advised her to do in a + well-known security she could not live on the + proceeds she had consequently made a connection with + a brokerage house and was making a living by buying + and selling speculative stocks her list by the way + showed a profit of $500 in four months what she wanted + to know of course was how she could make the gain a + second time in effect she was told to take her profits + and run as fast as she could she will not in all + probability take the advice and in a few months + possibly weeks she will write again for help in + rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have + learned at last that the way to keep her money is to + save it but she will not by that time in all + likelihood have any money to save. + + +=Exercise 185--Explanatory Expressions= + +D. The _explanatory relative clause_. + +Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause. Like an +appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the purpose of +explanation and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. +Because of this similarity, it is sometimes called an appositive +relative clause. + +Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish a clause that may +be omitted from the sentence without destroying the meaning from one +that may not be omitted. The appositive clause may be omitted. A +restrictive clause, because it restricts the meaning of the word it +modifies, may not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of +clearness, it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. +To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive clause, the +former is called a non-restrictive clause. + +Notice the difference between the following: + + 1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, _which controls + the electric light and power supply of Chicago_, was + organized in 1907 by the consolidation of the Chicago + Edison Company and the Commonwealth Electric Company. + +The sentence makes complete sense without the relative clause. + + 2. The concern _that controls the electric light and + power supply of Chicago_ is the Commonwealth Edison + Company. + +The relative clause must be used to understand the sentence. + +In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2) it limits or +restricts the meaning of _the concern_. The non-restrictive clause is +shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2). + +Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses: + + It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000 + gallons of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000. + To supply this amount 120,000 cows are needed, which + are owned by 12,000 dairy farms. Health officers + conduct a systematic dairy farm inspection, which has + for its purpose the exclusion of diseased milk. Farm + owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now + see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have + discovered that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is + dangerous except when produced under sanitary + conditions, and now dairies are allowed to sell only + clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy + cow. + +Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the following +sentences decide whether the italicized expressions are restrictive or +non-restrictive. State whether they are phrases or clauses. Do any of +the sentences need commas? + + 1. The man _wearing the brown coat_ is my brother. + + 2. My brother bought a new coat _which is brown_. + + 3. The lesson _that I take at nine o'clock_ is + English. + + 4. In English _which I take at nine o'clock_ we are + studying punctuation. + + 5. I am going to work in every city _that I visit_. + + 6. I am going to work in any city _where I can find + employment_. + + 7. I am going to work in Denver _where my uncle + lives_. + + 8. The house _on the hill_ is the oldest in town. + + 9. The house _that is the oldest in town_ is used as a + museum. + + 10. The Franklin Museum _which occupies the oldest + house in town_ is a very interesting place. + + 11. The town museum is the place _that I like to + visit_. + + 12. The chimney _that was blown down last night in the + storm_ should have been mended long ago. + + 13. The old ruined tower _which has long been a + picturesque sight in the village_ was blown down last + night. + + 14. We counted ten chimneys _that were blown down last + night_. + + 15. The stenography system _that I studied_ is + Munson's. + + 16. I think she uses Munson's _which she considers a + good system of stenography_. + + 17. Last year I pursued a course in stenography _which + I enjoyed very much_. + + 18. The book _that we use in class_ has a brown cover. + + 19. The only milk _that is fit to drink_ comes from a + clean dairy. + + 20. Systematic inspection has been carried on _which + has resulted in securing better milk_. + +=Rule 9.--A non-restrictive clause should be separated from the rest of +the sentence by commas.= + + +=Exercise 186= + +Punctuate the following: + + 1. We have an enormous crop of cotton the value of + which is estimated at one billion dollars. + + 2. "The root of the mail order evil is the idea which + the retail mail order houses have been able somehow to + instill into the minds of the buying public that the + local merchants ask too much for their goods." + + 3. Mr. Hilton who was sales manager at that time + induced the company to adopt this system. + + 4. The lecture will be delivered by Mr. Brenton who is + the head of the advertising department of Whitlock & + Co. + + 5. Our dog whose fur was wet by his plunge into the + lake came running toward us. + + 6. Genevieve who had always been the leader in the + games was not present. + + 7. A late product of the brain of George Westinghouse + who was the inventor of the air brake and numerous + electrical devices is an air spring for automobiles. + This little article has been patented by Mr. + Westinghouse who has the sole ownership. The spring + which has already proved popular with automobile + owners fits over the end of the regular spring and + "makes good roads out of bad ones." + + 8. Careful selection of investments upon which the + safety of your money depends is often difficult. + Careful watching of investments which is fully as + essential is much harder. Let us tell you about our + Investment Service which does this watching for you + and keeps you fully protected. + + 9. As a direct result of the conference between the + railroad and steamship interests of the South-Atlantic + and Gulf cotton ports which was held recently at Hot + Springs Va. an organization which will be known as the + South Atlantic and Steamship Cotton Inspection Bureau + has been created. The bureau will have a chief + inspector who will supervise the conduct of its + business at all ports and will arrange for the + employment of the inspectors. According to the rules + and regulations copies of which have been received by + the cotton agencies and the export departments of the + various New Orleans firms any bale that shows external + damage from water mud bad bagging or other causes must + be condemned and its condition noted and reported. + + 10. How would you like to wear a hat that has been + handed down through six generations in each of which + it was a treasured possession? The Italian peasants + who love finery are proud to do that very thing. Very + few of the poorer people who live in Italy own a hat. + When you see a beautifully woven Leghorn hat which is + also very dirty on the head of a little peasant child + you may be pretty sure that she is celebrating her + birthday by wearing the family heirloom. These hats + which are sometimes willed to a favorite relative and + which in some instances go the round of the family are + considered almost priceless. It is a frequent sight + along the dusty roads outside the little towns to see + untidy old women who are sauntering along twisting + twine as they go all vanity under the flopping brim of + an antiquated hat. This is almost the only souvenir + that tourists' money cannot buy.--_The Chicago + Tribune._ + + +=Exercise 187--Explanatory Expressions= + +E. When the subordinate element that comes at or near the close of the +sentence gives an _additional_ idea, following the more or less complete +idea in the rest of the sentence, it should be set off by a comma; as, + + A signature clerk will easily recognize any alteration + in a signature, _although thousands of checks pass + through his hands daily_. + + He gave a statement of the affairs of the company, + _explaining that he wished to make a loan_. + +=Rule 10.--A terminal adverbial clause or participial phrase giving an +additional idea should be set off from the rest of the sentence by a +comma.= + +Punctuate the following: + + 1. Popular-priced goods are the safest for a retail + stock however you consider the subject. + + 2. A sheriff seldom finds large quantities of + popular-priced goods on hand when he comes to take + possession of any retail store although he usually + finds expensive articles. + + 3. They bring higher prices relatively than the + heavier things even when they are disposed of under + forced sale. + + 4. The catalogue houses have little fear for + five-and-ten-cent stores because sixty-eight per cent + of their business is in big goods such as furniture + vehicles sewing-machines clothing and relatively + expensive things. They do not wish to increase the + sale of popular-priced articles although their + catalogue may be full of them because it costs them + more to pack one hammer or trowel than the profits can + stand. + + 5. Steel conditions remain about as they have been for + several weeks excepting that the price of rails has + been advancing for the last few days. + + 6. Steel men are of the opinion that to increase + prices too rapidly would spoil a good market because + most of the mills are so filled up with orders that + they would not be able to take advantage of increased + quotations for some time to come. + + 7. The steel business for the last three months has + been very encouraging as it shows that railroads are + dropping their policy of waiting until the last minute + to buy. It will probably mean more normal operation of + mills instead of spasmodic workings as has been the + case for the last few years. + + 8. Boraxated soap chips will benefit your tableware + and your hands making dishwashing a pleasure instead + of a task. + + 9. The man who works to the limit of his physical + powers is as foolish as the manufacturer who + immediately invests all his profits in his business + neglecting to have a reserve fund for unexpected + demands. + + 10. A wide-awake manager tries plan after plan testing + and re-testing them until he can apply them to his + company's needs. + +Write four sentences illustrating Rule 10. + + +=Exercise 188= + +Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction +for each: + +1 + + Dear Madam: + + We wish to acknowledge your letter of recent date + assuring you that we thank you for the opportunity you + have given us of opening a monthly charge account in + your name. We shall spare no effort to make every + transaction as satisfactory as possible hoping thus to + merit a liberal share of your patronage. + + Our bills are rendered on the first of each month + being payable between that date and the fifteenth. + + Yours very truly, + +2 + + Dear Mr. Warner: + + In reply to your inquiry I am sending the following + information assuring you that I am glad to be of + service to you. + + The Lancaster Company has apparently abandoned its + plan of erecting a new building this year difficulties + having arisen it is said in their securing a suitable + location. About two years ago the firm purchased a + site on the corner of Harrison and Second streets but + they sold it again last year taking advantage of a + decided rise in real estate values. It is understood + we believe that the company will build in the near + future even now having two or three possible sites + under consideration. + + Sincerely yours, + +3 + + Dear Sir: + + We offer you the benefits and privileges of our + Special Charge Account whereby purchases may be paid + for in weekly or monthly installments. You will find + this a most convenient arrangement because it permits + you to have a charge account without the usual + hardship of payment at a fixed time. Moreover a + Special Charge Account costs you nothing since our + prices are the same whether you pay cash or have + purchases charged. Please fill out the enclosed + application blank mailing it to us to-day. + + You will no doubt enjoy reading the enclosed booklet + as it gives much interesting information on fashion + tendencies. The illustrations too are unusually + attractive although they hardly do justice to the + beautiful garments that we sell. + + Yours truly, + + +=Exercise 189= + +Study the punctuation in the following selections from _The Wall Street +Journal_; then write them from dictation: + +1 + +TROUBLE IN INTRODUCING STEEL + + "Strange as it now seems," said one of Carnegie's + "young men," now the vice-president of a large and + prosperous corporation in New York, "in the early days + of the steel industry we had the greatest difficulty + in the world in weaning the old manufacturers away + from the use of wrought iron, though they admitted the + superiority of steel. They would look at it, test it, + and agree that it seemed to possess all the desirable + qualities claimed for it, but it was more or less + untried by time, and they preferred to stick to the + old wrought iron, with which they were familiar. + + "I remember one old chap with whom I had wrestled + long, but in vain, coming into my office and picking + up a long, soft steel rivet, which had been bent + double and hammered flat. + + "'How many did you break in making this?' he asked, + picking it up and examining it curiously. + + "'That's the first one we hammered over, and, what is + more to the point, we can do it with all steel of that + type,' I replied. + + "The polite incredulity in his face stirred my + professional pride, and I said, 'If I let you go to + the mills, pick out a dozen of those rivets just as + they come from the rolls, and hammer them with your + own hands, will you use that steel hereafter, if it + comes up to the test?' + + "He said he would, and the rest was easy, for it is + much easier not to break than to break that kind of + steel. Before long the old man came back with + perspiration dripping from the end of his nose but + with the light of conviction shining in his eye. The + firm had a new customer." + +2 + +CONSERVATION + + Leslie M. Shaw, former Secretary of the Treasury, was + in New York, attending a meeting of a board of which + he is a member. Something was said about the + present-day discussion of money power, and Shaw said + that it reminded him of a speech he had made in + Seattle in the campaign of 1896. + + "I was speaking to a filled hall and had almost + finished," said Shaw, "when a long-whiskered man arose + about the middle of the hall and held up his hand, + saying he wanted to ask a question. + + "'Go ahead,' I said. + + "'How, then, Mr. Speaker, do you explain the unequal + distribution of wealth?' was his question. + + "When I answered him with, 'In the same way that I + explain the unequal distribution of whiskers,' bedlam + broke loose. + + "As soon as I could get quiet restored, I said: 'Now + don't think I returned the answer I did to make fun of + your whiskers. You will observe that I have no + whiskers, as I dissipate them by shaving them off. + Nature gives me abundance of whiskers, and, if I + conserved them as you do, I also should be abundantly + supplied. Now, it is the same way with money. The man + who conserves his money has more than his share, as + with whiskers; while the man who dissipates his money + is without his allotment.'" + + +=Exercise 190--The Semicolon (;)= + +The semicolon is used between the propositions of a compound sentence +when no coördinate conjunction is used. (See Exercise 176, 2.) + + It is not work that kills men; it is worry. +It is important not to overdo this use of the semicolon. Do +not use it unless the two principal clauses of the sentence +taken together easily form one idea. + +Especial care must be taken not to confuse coördinate conjunctions and +conjunctive adverbs. The following are conjunctive adverbs: _then_, +_therefore_, _consequently_, _moreover_, _however_, _so_, _also_, +_besides_, _thus_, _still_, _otherwise_, _accordingly_. When they are +used to join principal clauses, they should be preceded by a coördinate +conjunction or a semicolon; as, + + Fruit was plentiful, and therefore the price was low. + Fruit was plentiful; therefore the price was low. + +When there is a series of phrases or clauses, each of which is long and +contains commas within itself, the sentence becomes clearer if the +members of the series are separated by semicolons instead of by commas; +as, + + You know how prolific the American mind has been in + invention; how much civilization has been advanced by + the steamboat, the cotton-gin, the sewing-machine, the + reaping-machine, the typewriter, the electric light, + the telephone, the phonograph. + +Write the following from dictation: + +1 + + No man can deny that the lines of endeavor have more + and more narrowed and stiffened; no one who knows + anything about the development of industry in this + country can fail to have observed that the larger + kinds of credit are more and more difficult to obtain, + unless you obtain them upon the terms of uniting your + efforts with those who already control the industries + of the country; and nobody can fail to observe that + any man who tries to set himself up in competition + with any process of manufacture which has been taken + under the control of large combinations of capital + will presently find himself either squeezed out or + obliged to sell and allow himself to be + absorbed.--Woodrow Wilson: _The New Freedom._ + +2 + + If the total amount of savings deposited in the + savings banks were equally divided among the + population of the country, the amount apportioned to + each person in 1820 would have been twelve cents; in + 1830, fifty-four cents; in 1840, eighty-two cents; in + 1850, $1.87; in 1860, $4.75; in 1870, $14.26; in 1880, + $16.33; in 1890, $24.75; in 1900, $31.78; in 1910, + $45.05, and it is steadily increasing. Remember the + fact that the population had increased from 10,000,000 + in 1820 to over 90,000,000 in 1910; the "rainy day" + money, therefore, assumes gigantic proportions. + +3 + + In Germany, says _The Scientific American_, wood is + too expensive to be burned, and it is made into + artificial silk worth two dollars a pound and bristles + worth four dollars a pound; into paper, yarn, twine, + carpet, canvas, and cloth. Parquet flooring is made + from sawdust; the materials may be bought by the pound + and then mixed, so that the householder can lay his + own hardwood floors according to his individual taste + and ingenuity. + +4 + + The country gentlemen and country clergymen had fully + expected that the policy of these ministers would be + directly opposed to that which had been almost + constantly followed by William; that the landed + interest would be favored at the expense of trade; + that no addition would be made to the funded debt; + that the privileges conceded to Dissenters by the late + king would be curtailed, if not withdrawn; that the + war with France, if there must be such a war, would, + on our part, be almost entirely naval; and that the + government would avoid close connections with foreign + powers and, above all, with Holland.--_Macaulay._ + + +=Exercise 191--The Colon (:)= + +The colon is always used to indicate that something of importance +follows, usually an enumeration or a list of some kind, or a quotation +of several sentences or paragraphs; as, + + 1. Three things are necessary: intelligence, + perseverance, and tact. + + 2. The buffalo supplies them with almost all the + necessities of life: with habitation, food, and + clothing; with strings for their bows; with thread, + cordage, and trail-ropes for their horses; with + coverings for their saddles; and with the means of + purchasing all that they desire from traders. + + 3. Quoting from the current number of the _---- + Magazine_, he read: (four paragraphs). + +Punctuate: + + 1. For the first fifty miles we had companions with us + Troche a little trapper and Rouville a nondescript in + the employ of the fur company. + + 2. About a week previous four men had arrived from + beyond the mountains Sublette Reddick and two others. + + 3. Reynal was gazing intently he began to speak at + last "Many a time when I was with the Indians I have + been hunting gold all through the Black Hills there's + a plenty of it here you may be certain of that I have + dreamed about it fifty times" etc. + + 4. Objects familiar from childhood surrounded me crags + and rocks a black and sullen brook that gurgled with a + hollow voice among the crevices a wood of mossy + distorted trees. + + +=Exercise 192= + +The colon is used after _thus_, _as follows_, _the following_, or +similar expressions; as, + + Name the adverbs in the following: He left hurriedly + rather early in the morning. + +The colon is not used after _namely_, _as_, _that is_, _for example, for +instance_, and the like. Such expressions are preceded by the semicolon +and followed by the comma. + +Punctuate the following: + + 1. The Christmas presents that he wants are the + following a toy train a toy automobile a toy circus + and a printing press. + + 2. Do the exercise thus first lunge to the left second + raise the arms forward and third wind the wand. + + 3. We are offering for sale three residences of the + size that you wish namely 438 Bishop Ave 1614 + Winchester St and 2015 Logan Square. + + 4. The following are the two that we liked best 438 + Bishop Ave and 2015 Logan Square. + + 5. One use of the comma is to set off an appositive + for example Mr Kearne the buyer has left the city. + + 6. The comma is used to set off an independent adverb + as We have not yet decided however when we shall + leave. + + 7. The plan is this I'll do the work and you pay for + the materials. + + 8. The officers are as follows Edward Lawrence for + President John Kelly for Secretary and Fred Morrison + for Treasurer. + + +=Exercise 193--The Dash(--)= + +The dash is used to set off parenthetical expressions that have very +little connection with the rest of the sentence; as, + + In New York the Harlem River tunnel was comparatively + a simple one, but the first East River tunnels--the + two subway tubes from the Battery to + Brooklyn--presented all the difficulties known to + subaqueous construction. + + These tunnels extend on under the great Pennsylvania + terminal building--another of the same decade's + accomplishments--to East Thirty-fourth Street. + +The dash is also used to indicate a sudden change or break in the +thought; as, + + 1. When the millennium comes--if it ever does--all of + our problems will be solved. + + 2. "I believe--" began the lawyer. + + "Believe!" interrupted his client. "I don't want you + to believe. I want you to know." + +The dash is used before a word that summarizes the preceding part of the +sentence; as, + + He had robbed himself of the most precious thing a man + can have in business--his friends. + +After a comma the dash has the effect of lengthening the separation; as, + + One thing the Puritans desired,--freedom to worship + God. + + +=Exercise 194--Parenthesis Marks ()= + +Parenthesis marks are used to enclose explanatory expressions that are +not an essential part of the sentence; as, + + The United States Department of Agriculture estimates + that the receipts of cattle at the six leading markets + (Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, South Omaha, St. + Joseph, and Sioux City) from January 1 to August 1 of + this year are 15 per cent less than they were in the + corresponding period of last year. + +_Wrong._--Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or a passage. A +line should be drawn through a word that is wrong. + +Bring to class five sentences that illustrate the correct use of +parenthesis marks. + + +=Exercise 195--The Hyphen (-)= + +The hyphen is used when a word has been divided. It is always used at +the end of the line and never at the beginning. + +When several short words are taken together to form one word, they are +hyphenated; as, + + a one-hundred-pound bag of coffee + +As a rule, when two words taken together are each accented, they must be +written with the hyphen. When only one is accented, no hyphen is used; +as, + + follow-up, first-class, self-reliant, railroad, + steamship + +As a rule, nouns which are compounded of a participle and a noun use the +hyphen; as, + + talking-machine, driving-wheel + +When fractions are written out, the hyphen is used; as, + + one-third, three-fifths + +In other numerals expressing a compound number the hyphen is also used; +as, + + twenty-one, sixty-six + + +=Exercise 196= + +Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction +for each: + +1 + + Gentlemen: + + We are glad to tell you that contrary to the fears + expressed in your last letter there are no present + indications of sudden changes at least no indications + of drops in prices. With the exception of two fruits + and one vegetable grapes cantaloupes and cauliflower + all commodities sold on the wholesale fruit and + produce markets here were quoted yesterday at the + prices announced last Friday. + + The change in grape prices affected the Red Peru + variety in which the supply has almost stopped the + price being raised from $1.05 to $1.25 a box. If one + may trust the forecast of local merchants the price + will probably remain at this higher point until the + supply is exhausted. Cantaloupes seem to be a trifle + scarce especially the pineapple variety the price of + which was raised from $1.10 to $1.30 a crate. + Cauliflower was raised to $1.35 a dozen heads the + staple price probably for the rest of the season. + + Excepting these items we shall be glad to receive any + orders at Friday's quotations. + + Yours truly, + + +2 + + Gentlemen: + + Your order of the 20th instant forwarded from our + Trenton office came this morning. We regret to say + however that we do not carry the Sanito brand of + canned goods as we do not consider the grade + first-class. If the Monsoon brand which is generally + acknowledged to be excellent will serve your purpose + we can fill your order at once. + + We are now in a position to supply the trade with Mrs. + Keller's coffee of which we have fortunately secured + several thousand packages at a very low price. If you + wish any at $2.50 per dozen packages less than half + the retail price you will notice let us hear from you + at once. + + Yours truly, + +3 + + Dear Sir: + + We acknowledge your letter of October 5 but we regret + that as yet we have no information in regard to the + excess charge of $1.02 which you were obliged to pay + on the express shipment of one piece 27 yds. of plaid + silk chiffon. We have taken up the matter with the + mill however and as soon as we receive their report we + shall write you again. + + Asking your indulgence meanwhile we are + + Yours truly, + +FOOTNOTE: + +[4] Supply heading and introduction (see page 232). + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE CLEAR SENTENCE + + +BUSINESS men like to talk of brevity. They tell you that a talk or a +letter must be brief. What they really mean is that the talk or the +letter must be concise; that it must state the business clearly in the +fewest possible words. Don't omit any essential fact when you write, but +don't repeat. If you can express an idea in ten words, don't use twenty. +In a later exercise we shall meet the sentence, _The size of the crops +is always important, and it is especially so to the farmer, and this is +because he has to live by the crops._ The writer of that sentence was +very careless. He had a good idea and thought that, if he kept repeating +it, he would make it stronger. Just the reverse is true. The sentence +may be expressed in a very few words: _The size of the crop is vitally +important to the farmer._ + +If you wish to secure conciseness of expression, be especially careful +to avoid joining or completing thoughts by these expressions: _and_, +_so_, _why_, _that is why_, _this is the reason_, _and everything_. + +In this chapter we shall consider some of the larger faults that should +be avoided in sentences. + + +=Exercise 197--Unity of the Sentence= + +Give the definition of a sentence. + +How many thoughts may one sentence express? + +What is likely to happen when two thoughts are joined by _and_? What, +then, is the danger in using the compound sentence? + +The compound sentence is good to use to express certain ideas, +especially contrast; as, + + It is not work that kills men; it is worry. + + It is not the revolution that destroys the machinery, + but the friction [but it is the friction]. + +The sentences which most clearly and easily give us one thought are the +simple and the complex sentences. + +Compare the following sentences. Which of them leave _one_ idea in your +mind? + + The tongue is a sharp-edged tool. + + A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows + keener with constant use. + + A sharp tongue is like an edged tool, and it grows + keener with constant use. + + +=Exercise 198= + +The following is wordy. Rewrite it, condensing as much as possible. Use +simple and complex sentences rather than compound, expressing in each +only one thought. + + In the early summer the corn crop frequently seems to + be very poor, and so reports begin to circulate that + corn will be high in the autumn, but when the autumn + really comes, Wall Street, that great center of + business life, begins to see that the reports have + been greatly exaggerated and that crops really will be + very good, and so business begins to pick up. The size + of the crop largely settles the volume of the next + season's business, because so great a part of the + world's business activity is made up of buying and + selling the actual potatoes and corn and wheat and + cattle or the products made from these, and when the + crop is poor there are a great many people concerned, + because they will be poor just as the crops are poor, + and this applies to the farmer as well as to the + dealer. + + The size of the crops is always important, and is + especially so to the farmer, and this is because he + has to live by the crops. A man may be living in the + city and working for a salary and begin to see that + his work is not supporting him, and if he is an + ambitious man, he will change his occupation. This the + farmer cannot do because he has made an enormous + investment; in the first place, he has invested in + his land, and then in his seed and farm implements, + and this investment often means all the available + money the farmer has, and often it means a mortgage on + his farm. He puts the mortgage on his farm in hope of + getting a good crop, and when his hope is not + realized, he is in trouble, because he may lose his + whole farm if he cannot pay the installments of + interest due on his mortgage; but then, on the other + hand, if we consider the other side of the question, + when the crop is large, the situation is altogether + different. Even if the farmer has put a mortgage on + his farm, he gets enough money from his produce to pay + the debt of that mortgage, and he need not worry how + he is to live during the next winter. + + The town merchants depend on a good crop, because, if + the farmer has not a good return from his fields, he + will have almost no ready money, and so he cannot buy + much clothing or household furnishings. In Iowa, for + instance, there is a little town in the center of a + corn-raising community, and it is here that the + farmers congregate to do their buying, and in this + town there is quite a large department store, and it + is run by a woman. She does most of her buying in the + autumn and she prefers to do it personally, and so she + likes to make a trip to New York for the purpose, but + she never sets out until she knows that the corn crop + is good. And the reason for this is that she knows + that it will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the + trip East, to stay at a good hotel, and to spend the + requisite length of time choosing her purchases at the + different wholesale houses, and she knows that if + there is no corn crop she will sell very few coats and + hats and lace curtains, and it will never pay her to + run up her expenses into the hundreds of dollars, but + she will buy as best she can from the drummers, and + buy only a little, and thus the size of the crop + determines how much the farmer can buy, and, + therefore, how much the wholesale and retail dealers + can sell. + + +=Exercise 199--Subordination in the Sentence= + +Sentences containing compound predicates may be made more direct in +thought if one of the verbs is changed to a participle or an infinitive, +because the predicate will then express only one action; as, + + 1. The carpenter _threw_ down his hammer _and walked_ + out of the shop. + + 2. _Throwing_ down his hammer, the carpenter walked + out of the shop. + + 3. I _went_ downtown _and applied_ for the position. + + 4. I went downtown _to apply_ for the position. + +Change the following sentences so that one action is denoted by the +predicate of each: + + 1. A teamster drove out of the alley east of the + theater and swung his horses directly in front of a + Madison street car. + + 2. The tongue struck the front of the car and bored a + hole in the fuse box. + + 3. The fire spread and burned the roof of the car. + + 4. The half dozen passengers were badly frightened and + got out quickly. + + 5. Several people ran and turned in a fire alarm. + + 6. In a few minutes the fire engines arrived and began + to fight the flames. + + 7. Crowds came from all directions and silently + watched the flames. + + 8. The people poured out of the theater and cheered + the firemen. + + 9. The half dozen passengers soon recovered and stood + on the curbstone in the crowd. + + 10. The firemen did their work quickly and departed + amid the cheers of the crowd. + + +=Exercise 200--Combination of Short Sentences= + +Sometimes short sentences are bad because two or three of them are +needed to express one complete thought. If that is the case, they should +be combined, the most important detail being put into the principal +clause, and the other details into modifiers, as in the preceding +exercise. + +Make use of-- + + 1. Adjectives. + 2. Adverbs. + 3. Participial phrases. + 4. Infinitives. + 5. Relative pronouns. + 6. Subordinate conjunctions. + +Below, the first and second sentences together make one thought, which +is expressed in the third. + + John is a good reporter. + That is why he earns a good salary. + Because John is a good reporter, he earns a good salary. + +Combine the sentences of each group below into a single sentence, either +simple or complex, omitting as many words as possible but no ideas: + + 1. We stayed at home for two reasons: first of all, we + thought Baltimore might be unpleasantly warm. Then, + the other reason was that we thought we ought to + economize. + + 2. In China the wedding takes place at the + bridegroom's house. This has been decorated with + strips of bright red paper, and they have the word + "Hsi" on them. This means "Live in happiness." + + 3. First in the procession come the standard bearers. + They are hired for the occasion. These men have red + coats put on over their dirty clothes. The men they + hire are usually beggars. + + 4. Six years ago I went sailing on Lake George with my + father. I was ten years old at that time. Two other + men went along with us. The boat that we went in + belonged to my father and these men. + + 5. The wind was high and it would come in gusts. This + made it hard to sail. It shifted the sails so quickly + that it would throw the boat over on one side. + + 6. Several times the boat leaned over at an angle of + forty degrees. This let the water come in on that + side. When this happened, we all had to jump to the + other side. We did this so that the boat would right + itself. + + 7. The heart is the most important organ in the body. + This is because if the heart stops beating, you cannot + live. Besides, all the other organs are connected with + it. It is something like the main spring in a watch. + + 8. This is a good machine. And since that's the case, + I don't see why it is that it doesn't work as it + should. + + 9. In every business there are many bad debts. Some + can be collected and others cannot be. This is because + the men who made them were given credit, and they + didn't have any money. + + 10. The night was dark, and there were no stars. The + fishermen stood on the shore, and they gazed at the + wild sea. A storm had arisen, and they could not go + out in their boats. + + +=Exercise 201= + +As in the preceding exercise, rewrite the following, omitting as many +words as possible, but no ideas. Use shorter, simpler expressions +wherever possible. + +1 + + Uncle Sam now has an aerial navy, but it's a small + one, and foundations of it were recently laid. This + was done when contracts were signed for the delivery + of three aeroplanes and they are the first aeroplanes + that the United States bought. These aeroplanes are of + the latest development. They are all capable of rising + from land or water. They are able also to land on + water or on the deck of a ship, and they can carry at + least one passenger and are equipped with wireless + outfits. Two of them are Curtis machines and the third + is a Wright, and they ranged in price from $2,700 to + $5,500. + +2 + + The United States produces more steel than any two + European countries, and it is continuing to produce + more. Moreover, it has the productive capacity to + produce more than any other three or four countries + put together. This capacity is being still further + increased. At the present time, there is one very + important steel company. It is very large, and seems + to wish to monopolize the entire iron and steel + industry. Even at this time it owns half the principal + plants that are now producing steel and iron, and + controls half the trade of the entire steel and iron + industry, and when such a thing happens, it is a + matter of international concern. + +3 + +Condense the following into a single sentence, either simple or complex: + + The iron and steel industry is very important, and it + includes a great deal. First, the ore has to be mined, + and then the work includes everything up to making the + finest wire for musical instruments. Or, to put it + another way, you can say from smelting the ore to + building a battle ship. This is a very interesting + occupation and, as said before, very important. There + is hardly anything more interesting or important + except agriculture. + + +=Exercise 202--Dangling Expressions= + +Sometimes a sentence is not clear because it contains a participle which +does not modify anything in the sentence. A participle is part _verb_ +and part _adjective_. As a verb, it expresses the idea of the verb from +which it is derived. As an adjective, it must modify a noun or a +pronoun. The important point is that this noun or pronoun must be +expressed in the sentence and not lie in the mind of the writer, as it +does in the following: + + Riding from Saugatuck to Holland last year, the + country showed unmistakable signs of lack of rain. + +Here the writer means, _We saw that the country_, etc., but he says that +the country rode from Saugatuck to Holland. + +Again, an expression may be used which is really an incomplete clause. +Do not use such a clause, unless the understood subject is the same as +the subject expressed in the independent proposition. + + _Wrong_: When almost exhausted, the camp was reached. + _Right_: When almost exhausted, we reached the camp. + +Recast the following sentences, correcting the dangling expressions: + + 1. You should not stop studying your lessons until + thoroughly prepared. + + 2. In talking to the postman yesterday, he said that + his route had been changed. + + 3. Owing two months' rent, the foreman laid me off. + + 4. Before becoming a physician, the law sets a very + severe examination. + + 5. Having eaten our luncheon very hastily, the + typewriters were soon clicking merrily again. + + 6. The difficulty could easily be settled, going about + it in the right way. + + 7. Although determined to get my money, the task was + harder than I had expected. + + 8. Having installed an adding machine, our office work + could be done in half the time. + + 9. On entering the car, the first thing that caught my + attention was the sign at the end. + + 10. Silk should be washed with warm water and a mild + soap, being careful not to rub it. + + 11. The house was redecorated, making it clean and + homelike. + + 12. The book should be carefully studied, reviewing + each chapter after it is read. + + 13. Going to work this morning, an accident happened. + + 14. Having entered college, Mr. Brown watched his + son's progress with pride. + + 15. Soon after abandoning the boat, it sank. + + 16. They say he will be lame, caused by a fall on the + ice while skating. + + 17. While trying to break the half mile record, his + back was injured. + + 18. Many people object to football, because in + tackling the boys' hearts are weakened. + + 19. He did not wish to take up an extra study, thus + lessening his chance of being eligible for athletics. + + 20. While a child, my father often told me stories of + Indian days. + + 21. Absorbed all day in superintending his work, in + the evening the newspaper brought him political news + enough to fill the hours between dinner and bed-time. + + 22. Discussing the happenings in the ward with an old + crony, his daughter would often sit near him + listening. + + 23. He is failing in his work, caused by his laziness. + + 24. Although a good tonic, I did not gain weight while + taking it. + + 25. In the new telephone, upon lifting the receiver, a + ticking sound is heard. + + 26. Leaving the window open when she went to lunch, of + course the papers were disarranged on her return. + + 27. Dictionaries must be returned to the desk after + using. + + +=Exercise 203--Pronouns with Uncertain Antecedents= + +Sometimes the meaning of a sentence is not clear because the pronouns +have uncertain antecedents. + +1. Sometimes a pronoun may refer to either of two antecedents; as, + + _Wrong_: He gave his brother John the umbrella and then _he_ left. + _Right_: He gave the umbrella to his brother John, who then left. + +2. Sometimes the sentence must be entirely recast and a direct quotation +used before the pronouns can be made clear; as, + + _Wrong_: Tom told his father that _his_ suit case was lost. + _Right_: _a._ Tom said, "Father, your suit case is lost." + _b._ Tom said, "Father, my suit case is lost." + +3. Sometimes the pronoun refers to a word that has not been expressed or +to an _idea_. In that case, the antecedent must be supplied; as, + + _Wrong_: If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send + _it_ in the enclosed envelope. + _Right_: If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send + _his contribution_ in the enclosed envelope. + + _Wrong_: I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody does _that_ nowadays. + _Right_: I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody wears _them_ nowadays. + +4. A sentence containing an indefinite _they_ or _it_ is corrected thus: + + _Wrong_: Don't _they_ have street cars where you live? + _Right_: Are there _no_ street cars where you live? + +Recast the following: + + 1. She asked her mother if she could go, and she said + she thought she ought to stay at home. + + 2. John told James he was sure he did not know the + office that he meant. + + 3. George told his father his watch had stopped. + + 4. The manager asked the clerk to bring his book. + + 5. A light touch is important in a typewriter, because + it makes it easy to write upon it. + + 6. The size of the crops is important to the farmers, + because they have to live by them. + + 7. They decided to reorganize the company, which is + always a difficult task. + + 8. They went into the hands of a receiver, which is an + indication that the affairs of the company had been + poorly managed. + + 9. There is a boat on the lake over which there is a + pleasant view, in which there is a club for working + girls. + + 10. He stole some money which brought about an + investigation. + + 11. She asked her aunt how old she was. + + 12. John is famous for telling anecdotes, and he got + it by remembering every story he reads. + + 13. The sleighing party last night was a success, + which is not always the case. + + 14. He told a lie, which is a bad thing to do. + + 15. They engaged a gardener, which doubled their + monthly expenses. + + 16. Why don't you get some of that new fur trimming + for your blue dress? + + 17. They had an accident on the street car this + morning. + + 18. In the newspaper it said that the lecture would + begin at 8:15. + + 19. They don't find iron in Illinois, do they? + + 20. Do they have the original paintings in our art + gallery? + + 21. It says "Closed" on that door. + + 22. It doesn't mention a bank draft in this book. + + 23. They have a great many foreigners in New York + City. + + 24. John accompanied his brother to the city where he + bought a typewriter. + + 25. I had expected to take the 9:30 train, but I + couldn't do it. + + 26. Going up to the horse he put a lump of sugar into + his mouth. + + 27. In letter writing one should always be exact and + arrange them in the customary form. + + 28. Those hooks are not rust-proof because the back of + my dress is stained with it. + + 29. The telephone is a great convenience to all. They + are now used in almost every house. + + 30. As we came down the road, it sounded like a train, + which, as we approached, grew louder and louder. + + +=Exercise 204--Misplaced Modifiers= + +Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a modifier does not stand +close to the word it modifies. + + _Wrong_: I can't _even_ do the first problem. + _Right_: I can't do _even_ the first problem. + +Change the order of words in the following sentences, placing each +modifier as closely as possible to the word which it modifies. Some of +the sentences are incorrect because they contain split infinitives. (See +Exercise 92.) + + 1. I only waited for him about ten minutes. + + 2. She stood at the window, trying to close it with a + troubled face. + + 3. The city is supplied with water from cold springs + which flow nearly a hundred million gallons of the + purest liquid that ever burst from the earth, daily. + + 4. The famous S. F. ice cream is made in this factory + containing fifty per cent pure cream. + + 5. A man should not be allowed to cast a vote, who + cannot read and write. + + 6. After taking the medicine for a short time, the + appetite is improved, and a desire is created for + food, that has not existed before. + + 7. In real value, this magazine towers head and + shoulders over all others to the woman who is in + charge of her home. + + 8. There are pages of fashion news and embroidery + hints and news articles of the day that will appeal to + the husband and father as the others do to the wife + and daughter as well as departments for the children. + + 9. The number of the sewing machine is 37A with a drop + head. + + 10. They neither are gentle nor well-mannered. + + 11. I only heard about the trouble yesterday. + + 12. He left the same station at which, thirty years + before, he had arrived very humbly, in his own special + car. + + 13. He urged his brother to buy a home in his letter. + + 14. The lighting system has been developed to a really + remarkable degree of perfection for the trains. + + 15. The dynamo is so arranged that when the train is + standing still or only traveling twenty miles an hour, + the lamps are lighted from a storage battery. + + 16. The batteries must be large enough during the run + to carry the entire lighting load. + + 17. Please send me 6 Dining Tables No. 46 that extend + to ten feet as soon as possible. + + 18. Large trees grow on each side of the house which + is a rambling affair shutting out the light. + + 19. They decided to give a bonus to the one doing the + best work, amounting to fifty dollars. + + 20. We had almost got to the corner before we saw the + fire. + + 21. I don't ever remember having seen so big a fire. + + 22. Remember to thoroughly oil the machine. + + 23. Do you need to in any way alter the machine? + + 24. If we expect to completely fill the order to-day, + we need more help. + + +=Exercise 205--Omission of Necessary Words= + +Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a word has been omitted that +is necessary to the sense; as, + +_Wrong_: The two officers that they elected are the president and +secretary. + +_Right_: The two officers that they elected are the president and _the_ +secretary. + +_Wrong_: His writing is as good or better than yours. + +_Right_: His writing is as good _as_ or better than yours. + +_Wrong_: The library is where we go to read. + +_Right_: The library is _the place_ where we go to read. + +State the difference between the following typewriter ribbons: + + 1. A red and blue and black ribbon. + 2. A red and a blue and black ribbon. + 3. A red and blue and a black ribbon. + 4. A red and a blue and a black ribbon. + +Supply the omitted part in each of the following: + + 1. I always have and I'm sure I always shall be + considerate of others' feelings. + + 2. They have a stenographer and bookkeeper, who are + kept busy all day. + + 3. I believe he has already or will soon begin the + work. + + 4. The cushions of the rocker are much softer than the + armchair. + + 5. The arrangement of your flat is much more + convenient than our house. + + 6. The number of shelves in your sideboard is just the + same as our china closet. + + 7. I think the articles you ordered will arrive as + soon or sooner than you expect. + + 8. She is as tall or taller than you. + + 9. When your message arrived, I had already or at + least had decided to begin cutting the goods. + + 10. It may not be better but it is fully as good as + the other article. + + 11. I think you cook fully as well if not better than + your sister. + + 12. His poems hold a place in our hearts second only + to the Bible. + + 13. Your idea is as good if not better than mine. + + 14. We decided to make the change both for the sake of + health and economy. + + 15. You will find the armchair fully as comfortable, + if not more so, than the rocker. + + 16. The river is where we had the most fun. + + 17. I know you better than Mary. + + 18. She went to the park but I didn't care to. + + 19. We didn't object to the scheme as much as you. + + 20. A conservatory is where there are all kinds of + flowers. + + +=Exercise 206--Shift in Construction= + +Sometimes the meaning of the sentence is obscure because there has been +a shift in construction. Do not change subject, person, tense, or any +grammatical form without a good reason. Remember that _and_ is a +coördinate conjunction. If there is an adjective before _and_, there +must be an adjective after it. If a clause precedes, a clause must +follow. In other words, _and_ joins two members of exactly the same +structure. _And_ may not join one word and a phrase, nor may it join a +prepositional and a participial phrase. Both members must be alike. In +the following extract, parallel constructions are used correctly. Be +able to tell what kinds of elements are used and how they are parallel. + + To eat your cake and keep it too; to wear a gown with + the air of originality and distinction, and keep a + full purse; to have your house display taste and + refinement, and be praised as an economical housewife; + to dress your children daintily, and save money for + their education--use ABC transfer patterns. By their + aid you can make an inexpensive waist look like a + French blouse, have table linen of unrivaled elegance, + and dress your babies in the most approved style. + These patterns cost,--some ten, some fifteen cents. + They cover the entire field of dress,--waists, tunics, + panels, infants' clothes, underwear, men's apparel, + and neckwear; and of household articles,--towels, + table-linen, and pillow tops. + +Recast the following sentences, correcting the shift of construction in +each: + + 1. In the large department stores every clerk is to + report on her way to lunch and coming back. + + 2. When one hears a cry of "Fire," your first thought + is to run. + + 3. He seemed fond of his work and to have skill in + doing it quickly. + + 4. I decided on taking the trip and to keep my + expenses within fifty dollars if possible. + + 5. X Y Z Cleaner is good for softening water and other + household uses. + + 6. Because of the rise in the price of meats and owing + to the fact that grocers charge more for butter and + eggs, people find it hard to live. + + 7. The office is well-heated and with plenty of light. + + 8. The crowds began to watch the fire and cheering + loudly. + + 9. I heard the opera last year and have gone again + this year. + + 10. It was wonderful to see how fast they worked and + their accuracy. + + 11. I can't decide whether to take up stenography or + if bookkeeping is better. + + 12. He taught us the principles of letter writing, and + somewhat of advertising was taken up. + + 13. Hoping that the work progressed, and unless a + landslide occurred, the Americans expected to remove + 5,000,000 cubic yards each year. + + 14. The study of the earth has always been stimulated + by two fundamental passions of humanity--a desire for + wealth and because of their curiosity. + + 15. He insists on our taking the trip and to go + without further delay. + + 16. In reviewing, it is well to go over each part of + the course carefully, and you should make a note of + every point which you do not understand, and let each + ask those questions which he himself cannot answer. + + 17. Mr. Fitzmorris is a man of great technical skill + and who has handled the situation capably. + + 18. It will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the + trip East and spending the requisite length of time + choosing her purchases at the different wholesale + houses. + + 19. He had assumed control of the office, planned the + advertising, and the finances were also directed by + him. + + 20. We have decided to go on the excursion to the + Capitol and at the same time visiting Uncle John. + + +=Exercise 207= + +What prevents clearness in the following? + + 1. The Federal Government began an investigation into + fire conditions in Europe in 1907, through our + consuls. + + 2. It cost $2.39 a year for fire in the United States + between 1901 and 1910, for every man, woman, and + child, and Germany does not even pay nineteen cents. + + 3. The number of our fires is increasing, which is + worse. + + 4. In ten years our population has increased 73 per + cent and 134 per cent is the increase in fires. + + 5. Having considered the details, the conclusion is + easily drawn that fire is a disgrace. + + 6. He only gets to the office at ten o'clock. + + 7. Having settled the plan of attack, the rest was + simple. + + 8. The manager warned him not to make the mistake + again and adding that mistakes are costly. + + 9. To keep flannels from shrinking, wash in the + following way, and you will find it very satisfactory. + + 10. To open a fruit jar run a knife under the edge and + it comes off easily. + + 11. I didn't even finish half the questions. + + 12. Electric lights are economical, clean, and give + more light than gas. + + 13. You should buy your suit now, both for the sake of + economy and style. + + 14. If in doubt as to the best word, a book of + synonyms should be consulted. + + 15. The comma fault is where, two principal clauses + are run together without a coördinate conjunction. + +Rewrite the following so that it will be correct, concise, and clear: + + The Europeans were anxious for trade with the East, + for they were dependent upon them for spices and + luxuries. The three routes were through the + Mediterranean Sea, over the Suez Peninsula, down the + Red Sea, and across to India. Another was through the + Mediterranean and then through Arabia. The other was + from the Mediterranean and then through the Black Sea + and then by land to India. It became necessary to seek + a new route because the Turks held Constantinople, and + all vessels had to pass through the Mediterranean, and + the Turks held this by pirates. The first explorers + were working under the leadership of the King of + Portugal, and they solved the problem by going around + Africa and then to the Indies, but this was too long, + and so explorers tried other ways, and the result was + the discovery of America. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE PARAGRAPH + + +The sentences developing each of the divisions of a composition make one +_paragraph_. A paragraph, therefore, is the treatment of one of the +natural divisions of a subject. The length depends on the topic to be +treated. Two cautions may be given: + +1. Do not write paragraphs containing only one sentence. Such paragraphs +do not represent divisions of the subject. They are simply statements +which have not been expanded as they deserve, or they are sentences that +should be placed with the preceding or succeeding sentences in order to +make a good paragraph. Some business men in their letters and +advertisements use the one-sentence paragraph too frequently to +concentrate the attention of the reader. A writer divides his +composition into paragraphs in order to aid the reader to follow the +thoughts he is presenting. When the reader sees the indentation that +indicates a new paragraph, he thinks that the writer has said all that +he intends to say on the topic in hand and now intends to open a new +topic. It is confusing to find that the new paragraph is simply another +sentence on the same topic as the preceding paragraph. Notice the jerky +effect of the following extract from a letter: + + We are sending you a copy of our latest catalogue, + which gives illustrations and prices of all our stock. + + The illustrations are all made from actual photographs + and are faithful in representing the shoe described. + + Bear Brand Shoes are shipped in special fiber cases, + thus lessening freight bills and eliminating the + annoyance of shortage claims because they cannot be + opened without immediate detection. + + Errors of any kind should be reported without delay. + + Imperfect or damaged goods must be returned for our + inspection; otherwise no allowance will be made. + +2. Do not go to the other extreme, writing paragraphs of great length. +Much depends, of course, on the matter to be treated, but, as a rule, in +a student's theme a paragraph should be not longer than one page. If one +of the divisions of your subject is necessarily long, subdivide it, +allowing a paragraph to treat each of the subdivisions. + +Whether it is to be long or short, a paragraph must treat but one topic; +from the first sentence to the last, it should be the development of one +idea. Moreover, this topic must be revealed to the reader in no +unmistakable way. Sometimes the subject is so simple that the topic may +easily be gathered from the details given, but usually it is well to +have one sentence that in a brief or general way states the topic. This +is called the _topic sentence_. It may be at or near the beginning; in +this case the rest of the paragraph defines or illustrates what it +states. It may, however, be found at almost any point in the paragraph, +not infrequently acting as a sentence of conclusion, summing up the +details that have been presented. + +A paragraph that begins with a topic sentence sometimes ends with a +sentence of conclusion. The first sentence states the topic, the +following sentences explain or illustrate it, and the last sentence +summarizes or otherwise indicates that the topic has been completed. +This form has been called the _hammock_ paragraph, because it has a +solid "post" at each end with a mass of details "swinging" between. It +is a good form to use in writing paragraphs on given subjects, when each +paragraph is to stand alone, complete in itself, not forming part of a +longer composition. The practice of writing such paragraphs induces +clear, forceful thinking. + + +=Exercise 208= + +Study the following paragraphs for-- + + 1. Topic sentence, if there is one. + 2. Development of the topic. + 3. Sentence of conclusion, if there is one. + +1 + + The problem in many large firms is how to develop + office efficiency to the highest possible degree. In + this respect the monthly examination scheme has been + found a great success. The examination consists of a + list of questions about merchandise and business + procedure. The questions are given out on the last + Saturday of the month, and the answers are returned + for criticism on the following Wednesday. The + employees are told that they may consult as many + authorities as they wish, but each man must write his + own paper. A poor percentage in three of these tests + usually means dismissal. Thus the inefficient are + dropped, and the ambitious who have studied are + recognized. The vice-president of one concern that + uses this system says that it is a strong reminder to + his men that they must make themselves worthy of the + organization. Besides maintaining an even standard of + efficiency, the plan has resulted in developing a + number of valuable executives, whose latent powers + were brought out by the rigidness of the tests. + +2 + + Every month the department head in one big eastern + concern, watch in hand, times a large force of typists + individually, testing how rapidly they can write a + letter of 200 words from their shorthand notes. + Rapidity, punctuation, spelling, and neatness are + carefully recorded. This plan has had a desirable + influence in bringing stenographers up to grade in + their daily work, because a good examination mark is + reduced one-half by careless daily work, and a poor + examination mark correspondingly raised by excellent + daily work. When both examination average and daily + average are excellent, the stenographer's salary is + increased; when both are below good, the stenographer + is dismissed. In this way the standard of stenographic + work is kept high. + +3 + + In his effort to succeed many a young business man + overlooks the detail of business courtesy. He does not + realize the value that a buyer places upon that + commodity. The more experienced man, however, knows + that courtesy does more to hold a buyer than do + bargain sales. In our large cities merchants have + incurred great expense to fit up rest rooms where + customers may spend an idle hour, write letters on + stationery that is provided, and read the latest + magazines. In the rural districts, where such luxuries + are often impossible, the merchant provides chairs for + his customers and a place for stationing their teams. + The country merchant, however, can often accomplish + his object more quickly than the city dealer by + spending an hour gossiping with his customers. He + recognizes the fact that buyers are flattered when the + proprietor himself takes the time to say a few words + to them. He knows just as well as his city competitor + does, that if a buyer feels at home in his store, + sales are practically guaranteed. + +4 + + The rural landscape of Norway, on the long easterly + slope that leads up to the watershed among the + mountains on the western coast, is not unlike that of + Vermont or New Hampshire. The railway from Christiania + to the Randsfjord carried us through a hilly country + of scattered farms and villages. Wood played a + prominent part in the scenery. There were dark + stretches of forest on the hilltops and in the + valleys; rivers filled with floating logs; sawmills + beside the waterfalls; wooden farmhouses painted + white; and rail-fences around the fields. The people + seemed sturdy, prosperous, independent. They had the + familiar habit of coming down to the station to see + the train arrive and depart. We might have fancied + ourselves on a journey through the Connecticut valley + if it had not been for the soft sing-song of the + Norwegian speech and the uniform politeness of the + railway officials. + + --Van Dyke: _Fisherman's Luck._ + +5 + + The plan of the _Spectator_ must be allowed to be both + original and eminently happy. Every valuable essay in + the series may be read with pleasure separately; yet + the five or six hundred essays form a whole, and a + whole which has the interest of a novel. It must be + remembered, too, that at that time no novel, giving a + lively and powerful picture of the common life and + manners of England, had appeared. Richardson was + working as a compositor. Fielding was robbing birds' + nests. Smollett was not yet born. The narrative, + therefore, which connects together the Spectator's + essays gave to our ancestors their first taste of an + exquisite and untried pleasure. That narrative was, + indeed, constructed with no art or labor. The events + were such events as occur every day. Sir Roger comes + up to town to see Eugenio, as the worthy baronet + always calls Prince Eugene, goes with the Spectator on + the water to Spring Gardens, walks among the tombs in + the Abbey, and is frightened by the Mohawks, but + conquers his apprehension so far as to go to the + theater when the "Distressed Mother" is acted. The + Spectator pays a visit in the summer to Coverley Hall, + is charmed with the old house, the old butler, and the + old chaplain, eats a jack caught by Will Wimble, rides + to the assizes, and hears a point of law discussed by + Tom Touchy. At last a letter from the honest butler + brings to the club the news that Sir Roger is dead. + Will Honeycomb marries and reforms at sixty. The club + breaks up, and the Spectator resigns his functions. + Such events can hardly be said to form a plot; yet + they are related with such truth, such grace, such + wit, such humor, such pathos, such knowledge of the + human heart, such knowledge of the ways of the world + that they charm us on the hundredth perusal. We have + not the least doubt that if Addison had written a + novel on an extensive plan, it would have been + superior to any that we possess. As it is, he is + entitled to be considered not only as the greatest of + the English essayists, but as the forerunner of the + great English novelists. + + --Macaulay: _Essay on Addison._ + + +=Exercise 209= + +Prepare a paragraph developing each of the following topic sentences: + + 1. The kitchen was a cheerful place. (Tell all the + details that will explain the word _cheerful_.) + + 2. In the kitchen the preparations for the feast went + on merrily. (Give the details that will help one get + the picture.) + + 3. Examinations are helpful to the student. (In what + ways are they helpful? If possible, use examples to + illustrate the point.) + + 4. Winter is more enjoyable than summer. (Contrast the + pleasures of the one with those of the other, showing + that those of winter are more enjoyable.) + + 5. Riding a motorcycle is apt to make a boy reckless. + (Develop by using examples.) + + 6. A man must like his work if he is to succeed in it. + + 7. Farm lands vary in price. + + 8. The farmer feeds the world. + + 9. Every department store should have regular fire + drills. + + 10. Every sale ought to be an advertisement. + + +=Exercise 210= + +Paragraph the following so that the paragraphs will represent the +divisions in thought. If there are any topic sentences, underline them. + +1 + + I have often noticed that every one has his own + individual small economies, careful habits of saving + fractions of pennies in some one peculiar direction, + any disturbance of which annoys him more than spending + shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. An old + gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the + intelligence of the failure of a Joint Stock Bank, in + which some of his money was invested, with a stoical + mildness, worried his family all through a long + summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of + cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless + bankbook. Of course, the corresponding pages at the + other end came out as well, and this little + unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) + chafed him more than all the loss of his money. + Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they came in. + The only way in which he could reconcile himself to + such a waste of his cherished article was by patiently + turning inside out all that were sent to him, and so + making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by + age, I see him casting wistful glances at his + daughters when they send a whole inside of a + half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines of + acceptance to an invitation written on only one of the + sides. I am not above owning that I have this human + weakness myself. String is my foible. My pockets get + full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted + together, ready for uses that never come. I am + seriously annoyed if any one cuts a string of a parcel + instead of patiently and faithfully undoing it fold by + fold. How people can bring themselves to use + India-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of + string, as lightly as they do I cannot imagine. To me + an India-rubber band is a precious treasure. I have + one which is not new--one that I picked up off the + floor nearly five years ago. I have really tried to + use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit + the extravagance. Small pieces of butter grieve + others. They cannot attend to conversation because of + the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some + people have of invariably taking more butter than they + want. Have you ever seen the anxious look (almost + mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article? They + would feel it a relief if they might bury it out of + their sight by popping it into their own mouths and + swallowing it down; and they are really made happy if + the person on whose plate it lies unused suddenly + breaks off a piece of toast (which he does not want at + all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is + not waste. Now, Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of + candles: We had many devices to use as few as + possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit + knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in + the dark or by firelight--and when I asked if I might + not ring for candles to finish stitching my + wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's holiday." + They were usually brought in with tea, but we burnt + only one at a time. As we lived in constant + preparation for a friend who might come in any evening + (but who never did), it required some contrivance to + keep our two candles of the same length, ready to be + lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The + candles took it in turns; and then, whatever we might + be talking of or doing, Miss Matty kept her eyes + habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and + extinguish it and light the other before they had + become too uneven in length to be restored to equality + in the course of the evening. + + --Adapted from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_. + +2 + + Dear Madam: + + We are sorry to say that we have no more house coats + No. SP62 in size 38 at $4.50. As we advertised, SP62 + is not a regular stock number, but represents a + collection of $5, $6, and $7.50 coats remaining after + the holiday sales and reduced to insure their being + sold before spring. At the opening of the sale there + were only a few coats in size 38, and they were sold + almost at once. In our catalogue, pages 68 to 71 + inclusive, you will find descriptions of all our stock + house coats. On page 68 you will see No. 450HC, our + regular $4.50 coat. If you would like us to send you + one of these in size 38, we shall forward it to you at + once. However, if you would like a $5, $6, or $7.50 + coat, you will, no doubt, send us the difference in + price on receipt of this letter. Of course, the more + expensive garments are made of better materials, but + all our coats show the same excellent workmanship. The + best way for you to get the exact shade of trimming + that you wish is to send us a sample of the goods that + you would like to match. We assure you that we shall + take all possible care to send you the proper color. + + Yours truly, + + +=Exercise 211= + +Paragraphs may be developed in different ways. For example, if you were +going to write on the process of making a layer cake, you would explain +in detail the different ingredients in the mixture, the proportion of +each, and the steps in the process before the product could be sold as a +layer cake. + +By the use of explanatory details develop the following: + + 1. Making a kite. + 2. Making a baseball. + 3. Making fudge. + 4. How to play checkers. + 5. The manufacture of soap (or any article in a grocery). + 6. The manufacture of a tin can. + 7. The manufacture of pins. + 8. Every man must have an ambition. + 9. Why I intend to enter business. + 10. The greatest modern invention. + +By the use of examples to illustrate your point develop the following: + + 1. Electricity is making housework easy and pleasant. + 2. Many sons of poor parents have won great wealth. + 3. The wireless apparatus has saved many lives. + 4. A boy can show that he is a good citizen. + 5. Young Americans have little respect for authority. + +By the use of comparison and contrast develop the following: + + 1. Improvements in modern lighting systems. + 2. Improvements in modern heating systems. + 3. Improvements in modern means of locomotion. + 4. Two kinds of work, pleasure, or study. + 5. Why I intend to have a business of my own. + 6. The study that I like best. + +By explaining cause and effect develop the following: + + 1. The advantages of public gymnasiums. + 2. The success of loose leaf devices. + 3. The objections to football. + + +=Exercise 212= + +Develop the following into paragraphs; in each case be able to show what +method or methods you have employed: + + 1. A man who cannot read and write English should not + be allowed to vote. + + 2. Postal savings banks inspire the savings habit. + + 3. Women--the mothers of children--should vote. + + 4. Women should not vote because they do not read the + newspaper. + + 5. The effect of school slang is bad. + + 6. I wish I had seen the coronation of George V. Every + fairy story I had ever read would suddenly have become + real. + + 7. Canada would gain by reciprocity with the United + States. + + 8. The United States would gain by reciprocity with + Canada. + + 9. Our forests should be preserved. + + 10. The waste of lumber by forest fires results from + carelessness. + + 11. The waste of lumber in cutting railroad ties is + too great. + + 12. The rotation of crops enriches the soil. + + 13. Apples are more easily gathered than cherries. + + 14. Efforts should be made to keep the birds in our + city parks. + + 15. Every boy should learn a trade. + + 16. Peddlers should not be allowed to call their + wares. + + 17. Great crowds gathered in the city during aviation + week (or any celebration). + + 18. The electric toaster is good for hurry-up + breakfasts. + + 19. Ironing with an electric iron is more convenient + than with the old-fashioned kind. + + 20. The wireless apparatus makes sea voyages safer + than before. + + 21. A mixed diet is best. + + 22. Cats should be exterminated because they spread + disease. + + 23. The parcel post will decrease the profits of the + express companies. + + 24. A good book is opened with expectation and closed + with profit. + + 25. Merchants should charge for delivering purchases. + + 26. The object of the Child Welfare Exhibit is to + promote the best interests of children. + + 27. One of the best enactments of our time is the + Child Labor Law. + + +=Exercise 213--Smooth Connection= + +We may as well confess at the beginning that smooth connection between +sentences and paragraphs is a hard thing to learn. Primarily, it depends +on clear thinking. In Exercise 135 we saw that the idea of one sentence +must grow out of the idea of the preceding one. It is the same with +paragraphs. The thought must develop gradually from one to the next. +Each paragraph, we know, represents a unit within the larger unit of the +composition; each represents a division of thought. Not infrequently the +thought of one division differs considerably from the thought of the +next. The tying together of such units is sometimes hard. It may be done +in one of the following ways: + +1. By repeating at the beginning of the new paragraph or sentence part +of the preceding paragraph or sentence. + +2. By using pronouns to refer to what has gone before. + +3. By using connecting links, sometimes called _transition words_ +because they indicate the transition from one division to the next. +Besides those mentioned in Exercise 135, we may use a numeral +connection, as, _in the first place_, _in the second place_; or an +expression much like a numeral, as, _furthermore_, _in the next place_; +or an expression showing that an adverse idea is to be presented, as, +_on the other hand_, _however_, _in spite of this_, _nevertheless_. But +whatever you do, choose the right link, especially if you use such a one +as _possibly_, _probably_, _perhaps_, _certainly_, _surely_. Use the one +that expresses your idea exactly. Have none rather than the wrong one. + +In the following the first and second paragraphs are connected according +to (1) above; the second and third are connected according to (3) above. + + There comes to every prosperous man a time when he + wishes to know the best way of securing a steady + income from his accumulated savings without the burden + of responsibility of managing some property in order + to gain his income. The merchant may not wish to put + back into the business all the earnings he gets from + it, and yet he wishes to prepare for his old age. The + farmer may wish to give up active work, but he + realizes how soon his broad acres may deteriorate + through soil-robbery when he rents his property "on + shares." With such a problem before him the thoughtful + man makes an effort to _learn_ how to act to secure a + good _income_ all his life. + + One of the first things he _learns_, if he studies the + situation carefully, is that there is a wide + difference between an _income_ derived from one's + business ability, such as the profit secured from + running a store, factory, jobbing house, or farm, and + the income which is derived as the result of money + "working" by itself. In the first case, a man must of + necessity keep up his business responsibilities; in + the other, once he has selected a safe investment, + practically all he has to do is to collect his income + from time to time as it falls due. There is in the + latter no depreciation of land, buildings, machinery, + or the like; no insurance payments to worry about; no + crop failures to consider. + + _It is evident, then_, that if one wishes to put + surplus money away--say the proceeds from the sale of + a business or a farm--and get a steady income from it + without bother or worry, the most important thing to + consider is how to go about it to select something + which, once purchased, will turn out to be a safe + investment. + + +=Exercise 214= + +In the following paragraphs taken from Robert Louis Stevenson's _The +Philosophy of Nomenclature_, point out all the transition words that +join (1) sentence to sentence, and (2) paragraph to paragraph: + + To begin, then: the influence of our name makes itself + felt from the very cradle. As a schoolboy I remember + the pride with which I hailed Robin Hood, Robert + Bruce, and Robert le Diable as my name-fellows; and + the feeling of sore disappointment that fell on my + heart when I found a freebooter or a general who did + not share with me a single one of my numerous + _praenomina_. Look at the delight with which two + children find they have the same name. They are + friends from that moment forth; they have a bond of + union stronger than exchange of nuts and sweetmeats. + This feeling, I own, wears off in later life. Our + names lose their freshness and interest, become trite + and indifferent. But this, dear reader, is merely one + of the sad effects of those "shades of the prison + house" which come gradually betwixt us and nature with + advancing years; it affords no weapon against the + philosophy of names. + + In after life, although we fail to trace its working, + that name which careless godfathers lightly applied to + your unconscious infancy will have been moulding your + character and influencing with irresistible power the + whole course of your earthly fortunes. But the last + name is no whit less important as a condition of + success. Family names, we must recollect, are but + inherited nicknames; and if the _sobriquet_ were + applicable to the ancestor, it is most likely + applicable to the descendant also. You would not + expect to find Mr. M'Phun acting as a mute or Mr. + M'Lumpha excelling as a professor of dancing. + Therefore, in what follows, we shall consider names, + independent of whether they are first or last. And to + begin with, look what a pull _Cromwell_ had over + _Pym_--the one name full of a resonant imperialism, + the other mean, pettifogging, and unheroic to a + degree. Who would expect eloquence from _Pym_--who + would read poems by _Pym_--who would bow to the + opinions of _Pym_? He might have been a dentist, but + he should never have aspired to be a statesman. I can + only wonder that he succeeded as he did. Pym and + Habakkuk stand first upon the roll of men who have + triumphed, by sheer force of genius, over the most + unfavorable appellations. But even these have + suffered; and, had they been more fitly named, the one + might have been Lord Protector and the other have + shared the laurels with Isaiah. In this matter we must + not forget that all our great poets have borne great + names. Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Pope, + Wordsworth, Shelley--what a constellation of lordly + words! Not a single commonplace name among them--not a + Brown, not a Jones, not a Robinson; they are all names + that one would stop and look at on a door-plate. Now, + imagine if _Pepys_ had tried to clamber somehow into + the enclosure of poetry, what a blot would that name + have made upon the list! The thing is impossible. In + the first place, a certain natural consciousness that + men have would have held him down to the level of his + name, would have prevented him from rising above the + Pepsine standard, and so haply withheld him altogether + from attempting verse. Next, the booksellers would + refuse to publish, and the world to read them, on the + mere evidence of the fatal appellation. And now, + before I close this section, I must say one word as to + _punnable_ names, names that stand alone, that have a + significance and life apart from him that bears them. + These are the bitterest of all. One friend of mine + goes bowed and humbled through life under the weight + of this misfortune; for it is an awful thing when a + man's name is a joke, when he cannot be mentioned + without exciting merriment, and when even the + intimation of his death bids fair to carry laughter + into many a home. + + So much for people who are badly named. Now for people + who are _too_ well named, who go topheavy from the + font, who are baptized into a false position, and who + find themselves beginning life eclipsed under the fame + of some of the great ones of the past. A man, for + instance, called William Shakespeare could never dare + to write plays. He is thrown into too humbling an + apposition with the author of _Hamlet_. His own name + coming after is such an anti-climax. "The plays of + William Shakespeare?" says the reader--"O no! The + plays of William Shakespeare Cockerill," and he throws + the book aside. In wise pursuance of such views, Mr. + John Milton Hengler, who not long since delighted us + in this favored town, has never attempted to write an + epic, but has chosen a new path and has excelled upon + the tight-rope. A marked example of triumph over this + is the case of Mr. Dante Gabriel Rosetti. On the face + of the matter, I should have advised him to imitate + the pleasing modesty of the last-named gentleman, and + confine his ambition to the sawdust. But Mr. Rosetti + has triumphed. He has even dared to translate from his + mighty name-father; and the voice of fame supports him + in his boldness. + + +=Exercise 215= + +Turn back to Exercise 210, 1. How are the different paragraphs that you +have made connected? + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +BUSINESS LETTERS + + +NOT long ago the head of one of the biggest mail order firms in this +country said: "Business needs the boys and the girls. Do not let them +think they can be but cogs in the great system of wheels. More to-day +than at any previous time the world needs men and women who can speak +and write _themselves_ into English. Four hundred million dollars is +wasted every year in unprofitable advertising alone, and as much more in +bad handling of good prospects and loss of customers through inefficient +letters. We look to the future generation to conserve a part of this +enormous loss. If a single page advertisement in a single issue costs +$7500, what you say on that page is important. Look into any current +magazine, and you will be tremendously impressed with the importance of +English in this branch alone, not to mention its importance in letter +writing." + +There is no greater power in business to-day than the ability to use +convincing English in correspondence and in advertising. Any one who can +write good letters, letters that the reader feels he must answer, has +success ahead of him, because the market of a good letter is practically +unrestricted. Wherever a letter can penetrate, it may create desire for +an article and make sales. + +But what is a good letter? Nothing more than a bit of good English. Can +you write clear, direct, crisp, yet fluent English? Then you can write +good letters--but not till then. + +In modern business the letter has become the advertiser, the salesman, +the collector, and the adjuster of claims. An advertisement must be +attractive; it must arouse the interest of the one who sees it. A +salesman must understand human nature; he must forestall objections by +showing the customer how he will gain by buying. The collector and the +adjuster of claims must be courteous and at the same time shrewd. If a +letter is to meet all of these requirements it cannot be dashed off at a +moment's notice. It must be thought out in detail and written carefully +to include all that should be expressed. This means, especially in a +sales letter: + +1. An unusually worded opening that puts the writer's affairs in the +background and the reader's gain in the foreground. Begin with _you_, +not _we_. The reader is interested in himself, his own progress, his own +troubles, and not in the possessions of the writer, except as the writer +can show that those possessions affect him. + +3. A clear, simply worded explanation of the purpose of the letter. + +3. Proof of advantages to the reader. + +4. Persuasion or inducement to act now. + +5. Conclusion, making this action easy. + +Above all, if a letter is to be good, it must not be too short. In the +pursuit of brevity too many pupils in business English make the mistake +of writing altogether too little to get the reader's attention; and if +his attention is not aroused, the letter fails. The letter should be +long enough to suggest interest in the welfare of the reader and +enthusiasm for the subject under discussion. + +Enthusiasm in business involves knowledge both of your project and of +your customer. You cannot attempt to write a letter of any kind unless +you know the facts that require it. Perhaps it is a complaint that you +must try to settle. Without a knowledge of the facts, of the truth or +the untruth of the claim, how can you write the letter? Sometimes it +requires both time and study to gather the necessary details, but they +must be gathered. + +When you have your details and begin writing, be sincere. You must be so +absolutely in earnest that the reader will at once feel and begin to +share your enthusiasm. + +Knowledge of the person to whom you are writing is fully as important as +knowledge of your subject. You must get his point of view, understand +his character, and appeal to the qualities that you recognize in it, to +the desires or ambitions, that it shows. To a certain extent all of us +are alike. There are certain fundamental interests that we all possess; +these may safely be appealed to at almost all times. But our employment, +our habits of life, our ways of thinking make us different. The same +argument, probably, will not always bring satisfactory replies from a +manufacturer, a farmer, a judge, a minister or priest, a carpenter, and +a woman. Some people like to receive a long letter that goes carefully +into detail; others will not take the time to read such a letter. Each +customer must be studied. This is so difficult a matter that no one can +expect to learn it all at once. + +Finally, from the first word to the last be courteous. No matter how +righteous your indignation, be courteous. You cannot afford to lose your +temper. Courtesy does not imply flattery nor a lack of truth. Your +letter can be strong and yet polite in tone. Lose your temper, and your +letter will probably fail. Keep your temper, show thoughtfulness for the +reader's interest, and your letter will more likely fulfill its purpose. + + +=Exercise 216--The Form of the Letter= + +Before we look at some actual letters to judge of their effectiveness, +we must learn the conventional form of a letter, the parts which many +years of use have shown to be necessary. There are six parts to a formal +or business letter: + + 1. The heading, which includes the writer's address + and the date. + + 2. The introduction, which includes the name and the + address of the one to whom you are writing. + + 3. The salutation; for example, Dear Sir: + + 4. The body of the letter, the important part. + + 5. The courteous close; for example, Yours truly, + + 6. The signature. + +Each part ends with a period except the salutation, which ends with a +colon, and the courteous close, which ends with a comma. The various +groups of words within the heading and the introduction are separated by +commas. + +Why does the salutation end with a colon? + +Why does the courteous close end with a comma? + + +The Arrangement + +In the following, notice the spacing. If the heading is short, it is put +on one line; as, + + + _Heading_ Hilliard, Fla., June 30, 1914. + + _Introduction_ Mr. Thomas Barrett, + Boston, Mass. + + _Salutation_ Dear Sir: + + _Body_ .................................... + ......................................... + ...................... + + _Courteous close_ Yours truly, + _Signature_ Samuel Garth + +If the heading is long, arrange it in one of the following ways: + +1 + + 334 Lexington Ave., Chicago, + May 19, 1915. + + Mr. Thomas Barrett, + Boston, Mass. + Dear Sir: + +2 + + 334 Lexington Ave., + Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915. + +3 + + 334 Lexington Ave., + Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915. + +4 + + 334 Lexington Ave., + Chicago, Ill., + May 19, 1915. + +The superscription on the envelope is arranged and punctuated like the +introduction in the letter, except that the punctuation may be omitted +from the end of lines. + +There is a growing tendency to "block" the different parts of a letter; +that is, to begin each item of each part directly below the first, with +no indentation. + +There is also a tendency to use no abbreviations (except for titles like +_Mr._), the name of the month and of the state and the word _street_, +_avenue_, or _building_ being spelled out. + + NOTE.--The punctuation as shown in the examples given + above is that in more prevalent use. Certain writers, + however, advocate the omission from the formal parts + of the letter of commas at the end of lines and of + periods (except to show abbreviations). + +Arrange the following headings, supplying capitals and punctuation +marks: + + 1. 55 water st mobile ala june 16 19-- + + 2. calmar iowa september 1 19-- + + 3. 453 marquette building chicago ill jan 5 19-- + + 4. 123 salem st springfield mass june 23 19-- + + 5. highland park grand haven mich may 3 19-- + + 6. 220 broadway new york n y february 15 19-- + + 7. 78 main street portland oregon december 10 19-- + + 8. 32 lincoln st kansas city mo oct 2 19-- + + 9. room 15 1321 pennsylvania ave washington d c sept 2 + 19-- + + 10. 25 chestnut st philadelphia pa april 14 19-- + + 11. 212 tribune building new york n y march 2 19-- + + 12. 98 dorchester ave boston mass feb 12 19-- + + 13. 24 milk st boston mass June 14 19-- + + 14. 231 west 39th st new york city march 4 19-- + + 15. 345 newark ave jersey city n j (supply date) + + 16. 44 fifth ave detroit mich sept 1 19-- + + 17. 102 west 42d st denver colorado (date) + + 18. Explain the difference between (16) and (17). + Notice that the name of the street in each case is a + numeral. Why is it spelled out in (16) and not in + (17)? + + +=Exercise 217= + +Supplying the name of the firm and the business engaged in, write letter +heads using the items given in Exercise 216. For example: + + + BARRETT, BROWN & CO. + _Groceries_ + 55 Water Street + + Decorah, Iowa, -- 19 + +When may & be used? + +What is the advantage of using a letter head? + +In making letter heads, imagine you are a printer. Arrange the items so +that they may show to the best advantage. Let your lines of printing or +writing be of different lengths. Add any details that you wish, such as +trade-mark designs or the names of officers. + +Arrange and punctuate: + + 1. citronelle business mens association citronelle + alabama may 2 19-- mr john harvey 19 e monroe st + rochester n y dear sir + + 2. 173 broadway new york June 10 19-- mr walter thomas + 191 e main st waltham mass dear sir + + 3. 25 broad st maplewood n h messrs hausen & ottman 18 + la salle station chicago ill gentlemen (supply date) + + 4. john randolph & co druggist 14 jefferson st + charleston s c jan 8 19-- gerhard mennen & co newark n + j gentlemen (letter head) + + 5. 43 south 5th ave madison wis aug 8 19-- the white + mountain freezer co nashua n h gentlemen + +Address an envelope for each of the above, using the following as a +model. + + +------------------------------------------+ + | | + | | + | | + | | + | Barrett, Brown & Co., | + | 55 Water Street, | + | Decorah, Iowa. | + | | + +------------------------------------------+ + + +=Exercise 218--Cautions= + +_The Heading_ + +Always date your letters. + +Give your full address, even if you are certain that the one to whom you +are writing knows it. + +_The Introduction_ + +The person addressed must always be given a title. If you address one +man, use _Mr._; if a firm, use _Messrs._; if a woman, _Miss_ or _Mrs._ +If a man has a title like _Professor_ or _Doctor_, it should be used, +and _Mr._, of course, omitted. + +_Hon._ (Honorable) is used for a person who holds, or who has held, a +public office. It is a very formal title. + +_Esq._(Esquire) is a legal form used by some correspondents in +addressing any man. It is an English usage. It always follows the name, +and, if it is used, _Mr._ is omitted. In this country _Mr._ is +preferable. + +In writing to a man in his official capacity, the following form is +correct when there is no street number or when the title is short. +Notice that _Mr._ is omitted. + + G. N. Fratt, Cashier, + First National Bank, + Racine, Wis. + +The following is correct when the title is long: + + Mr. John Frederick Pierce, + Ass't. Engineer of Bridges and Buildings, + 607 White Building, Seattle, Wash. + +Notice that in the last example, the city and the state are put on the +same line as the street in order to make the three lines of about the +same length. Four lines might have been used. + +_The Salutation_ + +If you address one man, the salutation is _Dear Sir_; as, + + Mr. John Pierce, + Seattle, Wash. + + Dear Sir: + +If you address a firm, the salutation is _Gentlemen_; as, + + Messrs. Brownleigh & King, + Portland, Oregon. + + Gentlemen: + +If you address a woman, married or single, the salutation in business +letters is _Dear Madam_; as, + +1. + + Mrs. John Pierce, + Seattle, Wash. + + Dear Madam: + +2. + + Miss Florence Pierce, + Seattle, Wash. + + Dear Madam: + +A more familiar form of salutation is either of the following: + +1 + + Miss Florence Pierce, + Seattle, Wash. + My dear Miss Pierce: + +2 + + Miss Florence Pierce, + Seattle, Wash. + Dear Miss Pierce: + +In using _Hon._, the salutation is usually _Sir_. + +_The Courteous Close_ + +The courteous close corresponds in tone to the salutation. If the +salutation is _Dear Sir_, _Gentlemen_, or _Dear Madam_, the courteous +close should be one of the following: + + Yours truly, + Yours very truly, + Very truly yours, + Respectfully yours, + Yours respectfully, + Sincerely yours, + Very sincerely yours, + +If the salutation is _Sir_, the courteous close should be _Respectfully +yours_ or _Yours respectfully_. + +If the body of the letter and the courteous close do not agree in tone, +the effect is often ridiculous. Suppose, for instance, that the +courteous close of (2) under Exercise 220 were _Yours respectfully_. +What would be the effect? + +_The Signature_ + +If an unmarried woman is signing a business letter, she should avoid +confusion by prefixing (Miss) to her name. + +A married woman should sign her own name, as, _Alice Pierce_; she should +indicate her title, as _Mrs. John F. Pierce_, either below the other or +at one side. + +No other title should be prefixed to a signature. + +If a letter is signed by the name of a firm, the signature of the one +who dictated the letter is usually added; as, + + Yours very truly, + Smith Lumber Co. + by ---- + +This sort of signature gives a letter the "personal touch." Explain. + + +Folding a Letter + +Business letter paper is about eight by ten inches. In folding a letter +sheet, (1) turn the lower edge up to about one-eighth of an inch from +the top; press the fold firmly, keeping the edges even; (2) turn the +paper so that the folded edge is at your _left_ hand; (3) fold _from_ +you a little less than one-third the width of the sheet; (4) fold the +upper edge _down_ toward you so that it projects a trifle beyond the +folded edge. Without turning it over, pick it up and insert it in the +envelope, putting in _first_ the edge that was folded last. + +Write the address and the salutation for: + + 1. A business house in your town. + + 2. Mr. John R. Tobin, president of the Detroit State + Bank, Detroit, Mich. + + 3. Miss Mabel Gunther, Shullsburg, Wis. + + 4. Professor C. M. Watson, Harvard College, Cambridge, + Mass. + + 5. John F. Campbell, Manager Bond Department, First + Trust and Savings Bank, Boston, Mass. + + 6. Taylor and Critchfield, Chicago, Ill. + + 7. Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald, 126 E. Second Street, + Washington, Ia. + +Write the courteous close and the signature for: + + 1. A letter from a business house in your town signed + by F. R. Wilson. + + 2. A letter from Miss Mabel Gunther (2 above). + + 3. A letter from Professor C. M. Watson (4 above). + + 4. A letter signed by John F. Campbell (5 above). + + 5. A letter from Taylor and Critchfield signed by you + yourself. + + 6. A letter from Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald (7 above). + + +=Exercise 219--Ordering Goods= + +If an order includes a number of separate items, it is usually written +on a separate sheet of paper. Firms often supply blanks for this +purpose. If the order is short, it forms part of the letter. In any +case, each item is placed on a separate line, so that the items may be +checked as the order is filled. In the following, notice the arrangement +and the punctuation: + + Hamilton, Montana, Feb. 16, 1914. + + Messrs. MacBride & Dickens, + New York, N. Y. + + Gentlemen: + + At your earliest convenience please ship me the + following via the Northern Express Co. from St. Paul: + + 6 doz. A 68 assorted sizes Men's Black Caps @ 1.50 9.00 + 5 doz. D 71 Men's Cotton Handkerchiefs @ .60 3.00 + 5 doz. X 30 Men's Linen Handkerchiefs @ 2.00 10.00 + ------ + $22.00 + + Enclosed find a draft on New York for twenty-two + dollars. + + Yours truly, + S. D. Jensen + +Write the letters outlined below: + + 1. Order fifty copies of the Business Arithmetic that + you are using. How shall you pay for them? + + 2. Clip from a newspaper an advertisement of + groceries. Imagine that you are a housekeeper, and + spend ten dollars to the best advantage, ordering + several articles. + + 3. Bring in an advertisement of household + necessities--linens, tinware, etc. Spend five dollars, + buying several articles. + + 4. Bring in an advertisement of furniture. Write a + letter ordering enough to furnish a parlor or a dining + room. Have the amount charged to your account. + + 5. A magazine offers one of several books as a premium + with a year's subscription. Answer the advertisement. + + +=Exercise 220--The Tone of the Letter= + +Undue familiarity or an evidence of loss of temper will at once +frustrate the object of a letter. A dignified letter never shows either. +Just what constitutes a dignified letter is hard to define but fairly +easy to feel. This much is certain: it must be simple in structure, +direct in its wording, and so sincere in feeling that no one will doubt +its truth. Any extravagance of language, therefore, has no place in a +dignified letter. + +Study the following to see whether they show dignity: + +1 + + Tuesday, 5 P.M. + + Miss Sarah Howard, + Denver, Colorado. + + Dear Madam: + + I have a great piece of CONFIDENTIAL news for you. + + Take advantage of the remarkable offer our company is + making to you, and it will mean thousands of DOLLARS + in your pocket. Understand that this offer is not open + to every one. You have been especially selected. You + are the only one in your town who will hear of this + remarkable offer. + +2 + + Elsworth, Brown & Co., + 120 Jefferson Ave., Detroit, + Mich. + + Gentlemen: + + What is the matter with our last order? Have you + people gone out of business, or are you asleep? If we + don't get that order by the third, you'll never hear + from us again. + +3 + +A letter to Mrs. Bixby, written Nov. 21, 1864. + + Dear Madam: + + I have been shown in the file of the War Department a + statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts + that you are the mother of five sons who have died + gloriously on the field of battle. I feel how weak and + fruitless must be any words of mine which should + beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. + But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the + consolation that may be found in the thanks of the + republic they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly + Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement, + and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved + and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours to + have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of + freedom. + + Yours very sincerely and respectfully, + Abraham Lincoln + + +=Exercise 221= + +In writing the following letters, be definite and courteous: + + 1. You have advertised your eight-room, furnace-heated + house for sale for $3,500. A letter of inquiry desires + particulars. Answer it. + + 2. You live on a side street, which for the last week + has not been lighted. Write to the editor of the + paper, or to a town official, whichever you think + would remedy the matter. Be courteous. A letter to an + editor is begun: To the Editor of ----. + + 3. The cars on which you ride every day are very + dirty. Write to the mayor. He is addressed: Hon. ----. + + 4. You wish to have a telephone installed. Make + application. + + 5. Two weeks ago you wrote (4). Still you have no + telephone. Write again, stating the substance of (4) + and asking the reason for the delay. + + 6. Write the telephone company's reply. Be very + courteous. What good reason could you give for the + delay? + + 7. You understand that your Congressman has the + privilege of recommending a young man for the entrance + examinations of your state university. Write to him, + asking that he recommend you. Remember that he is a + stranger to you. What should you tell him? + + +=Exercise 222.--Mistaken Ideas in Letter Writing= + +It is too bad that, to a number of people, the term _business letter_ +conveys the idea of a colorless, stilted composition full of trite and +almost meaningless business formulas. No one reads such a letter unless +he has to, and surely that is not the kind one should practice writing. +Below are given a few of the expressions that should be avoided. + +I. Sometimes a writer tries to impress a reader with the volume of +business he is doing by showing haste in his correspondence; as, in + +1. Omitting the subject; as, + + _Wrong_: In reply to your question will say ---- + _Right_: In reply to your question I will say ---- + +2. Omitting articles and prepositions; as, + + _Wrong_: Direct package care Western Canning Co. + _Right_: Direct the package in care of the Western Canning Co. + +3. Using abbreviations + + _a._ Of the introduction. Write out the introduction + in detail, both name and address. Abbreviating this + part of the letter is highly discourteous. + + _b._ In the body of the letter; as, + + _Wrong_: The Co. sent a no. of large orders last year. + + _c._ Of the courteous close; as, + + _Wrong_: Yours etc. + _Wrong_: Yours resp'y. + +4. Using a phrase as a sentence; as, + + _Wrong_: Yours of the 6th at hand and contents noted. + +It is much better to refer indirectly to the receipt of a letter; as, + + In the order you sent us on Aug. 5 ---- + +The same sort of mistake is seen in the all too frequent closing: + + _Wrong_: Hoping that we hear from you soon, + Yours truly, + _Right_: Hoping that we hear from you soon, we are + Yours truly, + +Why use such an expression at all? Avoid _hoping_, _trusting_, +_awaiting_, or any other artificial closing. + +II. Sometimes a writer makes an effort to be extremely courteous, but +fails because he uses hackneyed wording; as, + + 1. _Kindly._--A good word in itself but greatly + abused. + + 2. _We beg to state._--Never use _beg_ in this sense. + You have no right to beg attention; earn it. + + 3. _Your favor_, _your esteemed favor_, _your valued + favor_.--Say, _Your letter_. + + 4. _Will you be so good as to._--Belongs in the class + with _beg to state_. Make your requests courteously, + but directly. + + 5. _Would say._--Avoid this expression. + +III. Sometimes in an effort to be clear a writer uses _same_ as a +pronoun; as, + + _Wrong_: If the books are not satisfactory, return + same. + +This is one of the worst of the distinctly business blunders. _Same_ is +never a pronoun. Write to a man as you talk to him and you will not use +_same_ in this way. (See Exercise 88.) + +IV. Sometimes in order to get attention a writer will use a liberal +sprinkling of dashes and capitals, probably in imitation of advertising +copy. Better than such artificial means is the attraction of a well +worded letter. + + * * * * * + +Criticise the following letters, pointing out all the expressions that +should be improved. Rewrite the letters. + +1 + + Gentlemen: + + We beg to acknowledge your esteemed favor of Apr. 6. + In regard to shoes received by you in poor shape as + per complaint, would say that on receipt of same will + try to locate cause of trouble. If due to defect in + manufacture, will credit you with value of same. + + Hoping this is satisfactory to you, + + Yours truly, + +2 + + Dear Sir: + + Yours of March 18 at hand. Referring to matter of + short weight, I beg to call your attention to C & A + car 87324, which you loaded for us March 7 at your + Auburn mine, gross weight 121,400 lbs. This car was + check weighed at Peoria March 11 on your company's + scales and showed gross weight 113,200 lbs. or + shortage 8,200 lbs. Having investigated car, I find + same was in good order and no indication of leakage, + and it would appear to be a case of carelessness at + time of loading. Therefore will request you to kindly + send me cr. memo, on 8,200 lbs. + + Yours truly, + + +=Exercise 223--The Sales Letter= + +The object of the sales letter is to make the reader buy. How can you do +it? To begin with, get his point of view--that of the user. Then imagine +that he is present and talk to him on paper. Get his interest with your +opening sentence. Explain what you have to sell. Show him that he needs +it. Whet his desire to possess it, and, finally, make it easy and +imperative for him to order today. + +The opening paragraph is all-important. It may make or mar a letter. If +it is stilted or lacks directness, if it hasn't the personal, natural +tone that makes the reader feel you are talking to him, or if it is +stereotyped in its wording, the letter will probably go to the +waste-basket. + +Contrast the two letters that follow. Both were written to accompany a +catalogue. Notice that the first begins and ends in a stereotyped way; +has too few details to arouse interest; asks for an order but has no +inducement to give one now; and, throughout, lacks the personal, +convincing tone that makes the second a good selling letter. Notice that +the second begins with _you_, not with _we_, and keeps the same _you_ +attitude to the end. + +Turn back to the five essentials of a letter given on page 230. See if +you can differentiate the five in the second letter. + +1 + + Dear Sir: + + In compliance with your request of recent date we are + sending you our latest general catalogue, inasmuch as + we do not know which department catalogue you wish. We + also have specialized books for jewelry, furniture, + hardware, and drygoods. On request we shall be glad to + send any one of these also. + + We carry the biggest line of Variety Store Leaders in + the country, and our goods are always of the best. We + take particular pains to acquaint our customers with + the latest thing in the trade, and to give + business-getting suggestions. Our Co-operative Bureau + cheerfully answers all inquiries. + + Trusting we shall hear from you with an order, we are + + Yours truly, + +2 + + Dear Sir: + + Under separate cover you will receive a copy of our + latest general catalogue, published especially for + owners of Variety Stores. We are sending you the + general catalogue because we do not know whether you + are interested in a particular department. However, if + your business specializes in any one class of + goods--such as jewelry, furniture, hardware, or + drygoods--we shall be glad to supply you with the + departmental book you need. On the enclosed postal + card simply check the one you wish, and mail the card + to-day. We shall forward the catalogue at once. + + You may know that we always have on hand between two + hundred and two hundred and fifty different Variety + Store Leaders, affording you a wide selection of + high-class goods of the finest materials, the neatest + workmanship, and the latest styles at very low prices. + After glancing over the catalogue you will agree with + us that in every department of our huge business a + dollar has full purchasing power. + + A unique feature of our business, moreover, is the + Co-operative Bureau, which you will find a decided + help in building up your business. Each week the + Bureau sends out a Bulletin, acquainting our customers + with important business events in the larger trade + centers, with suggestions for new advertising and + selling methods, with notices of new stock additions + that make especially good leaders, and with advice how + best to display them. The Bureau invites + correspondence and sends customers, absolutely free + of charge, advice on new store arrangements, window + decorations, and advertising plans. + + Your first order makes you a co-operating member and + entitles you to all the privileges of the Bureau and + the services of an institution with wide experience + and with a recognized reputation for square-dealing. + Fill out the enclosed order blank, mail it to-day, and + receive this week's Bulletin by return mail. It + contains several splendid suggestions for novel, + inexpensive advertising. + + Yours truly, + +The letter given above is personal and yet dignified. Usually that is +the best style to use, and the one that we wish to practice writing. +Sometimes, however, results can best be obtained by using the colloquial +or even jocular tone illustrated in the following letter sent to a +retailer in Ottumwa, Iowa: + + Dear Sir: + + We sell cheese, a new brand, the finest kind you ever + tasted, put up in the most attractive package, to sell + at the most attractive price. Called Par Excellence + Creme, wrapped in silver foil with a gold label, it + sells for fifteen cents and costs you ten. Ever hear a + better proposition? + + Better buy now before your rival gets ahead of you. + Everybody's calling for it. Why? Because we're + advertising everywhere. It has been out only one + month, and yet sales have trebled our highest + expectations. Half the sales of a new cheese depend on + the package and the price; the other half depend on + the quality. All three are right in Par Excellence + Creme. + + Mr. S. R. King, our Iowa representative, tried to see + you last week, but, unfortunately, he was unable to + find you in. Now, he carries a full line of our + samples, and it's worth the time it takes just to see + how good they look, even if you don't care to buy. How + about it? Don't you want to see them? Mr. King will be + in Ottumwa next Wednesday. + + Yours truly, + +This style is commonly called "snappy." It has its advantage, but should +be used only rarely. Above all, if you do use it, avoid the dash. Notice +how the dash spoils the following: + + Dear Sir: + + Have you ever eaten that king of nuts--the budded or + grafted paper shell pecan--the nut whose kernel is as + nutritious as beef and as sweet and delicious as + honey--the nut that is so delightfully palatable and + so wholesome, the discriminating epicures of two + continents have set their seal of approval on + it--creating a demand that literally cannot be + supplied--even at prices ranging as high as a dollar a + pound. + +To use the dash in this way seems to imply that you do not understand +punctuation or sentence structure. If the paragraph is rewritten, +removing the dashes and dividing into sentences, we get a much stronger +appeal. The dash makes for weakness rather than for strength because it +suggests hysterics. + + Dear Sir: + + Have you ever eaten the king of nuts, the budded or + grafted paper shell pecan? The kernel is as nutritious + as beef and as sweet as honey. It is so wholesome and + so delicious that discriminating epicures of two + continents have set their approval on it, creating a + demand that literally cannot be supplied, even at + prices ranging as high as a dollar a pound. + +A very good way to open a sales letter is to get the attention by a bit +of narration containing direct quotations, as shown in the following: + + Dear Sir: + + "It saves seven per cent." + + So said Mr. John H. Samuels, a manufacturer of + Birmingham, Ala. + + He had watched his bookkeepers at their work, and it + seemed to him that their main business was turning and + flattening the springy pages of the bulgy ledger. Ten + seconds were wasted, he said, every time a page was + turned--almost every time an entry was made--and + hardly more than two minutes were needed to make the + entry. That was enough. Each of his twenty men was + wasting seven per cent of his time. + + "Try hinged paper," suggested the head bookkeeper. + + Accordingly, Mr. Samuels tried several kinds of hinged + paper, only to find that the hinged section tore, + broke, or cracked. The time that the clerks now saved + in flattening the leaves they wasted in rewriting the + pages that had torn out. + + He had no more faith in hinged papers by the time that + he saw the advertisement of the Benton hinge. "As + strong as the rest of the paper!" he scoffed. "We'll + see about this!" + + "Send me a sample," he wrote us. "If your ad tells the + truth, you get my order." + + We sent it. He tested it. He pulled it, crumpled it, + ruled on it, erased it on both sides, and even creased + it. But it did not break. + + Very cautiously and doubtingly he tried the paper in + one ledger for one month. He found that the book + rolled flat whenever it was opened, that no hinge + tore, and that every page could be used from binder to + outer edge. + + "It does the work," he told our salesman at the end of + the month. "It saves seven per cent. Send me a + consignment." + + If you, too, are paying seven per cent of your + bookkeepers' salaries for waste motion, let us send + you a sample. It will cut down your expenses as it cut + down Mr. Samuels'. + + Remember that you put yourself under no obligation to + us. You take no risks. Simply promise to use the paper + if we send it free. + + Yours truly, + + +=Exercise 224= + +Study the following letters and letter openings for good and bad +qualities: + +1 + + Dear Sir: + + People who have not had much of what the world calls + "good luck" find it hard to believe an opportunity + when it comes--they don't feel sure about it--on the + other hand, people who have had many opportunities + have a natural confidence that every opening presented + is intended for them and they grasp it with an + assurance that begets success. + + You may be one of those who have not had many chances + to do what you would like to do and therefore not sure + that my offer is an opportunity. For that reason let + us again go over the points of advantage.... + +2 + + Dear Sir: + + I am taking the liberty of writing you again because I + fear you do not fully realize the value of the + proposition I am offering you. Why, man, it's the + opportunity of a life-time!... (extended for three + pages.) + +3 + + Dear Sir: + + If we wanted to know just what kind of person you are, + do you know where we'd go to find out? We'd ask your + old friends and neighbors, who know all about you from + close association. + + If you want to find out about us--what we are doing + and what improvements we are making in southern + Florida--the best place to get this information is + from the people of Florida, who know the facts from + first-hand observation. The enclosed clipping is an + editorial expression--not a paid advertisement--from + the Ft. Meyers Press. The editor is under no + obligation to us and is merely expressing the opinion + of the people here.... + +4 + + New York, Right Now. + + A DEAL OF IMPORTANCE + + It affects YOU! It is so important I must forego the + pleasure of a personal letter in order to write 5,000 + people to-day--500 of whom--the wide-awake ones who + read this letter through--will be able to coin it into + dollars--real money--money you can spend. + + What we now offer you has never before been offered by + any body in the world. It is a combination we are + fortunate enough, just at this time, to be able to + offer you, because of an important deal we have just + closed--a deal that may easily spell dollars to you. + Read every word of this letter--it may be--possibly + is--the only thing to make you a successful and + wealthy man.... + +5 + + R F D 4 Logansport, Ind. 8-26-11. + + Mr. M. H. Smith, etc. Dear Sir: + + I acknowledge getting your telegram over the telephone + yesterday, and if I had been in funds would have + answered by return telegram, but such is life. I + accommodated a friend by loaning him $750, which will + probably be paid the last week of never. I thank you + for the offer, and when I am in funds will call on you + either personally or by letter. + + Very truly yours, + + +=Exercise 225--Opening an Account= + +Imagine that you are manager of a wholesale dry goods house. You have +received an order from P. H. Powley, 23 Water street, Franklin, Mich. As +you do not know Mr. Powley, write him, stating in as courteous a way as +possible that, since this is his first order, he must either furnish +references or send a remittance. Make your letter direct and personal. +Include some good selling talk. + +The exercise above illustrates the method that might be adopted in case +of a small order. If Mr. Powley had sent a large order, the wholesale +house would no doubt consult a financial agency to discover his +financial condition; his _rating_, it is called. If his name were not +found in the book of the agency, the wholesale house would require Mr. +Powley to send a correct account of his financial standing; that is, a +list of his assets and liabilities. If he refused, they would not do +business with him. Why? The principal financial agencies are Bradstreet +and Dun. Besides these, there are many mercantile agencies. They give +any information that is required concerning a business man. All such +information is confidential. + +In connection with this exercise study the letters that follow: + + REQUEST TO OPEN AN ACCOUNT + + Madison, Wis., Sept. 16, 1915. + + Wilson, Brighton, & Co., + 68 Broadway, New York. + + Gentlemen: + + Until recently I was in the employ of Samuel Stratton + & Co. of Milwaukee, but I have now started a business + of my own, for which I should like to open an account + with your house. As to my business ability and + financial standing, I refer you to my late employers, + Samuel Stratton & Co. of Milwaukee, and to the Madison + State Bank of this city. + + If on investigation you decide to accept me as a + customer, will you please send the goods on the + enclosed order, deducting your usual discount for + cash? Upon receipt of the goods and of the invoice, I + shall at once forward a sight draft on the Broadway + National Bank of your city. + + Respectfully yours, + George R. Scott + +REPLY NO. 1 + + Dear Sir: + + In seeking information through the usual outside + channels for basing credit for you, we find our + reports have not been sufficient in detail to permit + us to arrange this matter satisfactorily. These + reports all speak very highly of you in a personal + way, but do not give us the required information + financially. + + We assume you want our goods for your Christmas trade. + It is imperative, therefore, that we ship immediately. + We suggest that on this order you send us a draft, in + consideration of which we shall be pleased to allow + you a special discount of 4%. Understand that we + suggest these terms on this first order only, as we + feel confident that we can easily arrange a credit + basis for future shipments. We sincerely trust you + will take no offense at the above suggestion, as we + have made it in your interest. + + Yours very truly, + +REPLY NO. 2 + + Dear Sir: + + Thank you for the order you sent us yesterday. Its + size confirms the belief we have always held that + D---- is a rapidly growing business center, the right + place for a retailer to settle and prosper. + + After careful consideration of your letter, however, + we have decided to hold back your order for a short + time. You cannot regret this more than we do. We do + not like to lose your account, and yet, under the + circumstances, we feel we cannot send you the order. + We hope you can sell the property you mentioned in + your letter and thus clear up the balances against + you. Then we shall gladly open an account for you. + + We are especially sorry we cannot send the order at + once, as you no doubt need your fall stock now. Don't + you think it would be the best solution if you would + send us your remittance for $250 now, so that we may + send the goods? We know what it means to buy in the + open market so late in the season. We assure you that + on receipt of a remittance the order will go through + immediately. + + Yours truly, + + +=Exercise 226= + + 1. Order from the Grand Rapids Furniture Co., Grand + Rapids, Mich., 5 mahogany rockers, 1 Turkish rocker, 2 + brass beds, 12 dining room chairs, 2 dining room + tables. Supply catalogue numbers and give shipping + directions. + + 2. The Grand Rapids Furniture Co. replies, + acknowledging the receipt of the above order (give + date) but stating that you did not mention how you + would pay for the goods. On receipt of a certified + check to cover the amount, or of the names of two + reliable references, they will be pleased to send you + the order. Make this a good sales letter. + + +=Exercise 227= + + 1. You are a florist of Rockford, Ill. Write to S. M. + Porter & Son, 155 S. State Street, Chicago, saying + that this fall you are opening a new department of + Landscape Gardening. Judging by advance orders, you + will need approximately 200 shade trees, maples and + poplars; 200 fruit trees of various kinds; and several + hundred flowering shrubs. You will probably duplicate + the order in the spring. Ask for terms, saying that + you would like to open an account. Give two + references. + + 2. S. M. Porter & Son reply, acknowledging your order, + and saying that they will be pleased to do business + with you on sixty days' credit, terms 50 and 5%. If + this is satisfactory, they will add your name to their + books. Make it a sales letter. + + +=Exercise 228= + + 1. Samuel Radford of Douglas, Mich., wishes to buy a + motor boat. He orders of the Modern Steel Boat Co., + manufacturers of high grade motor boats, Detroit, + Mich., boat No. 172. page 425, catalogue No. 10. The + price as listed is $192. He accepts the offer they + made him ---- (date), of ---- (terms) and encloses a + certified check for the amount. He gives full shipping + directions. (Be sure you can do this.) He asks how + cheaply he can obtain cushions for the boat. + + 2. The company reply: They have shipped the boat. (Is + this sufficiently detailed?) A set of new cushions to + fit the boat costs $25. They have a set of secondhand + cushions in excellent condition for $15. If Radford + desires either of these, he should wire at once at + their expense. + + 3. Telegraph his decision. + + +=Exercise 229= + + 1. Messrs. Lee and Watkins, druggists of Gallon, Ohio, + wish to open an account with Pierce, King & Co., 17 S. + Albany St., Baltimore, Md., for the purchase of large + orders on ninety days' credit. They say they do a very + large business as they have the only drug store within + a radius of several miles. They give several names as + references. Write the letter. + + 2. You are a traveling salesman for Pierce, King & Co. + They write you at the Union Hotel, Columbus, telling + you of the foregoing letter, a copy of which they + enclose, and asking you to investigate the standing of + Messrs. Lee and Watkins. + + Reply that you visited the drug store in question on a + Tuesday (give date), because in your experience the + early part of the week is very quiet in the business + of small towns. Say that two clerks were kept busy + constantly and that several people spoke of the + enormous business done on Saturdays and market days. + The firm has good credit in the town. You are + satisfied that the gentlemen in question are reliable. + + 3. Write from Pierce, King & Co. to Messrs. Lee and + Watkins, acknowledging the receipt of their letter + ---- (date) and expressing pleasure in being able to + enter their name on the firm's books. Write as + courteous a letter as you can. + + 4. Imagine that the salesman's reply (2) had been + unfavorable. Write to Messrs. Lee and Watkins, + refusing them credit but trying to get their cash + business. + + +=Exercise 230--Letters Requesting Payment= + +It is better not to make threats in a collection letter except as a last +resort, and then the threat should be carried out. It is advisable in a +first letter of the kind to take for granted that a customer is honest +and that the failure to pay is an oversight. If some inducement for +further purchases is included in the letter in the form of good selling +talk, a remittance will probably be sent, and perhaps another order as +well. + +If the customer, however, takes no notice of the first letter, a second, +making the request for payment more urgent, may follow. The tone of the +second letter and subsequent letters will depend on the value that you +put on the customer's trade. Finally, if he ignores all of these +letters, dally no longer. Say that if payment is not made by a certain +date, you will draw on him at sight. If he does not honor the draft, put +the matter in the hands of your attorney. + + * * * * * + +Study the following letters. Select from them those that you think would +make a good series: + +1 + + Dear Sir: + + Ten days ago we mailed you a statement of your + account, which was due at that time. As we have heard + nothing from you, we have concluded that the letter + must have miscarried. We are, therefore, enclosing a + duplicate of the former statement. We trust that it + will reach you safely and have your prompt attention. + + Yours very truly, + +2 + + Dear Sir: + + Evidently you, too, are experiencing the increase in + business that our customers in general are reporting. + In the rush of orders you probably have overlooked the + fact that your account with us is three weeks + over-due. Your remittances hitherto have been very + prompt, and we trust that this reminder will be + treated equally promptly. + + By the way, have you found that the Holeless Socks are + coming up to our guarantee? From all parts of the + country we are getting flattering reports in the form + of big orders. We feel that they merit their + popularity, and with the extensive advertising + campaign that we have inaugurated they are bound to + continue in favor. + + We are especially prepared at present to give you an + attractive price, enabling you to realize large + profits on these socks. If you need more of them, we + can make shipment at once. + + Yours very truly, + +3 + + Dear Sir: + + In looking over our accounts, we find that your + purchases have lately been increasing considerably and + that your payments have been few and unimportant. + Statements have been sent regularly, we believe, but + have probably been overlooked because of the stress of + your other affairs. Such things, of course, can happen + with any of us, especially when we have many other + matters to look after. + + We have always valued your account, and we greatly + desire our pleasant relations to continue. As the + amount that you owe us is now long over-due, we would + appreciate your returning the enclosed bill to be + receipted during the next few days. + + Yours very truly, + +4 + + Dear Sir: + + Your attention has twice been called to your account + for $----, but for some reason you do not reply to our + letters. + + Our terms, as you know, are thirty days, and we cannot + allow a longer extension except by special + arrangement. We have borne the matter very patiently, + realizing that unusual conditions sometimes prevent + one's doing as he desires. At the same time, it is + entirely out of reason that your account should still + be owing at this time. May we not expect your + remittance by return mail? + + Should we not hear from you by the 15th, we shall draw + on you, and, if you have not remitted in the meantime, + please provide for our draft upon its arrival. + + Yours truly, + +5 + + Dear Sir: + + On March 15 we drew on you for $250. Our draft has + been returned to us by the Blank Bank, unpaid. + + Your account is long past due, and, although we are + willing to do almost anything to accommodate our + customers, we feel that in your case the time for + concessions has passed. We desire your check at once + for the balance due us. + + You are credited with using considerable money in your + business, and it would seem that you should without + difficulty be able to take care of amounts such as you + owe us. If we do not hear from you by April 1, we + shall send a second draft. If you permit this to be + returned unpaid, we shall be compelled to take action + to force collection. We wish to express the hope, + however, that you will not allow this to be done. + + Yours truly, + + +=Exercise 231= + +Letter (2) above is written primarily to get a check for the over-due +account and incidentally to get another order. Suppose that the customer +sends an order and no money. You do not wish to extend further credit +until the old balance is paid. Write a tactful letter, saying that you +will hold back the order until you receive a check to pay the over-due +account. + + +=Exercise 232= + +Write the letters in the following transaction: + + 1. J. F. Brookmeyer, Peru, Ind., is a dealer in shoes. + He opened an account with you a month ago. He has + purchased shoes to the amount of $250. You rendered an + account on the first of the month, two weeks ago. + Write a letter saying that you do not carry over + accounts from month to month, as your small margin of + profit makes it impossible for you to carry an + irregular account. Make it a courteous sales letter as + well as a collection letter. + + 2. J. H. Brookmeyer sends a certified check for the + full amount, apologizing for the delay. + + +=Exercise 233= + + 1. John R. Phillips, 32 New York Building, Seattle, + Washington, owes you $470. Write him, saying that you + need the money. Give a good reason. Make it a + courteous, friendly letter. + + 2. Mr. Phillips has not answered (1). Write him again, + saying that if you do not get a remittance by ----, + you will draw on him at sight. + + 3. Your bank notifies you that your draft has been + returned unpaid. Write Phillips, asking for an + explanation. Say that unless you hear by ----, you + will bring suit. + + 4. Phillips writes an apologetic letter, giving + illness as the reason for his non-payment. He says he + was in the hospital and did not receive letters (1) + and (2). He encloses fifty dollars and promises to pay + at least half the balance next month, the full amount + within sixty days. Write his letter. + + 5. Accept this offer. + + +=Exercise 234--Answering Complaints= + + 1. A mail order house discovered that its files + contained the names of 10,000 people who had once been + customers but who had not bought anything for the last + two or three years. Write a letter in the name of the + manager frankly asking why the customer has stopped + buying. Advertise the stock. + + 2. One correspondent in reply demands a return of $16, + which he had paid for a coat that was "not worth a + cent." How would you reply to this letter so that the + one making the complaint would send in an order? Write + the letter. + +In connection with this exercise study the following letter: + + Dear Sir: + + We wish to acknowledge your letter of April 16, in + which you say that on April 14 you received a bill for + five S & Q Railway bonds, which Mr. Wensley had sold + you on the 11th at 100 and interest; that you sent us + your check for the amount on the same day; and that on + the 16th, two days afterward, you received a letter + from us, offering a new block of these bonds at 99 and + interest. + + This complication was brought about through a peculiar + chain of circumstances, an explanation of which, we + feel, is only just both to you and to us. When Mr. + Wensley came to the office on Saturday, the 12th, he + told us that he had your order for five of these bonds + at 100¼ and interest. The market price was then 100 + and interest, and we were very glad to give you the + benefit of the more favorable price. At that time we + had no intimation that more of these bonds were + coming on the market. Quite unexpectedly on Monday we + received notice from our Boston office that they had + in view a new block of the bonds. Even at that time we + did not know definitely that we would get them. On + Tuesday, again quite unexpectedly, we were instructed + by our Boston office that the bonds had been secured + and were to be offered immediately at 99 and interest. + So suddenly did the entire transaction take place that + we were unable to prepare a new circular, and on + Tuesday night we merely sent out a letter, telling our + customers that we had an additional block of these + bonds. In fact, the new circular will not be ready + until about noon of to-morrow. + + We realize that you should have been informed of the + new price. The bonds, however, came on the market so + quickly and in taking care of the details of the + offering we were so busy that the matter, + unfortunately, was overlooked. We are glad, therefore, + to make adjustment of the price now by having our + banking department send you our check for $50. + + It is unnecessary for us to say, we presume, that we + regret this occurrence and to assure you that had we + known of the new bonds on Saturday we would have + advised you to hold off your purchase until the + offering was ready. We feel that you know us and the + policy of our house well enough to be sure that we + would not willfully take advantage of you in this way. + We trust that the arrangement that we have made + satisfactorily straightens out the matter. + + Yours very truly, + + +=Exercise 235= + +1. What is the advantage of the policy shown in the following suggestion +from _System_? + + The manager of a retail establishment says: "We never + refuse to refund money. If a dissatisfied customer + returns a purchase, before we ask what the trouble is + we refund his money gladly. When he is free to walk + out of the store with his money, we try to find the + source of the trouble. Generally we can adjust the + difficulty and make a sale." + +2. State the advantage in the policy of a large clothing concern which +follows the sale of every suit or overcoat with a letter to the +customer, asking him whether the purchase is proving satisfactory. + +3. Write such a letter. + + +=Exercise 236= + + 1. Conrad H. Harwood of 122 Winter Street, Vandalia, + Ill., writes to Wilson, Black & Co., manufacturers of + shoes, 100 Second Street, Lynn, Mass., asking why they + are not sending his order of ---- (the goods ordered) + of ---- (date). He is losing sales because of the + delay. If the goods are not received before ----, + Harwood will cancel the order. + + 2. Wilson, Black & Co. acknowledge the receipt of + Harwood's letter and say that this is the first notice + they have received of such an order. The first letter + must have miscarried. They have shipped the goods. Be + very courteous. + + +=Exercise 237= + + 1. C. F. Gardner, a merchant of 432 Puyallup Ave., + Tacoma, Wash., has received notice from the C.M. & + P.S.R.R. freight office that a box of goods has + arrived from Messrs. Fiske & Jones, Detroit, Mich. + Gardner ordered the goods a month ago. He writes + Messrs. Fiske & Jones that he refuses to accept the + goods because of the delay. He has bought elsewhere in + the meantime. + + 2. Fiske & Jones apologize for the delay and explain + that it was due to the unreliability of one of their + shipping clerks, who has since been discharged. They + had known nothing of the matter until Gardner's letter + of complaint arrived. They assure him that he will + never suffer another such inconvenience. + + 3. Fiske & Jones telegraph the C.M. & P.S.R.R. to + return the goods at Fiske & Jones's expense. Write the + telegram. + + +=Exercise 238--Letters of Application= + +A letter of application usually has three parts. In writing such a +letter, first, tell where you saw the advertisement and apply for the +position; second, tell your qualifications and give your references; +third, end the letter appropriately, possibly asking for an interview. + +This is a difficult kind of letter to write. Not only should it be neat +in appearance and clearly written, but it should also be so carefully +worded that it will show enough of the writer's individuality to +distinguish it from a form. Be neither hesitant nor bold, but tell your +qualifications in a simple, straightforward way. + +Study the following letters. Are they convincing? Do they show the +personality of the writers, or are they mere forms? + +1 + + Gentlemen: + + Your advertisement in to-day's Record for a salesman + who knows the tea and coffee business interests me. I + should like you to consider my application for the + position. + + Since my graduation from the Blank High School, four + years ago, I have been employed as salesman for the + Economy Wholesale Coffee Co., a firm doing business in + this city and its outlying districts. During these + four years I have gathered a wide knowledge of the + principles of the buying and selling of coffees and + teas and of the grades and blends of both, just the + training, it seems to me, that you wish to secure. + + You may depend upon my taking an active interest in + your business, because I have an intense desire to + advance. I myself vouch for my honesty and + earnestness, and Mr. Robert Brown of the firm + mentioned above has assured me that he will supply you + with any information that you may wish as to my + character or ability. He endorses my desire to secure + a broader opportunity. + + If the position that you have to offer is one in which + there is a real future for an energetic, capable man, + I should like to have an interview with you. + + Yours very respectfully, + +2 + + Dear Sir: + + I am answering your advertisement in to-day's Record + for a clerk because I wish to get started in the + wholesale dry goods business, my idea being to work + into the sales department. If the position that you + advertise affords such an opportunity, I wish to apply + for it. + + I have had a little experience in the retail dry goods + business, having worked as clerk for Mr. Amos Jones of + this city during the past two summers. What I have + seen and learned of the business makes me feel that I + have ability as a dry goods salesman. I shall be glad + to work hard in a clerical position if only I get a + chance to learn and to advance. + + I am eighteen years of age and have just graduated + from the Blank High School, where I took the four-year + commercial course. This, as you know, includes + business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and some business + practice. During the last two years I was business + manager of the high school paper. This position gave + me considerable experience in handling details rapidly + and in soliciting advertising. It is this latter + experience that makes me feel that I would have + success in selling. + + I am confident that I can please you, and I should be + grateful if you will grant me an interview. Mr. Amos + Jones, 815 E. 47th St., will be glad to give you any + information that you may wish as to my work, and if + you desire I can furnish other references. + + Yours respectfully, + + +=Exercise 239= + +Apply for the following positions: + + 1. OFFICE MAN--who can handle correspondence and + general office work for growing North side + manufacturing company. Good opportunity for the right + man. State experience and salary expected. Address A. + H. Stanton, 17 Elm St. + + 2. MAIL ORDER MAN--up-to-date, experienced; must have + ability and be capable of handling a large volume of + correspondence; must also be a pusher and + systematizer. In reply give references, age, and + detailed experience. Address X. W. 291 News. + + 3. AMBITIOUS YOUNG MEN--who are willing to start at + the bottom to learn steel and iron business; must be + high school or college graduates, or have equivalent + education, and furnish exceptional references; very + good opportunity for the future. Address A. F. 361 + Times. + + 4. BRIGHT YOUNG MAN--for office work in large + manufacturing plant, Northwest side; must be neat, + quick, and accurate at figures. State age, experience, + and salary expected. Address J. F. Holtz & Co., 320 W. + Exchange St. + + 5. OFFICE CLERK--a girl who can write a plain, rapid, + legible hand; desirable, permanent position, and + excellent chance for advancement. Give age, + experience, if any, and where formerly employed. + Salary $6.00 to start. Address T. P. 514 Chronicle. + + 6. HELP WANTED--salesman having established trade on + rubber or leather footwear in Michigan, northern + Indiana, northwest Ohio, or eastern Wisconsin. Good + chance to become connected with live middle-western + jobbing house. Give late experience. Address G724 Boot + and Shoe Recorder, Boston, Mass. + + +=Exercise 240--Contract for Painting Iron Work= + + 1. James W. Walker & Co., 325 Second St., Pittsburgh, + are receiving bids for painting the iron work of the + bridge to be constructed over the Cheesequake Creek at + Morgan Station, New Brunswick, N. J. The Barnard + Emerson Co., of Harrisburg, Pa., write saying they + would like to figure on the work. They ask James W. + Walker & Co; to send plans and specifications. Write + the letter sent by the Barnard Emerson Co. + + 2. James W. Walker & Co. reply that they are sending + plans and specifications. They say that bids must be + in by March 10. Write the letter. + + 3. The Barnard Emerson Co. write that page two, line + four, of the specifications for the bridge to be + constructed (state in detail) reads "and paint all + beams underneath two coats of dark green," and page + four, line ten, reads "all upright beams above and + underneath to be painted two coats of light green + between shades three and four." They ask which is + correct. Write the letter. Be exact. + + 4. James W. Walker & Co. reply that page two, line + four, is correct. Explain in detail. + + 5. The Barnard Emerson Co. agree to do the work on + (repeat exactly what bridge you mean) for three + thousand dollars. They guarantee to finish the work by + April 30, according to the specifications. They will + forfeit fifty dollars for every day after that date + until the bridge is finished. Write the proposal or + bid. + + 6. James W. Walker & Co. write, saying that they + accept the bid above and that they enclose duplicate + contracts, one of which they have signed and which the + Barnard Emerson Co. is to keep. The other the Barnard + Emerson Co. is to sign and return to James W. Walker & + Co. + + +=Exercise 241--Contract for the Delivery of Property= + + 1. The Arlington Coal Company, Old Colony Building, + Chicago, Ill., write to the Red Rock Coal Company, + Auburn, Ill., saying that they need several cars of + egg coal per week throughout the year. They ask if the + Red Rock Coal Co. wish to offer some on contract. If + so, they must state how the coal is screened, and give + their lowest price. Write the letter. + + 2. The Red Rock Coal Co. reply that they will offer + egg coal for shipment at the rate of two cars per week + throughout the year, at $1.15 per net ton, cars f.o.b. + mines. If a contract were drawn up for three or more + cars per week, they would give the coal for $1.12½ per + net ton. They say their egg is an excellent steam + producing coal and gives general satisfaction. It is + shipped from the Red Rock mine via the Chicago & Alton + Railroad, freight rate being 82¢ per ton. Write the + letter. + + 3. The Arlington Coal Co. write that the Red Rock Coal + Co. may send a one year contract drawn in triplicate + for three cars of egg coal per week at $1.12½ per net + ton, cars f.o.b. mines. Of course it is understood + that the usual clauses regarding accidents or other + unavoidable happenings on either side will be + inserted. Write the letter. + + +=Exercise 242--Contract for Construction= + + NEWS ITEM.--Bids will be received until Dec. 12 by the + Chairman of the Board of Public Works, North Bend, + Washington, for the construction of a solid concrete + bridge over the Snoqualmie River at North Bend; double + arch, with one pier in the river; span of arch 92 + feet; width of bridge 50 feet. Plans may be had by + addressing the Chairman. + +The McClaine Construction Co., of Spokane, Wash., send in a bid for +$25,000, guaranteeing to use Atlas Portland cement, crushed rock for the +coarse aggregate, and torpedo sand for the fine aggregate, the concrete +to be reinforced with the Kahn system of reinforcement as set forth in +the specifications. The company specify, further, that they shall be +paid extra for excavation, on the scale of 25¢ a yard for earth, 75¢ a +yard for loose rock and hard pan, and $1.00 a yard for solid rock. Write +the letter that they send. + + +=Exercise 243--Form Letters= + +It frequently happens in business that you receive a number of letters +requiring practically the same answer. In such cases, the best plan is +to have one letter that is as good a letter of its kind as you can +write. Use that as an answer to all those to which it can be made to +apply. You may have to add a bit of information or change a word here +and there, but, practically, you are using the same form for all the +letters. When you have mastered the form, the answering of letters of +this class will be a simple matter. The letter accompanying a catalogue +may easily be a form. (See the second letter in Exercise 223.) + +The danger, however, is that the use of form letters tends to make work +mechanical. When letters are different, they must receive different +replies. A form letter should never be used just because it is easy to +use when it does not really apply. + +Mandel Bros., Chicago, Ill., announce their annual sale of silk +remnants. Make this a good advertisement that will reach several classes +of customers. Have in it as one item white wash silk of heavy quality, +36 inches wide, at 47 cents a yard. + + 1. Make out a sales letter for the above. + + 2. Several mail orders have been received in excess of + the supply. Make out a form letter that could be sent + when the money is returned. What is the advantage of a + form letter in this case? + + +=Exercise 244--Circular and Follow-up Letters= + +There is a class of letters that usually originates in the advertising +department of a firm. They are not sent out to answer inquiries, but to +solicit new customers and to keep old ones. Such letters are printed in +large numbers in imitation of typewriting, and the introduction and the +salutation are afterward carefully filled in on the typewriter. The +intention, of course, is to make the recipient feel that he has received +a personal letter. Firms are generally careful to fill in the signature +in pen and ink. These are called _circular_ letters. (See the last +letter in Exercise 223.) + +These letters are very important and each year more numerous. Frequently +a series of them is written, each one expanding one argument in a series +of arguments. If all the letters are read, one after the other, you have +a complete list of reasons why you should buy the particular article +which the letters advertise. These letters are sent out regularly, so +that the effect of one may not quite wear off before the next arrives. +It is frequently the case that not until the third or fourth letter is +sent out does any reply come. Such letters should be definitely planned +in order to present arguments that are true and attractive. They must be +simply and clearly written. They are called _follow-up_ letters. + +The following series of follow-up letters was intended to be sent to +women who keep no maids. The series was planned to contain five letters. +Write two more, using different appeals from those in the letters here +given. + +1 + + Dear Madam: + + Do you remember the fairy tale of Little Two-Eyes? + + A fairy, out of pity for the child's hunger, spread a + table before her each day as she was watching the goat + in the field, and when her appetite was satisfied all + the child had to say was, "Table clear yourself," and + the dishes magically disappeared. + + "This is a beautiful way to keep house," was Two-Eyes' + verdict, and every woman, thinking of her own distaste + of dirty dishes, will agree. + + "How I hate dishwashing!" You have said it hundreds of + times--after every meal, probably. + + "I like to cook and bake," you declare. "They are + really interesting. There is fun in trying new + recipes--but the dishes!" + + You enjoy giving luncheon and dinner parties. It is a + delightful way of meeting one's friends. Moreover, you + are justly proud of your skill in cooking, and you + like to show your beautiful china. But what a damper + it is on your spirit of good-fellowship, after the + guests are gone, to have to spend an hour or more + washing the dishes. Then you would like to say, with + the child in the story, "Dishes wash yourselves!" + Wouldn't you? + + Well, you may. For thirty days--ninety meals--we will + put the Fairy Dishwasher in your home, without + charging you a penny. + + The machine is simplicity itself. Wheel the cabinet + into your dining room, alongside your serving table, + and, as a course is finished, without rising from your + place, stack the dishes into the washer. When you have + finished the meal, wheel the cabinet into your + kitchen, make the connection, and turn the switch. In + a few minutes the dishes are washed and dried. Having + friends in to dinner is fun when the Fairy washes the + dishes. + + Let the Fairy do yours. Simply return this letter to + us in the enclosed envelope, making sure that your + name and address are correct, and we'll send you the + Fairy. Use it three times a day for thirty days. Then + if you think you can get along as well without the + machine, all that you need to do is to send us a + postal card, telling us so. We'll take back the Fairy + and ask no questions. + + But send to-day. + + Yours very truly, + +2 + + Dear Madam: + + Did you ever envy another woman's smooth, white hands? + You looked at hers, and then you looked at yours; you + sighed and thought, "It's dishwashing." + + But what can you do? Haven't you tried everything to + make dishwashing less drudgery? Haven't you tried + patent soaps and tepid water, only to find that the + dishes were not clean? Haven't you tried dish mops, + scrapers, and rubber gloves, only to find that the mop + and the scraper saved but one hand? As for rubber + gloves, as likely as not, the first time you used them + they were caught on the prong of a fork and were + thereafter useless. Yes, you've tried everything; + haven't you? + + No, you haven't. You have not tried the only sure help + that there is. Stop your drudgery and let the Fairy + wash your dishes. + + For thirty days--ninety trials--we will put the Fairy + Dishwasher in your home, absolutely free of charge, + guaranteed to wash and sterilize your dishes in + boiling water, without a touch of your hand. + + Do your manicuring while the Fairy does the dishes. + + Pay no money, but send the enclosed postal card + to-day. It will bring the Fairy at once. + + Very truly yours, + +3 + + Dear Madam: + + An extra hour of leisure every day! What is it worth + to you? + + Think what you could do if some one would give you an + extra hour of leisure every day. There's the book you + would like to read, the call you ought to make, the + embroidery you wish you could finish. There are the + thousand and one things that a housekeeper continually + wishes she could do--but where can she get the time? + + And yet you waste at least an hour each day washing + dishes when the Fairy Dishwasher will not only save + you the time but rid you of a distasteful task. You + pay 16-2/3 cents a day for five months and the Fairy + does your dishes every day; you buy yourself an extra + hour every day,--you are an hour ahead every day for + the rest of your life. + + Is it worth the price? + + Remember that we allow you to use the Fairy for thirty + days--ninety meals--before you pay a penny. Then for + five months you send us five dollars a month, and we + guarantee that you will declare it the best + twenty-five dollars that you ever spent. + + Send the enclosed postal card to-day. It will bring + the Fairy and a booklet of full directions. + + Very truly yours, + + +=Exercise 245= + +You have bought a big tract of land in Alabama. You wish to sell a part +uncleared, to set out a part in pecan trees, and to devote a part to +truck farms. Write three letters to the same man, making each one +stronger than the one before. Keep in mind the five essentials of a good +letter. (See page 230.) + + 1. Offer the uncleared land at a very low price. Offer + as many inducements as you can, such as desirability + of location, fertility of the soil, and comparison in + price with other land in the same neighborhood. + + 2. You received no response from (1). Try to sell the + section in which you are planting pecan trees. What + inducements could you offer that might reach a man who + was not affected by (1)? + + 3. You received no response from (1) or (2). Try to + sell a truck farm. What inducements could you offer + that might lead a man to buy a truck farm when he had + no interest in either uncleared land or pecan trees? + + +=Exercise 246= + + 1. The _Modern Magazine_ offers a set of Mark Twain's + complete works absolutely free if you subscribe for + one year for the _Modern Magazine_ and the _Household + Magazine_ at the regular price of $2 for the _Modern + Magazine_ and $1.50 for the _Household Magazine_. This + offer expires ---- (date). Write the letter. + + 2. You have not responded. The _Modern Magazine_ feels + that you could not have understood its offer. These + are no cheap books. To prove this, the firm is willing + to send you the books to allow you to examine them + before you send any money. If you accept them, pay the + express agent; if not, return the books at the expense + of the _Modern Magazine_. Remember that this offer + expires ---- (date). + + 3. You have not responded. The magazine extends the + time. Give a reason for the extension of the time. + +What criticism can you make on (3)? + + +=Exercise 247= + +A druggist was obliged to move from his corner store four doors east on +a side street. He decided to advertise by sending a series of follow-up +letters embodying the following ideas: + + 1. Change of location because ----. + + 2. Stick to your druggist because he holds the key to + your health. + + 3. What is the reason that my trade is staying with + me? (Prizes for the best answer.) + + 4. The reasons why trade stays with me--what my + patrons say. + + 5. The pure food question--why we must handle only + fresh drugs. + + 6. We are registered pharmacists--what this means to + you. + + 7. Why our sales expense is smaller now than + formerly--how you profit. + + +=Exercise 248= + +A furniture house selling goods on monthly payments decides to advertise +by sending a series of follow-up letters, using the following reasons +why you should buy, one in each letter: + + 1. Variety of stock; assurance that they can please, + no matter what you wish. Amplify. + + 2. Reliability of the firm. + + 3. The small profit on which they run their business + gives you an excellent opportunity of buying good + values at low prices. + + 4. Buying on the "easy payment" plan enables you to + have the use of your furniture while you are still + paying for it. + +Why is (4) a poor argument? + + +=Exercise 249= + +Write a series of letters to sell an electric washing machine, using the +following items: + + 1. The machine is ball bearing; therefore very easy to + work. You can sit down while you do your week's + washing. The only work required is hanging the clothes + out of doors. + + 2. It saves laundry bills. + + 3. Summary of (1) and (2). The investment required is + not large. Special plans for payment. + + 4. The machine is durable. + + 5. Summary of the above. The following figures show + that during the time that has elapsed since (1) was + received the machine might have been paid for out of + the money spent for laundry bills. + + + + +PART III--BUSINESS PRACTICE + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +MANUFACTURE + + +THE following chapters will furnish exercises in composition, both oral +and written, based upon the various phases of business. They are +intended to show the application of the principles underlying +manufacturing, buying, and selling. Of course, we cannot expect to go +into great detail in any one of the divisions. That must be reserved for +future study, perhaps reserved until the time that you enter a +particular business. We must remember that our first consideration is +the study of English, the problem of clear-cut expression. Underlying +clear-cut expression is clear-cut thinking. It cannot be repeated too +often that without a definite thought there can be no definite wording +of the thought. To say, "I know, but I don't know how to tell it," shows +a lazy brain. Learn to exercise your thinking powers so that you can +force them to stay upon a subject until you have thought it out +carefully and can express it. All of the oral exercises in the following +chapters require careful preparation. This does not mean that they +should be written out before the recitation, but it does mean that they +must be carefully thought out. The preparation need not take a +particular form. The main thing is that you know exactly the points that +you wish to make before you begin to speak. If the exercise calls for a +paragraph, have clearly in mind the plan by which you expect to expand +your thought. Perhaps you expect to begin with, or to lead up to, a +topic sentence. Remember that this may be done in several ways. Choose +whichever plan seems best. If the exercise does not call for a +particular form, such as a paragraph or a debate, you are left free to +develop your thought in the way that you think fits your subject best +and to the length which you think it demands. + +There are many different kinds of businesses. We shall not attempt to +consider any except the most common and fundamental. Some, like farming +or mining, consist in bringing forth certain products from the ground. +Such products are called raw materials, of which an example is wheat. +Some raw materials are sold and used unchanged, but most of them go +through the process of manufacture in order to be directly usable. The +miller is an example of a manufacturer, because from wheat he makes +flour. In this chapter we shall study the principles underlying +manufacture. + +The exercises do not by any means exhaust the subject. Each one is to be +considered as a nucleus about which others are to be grouped. If you +live in a manufacturing district, other subjects will easily suggest +themselves. If you have studied Industrial History or Commercial +Geography, you probably have in mind a number of topics for discussion. +If you know but little about raw materials, read some of the books +suggested in Exercise 257. At all events let your work be definite. +Whatever statements you make be able to substantiate by an illustration +of something that you have seen or heard or read. + + +=Exercise 250--Manufacture= + +Almost all the things we eat, wear, and use every day are manufactured +articles. Each one of them requires its own particular process in the +making, involving the necessity in most cases of complex and expensive +machinery, of expert workmen, and of still more expert management. Take, +for example, the shoes we wear, in the manufacture of which an amazing +number of complicated machines and of expert workmen is necessary. +According to the United States Department of Labor, men's rough shoes go +through eighty-four distinct processes performed by skilled workmen and +automatic machines. No less amazing is the amount of work turned out by +these machines. It has been estimated that the McKay machine, which +attaches the soles to the uppers, sews up in about one hour and a half +one hundred pairs, an amount which it would take ninety-eight hours, or +about eleven whole working days, to sew by hand. + +Each manufacturing business has peculiarities, machinery, methods, and +even a language of its own; sometimes men must spend years in the study +of the technicalities of certain manufacturing businesses before they +become expert in them. It is evident that we cannot take up any one of +them here except in so far as the principles of one apply to all, and +these can be set down only very briefly. + +The first essential to successful manufacturing is correct buying. In +fact, in some businesses this is so essential that the buyer gets a +larger salary than the manager himself. We can see the reason for this +when we consider that a good buyer must understand not only the +materials that he buys, but also the manufacturing processes, so that, +knowing the process through which the raw materials will go in his +particular business, he will buy those materials that will make the most +profitable manufactured articles. + +The next essential, and in most cases the most important one from the +manufacturing standpoint, is a management capable of producing the best +product at the least cost. The managers decide what shall be produced +and how; they hire the workmen and decide what each shall do; they +decide what shall be done by hand and what by machinery; and they choose +the machines. Sometimes they go even so far as to determine exactly the +method in which each task shall be done, and whenever they see that it +would be advantageous to install a machine, they do so. Pursuing this +policy, a Chicago yeast concern not long ago put in three machines for +wrapping the small yeast cakes, eliminating the services of 140 girls +and cutting the cost of wrapping to three-fifths of what it had been. In +the steel business the early success of Andrew Carnegie and the famous +Bill Jones was largely due to the fact that on several occasions they +did not hesitate to break up half a million dollars' worth of machinery +and replace it with newer and more efficient kinds. + +The third essential to manufacturing success is aggressive marketing of +the product. From the standpoint of money success this is probably the +most important consideration; so important is it, in fact, that it will +be more fully discussed in the chapter following. + + +=Exercise 251--Manufactured Articles= + +_Oral_ + + 1. Define the word _industry_. When is a business + called an industry? (Consult an unabridged + dictionary.) + + 2. _a._ Name several raw materials. + + _b._ Name some industries whose business it is to + produce raw materials. + + 3. Name some companies or industries whose business it + is, or whose principal function it is, to manufacture + from raw materials. + + 4. Name some companies or groups of companies that + make articles more useful by transporting them to + places where they are needed. + + 5. Name some wholesale houses. In what does their + business consist? + + 6. Name several kinds of retail businesses. In what + does their business consist? + + 7. Name some companies that manufacture only one + article. + + 8. Name some companies that manufacture more than one + article, but all of the same class. This is the + largest group. + + 9. Name some companies that manufacture several + different kinds of articles. + + 10. Name some companies which, in manufacturing one + product, make a secondary or by-product. + + 11. Name a number of by-products and what they are + by-products of. + +_Oral or Written_ + +In each of the following emphasize the labor involved, not the machinery +used; prepare outlines: + + 1. Select any manufactured article that you have seen + on a grocer's shelves, and trace it through (2), (3), + (4), (5), and (6) above, from the raw material until + the product is in the housekeeper's hands. If possible + make your information exact by visiting a factory in + which the article is made. The information contained + in advertisements of well-known articles may help you. + + 2. Trace the labor that is necessary to put a loaf of + bread on the table. + + 3. Trace the changes that the mineral undergoes to be + suitable for the making of edged tools, such as knives + or axes. + + 4. Trace the changes that cotton must undergo before + it is suitable for wearing as a dress or a pair of + stockings. + + 5. Trace the changes that wool undergoes before it can + be worn as a sweater or a winter coat. + + 6. Trace the changes that the skins of animals undergo + before they can be worn as a muff. + + 7. Trace the changes that silk undergoes before it can + be worn as a neck-tie. + + 8. Trace the changes that hemp undergoes before it can + be used as a rope. + + 9. Trace the changes that hides undergo before they + can be worn as shoes. + + 10. Trace wood from the tree to a piece of fine + furniture or to the case of a musical instrument. + + 11. Trace the steps in the process of making maple + sugar. + + 12. Trace the steps in making a piece of glazed + pottery. + + 13. Trace clay to bricks. + + 14. Trace flax to a tablecloth. + + 15. Trace the steps necessary to make a five dollar + gold piece. + + +=Exercise 252= + +Subjects for Themes, Oral or Written + +The following are suggestions for theme subjects on manufacture. Develop +one or more as the teacher directs. + + 1. Household uses for asbestos. + 2. Making turpentine from wood. + 3. A convenient electrical device. + 4. The advantages of the fireless cooker. + 5. The advantages of concrete as a building material. + 6. The way to make a plaster cast. + 7. How iron castings are made. + 8. Artificial flowers from feathers, paper, or cloth. + 9. How a suction sweeper works. + 10. The safety match. + 11. The uses of wood pulp. + 12. Patent roofing. + 13. The manufacture of plate glass. + 14. Utilizing cotton seed. + 15. The advantages and the disadvantages of using baking powder. + + +=Exercise 253= + +Suggestions for Debates + + 1. The average young man has a better chance to + succeed in business than in a profession. + + 2. A manufacturing business offers a better + opportunity for a young man at the present time than a + mercantile business. + + 3. Manufacturing industries would suffer if + immigration were restricted. + + 4. The labor union should be abolished. + + 5. The labor union has no right to restrict the number + of apprentices. + + 6. The profit-sharing plan produces greater efficiency + in the working-force. + + +=Exercise 254= + +Imagine that you are Stanley M. Benner, 171 South St., Buffalo, N. Y., +proprietor of a factory making men's shirts and collars. + + 1. Write an order to The American Printing Mill, 1038 + Canal St., Passaic, N. J., for several bolts each of + percale, madras, corded madras, and silk striped + madras. Use catalogue numbers. + + 2. Write another order to The Trescott Silk Mill, 976 + River St., Paterson, N. J., for several bolts each of + No. 62, No. 14, and No. 20 shirting silks, No. 62 + being a striped silk and the others figured. Be + definite in ordering the colors that you wish. + + 3. You have received an order from Spencer & Mitchell, + 1925 Pearl St., Albany, N. Y. Write a letter, thanking + them for the order and explaining when and how the + goods will be sent. + + 4. You have received an order from William F. Atwood, + 590 Jackson St., Wilmington, Del., for a certain style + of collar on which there has been a run. Write a + letter, explaining that it will take about three weeks + to fill the orders that you now have for this collar + and that you therefore cannot send Mr. Atwood's goods + before the end of the month. + + 5. The goods have arrived from The Trescott Silk Mill. + You find, however, that two bolts of No. 14 are badly + soiled. Write a letter, saying that you are returning + the bolts and asking to have the matter adjusted. + + 6. A. W. Trescott, President of The Trescott Silk + Mill, replies, expressing regret that the goods were + soiled and saying that two clean bolts of No. 14 are + being sent at once. Write his letter. + + 7. You have on hand about 50 gross men's striped + madras collars, for which there is no longer a call. + Write to Markham Bros., wholesale jobbers, 1765 + Greenwich St., New York City, asking what price they + will offer for the lot. + + 8. Accept their offer of $1.50 a gross for the + collars. + + 9. A customer sends a cash order for goods at last + year's prices, 10% below present prices. Write a + politic reply. + + 10. Owing to the mildness of the winter, you fear that + you will not sell your stock of men's flannel shirts. + Write a circular letter, offering the shirts in lots + of 25 dozen each, assorted sizes and colors, at a 35% + reduction in price. Address one letter to. Frederick + H. Howard, a dealer at 775 Cedar St., Harrisburg, Pa. + + 11. A teamsters' strike has delayed your shipments. + You have received so many complaints of the + non-arrival of goods that you decide to prepare a form + letter that will answer all the complaints. Address + one letter to William A. Spaulding, 2937 Waterman St., + Providence, R. I. + + 12. Miss Sarah MacComb has a small dry goods store in + Norwich, Conn. She has owed you $125 for six months. + You have been lenient with Miss MacComb because you + know that she has had difficulty in meeting her bills. + However, you feel that she should pay at least a part + of her indebtedness to you. Write a courteous letter, + longer and more persuasive than if it were to go to a + man, demanding payment but retaining the customer's + good will. This is a difficult letter to write. + Prepare it carefully. + + +=Exercise 255= + + 1. You have been manager of the Forsyth Furniture Co., + Grand Rapids, Mich. You have financial backing for + $25,000 and are looking for a location for a factory + of your own. Write the same letter to the Secretary of + the Chamber of Commerce of Great Falls, Mont.; + Memphis, Tenn.; Houston, Texas; Indianapolis, Ind. Ask + the Secretary to tell you the prospects for such a + factory in his city, and what inducements the city + will offer you. (By writing to different cities, the + teacher can obtain their booklets and their special + offers to manufacturers.) + + 2. Investigate the conditions in one of the cities + mentioned above and reproduce the letter that the + Secretary wrote. + + 3. Of the four cities, Great Falls appeals to you as + the best location for your factory. Write again, + asking the Secretary especially about the water power + facilities offered and the rates charged for + electrical power. + + 4. He replies that Great Falls has the most extensive + power in the United States, the hydro-electric power + being ready for delivery in any quantity at + exceptionally low rates. He tells of the many + factories that are already located in Great Falls + because of its water power facilities. + + 5. Great Falls is your choice. After your factory is + built and your machinery installed, write to the + Secretary of the Sand Point Lumber Co., Sand Point, + Idaho, asking him to submit figures for a contract for + supplying all your fir lumber. Tell him you think you + will use about a million board feet a year. + + 6. The Secretary replies, offering you a contract on + the following terms: For all amounts under 250,000 + feet a year, a rate of 12 cents a foot; under 500,000, + 11 cents; over 500,000, 10 cents. All goods are to be + billed at the highest rate and rebates made at the end + of the year, terms of payment being 90 days, 5% for 30 + days. + + 7. Write to the Central American Supply Co., + Tehuantepec, Mexico, ordering 50,000 feet No. 1 + Mahogany Veneer. Have it charged to your account, + which you have previously opened. + + 8. Write to Gregory Bros., wholesale dry goods + merchants, 12141 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn., + ordering 15 bolts No. 7 Green Denim; 10 bolts No. 09 + Green Panne Velvet; 50 yds. No. 216 Tapestry; 50 yds. + No. 16 Tapestry; 100 bolts Green and 100 bolts Brown + No. 5 Guimpe. Instruct them to ship the goods at once + and draw on you at sight through the First National + Bank of Great Falls. (See page 344.) + + 9. Write to the Excelsior Varnish Co., Merchants' + National Bank Building, St. Paul, Minn., ordering + articles such as varnish, stains, oils, enamels, and + finishing wax. + + 10. Write an order to a St. Louis firm for leather. + + 11. Write an order to a Spokane firm for springs. + + 12. Find out where a Great Falls merchant would buy + oak and birch, and write an order for each. + + 13. Write to the Hanover National Bank of New York + City (because you happen to know the cashier of that + bank), explaining that you are having a very decided + increase in your business and that, in order to take + care of the demand, you require a loan of $10,000. + Explain further that the rates are too high in Great + Falls for you to take a loan there. Say that you are + enclosing a statement of your assets and liabilities. + + 14. A dealer in Portland, Ore., writes, complaining + that he has not yet received the goods that he ordered + ten days ago. Write an appropriate reply. + + 15. You receive an order, one item of which is 3 doz. + oil mops, which you do not carry. Reply that you have + referred the matter to ---- a firm which you can + recommend highly. + + +=Exercise 256= + +Topics for Investigation and Discussion + +Principles involved in manufacture: + +1. The location of a factory. + + _a._ Where necessary raw materials can be obtained easily and cheaply. + _b._ Where land is not expensive. + _c._ Where the coal or water supply will make power inexpensive. + _d._ Where transportation facilities are good. + +2. The advantages of using machinery in manufacture. + + _a._ Relative amount of work turned out. + _b._ Relative cost of work turned out. + _c._ Relative cleanliness of work turned out. + _d._ Relative uniformity of work turned out. + +3. The number of working hours. + + Some factories have made the experiment of reducing + the number of working hours from ten to eight without + reducing the wages of the workers. They have found + that the quantity of work turned out is increased and + the quality improved. Can you explain why? + +4. The advantages of the profit-sharing plan, both for employer and for +employee. + + This is a plan by which a certain per cent of the + profits of the business is divided annually among the + employees. (See a very interesting article in _System_ + for March, 1911, or read _Profit-sharing between + Employer and Employee_ by N. P. Gilman.) + +5. Specialized labor. + + There was a time when a man made all the parts of a + pair of shoes. Why in modern factories does he make + only one part? Which system tends to make shoes of + uniform workmanship? Is uniformity a good quality in + manufacture? This principle applies to any kind of + factory. + +6. Special products. + + Suppose that you manufactured a large number of styles + of millinery, or novelty, footwear. Would you expect + your profits on these to be larger or smaller than on + your staple styles? Give reasons and illustrations. + +7. Why is there a struggle between labor and capital? + +8. What is the cause of strikes? + +9. Are strikes a good thing for manufacture? + +10. A visit to a shoe factory (or any other factory). + + +=Exercise 257= + +Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks + +If you have access to a public library, you can probably obtain some of +the following books. They are all simple and interesting, and any of +them will suggest several topics for talks. + + ALLEN, N. B., Industrial Studies. + + BAKER, R. S., Boys' Books of Inventions. + + BARNARD, CHARLES, Tools and Machines. + + CARPENTER, F. G., How the World is Fed; How the World + is Clothed; How the World is Housed; Geographical + Readers. + + CHAMBERLAIN, J. F., How We are Fed; How We are + Clothed. + + CHASE, A. and CLOW, E., Stories of Industries (two + volumes). + + COCHRANE, C. H., The Wonders of Modern Mechanism. + + COCHRANE, ROBERT, Romance of Industry and Invention. + + DOUBLEDAY, RUSSELL, Stories of Invention. + + FORMAN, S. E., Useful Inventions. + + GIBSON, C. R., The Romance of Modern Manufacture. + + LANE, M. A. L., Industries of To-day. + + LITTLE CHRONICLE CO., Industries of a Great City. + + MOWRY, W. A. and MOWRY, A. M., Inventions and + Inventors. + + PARTON, J., Captains of Industry (two series). + + ROCHELEAU, W. F., Products of the Soil; Minerals; + Manufactures. + + TOWLE, G. M., Heroes and Martyrs of Invention. + + WILLIAMS, A., How it is Made. + + +=Exercise 258= + +Study the punctuation of the following; then write from dictation: + +1 + + It is stated that practical experience with gas + mantles made of artificial silk--that is, silk made + from wood pulp--has proved them to be far superior to + those made of cotton, especially where the mantles are + exposed to excessive vibration. Several German towns + are said to be obtaining exceptionally good results + from these new mantles used in conjunction with + pressure gas, and it is asserted that the mantles are + in good condition after being used for seven or eight + weeks. Artificial silk, according to reports, has also + been used experimentally by several manufacturers of + incandescent gas mantles in the United Kingdom. The + reports are all very encouraging, except that there + seems to be one difficulty that is purely + mechanical--the knitting of the artificial silk. The + knots and other imperfections in the yarn cause a + considerable amount of waste. However, the + knitting-machine makers are experimenting to overcome + it.--_Daily Consular and Trade Report._ + +2 + + As the production of wool in this country, although + approximating 320,000,000 pounds a year, does not + begin to meet the demands for the raw material, there + is a yearly importation of from 156,000,000 to over + 300,000,000 pounds. When each new census reveals the + fact that there are fewer sheep of shearing age in the + country than there were ten years before, the question + of wool production becomes one of still greater + importance. A solution may be found in a Peruvian + product. A variety of cotton grows in Peru whose long, + rough, crinkly fiber mixes so readily with wool that + manufacturers use it in connection with wool in + manufacturing "all wool" goods. It grows on a small + tree that yields two or three crops a year for seven + or eight years. The area, however, in which it is + being successfully cultivated in Peru is so limited + that the annual output is only about 16,000,000 + pounds, of which the United States takes approximately + 5,500,000 pounds. As the region in which it thrives is + practically rainless, perhaps a way may be found to + persuade the rough Peruvian to make a home for itself + in the hot and arid regions of our Southwest. It would + be a triumph of agriculture, certainly, to raise + vegetable wool in regions not fitted for real + sheep.--_The Wall Street Journal._ + +3 + +THE CASTING OF METALS + + As is well known, some metals are unsuitable for + casting, while others, like iron, can readily be cast + into any desired shape. The property of casting well, + it is said, depends upon whether the metal contracts + or expands in solidifying from the liquid form. Iron, + like water, expands in solidifying, and hence the + solid metal may be seen floating in the liquid iron + about it. The expansion causes it to fill the die into + which it is poured, and so it can be cast easily. Gold + and silver contract in cooling, and are, therefore, + not suitable for casting.--_Harper's Weekly._ + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +DISTRIBUTION + + +CORRECT buying and the most efficient methods of manufacture play a +large part in the successful carrying on of a business, but the most +important consideration is the successful marketing or distributing of +the product after it has been manufactured or bought. Very few products +are so superior in quality that they sell themselves purely on merit. +Competition in business to-day is so keen that, in order to find a +market for his product, a merchant must create a demand for it. Thus at +its very foundation, distribution is merely a process of creating a +demand and then filling that demand. For instance, the retail merchant +is concerned with bringing the customers to his store rather than to his +competitor's across the street. The wholesale merchant is concerned with +having the retailers handle his goods rather than those of another firm. +The mail order merchant is concerned with getting the farmer's business +before some other dealer gets it. The salesman is concerned with writing +the order before a rival from another house writes it. + +In the first place, the merchant must handle those things that his +customers consider necessary or desirable. Overcoats cannot be sold in +August, ashsifters on the equator, nor electric fans in Iceland. +Different peoples, different times, and different conditions create +different demands, and it is the merchant's business to study those +demands and to fill them. In the second place, he must leave no stone +unturned in endeavoring to make his product more desirable than that of +his competitors. This may mean extensive advertising campaigns, +expensive displays, outlay for costly catalogues and booklets, the +expenditure of money for inducements to bring customers, or the hiring +of expert salesmen. In fact, thousands of plans are carried out every +year in this endeavor to increase trade. + +The getting of new and additional business, however, is only one of the +important considerations that the merchant must always have in mind. He +must also keep what business he already has by maintaining the standard +of his goods and by giving his customers satisfactory service. One of +the first essentials in this question of service is promptness and +exactness of delivery. In this the merchant must depend very largely on +the transportation companies, and therefore a brief study of these +facilities will be especially in place at this point. + + +Transportation + +Transportation is an essential item in the problem of distribution. If +you wished to drink a cup of coffee and found that none could be had +except in Brazil, you would begin to realize how much the steamship +company and the railroad company have done in transporting and hauling +it where you might buy it. The same is true of our oranges from +California and Florida, our apples from Washington and Oregon, and our +grain from the Middle States. In fact, in the case of many products the +most important item is not growing them, but bringing them to market, +since the transportation charges are often much greater than the actual +cost of producing. Thousands of barrels of apples rot on the ground +every year because their quality does not warrant the high +transportation charges, the lack of transportation rendering them +useless. In a smaller measure, the delivery wagons in our cities and +towns are essential to us because they save us the trouble of carrying +our purchases about. Thus, the element of transportation enters into our +lives every day, saving us inconvenience, bringing to us necessities +that we demand and luxuries that we like, and, at the same time, +increasing the price of commodities. + +Common carriers, as transportation companies are called, are of two +general classes: + + 1. Those operating on water--the steamship companies. + 2. Those operating on land--the railroad companies. + +THE STEAMSHIP COMPANY + +Steamship companies operate three general kinds of lines: (1) lines +consisting of the largest and fastest steamers which carry only +passengers, mail, and valuable parcels; (2) lines using slower steamers +which carry both passengers and freight; and (3) lines employing +vessels--steamers, sailing vessels, and barges--which carry only +freight. The cost of hauling cargoes by water is in every case less per +mile than that of carrying the same quantity of goods on land. It costs, +for example, over four times as much to carry a bushel of wheat from +Chicago to New York by rail as it does to carry it across the Atlantic. +It is for this very reason that the traffic on our navigable rivers, the +Ohio and the Mississippi, and on the Great Lakes is so heavy. Whenever a +cargo can be shipped as well by water as by rail and there is no hurry +for delivery, it is shipped by water. However, because so much of our +freight must be rushed from place to place, the railroads get the bulk +of the inland traffic. + +THE RAILROAD COMPANY + +The services of the railroad company embrace the hauling of freight, the +carrying of passengers, and the transporting of express and of mail. The +hauling of freight is the most important item in the railroad business, +about three-quarters of the total income being derived from this source. +Each year over one billion tons of freight are turned over by shippers +to the railroads, who use almost two and one-half million freight cars +to carry it. About one-half of this tonnage is minerals, mainly ore and +coal; about one-seventh consists of manufactured articles; and +one-twelfth of agricultural products. Commodities are grouped into from +ten to fourteen classes, on each one of which the freight rate is +different from that of the others. By freight rate is meant the cost of +shipping a certain unit, usually 100 pounds or a ton, from one place to +another; it is dependent on the distance. There are certain bulky +commodities like coal, livestock, lumber, grain, and cement, which are +almost always handled in carload lots. They are not included in the +freight classification, but have a special ex-class freight rate. +Freight rates depend also on whether the goods are shipped by slow or +_local_ freight or by fast or _through_ freight. + +There are a hundred different kinds of papers used in carrying on the +railroad freight business. Only four of the most important will be +considered here. When a shipper turns over his goods to the railroad +company at its freight depot, he gets from the agent a _receipt for +freight_, which is merely a receipt for the goods he has turned over. In +the ordinary course of business these receipts are exchanged at the +company's office for a _bill of lading_ in triplicate. The original and +one copy are given to the shipper. The second copy is kept by the +railroad. This bill of lading may be of two kinds, _straight_ or +_order_. If a straight bill of lading is given, the original is sent to +the person to whom the goods are shipped, who is called the _consignee_, +who on the presentation of the bill of lading is entitled to the goods +after paying the charges. An order bill of lading is much like a check, +in that it can be assigned to another person. Like the straight bill it +states the name of the consignee or the person for whom the goods are +intended and his address, but the consignee cannot get possession of the +goods until he has paid for them. To collect payment, the shipper +attaches to the order bill of lading a draft for the amount of the +goods and the freight, and through his bank and the bank of the +consignee the amount is collected. The consignee then gets possession of +the order bill of lading, which entitles him to possession of the goods. +This is more fully explained on page 344. The railroad's most important +paper is the _way bill_, which shows the conductor or the agent of the +company just what articles are included in the shipment, so that it can +be checked when unloaded. When the goods arrive at their destination, +the consignee is notified and is sent a _freight bill_ showing the +freight charges. When he presents his bill of lading and pays the +charges, the _freight bill_ is receipted and the goods are his. + +In quoting prices on goods, manufacturers and distributors usually +designate whether they will pay the freight or whether it is to be paid +by the consignee. In the latter case the price is quoted f. o. b. at the +place from which the goods are shipped, which means freight on board at +that point. That is to say, if a distributor located at Detroit quotes +his automobiles f. o. b. Detroit, he means that he will see that the +goods get into the railroad company's hands at Detroit, but that the +consignee pays the freight from Detroit to the destination. The latter +is the common practice in shipping. + +In the following exercises we shall treat the subject of distribution +under four heads: + + I. The Retail Merchant. + II. The Wholesale Merchant. + III. The Mail Order Merchant. + IV. The Salesman. + + + + +I.--THE RETAIL MERCHANT + + +=Exercise 259= + +_Oral_ + +You are opening a grocery store. Remember that your object is to sell +the largest possible amount of goods. Develop each of the following +suggestions: + + 1. What kind of location would you desire? + + 2. How would you have the front of your store painted? + Would you try to make it stand out from the rest? + + 3. Do you think it would pay you to have the interior + newly and brightly redecorated? To put in the best and + brightest lights? + + 4. What quality of stock would you select? The same + for all neighborhoods? Give your reasons. Would + advertised brands bring you more trade? + + 5. Do you think window display would pay? Would you + recommend freak or ordinary displays? Price-marked or + non-price-marked? Give your reasons. + + 6. Does the delivery wagon pay? Would it be advisable + to buy a new wagon and a good horse? What other + considerations would enter? + + 7. Would you sometimes cut the price of some necessity + to draw people? Give reasons for your answer. + + 8. Is it a good thing to have a general cut-price-sale + to bring customers to your store? Even if you lose + money by it? + + 9. Would you give credit? Would the class of people + you served come into consideration? + + 10. Is the use of trading stamps and premiums good + policy? + + 11. Why do you often find a meat market in connection + with a grocery? + + 12. There are two kinds of retail meat markets: (1) + the one that sells goods which can be retailed at a + low price, and (2) the one that sells superior goods + at a higher price. Which policy would you follow and + why? + + 13. Could a retailer combine the two spoken of in + (12)? Consider cost, space, satisfaction of the + customer. + + 14. Would you advertise by means of handbills? By + circular letters? + + 15. What would you do if another grocery opened across + the street from yours? + + +=Exercise 260= + +_Written_ + + 1. You have bought Burton & Sanders' grocery at Fort + Wayne, Indiana. Send out a circular letter advertising + the new White Front Grocery and telling what the + policy of the new management will be. Explain that the + opening sale will begin next Monday and that a + special feature of the sale will, be twenty pounds of + granulated sugar for eighty cents with a two dollar + order. + + 2. At the same time have an article appear in a local + newspaper, telling that Burton & Sanders have sold + their store to you and that you are making extensive + improvements, especially in sanitary means of handling + provisions. In addition, let the article give an + account of your business career in another town. Would + such an article be of value to you? Write it. + + 3. Write to Peabody, Harper & Co., Rush Street Bridge, + Chicago, Ill., saying that you would like to open an + account with them. Give as references a bank in your + town and one in Logansport, where you used to live. + Ask Peabody, Harper & Co. what terms they can offer + you. + + 4. You have decided to advertise in a local paper. + Write to the advertising manager, asking him for + yearly rates for a half-column every evening and a + quarter-page every Friday. + + 5. Find out what are the advertising rates of a paper + in your town and answer (4). + + 6. Reproduce a letter that a woman living in town + sends, ordering two dollars' worth of groceries and + requesting that you send, in addition, the twenty + pounds of sugar you advertise in (1). She encloses a + check for $2.80. + + 7. You are in receipt of a letter from Peabody, Harper + & Co., answering your inquiry in (3) and offering you + sixty days' credit and 2% discount for payment within + ten days. Write the letter. + + 8. Send an order to Peabody, Harper & Co. for $200 + worth of groceries. Among the items let there be 6 + cases of canned tomatoes, first quality, at $1.75 a + case. Ask them to send the goods by the Pennsylvania + R. R. + + 9. Your business is increasing and you need another + clerk, (a) Write an advertisement for one. _(b_) Apply + for the position. + + 10. Write a short circular advertising an inexpensive + novelty that a grocer might sell. These circulars are + to be wrapped with purchases. + + 11. Peabody, Harper & Co. write, confirming your order + in (8) and enclosing a straight bill of lading. + + 12. When the goods arrive, you find no tomatoes among + them. Write a complaint to the wholesale house. + + 13. Peabody, Harper & Co. reply to your letter in + (12), apologizing for the mistake, explaining how it + occurred (supply an explanation), and telling you that + they have sent one case by express at their expense. + The rest will follow by freight. + + 14. The tomatoes sent by freight do not arrive. Write + to the grocery company, asking the latter to send out + a "tracer"; that is, to request the railroad company + to trace the goods on its lines. + + 15. The grocery company telephones the railroad + company, requesting the latter to trace the goods and + to report. The grocery company also writes a letter + confirming its request. Write the letter. + + 16. (_a_) The railroad company reports that by mistake + the goods were carried through to Lima, but that they + are being returned to Fort Wayne. (_b_) The grocery + company informs you of the developments and hopes that + the delay has caused you no great inconvenience. Write + both letters. + + +=Exercise 261= + + 1. You wish to get a partner to open a meat market in + connection with your grocery. Write to a friend in + Lafayette, Ind., who you think will be interested, + proposing the plan. Tell him of the opportunities, as + you see them, of business in Fort Wayne and the + surrounding country. Tell him that with $4,000 + additional capital you and he could set up a much + larger establishment, invest in a motor wagon, and + thus secure the trade of the outlying districts. + + 2. Your friend replies that the proposal appeals + strongly to him, but that he has only $2,000 in cash. + However, he holds a mortgage for $2,000 on ---- (state + the location of the house) in Lafayette, and, if he + can sell the mortgage, he will be glad to avail + himself of the offer. + + 3. After the partnership is formed, your partner + writes to Orr & Locket, 14 W. Randolph St., Chicago, + Ill., ordering the following to be shipped by + Pennsylvania R.R.: 1 Refrigerator No. 361; 2 Meat + Blocks No. 3; 1 Scale No. M. 30; 1/6 doz. Saws No. 33 + (16 in.); 1/6 doz. Saws No. 33 (22 in.); 1/4 doz. + Knives No. 955; 1/4 doz. Knives No. 490; 1/6 doz. + Steels No. 82; 1/6 doz. Cleavers No. 09; 1/4 doz. + Block Scrapers. He explains that he is the same man + who formerly had a meat market in Lafayette. + + 4. Orr & Locket acknowledge the receipt of the order, + enclose the invoice, and offer him 5% discount for + payment within 30 days. Write the letter. + + 5. A Detroit manufacturer sends you f.o.b. prices on + his motor wagons. Investigate the prices and write the + letter. + + 6. Order one of them. (Remember the f.o.b. item.) + + 7. He writes confirming your order, saying that the + car is now in the shipper's hands and that his bank + has sent the order bill of lading with draft attached + to the First National Bank of your city. Write the + letter. (See page 344.) + + 8. At the same time the shipper's bank sends a letter + to the First National Bank of your city enclosing the + order bill of lading with draft drawn on you for + collection. A copy of this letter is also mailed to + you. Write it. + + 9. You telephone your bank to draw on your account for + the amount of the draft and to send you the bill of + lading. You confirm this understanding by a letter. + Write it. + + 10. Your bank writes, confirming the telephone + conversation and enclosing the bill of lading and a + receipt for the correct amount. You present your bill + of lading, pay the freight charges, and get your motor + wagon. Write the letter the bank sends. + + 11. The automobile manufacturer has meanwhile received + through his bank a credit for the amount you paid for + the car and writes acknowledging its receipt. Write + the letter. + + +=Exercise 262= + +Choose four or six members of the class, one-half of whom are to argue +in favor of the policy indicated in the plan outlined below and one-half +of whom are to argue against it. + +A certain grocer opened a store with the determination of doing a +strictly cash business, and of making no deliveries unless the purchaser +paid for the delivery. This was his plan as suggested by _System_: + + 1. To those who would carry their own purchases he + sold everything for cash much lower than any other + grocer in town sold it. + + 2. If the customer bought very bulky goods, or if he + did not wish to be his own delivery man, the grocer + charged him for delivery a certain percentage of the + total of his cash purchases. Yet the customer bought + more cheaply than he could buy in any other grocery in + town. + + 3. Those who wished to pay once a month instead of at + every visit he advised to deposit a certain sum of + money with him as banker and to buy against that, + paying cash prices and receiving 3% interest on the + amount left on deposit. + + +II.--THE WHOLESALE MERCHANT + + +=Exercise 263= + +_Oral_ + +Each of the following should be developed into a paragraph: + + 1. You are a manufacturer and wholesale distributor + with a factory on the outskirts of a town; would you + have a warehouse in the center of the town? Give + reasons for your answer. + + 2. What would be the advantage of having your + warehouse near the railroad freight depots? Near the + docks? + + 3. What would be the advantage of being located in a + large city with many railroads and with water + transportation facilities--Chicago, for example? + + 4. Speed gets orders. With this in view, what would + you recommend with respect to the equipment for + handling? What would you suggest about the number of + people through whose hands the order would have to go + before being shipped? + + 5. If you were looking for big trade in a big city, + what kind of stock would you carry? Musical + instruments? Clothing? + + 6. Would it be a good plan to make a specialty of + certain brands for leaders and to quote a special + price on them? + + 7. If you were just starting a wholesale hardware or + grocery business, state which you think would be the + better policy: (1) to concentrate on one kind of goods + in one territory and to take on other kinds and + territories later, or (2) to work all kinds of goods + as widely as possible from the very beginning. Explain + fully. + + 8. Would you bear part of the expense of retailers' + advertising, especially of window displays, provided + they handled your goods? + + 9. Would it be good business for the salesmen of the + firm to suggest selling methods to retailers and to + plan window displays for them? Give your reasons. + + 10. Do you think it would increase sales to offer a + money prize to the retailer selling the largest amount + of a certain kind of your goods, the sale of which you + wished materially to increase? + + 11. Tell which you think would be the better policy: + (1) to undersell your competitors for a time and then, + when you had the trade, to raise your prices, or (2) + to set one price and maintain it from the beginning. + Give your reasons. + + 12. If you were getting out a new brand of carpenters' + tools, where would you advertise? Would you conduct an + extensive national campaign? + + 13. If you were bringing out a new soap or washing + powder, where would you advertise? Would you conduct + an extensive national advertising campaign? What would + your answer be if you were introducing a new brand of + crackers? + + 14. Would bringing out novelties from time to time + help the sale of your staple articles? Explain. + + 15. Do you think it would pay to send circulars to the + housewives of a certain locality to get the local + grocers' trade? After you had the local grocers' + trade? + + +=Exercise 264= + +_Written_ + + 1. You are Thos. H. Peabody of Peabody, Harper & Co.'s + wholesale grocery. Prepare a circular letter, + announcing your removal to a new building. The letter + will be printed in imitation of typewriting and the + introduction filled in later on the typewriter. + Remember you are seeking patronage. Address one letter + to Walter T. Barth, 350 E. Water St., Milwaukee, Wis. + + 2. Write an advertisement to appear in the January + number of _The Grocer and Country Merchant_, a + grocers' trade journal. It will announce your change + of location. + + 3. You receive an order from a retailer in which he + asks for a certain brand of coffee that you do not + carry. Write a letter telling him you do not handle + that brand and offering him another. Make the letter + as courteous as possible. + + 4. Write an advertisement for (1) a bookkeeper; (2) a + stenographer. + + 5. Answer (1) or (2) above. + + 6. Write an advertisement for a traveling salesman. + + 7. Answer (6) telling why you think you could sell + groceries although you have had no experience. + + 8. Write a circular letter to send to the trade + setting forth the merits of a new brand of canned + fruit. Say that you are offering the brand at a very + attractive price in the expectation that retailers + will make it a leader. Write to Mr. Barth (1). + + 9. You have made a contract with the manufacturers of + the canned fruit mentioned in (8), by which you secure + the exclusive sale but take the responsibility of + advertising. Write to an advertising agency, saying + that you are considering a three months' advertising + campaign. Explain that you do not wish the expense to + exceed five thousand dollars. + + 10. The advertising agency replies that, as five + thousand dollars is a comparatively small sum for a + campaign, it would suggest that the advertising be + confined to one class: street car, billboard, + newspaper, or magazine. Write the letter. + + 11. Notify the agency of your choice, giving your + reasons. + + 12. Write a series of three letters to send to + housewives, advertising the canned fruit, with the + purpose of having them ask for this brand at their + grocers': (1) Telling the name of the canned fruit, + its excellence, its price, and where it may be bought; + (2) Asking if the housewife has as yet bought any, and + if she has not, telling her she can get a sample at + her grocer's on presentation of this letter; (3) + Asking how she liked the fruit and quoting a letter of + recommendation received from Mrs. A., who lives in the + neighborhood. Urge her to buy, but not too abruptly. A + letter to a woman should be fairly long. (See page + 265.) + + +=Exercise 265= + + 1. For two months you have been without a credit man. + You wish to be very careful in your choice because of + the importance of the position. J. B. Wright of 439 + Russell Ave., Indianapolis, is a personal friend of + yours. He has heard that you need a credit man and he + recommends Joseph Haddon, who worked for him three + years in that capacity until a year ago when he went + to Colorado because of the ill-health of his wife. + Meanwhile, Mr. Wright's son has been acting as his + credit man. Mrs. Haddon has now recovered, and her + husband is anxious to get another position. Reproduce + Mr. Wright's letter. + + 2. Write the letter Mr. Wright sends Mr. Haddon in + Colorado, suggesting that the latter apply for the + position. + + 3. At the same time Joseph Haddon writes, applying for + the position. Write the letter of application. + + 4. Write Mr. Haddon's letter thanking Mr. Wright for + his interest. Remember that the two men know each + other. + + 5. Joseph Haddon, whom you have engaged, is proving to + be a very alert credit man. He has made a study of + your credit files and has discovered that you have a + great many accounts of long standing that ought to be + collected. He prepares a courteous letter to send to + the debtors, telling them that he has just been made + credit man and that he personally would like to get + into closer touch with their particular situation to + find out how soon he might expect a remittance from + them, so that he could plan the future of his + department. Write the letter. (See page 254.) + + 6. A number of retailers remit the amount that they + owe. Some explain their situation in detail, but a + great many do not respond to (5). Write another + letter, still courteous, but more emphatic than (5), + to those who did not respond. (See page 255.) + + 7. Still a number do not respond. Write a third + letter, saying that you will place the matter in the + hands of your attorney unless you receive a remittance + within ten days. + + 8. Mr. Haddon discovers that there are about a hundred + retailers who used to be customers, but who have + bought nothing for about two years. He reports this to + the sales manager, Mr. James Woodworth, who writes a + letter to the retailers to induce them to send another + order, using the canned fruit spoken of in (8) of + Exercise 264 as a means of interesting them. + + 9. Nathaniel Sears, a dealer in general merchandise at + Joplin, Mo., writes to you asking for an open account. + He says that he did a $10,000 business last year and + that, apparently, sales this year will be larger. He + gives no references. You refer the matter to Mr. + Haddon, who looks up Mr. Sears in Bradstreet and then + writes to one of your salesmen at St. Louis, asking + him to investigate the financial standing of Mr. + Sears. Write to the salesman. + + 10. After three days the salesman reports that Mr. + Sears seems to be doing a good business, but he thinks + the dealer is living beyond his means. He owes two + wholesale houses $500 and $850 respectively; his + property in Joplin is heavily mortgaged, and yet he is + making extensive improvements on his residence; his + son and his daughter are at expensive boarding + schools. Write the letter. Be exact in your + information. + + 11. As Mr. Woodworth, write Mr. Sears a courteous + letter, refusing him credit but attempting to secure + his cash business. + + 12. Charles Freeman, 141 Park Place, Newark, Ohio, + writes in answer to (5) saying that he is unable to + pay his account of $500. After the harvest his + outstanding bills will be paid by the farmers, and + then he can remit. He says he is willing to give his + 90 day note for the amount he owes. + + 13. Mr. Haddon writes, accepting the note. + + +III.--THE MAIL ORDER MERCHANT + + +=Exercise 266= + +_Oral_ + + 1. Suppose you were starting a mail order business. + Would it make any difference in possible profits if + your center of operations were in a large or a small + city? Give your reasons. + + 2. Would you try to be near good transportation? + + 3. What kind of stock would you advertise principally: + bulky articles or those easily handled? expensive + goods or those of more moderate price? + + 4. Your catalogue is your salesman. What would this + statement suggest about the cost of running your + business as compared with that of Peabody, Harper & + Co., who employ five salesmen? + + 5. How would you bring special attention to your + leaders in your catalogue? + + 6. Why is it advisable not to give your catalogue away + free, but to charge a nominal sum for it? + + 7. Would you sell as cheaply as you could or would you + try to sell for as high a price as possible even if + you sold less? + + 8. Is it profitable for a mail order merchant to sell + one spool of thread or one pocket-knife? Consider the + handling and the packing. + + 9. Why can the mail order merchant sell more cheaply + than the country dealer? + + 10. _a._ How is the parcel post favorable to the mail order dealer? + _b._ Why did the country merchant object so strenuously to the + passage of the parcel post law? + + 11. Some distributors who handle only one kind of + article sometimes pay the freight. Would this plan be + advisable for a mail order house to adopt? + + 12. Since the purchaser pays the freight, is it + advisable for him to buy a large or a small order at + one time? + + +=Exercise 267= + +_Written_ + + 1. A customer who wishes to buy some furniture + complains that he can purchase what he wishes from + another firm that will pay the freight. Write a letter + meeting his objection. + + 2. You have just added a new clothing department and + have published a special clothing catalogue, which you + will be glad to send to your customers free of charge. + Write a letter telling of the new department and + drawing special attention to your three-piece serge + suit for $15. Enclose a sample of the cloth. + + 3. Write, especially to farmers, saying that with the + facilities now offered by the parcel post you are able + to supply their wants quickly; as, for example, for a + broken part of a piece of farm machinery. Write a + fairly long letter in a friendly tone. + + 4. In the fall write a letter, addressing the farmers' + wives, saying that, as winter is at hand, it would be + well for them to put in a supply of groceries when + prices are reasonable. Enclose a folder giving some + attractive bargains. Write the folder. + + 5. Write a letter, saying that you have just put up a + new building. Invite your customer to come to see it. + Explain that every afternoon from 2 to 4 o'clock there + will be a band concert in your large visitors' hall. + + +=Exercise 268= + +1. Let one pupil be chosen to dictate to the class each of the letters +outlined below. He is to use no notes. The class will represent +stenographers. + +2. Discuss and improve the letters that have been dictated. + + 1. Borroughs & Brown, a mail order firm at N. 11th and + Callowhill Streets, Philadelphia, send you their + catalogue and an advertising letter. Write the letter. + + 2. Write, stating that in their catalogue No. 6, page + 673, Borroughs & Brown list a washing machine such as + you wish, called the "Pride Swing" washing machine, + No. 4-A-459. The measurements as listed are: depth 13 + inches, diameter 21 inches. The price is $5.25. This + is too small for your purpose. Ask if they can supply + you with the same style 30 inches in diameter. Ask the + price. + + 3. Borroughs & Brown write that they have no such + machine in stock, but, since there have been many + requests lately for a larger machine, they have + decided to consult the factory, and if it is + advisable, they will reproduce the "Pride Swing" + machine in larger size. (Letter head.) + + 4. Borroughs & Brown, Dept. 18, House Furnishings, + write to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., Saginaw, Mich., + stating that they have had several orders for a larger + "Pride Swing" washing machine which the Wiggins + Company manufacture. Burroughs & Brown ask concerning + a 30-inch machine. Write the letter. + + 5. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. telegraph Borroughs & + Brown that before they can state a price on a 30-inch + "Pride Swing" machine, they must make samples, + calculating cost of materials and workmanship. Write + the telegram. Confirm by letter. Write the letter. + + 6. Borroughs & Brown write you, giving the information + contained in (5) above. + + 7. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. write Borroughs & Brown, + stating that after several experiments they find that + the coil springs by which the "Pride Swing" machine is + operated are too weak for the larger sized tub. The + manufacture of suitable springs will cause some delay + in their final report. + + 8. Ten days later. Telegram. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. + Co. to Borroughs & Brown, stating that they have now + perfected a "Pride Swing Special" machine; width 30 + inches, depth 18 inches; price $8, with a discount of + 50%. + + 9. Borroughs & Brown write you that they have + perfected a "Pride Swing Special" washing machine, No. + 4-B-459, 30 inches in diameter, 18 inches in depth, + price $7. Add a courteous close. + + 10. Order five machines. Give full shipping + directions. Say that you will pay according to the + offer made on page 25, catalogue No. 6; viz., $20 upon + receipt of the goods and $5 per month until they are + paid for. Give two references. + + 11. Borroughs & Brown telegraph the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. + Co. ordering 100 machines, five of which are to be + sent directly to you. Write, confirming the telegram. + + 12. Two weeks later than letter (10) write again, + explaining that you have not received the machines you + ordered. Ask the reason for the delay. + + 13. Two weeks later than (11) write a telegram from + Borroughs & Brown to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., + asking why the machines have not been sent. + + 14. Send a telegram from the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. to + Borroughs & Brown, saying that, owing to a teamsters' + and shipping clerks' strike, they have not been able + to fill any of their orders for the last two weeks. + The machines have been sent. (State how and when.) + Write a letter, confirming the telegram. + + 15. Borroughs & Brown write to inform you that the + strike was the cause of the delay in the shipment of + the machines you ordered ----. The machines were + shipped ----. Add a courteous close. + + +=Exercise 269= + +Conduct a transaction of your own, using the above as a model, except in +the method of payment. + + +IV.--THE SALESMAN + +Salesmanship is a branch of distribution about which many volumes have +been written. We cannot consider it minutely from the personal view of +the salesman, but can only touch upon it from the point of view of +distribution. The salesman is merely a force in distribution like +correspondence, circulars, and advertising. But the salesman has the +advantage over these in that he is able to bring his personality to bear +in the problem of getting business. It is by means of his personality +that the salesman gets the attention and confidence of the customer,--a +thing which is extremely hard to do in a letter, a circular, or an +advertisement. Securing a buyer's confidence is very important, because +no suspicious customer has ever yet bought anything. + +In addition to a pleasing personality a good salesman must have a wide +and thorough knowledge of his wares. If he does not know his goods, the +sale drags; whereas, if he knows everything good there is to be known +about them, his enthusiasm instills enthusiasm into the customer. + +After bringing his knowledge and his enthusiasm into play, he must next +call on his perseverance and his tact; perseverance to keep at the +customer until he gets the order, and tact to know in each case just how +to go about getting the order and just when to stop. Many salesmen talk +too much; many more do not talk enough. + + +=Exercise 270= + +_Oral_ + +In talking on any of the following subjects be sure you know just what +you are going to say before you begin, and then say it clearly and +convincingly. Don't say too much and don't say too little. Just exactly +how much you should say no one can tell you. You must watch your +audience. If they look puzzled, give more details; if they look bored, +try shorter, more concise sentences, or bring your talk to a close. +After you have explained all your points, sum them up briefly at the +end. Remember that your talk must, first, attract attention; second, +hold the interest; and third, create enthusiasm and desire to buy. + +To supplement what facts you get from observation, study advertisements +and catalogues to get material for (9) to (20) below: + + 1. Get up a talk to persuade a freshman or a group of + freshmen to subscribe to the school paper. + + 2. To persuade girls to contribute to a fund to be + used to buy suits for the football team. + + 3. To induce particularly uninterested freshmen to buy + tickets for a school activity; for example, a debate. + + 4. As a real estate agent induce a classmate to + establish a home in your neighborhood. + + 5. Try to sell the manager of the baseball team a new + line of athletic goods. + + 6. Try to sell a set of Dickens' (or any other + author's) works to a boy who is not fond of reading. + You must enjoy the books that you recommend. + + 7. Try to sell the class or the teacher a new kind of + loose leaf note book for science or English work. + + 8. As an agent for the publishers try to sell this + text book to your English class or to your English + teacher. + + 9. You are trying to sell an automobile to a farmer. + By means of concrete examples develop the following + items into a talk: + + _a._ The business opportunities to be gained. + _b._ The social opportunities to be gained. + + + 10. Get up a talk to sell a runabout to a physician + who has a small practice. Suppose that he owns a horse + and a buggy. Be tactful. + + 11. You are a salesman for an automobile house and are + trying to sell a gasoline car to a man who is partial + to an electric car. Meet the objections to the + gasoline car and put forward its advantages. + + 12. You are trying to sell an electric runabout to a + woman. Develop the following into a talk: + + _a._ Ease of operation. + _b._ Noiselessness and comfort. + _c._ Elegant appearance. + + 13. You are trying to sell the manager of a local + express company a motor truck. Gather all the data you + can and present it in a talk on why he should replace + his horses and wagons with motor trucks. Be as + specific as possible. + + 14. Get up a talk showing why a man with considerable + means should trade his two year old car as part + payment for the latest model. + + 15. Get up a talk to sell a phonograph. + + 16. To sell an electric washing machine. + + 17. To sell a piano. + + 18. To sell a vacuum cleaner. + + 19. To sell a subscription to a magazine. + + 20. To obtain an order for groceries or teas and + coffees. The offer of premiums might add to the + effectiveness of your talk. + + +=Exercise 271= + +The following paragraph was adapted from William C. Freeman's +_Advertising Talks_. + + George Washington's Cherry Tree Story has served a + good purpose through all of these years. "I cannot + tell a lie" is a phrase that has been used in every + schoolroom in America to impress upon young minds the + importance of truth telling. The phrase is also + serving its purpose outside the schoolroom. In all + professions and in all kinds of business, men know + that in order to make good they must tell the truth. + There never was, in all the history of the country, a + greater movement than now toward universal truth + telling. There is not even that winking at "white" + lies that used to prevail. The man who does not make a + direct statement, who does not earn a reputation for + being honest, has no chance of succeeding. Time was + when the trickster was regarded as shrewd and was + accepted in the community as being right both socially + and commercially. To-day the man who has money without + a reputation for integrity is a bankrupt, as far as + real friends and public opinion are concerned. The + expression "I cannot tell a lie" has been changed + to-day to "I will not tell a lie even if the lie seems + more expedient than the blunt truth." So George + Washington's Cherry Tree Story is as good to-day as it + ever was. + +Prepare paragraphs on the following suggestions, expanding each by +examples: + + 1. As a salesman, be honest with your customers. + 2. Cultivate tact. + 3. Cultivate a conscience. + 4. Learn to avoid friction. + 5. Acknowledge your mistakes. + 6. Don't criticise. + 7. Don't procrastinate. + 8. Don't boast. + 9. Don't buy your clothes on time. + 10. Don't borrow from fellow clerks. + 11. Don't think your employer can't see whether you are working. + 12. Don't sell a merchant a larger order than he can move. + 13. Study the duties of the man ahead of you. + 14. New ideas count with your employer. + 15. He can who thinks he can. + + +=Exercise 272= + +_Written_ + + 1. A request has come in from your territory for your + automobile catalogue. Write a letter to accompany the + catalogue, inviting the inspection of your cars. Make + it as personal as possible. + + 2. You have just been talking with a prospective + buyer. Drive home some of the strong points of your + car in a letter exploiting strength, reliability, and + speed. Use the following as a basis of your letter: + The Up-to-the-minute car breaks the record from New + York to San Francisco, making the trip in ten days, + fifteen hours, and thirteen seconds. + + 3. You have just shown your motor truck to a business + man. Strengthen the impression you made on him by + writing him a letter summing up the important + advantages of the motor truck. Use the following + extract from a letter: + + "It has not missed a single trip since I have had it, + and it takes the place of three wagons and twelve + horses. My route from Waltham is so long that a pair + of horses going over it one day has to be laid off the + next." + + "This truck makes three trips each day. I have had it + on the road nearly four months and have covered over + four thousand (4,000) miles with no expense for + repairs." + + 4. A prospective customer has lost interest. Try to + arouse him once more by telling him of a particularly + good sale recently made, or of a new model just + received, or of a new device lately perfected. Your + object is to get him to inspect your cars again. + + 5. Write a letter to a wealthy man who bought one of + your cars two years ago, offering him half of what he + paid for the car in exchange for a new model. Make him + see that it would be to his advantage to accept the + offer. + + 6. Write an advertisement to appear in a local + newspaper asking for an automobile salesman. + + 7. Answer the advertisement, telling why you think you + could sell cars, although you have had no experience. + + 8. Write a letter to a friend telling him you have + been offered the agency for the Up-to-the-minute car. + Ask him to be your partner, and try to show him why + you will succeed. He will be expected to bear half the + office expenses, and he will get half the commissions. + + +=Exercise 273--Suggestions for Debates= + + 1. The mail order house ruins the trade of the country + merchant. + + 2. The giving of free samples does not attract + desirable purchasers. + + 3. The use of trading stamps should be abolished. + + 4. The motor wagon is more advantageous for the + average grocer than the horse and wagon. + + 5. All manufactured food products should be sold in + sanitary, sealed packages. + + +=Exercise 274= + +_Oral or Written_ + +Prepare paragraphs on the following: + + 1. A merchant must know his neighborhood before he + buys his stock. + + 2. Selling by weight rather than by measure benefits + dealer and consumer. + + 3. Giving short weights does not prove profitable. + + 4. The price of a certain kind of goods, or of an + article, that is going out of style should be reduced + to move it quickly. + + 5. If merchants did not deliver purchases, goods would + be cheaper. + + 6. Hard work and patience spell the merchant's + success. + + 7. The middle man gets the bulk of the profit. + + 8. The telegraph is a great aid to the business man. + + 9. There is a difference between day and night + telegraphic rates. + + 10. Money may be sent by telegraph. + + 11. The night letter is very useful to the merchant. + + 12. The parcel post is a great help to the farmer. + + 13. The parcel post tends to increase the business of + the mail order firms. + + 14. The object of an automobile exhibit is to sell + cars. + + 15. The five-and-ten-cent stores have succeeded + because ----. + + +=Exercise 275= + +Prepare paragraphs on the following: + + 1. The importance of transportation facilities to the farmer. + 2. The importance of transportation facilities to the manufacturer. + 3. The steamship in international trade. + 4. Transportation before the days of the railroad. + 5. The influence of the railroad in the advance of civilization. + 6. Electrifying the railroads. + 7. Speed, the cause of railroad accidents. + 8. The observation car. + 9. The care of food in the refrigerator car. + 10. The work of the railroad repair-shop. + 11. The advantage of railroad transportation over water transportation. + 12. The advantage of water transportation over railroad transportation. + 13. Why the larger railroads in our country run east and west. + 14. The advantages of the pay-as-you-enter car. + 15. The importance of the interurban electric railroads in country + trade. + 16. The disadvantages of the elevated system in large cities. + 17. Congestion in the business district of a large city. + 18. The underground system as a solution for congested traffic. + 19. The work of a transfer company. + 20. The motor truck decreases the business of the express companies. + 21. The automobile decreases railroad suburban business. + + +=Exercise 276= + +Topics for Investigation and Discussion + + 1. The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission. + + 2. How railroads control other railroads. + + 3. Railroad earnings. + + 4. Different kinds of railroad traffic. + + 5. The relation between the express companies and the + railroads. + + 6. Railroad rates and rebates. + + 7. Government ownership of railroads. + + 8. The influence of the Panama canal in the growth of + business in the southern states. + + 9. The influence of the canal in the growth of + business in the central West. + + 10. The influence of the canal in the growth of + business in South America. + + 11. The deep water way. + + 12. The parcel post zones. + + +=Exercise 277= + +=Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks= + + BOLTON, S. K., Successful Women. + + CHAMBERLAIN, J. F., How We Travel. + + DRYSDALE, W., Helps for Ambitious Boys; Helps for + Ambitious Girls. + + FOWLER, N. C., Practical Salesmanship; Starting in + Life. + + HALE, E. E., What Career? + + HIGINBOTHAM, H. N., The Making of a Merchant. + + LASELLE, M. A. and WILEY, K. E., Vocations for Girls. + + LUNDGREN, CHARLES, The New Salesmanship. + + LYDE, L. W., Man and his Markets. + + MALLON, I. A. S., The Business Girl. + + MANSON, G. J., Ready for Business. + + MARSDEN, O. S., The Secret of Achievement; The Young + Man Entering Business. + + MITTEN, G. E., The Book of the Railway. + + MOODY, W. D., Men Who Sell Things. + + REED, _et al._, Careers for the Coming Men. + + ROCHELEAU, W. F., Transportation. + + ROLLINS, F. W., What can a Young Man do? + + STOCKWELL, H. G., Essential Elements of Business + Character. + + STODDARD, W. O., Men of Business. + + THE VOCATION BUREAU, Boston, Vocations for Boys. + (Pamphlets on _The Grocer_, _The Machinist_, _The + Architect_, _etc._) + + WHITE, S. J., Business Openings for Girls. + + +=Exercise 278= + +Write the following from dictation: + +1 + + Transportation is a great business as well as + manufacturing or farming. History tells us that very + early people did not have a settled home, but, when + the grass began to give out in one part of the + country, several members of the community, perhaps + whole tribes, took their belongings on their backs and + sought for a new place to settle. It is reasonable to + suppose that they wished to keep up some sort of + intercourse with their friends. At once difficulties + arose, since hostile tribes lived between them and + their old home. It was a brave man, indeed, who + ventured to encounter the dangers of the trip between + the settlements. Such a set of men arose in the + peddlers, who set out alone or in caravans with + articles of produce or manufacture and braved the + dangers even of a desert to exchange what they carried + for the produce of the old home. This is the earliest + form of transportation. Compare this simple form with + the modern railroad, steamship, and express service. + +2 + +CAPTURING THE LATIN AMERICAN TRADE + + No empty iteration of the Monroe doctrine, no + reservation of canal privileges, will capture the + trade of Latin America. This will be accomplished only + by efforts to produce and to sell those countries the + kind of goods that they want; measured, labeled, and + packed their way; offered in the language that they + understand; and, moreover, sold at attractive prices. + Our consuls abroad report that in all these essentials + American dealers are deficient and that British, + French, and German manufacturers fill the South + American markets. + + To these rivals must be added another, for, in spite + of old South American prejudices against Spain and + Spanish goods, the Spaniards are quietly regaining + their footing in those republics of whose trade a + century ago the home country enjoyed the monopoly. Her + advantages, we know, are a common language and + familiarity with the ways of life and the tastes of + the buyers. Spain produces just the kind of wine, + olive oil, and canned goods that South America wants; + she turns out the kind of paper, the patterns of + cotton goods, the styles of tools and implements, the + clothing, shoes, and weapons used in Latin America; + and the result is that she gets the trade. One-sixth, + at least, of her entire exports goes to her former + possessions. + +3 + + South Africa has been successfully operating an + agricultural parcel post. By its instrumentality gold, + diamonds, minerals, wool, feathers, saddlery, boots + and shoes, confectionery, fruit, plants, seed, butter + and eggs suitably packed, and other farm products are + transported, and the producer and consumer have been + brought together. From the report of the Department of + Posts and Telegraphs we learn that the scheme has + worked well, is a recognized and popular feature of + the postal system, and is entirely feasible. The + sparse settlements and widely scattered population + have not operated to bar its success, as was feared at + the time of its introduction. + +4 + + The duty of applying the remedy for wrecks rests, + primarily, with the railroad managers. And what is the + remedy, and how is it to be applied? It would seem + that there can be but one answer: there must be stern + discipline for taking risks. There must be thorough + instruction as to what risks are and how to avoid + them, just such instruction as the "safety first" + movement is leading up to, but extended to every man + in every department of every road. In addition, the + promise that no engineman will be censured for losing + or not making up time or for not running fast when it + is not considered safe to do so must be changed to the + positive, unequivocal statement that there will be a + substantial penalty for every case of running fast + when it is not safe to do so.--_Railway Age Gazette._ + +5 + + More and more attention, each year, is being given by + the railroad managers to the locating of new kinds of + industry along their lines. The roads in the West and + the South nearly all have efficient industrial + departments, land departments, or immigration + departments. Their men seek out new industries, meet + the steamers to tempt immigrants into their region, + arrange for the purchase or rental of lands, and get + together reports of the soil, the products, and the + advantages of any desired location. Perhaps the + greatest effort, however, is bent upon the location of + new factories along the route. In one year one + southern railroad induced more than seven hundred men + to establish industries along its lines, after the + railroads had made complete and painstaking + investigation of all the conditions that would + confront the prospective manufacturers. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +ADVERTISING + + +ADVERTISING is one of the most vital forces in the problem of +distribution. Every advertisement is a salesman and is written and sent +out with the idea of doing the work of one. It may bring in actual +orders or it may merely do "missionary work"; that is, it may introduce +a certain article or product and educate the people to see its +advantages so that when next they desire that particular sort of +article, they will order the one that they have seen advertised. + +Many an article that has had practically no sale has by means of an +effective advertising campaign been brought to a point of wide +distribution and ready sale. How many safety razors would the +manufacturers sell if they had never advertised their product? Very few. +But when day after day, everywhere a man looks--in street cars, +newspapers, magazines, and on billboards--he sees staring at him a +reason why he should use a safety razor, he soon comes to feel that he +needs one. It is just the same as though the country were covered with +salesmen who were constantly after every one to get him to see the +advantage of the safety razor. The advertised articles may in themselves +be no better than the unadvertised brands, but advertising has created a +demand for the one over the other. The secret of selling success is +creating a demand. + +The importance of advertising is demonstrated by an experience which the +city of Chicago had on Wednesday, March 2, 1911. On the afternoon +before, a dispute arose between two newspapers and their printers, +ending in a temporary strike of the printers. As a result, all papers +published on March 2 contained only four pages each, in contrast to the +usual twenty-four, because they contained not a single advertisement. +Fortunately, the strike lasted only one day, as the local printers were +at once reprimanded by the International Typographical Union. But the +losses that newspapers and retail business men suffered on this one day +convinced them of the power of advertising. Street cars, downtown +streets, and department stores were almost empty. To be sure, billboards +still proclaimed their wares, but, as soon as newspaper advertising +ceased, the great mass of shopping stopped. + + +=Exercise 279= + +_Oral_ + + 1. What are some of the advertising methods used in a + retail business? + + 2. What are some of the advertising methods used in a + wholesale business? Where are the advertisements + published? + + 3. What is the principal advertising medium of the + mail order house? Explain why it is effective. + + 4. What is classified advertising? Why are newspapers + anxious to increase it? Name several reasons. + + 5. What is "display" advertising as distinguished from + classified? What is the principal medium of this kind + of advertising? + + 6. Give several instances of advertising by means of + the distribution of "novelties," such as calendars. Is + such advertising effective? + + 7. Is the distribution of samples good advertising? Be + specific in your answer. + + 8. Is it a good thing to have a trade-mark? Name some + trade-marks that you think are good advertising. + + 9. Is a bargain table good advertising? What is its + advantage in a retail store? + + 10. What class of advertising is done in the + classified columns of a newspaper? + + 11. What class of articles and products is advertised + in the street cars and trains? Expensive or + inexpensive? Things you use every day or not? + + 12. Are articles advertised by billboards usually + widely advertised articles or not? + + 13. What kind of articles would you advertise in: + + 1. The newspaper rather than the magazine? + 2. The magazine rather than the newspaper? + 3. The street car rather than on the billboard? + 4. The trade papers rather than the newspapers? + + 14. Suppose you were bringing out a new soap and you + could use only one of the following mediums: (1) + newspapers; (2) local and trade magazines; (3) street + cars; (4) billboards and posters. Which would you + choose and why? Would your answer be the same if you + had real estate to sell? A new machine? If you were + producing a new play? + + 15. NEWS ITEM.--The University of Wisconsin has issued + a bulletin, stating that of all the money spent for + food, shelter, and clothing 90% is spent by women. + Would the following be good advertising for a + magazine: "The women of the country read this paper"? + Give reasons for your answer. + + 16. Do handbills suggest cheapness to you? + + +=Exercise 280= + +_Oral_ + +Discuss the value of each of the following as forms of advertising: + + 1. Location. + 2. Furnishings of the office or the store. + 3. Letter headings. + 4. Window displays. + 5. Electric (or other) signs. + 6. Moving electric signs. + 7. Colors (especially reds, greens, and yellows) as against + black and white. + 8. White lettering on a black background. + + +=Exercise 281= + +Fundamentally, the same principles apply to the advertisement as apply +to the sales letter (See page 230). First of all, you must look at your +goods from the standpoint of the user; see his gain in buying rather +than your profit in selling. Your products, then, will probably fall +into one of the following general classes: + + 1. Something entirely new for which you must create a + demand by showing its advantage to the buyer, arousing + his sense of need and, consequently, his desire to + possess. + + 2. Something new but filling a long-felt need--"Just + what you've been looking for"--the value of which will + appeal to the buyer almost as soon as the product is + explained. Comparison with the article that now + imperfectly fills the want suggests itself. + + 3. A new brand of an old staple, like crackers, of + which the superiority must be dwelt upon to induce + buyers to ask for it. Even after the article is + selling well, continuous advertising is necessary to + keep the name before the public. + +A paying advertisement appeals to a large class of people or, better +still, to several classes. For a moment let us analyze a few of the +appeals to which almost every one responds; let us consider the reasons +back of our purchases. Why do we buy one article and not another? We buy +it first, perhaps, because we need it or think we need it; second, +because we think it will taste good or be comfortable or good-looking or +because it will afford us amusement; third, because we think it is +better, though possibly more expensive, than any other brand on the +market, and our pride or our desire to emulate responds to it; fourth, +because we think it is good for our health or our safety; and, fifth, +because we shall save money or make money thereby. Summing up, we may +say that the motives to which appeals may safely be made are: + + 1. Need, conscious or unconscious (usefulness, quality, or durability). + 2. Comfort, amusement, or appetite. + 3. Pride, desire to emulate, or vanity. + 4. Safety (of health or personal possessions). + 5. Economy or gain. + +Clip from magazines and bring to class good advertisements that appeal +to the motives named above. Try to find those advertisements that make +an appeal to only one motive in one advertisement. + + +=Exercise 282= + +The following catch phrases have been taken from advertisements in +various places. Tell (1) whether their appeal is general; (2) whether +they induce one to buy; and (3) if they do, which of the motives given +above have been used by the advertiser. Frequently more than one motive +is used in one advertisement. + + 1. For a delicatessen store: Good things to eat. + + 2. For a chewing gum: The taste lasts. + + 3. For a motor washer: Two cents a week pays your + washing bill. + + 4. For a refrigerator: Are you poisoning your family? + + 5. For a summer drink: It's wet. + + 6. For stockings: Wear like 60, look like 50, cost but + 25. + + 7. For a shaving soap: Comfort for your face, economy + for your purse. + + 8. For a liniment: Don't rub--it penetrates. + + 9. For a hair tonic: What does your mirror say? + + 10. For a clothing store: Exclusive styles for + exclusive women. + + 11. For an inexpensive scouring powder: Why pour money + down the sink? + + 12. For canned goods: When company comes. + + 13. For a varnish: Water won't hurt it. + + 14. For bread: The human hand never touches it. + + 15. For a fountain pen: It can't leak. + + +=Exercise 283= + +Bring to class two advertisements containing catch phrases that you +think are good. To which of the motives given above does each appeal? + + +=Exercise 284= + +Bring in two advertisements of articles that have suggestive names. What +is the value of a suggestive name? + + +=Exercise 285--Good and Bad Headlines= + +A good headline has the following qualities: + +First, it should be short. Professor Walter Dill Scott determined by +experiments that the average person can ordinarily attend to only about +four visual objects at the same time--four letters, four words, four +simple pictures, or four geometrical figures. As the headline of an +advertisement is intended to be taken in at one glance, it should, +therefore, be not longer than four words--preferably less, provided the +interest of the phrase is the same. Short words, too, can be taken in +more readily than long words. + +Second, the best headline is a command. People instinctively obey a +command, unless it is so worded that they rebel against the manner of +expression. + +Third, a good headline is suggestive. It touches upon the things that +the reader is thinking about. It shows that the article that is offered +for sale has a close connection with the interests that absorb the +reader's mind. It is a direct answer to his thoughts, feelings, hopes, +or worries. + +The following headlines were taken from the advertisements in one issue +of a magazine. Judge of their effectiveness, using the three principles +given above as a basis for your decision: + + 1. Get That Job! + 2. Foot Comfort. + 3. Ventilate, but Don't Catch Cold! + 4. A New Filing Cabinet. + 5. Are You Open to Conviction? + 6. Low Priced Envelope Sealer. + 7. Shave for 1c Without Stropping. + 8. What a Wonderful Trip! + 9. Save 30% on Your Furniture. + 10. You Have a Right to Independence. + 11. Just Out! + 12. Get the Dust Out of Your Home--It's Dangerous. + 13. The Easiest Riding Car in the World. + 14. Our Seeds Grow. + 15. That Raise! (Sub-heading in smaller type: What Would a Raise in + Salary Mean to You?) + + +=Exercise 286= + +Some advertisers choose headlines merely for the purpose of attracting +attention, forgetting that the headline should suggest what the +following illustration and text explain. A few years ago a well-known +automobile company ran an advertisement with the headline _$1000 Worth +of Folly_. The headline was followed by a picture of the automobile. The +advertisement was intended to convey the idea that, as this car might be +bought for $3000, any one paying $4000 for an automobile was foolishly +squandering $1000. As a matter of fact, the only suggestion that the +reader got from the advertisement was that any one who paid $1000 for +the illustrated car would be a fool. + + 1. Bring to class an advertisement in which the + headline has no connection with the rest of the + advertisement, being used merely to catch the + attention. + + 2. Find an advertisement in which the headline + suggests the opposite of what the advertisement is + intended to convey. + + 3. How might either advertisement be improved? + + +=Exercise 287= + +Still-life advertisements are not interesting. The picture of a furnace, +or a typewriter, or a house attracts less attention than the same +objects with human beings represented moving in the picture. + +Bring to class two advertisements of the same kind of article, in one of +which a still-life illustration is used and in the other of which human +beings are used to center the attention upon the article that is offered +for sale. + + +=Exercise 288= + +Bring to class (1) an advertisement that is not good because it contains +too much--lacks a center upon which the attention naturally focuses; and +(2) an advertisement that is good because it has a definitely defined +center of attraction. + + +=Exercise 289= + +Bring to class an advertisement in which the principle of balance is +used to advantage, two illustrations, one on each side of the text, +being used to convey one impression. + + +=Exercise 290= + +In writing the following, try to embody the principles that have been +brought out in previous exercises: + + 1. An entertainment is to be given in the school hall. + Write an advertisement to appear in the school paper. + + 2. Write an announcement of the same entertainment--to + be posted on the bulletin board. + + 3. Write an advertisement for a debate. + + 4. For a football, baseball, or basket-ball game. + + 5. For an inter-class contest. + + 6. You have permission to secure advertisements to be + printed in the program of the entertainment spoken of + above. Suppose that you are to write the copy for the + different advertisements. Use one-eighth, one-quarter, + one-half, or one page, as you wish. + + Advertise a grocery. + + 7. A meat market. + + 8. A dry goods store. + + 9. A candy store. + + 10. A bakery. + + 11. A bank. + + 12. A tailor's shop. + + 13. A photographer's studio. + + 14. A barber shop. + + 15. A drug store. + + +=Exercise 291= + + 1. Write a handbill announcing a 20% discount sale to + run three days in your dry goods store. + + 2. Describe a chair, table, or other article of + furniture in your own home. The description is to form + part of an advertisement to appear in a mail order + catalogue. + + 3. You are advertising a new brand of coffee in the + street car. Write the card. Would you use an + illustration? If so, of what kind? + + 4. As in (3) advertise a new brand of pork and beans. + + 5. As in (3) advertise a shoe sale. + + 6. Advertise a well-known brand of soap in a magazine. + Use your own idea. Would you use an illustration? + + 7. How would you advertise an automobile which has + proved its merits? Remember, your object is to keep + the name before the public. How would you advertise a + new make of automobile? How much space would you use + in either case? Write both advertisements. + + 8. A half-page advertisement by the Hudson Cereal + Company, 110 Hudson St., New York, of their + Nervo-Cereal Coffee contains the item: "Can you thread + a needle, holding the thread one inch from the end? If + you cannot, you are nervous. Is coffee to blame?" + Exploit the aroma and flavor of the cereal coffee. + + 9. The Central Packing Company is running a series of + advertisements of their Premium Extract of Beef. This + one is to appear just before Thanksgiving. Entitle it + "Four Delicious Dishes for the Thanksgiving Dinner," + and then in as attractive a form as possible give four + recipes, making a point of the necessity of using + Premium Extract for the right flavor. At the end sum + up the merits of Premium Extract and mention the + silver premiums given with the certificates under the + metal caps. + + 10. The Bay City Mill Co., Bay City, Mich., sells fine + finished lumber suitable for making furniture at home. + Prepare an advertisement to show how simple it is to + make tables and chairs at home with their plans and + their specially cut lumber. Illustrate by giving the + plans and working directions for making a useful + table, showing how easy it is with their specially cut + lumber. Set an attractive price on the lumber + necessary to make this table. Sum up by exploiting a + book of plans, which may be had for the asking. + + +=Exercise 292= + +The following paragraph is taken from Professor Scott's _Theory of +Advertising_. What is the subject of the paragraph? Is there a topic +sentence? By what plan is the paragraph developed? + + Many of those who use illustrations for their + advertisements follow the philosophy of the Irish boy + who said that he liked to stub his toe because it felt + so good when it stopped hurting. Many of us are unable + to see how the boy had made any gain after it was all + over, but he was satisfied, and that was sufficient. + The philosophic disciples of the Irish boy are found + in advertisers who have certain things to dispose of + which will not do certain harmful things. First they + choose an illustration which will make you believe + that what they have to sell is just what you do not + want, and then in the text they try to overcome this + false impression and to show you that what they have + to offer is not so bad after all. Most of us are + unable to see how the advertiser has gained, even if + he has succeeded in giving us logical proof that his + goods are not so bad as we were at first led to think. + We are not logically inclined, and we take the + illustration and the text, and we combine the two. The + best that the text can do is to destroy the evil + effect of the illustration. Of course, when we read in + the text that the illustration does not correctly + represent the goods, we ought to discard the + illustration entirely and think only of the text, but, + unfortunately, we are not constructed in that way. The + impression made by the illustration and that made by + the text fuse and form a whole which is the result + formed by these two elements. + +Write paragraphs on each of the following: + + 1. Advertising is essential in modern business. + + 2. Advertising helps the housewife economize. + + 3. The study of advertisements saves the shopper's + time and strength. + + 4. Advertised goods cost more than the unadvertised + brands. (Give the reasons.) + + 5. Trade-marked and advertised goods have increased + the cost of living. + + 6. Increased advertising causes the styles to change + quickly. + + 7. Every advertisement must catch and hold the + attention. Some accomplish this object by causing a + laugh. (Describe one such.) + + 8. Some advertisements hold the attention because they + appeal to our love of the mysterious. One such is ---- + (describe it). + + 9. Some advertisements succeed because of their clever + color scheme. One such is ----. + + 10. Every successful advertisement contains a + convincing argument. + + 11. Mouth to mouth advertising is the best and the + cheapest. + + 12. Advertised goods are better because they have to + be. + + 13. The consumer pays for all the advertising. + + 14. The cost of advertising is paid by the competitors + who do not advertise. + + 15. Advertising tends to create uniform prices. + + 16. The advertising expert is a student of men. + + +=Exercise 293= + +Give your opinion as to the effectiveness of the following +advertisements: + +1 + + A department store that was anxious to increase its + trade on Mondays and Wednesdays included the following + coupons in its circular advertisement one week: + + THIS COUPON AND 19c THIS COUPON AND 50c + Monday only Wednesday only + good for good for + _6 Spools J. & P. Coats'_ _Misses' or Children's_ + _Best 6 Cord Machine_ _White Canvas Pumps_ + _Thread_ 2 strap model, heavy or light soles, + Regular 30c value trimmed with dainty bow on + vamp. All sizes up to 2. + $1.50 value + +2 + +$10,000 IN CASH TO CHARITY + + We ask our customers to decide by their votes the 250 + institutions that shall receive this amount. Each ten + cents' worth purchased entitles the purchaser to one + vote. + +3 + + The following appeared in the center of a page + otherwise blank. On the opposite page appeared the + advertisement of a well-known article. + + The announcement on the following page is so important + that we have decided to leave this page blank. + +4 + + The following was part of a circular: + + Following our annual custom we will again this year + give away absolutely free a beautiful silk flag to + every customer making a purchase of $1 or over, + Tuesday and Wednesday, July 2 and 3. + +5 + + The following appeared in a newspaper: + + A WORD OF APPRECIATION + + We have now been in our new location somewhat over a + month. Our business has been all that we expected; in + some departments, indeed, there is an increase, + notably in the neckwear, ready-to-wear clothes, hats, + and tailoring departments. + + Naturally, we had an abundance of faith in our new + location; nevertheless, we must confess that there + were times when we had anxious moments. We discovered, + however, that our moving was at the "psychological + moment"; we soon learned that in the minds of the + people there was but one thought--success for Michigan + Avenue. + + We have always felt that there was a closer bond of + sympathy between our customers and us than is usually + the case between buyer and seller. The unusual + interest taken in our new store and in our success has + more than confirmed us in this impression. Our + experience during the last forty days has really made + life worth living. + + The minds of hundreds of our customers have reverted + to the beginning of our business in our old Dearborn + Street store, twenty years ago, and they have made + comparisons between that and the wonderful + establishment we now possess; they have done it in a + way that would almost suggest that it was their + business that they were talking of rather than ours. + It made us feel that, although we have made our + mistakes, nevertheless we must have served the public + well, and we insert this article in the hope that a + few of our well-wishers may read it and understand + that we appreciate and are grateful. + + +=Exercise 294= + +Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks + + BALMER, EDWIN, The Science of Advertising. + BELLAMY, FRANCIS (ed), Effective Magazine Advertising. + BRIDGEWATER, HOWARD, Advertising, or The Art of Making Known. + CALKINS, E. E. and HOLDEN, R., Modern Advertising. + CHERINGTON, PAUL T., Advertising as a Business Force. + DELAND, L. F., Imagination in Business. + DE WEESE, TRUMAN A., Advertising (The Business Man's Library, Vol. + vii). + EDGAR, ALBERT E., How to Advertise a Retail Store. + FOWLER, N. C., Building Business. + SCOTT, W. D., The Theory of Advertising. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE + + +Lands, buildings, and houses are called real property or real estate, +and the business pertaining to them, the real estate business. Every one +of us has more or less to do with this business. If we do not own +property, we pay _rent_. Rent is the money paid for the use of a piece +of land, or a building, or part of a building, and is usually paid at +certain stated intervals of time--monthly, for example. The owner of the +building is called the _landlord_; the one who rents, the _tenant_. +Sometimes there is no condition as to how long a tenant shall remain in +one place and pay rent, but, as a rule, the landlord requires the tenant +to sign a _lease_. This is a contract between the landlord and the +tenant, stating that in consideration of the landlord's furnishing the +tenant a place in which to live with certain conveniences--such as heat, +hot water, and other services--the tenant agrees to pay rent for a +certain length of time, usually a year or more. If the tenant moves out +before his lease expires and refuses to pay the rent, he breaks the +contract and, as is usually the case when a contract is broken, a +lawsuit may follow. In large cities where land is in some places very +valuable, owners may not care to sell the property on which others wish +to build, but lease it to the builders for a certain term of years, +usually ninety-nine years. + +Suppose you no longer wish to pay rent, but to own the house in which +you live. If you buy a piece of property from John Smith and pay him +your money for it, you wish to be assured that after a few months John +Smith will not come to you and claim the property as his. To protect +you John Smith gives you a _deed_ to the property. A deed is a contract +between the buyer and the seller of the property. It states that, in +consideration of the buyer's paying a certain stipulated sum of money, +the seller releases and conveys the property to the buyer. This deed +shows that you now own the property. At the same time you should receive +a _clear title_ to the property; that is, you wish to be sure that no +one else has a claim on the property. If John Smith guarantees that the +title is clear, he gives you a _warranty deed_ for the property, in +which he will "warrant and defend the same against all lawful claims +whatsoever." If, however, he simply turns over the property to you as it +stands, he gives you a _quitclaim deed_, in which he relinquishes or +quits all his interest in it. If you have no debts on the property, you +own it in _fee simple_. + +Very often in buying property, the purchaser pays only a part of the +purchase price himself, paying for the balance by borrowing the +necessary amount from a third party. For example, if the house you +bought from John Smith cost $6,000 and you had only $4,000, you would be +forced to borrow the other $2,000 to pay John Smith. You would then go +to your bank or to some person who had money to invest and would borrow +the required amount, and to guarantee that you would pay the money back, +you would give a _mortgage_ on the property. A mortgage is a contract +which states that, in consideration of one party's giving the second +party a certain sum of money, the second party agrees to pay interest on +that money at a stipulated rate, and at the end of a certain length of +time agrees to pay the money back; and that, in case the second party +does not pay back the amount at the end of the time, the first party is +empowered to take possession of the property, to sell it, and to get the +amount due him. This last procedure is called _foreclosing the +mortgage_. It is a common practice to mortgage property; almost all the +property in a city is mortgaged. + +Some men and firms make a special business of transferring property, +buying and selling it for others, making leases, and collecting rents. +They are called real estate agents, and for their services get a +_commission_, which is a certain percentage of the purchase or the +selling price and a certain percentage of the amount of rent collected. +This percentage varies according to whether the amount of money involved +is large or small, the percentage being larger when small sums of money +are involved than when large sums are involved. + + +=Exercise 295= + +_Oral_ + + 1. What is a lease? + + 2. Explain why owners of valuable property lease it. + + 3. What is a deed? Explain the two kinds. + + 4. What is meant by a clear title? + + 5. What is meant by fee simple? + + 6. Why is it important to be careful about the title? + + 7. What is a mortgage? + + 8. Explain why property is often mortgaged. Does the + mortgage benefit the owner? Explain. + + 9. What is meant by foreclosing? + + 10. What is an agent? How is he usually paid? + + 11. Why do people employ real estate agents to take + care of renting? To sell their property? + + 12. Why is property near a railroad valuable? For + what? + + 13. Why is a corner lot worth more than an inside lot? + + 14. Why is property on a car line more valuable than + on a side street? + + 15. What effect would the building of a new street car + line have on the value of adjacent property? Why? + + +=Exercise 296= + +_Oral_ + + 1. Suppose that you are a landlord and that in your + lease no mention is made of giving your tenants + janitor service, but you yourself take care of the + furnace. Other landlords in the block supply janitor + service. After one of your tenants has moved in, he + demands that the back porch be scrubbed once a week + and the garbage emptied daily. What would you do? + Consider the points for and against. + + 2. Suppose some boys playing ball on the street break + a plate glass window in the store you own. Would you + expect your tenant to pay for repairs? + +_Written_ + + 3. Write to Francis L. Russell, a real estate agent, + asking his terms for collecting the rent of ---- (tell + the location of the house, the number of the tenants, + and the rent you receive). + + 4. As if you were Francis L. Russell write a reply, + saying that you will undertake the collection for a + commission of 5%. + + 5. Imagine you are a tenant in the same building. The + kitchen sink cannot be used in your flat because of a + stoppage in the plumbing. You have told the agent + once. Write him (see 3) again, stating that unless he + sends a plumber you will not pay your next month's + rent. (Is there any reason for writing this, rather + than telephoning it?) + + 6. The plumber has submitted a bill of $5.98 for the + repairs suggested in (5). The agent writes to the + landlord, enclosing a check for the rent that he has + collected, less the amount of the plumber's bill and + his commission. + + 7. You are a lawyer. Write to the landlord, informing + him that the mortgage which your client holds against + the landlord's property expires in thirty days. Ask + the landlord whether he expects to pay the money or + whether he wishes a renewal of the loan for three + years. Your client is willing to give such a renewal. + + 8. The landlord replies that he is enclosing $100 to + pay the interest due on the mortgage and that he + desires a renewal of the loan. If the lawyer will + prepare the papers, he will come to sign them at the + specified time. Write the letter. + + 9. You are an insurance agent. Write to the landlord + that the fire insurance on his property expires in + sixty days. Ask him to allow you to write a new + policy. Inform him that the rate now will be 3-3/4% + instead of if 1-3/4% as it was formerly, because a + garage has been erected one door north of his + property. (Why should the rate be higher?) + + 10. One of the tenants has paid no rent for two + months. You decide that he never will be able to pay. + As landlord you make out and deliver to him a _Five + days' notice of removal_. At the same time, you write + a letter to your lawyer, explaining the state of + affairs and asking him to take charge of enforcing the + notice. (This means that if the tenant does not move, + the case must come up in court. If it is decided in + the landlord's favor, the tenant must move. If he + refuses, the lawyer engages a constable to eject him.) + Write the letter. + + 11. Francis L. Russell writes three short + advertisements, offering for sale (1) a large 12 room + residence, mortgage $6,000, price $15,000; (2) a 3 + apartment building, clear, price $16,000; (3) a large + 12 apartment building, mortgage $25,000, price + $41,000, terms to suit. Where would you advertise? + Write the advertisements. + + 12. You get inquiries about all of the above. Write + answers describing the buildings more fully, and make + appointments with the writers to inspect the property. + + 13. A man is interested in the 12 flat building, but + he has only $10,000. Offer him the property for + $40,000 on these terms: $10,000 down, a first mortgage + for $20,000 to run 10 years at 5%, and a second + mortgage for $10,000 to run 5 years at 5½%, $2,000 to + be paid each year with interest. Make it as attractive + as possible. Tell him you will arrange for the + mortgages. + + 14. (_a_) Write to your bank, the First National, and + explain that, although the first mortgage on the 12 + flat building for $25,000 still has 3 years to run, + you would like to arrange for a 10 year mortgage for + $20,000, if your prospective buyer takes the property. + (_b_) Write to George R. Scott, who owns the building, + offering him the second mortgage. Explain that + although it is a second mortgage the fact that $2,000 + of the principal is paid each year makes it + attractive. (How would the owner benefit if the buyer + failed to make his payments after 2 years?) Sign + yourself Francis L. Russell. + + 15. You have put through the deal. Write to the new + owner, offering to take care of the renting for a + commission equal to 2½% of the amount collected. + + +=Exercise 297--Farm Lands= + +1. You own a large tract of land in the South, West, or Southwest. +Choose your own locality. Prepare a pamphlet setting forth the +advantages of this particular spot in a series of paragraphs: (1) +scenery, (2) climate and healthfulness, (3) crops, (4) profits from the +crops, (5) price of labor, (6) chances for pleasure, e.g., hunting, +fishing, etc., (7) transportation facilities, (8) price of the land. Use +a firm name and address. + +2. Arrange and punctuate: + + Nov. 1, 19-- [For the introduction supply the same + firm name used in (1)]. Gentlemen I have just returned + from an extended trip through (the district spoken of + above) with reference to the forty acres I purchased + from you I desire to say that I am convinced that it + will prove a paying investment I am so pleased that I + shall certainly try to induce several of my friends to + purchase near my site while on the property I + carefully inspected the farm worked by Mr S R Jackson + I must say what he is accomplishing the immense crop + of vegetables and fruit he is marketing amazed me no + doubt what he is doing I may do for I made sure by + careful examination that the soil on my land is + exactly like his you may depend upon it that within + the next two months I shall move my family upon the + land for I am eager to develop it sincerely yours F W + Farrell + +What advantage would there be in including such a letter as (2) in the +booklet spoken of in (1)? + +3. To prove the possibilities of the land spoken of in (1), you intend +to start a model farm. Advertise for a farmer. Your plan is to give him +60 acres to develop for himself, in return for which he shall +demonstrate the possibilities of the land. + +4. Write a letter applying for the position. You must have farming +experience, some money, a knowledge of crops, and a good deal of +enthusiasm. + +5. Write an advertisement of your land for a big newspaper. Exploit its +most striking features, especially the price. Study such advertisements +before you write yours. + +6. Reproduce a letter you received in answer to (5), asking for more +information concerning the lands. + +7. Write the reply to (6). Say you are enclosing the booklet spoken of +in (1); tell of the model farm being established (3); and induce the +inquirer to become a purchaser. + +8. Prepare a series of three follow-up letters to be sent out to +prospective purchasers who write as in (6) but who do not answer your +letter in (7). Make each letter set forth one of the following +advantages of buying a piece of your land: (1) The profits from the +crops are large; (2) The conditions are ideal--mention climate, water, +neighbors, transportation; (3) It is a good investment, since the land +will certainly rise in value--tell of other land in the neighborhood +that has risen in value within the last year. Arrange the letters in the +order that you think will be most effective. + + +=Exercise 298= + +Topics for Investigation and Discussion + + 1. The cause of changes in city real estate values. + + 2. The price of downtown property in your town. + + 3. The rise in property values in the last few years. + + 4. The causes of the rise. + + 5. Stove heated or steam heated property--which is the + better income producer? + + 6. The Mortgage.--(_a_) Why people mortgage their + property; (_b_) Why people loan money on mortgages. + + 7. The increase in the total value of farm lands + during the last ten years. + + 8. The decrease in the value of farm lands in the + East. + + 9. The reasons for the growth of the West. + + 10. Will the South be a new West? + + 11. The reclamation of swamp lands. + + 12. The success of irrigation. + + +=Exercise 299--Insurance= + +An exposition of the subject of insurance is hardly in place here, +especially as every one, to a certain extent at least, is acquainted +with the fundamental reasons why insurance is purchased. The questions +below should be used as a rudimentary review that will prepare for the +letters that follow. + +_Oral_ + + 1. What is the object of insurance? + + 2. What is meant by a policy? + + 3. By the premium? + + 4. By the beneficiary? + + 5. By life insurance? + + 6. By fire insurance? + + 7. By accident insurance? + + 8. By marine insurance? + + 9. What is the difference between a straight life and + a 20 year endowment policy? + + 10. Between the above and a 20 year pay policy? + + 11. Between the above and a term policy? + + 12. Why is it that the mortgagee, and not the owner, + holds the fire insurance policy? Why must the amount + of insurance equal or exceed the amount of the + mortgage? + +_Written_ + + 1. You are an insurance agent. A man came to your + office to-day to inquire about a life insurance + policy. Write him a letter, repeating what you told + him, advocating his taking out a straight life policy. + + 2. A new building has just been erected in your + neighborhood. Write to the owner, soliciting him to + let you write the fire insurance policy. + + 3. Write to a man who rides downtown on the train + every day. Convince him that he needs to take out an + accident insurance policy. Point out that the premium + is only $25 a year. If the man is injured he will + receive $25 weekly; if he is killed by accident, his + beneficiary will receive $5,000; if he is killed on a + train or in an elevator, $10,000. + + 4. Write to one of your clients, informing him that + the premium on his life insurance policy falls due in + ten days. + + 5. Write to another of your clients, informing him + that the insurance on his property runs out in ten + days. Inform him that, if he wishes the policy + renewed, he should let you know at once and remit the + premium. + + 6. From the client mentioned in (5) you receive a + letter in which he explains that the paint store which + formerly adjoined his property has been replaced by a + grocery. He would like a new policy at a lower rate. + Reproduce the letter. A paint store is insured at the + highest, or hazard, rate. The rate on property + adjoining a paint store would also be very high. + + 7. You investigate the matter and find that the facts + are as stated in (6). Write your client, offering him + a rate of 1½% and enclosing a bill for $45. + + 8. He replies that, since the risk of fire is now so + much less, he wishes to take only $2,000 worth of + insurance. He asks you to write such a policy, and he + encloses his check for $30. Write the letter. + + 9. A man writes to you, saying that he wishes to take + out an endowment policy for his fifteen year old + daughter, who has already been examined. He wishes to + give the insurance to her as a birthday present. He + encloses a check for the premium and asks you to send + the contract to her on her birthday (Name the date). + Write the father's letter. + + 10. Write a letter to accompany the birthday present. + Remember you do not know the daughter. + + +=Exercise 300= + +Write the following from dictation: + +1 + +MUST REFORM OUR FARMING + + The average yield of wheat in the United States for + the five years ending in 1910 was eight-tenths of a + bushel per acre more than in the five years ending in + 1905, but it was less than four-tenths of a bushel + more than for the ten ending in 1900. The average corn + product for the ten years ending in 1910 was a little + less than for the ten years ending in 1875. + Thirty-five years had not advanced us a step. European + countries--Great Britain, France, Germany--with + inferior soils and less favorable climate produce + crops practically double our own. In our studies of + conservation we find no waste comparable, either in + magnitude or importance, to this. The farm will fail, + and the foundations of our prosperity be undermined, + unless agriculture is reformed. The percentage of our + people actively engaged in farming had fallen from + 47.36 in 1870 to an estimated 32 in 1910. Every man on + the farm to-day must produce food for two mouths + against one forty years ago. + + --_J. J. Hill._ + +2 + +THE FARMING SPECIALS + + One of the latest and most successful activities of + the railroads is the practice of carrying knowledge of + the best farming methods to the farmers by means of + special trains equipped like agricultural colleges. + These trains, bearing experts and all the equipment + for exhibiting the new methods of agriculture, bring + the knowledge to the farmers free, and the railroads + are glad to give it, for every bit of knowledge comes + back to them in a hundred fold profit in freight. In + the summer eager audiences all over the country listen + to the preaching of better methods and larger crops. + Dozens of special trains travel through the + agricultural regions disseminating information. The + "Breakfast Bacon Special" has been run to encourage + Iowa farmers to raise more hogs to take advantage of + the high price of bacon. The Cotton Belt Route + southwest of St. Louis runs the "Squealer Special" to + prove to the Arkansas and Panhandle farmers the + money-making advantages of blooded hogs over the + razor-back variety. Down the Mississippi Valley the + Illinois Central sends the "Boll Weevil Special" to + conduct a campaign against that pest. The Harriman + lines have six trains operating in California every + year. In one year they visited more than seventy-five + thousand people. Better farming specials run in + practically every state south of the Ohio and Potomac + and west of the Mississippi. The New York Central also + has two trains in operation in New York.--_The + Business Almanac._ + +3 + + A large proportion of farmers give little or no + attention to the selection of seed; yet it has been + demonstrated that a careful selection would add + hundreds of millions of dollars to the total value of + the crops. If, for example, a variety of wheat were + developed capable of producing one more kernel to the + head, it would mean an addition, so Burbank says, of + 15,000,000 bushels to our average wheat crop. It is + possible, however, to do even more than this. At the + Minnesota station a variety, selected for ten years + according to a definite principle, yielded twenty-five + per cent more than the parent variety. Applied to our + average crop, that increase would amount to + 185,000,000 bushels, worth about $140,000,000. As for + corn, it has been officially stated that our average + yield could easily be doubled. After exhaustive + experiments the Department of Agriculture says that by + merely testing individual ears of seed corn and + rejecting those of low vitality an average yield of + nearly fourteen per cent could be secured, adding + about $200,000,000 to the value of the crop. Does + scientific seed selection seem worth while?--_The Wall + Street Journal._ + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +BANKING + + +IMAGINE that you are a druggist in a small town. Suppose that a woman +comes in to buy two ounces of camphor and in exchange gives you three +eggs. In a few moments, perhaps, a man enters to buy a safety razor and +brings with him wheat enough to pay the bill. Another, again, wishes to +trade a turkey for a fountain pen. You can readily see the inconvenience +to which you would be put in such exchange of actual commodities; yet +this was the method used in primitive times, a method called _barter_. + +To overcome the inconvenience of barter, as civilization advanced, it +became necessary to establish a common medium of exchange, which could +be accepted for anything one had to sell and with which one could buy +anything he wished. This is what we call _money_. To meet the +requirements, money must not be bulky, must be durable, and must not +readily change in value. In civilized countries gold and silver are the +bases of exchange. + +But gold and silver are heavy and inconvenient to carry about in large, +or for that matter in small, quantities, and for convenience the +following kinds of paper money have been established: + +1. _Gold Certificates_ are issued with the government's guarantee that +there is gold deposited in the Treasury equal to the amount of the face +of the bill. At any time the one holding such a bill may demand of the +Treasury that he receive gold for it. + +2. _Silver Certificates_ are similar to gold certificates, except that +silver is deposited in the Treasury instead of gold. + +3. _United States Treasury Notes_ are promissory notes of the government +to pay the sum indicated. They are not payable on demand. + +4. _National Bank Notes_ are promissory notes issued by the national +banks and are payable on demand of the bearer. Before a national bank +may issue such notes, it must own United States government bonds of at +least the amount for which it issues notes. These bonds are held by the +Treasurer of the United States as security that the bank will pay its +notes. According to the Owen Glass Bill, passed in December of 1913, +national bank notes may at the option of the banks be gradually +withdrawn from circulation. + +Credit + +_Credit_ is a promise to pay at some future time for a thing which you +receive now. Its use is probably as old as the practice of exchange and +quite as important. The simplest and most extensive form of credit is +"book" credit, such as you get at the grocer's or butcher's or at the +department store. To explain a little more complex kind of credit: +Suppose you owe Smith one hundred dollars. At the same time Smith owes +Jones one hundred dollars. Because you owe Smith, he may give Jones an +order to collect the money from you. With this order Jones may pay his +lawyer, let us say. Perhaps the lawyer has bought a bill of goods from +you. He pays you with the same order. You destroy the "note," and thus +four actual transactions have been taken care of without the use of any +money. The business institution which deals especially with credits is +the bank. + +Banks + +A bank which fulfills every banking function must have these three +departments: (1) the commercial department, (2) the savings department, +(3) the trust department. Some institutions specialize in one department +more than in either of the others, and thus, taking the name from their +principal function, banks are known as follows: (i) commercial banks or +banks of deposit, (2) savings banks, (3) trust companies. + +Banks of Deposit + +[Illustration] + +Banks of deposit or commercial banks are business men's banks. Their two +principal functions are (1) receiving money for safe-keeping on deposit, +and (2) loaning money to business men at interest. The deposit function +is based on confidence and credit. The business man takes his money to +the bank not only because it is convenient for him to do so, but also +because he has confidence that the money will be more carefully +protected than if he kept it in his own possession. In depositing his +money in the bank, the business man uses a _deposit slip_ such as the +one illustrated here. The teller puts down the amount in the _bank book_ +of the depositor, who is credited with that amount on the bank's books. +He is entitled to draw just that much actual cash or that much credit in +the form of _checks_. (See page 339.) Most firms do not deposit a sum of +money and then promptly draw it out again in the form of checks to pay +current liabilities, but maintain a fairly steady balance in the bank. +On large average monthly balances most banks allow interest, varying +from one per cent on balances of one thousand dollars to three per cent +on balances of ten thousand dollars or more. + +Discount + +Because a large bank has many depositors, the aggregate of all the +balances makes a considerable sum of money. Bankers have learned by +experience just what proportion of their deposits they can depend on to +remain steadily on deposit as a balance, and thus they know what +proportion of their deposits it is safe to use for the purpose of +_discount_. The simplest case of the discount function is the discount +of a promissory note. In the note shown in the illustration after ninety +days John H. Blodgett will receive from Lucius Thomas five hundred +dollars with interest. But perhaps Blodgett cannot wait ninety days for +his money. In this case, he takes the note to his banker, who will pay +him the five hundred dollars less a certain percentage or discount, +which is the bank's profit on the transaction. The bank then collects +the note when it becomes due. + +[Illustration: PROMISSORY NOTE] + +Collateral + +Instead of cashing a note held by one of its customers, the bank may +itself loan money at interest for a short period of thirty, sixty, or +ninety days, taking the note of the business man to whom the money is +loaned. In most cases, however, unless the bank knows the business man +well, a certain amount of _collateral_ is demanded as an assurance that +the borrower will pay the loan when it becomes due. The amount of +collateral deposited with the bank is usually 10% to 25% in excess of +the amount loaned, and it may take the form of stocks or bonds; +mortgages on real estate; liens on stock, fixtures, or personal +property; or warehouse receipts. When the amount borrowed is paid, the +collateral is returned; if it is not paid within a reasonable time, the +collateral is sold, and the amount loaned, with interest to date, is +taken from the proceeds. + +There are, of course, other functions of banks of deposit practised +quite generally by all banks, and these will be explained later. The +functions just described, however, distinguish banks of deposit in a +general way from the other two classes. + +Savings Banks + +A savings bank accepts from its depositors small amounts of money which +are not subject to withdrawal by check, but on which it pays a low rate +of interest. As a general rule, an account may be opened with one +dollar; and when the initial deposit is made, the depositor is furnished +with a pass book, similar to the bank book, in which further deposits, +interest credits, and withdrawals are recorded. Interest is compounded +every four or six months, and money must, as a general rule, remain on +deposit until an interest payment date before the depositor receives any +interest on it. The usual rate of interest is three per cent, although +four is often paid. Frequently, before banks allow deposits to be +withdrawn, they demand a certain number of days' notice, usually thirty. +It is well to investigate the conditions under which the depositor +places his money in the safe-keeping of the bank, because the withdrawal +requirements are often stringent. Because of the stability of this +class of deposit, banks are always anxious to increase their savings +accounts, as a large proportion of the funds may be used for loans. + +A form of the savings bank established in the United States in 1911 is +the postal savings bank, in which the post-office is made the depository +for savings. The post-office in the town deposits its funds in the local +national or state bank, which, as security for safe-keeping, must +deposit with the Treasurer of the United States bonds at least equal in +value to the amount of savings deposited in the bank. Postal savings +banks are practically absolutely safe, because, if the bank which takes +care of the funds should fail, the bonds may be sold, so that the savers +will receive their money. From deposits made in the postal savings bank, +the return to the depositor is only two per cent, whereas the return +from deposits made in the bank's own savings department is three, three +and a half, and sometimes four per cent. + +Trust Companies + +_The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund_ + + A miner named Richards was killed in an accident in an + Alaska mine. Among his possessions were found a number + of letters and a baby stocking containing a little + gold dust. The letters told that Richards had a little + six-year-old daughter, who was now left destitute. The + rough miners made up a fund of $2,500 in gold dust, + depositing it with the United States Commissioner of + the Territory of Alaska, to be held by him until the + proper disposition of it could be made. A committee + was appointed, who agreed that one hundred dollars a + year for ten years should be used to give the child a + common school education, and then five hundred dollars + each year to give her a college education. A legal + guardian was appointed, and the Kansas City Trust + Company asked to act as co-guardian to invest the + money and make the required remittances. The funds + were first deposited by the commissioner in a bank in + Portland, which sent them to the Kansas City Trust + Company. Correspondence was of course carried on at + the same time, the Kansas City Trust Company agreeing + to accept the trust without remuneration. They have + invested the money in five per cent bonds, thus + increasing the fund yearly. + +This is called a _trust_ because the money is entrusted for safe-keeping +and investment to the bank, which is called the _trustee_. A bank may +also become the trustee for property left at the death of a person, both +when there is a will and when there is none. When there is no will and +the bank takes charge of the affairs of the deceased, the bank is called +the _administrator_; when there is a will, the _executor_. Another +important function of the trust company is acting as _receiver_ for a +company which has failed; that is, adjusting the company's affairs in +the way fairest both to the stockholders and to the company's creditors. +The trust company often acts, also, as _agent_ for its clients' +property, performing the same duties as a real estate agent. + +Form of Remittance + +Banks as a class are distinguished one from the other according as they +specialize in one or more of the functions described above. However, +there are certain services that all banks perform and certain facilities +that they all offer in connection with the payment of money from one +person to another. These concern the forms of remittance. + +If you have studied business arithmetic or bookkeeping, you very likely +know the definite forms that are used. At all events, you know that +currency should never go through the mails. The following is a brief +review of the more important forms that may be used. Study the +illustrations carefully, noticing particularly the similarity of form in +all. Uniformity in such matters is desirable because it saves time as +well as misunderstandings. The forms we shall consider are: + + 1. The check + _a._ Personal + _b._ Certified + 2. The money order + _a._ Express + _b._ Postal + 3. The bank draft + 4. The time draft + 5. The sight draft + +_Check._--A check is a written order on a bank, signed by a depositor, +directing the bank to pay a certain person a certain sum of money. When +the bank pays the order, it deducts the amount from the depositor's +account. The one who signs the check is called the _drawer_ or maker; +the person to whom or to whose order a check is made payable is called +the _payee_; the bank on which a check is drawn is called the _drawee_. + +[Illustration: CHECK AND STUB] + +Of course, before you could write a check for one hundred dollars, you +must have deposited at least one hundred dollars in the bank on which +the check is drawn. The bank supplies you with a check book, consisting +of blank checks, each attached to a stub. When you write a check, you +put the same information on the stub to be kept for reference. Then you +tear off the check through the perforated line, using it to pay for +whatever you may have purchased. + +_Certified Check._--Suppose, however, that you are writing this check to +pay a debt to a stranger who lives in another city. He may hesitate to +accept it as money. That he may have no cause to doubt your ability to +pay the check, you take it to your bank to have the cashier investigate +your account. If he finds that you have sufficient funds, he writes or +stamps _Accepted_ or _Certified_ on the check and signs his name. At the +same time the amount of the check is deducted from your account. Such a +check is accepted without question when the holder is properly +identified. + +_Endorsement._--If A gives you his check for twenty-five dollars, you +could not receive the money until you had endorsed the check; that is, +put your name on the back, which is, in effect, giving a receipt for the +money. You may do this in various ways. You may endorse: + + 1. In blank; that is, merely write your name across + the back. + + 2. In full, by saying, "Pay to the order of ----" and + signing your name. + + 3. By restricting the payment to a particular person; + as, "Pay to ----" This check cannot now be cashed by + anyone except the one named in the endorsement. + +[Illustration: EXPRESS MONEY ORDER] + +_Express Money Order._--An express money order is much like a check, +except that it is drawn on an express company instead of on a bank and +reads, for example: Continental Express Company agrees to transmit and +pay to the order of ---- (the one to whom you are sending the money) +---- (the amount). The order is signed by the treasurer of the company +and countersigned by the agent who sells it. You can buy such an order +at any express office. It may be endorsed like a check. + +[Illustration: POSTAL MONEY ORDER] + +_Postal Money Order._--The other form of money order, the postal, is an +agreement signed by the postmaster of one city that the postmaster of +another city will pay the amount of money named in the order to the +person named in the order. + +_Bank Draft._--A bank draft is very much like a check, except that +instead of two individuals dealing with each other two banks conduct the +transaction, their places of business being in different cities or +villages. A bank draft is sometimes called a bank check, because in the +case of both a draft and a check one party draws upon another with whom +the first has funds deposited. As a general rule, banks and business +houses require that remittances be sent to them by drafts drawn on New +York or Chicago banks, as there is a charge called _exchange_ made in +the collection of checks drawn on local banks. + +In the draft that follows, the State Bank of Utah, of which Henry T. +McEwan is Assistant Cashier, makes out the draft. The bank which is +ordered to pay the money is the National Park Bank of New York. The +money is to be paid to Henry L. Fowler. The State Bank of Utah is called +the drawer; the National Park Bank of New York, on whom the draft is +drawn, is the drawee; Henry L. Fowler is the payee. + +[Illustration: BANK DRAFT] + +[Illustration: ENDORSEMENT] + +The payment indicated above was probably made without actually sending +the money from Salt Lake City to New York. It was done in this way: + +Henry L. Fowler of Salt Lake City owes one hundred dollars to a man +living in an Eastern city, let us say Charles Emery of Rochester, N. Y. +Mr. Fowler goes to the State Bank of Utah in Salt Lake City and "buys a +draft on New York," made payable to himself. The bank makes out the +above, charging Mr. Fowler one hundred dollars plus a fraction of one +per cent for its trouble. Mr. Fowler endorses it in full to Mr. Emery of +Rochester and sends the draft to the latter. He has the draft made +payable to himself so that the endorsement will constitute a full +record of the transaction. Mr. Emery takes the draft to his own bank in +Rochester, endorses it in blank, and receives the one hundred dollars. +Thus Mr. Fowler has paid out the money and Mr. Emery has received it. + +The way the banks conduct the transaction is as follows: There are +certain big money centers in the country; e.g., New York, Chicago, St. +Louis, San Francisco. Important banks in other places have money on +deposit in at least one bank in each of these centers. The banks which +thus deal with one another are called _correspondents_. The National +Park Bank is the correspondent of the State Bank of Utah. When Mr. Emery +cashes the draft at his Rochester bank, the latter sends it to its New +York correspondent, and at the same time charges the correspondent one +hundred dollars. The correspondent presents the draft to the National +Park Bank, which pays the money and charges the same amount to the State +Bank of Utah. Explain how this settles the transaction. + +_Time Draft._--A time draft is much like a bank draft, in that two banks +conduct the principal part of the transaction for two individuals, but +no money is actually paid at the time the draft is drawn. The details of +a transaction of this kind are explained on the following page. + +[Illustration: TIME DRAFT] + +Horace Prang of 1008 Elm Street, Columbus, Ohio, owes Loetzer & Co. five +hundred dollars, due August 27, 1915. Loetzer & Co. make out the draft +above and deposit it in the Bank of Buffalo. The latter sends the draft +to its correspondent in Columbus, which presents the draft to Horace +Prang. If he is willing to pay the note when it falls due, he writes +across the face of it, "_Accepted_" adds the date, and signs his name. +It is now returned to the Bank of Buffalo. The Bank of Buffalo will then +discount the draft for Loetzer & Co. + +_Sight Draft._--A sight draft is much like a time draft, except that the +amount is paid by the person on whom it is drawn as soon as it is +presented, instead of after a stipulated length of time. + +[Illustration: SIGHT DRAFT] + +Suppose the Empire Elevator Co. of Buffalo has sold $420 worth of grain +to the Smith Milling Co. of Springfield, Mass. When the grain is loaded +on the cars, the railroad company gives the Empire Elevator Co. a bill +of lading. Now, the Smith Milling Co. must possess this bill of lading +before it can take the grain from the cars at Springfield. The Empire +Elevator Co. deposits the bill of lading with the above draft in the +Marine National Bank of Buffalo. This bank sends both to its +correspondent in Springfield. The Springfield bank presents the draft to +the Smith Milling Co., who may take the grain from the cars on payment +of the draft. In case of non-payment, both draft and bill of lading are +returned to the Marine National Bank of Buffalo, and the Empire Elevator +Co. must make arrangements for the return or the disposal of the grain. + + +=Exercise 301= + + 1. F. R. Thompson, sales manager of the New York Trust + and Savings Bank, sends a circular letter to a number + of banks, saying that he is enclosing a booklet that + describes a number of bonds suitable for the security + of postal savings deposits, the legality of which has + been carefully investigated. In his letter he mentions + especially Omaha, Nebraska, School 4½% bonds, price to + net 4.40%; Seattle, Washington, Harbor 5% bonds, price + to net 4½%; and Hoquiam, Washington, Bridge 5½% bonds, + price to net 5%. Reproduce the letter, addressing it + to W. W. Fallows, Cashier of the Mercantile National + Bank of Pueblo, Colorado. + + 2. Mr. Fallows answers, saying that his knowledge of + the postal savings law is vague and that he would be + glad if Mr. Thompson would give him definite + information on the subject. + + 3. Mr. Thompson replies that he is enclosing a copy of + the postal savings law. He assures Mr. Fallows that he + can serve the latter both in buying the proper + securities and in depositing them with the Treasurer + of the United States. Application for such deposits + must be made by the bank itself. Mr. Thompson will + gladly inform him if Mr. Fallows does not know the + steps to be taken or the report to be submitted. + + 4. Punctuate, using a letterhead: + + Mercantile Trust Company New York City Dec 2 19-- + manager the bank of Scotland 3c bishop E C London + England dear sir we are sending you herewith advice of + the issuance of our circular letter of credit No. 262 + in favor of Miss Helen Jackson for 300 pounds sterling + Miss Jackson is at present in Paris France and the + letter of credit has been forwarded to Messrs Thomas + Cooke and Son 1 Place de l'Opera Paris we have + requested Messrs Thomas Cooke and Son to forward to + you two specimens of Miss Jacksons signature which we + have signed and forwarded to Messrs Thomas Cooke and + Son for that purpose so that you may have these + signatures before any drafts against the letter of + credit are presented to you yours very truly James R + Hudson treasurer. + + What is a letter of credit? How did Miss Jackson get + it? + + The Bank of Scotland is the correspondent of the + Mercantile Trust Company. Explain. + + Why should the New York bank forward Miss Jackson's + signature? + + 5. Write the letter that the Mercantile Trust Company + sends to Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son. + + 6. Write the letter that Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son + send to the Bank of Scotland. + + 7. W. T. Randall, cashier of the Milwaukee Trust and + Savings Bank, Milwaukee, Wis., writes a letter, the + purpose of which is to secure savings accounts. A club + of 500 members is to be formed. Each member is to buy + a share by paying one dollar and to pay one dollar per + week per share, the amount to draw interest at 3%. + After forty-eight weeks he gets credit for fifty + dollars per share, thus securing over 5% interest on + his money. Make the offer attractive. + + 8. Some time ago a bank in your city discounted a note + held by George Carpenter, signed by Martin Kugerman. + The note falls due in ten days. As cashier write to + Mr. Kugerman, telling him that you hold the note and + that you hope he will be able to remit on the day of + maturity. + + 9. Your bank loaned Clarence Wentworth $500 for ninety + days, taking as security $700 worth of collateral. The + note falls due in a week. Write to Mr. Wentworth, + reminding him that the note falls due and asking him + whether he wishes to pay it off or whether he wishes + it extended. + + 10. John Elsworth, who has an account with you, + writes, saying that by registered mail he is sending + you certificates of 20 shares Union Pacific common + stock, 50 shares National Biscuit Co. preferred stock, + 5 (bonds) American Telephone and Telegraph convertible + 4½'s, 3 (bonds) New York and East River Gas Co. first + mortgage 5's. He asks you to take care of them and + collect dividends and interest when they are due, + crediting them to his account. + + 11. Your correspondent, the First National Bank of + Janesville, Wis., writes, asking you to forward by + registered mail $5,000 in currency. + + +=Exercise 302= + + 1. Mr. Henry Carroll of Wausau, Wis., writes to Mr. + Randall (Exercise 301, 7), asking him to buy 10 shares + of C. & N. W. R. R. preferred stock at 134 or better. + When they are bought, he adds, they can be sent through + any bank in Wausau. + + 2. Mr. Randall replies by sending the 10 shares of + stock to the bank's correspondent in Wausau, the First + National Bank, telling the latter to deliver them to + Mr. Henry Carroll on payment of the enclosed draft for + $1340 with exchange. Write the letter. + + 3. A dressmaker in South Bend, Ind., has applied to + Marshall Field & Co., Retail, State and Washington + Streets, Chicago, for a charge account. The department + store makes inquiries concerning her at her bank, the + Commercial and Savings Bank of South Bend. Write the + letter. + + 4. The bank replies that she has maintained a small + but steady balance, that she has never overdrawn her + account, and that in their opinion her credit would be + good up to $100 monthly. Write the letter. + + 5. Theodore Buchanan of St. Louis sends Philip Newborg + of your city a check for $100 with which he pays a + debt to Charles Springer of Minneapolis. Springer + endorses it and deposits it in the Security National + Bank. The check is returned marked N.S.F., and the + Security National Bank notifies Springer of the + situation and of the fact that his account has been + charged with $104, the amount of the draft plus + expenses. + + 6. One of the depositors of the Milwaukee Trust and + Savings Bank brings to the Cashier a note which is + about due, and asks the bank to collect it. The maker + of the note is William T. Adams of Seattle. The + Cashier writes to the bank's correspondent in Seattle, + the Scandinavian American Bank, asking the latter to + collect. Write the letter. (See Exercise 301, 7.) + + 7. The Scandinavian American bank writes to William T. + Adams, telling him that it holds a note signed by him, + due ----, and asking him to make prompt payment. Write + the letter. + + 8. Mr. Adams pays the note. The Seattle Bank notifies + the Milwaukee Bank, enclosing a draft for the amount. + Write the letter. + + 9. See Exercise 301, 10. As John Elsworth's banker + send the coupons for the American Telephone and + Telegraph bonds to your correspondent in New York, the + National City Bank, because the interest is payable in + New York. Ask the bank to make the collection. Write + the letter. + + 10. The National City Bank makes the collection and + informs you by means of a printed form that it has + credited you with the amount, $112.50. The form is + just like a letter except that it is already printed + with blanks left for the name and the address and for + itemizing the coupons collected. Write such a form. + + 11. One of your depositors has overdrawn his account. + Notify him of the fact. Do this courteously so that + the depositor may have no reason to withdraw his + account. + + 12. In your city there is a real estate dealer who + often has large sums of money idle for a short time + because, when he sells one piece of property, he does + not always have another immediately in view. He is not + a depositor in your bank. Write to him, inducing him + to take out a Certificate of Deposit at such times and + telling him that the advantages of such a certificate + are that he will get 3% interest on the money + deposited and that he may draw out the money at any + time. + + 13. One of your depositors has written to you, asking + for a loan of $5,000 for nine months. Write to him, + saying that it is not your practice to make time loans + for definite periods longer than six months, as it is + not a good plan thus to tie up your deposits. Explain + that as most of a bank's deposits are payable on + demand, you would suggest his taking out a demand loan + for $5,000, payable on the demand of the bank. Under + ordinary business conditions such a loan might easily + run for nine months. + + 14. R. F. Marsden, President of the Truesdale Cotton + Mill, Birmingham, Ala., has written to you, asking + whether he can secure a loan next fall on the cotton + in the mill as collateral. Reply that you feel certain + that satisfactory arrangements could be made if the + cotton were stored in an accredited warehouse, so that + you could accept the warehouse receipt as collateral. + + +=Exercise 303= + +Punctuate and paragraph the following letter, which explains one +function of a trust company: + + Dear sir as you are one of our clients you are + familiar with the reputation of this bank for sound + banking and conservative investments you may not + however be aware that we have a fully equipped trust + department prepared to act in any of the numerous + capacities in which the services of trust companies + have proved of special value at this time we wish to + call your particular attention to the service which + this department is prepared to render as trustee under + agreement it is natural that one who has accumulated + property should desire to superintend or direct its + disposition formerly this was done by will now however + as the complex laws of the various states frequently + necessitate the payment of double or triple + inheritance taxes it is becoming a more and more + common practice for a man during his lifetime to + administer his own estate so to speak this may be + accomplished through the establishment of a trust with + respect to either a part or all of one's property it + can be accomplished not only with absolute safety to + the donor but with entire secrecy as well the terms of + the trust being regarded as absolutely confidential + furthermore the donor has the satisfaction of + disposing of his property during his lifetime in + accordance with his desires the life of a trust + company unlike that of any individual is of perpetual + duration death does not interfere with its management + of the trust estate its financial responsibility and + the safeguards thrown around trust estates by the + state laws insure the safety of a trust fund if you + are interested in this subject let us discuss it with + you either in person or by correspondence when this + bank is named in a trust capacity no charge is made + for service or advice in connection with the drafting + of the trust instruments yours truly + +Before writing the following, re-read The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund, +page 337. + + 1. Suppose that you were a newspaper correspondent in + Alaska at the time Richards was killed. For your home + paper write an account of the finding of the baby + stocking. In what ways would this account differ from + a magazine article on the same subject? + + 2. As if you were the United States Commissioner of + the Territory of Alaska, write to a Portland bank + saying that you are sending the $2,500 to them, and + asking them to put the funds in the care of a reliable + trust company. + + 3. The Portland bank writes to the Kansas City Trust + Company, asking if the latter will accept the trust. + Write the letter. + + 4. The Kansas City Trust Company replies that it will + accept the trust without remuneration. Write the + letter. + + 5. The Portland bank informs the United States + Commissioner of the Territory of Alaska of the + disposition of the funds. Write the letter. + + +=Exercise 304= + +=Topics for Investigation and Discussion= + + 1. The panic of 1907 and some of its lessons. + 2. Future banking reform. + 3. Government supervision of banks. + 4. Unscrupulous banking companies. + 5. Clearing house certificates. + 6. Postal savings banks. + 7. The work of the clearing house. + 8. The need of banks in a community. + 9. The development of real estate firms into banks. + 10. The Owen Glass Currency Bill. + + +=Exercise 305= + +Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks + + CROCKER, U. H., The Cause of Hard Times. + FONDA, ARTHUR J., Honest Money. + GIBBS, H. C., A Bimetallic Primer. + MCADAMS, GRAHAM, An Alphabet in Finance. + NEWCOMB, SIMON, The A B C of Finance. + NORTON, S. F., Ten Men of Money Island, or The Primer of Finance. + REEVES, JOHN, The Rothschilds: The Financial Rulers of Nations. + WHITE, HORACE, Money and Banking. + + +=Exercise 306= + +Write the following from dictation: + +1 + + THE DAILY ROUTINE OF THE CLEARING HOUSE + + Each bank sends two clerks to the Clearing House: a + delivering clerk and a settling clerk. There are three + rows of seats running through the clearing room + lengthwise, one in the center and one on each side + parallel with it. The settling clerks occupy these + seats and each one has a sufficient amount of desk + room in front of him to do his work on, his space + being separated from his neighbors' by a wire screen. + The delivery clerks, with their packages of checks in + separate envelopes, stand in the open space in front + of the settling clerks. At two minutes before 10 + o'clock the manager, whose station is an elevated open + space at the extreme end of the room, strikes a bell. + + The movement has all the precision of a military + drill. When the second bell sounds, at exactly 10 + o'clock, each delivery clerk takes one step forward, + hands the proper package to the settling clerk of the + bank next to him, drops the accompanying ticket + showing the amount into an aperture like a letter box, + and places before the settling clerk his schedule, on + which the latter places his initials. Thus the + procession moves uninterruptedly until each delivery + clerk has presented to each settling clerk the proper + package and ticket. Usually this part of the operation + is completed in ten minutes. Meanwhile the proof + clerk, who occupies a desk near the manager, has + entered the claims of each bank under the head "Bank + Cr." on a broad sheet of paper. + + Inasmuch as the amount of each bank's claim against + the Clearing House (entered under the head "Banks + Cr.") is the sum of all the tickets which its delivery + clerk has pushed into the letter boxes of the other + banks, it follows that all the tickets of all the + banks should equal all the entries under that head. + The next step in the operation is for each settling + clerk to arrange the amounts of all the tickets in his + letter box in a column, add it up, and send the amount + to the proof clerk, who transcribes and arranges it + according to the bank's number under the head "Banks + Dr.," so that the debit of Bank A shall be on the same + line with its credit. + + Then the difference between the two will show how much + the bank owes the Clearing House or how much the + Clearing House owes the bank. The time occupied by the + settling clerks in arranging their tickets and adding + up the columns is about half an hour. As fast as these + footings are completed, they are sent to the proof + clerk, who puts them in the debit column opposite the + credits of the banks, respectively. When all are + completed, if no error has been made, the footings of + the credit and debit columns must be exactly equal and + the footings of the two other columns, which show the + differences, must be exactly equal. Then these + differences are read off slowly and in a distinct tone + by the manager, so that each settling clerk can write + down the sum that his bank has to pay or to receive. + As time is money at the Clearing House, a fine is + exacted for every error and every delay in making + footings, for every disobedience of the orders of the + manager, or for every instance of disorderly + conduct.--Horace White: _Money and Banking_. + +2 + + The Treasury, in connection with its money washing, + has asked national banks to exercise more care in + sending in money for redemption. Banks frequently put + into the same bundle, good notes, bad notes, and notes + of different denominations. When they are mixed in + this way, it requires a good deal of work to separate + the money. The Treasury thinks that the banks could do + this work, so that, when the money reaches Washington, + it could easily be separated by packages instead of + each package having to be separated first. The + Assistant Secretary says he believes that, when he + gets the subject worked out in detail, new washed + money will be returned to the bank in any denomination + desired on the same day that it is received; that + money unfit for laundering will be destroyed and new + money issued. This expeditious handling of money sent + in for redemption cannot, however, be attained, he + admits, without the co-operation of the banks. In a + short time, he believes, all banks will see that it is + to their benefit to do this. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE CORPORATION + + +THE study that we have thus far made of the various kinds of businesses +would be incomplete did we not briefly outline the different types of +organization by which modern business is conducted. This will naturally +lead us to a discussion of stocks and bonds, which are of great +importance in every big business and of interest to individuals as means +of investment. However, as the subjects are probably outside the +experience of most students, we shall treat them as simply as possible, +letting the chapter stand rather for the information it contains than +for its application to the study of English expression. + +Business to-day is carried on in three different ways; viz., by +individuals, by partnerships, and by corporations. The grocer, the +butcher, the baker, or any one man who carries on a business is an +example of the first. If, however, the grocer and the butcher, or the +grocer and the baker, combine their businesses for the good of both, +they form a partnership. When the amount of capital necessary for +carrying on the business becomes so large that the money of many people +is needed, a _corporation_ is formed. The amount of money which any one +individual invests in the company is represented by a certain number of +shares of the _capital stock_ of the company, entitling him to his +portion of the dividends, or interest on the money he has invested. +These shares of the capital stock are transferable and can be bought and +sold like an automobile or a house. Since there is no time limit as to +how long a corporation may do business, a change in the ownership of +part of the stock, or the death of a stockholder, is not accompanied by +the same result as in a partnership, where the death of one of the +partners sometimes breaks up the business. Furthermore, in a partnership +each one of the partners is personally liable for any debts made by any +of the partners in behalf of the business, whereas the personal +possessions of a stockholder in a corporation cannot be held as security +for any debts incurred by the corporation. These are two of the more +important advantages of corporate organization over partnership. + + +The Finances of a Corporation + +It has been estimated that if one were to count money, dollar by dollar, +one dollar every second for eight hours six days a week, it would take +him six weeks to count one million dollars, and over one hundred years +to count a billion dollars. This may help us to appreciate the sums of +money spoken of in the following: In 1914 the market value of the +Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago was over $83,000,000. The +valuation placed on the properties of the Chicago Railways Company in +1914 exceeded $79,000,000. The Union Pacific Railroad Company had +invested in its properties in 1914 approximately $500,000,000. The +capital obligations of the United States Steel Corporation in 1914 were +over $1,500,000,000. There are hundreds of such organizations in our +country, the investments in which run to and beyond $50,000,000 each. It +must be plain that, except in a very few cases, these vast amounts of +money do not represent the investment of one, or of a few, but of many +persons. In uniting their capital, these persons decrease the cost of +making or distributing the product and so increase their profits. + + +Stocks + +When a large company of this kind is organized, a certain amount of +money is agreed upon to be the capital of the company, and it is +divided into small portions, ordinarily $100 each, called _shares_. The +total of the shares is called the _authorized capital stock_. These +shares are sold, the purchasers of the shares being called +_shareholders_, or _stockholders,_ of the company. The number of shares +a person holds determines what part of the profits he is entitled to. +For example, if a company is organized for 1000 shares of $100 each, or +a capital stock of $100,000, and you owned 100 shares, you would be +entitled to one-tenth of the divided profits of the company. Such +profits of the company, divided proportionately among the stockholders, +constitute the _dividends_. + +Often the capital stock is of two kinds, _preferred_ and _common_, as in +the case of the Union Pacific R. R., which has $200,000,000 of +authorized preferred stock and $296,178,700 of authorized common stock. +As the names signify, preferred stock is ordinarily better than common +stock, the dividends on preferred stock being paid before any dividends +are paid on common stock and usually at a stated rate of interest; as, +4, 5, or 6 per cent. In the case of the Union Pacific, this rate is 4 +per cent. If the company earns only enough profits to pay the dividends +on the preferred stock, the common gets no dividends. On the other hand, +if the profits are enormous, the common occasionally gets more than the +preferred. + + +Par and Market Value + +The _par value_ of a stock is the face value of one share of stock, +indicated on the face of the certificate. This may be $10 or $50 or +$100, whatever the amount agreed upon for one share when the company is +organized. The amount most commonly used as par is $100. The _market +value_ of the stock, however, need not be this amount, but may be +greater or less, dependent on how successful the company is and what +rate of dividends it pays. If a company's standing is very good and the +dividends are high (over 6 per cent), the stock will probably sell on +the market above par. If the company's finances are in a doubtful +condition and there are evidences that the company will pay small +dividends, if any at all, the market price of the stock will fall below +par. For example, in January, 1914, Union Pacific R. R. common stock +sold for about $158 per share, because the finances of the company were +in good condition and the company had paid 10 per cent dividends +steadily each year since July 1, 1907. If, however, any occasion should +arise to make the public doubt the payment of future dividends at the +same rate, the stock would probably decline. To go to the other extreme, +in the same month Wabash R. R. common stock sold as low as $8½ per +share, although the par is $100. This was because for some years the +company had paid no dividends and was then in the hands of receivers. To +take a middle case in the same month and year, Erie R. R. first +preferred stock sold at about $45 per share, notwithstanding the fact +that since 1907 no dividends had been paid. The reason for this +seemingly high price was that the company had for some time been +reconstructing its property, had gradually increased its business, had +earned a $9,000,000 surplus in 1913, and had a good outlook to a +dividend in the near future. + +These are not the only influences that affect the price of stocks. The +old factor of supply and demand has a great influence on price. If, for +example, a financier decides to buy a large "block" of some stock, the +market will almost immediately be affected, and that stock will go up. +One example will suffice. In 1901 E. H. Harriman set out to buy +$155,000,000 worth of Northern Pacific stock in the open market to gain +control of the Northern Pacific railroad. Of course, the market felt the +demand, and the price of the stock rose from a little above par until it +touched $1,000 a share before it started back to normal. When Mr. +Harriman unloaded that same stock in 1906, because he failed to gain +control, the market went down so considerably that he lost $10,000,000 +and almost caused a panic. + +Often the stocks of a company sell below par because the stock is +watered; that is, the company has issued more stock than there is value +invested in the property. Many of our railroads, for example, were built +on borrowed money--that is, from the proceeds of the sale of bonds--and, +to make the bonds sell more readily, stocks were given away with them. +This, of course, increased the capitalization greatly without increasing +the value. The temptation in forming new companies, especially in mining +schemes and wildcat ventures, is to water the stock heavily by voting a +large block of stock gratis to the organizers. Before one invests in any +of these companies, he should thoroughly investigate them. Sometimes +companies water their stocks when their dividends have become very large +and they wish to bring the rate down to that commonly paid. The Wells +Fargo Express Company did this in 1910, presenting their stockholders +with $16,000,000 worth of new stock without any new investment in the +property. + + +Bonds + +Suppose that A owns a house with a store in it, and in the store he +carries on a grocery business. Suppose that by enlarging his store and +putting in a bigger stock of goods he can make more money. The +improvements will cost $1,000, but he hasn't the money. He goes to B to +ask B to lend him $1,000 for five years, offering B the house as +security. B gives A the $1,000 and in return gets a certain amount of +interest each year and A's mortgage note against the property. This +means that, if at the end of five years A cannot pay the $1,000, B has +the right to sell A's house and collect the money due him. + +When a corporation borrows money to extend its properties, plants, or +rights, the transaction is really the same, although the form is +somewhat different. Just as all the capital stock of a corporation is +divided into shares owned by a number of people, so, when the +corporation borrows money, the amount borrowed is divided into smaller +parts of $500 or $1,000 each, called _bonds_, which the corporation +sells through its bankers to people who have idle money to invest. Twice +each year, as stated in the bond, the corporation pays interest on the +borrowed money at the rate, probably, of 4, 4½, 5, or 6 per cent. After +a definite number of years, as stated in the bond, the corporation is +obliged to pay back the amount of money that it borrowed. This is called +_redeeming_ the bonds. To show that it intends to pay back the amount +borrowed at the end of the time stated, or redeem the bonds when they +become due, the corporation puts a mortgage on its real estate, +buildings, machinery, and equipment. When the bonds become due--or +_mature_, as it is called--if the corporation does not pay back the +amount borrowed, the holders of the bonds may take possession of the +company's real estate, buildings, machinery, and equipment on which the +company has placed the mortgage and may sell them to recover the money +they have loaned. Thus, while the stockholders of a corporation have no +assurance that they will ever get their money back or will ever get any +interest on it, the holders of carefully selected bonds are reasonably +sure of getting a certain amount of interest each year and of getting +their money back when the bonds mature. Shares of stock represent the +investment made by the stockholders who own the company, whereas bonds +represent the investment of those who loan money to the company. We can +readily see, then, that the stockholders take the greater risk. For this +reason it is expected that stocks should yield a higher profit than +bonds, and this is usually the case. + +The greater portion of the bonds that are issued by corporations run for +long periods--twenty, forty, fifty, and even one hundred years. At +times when money rates are high, corporations that need funds are +reluctant to pay a high rate for so many years, and so they issue _short +time bonds_ to run from two to five years, in the hope that at the end +of the time money rates will be lower and more favorable to their +issuing long time bonds. Many companies, especially industrial +corporations and railroads, have issued obligations to pay, _notes_ +running from six months to five years. They are not usually secured by a +mortgage on the property but are merely the company's promise to pay, +the interest and the principal taking precedence over the dividends on +the preferred and the common stocks. + + +Corporate Organization + +Before a corporation can carry on its business, it must obtain a charter +from one of the states of the United States, whose laws it must obey. +The laws of some states are more lenient than those of others, allowing +the corporations more privileges. New Jersey is thus lenient; +consequently we find many large corporations--such as the United States +Steel Corporation, the American Sugar Refining Company, and +others--organized under the laws of New Jersey. After the charter is +granted and the stock bought by the stockholders, the latter have a +meeting, at which they elect a small number of men to be _directors_, +who, as the name signifies, conduct the business of the company for the +stockholders. They choose a president, one or more vice-presidents, a +treasurer, a secretary, and any other officers necessary to carry on the +business under the control of the directors. The term of office of the +directors is usually so fixed that the term of a part of them expires +each year, so that each year the stockholders have an annual meeting at +which they elect new directors or re-elect the old ones whose term has +expired. + + +The Railroad + +Corporations divide themselves into three large groups; viz., railroad +companies, public utility corporations, and industrial corporations. Of +these, the group composed of the largest and most powerful corporations +is the railroad group. + +Railroads have two general sources of income, the larger being the +revenue received from operating trains, both freight and passenger; and +the smaller being the return from investments in other companies, from +real estate, and from the rental of lines, terminals, stations, and cars +to other railroads. To carry on the second or smaller part of its +business, the company needs an organization much like any other +business, but to conduct the first part it requires a special +organization. This divides itself into four departments, usually with a +vice-president at the head of each: (1) the traffic department, (2) the +operating department, (3) the finance and accounting department, and (4) +the legal department. + +It is the duty of the traffic department to get the business for the +company and adjust all traffic claims. In short, it does everything to +increase the business and the earnings. This department naturally +divides into the freight traffic and passenger traffic departments, with +a superintendent or manager at the head of each. + +After the traffic department has solicited the business for the company, +it is the duty of the operating department to render the services +required by the traffic department. The work is done by four large +divisions: (1) the engineering or construction department, whose duty it +is to build the roads over which the company may operate; (2) the +maintenance-of-way department, whose duty it is to see that the roadbed +and rails are kept in good order and repair; (3) the equipment +department, whose duty it is to see that the company is supplied with +proper locomotives and cars and to see that such equipment is kept in +repair; and (4) the transportation department, which has to do with the +operating of the trains. + +The financial policy of a railroad is usually in charge of one of the +vice-presidents, who must be a man of experience in financial matters +and who acts with the approval of the directors. The accounting +department is more important than may appear at first sight. Railroads +are now under the supervision and regulation of the government, and one +of the rights that the government has is to examine the books of the +company at any time and to require all companies to submit a monthly +report to the government. + +The legal department of a railroad is especially important for two +reasons: (1) In performing its services, the company has business +dealings with a large number of persons, and in the adjustment of claims +against the railroad, expert legal advice is constantly necessary. (2) +The railroad, as stated above, is under the regulation and control of +the state and the national governments, and the enforcement of this +regulation makes the railroad a party to numerous proceedings in the +courts and before the Interstate Commerce Commission. The large +railroads operate in from ten to twenty states. It can thus easily be +seen that the legal department has a great deal more to do than if the +railroad operated under but one political power. + + +Public Utility Corporations + +Public utility corporations supply services without which the people of +to-day could not very well live. They are those supplying water, light, +heat, power, telephones, local transportation, gas, etc. They may +properly be called public necessity corporations. The nature of these +businesses practically gives them a monopoly in their locality; this is +the reason that they have grown so enormously during the last thirty +years. The Commonwealth Edison Company, which supplies a large part of +Chicago with light and power, began in 1887 with a capital of $500,000 +and in 1914 its capital obligations had a market value of over +$83,000,000. The American Telephone and Telegraph Company began in 1885 +with $12,000,000 of capital stock and in 1914 had practically +$340,000,000. The other public service corporations have kept pace, +according to the growth of the locality they serve. In the depression of +1907 this class of corporation kept steadily increasing the volume of +its business when all others went back a step. Since these corporations +are dependent on the local community for their business, if the +community grows the company must grow, and usually faster than the +community. For this reason the stocks and bonds of these companies are +usually a good investment. + +It is a common practice for municipalities to demand a share of the +profits of the company, by way of a fixed sum, a certain percentage of +the gross profits, or a share of the net profits. For example the city +of Chicago receives, from the Commonwealth Edison Company each year 3 +per cent of its gross receipts from the sale of current and 10 per cent +of its gross receipts from the rental of conduit space, amounting in +1913 to more than $300,000, quite a considerable sum. The Chicago +Railways Company and the Chicago City Railway Company, the two large +street car companies of Chicago, after deductions for expenses and +charges and 5 per cent on the amount invested are made from the gross +income, pay to the city 55 per cent of the surplus earnings, keeping for +themselves 45 per cent. Whenever these companies pay part of their +earnings to the municipality, they are really under municipal +supervision, and their books and accounts are open to examination by +the city at any time. These companies are called quasi-municipal +corporations. + + +Industrial Corporations + +As the name indicates, industrial corporations are those that carry on +our industries. They are by far the largest class of corporations and +have among their number some very powerful companies, whose assets run +up toward the billions. This class of corporations has not had the +gradual, steady growth of the public utility corporations, but in the +case of the most successful, the growth has been amazing. The Standard +Oil Company for many years prior to its dissolution had paid dividends +on its capital stock of about $100,000,000 at the rate of 40 per cent a +year. The Steel Corporation is said to have produced a thousand +millionaires and is still producing them. This class of corporations has +not been so closely under the supervision of the federal and municipal +authorities as the railroads and public utility corporations, and their +financing has been carried on in a looser fashion than that of the other +two classes. For this reason the securities of these corporations are +not generally regarded as highly as those of the other two. However, the +federal government has taken and is taking steps to regulate these +corporations, and this will tend to bring them eventually to the +standards of the railroad and public utility corporations. + + +=Exercise 307= + +_Oral_ + +Explain carefully: + + 1. What is a corporation? + + 2. What is a share of stock? + + 3. What is a bond? a security? + + 4. Explain the difference between par and market + values. + + 5. Why do stocks and bonds vary in value? + + 6. What is the difference between preferred and common + stock? + + 7. What are dividends? + + 8. What is meant by watered stock? + + 9. What are the advantages of a corporation over a + partnership? + + 10. The following was copied from a morning paper. + Explain it. + + "The Canadian Westinghouse Company, Ltd., declared its + regular quarterly dividend of 1½% and an extra + dividend of 1% on its stock, both payable Jan. 10." + + 11. Explain the following bond quotations: + + MUNICIPAL BONDS + + _Security_ _Maturity_ _Yield per cent about_ + + Albany, Ga., 5's Nov. 1, 1941 4.75 + King Co., Wash., 4½'s Nov. 1, 1931 4.50 + + RAILROAD BONDS + + Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fé, + general mortgage, 4's Oct. 1, 1995 4.20 + Louisville and Nashville, unified + mortgage, 4's Feb. 1, 1946 4.35 + + PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATION BONDS + + New York Telephone Co., 4's Nov. 1, 1939 4.75 + Chicago Railways, first + mortgage, 5's Feb. 1, 1927 4.99 + + 12. Why are the bonds of successful public utility + corporations a good investment? + + 13. Which company do you think would grow faster, a + light and power company or a gas company? What effect + would the growth or the failure to grow have on the + price of the stocks of each? + + 14. Should a street car company pay part of its + earnings to the city? + + 15. If the population of a city doubled, what effect + would there be on the price of public utility stocks? + + +=Exercise 308= + +Topics for Investigation and Discussion + + 1. Harnessing our streams to secure electric power. + + 2. The growth of the Interurban. + + 3. In your own town: + + _a._ Have gas rates increased or decreased? Can you + explain the change? + + _b._ Have electric light rates increased or decreased? + Can you explain the change? + +4. Street railway, electric light, and gas company franchises. + +5. The earnings of the street car company in your city. + +6. Municipal ownership of public utility corporations. + +7. The effect of mergers and consolidations of big corporations. + +8. The effect of a trust on competition. + +9. Trusts and prices. + +10. Government suits against trusts. + +11. The tariff and the steel industry, the wool industry, and the sugar +industry. + +12. Railroad rate increases. + + +=Exercise 309= + +Write the following from dictation: + +1 + + In New London, Connecticut, stands the oldest grist + mill in the country. It is a picturesque building, + having a water wheel like the one that it originally + used when New London was first settled. The town was + in the center of an agricultural community, and a mill + to grind corn was a need that soon manifested itself + to the settlers. Accordingly, in 1650 at a town + meeting, six men were chosen to build a mill. John + Winthrop and his heirs were granted the right to carry + on the grist mill as long as they maintained the + building placed in their charge. This is one of the + first monopolies recorded in New England history. + +2 + + The same standards by which a farming or a + manufacturing investment may be judged are not + applicable to a mining investment. A farmer may earn + eight per cent on his capital, and with care his + investment may increase in value. A manufacturer may + earn eight per cent on his investment, and, if he + keeps up his machinery, his business may be as + valuable ten years, or even twenty years, hence; but a + mine, after each dividend is paid, is that much nearer + its end. Now, it is well known among mining men that + the average life of a gold or silver mine is under, + rather than over, ten years. There are exceptions to + this rule, of course, but, granting that the life of a + certain gold or silver mine is to be ten years, then, + in order to pay back both principal and interest, + dividends of at least sixteen per cent should be + distributed. Copper mining, of which the statistics + have been most accurately kept in New York and Boston, + offers many inducements to the investor; but too much + care cannot be taken in the matter of selection, for + copper stocks, in not a few instances, have been + boosted out of all reason. As with gold and silver + mines, so it is with copper mines. They have so much + ore to begin with, and after each dividend are that + much nearer to the day when they will close down. For + such mines, provided they have a good lease of life, + eight per cent or even ten per cent may be regarded as + only moderate returns. These are merely samples of + some general principles to be followed.--_Roger W. + Babson._ + +3 + + Dear Sir: + + At the close of a year which has presented many + perplexing problems, not only to investors and dealers + in bonds, but also to borrowing municipalities and + corporations, there are several factors in the + situation which in our opinion offer strong + encouragement to every one in any way interested in + bond investments. + + Of special significance is the marked change in + sentiment which has recently taken place. There is + every indication that this country enters the new year + with an unusually substantial feeling of confidence. + While a notable increase in the demand for bonds would + undoubtedly bring out a large amount of new financing, + on the other hand, there has been an accumulation of + funds during the period of depressed markets, and it + is generally understood that investment dealers are + carrying comparatively small amounts of bonds. + + January has an almost unbroken record of higher + average bond prices than the average prices in + December. It is not our intention to predict an + advance this January, although there are + unquestionably many reasons for anticipating at least + a moderate improvement; but, viewing the question in + its broader aspects, we find many convincing arguments + in favor of the purchase of bonds at this time. It is + recognized that the decline in prices has been due to + a variety of causes, which, except in a few individual + cases, are not the result of any depreciation in real + values. Basic conditions are admittedly sound. We, + accordingly, not only recommend the judicious purchase + of bonds for the investment of surplus funds, but also + suggest consideration of the advisability in some + cases of converting short time securities into long + time bonds. + + What conditions could be more favorable from the + standpoint of the purchaser of bonds than an extremely + low level of prices; a wide-spread belief that + fundamental conditions are sound; a general feeling of + confidence that the problems which have tended to + disturb business during the past year have been, or + are being, solved; and a conviction that we are + entering upon a period of probable ease in money + rates? + + Very truly yours, + + + + +INDEX + + +NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES + + _A_, Italian, 9. + + Abbreviation, objectionable, of the introduction of a letter, 242; + of the courteous close, 242. + + Abbreviations, of states, 26-27; + of commercial terms, 27-28; + of titles in letters, 235; + objectionable in the body of the letter, 242. + + _Able_ and _ible_, 33. + + Absolute use of the nominative case, 65. + + Abstract noun, defined, 57. + + Accent, indication of, 17; + words changing meaning with change of, 17. + + _Accept_ and _except_, 102. + + Account, opening an, 250; + letters for opening an, 250 ff. + + Accounting department of a railroad, work of the, 360-361. + + Active voice of verbs, defined, 84; + conjugation of, 88 ff. + + _Ad_, prefix, 32. + + Adjective, the, defined, 49; + and the adverb, 75 ff.; + following verbs of the senses, 75; + clause, 54; + comparison of, 78. + + Adjective endings, peculiar, 33 ff. + + Adjective modifiers, 49. + + Adjective pronouns, use of, 61. + + Adjectives and adverbs, confused, 51; + incorrectly used, 81-82; + _real_ and _very_, 81; + _most_ and _almost_, 81. + + Adjectives, punctuation of series of, 171 ff. + + Adjectives to be distinguished, 80-81; + _fewer_ and _less_, 80; + _almost_ and _most_, 81. + + Adverb modifiers, 49. + + Adverb, the, defined, 49; + and the adjective, 75 ff. + + Adverbial, clause, 54; + modifier, case of, 66. + + Adverbs, conjunctive, 45; + and adjectives confused, 51; + and prepositions confused, 52; + ideas denoted by, 75; + modifying different parts of speech, 75; + correct position of, 77; + absolute use of, 79; + incorrectly used, 81-82. + + Advertised articles, classes of, 311. + + Advertisements, motives appealed to in, 311; + catch phrases used in, 312; + suggestive names used in, 313; + good and bad headlines for, 313; + of still-life, 314; + without a definite center, 315; + illustrating the principle of balance, 315; + exercises to write, 315 ff.; + paragraph topics dealing with, 317 ff.; + some examples of, 318 ff. + + Advertising, 308 ff.; + importance of, 308; + different forms of, 309-310; + fundamentals of, 310-311; + outline for debate on, 141 ff.; + bibliography for, 320. + + _Affect_ and _effect_, 102-103. + + Affirmative of debate on advertising, 141 ff. + + _After_, as preposition and conjunction, 55. + + Agent, 134, 299-300; + commission of, 323. + + Agreement, grammatical, 71-72, 85 ff. + + Amusement, motive appealed to in advertising, 311. + + Analysis, word, 29 ff. + + _Ance_ and _ence_, 34. + + _And_, in compound sentence, 45, 173 ff.; + in series, punctuation with, 171 ff.; + used in joining parallel expressions, 211 ff.; + for _to_, 119; + excessive use of, 127-128. + + Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes, 29 ff. + + Answering complaints, letters to be used in, 257 ff. + + _Ant_ and _ent_, 33. + + Antecedents, uncertain, 207 ff. + + Apostrophe, the, used to form the possessive case, 67, 69, 159; + used to indicate the omission of letters, 160; + to show plural of letters and figures, 160. + + Appeals made in advertisements, 311-312. + + Application, letters of, 259 ff. + + Appositives, case of, 65, 66; + punctuation with, 179-180. + + Article, incorrect omission of in business letters, 242. + + _As_, case following, 121; + a conjunction, 124; + followed by an understood verb, 124; + punctuation with, 195. + + _As_--_as_, used in expressions stating equality, 125. + + _As follows_, punctuation with, 195. + + _Atlas_, story of the derivation of, 5. + + Authorized capital stock, 355. + + + Baby blunder, 44. + + Balance, principle of, used in advertisements, 315. + + Bank draft, 341-343. + + Banking: + inconvenience of barter, 332; + kinds of paper money, 332-333; + credit, 333; + discount, 335; + collateral, 335; + promissory note, 336; + forms of remittance, 338 ff.; + letters pertaining to, 345 ff.; + topics for investigation and discussion, 349-350; + bibliography for, 350; + dictation exercises on, 350 ff. + + Banks, departments of, 333; + of deposit, 334 ff.; + savings, 334, 336 ff.; + trust companies, 334, 337 ff. + + _Be_, conjugation, indicative, 104; + subjunctive, 112; + used to form progressive tenses, 88 ff., 105; + used to form passive voice, 105 ff. + + _Before_, used as preposition and conjunction, 55. + + _Beg to state_, 243. + + Bibliography, on manufacture, 280; + on distribution, 304-305; + on advertising, 320; + on banking, 350. + + _Bill of lading_, 285; + _straight_ or _order,_ 285. + + Blunder, baby, 44. + + Body of the letter, 232. + + Bonds, 357 ff.; + redemption of, 358; + maturity of, 358; + long period, 358; + short time, 358. + + Breve, 9. + + Brevity in business letters, mistaken for conciseness, 199. + + Business letters, 229 ff.; + essentials of, 230; + the form of, 231; + the arrangement of, 232; + cautions in writing, 235 ff.; + directions for folding, 238; + to order goods, 239; + the tone of, 240; + mistaken ideas in writing, 241 ff.; + to make sales, 244; + to accompany a catalogue, 245 ff.; + to open an account, 250; + to make collections, 253 ff.; + to answer complaints, 257 ff.; + applying for positions, 259 ff.; + form, 264; + circular and follow-up, 264 ff. + + Business news, to suggest topics for talks, 155. + + Business thinking, importance of, 2. + + + _c_ and _g_, pronunciation of, 24. + + _Can_ and _may_, 102. + + Capital stock, explained, 353; + preferred, 355; + common, 355; + par and market values of, 355 ff. + + Capitals, use of, 160 ff. + + Caret, the, 9. + + Carriers, common, 284. + + Case, defined, 64; + nominative, 64 ff.; + objective, 64, 66; + possessive, 64, 67; + exercise in, 70 ff.; + following prepositions, 66, 119. + + Cause and effect, paragraphs developed by, 223. + + Caution, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + Cautions in writing business letters, 235 ff. + + _Cede_, _ceed_, _sede_, 34. + + Certificate, the gold, 332; + the silver, 332. + + Certified check, the, 339-340. + + Check, the, 338 ff.; + personal, 339; + certified, 339-340. + + Choosing subjects, suggestions for, 146 ff. + + _Cion_, _sion_, _tion_, 34. + + _Cious_, _tious_, 33. + + Circular letters, 264 ff. + + Class paper, suggestions for a, 156. + + Classes of advertisements, 311. + + Clause, the, defined, 42; + principal, 42; + subordinate, 42; + incorrectly used as a sentence, 45; + introductory words for, 54; + adjective, 54; + adverb, 54; + noun, 54; + modifiers, 54; + introduced by _than_ or _as_, 121; + initial, punctuation of, 176; + restrictive and non-restrictive, 59-60; + punctuation of relative, 185 ff.; + coming at the end of the sentence, punctuation of, 188-189; + incomplete, 205-206; + misplaced, 209 ff. + + Clauses, punctuation of series of, 171 ff. + + Clear title to property, explained, 322. + + Clearing house, daily routine of, 350-351. + + Clearness of the sentence, mistakes that prevent: + dangling expressions, 205 ff.; + pronouns with uncertain antecedents, 207 ff.; + misplaced modifiers, 209-210; + omission of necessary words, 210-211; + shift of construction, 211 ff. + + Close, courteous, of business letters, 232, 237. + + Coherence between sentences, 127-128; 224 ff.; + between paragraphs, 224 ff. + + Collateral, 335-336. + + Collection letters, 253 ff. + + Collective noun, defined, 57. + + Colon, use of the, 194. + + Colonization, 307. + + Combination of short sentences to secure unity, 202 ff. + + Comfort, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + Comma fault, the, 44 ff. + + Comma, use of the, in direct quotations, 163 ff.; + in series, 171 ff.; + in compound sentences, 45, 173 ff.; + to set off initial clauses or participial phrases, 175 ff.; + to separate the month from the year, etc., 178; + to indicate the omission of words, 178; + to set off appositives, 179 ff.; + to set off parenthetical expressions, 180 ff.; + to set off independent elements, 182 ff.; + to set off non-restrictive clauses, 185 ff.; + to set off modifiers coming at the end of the sentence, 188 ff. + + Command used in good headlines of advertisements, 313. + + Commercial department of a bank, 333. + + Commercial terms, abbreviations of, 27-28. + + Commission, agent's, 323. + + Common carriers, 284. + + Common noun, defined, 57. + + Common stock, 355. + + Companies, kinds of, 273. + + Company, the steamship, 284; + the railroad, 284 ff. + (See _Corporation_, 353 ff.) + + Comparative degree, of adjectives, 78; + of adverbs, 79. + + Comparison and contrast, paragraphs developed by, 223. + + Comparison, of adjectives, 78; + of adverbs, 79; + negative, 125. + + Complaint, letters answering, 257 ff. + + Complement, subjective, 65. + + Complex sentence, defined, 42. + + Composition, oral and written, 127 ff. + + Compound nouns, plural of, 20. + + Compound relatives, 59. + + Compound sentence, defined, 42; + punctuation of, 45, 173 ff. + + _Con_, prefix, 32. + + Conciseness of expression, 199. + + Condensation to secure clearness, 200. + + Conjugation, of _write_, active voice, 88 ff.; + of _be_, 104 ff.; + of _follow_, passive voice, 105 ff. + + Conjunction, and the preposition, 116 ff. + + Conjunctions. + Coördinate, 45; + punctuation with, 45, 173 ff.; + distinguished from conjunctive adverbs, 45. + Subordinate, list of, 54; + _than_ and _as_, 121. + Correlative, 122. + + Conjunctive adverbs, 45; + distinguished from coördinate conjunctions, 45; + punctuation with, 45. + + Connection, smooth, 127-128, 224 ff.; + methods of securing, 224 ff. + + Conservation, 191-192. + + Consignee, 285. + + Consonant, final, doubling of, 22; + silent, words containing, 11. + + Construction, letters dealing with contract for, 263; + shift of, 211. + + Contract, letters dealing with, for painting iron-work, 262; + for the delivery of property, 263; + for construction, 263. + + Contraction, apostrophe used with, 160. + + Coördinate conjunctions, 45; + punctuation with, 45, 173 ff. + + Coördinate expressions, 122 ff. + + Copulative verbs, defined, 83. + + Corporate organization, 359. + + Corporation, the, 353 ff.; + finances of, 354; + capital stock of, 354 ff.; + dividends of, 355; + stockholders of, 355; + bonds of, 357 ff.; + organization of, 359; + directors of, 359; + railroad, 360-361; + public utility, 361-362; + industrial, 363; + topics for investigation and discussion on, 365; + dictation exercises on, 365 ff. + + Correlatives, defined, 122; + correct position of with coördinate expressions, 122-123; + _either--or_ and _neither--nor_, 123. + + Cost of living, paragraph on, 173. + + Cotton seed, paragraph on, 176. + + Cotton in the Soudan, paragraph, 181. + + _Could_ and _might_, 102. + + Courteous close, in business letters, 232, 237. + + Courtesy in business letters, 231, 240. + + Credit, 333. + + Credit letters, 250 ff. + + Currency, bill, 333; + legislation, 333, 349. + + Current events, to suggest subjects for talks, 155. + + + Dangling expressions, 205 ff. + + Dash, use of, 195 ff.; + too free use of in business letters, 243, 247. + + Dead letter sale, 190. + + Debate, outline for a, 141 ff.; + subjects for, 139 ff., 144; + on manufacture, suggestions for, 275; + on distribution, 290, 302. + + Debating, 137 ff.; + proposition for, 137; + six rules for, 137 ff.; + false conclusions in, 138; + irrelevant matter in, 138. + + Declarative sentence, defined, 41. + + Declension of pronouns, personal, 58; + relative, 59; + interrogative, 60. + + Deed, 322. + + Degrees of comparison, 78-79. + + Demonstrative pronouns, 60. + + Departments, of banks, 333; + of railroads, 360. + + Deposit, banks of, 334; + slip, 334. + + Details, explanatory, necessary to secure interest, 147; + paragraphs developed by, 222. + + Development of paragraphs, methods of, 222-223. + + _dg_, words containing, 25. + + Diacritical marks, 8, 10. + + Diaeresis, 9. + + Dialogue, paragraphing in, 168 ff. + + Dictation exercises, for series, 171; + for compound sentences, 173-174; + for initial clauses or participial phrases, 176; + for parenthetical expressions, 180-181; + for independent elements, 182-183; + for non-restrictive relative clauses, 186; + for the semicolon, 193-194; + on manufacture, 280-281; + on distribution, 305 ff.; + on real estate, 329 ff.; + on banking, 350 ff.; + on corporations, 365 ff. + + Direct discourse, 163 ff.; + use of comma in, 170. + + Directors of corporations, 359. + + Discount, 335. + + Discourse, direct, 163 ff.; + indirect, 166 ff. + + Discussion and investigation topics, on manufacture, 278-279; + on distribution, 304; + on real estate, 327; + on banking, 349-350; + on the corporation, 365. + + Dishwasher, letters to sell a, 265 ff. + + Distribution. + Transportation an essential element, 283 ff.; + the steamship company, 284; + the railroad company, 284 ff.; + the retail merchant, 286 ff.; + the wholesale merchant, 291 ff.; + the mail order merchant, 295 ff.; + the salesman, 298 ff.; + suggestions for debates, 302; + subjects for paragraphs, 303 ff.; + topics for investigation and discussion, 304; + bibliography, 304 ff.; + dictation exercises, 305 ff. + + Dividends, 355. + + Dividing a subject into its natural divisions, 149 ff. + + Dot, 9. + + Double relative, 59. + + Doubling final consonants, rule for, 22. + + Draft, bank, 341 ff.; + time, 343-344; + sight, 344-345. + + Dropping of final _e_, 22, 25. + + Druggist, outline of advertising letters sent by, 268-269. + + Durability, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + + _E_, final, retained, 25. + + _Each_, _every_, 62, 86 (3) + + Economy, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + _Effect_ and _affect_, 102. + + Efficiency, office, 217; + stenographic, 217. + + _ei_ or _ie_, 24. + + _Either--or_, 123. + + Electric washing machine, outline of letters to sell, 269. + + Elements, independent, case of, 65; + punctuation of, 182. + + Emphatic pronouns, 59. + + Emulation, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + _ence_ and _ance_, 34. + + Endings, peculiar adjective, 33; + peculiar noun and verb, 34. + + Endorsing a check, methods of, 340. + + English, oral, 1, 127 ff.; + written, 1. + (See _Punctuation_, _The Clear Sentence_, _Business Letters_.) + + _ent_, 33. + + Enthusiasm in business, 230. + + _eous_, 33. + + Essentials, of a sales letter, 230; + in manufacture, 272-273; + of an advertisement, 310-311. + + _Every_, number of, 86. + + Examples and illustrations, paragraphs developed by, 222. + + Examples of advertisements, 318 ff. + + _Except_, a preposition, 124; + incorrectly used as a conjunction, 124. + + _Except_ and _accept_, 102. + + Exclamation mark, use of, 162. + + Exclamatory sentence, defined, 41. + + Explanatory details, paragraphs developed by, 222. + + Explanatory expressions, punctuation of, 179 ff. + Appositives, 179; + parenthetical expressions, 180; + independent elements, 182; + explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of, 185; + subordinate elements coming at the end of the sentence, 188. + + Exports in cattle, paragraph on, 76. + + Express money order, 340-341. + + Expression, conciseness of, 199; + variety of, 111. + + + _f_, and _fe_, plurals of nouns ending in, 19. + + False conclusions in debating, 137-138. + + Farm lands, 325 ff.; + outline of letters to sell, 267-268; + letters pertaining to, 325 ff.; + topics for investigation and discussion on, 327; + dictation exercises on, 329 ff. + + Farm reform, 329. + + Farming specials, 330. + + _Favor, your esteemed_, and similar expressions, to avoid, 243. + + Fee simple, 322. + + _Fewer_ and _less_, 80. + + Figures, plural of, 20, 160. + + Final consonant, rule for doubling, 22. + + Final _e_, dropped, 22, 25; + retained, 25-26. + + Finance department of a railroad, 360-361. + + Finances of a corporation, 354. + + _Fly_, _flow_, _flee_, 101. + + Folding a letter, directions for, 238. + + _Follow_, conjugation of in the passive voice, 105 ff.; + synopsis of, passive, 106. + + _Following, the_, punctuation after, 195. + + Follow-up letter, the, 264 ff. + + _For_, as preposition and conjunction, 55. + + Foreclosing a mortgage, 322. + + Foreign plurals, 21. + + Foreign news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155. + + _For example_, punctuation with, 195. + + _For instance_, punctuation with, 195. + + Form letter, the, 264. + + Form of the business letter, 231. + + Formation, of participles, 21 ff.; + of possessive case, 67; + of infinitives, 110. + + Freight bill, 286. + + Freight, receipt for, 285. + + Furniture, outline of letters to sell, 269. + + Future tense, 88 ff.; + progressive, 89; + perfect, 90. + + + _G_, pronunciation of, 24. + + Gas mantles, paragraph on, 280-281. + + Gold certificates, 332. + + Good and bad headlines in advertisements, 313-314. + + Government's Laundry, the, 173-174. + + Greek roots, 30. + + + _Had ought_, 103. + + "Hammock" paragraph, 216. + + _Have_ and _of_, 119. + + Heading of the business letter, 232, 235. + + Headlines of advertisements, good and bad, 313-314. + + Health, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + _Herculean_, 5. + + Homonyms, 14-15. + + How to advance, paragraph on, 177. + + _Hoping_ and similar expressions, to avoid, 242-243. + + Hyphen, use of, 196. + + + _Ible_, 33. + + Ideas, mistaken, in letter writing, 241 ff. + + _ie_ or _ei_, 24. + + Illustrations and examples, paragraphs developed by, 222. + + Imperative sentence, defined, 41. + + _In_, prefix, 33. + + Income of railroads, 360. + + Incorrectly used, nouns and pronouns, 73-74; + adjectives and adverbs, 81-82; + verbs, 114-115; + prepositions, 118-119. + + Indefinite _it_ or _they_, 207 ff. + + Indefinite pronouns, 61; + used as adjectives, 61. + + Independent elements, case of, 65; + punctuation of, 182. + + Indicative mode, defined, 112; + of _be,_ 112. + + Indirect discourse, 166 ff. + + Indirect object, 66. + + Industrial corporations, 363. + + Industry, 273. + + Infinitive, defined, 109; + tenses and voices of, 110; + split, 77, 209. + + Initial clause or participial phrase, punctuation of, 176. + + Insurance, 327 ff.; + letters pertaining to, 328 ff. + + Insurance and real estate, 321 ff. + + Interesting words, 1 ff. + + Interjection, 49; + _O_, 161. + + Interrogation mark, use of, 162; + position of with quotation marks, 163 ff. + + Interrogative pronouns, declined, 60. + + Interrogative sentence, 41. + + Intransitive verb, 83. + + Introduction of the letter, 232, 235-236. + + Investigation and discussion, topics for, on manufacture, 278-279; + on distribution, 304; + on real estate, 327; + on banking, 349-350; + on the corporation, 365. + + Investments, mining, 365-366. + + Investors, 184, 185. + + _ious_, 33. + + Irregular plurals of nouns, 19. + + Irregular verbs, principal parts of, 95 ff. + + _ise_, _ize_, _yze_, 34. + + _It_ used indefinitely, 207 ff. + + _Italic_, derivation of, 3. + + Italian _a_, 9. + + _Its_ and _it's_, 160 ff. + + + _k_, insertion of, 25. + + _Kindly_, abuse of, 243. + + + Labor, 274. + + Local news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155. + + Land business, the, 325 ff. + + Latin-American trade, the, 306. + + Latin prefixes and suffixes, 31. + + _Lay_ and _lie_, 100-101. + + _Learn_ and _teach_, 101. + + Lease, 321. + + _Least_, used in the superlative degree, 78. + + Legal department of a railroad, 360-361. + + Length of good headlines in advertisements, 313. + + _Less_ and _fewer_, 80. + + Letter beginnings, 240, 247, 248-249. + + Letter, to investors, 47; + to accompany a style book, 172; + to sell a trip on the water, 183-184; + to sell a house coat, 221-222; + ordering goods, 239; + from A. Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby, 240-241; + to accompany a catalogue, 245 ff.; + to sell cheese, 246; + to sell hinged paper, 247-248; + to open an account, 250-251; + credit, 251-252; + requesting payment, 254 ff.; + answering a complaint, 257-258; + of application, 260-261; + follow-up, 265 ff.; + from a bank, soliciting a trust (to be punctuated), 348-349; + market, 366. + + Letters, plurals of, 20. + + Letters, business, in the manufacturing business, 276 ff.; + in the retail business, 287 ff.; + in the wholesale business, 292 ff.; + in the mail order business, 295 ff.; + to help the salesman, 301; + pertaining to banking, 345 ff. + (See _Business letters_, _Letter_.) + + _Lie_ and _lay_, 100-101. + + _Like_, followed by the objective case, 124. + + _Loose_ and _lose_, 103. + + _Lose_ and _loose_, 103. + + Luck and labor, paragraph on, 174. + + + Macron, the, 9. + + Magazine advertising, 311 ff. + + Mail order business, the, 295 ff.. + + Manufacture, 270 ff.; + essentials in, 272-273; + subjects for themes on, 275; + suggestions for debates on, 275; + letters in, 276 ff.; + topics for investigation and discussions on, 278 ff.; + bibliography for, 280; + dictation exercises in, 280 ff. + + Market letter, 366. + + Market value, 355 ff. + + Marks, diacritical, 7; + question, 162; + quotation, 163 ff. + + Materials, raw, 274. + + Maturity of bonds, 358, 364. + + _May_ and _can_, 102. + + Merchant, the retail, 286 ff.; + the wholesale, 291 ff.; + the mail order, 295 ff. + + Methods of endorsing a check, 340. + + _Might_ and _could_, 102. + + Mining investment, principles of, 365. + + Misplaced modifiers, 209-210. + + Mispronounced, words commonly, 13, 17. + + Mistaken ideas in letter writing, 241 ff. + + Mode, defined, 112; + indicative and subjunctive of _be_, 112; + subjunctive denoting possibility, 113. + + Model letters. (See _Letter_.) + + Modern business done by letter, 229 ff. + + Modifiers, adjective and adverb, word, 49; + phrase, 52 ff.; + clause, 54-55; + used to secure unity, 202; + misplaced, 209-210. + + Money, 332; + kinds of paper, 332 ff.; + its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + Money order, express, 340-341; + postal, 341. + + Monosyllables ending in silent _e_, 9. + + Month from year, comma used to separate, 178. + + _More_ or _less_, used in the comparative degree, 78. + + Mortgage, 322, 357 ff.; + foreclosing a, 322. + + _Most_ or _least_, used in the superlative degree, 78. + + Motives to which advertisements appeal, 311. + + + _Namely_, punctuation with, 195. + + Names, suggestive, in advertising, 313. + + National bank notes, 333. + + National news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155. + + Necessary words, omission of, 210-211. + + Need, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + Negative comparison, 125. + + Negative, outline for a debate on advertising, 143 ff. + + _Neither--nor_, 123. + + News, to suggest topics for talks, 155. + + Nominative absolute, 65. + + Nominative case, 64 ff.; + as subject, 64; + as subjective complement (predicate nominative), 65; + as appositive, 65; + independent, 65; + absolute, 65. + + _Nor_, 123. + + Notes, 359; + promissory, 336. + + Noun, defined, 49; + clause, 54; + and the pronoun, 57 ff.; + common, 57; + proper, 57; + collective, 57; + abstract, 57; + verbal, 57; + modified by _every_ and similar words, 86; + collective, number of, 86. + + Nouns, rules for plurals of, regular, 18; + ending in _y_, 19; + ending in _o_, 19; + ending in _f_ and _fe_, 19; + irregular, 19-20; + compound, 20; + foreign, 21; + possessive case of, 67; + incorrectly used, 73-74; + joined by _or_, 86; + punctuation of series of, 171 ff. + + Number of verb, 86. + + + _O_, capitalization of, 161. + + _o_, plural of nouns ending in, 19. + + Object, of a preposition, 55, 66; + of a transitive verb, 66; + indirect, 66; + second, 66. + + Objective case, 64, 66; + as direct object of a transitive verb, 66; + as object of a preposition, 66, 119; + as indirect object, 66; + as second object, 66; + as appositive, 66; + as adverbial modifier, 66; + following _like_, 124. + + Observation, subjects taken from, 146 ff. + + Obsolete words, 3. + + _Of_ and _have_, 119. + + _Of_ phrase substituted for the possessive case, 67. + + _Oh_, 161. + + Omission, of letters, 160; + of necessary words, 210 ff.; + of subject in business letters, 242. + + Opening an account, letters for, 240 ff. + + Operating department of a railroad, 360. + + Oral English, exercises in, 127 ff. + + Oral expression, 127 ff.; + variety of, 111. + + Oral reproduction, from magazines, 147; + from newspapers, 154 ff. + + Oral exercises, in general, 127 ff.; + on manufacture, 273 ff.; + in the retail trade, 286; + in the wholesale trade, 290 ff.; + in the mail order business, 295; + in connection with the salesman, 299 ff. + + Order bill of lading, 285. + + Ordering goods, letter for, 239. + + Order, express money, 340-341; + postal money, 341. + + Organization, corporate, 359; + of a railroad, 360. + + Outline, for a debate, 141 ff.; + how to make an, 151 ff. + + + Paper money, kinds of, 332 ff. + + Paragraph, the, 215 ff.; + in dialogue, 168 ff.; + proper length of, 215-216; + topic sentence in, 216 ff.; + "hammock," 216; + how developed, 222-223. + + Paragraphs on, Sacramento City, 48; + exports in cattle, 76; + cost of living, 173; + the government's laundry, 173-174; + luck and labor, 174; + sawdust, 174-175; + a new kind of wood, 175; + hogs as mortgage lifters, 175; + cotton seed, 176; + making paper, 176-177; + how to advance, 177; + bubonic plague, 177; + politics of a city, 181; + cotton in the Soudan, 181; + the "yellow" invasion, 182; + saving, 182, 184, 193; + investors, 184, 185; + Chicago's milk supply, 186; + the dead letter sale, 190; + industries, controlled, 193; + the secret blotter, 197; + a mummy's doll, 198; + office efficiency, 217; + stenographic efficiency, 217; + business courtesy, 218; + the rural landscape of Norway, 218; + the _Spectator_, 218-219; + income, 225; + gas mantles, 280-281; + production of wool, 281; + casting metals, 281; + transportation, 305; + the Latin-American trade, 306; + the parcel post in Africa, 306; + the remedy for wrecks, 306-307; + colonization, 307; + farm reform, 329; + farming specials, 330; + selection of seed, 330-331; + the clearing house, 350-351; + washed money, 351-352; + an early monopoly, 365; + mining investments, 365-366. + + Paragraphs, subjects for. See _Subjects_. + + Parenthesis marks, use of, 196; + wrongly used to cancel expressions, 196. + + Parenthetical expressions, punctuation of, 180 ff. + + Participle, defined, 109; + tenses and voices of, 109; + the dangling, 205-206. + + Participles, formation of, 21; + of verbs in _y_, 23. + + Participial phrases, punctuation of, 176 ff.; + 188 ff. + + Parts of speech: + The noun and the pronoun, 49, 57 ff.; + the adjective and the adverb, 49, 75, ff.; + the verb, 49, 83 ff.; + the preposition and the conjunction, 49, 116 ff.; + the interjection, 49. + + Parts, principal, of irregular verbs, 95 ff. + + Par value, 355. + + Passive voice, defined, 84; + conjugation of _follow_, in the, 105 ff.; + synopsis of _follow_ in the, 106. + + Past tense, 88; + progressive form of, 89; + emphatic form of, 89; + perfect, 90. + + Payment, letters requesting, 253 ff. + + Perfect tenses, 89 ff. + + Period, use of, 162. + + Personal pronouns declined, 58. + + Personality essential in a salesman, 298. + + Persons of the pronouns, 58. + + Phrase modifiers, 52 ff. + + Phrases, prepositional, 52 ff.; + adverbial, 52-53; + adjective, 52-53; + classification of, 110; + punctuation of series of, 171 ff.; + initial participial, punctuation of, 176; + incorrectly used as a sentence, 45, 242. + + Plurals, of nouns, 18 ff.; + of letters and figures, 20, 160; + of foreign nouns, 21. + + Positive degree, 78, 79. + + Possessive case, 64, 67; + rules for forming, 67; + separate possession, in the, 67; + with verbal nouns, 67 ff.; + _of_ phrase substituted for, 67; + use of the apostrophe in the, 159. + + Possibility, use of the subjunctive mode to show, 113 ff. + + Postal money order, 341. + + Predicate, of the sentence, 41; + nominative, 65. + + Preferred stock, 355. + + Prefix, usually constituting a syllable, 16; + Anglo-Saxon, 29; + Latin, 31; + _ad_, _con_, and _in_, 32-33. + + Present tense, 88; + progressive, 88; + emphatic, 88; + perfect, 89. + + Preposition, defined, 49; + phrase introduced by, 52; + followed by the objective case, 66, 119; + and the conjunction, 116 ff.; + the wrong, 119; + necessary, 119. + + Prepositional phrases, 52-53. + + Prepositions, and adverbs confused, 52; + list of, 53; + used with certain verbs, 116-117; + incorrectly used, 118-119. + + Pride, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + Principal clauses, 42. + + Principal parts of irregular verbs, 95 ff. + + Progressive tenses, 88 ff.; 105. + + Promissory note, 335. + + Pronominal adjectives, 60. + + Pronoun, defined, 49; + and the noun, 57 ff.; + incorrect use of _same_ as a pronoun, 72-73. + + Pronouns, 58 ff.; + personal, declined, 58; + emphatic, 59; + reflexive, 59; + list of relative, 54; + declension of relative, 59; + compound relative, 59; + double relative, 59; + restrictive relative, 59 ff.; + interrogative declined, 60; + demonstrative, 60; + indefinite, 61; + adjective, 61; + possessive in form, not in use, 59 (note); + incorrectly used, 73 ff.; + joined by _or_, 86. + + Pronunciation, 7 ff.; + slurring syllables in, 7; + of _c_ and _g_, 24. + + Proper noun, defined, 57; + capitalization of, 57, 161. + + Proposition for debate, 137. + + Public utility corporations, 361 ff. + + Punctuation, 158 ff.; + apostrophe, 159 ff.; + capitals, 160 ff.; + period, 162; + interrogation mark, 162; + exclamation mark, 162; + quotation marks, 163 ff.; + comma, 170 ff.; + semicolon, 192 ff.; + colon, 194 ff.; + dash, 195 ff.; + parenthesis marks, 196; + hyphen, 196 ff.; + of series, 170 ff.; + of compound sentences, 45, 173 ff.; + of initial clause or participial phrase, 175 ff.; + of explanatory expressions, 179 ff.; + after _as follows_, etc., 195; + after _namely_, etc., 195. + + + Quality, its appeal in advertising, 311-312. + + Questions for discussion on, manufacture, 273-274; + the retail merchant, 286-287; + the wholesale merchant, 291-292; + the mail order merchant, 295; + advertising, 309-310; + real estate, 323; + the corporation, 363-364. + + Quitclaim deed, 322. + + Quotation marks, use of, 163 ff. + + Quotations, use of comma in, 170 ff. + + + Railroad, the, 360; + sources of income of, 360; + organization of, 360; + departments of, 360 ff. + + Railroad company, the, 284, 360. + + _Raise_ and _rise_, 101. + + Raw materials, 274. + + Reading, subjects taken from, 147 ff. + + _Real_ and _very_, 81. + + Real estate and insurance, 321. + + Real estate business, 321 ff. + Rent, 321; + lease, 321; + warranty deed, 322; + quitclaim deed, 322; + clear title, 322; + fee simple, 322; + mortgage, 322; + foreclosing a mortgage, 322; + agent and commission, 323; + letters in, 324 ff.; + topics for investigation and discussion, 327. + + Receipt for freight, 285. + + Redemption of bonds, 358. + + Reflexive pronouns, 59. + + Reform, farm, 329. + + Relative pronouns, list of, 54, 59; + declined, 59; + double, 59; + restrictive, 59 ff.; + compound, 59. + + Relative value of different forms of advertising, 310. + + Remedy for wrecks, 306-307. + + Remittance, forms of, 338 ff. + Check, 339; + certified check, 339 ff.; + endorsement, methods of, 340; + express money order, 340; + postal money order, 341; + bank draft, 341 ff.; + time draft, 343 ff.; + sight draft, 344 ff. + + Rent, 321. + + Reproduction, oral, from magazines, 147 ff.; + from newspapers, 154 ff. + + Requesting payment, letters, 253 ff. + + Restricting the subject, 150. + + Restrictive relative pronouns, 59 ff. + + Retail merchant, the, 286 ff. + + Richards' baby stocking fund, 337. + + _Rise_ and _raise_, 101. + + Roots, Greek, 30. + + Rules. + For spelling: + regular plurals in _s_ and _es_, 18; + changing final _y_ to _i_, 19; + nouns in _o_, 19; + nouns in _f_ and _fe_, 19; + plural by change of vowel, 19; + by adding _en_, 19; + no change for the plural, 20; + two plurals, 20; + compound nouns, 20; + plurals of letters and figures, 20; + foreign plurals, 21; + doubling final consonant, 21-22; + retaining _y_ before _ing_, 23; + _ie_ or _ei_, 24; + soft _c_ and _g_, 24; + dropping final silent _e_, 25; + retaining final _e_, 25-26. + For punctuation: + the apostrophe, to show the possessive case of nouns, 159; + to show omission of letters, 160; + to show plurals of letters, figures, and words not + regularly nouns, 160; + capitals, 160 ff.; + the period, 162; + the interrogation mark, 162; + the exclamation mark, 162; + quotation marks, 163 ff.; + comma in direct quotations, 170; + comma in series, 171 ff.; + comma in compound sentence, 173 ff.; + comma after initial clause or participial phrase, 175 ff.; + comma to separate month from year, etc., 178; + comma to show omission of words, 178; + comma to set off appositive, 179 ff.; + comma to set off parenthetical expressions, 180 ff.; + comma to set off independent elements, 182 ff.; + comma to set off non-restrictive relative clause, 185 ff.; + comma to set off subordinate element at the end of the + sentence, 188 ff.; + the semicolon, 192 ff.; + the colon, 194 ff.; + the dash, 195 ff.; + parenthesis marks, 196; + the hyphen, 196. + + + _S 1_, comma fault, 44. + + _S 2_, use of phrase or clause as sentence, 45. + + Sacramento City, paragraph on, 48. + + _Salary_, 3. + + Sales letter, the, 244 ff. + + Salesman, the, 298 ff.; + letters to help the, 301-302. + + Salutation, the, of business letters, 232, 236-237. + + _Same_, not a pronoun, 72-73; + distinctly business blunder, 243. + + Saving, paragraphs on, 182, 184, 193. + + Savings banks, 334, 336; postal, 337. + + Savings department of bank, 332. + + _Saw_ and _seen_, 99-100. + + Sawdust, paragraph on, 174. + + Second object, 66. + + Secretary's report, the, 115 (note). + + _Sede_, _cede_, _ceed_, 34. + + Selection of seed, 330-331. + + Semicolon, uses of, 45, 174, 192 ff. + + Sentence, the, and its elements, 41 ff.; + subject of, 41; + simple, 42; + complex, 42; + compound, 42; + compound, punctuation of, 45, 174; + predicate of, 41; + declarative, defined, 41; + interrogative, defined, 41; + imperative, defined, 41; + exclamatory, defined, 41; + simple, defined, 42; + compound, defined, 42; + complex, defined, 42; + errors, 44. + + Separation, the keynote of punctuation, 159. + + Series, punctuation of, 171 ff. + + _Set_, and _sit_, 101. + + _Shall_ and _will_, 89, 92. + + Shareholders, 355. + + Shares, of capital stock, 355. + + Shift in construction, 211 ff. + + Short sentences, combination of, 202 ff. + + _Should_ and _would_, 93-94. + + Sight draft, 344-345. + + Signature, the, in business letters, 232, 237-238. + + Silent consonant, words containing, 11. + + Silent vowels, 11. + + Silver certificates, 332. + + Simple sentence, defined, 42. + + _Since_, as preposition and conjunction, 55. + + _sion_, _tion_, _cion_, 34. + + _Sit_ and _set_, 101. + + Slang, 129. + + Slurring of syllables, 7. + + Smooth connection, 127-128, 224; + methods of securing, 224. + + Snappy style, in letter writing, 246. + + _So--as_, in negative comparisons, 125. + + _So_ habit, to avoid the, 111, 128. + + Soudan, cotton in the, 181. + + South Africa, parcel post in, 306. + + Specials, railroad farming, 330. + + _Spectator, The_, paragraph from Macaulay, 218-219. + + Speech, parts of, 48 ff. + + Speech, plan in making, 131 ff.; + outline for, 151 ff. + + Spelling, rules, 18 ff.; + 500 words for, 36 ff. + + Split infinitive, 77, 209. + + States, abbreviation of names of, 26-27. + + Steamship company, the, 284. + + Steel, trouble in introducing, 191. + + Stenographic efficiency, 217. + + Still-life advertisements, 314. + + Stock, capital, common and preferred, 353, 355; + authorized capital, 355. + + Stockholders, 355. + + Stocks, of a corporation, 354 ff. + + Straight bill of lading, 285. + + Style, in letter writing, 244 ff. + + Subject, as a whole, 148; + divisions of, 149 ff.; + making outline of, 151 ff.; + restricting the, 150, 153; + of the sentence, 41, 65; + simple, 55; + complete, 55; + of subordinate clause, 55; + compound, number of, 86; + incorrect omission of, in business letters, 242. + + Subjective complement, 65. + + Subjects, how to choose, 146 ff.; + for debates, 141, 144, 275, 290, 302; + for compositions on manufacture, 274, 275, 278-279; + on distribution, 299, 301, 303, 304; + on advertising, 317, 318; + suggested by personal experience, 147; + suggested by reading, 147, 154. + + Subjunctive mode, defined, 112; + of _be_, 112; + used to denote possibility, 113. + + Subordinate clauses, adjective, adverb, noun, 54; + subject of, 55. + + Subordinate conjunctions, list of, 54. + + Subordination, in the sentence, 201 ff. + + Subscription, outline of letters to sell, 268. + + Success, elements of, 135. + + Successful men and women, 136. + + Suffix, usually constituting a syllable, 16; + Anglo-Saxon, 29; + adjective, 30; + verb, 31; + noun, 31; + _able_ and _ible_, 33; + _ant_ and _ent_, 33. + + Suggestions for debates, 139 ff., 144; + on manufacture, 275; + on distribution, 290, 302. + + Suggestive names in advertisements, 313; + headlines, 313-314. + + Superlative degree, of adjectives, 78; + of adverbs, 79. + + Superlatives, to be avoided, 129. + + Syllabication, 15. + + Syllables, slurred, 7; + division of words into, 15 ff. + + Synopsis of _write_, active voice, 91. + + + _Teach_ and _learn_, 101. + + Technical words, 4. + + Tense, defined, 88; + of participle, 109; + of infinitive, 110. + + Tenses, distinguished, 88 ff. + (See _Present tense_, _Past tense_, _Perfect tenses_.) + + _Than_ and _as_, case following, 121. + + _That_, restrictive relative, 59 ff. + + _That is_, punctuation with, 195. + + _The following_, punctuation with, 195. + + Themes, oral, 127 ff. + (See _Oral themes_.) + + _There_, _their_, 126. + + Thinking, business, 2. + + _Thus_, punctuation with, 195. + + Tilde, 9. + + Time draft, 343-344. + + _Tion_, _sion_, _cion_, 34. + + _Tious_, troublesome ending, 33. + + Title, clear, to property, 322. + + Titles, 150; + of officials and of honor, 161; + of books and plays, 162. + + _To_, _too_, _two_, distinguished, 125-126. + + Tone, of the letter, 240. + + Topic sentence, in the paragraph, 216 ff. + + Topics for investigation and discussion, on manufacture, 278-279; + on distribution, 304; + on real estate, 327; + on banking, 349-350; + on the corporation, 365. + + Trade, Latin-American, 306. + + Traffic department of railroad, 359. + + Transitive verb, followed by objective case, 66; + defined, 83. + + Transportation, 283. + + Troublesome verbs, 100 ff.; + _lie_ and _lay_, 100 ff.; + _sit_, _set_, 101; + _fly_, _flow_, _flee_, 101; + _rise_, _raise_, 101; + _teach_, _learn_, 101; + _may_, _can_, 102; + _might_, _could_, 102; + _accept_, _except_, 102; + _affect_, _effect_, 102 ff.; + _lose_, _loose_, 103. + + Trust companies, 334, 337. + + Trust department of a bank, 332. + + + Uncertain antecedents, pronouns with, 207 ff. + + United States treasury notes, 333. + + Unity, in the sentence, 199; + in the paragraph, 216. + + Unless, a conjunction, 124. + + Until, as preposition and conjunction, 55. + + Usefulness, its appeal in advertising, 311. + + Utility corporations, public, 36 ff. + + + Value, par of stock, 355 ff.; + market, 355 ff. + + Vanity, its appeal in advertising, 311. + + Variety of expression, 111. + + Verb, the, 83 ff.; + defined, 49; + transitive, 66, 83; + intransitive, 83; + copulative, 83; + active voice of, 84; + passive voice of, 84; + number of, 85; + person of, 85; + singular with certain words, 85 ff.; + plural with certain subjects, 86; + tense of, 88 ff.; + _shall_ and _will_, 92; + _should_ and _would_, 93; + conjugation of _be_, 104 ff.; + _be_ used to make progressive tenses, 105; + _be_ used to make passive voice, 105 ff.; + the participle, 109; + the infinitive, 110; + mode, 112 ff.; + conjugation of _write_, active voice, 88 ff.; + _follow_, passive voice, 105 ff.; + synopsis of _write_, active voice, 91; + synopsis of _follow_, passive voice, 106. + + Verbal noun, defined, 57; + possessive case with, 67 ff. + + Verbs, incorrectly used, 114; + participles of verbs in _y_, 23; + taking two objects, 66; + taking indirect and direct objects, 66; + principal parts of irregular, 95 ff.; + troublesome, 100 ff.; + _lie_, _lay_, distinguished, 100; + _sit_ and _set_, distinguished, 101; + _fly_, _flow_, _flee_, distinguished, 101; + _rise_ and _raise_, distinguished, 101; + _teach_ and _learn_, distinguished, 101; + _may_ and _can_, distinguished, 102; + _might_ and _could_, distinguished, 102; + _accept_ and _except_, distinguished, 102; + _affect_ and _effect_, distinguished, 102; + _lose_ and _loose_, distinguished, 103; + _had ought_, incorrectly used, 103; + certain prepositions used with, 116 ff. + + _Very_ and _real_, distinguished, 81 + + Voice, active and passive, defined, 84; + of the participle, 109; + of the infinitive, 110. + + Vowels, pronunciation of, 9; + length of, in monosyllables ending in _e_, 9; + words containing silent, 11. + + + Warranty deed, 322. + + Washed money, 351-352. + + Washing machine, letters to sell, outline, 269. + + Watered stock, 357. + + Way-bill, railroad, 286. + + _Were_, _where_, distinguished, 126. + + _What_, double relative, 59. + + _Who_, and _which_, used restrictively, 60. + + _Who_ and _whom_, 70 ff. + + _Whoever_ and _whomever_, 71. + + Wholesale merchant, the, 291 ff. + + _Why_, childish use of, 128. + + _Will_ and _shall_, 89, 92 ff. + + _Will you be so good as to_, 243. + + Wish, subjunctive to express, 113. + + _Without_, a preposition, 124; + incorrectly used as conjunction, 124. + + Word analysis, 29 ff. + + Words, interesting, 1 ff.; + obsolete, 3; + technical, 4; + similarly pronounced 14, 15; + frequently mispronounced, 13, 17; + containing _dg_, 25; + ending in silent _e_, retain or drop _e_, 25; + analysis of, 32; + easily confused, list of, 35 ff.; + 500 for spelling, 36 ff.; + used as different parts of speech, 51; + omission of, punctuation to show, 178. + + Wordiness, 130 ff, 200-201. + + _Would_ and _should_, 93 ff. + + _Would say_, to be avoided, 243. + + _Write_, conjugation of, active voice, 88 ff.; + synopsis of, passive voice, 91. + + Writing advertisements, exercises in, 315-316. + + Written composition, 1, 127 ff. + + Written expression, 1, 127 ff. + + + _Y_, nouns ending in, plural of, 19. + + "Yellow" invasion, paragraph on the, 182. + + _You_ attitude, the, in letter writing, 244. + + _Yze_, _ize_, _ise_, 34. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + +Text uses both "to-day" and "today." + +Obvious punctuation errors were corrected. + +Pages 116-117, entry for "confide" was originally placed after +"correspond." It was relocated to be in the correct alphabetical order. + +Pages 171-172, the examples were placed out of order. The section +beginning "reporter, business manager" to the end of the paragraph was +originally located after a space following the Abraham Lincoln +paragraph. The first part of the Abraham Lincoln paragraph originally +ended with "nor a year it". The rest of that paragraph was originally +located at the top of the next page. These paragraphs have been adjusted +to read correctly. Copies of the original pages may be seen in the +transcriber's notes for the HTML version of this text. + +Page 245, "foward" changed to "forward" (We shall forward) + +Page 337, "committe" changed to "committee" (A committee was appointed) + +Page 359, "natually" changed to "naturally" (will naturally lead us) + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH*** + + +******* This file should be named 38046-8.txt or 38046-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/8/0/4/38046 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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