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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Business English, by Rose Buhlig
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Business English
+       A Practice Book
+
+
+Author: Rose Buhlig
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 18, 2011  [eBook #38046]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes, Emmy, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 38046-h.htm or 38046-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38046/38046-h/38046-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38046/38046-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+      Due to the constraints of a plain text file, not all letters
+      can be represented as originally printed. These letters are
+      represented as follows:
+
+         [+x] letter with tack above
+         [)xx] two letters with a breve above
+         [=xx] two letters with a macron above
+         [x:] a letter with an umlaut or diaeresis below
+         [)y] letter with a breve above
+         [x=] letter with a macron below
+         [\x] letter with a slash through it
+
+
+
+         
+         
+BUSINESS ENGLISH
+
+A Practice Book
+
+by
+
+ROSE BUHLIG
+
+Tilden High School, Chicago
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers
+Boston    New York    Chicago
+
+Copyright, 1914,
+By D. C. Heath & Co.
+2FI
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+THE author of this book and the writer of this preface have never met.
+Their respective fields of labor are a thousand miles apart. Yet such is
+the force of ideas that many of their thoughts and sympathies are
+common.
+
+Business English! The very name is an anomaly. From a literary point of
+view there is no such thing. English is English whether it be used to
+express the creations of our imagination, our aesthetic appreciations,
+or our daily wants. There is no magical combination of words, phrases,
+and sentences that is peculiar and distinctive to business transactions.
+Business English as used in these pages means effective communication,
+both oral and written. The author's aim throughout has been to teach the
+art of using words in such a way as to make people think and act. To do
+this she has applied the principles of literary composition to the
+highly complex and ever increasing problems of our business life. She
+realizes that business is vital, and that the problems of commerce are
+not to be met and handled with dead forms and stereotyped expressions of
+legal blanks.
+
+To use our language effectively it is necessary to have an understanding
+of its elements. Thus the author has very wisely devoted much space to
+word-study and English grammar. This is a field commonly neglected in
+books on the subject. The people engaged in business are, on the whole,
+woefully weak in the grammar of our language. It is believed that the
+treatment herein will be a great aid in correcting this deficiency. If
+we have ideas, we must express them in words, and our words should be so
+chosen and arranged as not to offend, but to please and interest. This
+result can be secured by a systematic study of Part I.
+
+Part II deals with oral and written composition. Here the author has
+arranged her subjects in such a way as to give the whole a cumulative
+effect. The method throughout is inductive, and sufficient examples are
+always given to warrant the conclusions drawn. Most textbooks on
+Business English neglect the subject of oral English. This book regards
+the spoken word as important as the written word.
+
+If there be any one feature in this textbook more to be commended than
+another, it is the exposition in Part III. The situations arising in
+many different kinds of business are here analyzed. The author believes
+that the way to become a good business correspondent is, first, to learn
+what the situation demands and, second, to practice meeting the demands.
+We must know before we write. Given a knowledge of the subject, we must
+have much practice in expressing ourselves in such a way as to make our
+composition effective. The author meets this need by supplying many and
+varied exercises for practice. These exercises are live, practical, and
+up-to-date. The problems to be solved are real, not imaginary. Thus the
+power to be gained in meeting these situations and solving these
+problems will prove a real asset to those who contemplate a business
+career. It is confidently hoped that both teachers and pupils will find
+in this work material which will help them to prepare themselves to meet
+the many problems and demands of our growing commercial needs.
+
+                                   DANIEL B. DUNCAN
+
+    COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+          _January, 1914._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  PART I--WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR
+
+  CHAPTER                                      PAGE
+
+      I INTERESTING WORDS                        1
+     II PRONUNCIATION                            7
+    III SPELLING RULES                          18
+     IV WORD ANALYSIS                           29
+      V THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS           41
+     VI THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN                57
+    VII THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB            75
+   VIII THE VERB                                83
+     IX THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION    116
+
+
+  PART II--COMPOSITION: ORAL AND WRITTEN
+
+      X ORAL ENGLISH                           127
+     XI CHOOSING SUBJECTS                      146
+    XII PUNCTUATION                            158
+   XIII THE CLEAR SENTENCE                     199
+    XIV THE PARAGRAPH                          215
+     XV BUSINESS LETTERS                       229
+
+
+  PART III--COMPOSITION: BUSINESS PRACTICE
+
+    XVI MANUFACTURE                            270
+   XVII DISTRIBUTION                           282
+  XVIII ADVERTISING                            308
+    XIX REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE              321
+     XX BANKING                                332
+    XXI THE CORPORATION                        353
+
+  INDEX                                        369
+
+
+
+
+BUSINESS ENGLISH
+
+
+
+
+PART I--WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTERESTING WORDS
+
+
+BUSINESS English is the expression of our commercial life in English. It
+is not synonymous with letter writing. To be sure, business letters are
+important, but they form only a part of one of the two large divisions
+into which the subject naturally falls.
+
+First, there is _oral expression_, important because so many of our
+business transactions are conducted personally. Thousands of salesmen
+daily move from place to place over the entire country, earning their
+salaries by talking convincingly of the goods that they have to sell. A
+still greater number of clerks, salesmen, managers, and officials orally
+transact business in our shops, stores, offices, and banks. Complaints
+are adjusted; difficulties are disentangled; and affairs of magnitude
+are consummated in personal interviews, the matter under discussion
+often being thought too important to be entrusted to correspondence. In
+every business oral English is essential.
+
+Second, there is _written expression_. This takes account of the writing
+of advertisements, circulars, booklets, and prospectuses, as well as of
+letters. And in the preparation of these oral English is fundamental. It
+precedes and practically includes the written expression. For example,
+we say colloquially that a good advertisement "talks." We mean that the
+writer has so fully realized the buyer's point of view that the words of
+the advertisement seem to speak directly to the reader, arousing his
+interest or perhaps answering his objection. Oral English is
+fundamental, too, in the writing of letters, for most letters are
+dictated and not written. The correspondent dictates them to his
+stenographer or to a recording machine in the same tone, probably, that
+he would use if the customer were sitting before him.
+
+But in taking this point of view, we should not minimize the importance
+of written business English. In a way, it is more difficult to write
+well than it is to talk well. In talking we are not troubled with the
+problems of correct spelling, proper punctuation, and good paragraphing.
+We may even repeat somewhat, if only we are persuasive. But in writing
+we are confronted with the necessity of putting the best thoughts into
+the clearest, most concise language, at the same time obeying all the
+rules of spelling, punctuation, and grammar. The business man must be
+sure of these details in order to know that his letters and advertising
+matter are correct. The stenographer, especially, must be thoroughly
+familiar with them, so that she may correctly transcribe what has been
+dictated.
+
+Business English is much the same as any other English. It consists in
+expression by means of words, sentences, and paragraphs. Moreover, they
+are much the same kind of words, sentences, and paragraphs that appear
+in any book that is written in what is commonly called the literary
+style. In a business letter the words are largely those of every day
+use, and but few are technical. It is the manner in which the words are
+put together, the idea back of the sentence, that makes the only
+difference.
+
+We shall begin the study of business English with a study of words, for
+in all expression, whether oral or written, a knowledge of words, of
+their meaning and suggestive power, is fundamental. On the choice of
+words depends not only the correctness but also the effectiveness of
+expression--the courtesy of a letter, the appeal of an advertisement,
+the persuasiveness of a salesman's talk. A mastery of words cannot be
+gained at once. Every time one speaks, he must consider what words will
+best convey his idea. In this chapter only the barest beginning of such
+study can be made. The exercises show the value of the subject.
+
+The study of words is interesting because words themselves are
+interesting. Sometimes the interest consists in the story of the
+derivation. As an example, consider the word _italic_. Many words in
+this book are written in italic to draw attention to them. Literally the
+word means "relating to Italy or its people." It is now applied to a
+kind of type in which the letters slope toward the right. The type was
+called italic because it was dedicated to the states of Italy by the
+inventor, Manutius, about the year 1500. An unabridged dictionary will
+tell all about the word.
+
+The word _salary_ tells a curious story. It is derived from a Latin
+word, _salarium_, meaning "salt money." It was the name of the money
+that was given to the Roman soldiers for salt, which was a part of their
+pay. Finally, instead of signifying only the salt money, it came to mean
+the total pay.
+
+Practically all of this information a good dictionary gives. In other
+words, a dictionary is a story book containing not one, but hundreds of
+thousands of stories. Whenever possible it tells what language a word
+came from, how it got its different meanings, and how those meanings
+have changed in the course of time. For it is natural that words should
+change just as styles change, names of ancient things being lost and
+names for new things being made. As the objects themselves have gone out
+of use, their names have also gone. When a word has gone entirely out of
+use, it is marked _obsolete_ in the dictionary. On the other hand, new
+inventions must be named. Thus new words are constantly being added to
+the language and the dictionary because they are needed.
+
+There is a large class of words that we shall not have time to
+consider. They are called _technical_. Every profession, business, or
+trade has its distinctive words. The technical words that a printer
+would use are entirely different from those which a dentist, a
+bookkeeper, or a lawyer would use. You will learn the technical terms of
+your business most thoroughly after you enter it and see the use for
+such terms.
+
+None of the words, therefore, that you will be asked to search out in
+the dictionary are, strictly speaking, technical. It is evident that it
+will do you no good to search out the words in the dictionary, unless
+you learn them--unless you use them correctly in speaking and writing.
+There is pleasure in thus employing new material, as everybody knows.
+Use your eyes and ears. When you hear a new word, or read one, focus the
+mind upon it for a moment until you can retain a mental picture of its
+spelling and of its pronunciation. Then as soon as possible look it up
+in the dictionary to fix its spelling, pronunciation, and definition. Do
+this regularly, and you will have reason to be proud of your vocabulary.
+
+An excellent way to increase the number of words that you know is to
+read the right kind of books. The careful study of the words used in the
+speeches and addresses of noted men is good practice. The conditions
+that called forth the speech were probably important, and the speech
+itself interesting, or it would not be preserved. When a man has an
+interesting or important message to give, he usually gives it in clear,
+exact, simple language. Therefore the vocabulary that he uses is worth
+copying. As for stories, there is a kind that furnishes a wealth of
+material that modern authors are constantly using or referring to, and
+this is found in stories of the Bible, stories of Greek and Northern
+gods and goddesses, stories of the _Iliad_, the _Odyssey_, the _Æneid_,
+stories of chivalry--all old stories. Every one should know them well,
+because they are the basis of many allusions in which a single word
+oftentimes suggests a whole story. The meaning of the word _herculean_,
+for instance, is missed if you do not know the story of Hercules and
+know that he was famous for his strength.
+
+
+=Exercise 1=
+
+_Atlas_ is an interesting word. Originally it was the name of a Greek
+god, who carried the world on his shoulders. Then it is supposed that in
+the sixteenth century the famous geographer Mercator prefixed his
+collection of maps with the picture of Atlas supporting the world. Thus
+a collection of maps in a volume came to be called an _atlas_. Consult
+an unabridged dictionary for the origin of each of the following:
+
+    rival       fortune     cereal      boycott
+    dollar      finance     china       derrick
+    bankrupt    milliner    java        mercury
+    cash        pullman     cashmere    colossal
+    mint        grocer      macadam     turbine
+
+
+=Exercise 2=
+
+The days of the week and the months of the year are interesting in their
+derivation. Monday, for example, represents the day sacred to the Moon
+as a deity. Explain the origin of each of the following:
+
+    Sunday       Saturday     May          October
+    Tuesday      January      June         November
+    Wednesday    February     July         December
+    Thursday     March        August
+    Friday       April        September
+
+
+=Exercise 3=
+
+Look up the derivation of the following:
+
+    cancel        bead          ambition      hospital
+    pecuniary     paper         influence     pavilion
+    cheat         book          virtue        mackintosh
+    speculation   bayonet       peevish       chapel
+    phaëton       tawdry        disaster      omnibus
+
+
+=Exercise 4=
+
+Explain the origin of each of the following:
+
+    curfew        tulip         turquoise     good-bye
+    pompadour     aster         amethyst      dismal
+    hyacinth      dunce         tantalize     titanic
+    dandelion     humor         umbrella      volcano
+    dahlia        villain       sandwich      tangle
+    begonia       echo          lunatic       babble
+
+
+=Exercise 5=
+
+Name the image that each of the following suggests to you:
+
+    howl        sputter     rasping     munch
+    skim        prance      clatter     trickle
+    squeal      click       wheeze      shuffle
+    moan        thud        trudge      bulge
+    squeak      patter      chuckle     gobble
+    squawk      spatter     toddling    swish
+
+
+=Exercise 6=
+
+Bring to class a list of words which, because they are the names of
+modern inventions, have come into the language in modern time.
+
+
+=Exercise 7=
+
+How many words can you name which might be called the technical terms of
+school life, words which always carry with them a suggestion of the
+school room? Bring in a list of twenty such words.
+
+
+=Exercise 8=
+
+How many words can you name which are used only in the business world?
+Bring in a list of twenty such words.
+
+
+=Exercise 9=
+
+How many words can you name which apply particularly to money and the
+payment or non-payment of money? Bring in a list of twenty or more such
+words.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PRONUNCIATION
+
+
+WE are judged by our speech. If we clip syllables, run words together,
+or pronounce them incorrectly, we shall merit the criticism of being
+careless or even ignorant. Yet clear enunciation and correct
+pronunciation are sometimes difficult. We learn most words by hearing
+others say them, and, if we do not hear the true values given to the
+different syllables, we shall find it hard to distinguish the correct
+from the incorrect forms. Children whose parents speak a foreign
+language usually have to watch their speech with especial care; Germans,
+for example, find difficulty in saying _th_ and Irish people in saying
+_oi_ as in _oil_. The exercises in this chapter are given for the
+purpose of correcting such habits. The words in the exercises should be
+pronounced repeatedly, until the correct forms are instinctive.
+
+Train the ear to hear the difference between sounds, as in _just_ and in
+_jest_. Don't slide over the final consonant in such words as _going_
+and _reading_. Watch words containing _wh_. The dictionary tells us that
+_where_ was originally written _hwar_, the _h_ coming before the _w_;
+and we still pronounce it so, although we write the _w_ before the _h_.
+The word _whether_ is of the same kind. The dictionary tells us that it
+was first spelled _hweder_. Such words should be carefully noted and
+their pronunciation practiced.
+
+Then there is the habit of slurring syllables. We may understand what is
+meant by the expression "C'm' on" or "Waja say?", but most of us would
+prefer not to be included in the class of people who use either. Correct
+speech cannot be mastered without an effort.
+
+In the following exercises watch every vowel and every consonant so that
+you may give each one its full value.
+
+
+=Exercise 10--Diacritical Marks=
+
+Although an _a_ is always written _a_, it is not always given the same
+quality or length of sound. When we discover a new word, it is important
+that we know exactly the quality to give each of the vowels in it. For
+this purpose _diacritical marks_ have been invented. They are
+illustrated in the following list from Webster's _International
+Dictionary_.
+
+      ā   as in āte, fāte, lāb´or
+     [+a] "  "  sen´[+a]te, del´ic[+a]te, [+a]e´rial
+      â   "  "  câre, shâre, pâr´ent
+      ă   "  "  ăm, ădd, răn´dom
+      ä   "  "  ärm, fär, fä´ther
+      ȧ   "  "  ȧsk, grȧss, pȧss, dȧnce
+     [a=] "  "  fi´n[a=]l, in´f[a=]nt, guid´ānce
+     [a:] "  "  [a:]ll, [a:]we, sw[a:]rm, t[a:]lk
+      ē   "  "  ēve, mēte, serēne´
+     [+e] "  "  [+e]vent´, d[+e]pend´, soci´[+e]ty
+      ĕ   "  "  ĕnd, mĕt, ĕxcuse´, ĕfface´
+      ẽ   "  "  fẽrn, hẽr, ẽr´mine, ev´ẽr
+     _e_  "  "  re´c_e_nt, de´c_e_ncy, pru´d_e_nce
+      ī   "  "  īce, tīme, sīght, inspīre´
+     [+i] "  "  [+i]dea´, tr[+i]bu´nal, b[+i]ol´ogy
+      ĭ   "  "  ĭll, pĭn, pĭt´y, admĭt´
+      ō   "  "  ōld, nōte, ō´ver, prōpose´
+     [+o] "  "  [+o]bey´, t[+o]bac´co, sor´r[+o]w
+      ô   "  "  ôrb, lôrd, ôr´der, abhôr´
+      ŏ   "  "  ŏdd, nŏt, tŏr´rid, ŏccur´
+      ū   "  "  ūse, pūre, dū´ty, assūme´
+     [+u] "  "  [+u]nite´, ac´t[+u]ate, ed[+u]ca´tion
+      ṳ   "  "  rṳde, rṳ´mor, intrṳde´
+      ụ   "  "  fụll, pụt, fụlfill´
+      ŭ   "  "  ŭp, tŭb, stŭd´y
+      û   "  "  ûrn, fûr, concûr´
+     [)y] "  "  pit´[)y], in´jur[)y], divin´it[)y]
+    [=oo] "  "  f[=oo]l, f[=oo]d, m[=oo]n
+    [)oo] "  "  f[)oo]t, w[)oo]l, b[)oo]k
+      ou  "  "  out, thou, devour´
+      oi  "  "  oil, noi´sy, avoid´
+
+    ā is called long _a_, and is marked with the _macron_
+    ă is called short _a_, and is marked with the _breve_
+    â is called caret _a_, and is marked with the _caret_
+    ä is called Italian _a_, and is marked with the _diaeresis_
+    ȧ  is called short Italian _a_, and is marked with the _dot_
+    ẽ is called tilde _e_, and is marked with the _tilde_ or _wave_
+
+
+=Exercise 11--Vowels=
+
+Of the twenty-six letters in the alphabet, how many are vowels? Name
+them. What are the other letters called?
+
+Compare the _ă_ in _hat_ and the _ā_ in _hate_. Which has more nearly
+the sound of _a_ in the alphabet? This is called the natural or long
+sound of the vowel. The other is called the short sound.
+
+Drop the _e_ from _hate_. Explain the result.
+
+Name other monosyllables ending in _e_ and containing the long _a_
+sound.
+
+Explain the difference in pronunciation between _Pete_, _pet_, _ripe_,
+_rip_, _hope_, _hop_, _cube_, _cub_.
+
+Find other monosyllables ending in _e_ and containing a long vowel that
+becomes short if the _e_ is dropped.
+
+=Monosyllables ending in silent _e_ usually contain a long vowel sound,
+which becomes short when the final _e_ is dropped.=
+
+
+=Exercise 12=
+
+Pronounce carefully the following words containing the short Italian
+_a_:
+
+    advȧnce      clȧss      lȧnce     plȧster
+    advȧntage    contrȧst   lȧst      pȧstor
+    ȧfter        enchȧnt    mȧsk      prȧnce
+    bȧsket       Frȧnce     mȧster    rȧfter
+    brȧnch       glȧnce     mȧstiff   shȧft
+    brȧss        glȧss      pȧss      surpȧss
+    chȧff        grȧss      pȧst      tȧsk
+
+
+=Exercise 13=
+
+Pronounce the following carefully, noting each _a_ that is marked:
+
+    hälf         ideȧ         cälm        audācious
+    pȧth         cȧn't        āpricot      ȧghȧst
+    ȧsk          cătch        mȧdrăs       ălgebrȧ
+    fäther       v[+a]cātion  ăgile       forbăde
+    dȧnce        extrȧ        cȧst         trȧnce
+    lȧss         cȧsket       grȧnt        āviātion
+
+
+=Exercise 14=
+
+Pronounce the vowel _o_ in the following very carefully. Don't give the
+sound _feller_ or _fella_ when you mean _fellow_.
+
+    fellow      swallow     theory      borrow
+    potato      follow      position    heroism
+    window      original    factory     donkey
+    pillow      evaporate   ivory       memory
+    chocolate   mosquito    licorice    oriental
+
+
+=Exercise 15=
+
+The vowel _u_ needs particular attention. When it is long, it is sounded
+naturally, as it is in the alphabet. Do not say _redooce_ for _reduce_.
+
+    reduce         picture        educate        figure
+    produce        stupid         judicial       duty
+    conducive      student        calculate      accumulate
+    endure         genuine        curiosity      Tuesday
+    duration       induce         regular        particular
+    singular       avenue         tune           institute
+    nutriment      constitution   culinary       January
+    revenue        introduce      opportunity    manufacture
+
+
+=Exercise 16=
+
+Using diacritical marks indicate the value of the vowels in the
+following. Try marking them without first consulting a dictionary. After
+you have marked them, compare your markings with those used in a
+dictionary.
+
+    pupil         different     diacritical   gigantic
+    alphabet      several       radiating     gymnasium
+    natural       letter        Wyoming       system
+    result        eraser        typical       merchant
+
+
+=Exercise 17=
+
+Pronounce carefully, noting that in each word at least one consonant is
+silent, and sometimes a vowel as well. Draw an oblique line through the
+silent letter or letters in each.
+
+    through     chasten    sword       island
+    although    often       fasten      daughter
+    wrong       soften      calf        might
+    yacht       subtle      hasten      bouquet
+    gnaw        almond      naughty     honest
+    psalm       glisten     thumb       palm
+    whistle     salve       should      knack
+    salmon      chestnut    knowledge   castle
+    answer      folks       listen      thigh
+    knot        right       debt        honor
+
+
+=Exercise 18=
+
+Pronounce the following, paying particular attention to the vowels.
+Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each group.
+
+    accept     bile       least      prevision
+    except     boil       lest       provision
+
+    affect     carol      eleven     poor
+    effect     coral      leaven     pure
+
+    addition   descent    neither    radish
+    edition    dissent    nether     reddish
+
+    assay      emerge     pasture    sentry
+    essay      immerge    pastor     century
+
+    baron      Francis    pillar     sit
+    barren     Frances    pillow     set
+
+    been       jest       point      wrench
+    bean       just       pint       rinse
+               gist
+
+
+=Exercise 19=
+
+Enunciate the consonant sounds carefully in the following. Distinguish
+between the meanings of the words in each group.
+
+    acts         close        treaties     rows
+    ax           clothes      treatise     rouse
+
+    advice       crossed      princes      rues
+    advise       across       princess     ruse
+
+    alms         formerly     prince       either
+    elms         formally     prints       ether
+
+    bodice       grays        price        running
+    bodies       grace        prize        ruin
+
+    cease        lose         recent       walking
+    seize        loose        resent       walk in
+
+    chance       plaintive    sects        weather
+    chants       plaintiff    sex          whether
+
+    does         pair         news         worst
+    dose         payer        noose        worsted (yarn)
+    doze
+
+
+=Exercise 20=
+
+Pronounce the following, making sure that each syllable is correct.
+Guard against slurring the words in the last column.
+
+    been       such       barrel     Did you?
+    gone       put        faucet     Don't you?
+    to         with       suburb     Go on.
+    for        tiny       hearth     Our education
+    aunt       and        nothing    You are
+    far        poem       office     You're not
+    our        catch      peril      We're coming
+    kept       toward     forbade    They're coming
+    says       donkey     spirit     What did you say?
+    rid        again      semi       Where are you going?
+    since      against    scared     Where have you been?
+    sleek      honest     saucy      I want to go.
+    creek      savage     turnip     I'm going to go.
+    where      swept      roof       To-morrow morning
+    boil       velvet     proof      Next month
+    hoist      direct     hydrant    Last Saturday
+
+
+=Exercise 21=
+
+Enunciate carefully:
+
+    salary        gentleman     supple        gymnasium
+    because       library       subtle        perspiration
+    ideal         wrestle       italic        clapboards
+    suite         vessel        insect        cupboard
+    thirty        friendship    orchid        archangel
+    tomato        judgment      hovel         candelabra
+    grimy         cowardice     several       extraordinary
+    patron        miserable     pumpkin       civilization
+    omelet        guarantee     accurate      horseshoe
+    hundred       gelatine      guardian      laboratory
+    coupon        glycerine     delinquent    tenacious
+    awkward       paraffine     secretary     measure
+    hurrah        portrait      audacious     February
+    pigeon        mercantile    conquer       cellar
+    history       juvenile      conquest      perfect
+    diamond       thousand      congress      grandmother
+    asylum        overalls      licorice      generally
+
+
+=Exercise 22=
+
+Be especially careful of the sounds _th_ and _wh_. Add no syllable to a
+word and omit none. Consult a dictionary for any word below about which
+you are not certain:
+
+    when          length        diphthong     generally
+    where         strength      diphtheria    forget
+    while         height        anesthetic    recognize
+    wharf         width         betrothal     hungry
+    which         depth         theory        geography
+    wheel         there         theme         instead
+    wheeze        them          arithmetic    isolated
+    why           eleventh      bathe         writing
+    whiff         twelfth       lathe         kettle
+    whence        thought       believe       language
+    whet          throat        bronchitis    leisure
+    what          wreaths       government    volume
+    whale         paths         courteous     column
+    wheat         months        different     always
+    wheedle       mouths        engine        once
+    whelp         myths         English       twice
+    whimper       breadths      surprise      arctic
+    whip          moths         deaf          Italian
+    whit          bath          children      picture
+    whither       earth         cruel         often
+
+
+=Exercise 23--Homonyms=
+
+A homonym is a word having the same sound as another but differing from
+it in meaning. Use each of the following in a sentence to show its
+meaning.
+
+    aloud         draft         fowl          principal
+    allowed       draught       foul          principle
+
+    ascent        faint         gate          peal
+    assent        feint         gait          peel
+
+    aught         canvas        great         quire
+    ought         canvass       grate         choir
+
+    bad           cereal        hew           seen
+    bade          serial        hue           scene
+
+    bale          cession       kernel        soul
+    bail          session       colonel       sole
+
+    berry         cite          leased        strait
+    bury          site          least         straight
+
+    boy           coarse        lesser        stair
+    buoy          course        lessor        stare
+
+    by            compliment    mite          sweet
+    buy           complement    might         suite
+
+    council       feign         miner         there
+    counsel       fain          minor         their
+
+    current       flour         need          wood
+    currant       flower        knead         would
+
+
+=Exercise 24=
+
+Do the same with the following:
+
+    aisle         clause        kill          sail
+    isle          claws         kiln          sale
+    awl           climb         key           ring
+    all           clime         quay          wring
+
+    base          draught       lie           serge
+    bass          draft         lye           surge
+
+    blew          dew           medal         sole
+    blue          due           meddle        soul
+
+    bough         done          peer          shone
+    bow           dun           pier          shown
+
+    bread         dual          pore          steel
+    bred          duel          pour          steal
+
+    bear          flue          profit        stationary
+    bare          flew          prophet       stationery
+
+    bridal        freeze        quarts        wade
+    bridle        frieze        quartz        weighed
+
+    capital       guilt         rest          wave
+    capitol       gilt          wrest         waive
+
+    ceiling       heard         root          wrap
+    sealing       herd          route         rap
+
+
+=Exercise 25--Syllabication=
+
+What is a syllable?
+
+Choose a word and notice that every vowel sound in it makes a syllable.
+Therefore, you never have two vowels in one syllable unless the two are
+pronounced as one sound.
+
+In pronouncing notice carefully to which syllable a consonant belongs;
+as in _dif-fer-ent_, _beau-ti-fy_, _dai-sy_.
+
+Divide the following words into syllables. If you cannot decide with
+which syllable a consonant belongs, consult a dictionary.
+
+    paper      grocer     rotate     mystery
+    tomato     erect      repeat     regular
+    vinegar    polish     general    arithmetic
+
+If a syllable, especially an accented syllable, ends in a vowel, what is
+usually the length of the vowel?
+
+If the syllable ends in a consonant, what is usually the length of the
+vowel of the syllable?
+
+When a consonant is doubled, the division is usually made between the
+two letters; as,
+
+    blot-ter            skip-ping           remit-tance
+    neces-sary          throt-tle           span-ning
+
+As a rule, a prefix constitutes one syllable; as,
+
+    pro-long    pre-fer    con-stant   de-fect     ad-mit
+    re-ceive    se-lect    dis-trust   e-merge     im-merse
+
+As a rule, a suffix constitutes one syllable; as,
+
+    labor-er          soft-ly           beauti-fy         selec-tion
+    mole-cule         revolution-ist    percent-age       fanat-ic
+
+When two or more letters together give one sound, they must not be
+divided; as,
+
+    math-ematics     ex-change        paragraph-ing    abolish-ing
+    bow-ing          toil-ing         nation-al        gra-cious
+
+Can a word of one syllable be divided?
+
+Do not divide a syllable of one letter from the rest of the word. The
+division _ever-y_ is wrong.
+
+
+=Exercise 26=
+
+Divide the following words into syllables, using the suggestions given
+in the preceding exercise:
+
+    accountant        dissatisfaction   manufacturer      reference
+    advertisement     economy           material          repeatedly
+    anecdote          employment        mechanical        salesman
+    annually          energetic         neighborhood      security
+    application       environment       occupation        separate
+    automobile        especially        opportunity       signature
+    beginning         establishment     organized         specification
+    collection        expenditure       permanent         stenography
+    comparison        factory           preparation       suburban
+    competent         furniture         president         superintend
+    confirmation      illustration      quotation         systematic
+    consequence       impression        realize           telephone
+    correspondence    improvement       receptacle        treasurer
+    counterfeit       judgment          recognition       unanimous
+    customer          machinist         recommend         unusual
+
+
+=Exercise 27--Accent=
+
+What is accent?
+
+Divide into syllables, indicate the accent, and pronounce the following:
+
+    expand        volume        defect        interesting
+    mischievous   usually       incomparable  theatre
+    exquisite     tedious       hospitable    generally
+    column        inquiry       impious
+
+In the following words the meaning changes with the accent. Use each
+word in a sentence to show its meaning.
+
+    ob´ject    subject    contrast   desert
+    ob-ject´   insult     protest    extract
+    tor´ment   essay      conflict   compact
+    tor-ment´  transfer   compound   survey
+    minute (notice the vowel change)
+    refuse (notice the consonant change)
+
+Bring to class a list of words that you have heard mispronounced in your
+classes. Be sure that you can pronounce them correctly.
+
+
+=Exercise 28=
+
+The following words are frequently mispronounced. Divide them into
+syllables, mark the accent, and pronounce carefully.
+
+    municipal     exquisite     champion      accurately
+    interesting   gondola       inquiry       Genoa
+    influence     finance       inexplicable  alias
+    illustrate    deficit       despicable    expert
+    inventory     pretense      mischievous   impious
+    alternate     dirigible     perfume       detail
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SPELLING RULES
+
+
+=Exercise 29--Plurals of Nouns=
+
+    (_a_) dress, dresses      (_b_) chair, chairs
+    splash, splashes               wave, waves
+    business, businesses           book, books
+    church, churches               pencil, pencils
+    fox, foxes                     paper, papers
+
+The usual way of forming the plural of English nouns is illustrated by
+the words in column (_b_) above. What is it?
+
+If you add _s_ to the singular form _dress_, could you distinguish the
+pronunciation of the plural from the pronunciation of the singular? Does
+this suggest a reason for adding _es_ to form the plural?
+
+How many syllables must you use to pronounce the plural of fox? Does
+this suggest another reason for adding _es_ to form the plural?
+
+Every word that ends in a sibilant or hissing sound (_ch_, _s_, _sh_,
+_ss_, _x_, _z_) forms its plural like _fox_. Give several illustrations.
+
+=Rule 1.--Nouns regularly form the plural by adding _s_, but those
+ending in a sibilant must add_es_.=
+
+
+=Exercise 30=
+
+    (_a_) lady, ladies       (_b_) valley, valleys
+    ally, allies                  alley, alleys
+    soliloquy, soliloquies        journey, journeys
+
+Name five words belonging to group (_a_) above. Does a vowel or a
+consonant precede the _y_ in each case?
+
+Name other words belonging to the group (_b_) above. Does a vowel or a
+consonant precede the _y_ in each case?
+
+=Rule 2.--Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant (and nouns ending
+in _quy_) form the plural by changing _y_ to _i_ and adding _es_.=
+
+
+=Exercise 31--Words ending in o=
+
+(_a_)
+
+    potato, potatoes      hero, heroes          mulatto, mulattoes
+    tomato, tomatoes      buffalo, buffaloes    cargo, cargoes
+    negro, negroes        echo, echoes          motto, mottoes
+
+(_b_)
+
+    solo, solos           piano, pianos         memento, mementos
+    halo, halos           lasso, lassos         canto, cantos
+    zero, zeros           quarto, quartos       soprano, sopranos
+                          stilletto, stillettos
+
+The older English words ending in _o_ form the plural by adding _es_, as
+in potatoes; those more recently taken into the language form the plural
+by adding _s_, as in quartos.
+
+
+=Exercise 32--Nouns in f and fe=
+
+    leaf, leaves      calf, calves      wife, wives
+    loaf, loaves      sheaf, sheaves    shelf, shelves
+    half, halves      wolf, wolves      elf, elves
+    life, lives       beef, beeves      wharf, wharves (or wharfs)
+    self, selves      knife, knives
+
+With the exception of the words given above, nouns ending in an _f_
+sound form the plural in the regular way; as,
+
+    hoof, hoofs     scarf, scarfs   beliefs, beliefs
+    chief, chiefs   reef, reefs     grief, griefs
+
+
+=Exercise 33--Irregular Plurals=
+
+Some nouns form their plural by a change of vowel; as,
+
+    man     men         foot    feet
+    woman   women       tooth   teeth
+    goose   geese       mouse   mice
+
+A few words retain the old time plural _en_; as,
+
+              brother brethren
+    child   children        ox      oxen
+
+A few words are the same in both singular and plural; as,
+
+    sheep, trout, deer
+
+Some nouns have two plurals which differ in meaning; as,
+
+    _Singular_                _Plural_
+    brother                brothers  brethren
+    penny                  pennies   pence
+    pea                    peas      pease
+    die                    dies      dice
+
+Consult a dictionary for the difference in meaning between the two
+plurals of each word.
+
+
+=Exercise 34--Compound Nouns=
+
+    _Singular_                _Plural_
+    brother-in-law         brothers-in-law
+    father-in-law          fathers-in-law
+    court-martial          courts-martial
+    commander-in-chief     commanders-in-chief
+    man-of-war             men-of-war
+    major general          major generals
+    goose quill            goose quills
+    bill of fare           bills of fare
+    spoonful               spoonfuls
+    cupful                 cupfuls
+
+=Rule 3.--Compound nouns usually add the sign of the plural to the
+fundamental part of the word.=
+
+      NOTE.--In _spoonfuls_ the thought is of one spoon many
+      times full.
+
+=Plural of Letters and Figures=
+
+=Rule 4.--Letters and figures form the plural by adding the apostrophe
+(') and _s_; as,=
+
+    a  a's        3  3's
+    w  w's        5  5's
+
+The same rule applies to the plural of words which ordinarily have no
+plural; as,
+
+    Don't use so many _and's_ and _if's_.
+
+
+=Exercise 35--Foreign Plurals=
+
+Some nouns derived from foreign languages retain their original plural.
+The following are in common use.
+
+Consult a dictionary for their pronunciation and definition.
+
+    _Singular_     _Plural_     _Singular_     _Plural_
+
+    crisis        crises        stratum       strata
+    thesis        theses        radius        radii
+    hypothesis    hypotheses    parenthesis   parentheses
+    focus         foci          synopsis      synopses
+    datum         data          basis         bases
+    alumnus       alumni        automaton     automata
+    alumna        alumnae       analysis      analyses
+    oasis         oases         nucleus       nuclei
+    axis          axes          phenomenon    phenomena
+    genus         genera
+
+Some words admit of two plurals, one the foreign plural, and one the
+regular English plural; as,
+
+    _Singular_         _Plural_
+
+    beau          beaux       beaus
+    formula       formulae    formulas
+    vertex        vertices    vertexes
+    index         indices     indexes
+    cherub        cherubim    cherubs
+    seraph        seraphim    seraphs
+    bandit        banditti    bandits
+
+Consult a dictionary to see whether there is any difference of meaning
+between the two plurals of these words.
+
+
+=Exercise 36--The Formation of Participles=
+
+    _Rap_, _rapping_, _rapped_      _Reap_, _reaping_, _reaped_
+
+_Rap_ is a monosyllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a
+single vowel. The final consonant in such words is doubled before a
+suffix beginning with a vowel is added.
+
+In _reap_ the final consonant is not doubled because it is preceded by
+two vowels.
+
+Make the participles of the following verbs:
+
+    chat    lap     suit    step
+    cheat   leap    sit     steep
+    rot     train   sop     trot
+    root    trim    soap    treat
+
+    _Trap_, _trapping_, _trapped_    _Track_, _tracking_, _tracked_
+
+Why is the final consonant in _trap_ doubled before _ing_ or _ed_ is
+added?
+
+The final consonant in _track_ is not doubled because _track_ ends with
+two consonants.
+
+    _Pin_, _pinning_        _Pine_, _pining_
+
+_Pine_ drops the silent _e_ because the tendency in English is to drop
+endings that are not needed for pronunciation before adding a suffix
+beginning with a vowel.
+
+Form the participles of the following verbs:
+
+    knot    rob     flop
+    note    robe    elope
+    deal    swim    quit    (_u_ is not here a vowel)
+    clap    strike  crawl   (_w_ is here a vowel)
+    stop    oil     wax     (_x_ equals _cks_)
+    peal    rush    bow     (_w_ is here a vowel)
+
+
+=Exercise 37=
+
+Exercise 36 applies also to words of more than one syllable accented on
+the last syllable, if they retain the accent on the same syllable after
+the suffix is added. Thus we have
+
+=Rule 5.--Monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, ending
+in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final
+consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.=
+
+Form participles from the following words that are accented on the last
+syllable:
+
+    prefer        intervene     escape        expel
+    refer         reveal        acquire       contain
+    occur         repeal        secure        forbid
+    permit        pursue        conceal       incur
+    interfere     erase         arrange       forget
+    retain        control       acquit        repel
+
+Form participles from the following words not accented on the last
+syllable:
+
+    benefit   travel    marvel    shelter
+    revel     answer    exhibit   render
+    quarrel   profit    shovel    limit
+
+Words in which the accent changes do not double the final consonant
+before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel; as,
+
+    confer    conference         infer     inference
+    refer     reference          prefer    preferable
+
+Explain why the final consonant is _not_ doubled in each of the
+following words:
+
+    neglect     neglecting      lean        leaning
+    prefer      preference      select      selecting
+    creep       creeping        receipt     receipting
+    wonder      wondering       answer      answering
+
+
+=Exercise 38=
+
+=Rule 6.--In forming the present participle of verbs ending in _y_,
+retain the _y_ before adding _ing_; as,=
+
+    study     studying          obey      obeying
+    carry     carrying          convey    conveying
+    pity      pitying
+
+In forming the perfect participle, if in the present tense the _y_ is
+preceded by a consonant, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _ed_ added; if
+the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, the _y_ is retained; as,
+
+    study     studied   carry     carried   pity      pitied
+
+but
+
+    obey      obeyed    convey    conveyed
+
+Compare with Rule 2.
+
+
+=Exercise 39=
+
+=Rule 7.--In words containing a long _e_ sound spelled either _ie_ or
+_ei_, _ei_ follows _c_; _ie_ follows one of the other consonants; as,=
+
+    _ei_                    _ie_
+    deceive          relieve     siege
+    perceive         believe     yield
+    receive          belief      grief
+    conceive         chief       field
+    conceit          priest      piece
+    receipt          niece       wield
+                     reprieve    lien
+
+_Exceptions._--Either, neither, weird, seize, leisure.
+
+The following couplet may help in remembering when to write _ie_ and
+when to write _ei_:
+
+    When the letter _c_ you spy,
+    Put the _e_ before the _i_.
+
+
+=Exercise 40--The Pronunciation of _c_ and _g_=
+
+The letter _c_ is pronounced sometimes like _s_ and sometimes like _k_.
+
+What sound does _c_ have before _a_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _e_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _i_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _o_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _u_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _y_? Illustrate.
+
+If _c_ is pronounced like _k_, it is called hard and is marked _[\c]_.
+
+If _c_ is pronounced like _s_, it is called soft and is marked _ç_. The
+mark used to indicate the soft _c_ is called the _cedilla_.
+
+Make a statement telling when _c_ is hard and when it is soft.
+
+What sound does _g_ have before each of the vowels, as in _game_,
+_gone_, _gymnasium_, _Gunther_, _gentle_?
+
+=Rule 8.--_C_ and _g_ usually are soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_.=
+
+
+=Exercise 41=
+
+Words ending in silent _e_, according to Rule 5, drop the _e_ before a
+suffix beginning with a vowel. Exceptions occur when the _e_ is needed
+to preserve the soft sound of _c_ and _g_. Tell why _e_ is dropped in
+_encouraging_ and retained in _courageous_.
+
+In words containing _dg_, as in _judge_ and _lodge_, the _d_ gives the
+_g_ the soft sound, and there is no need to retain the _e_ before adding
+a suffix, as in _judgment_.
+
+=Rule 9.--Words ending in silent _e_ usually drop the _e_ before adding
+a suffix beginning with a vowel, unless the _e_ is needed to preserve
+the pronunciation; as after soft _c_ and _g_, when the suffix begins
+with _a_ or _o_.=
+
+Tell why the _e_ is retained before the suffix in the following:
+
+    noticeable     damageable     pronounceable  outrageous
+    courageous     peaceable      serviceable    manageable
+
+Tell why the _e_ is dropped before adding the suffix in the following:
+
+    managing           curable            erasure
+    besieging          admirable          realization
+    receiving          obliging           precedence
+                       perseverance
+
+The fact that _c_ has two different sounds causes a slight peculiarity
+in words ending in _c_. Final _c_ has the sound of _k_. When words end
+in _c_, the letter _k_ is usually added before a suffix beginning with
+either _e_, _i_, or _y_, to show that _c_ is not pronounced like _s_;
+as,
+
+    frolic         frolicked      frolicking
+
+If the _k_ is not added, the _c_ changes its pronunciation; as,
+
+    public                          publicity
+
+
+=Exercise 42=
+
+It follows by inference from Rule 9 that words ending in silent _e_
+retain the _e_ before a suffix beginning with a consonant; as,
+
+    move        movement          disgrace    disgraceful
+    defense     defenseless       fate        fateful
+    arrange     arrangement       fierce      fiercely
+    noise       noiseless         manage      management
+    severe      severely          rude        rudeness
+
+_Exceptions._--Truly, duly, wisdom, awful, wholly.
+
+Bring to class a list of twenty words that retain the final _e_ before a
+suffix beginning with a consonant.
+
+
+=Exercise 43=
+
+What spelling rule does each of the following words illustrate?
+
+    advantageous     gigantic         boxes            admittance
+    mimicking        piece            libraries        occurrence
+    arrangement      receipt          keys             acquittal
+
+
+=Exercise 44--Abbreviations=
+
+Write abbreviations for the months of the year. Are there any that
+should not be abbreviated?
+
+The abbreviations for the states and territories are:
+
+    Alabama, Ala.                   Maryland, Md.
+    Arizona, Ariz.                  Massachusetts, Mass.
+    Arkansas, Ark.                  Michigan, Mich.
+    California, Cal.                Minnesota, Minn.
+    Colorado, Colo.                 Mississippi, Miss.
+    Connecticut, Conn.              Missouri, Mo.
+    Delaware, Del.                  Montana, Mont.
+    District of Columbia, D.C.      Nebraska, Nebr.
+    Florida, Fla.                   Nevada, Nev.
+    Georgia, Ga.                    New Hampshire, N.H.
+    Idaho, Idaho                    New Mexico, N. Mex.
+    Illinois, Ill.                  New York, N.Y.
+    Indiana, Ind.                   New Jersey, N.J.
+    Iowa, Ia.                       North Carolina, N.C.
+    Kansas, Kans.                   North Dakota, N. Dak.
+    Kentucky, Ky.                   Ohio, O.
+    Louisiana, La.                  Oklahoma, Okla.
+    Maine, Me.                      Oregon, Ore.
+    Pennsylvania, Pa.               Utah, Utah
+    Philippine Islands, P.I.        Vermont, Vt.
+    Porto Rico, P.R.                Virginia, Va.
+    South Carolina, S.C.            Washington, Wash.
+    South Dakota, S.D.              Wisconsin, Wis.
+    Tennessee, Tenn.                West Virginia, W. Va.
+    Texas, Tex.                     Wyoming, Wyo.
+
+      NOTE.--It is much better to write the full name rather
+      than the abbreviation whenever the former would make
+      the address clearer, especially as regards similar
+      abbreviations, such as Cal. and Colo.
+
+
+=Exercise 45--Abbreviations of Commercial Terms=
+
+    A 1, first class                 doz., dozen
+    @, at                            E. & O.E., errors and omissions
+                                         excepted
+    acct., account                   ea., each
+    adv., advertisement              e.g., for example
+    agt., agent                      etc., and so forth
+    a.m., forenoon                   exch., exchange
+    amt., amount                     ft., foot
+    app., appendix                   f.o.b., free on board
+    atty., attorney                  gal., gallon
+    av., average                     i.e., that is
+    avoir., avoirdupois              imp., imported
+    bal., balance                    in., inches
+    bbl., barrel                     inst., this month (instant)
+    B/L, bill of lading              Jr., junior
+    bldg., building                  kg., keg
+    B/S, bill of sale                lb., pound
+    bu., bushel                      ltd., limited
+    C.B., cash book                  mdse., merchandise
+    C., hundred                      mem., memorandum
+    coll., collection, collector     mo., month
+    Co., company                     M.S. (MSS)., manuscript
+    C.O.D., cash on delivery         mtg., mortgage
+    cr., creditor                    N.B., take notice
+    cwt., hundredweight              no., number
+    D., five hundred                 O.K., all right
+    dept., department                per, by
+    disc., discount                  p.m., afternoon
+    do., ditto                       %, per cent
+    dr., debtor, debit               St., street
+    pkg., package                    str., steamer
+    pp., pages                       ult., last month
+    pr., pair                        U.S.M., United States Mail
+    pc., piece                       viz., namely
+    pk., peck                        vol., volume
+    prox., next month                W/B, way bill
+    pt., pint                        wt., weight
+    Sr., senior
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WORD ANALYSIS
+
+
+To learn English words thoroughly we must spend some thought on the way
+in which they are made up, on the language from which they have been
+derived, and on the changes in meaning made by adding prefixes and
+suffixes. Three important influences in building the English have been
+the Anglo-Saxon, the Greek, and the Latin languages. The simplest words
+in the language are Anglo-Saxon. The following exercises illustrate how
+words have been multiplied by Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes.
+
+
+=Exercise 46=
+
+Name as many words as you can that make use of each of the following
+prefixes. Give only such as are recognizable English words without the
+prefix.
+
+    _a_--aboard               _mis_--misjudge
+    _be_--becalm              _un_--unknown
+    _fore_--foretell          _up_--uproot
+
+Give the meaning of each of the prefixes used above.
+
+What part of speech does each prefix make?
+
+
+=Exercise 47=
+
+Using the following Teutonic suffixes, form English words. Be careful
+that the root taken alone is an English word.
+
+    _dom_--kingdom           _ness_--goodness
+    _hood_--manhood          _ship_--friendship
+
+What does each suffix mean?
+
+What part of speech does it make?
+
+
+=Exercise 48=
+
+As above, form words using the following suffixes:
+
+    _en_--darken       _ful_--fearful
+    _en_--golden       _ly_--smoothly
+    _ish_--sweetish    _like_--childlike
+    _less_--fearless   _some_--lonesome
+
+Define each suffix.
+
+What part of speech does it make?
+
+
+=Exercise 49--Greek Roots=
+
+Below is given a list of common Greek roots with the English meaning of
+each. Form words using one or more of the roots for each word, and
+define the words you make. For instance, give the meaning of
+_telephone_, _telegraph_, and _monarch_.
+
+    _Greek_ _English_           _Greek_ _English_
+
+    _phon_--hear                _chron_--time
+    _tele_--far                 _cycl_--circle
+    _graph_--write              _geo_--earth
+    _scop_--see                 _polit_--government
+    _micro_--small              _cra_--rule
+    _mono_--one                 _demo_--people
+    _arch_--chief               _hydro_--water
+    _metr_--measure             _poly_--many
+    _baro_--pressure, weight    _pluto_--riches
+
+How many names of modern inventions have you made?
+
+
+=Exercise 50=
+
+What words belonging to your vocabulary end in the following suffixes?
+Choose only such as have an English word for the root.
+
+Adjective Suffixes
+
+     1. _able_, _ible_--able to be, fit to be
+        _Readable_, fit to be read.
+
+     2. _al_, _eal_, _ial_--relating to, having to do with
+
+     3. _ant_, _ent_--being, inclined to
+
+     4. _ate_--having the quality of, inclined to
+
+     5. _ic_--like, relating to
+
+     6. _ive_--relating to, of the nature of, belonging to
+
+     7. _ory_, _ary_--relating to
+
+     8. _ous_--full of, abounding in
+
+Verb Suffixes
+
+    1. _ate_--to make
+
+    2. _fy_, _ify_--to make
+
+    3. _ise_, _ize_--to make
+
+Noun Suffixes
+
+     1. _age_--condition, act, collection of
+
+     2. _ance_, _ancy_, _ence_, _ency_--state of being
+
+     3. _ary_, _ory_--one who, place where, that which
+
+     4. _ant_, _ent_--one who
+
+     5. _ist_, _ite_--one who
+
+     6. _ion_, _sion_, _tion_--act of, state of being
+
+     7. _ity_, _ty_--quality of being
+
+     8. _ment_--that which, act or state of being
+
+     9. _or_, _er_, _ar_--one who
+
+    10. _try_--state of
+
+    11. _tude_, _itude_--condition of being
+
+    12. _ure_--condition of being, that which
+
+
+=Exercise 51=
+
+The following is a list of the more commonly used Latin prefixes:
+
+     1. _a_, _ab_--away from               16. _intro_--toward the inside
+     2. _ad_--toward                       17. _mono_--one
+     3. _ante_--before                     18. _non_--not
+     4. _anti_--against                    19. _ob_--in the way of, against
+     5. _bi_--two, twice                   20. _per_--through
+     6. _circum_--around                   21. _pre_--before
+     7. _con_--together with, against      22. _post_--after
+     8. _contra_--against                  23. _pro_--before
+     9. _de_--from, apart from, down from  24. _re_--again, back
+    10. _dis_--apart, not                  25. _semi_--half, partly
+    11. _dia_--through                     26. _se_--away from
+    12. _ex_--out of                       27. _sub_--under, below
+    13. _in_, _en_--into                   28. _super_--above, more than
+        _en_--to cause to be               29. _trans_--across
+    14. _in_, _un_--not                    30. _uni_--one
+    15. _inter_--between
+
+
+=Exercise 52=
+
+Analyze the following words, telling prefix, root, suffix, part of
+speech, and meaning:
+
+    business        package         truthfulness    unsuccessful
+    useless         anteroom        workmanlike     agreement
+    prefix          monotone        nervousness     uniformity
+    beautify        breakage        disrespectful   misguidance
+    semicircle      pleasant        perfection      crystallize
+    kingship        sameness        progressive     precaution
+    incase          subway          undeniable      imaginary
+    enrich          disown          displeasure     supernatural
+    pianist         readmit         endurance       melodious
+    bicycle         adjuster        reaction        interlineal
+
+
+=Exercise 53=
+
+When the prefixes _ad_, _con_, and _in_ are used to form English words,
+the final consonant of each is often changed to the initial consonant of
+the root to which it is joined.
+
+_Ad_ assumes the forms _ab_, _ac_, _af_, _ag_, _al_, _an_, _ap_, _ar_,
+_as_, _at_, assimilating the _d_ with the first letter of the word to
+which it is prefixed; as,
+
+    ab-breviate     al-literation   ar-rest
+    ac-cept         al-lot          as-sign
+    ac-cumulate     an-nex          as-sist
+    af-fect         an-nounce       at-tract
+    af-flict        ap-position     at-tribute
+    ag-gregate      ap-prove        at-tune
+
+_Con_ assumes the forms _col_, _cor_, _com_, by assimilation; it takes
+the form _com_ before _p_; and it drops the _n_ before a vowel; as,
+
+    col-lateral     com-mercial     com-pose
+    col-lect        cor-relate      co-operate
+    com-mission     cor-respond     co-ordinate
+
+_In_ assumes the forms _il_, _im_, _ir_, by assimilation and takes the
+form of _im_ before _p_.
+
+    il-lusion    im-migrate   ir-ruption   im-port
+
+
+=Exercise 54--Peculiar Adjective Endings=
+
+The suffixes _able_ and _ible_ are sometimes troublesome because it is
+difficult to know which ending to write. As a rule, if the new word was
+made from another English word, the ending is _able_, as _blamable_. The
+words ending in _ible_ are derived from the Latin, and, as a rule, the
+ending cannot easily be separated from the root and still leave the
+latter an English word. Examples are:
+
+    divisible     intelligible  digestible    audible
+    visible       permissible   flexible      incredible
+    possible      terrible      horrible      indelible
+
+The suffixes _ant_ and _ent_ must also be carefully noted. No rule can
+be given for using one rather than the other. Whenever in doubt, consult
+a dictionary. Note the following:
+
+      _ant_            _ent_
+    important        independent
+    pleasant         convalescent
+    triumphant       competent
+    luxuriant        convenient
+    stagnant         confident
+
+The endings _eous_ and _ious_, where _e_ and _i_ are often confused, are
+illustrated in the following:
+
+     _eous_            _ious_
+    hideous           delirious
+    miscellaneous     impious
+    courteous         studious
+
+The endings _cious_ and _tious_ are shown in the following:
+
+     _cious_             _tious_
+    conscious           fictitious
+    precious            superstitious
+    delicious           cautious
+    gracious            ambitious
+    suspicious          nutritious
+
+The endings _gious_ and _geous_ are illustrated in the following:
+
+     _gious_             _geous_
+    religious          courageous
+
+
+=Exercise 55--Peculiar Noun and Verb Endings=
+
+Nouns in _ance_ and _ence_:
+
+      _ance_            _ence_
+    acceptance        intelligence
+    appearance        reference
+    annoyance         patience
+    acquaintance      negligence
+    remittance        diligence
+    ignorance         residence
+
+Nouns in _sion_, _cion_, and _tion_:
+
+     _sion_        _cion_         _tion_
+    exclusion     coercion      acquisition
+    aversion      suspicion     precaution
+
+Verbs in _ise_, _yze_, and _ize_:
+
+    _ise_          _yze_         _ize_
+    advise        analyze       baptize
+    supervise     paralyze      recognize
+
+Verbs in _ceed_, _sede_, and _cede_:
+
+    _ceed_         _sede_        _cede_
+    exceed        supersede     concede
+    proceed                     intercede
+    succeed                     precede
+
+
+=Exercise 56=
+
+What other words can you form from the following? Explain what prefixes
+or suffixes you use in each case and what part of speech you form.
+
+    success      consider     real         change
+    please       doubt        publish      attend
+    occur        apply        regular      satisfy
+    emphasize    industry     operate      assess
+    second       busy         practice     resist
+    expense      distribute   organ        define
+    depend       locate       work         sense
+    attract      install      desire       preside
+    effect       vital        count        sign
+
+
+=Exercise 57=
+
+There are many words the meanings of which are easily confused. The
+spelling and the definitions of such must be mastered. Analysis in this
+exercise and in the one following does not require separation into
+prefix, root, and suffix, but it necessitates a careful study of the
+words, first, to note the difference in spelling; second, to consult a
+dictionary, if necessary, for the difference in meaning.
+
+Define each word clearly.
+
+Use each in a sentence to illustrate its meaning.
+
+    accept--except             common--mutual
+    add--annex                 complementary--complimentary
+    advice--advise             continual--continuous
+    affect--effect             contraction--abbreviation
+    after--afterward           contradiction--denial
+    ascend--assent             currant--current
+    assure--promise            defective--deficient
+    attain--obtain             deprecate--depreciate
+    benefit--advantage         effective--efficient
+    brief--concise             eligible--illegible
+    center--middle             eminent--prominent
+    claim--maintain            expect--hope
+    combine--combination       intelligent--intelligible
+
+
+=Exercise 58=
+
+As above, define each word carefully and use it in a sentence to
+illustrate its meaning.
+
+    healthful--healthy         proficient--efficient
+    inventory--invoice         proscribe--prescribe
+    invite--invitation         purpose--propose
+    last--latest               quiet--quite
+    later--latter              recommend--recommendation
+    liable--likely--apt        refer--allude
+    loose--lose                repair--fix
+    need--want                 requirement--requisite--requisition
+    perspective--prospective   respectfully--respectively
+    positive--definite         scarcely--hardly
+    practicable--practical     stationary--stationery
+    precede--proceed           therefore--accordingly
+    principal--principle
+
+
+=500 SPELLING WORDS=
+
+Lesson 1
+
+    business        losing          surprising      height
+    receive         loosely         Saturday        depth
+    believe         across          Wednesday       eighth
+    wholly          whether         excellent       daily
+    obliged         describe        exercise        earnest
+
+Lesson 2
+
+    attached        decision        probable        seize
+    attacked        buying          usable          siege
+    gentlemen       studying        salable         friend
+    although        relying         desirable       Messrs.
+    thoroughly      occasion        honorable       nickel
+
+Lesson 3
+
+    disappoint      knew            acquittal       stopped
+    disappear       design          occurrence      referred
+    disapprove      forty           compelling      planned
+    disagree        fourth          beginning       swimming
+    anxious         purpose         permitted       submitted
+
+Lesson 4
+
+    all right       persuade        Norwegian       variety
+    already         pursued         possession      prairie
+    tongue          prepared        accumulate      neighbor
+    separate        repaired        dissatisfy      soldier
+    crystal         necessary       dissolve        shoulder
+
+Lesson 5
+
+    their           awkward         opportunity     scheme
+    advise          mucilage        development     schedule
+    advice          familiar        statistics      accurately
+    laboratory      peculiar        accidental      efficient
+    until           similar         competent       Spaniard
+
+Lesson 6
+
+    policy          patient         merchandise     conscious
+    rough           ancient         mercantile      precious
+    disease         partial         scarcity        suspicion
+    balance         facial          indebted        physician
+    decease         ambitious       estimate        caution
+
+Lesson 7
+
+    ascend          noticeable      vengeance       emergency
+    assent          serviceable     address         compliance
+    minute          manageable      salary          reference
+    conceal         exchangeable    currency        apparel
+    immense         advantageous    withhold        typical
+
+Lesson 8
+
+    edition         especially      appreciate      imitate
+    addition        pamphlet        essential       initial
+    identify        illustrate      eligible        official
+    illegal         February        legible         curtain
+    nuisance        punctual        illegible       adjacent
+
+Lesson 9
+
+    later           crystallize     lieutenant      lenient
+    latter          neutralize      anthracite      naphtha
+    weighed         conceit         bituminous      liquid
+    destroy         catarrh         rheumatism      gauge
+    indelible       colonel         influential     sieve
+
+Lesson 10
+
+    duly            interfered      analyze         attorneys
+    durable         transferred     analysis        specialty
+    mutual          reconcile       paralyze        sympathy
+    bargain         accidental      banana          campaign
+    misspell        irregular       molasses        mattress
+
+Lesson 11
+
+    ached           designate       vicinity        recognize
+    social          available       guardian        technical
+    forfeit         adequately      celebrate       hygiene
+    opposite        subordinate     porcelain       angel
+    parallel        sufficient      poultice        angle
+
+Lesson 12
+
+    society         associate       rumored         remittance
+    sirloin         definitely      courtesy        remuneration
+    laborer         spherical       obstinacy       restaurant
+    visitor         commercial      financial       government
+    souvenir        permissible     sapphire        acquaintance
+
+Lesson 13
+
+    quite           appropriate     convenient      knowledge
+    least           distinguish     exaggerate      principal, _a_
+    written         mysterious      confidential    stationary, _a_
+    among           appearance      endeavoring     judgment
+    psalm           conference      immediately     implement
+
+Lesson 14
+
+    assure          greatly         embarrassment   auxiliary
+    expect          grateful        organization    conciliate
+    prompt          deserve         advertisement   principle, _n_
+    eliminate       bureau          assessment      stationery, _n_
+    illuminate      deficient       accommodate     parenthesis
+
+Lesson 15
+
+    coupon          indispensable   measure         proprietor
+    length          innumerable     condemn         transient
+    vehicle         investigate     security        persistent
+    customer        incandescent    liniment        signature
+    costumer        effervescent    mosquito        mischievous
+
+Lesson 16
+
+    canal           company's       repetition      sulphur
+    channel         real estate     abbreviated     benefited
+    liquid          equivalent      unabridged      unanimous
+    recent          assignment      assurance       itemize
+    trough          extravagant     pneumatic       calcimine
+
+Lesson 17
+
+    precede         freight         authority       leisure
+    proceed         achieve         mortgage        neuralgia
+    procession      between         specimen        dyspepsia
+    precision       imagine         solicitor       substantial
+    extinguish      autumn          coöperates      passenger
+
+Lesson 18
+
+    merely          mechanical      preliminary     omitted
+    cashier         permanent       miscellaneous   omission
+    urgent          prominent       subscription    committee
+    hesitate        precaution      incredible      commission
+    anchored        interval        anticipation    precisely
+
+Lesson 19
+
+    specify         preparation     athletics       deceit
+    equity          coincidence     excursion       receipt
+    accrue          irresolute      suggestion      obstacle
+    concrete        vaccination     courageous      promissory
+    summary         glycerine       concession      compulsory
+
+Lesson 20
+
+    deficit         sceptical       anniversary     rhythm
+    mansion         conscience      presumption     rhubarb
+    mention         interruption    guaranteed      fatigue
+    reckoned        approximately   prejudice       synopsis
+    license         avoirdupois     privilege       emphatic
+
+Lesson 21
+
+    scholar         Elkhart         industrious     collision
+    scissors        Memphis         hideous         delusion
+    career          Niagara         artificial      oxygen
+    sincere         Raleigh         cantaloupe      martyr
+    chiffonier      Oregon          unscrupulous    apology
+
+Lesson 22
+
+    receipt         Cincinnati      sovereign       chemical
+    welfare         Des Moines      committee       frontier
+    feigned         Decatur         ingredients     fulfilled
+    chord           Dubuque         counterfeit     facsimile
+    scythe          Alleghany       responsible     identical
+
+Lesson 23
+
+    exceed          Paducah         foreign         Cheyenne
+    succeed         Eau Claire      solemnity       metallic
+    secede          Peoria          assassinate     nauseated
+    immigrant       Savannah        pneumonia       invariably
+    emigrant        Manila          diphtheria      injurious
+
+Lesson 24
+
+    adoption        Minneapolis     fraudulent      mahogany
+    scientific      Indianapolis    negligence      corduroy
+    guidance        Syracuse        diligence       Schenectady
+    syllable        Milwaukee       ridiculous      duplicate
+    Fort Wayne      Valparaiso      comparative     reënforce
+
+Lesson 25
+
+    Duluth          Massachusetts   preferable      periodical
+    Missouri        Connecticut     preferred       insertion
+    Wisconsin       enthusiastic    publicity       excursion
+    luxurious       acknowledgment  prevailing      plateau
+    twelfth         professional    damageable      tragedy
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS
+
+
+In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they are used singly. We
+studied their pronunciation and the way in which they were formed to
+express a definite meaning. In this chapter we shall begin a review of
+grammar, a study of words not according to their pronunciation or their
+definition, but according to their use as they are arranged with other
+words to express complete ideas. The simplest group into which words are
+thus arranged is the sentence, consisting of two important parts, the
+subject and the predicate. The subject is the part about which something
+is told, and the predicate is the part that tells about the subject; as,
+
+    _Subject_      _Predicate_
+    The sun       shines brightly
+
+There are several different kinds of sentences, named according to the
+meaning which they express. They are as follows:
+
+    The _declarative_ sentence states a fact.
+    The _interrogative_ sentence asks a question.
+    The _imperative_ sentence commands or entreats.
+    The _exclamatory_ sentence expresses deep feeling.
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+    _Declarative_: John closed the door.
+    _Interrogative_: Did John close the door?
+    _Imperative_: Close the door.
+    _Exclamatory_: What a noise the door made!
+
+Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure or form. If
+a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it is a _simple_ sentence.
+If it is made up of two independent parts, it is a _compound_ sentence.
+If it has one independent part and one or more dependent parts, each of
+which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is
+_complex_. The independent part of the sentence is called a _principal
+clause_, and the dependent part is called a _subordinate clause_. A
+_phrase_ is also a dependent part of a sentence, but it differs from a
+subordinate clause in that it contains no subject or predicate. Both
+phrases and subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns,
+adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions:
+
+A _simple_ sentence contains one principal clause.
+
+A _compound_ sentence contains two or more principal clauses.
+
+A _complex_ sentence contains one principal clause and one or more
+subordinate clauses.
+
+A _phrase_ is a group of related words used as a part of speech. (See
+Exercises 68 and 69.)
+
+A _clause_ is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. A
+subordinate clause is used as a part of speech. It usually has an
+introductory word to distinguish it from a principal clause. (See
+Exercise 71.)
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+      _Simple sentence_: To-day most of the world's big
+      questions are business questions.
+
+      _Complex sentence_: The view _that_ business is only
+      humdrum routine and sordid money-making needs
+      revising, _since_ most of the world's big questions
+      are business questions.
+
+      _Compound sentence_: Many people still belittle
+      business, calling it humdrum routine and sordid
+      money-making, _but_ this view needs revising.
+
+    _Phrase_:             (_a_) _of_ the world's big questions.
+                          (_b_) _calling_ it humdrum routine and sordid
+                                money-making.
+
+    _Subordinate clause_: (_a_) _that_ business is only humdrum routine and
+                                sordid money-making.
+                          (_b_) _since_ most of the world's big questions
+                                are business questions.
+
+
+=Exercise 59=
+
+Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences:
+
+_a._ Declarative, _b._ Interrogative, _c._ Imperative, _d._ Exclamatory.
+
+Examine each of the sentences below and tell
+
+_a._ Whether it is simple, complex, or compound.
+
+_b._ Its subject and its predicate.
+
+_c._ Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any).
+
+      1. Your subscription expires with this issue.
+
+      2. This special offer will continue until the tenth of
+      November.
+
+      3. The last shipment of castings that you made to us
+      is decidedly unsatisfactory.
+
+      4. Your imitation typewritten letters have greatly
+      assisted us in the sale of our property, and we thank
+      you for calling our attention to them.
+
+      5. The advertised poster was sent to you to-day in a
+      special tube.
+
+      6. Without doubt you will be interested in the booklet
+      which we enclose.
+
+      7. The machine which is standing there has just been
+      repaired.
+
+      8. The wheel that holds the type may be changed in an
+      instant by the operator.
+
+      9. Whenever he wishes, the operator may write in
+      different sizes of type on the same sheet of paper.
+
+      10. Many of our styles have been copied exactly from
+      the best designs that have recently been displayed in
+      the Parisian exhibits.
+
+      11. Why are the department stores acquiring motor
+      wagons?
+
+      12. One reason is the economy of the motor wagon.
+
+      13. Economy does not entirely explain the keenness
+      which department stores are displaying in acquiring
+      motor wagons.
+
+      14. In such establishments the quick delivery of
+      merchandise is a necessity.
+
+      15. The best means of transportation must be employed,
+      or a loss of trade will follow.
+
+      16. Any one can cite examples that prove that faults
+      in delivery cause a loss of trade.
+
+      17. Machine service develops fewer errors than horse
+      service (develops).
+
+      18. The area which department stores serve is being
+      greatly increased from year to year, and not even the
+      establishment of the parcel post has avoided the
+      necessity for sending package merchandise too far
+      distant for conveyance by horses.
+
+      19. Electric machines usually make the house-to-house
+      package deliveries, and gasoline trucks, besides
+      hauling furniture, transfer large loads from the store
+      or warehouse to the distributing stations.
+
+      20. In one store each transfer truck is loaded twice
+      daily with fifty trunks containing parcels.
+
+=Exercise 60--Sentence Errors=
+
+=S. 1.= THE BABY BLUNDER.--In writing, one of the most elementary forms
+of correctness is shown in the proper division into sentences. The
+ability instinctively to end a sentence at the right place is called the
+"sentence sense." Students who do not possess it or who have not learned
+the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and phrases
+frequently make the mistake of setting off too much or too little for
+one sentence. For example, they run two sentences together as one; as,
+
+_Wrong_: Motor wagons are economical, department stores of all large
+cities are acquiring them.
+
+The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the sentence
+error--one of the worst possible mistakes in writing. It is sometimes
+called the _comma fault_ or the _baby blunder_. For brevity we shall
+call it _S 1_ (sentence error number one). _Motor wagons are economical_
+is a principal clause. _Department stores of all large cities are
+acquiring them_ is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not
+stand in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct,
+divide into two sentences; as,
+
+_Right_: Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of all large
+cities are acquiring them.
+
+Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is closely connected.
+In that case they may be put into the same sentence, provided they are
+properly connected or separated. Use a comma _plus_ a coördinate
+conjunction (as _and_, _or_, _but_) to connect them, or a semicolon (;)
+to separate them.
+
+Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs _so_, _then_,
+_therefore_, _thus_, _also_, _still_, _otherwise_, _however_, _hence_,
+_consequently_, _moreover_, _nevertheless_. When they are used to join
+the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is not sufficient
+punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon or a comma and a coördinate
+conjunction must be used.
+
+_Wrong_: He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to lose his
+trade.
+
+_Right_: He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to lose his
+trade.
+
+_Right_: He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry to lose his
+trade.
+
+=S. 2.=--The first form of the sentence error (_S 1_) is made by using
+too much for one sentence. The second form (_S 2_) is made by using too
+little. It consists in writing a subordinate clause or a phrase as a
+sentence; as,
+
+1. _Wrong_: I told her I would attend to the matter at my earliest
+convenience. _Probably on my way from work in the evening._
+
+2. _Wrong_: His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. _Which he decided
+to do._
+
+
+=Exercise 61=
+
+Each sentence should express one complete thought. Some of the following
+are really two sentences (_S 1_), and some are only parts of sentences
+(_S 2_). Correct each, naming the mistake.
+
+      1. You will find the booklet interesting it is also
+      instructive.
+
+      2. Up to last January he was a salesman for Colgate &
+      Co. since then he has opened a business of his own.
+
+      3. I didn't know you had come, when did you arrive?
+
+      4. Did any one take the newspaper, I left it here only
+      a moment ago.
+
+      5. I shall take my vacation in September have you had
+      yours?
+
+      6. I must go now good-bye I'll see you on Saturday.
+
+      7. The opening sentence held the man's attention, he
+      read it again and again.
+
+      8. I'll have to run to catch the train, otherwise I
+      shall be late for work.
+
+      9. The advertisement is attractive, still it has not
+      paid well.
+
+      10. We wished to reduce office drudgery therefore we
+      installed adding and addressing machines.
+
+      11. These problems all require a knowledge of square
+      root for example, take the fourth.
+
+      12. Do you expect to come home for Christmas or shall
+      you stay in New York I don't remember now which you
+      said.
+
+      13. First I read a statement that recommended the
+      bonds then I read an article that condemned them
+      without question the result was that I didn't know
+      what to do.
+
+      14. One-half of the statements are here, the others
+      are in the safe.
+
+      15. If your name is not correct on this envelope,
+      please notify us we wish to insure your receiving our
+      bulletin regularly.
+
+      16. The supply of fruit was greater than the demand,
+      that is why fruit was cheap.
+
+      17. Flies are dangerous. Especially in a sick room
+      from which they carry germs to others.
+
+      18. In the country the trees were loaded with fruit,
+      their branches had to be propped so that they would
+      not break.
+
+      19. When he was twenty-three years of age, Richard T.
+      Crane, the late millionaire head of the immense Crane
+      Manufacturing Company, came to Chicago, he started a
+      brass foundry, which grew into the present giant
+      establishment.
+
+      20. We spent last summer in the Bitter Root Valley we
+      camped within view of Willoughby Falls.
+
+      21. I want to congratulate you on your appointment I
+      heard of it only yesterday.
+
+      22. It surely was not I whom you saw I wonder who it
+      could have been.
+
+      23. Not one of us has a salary of three thousand
+      dollars so we do not worry over the income tax.
+
+      24. Please send me the booklet you offered in the
+      Business Magazine, I'd also like particulars of your
+      advertised discount sale of typewriters.
+
+      25. Sooner or later shingles are sure to warp and
+      curl, thus they pull out the nails and allow the rain
+      to beat in, furthermore, shaded shingles soon rot and
+      allow the water to soak through.
+
+      26. This sealing and stamping machine is endorsed by
+      business men in all our large cities nevertheless it
+      is not expensive.
+
+      27. If you wish to prove the excellence of our paper,
+      just tear off a corner of this sheet then tear off a
+      corner of your present letterhead with a magnifying
+      glass examine both torn edges.
+
+      28. The superior paper will show long, linen fibers
+      the poorer, on the other hand, will have short, woody
+      fibers.
+
+      29. When a German army is on the march, it stops every
+      twenty minutes for a rest. Experiments having shown
+      that a soldier can cover more ground when he is given
+      this period of relaxation.
+
+      30. Two thousand convicts will be released according
+      to a plan worked out by the governor; five hundred
+      will be given their freedom at once, and, if the plan
+      is a success one thousand five hundred others will be
+      released. One-half their wages of fifty cents a day to
+      go to their families and one-half to the penitentiary
+      fund. If they leave the state or commit any crime
+      while they are on parole, to serve the balance of
+      their term and an extension of time. They will be put
+      to work on roads and bridges the counties need several
+      thousand such laborers but cannot pay union prices.
+
+
+=Exercise 62=
+
+Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      There is no safer way to invest money than in a good
+      first mortgage on city real estate by a good mortgage
+      we mean one that is properly drawn and with such
+      security as absolutely insures the holder against loss
+      we have made a specialty of first mortgage loans, and
+      we offer investors the benefit of our wide experience
+      in such matters we investigate properties frequently
+      and keep investors informed on their investment we
+      look after all details and collections without extra
+      charge you will find it to your interest to consult
+      us.
+
+                                             Yours truly,
+
+2
+
+      Stick to your legitimate business do not go out into
+      outside operations few men have brains enough for more
+      than one business to dabble in stocks, to put a few
+      thousand dollars into a mine, a few more into a
+      manufactory, and a few more into an invention is
+      enough to ruin any man be content with fair returns do
+      not become greedy do not think that men are happy in
+      proportion as they are rich and therefore do not aim
+      too high be content with moderate wealth make friends
+      a time will come when all the money in the world will
+      not be worth to you as much as one staunch friend.
+
+3
+
+      Sacramento City is a great commercial center its
+      wholesale and jobbing business extends hundreds of
+      miles to the north, south, west, and east it is fast
+      becoming a substantial manufacturing center large six
+      and eight story buildings are rapidly taking the place
+      of the old two story structures a new city hall has
+      just been completed which cost $150,000 and a new
+      court house $1,000,000 the city has recently issued
+      bonds amounting to $800,000 for new schools scarcely a
+      week passes without recording some new enterprise all
+      the main highways are macadamized so that automobile
+      travel is possible every day of the year and the
+      farmer can haul his produce to market at a minimum
+      cost market conditions are good and any class of
+      produce finds ready sale at remunerative
+      prices.--(From an advertisement.)
+
+Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing exercise:
+
+    1. According to meaning.
+    2. According to form.
+
+
+=Exercise 63--Parts of Speech=
+
+There are eight different kinds of words called parts of speech, which
+are used to make sentences. They are as follows:
+
+    _Noun_: The _horse_ is brown.
+    _Pronoun_: _He_ is the best horse of all.
+    _Verb_: He _galloped_ to town.
+    _Adjective_: The _brown_ horse is my favorite.
+    _Adverb_: He runs _swiftly_.
+    _Preposition_: We shall ride _to_ town.
+    _Conjunction_: The night is clear _and_ cold.
+    _Interjection_: _Oh!_ My horse stumbled.
+
+Thus a _noun_ names something. A word that stands for a noun is a
+_pronoun_. Sometimes a different part of speech is used like a noun, and
+for the time being it becomes a noun. The _verb_ is a very important
+part of speech, since without it there can be no sentence. The verb
+makes an assertion, asks a question, or gives a command. _Adjectives_
+are words that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go with
+or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. _Prepositions_ and
+_conjunctions_ connect. Prepositions join their objects to other words
+in the sentence; conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. An
+_interjection_, such as the exclamation _oh_, is used without having
+grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. A preposition
+always takes an object, the preposition and its object making a
+_phrase_. Grouping this information, we have:
+
+                  {_Nouns_ are names of persons and things.
+                  {_Pronouns_ are substitutes for nouns.
+                  {_Verbs_ make assertions, ask questions, or give
+                  {       commands.
+                  {_Adjectives_ modify nouns and pronouns.
+  PARTS OF SPEECH {_Adverbs_ modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
+                  {  They usually answer the questions _how?_ _when?_
+                  {       _where?_ _why?_ _to what degree?_
+                  {_Prepositions_ join object nouns or pronouns to
+                  {       other words in the sentence.
+                  {_Conjunctions_ join words, phrases, and clauses.
+                  {_Interjections_ are independent words used as
+                  {       exclamations.
+
+
+A word is not always the same part of speech. We may say, "Did you
+_starch_ the clothes?" in which case _starch_ is a verb. A grocer may
+say, "The _starch_ in these packages is always clean." In this sentence
+_starch_ is a noun. The part of speech depends entirely on the way the
+word is used.
+
+In the following, name the part of speech of each word in italic. Judge
+by the way the word is used in the sentence.
+
+      1. The desks have _green_ pads.
+
+      2. _Green_ is a restful color.
+
+      3. In the valley is a _mill_, which grinds _flour_. It
+      is a _flour_ mill.
+
+      4. I saw him _stretch_ out his hand.
+
+      5. The _stretch_ of _waste_ land amazed him.
+
+      6. Europeans say that Americans _waste_ more than they
+      use.
+
+      7. One of our great problems is how to lessen _waste_.
+
+      8. After the stormy _night_, the _day_ dawned bright
+      and clear.
+
+      9. He has been working _night_ and _day_.
+
+      10. The old man went _home_ sad and weary.
+
+      11. _Home_ is the best place in the world.
+
+      12. We must _fine_ you for such an offense.
+
+      13. Your _fine_ is five dollars.
+
+      14. We use _fine_ sand in our concrete.
+
+      15. I can talk _better_ than I can write.
+
+      16. John wrote the _better_ circular.
+
+      17. Talking will not _better_ the matter.
+
+      18. Young people should learn to respect their
+      _betters_.
+
+      19. Suddenly there was a _pause_ in the music.
+
+      20. Did you see those men _pause_?
+
+      21. He was our guide for he knew the _ins_ and _outs_
+      of the place.
+
+      22. Have you ever been _in_ the house?
+
+      23. Where are you going--_in_ or _out_?
+
+      24. _Good_ apples are expensive.
+
+      25. The _good_ of the people is our first
+      consideration.
+
+      26. I shall not go _if_ it rains.
+
+      27. What is the use of saying _if_?
+
+      28. I _like_ to see her just _like_ this, for in
+      _like_ mood I do not know her _like_.
+
+      29. _Little_ drops of water make the mighty ocean.
+
+      30. I can do _little_ of the work until the typewriter
+      is repaired.
+
+      31. Do not _belittle_ your work.
+
+      32. She studies too _little_.
+
+
+=Exercise 64=
+
+Each of the following may be used as different parts of speech. Write
+sentences illustrating as many uses as possible for each word.
+
+    sound    paper    dress    ring
+    light    shoe     box      dawn
+    ride     long     ink      curb
+    iron     warm     walk     use
+    hear     cold     rule     cement
+
+
+=Exercise 65=
+
+Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which are adverbs.
+Remember that an adjective goes with a noun or pronoun; an adverb with
+another adverb, an adjective, or a verb, and usually answers the
+question _how?_ _when?_ _where?_ _why?_ _how much?_ or _how long?_
+
+      1. You are walking too _fast_.
+
+      2. Send perishable articles by _fast_ freight.
+
+      3. He has been a _well_ man since he has stopped working indoors.
+
+      4. He writes very _well_.
+
+      5. The fire is _bright_.
+
+      6. It burns _brightly_.
+
+      7. That is a _very poor_ reason.
+
+      8. The berries look _good_, but they taste _sour_.
+
+      9. They are not _good_ berries.
+
+      10. The sun shone _brilliant_ above us. (Compare with
+      _brilliantly_.)
+
+      11. The bookkeeper looks _angry_.
+
+      12. He looked at us _angrily_.
+
+      13. The flowers are _sweet_.
+
+      14. They smell _sweet_. (May we say, _The flowers
+      smell sweetly?_)
+
+      15. Act _frankly_, speak _gently_.
+
+      16. Let your actions be _frank_, your speech _gentle_.
+
+      17. Laborers complain that they have to work _too
+      hard_.
+
+
+=Exercise 66=
+
+Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each case use both parts
+of speech in sentences.
+
+    cold      sure      polite    courteous
+    smooth    exact     precise   easy
+    bitter    bad       extreme   nice
+    loud      general   honest    glad
+
+
+=Exercise 67=
+
+Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which are
+adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase. It must be
+followed by an object.
+
+      1. He is the best man _in_ the office.
+
+      2. John was leaving as I came _in_ this evening.
+
+      3. He did not have his coat _on_.
+
+      4. It was hanging _over_ his arm.
+
+      5. He stood _on_ the top step several minutes,
+      wondering whether he should wear the coat.
+
+      6. The handle fell _off_ as I took the cup _off_ the
+      shelf.
+
+      7. The aeroplane flies _over_ the city.
+
+      8. I am going _over_ to the factory.
+
+Write sentences using _above_, _across_, _down_, _up_, _underneath_ both
+as adverbs and as prepositions.
+
+
+=Exercise 68--Prepositional Phrases=
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+      _Adjective_: The opinions _of some people_ must be
+      taken with caution.
+
+      _Adverb_: We shall return _within a year_.
+
+      _Noun_: _From New York to San Francisco_ is a long
+      trip.
+
+What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below? Remember
+that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb modifies a verb, an
+adjective, or an adverb.
+
+      1. The waves are rolling in, white _with foam_.
+
+      2. A million dollars was invested _in the business_.
+
+      3. I will abide _on thy right side_ and keep the
+      bridge _with thee_.
+
+      4. _In summer_ milk soon turns sour.
+
+      5. I have come _for help_.
+
+      6. The people _on the bridge_ cheered _for hours_.
+
+      7. He threw up his hat _for joy_.
+
+      8. _On the table before them_ stood a deer roasted
+      whole.
+
+      9. We shall stay here _until spring_.
+
+      10. We came _in sight of the king's palace_.
+
+      11. We drove _to the factory_ today _with the
+      superintendent_.
+
+      12. He works _from sunrise to sunset_.
+
+
+=Exercise 69=
+
+The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common. A list of
+prepositions follows. They should be learned.
+
+    about        before       except       toward
+    above        behind       for          under
+    aboard       below        from         underneath
+    across       beneath      in           until
+    after        beside       into         up
+    against      between      of           upon
+    along        betwixt      on           with
+    amid         beyond       over         within
+    amidst       but (except) past         without
+    among        by           through      to the extent of
+    around       concerning   throughout   from under
+    athwart      down         till         according to
+    at           during       to           except for
+
+Write three sentences containing prepositional _adjective_ phrases.
+
+Prepositional _adverbial_ phrases may express the following ideas:
+
+      Time, telling _when_ something happened.
+
+      Place, telling _where_ something happened.
+
+      Manner, telling _how_ something happened.
+
+      Means, telling _how_ something happened.
+
+      Cause or purpose, telling _why_ something happened.
+
+      Degree, telling _how long_ something lasted; _how far_
+      it went; _how much_ it cost, etc.
+
+      Agent, telling _by whom_ it was done.
+
+      Accompaniment, telling _with whom_ it was done.
+
+Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling:
+
+    1. when          6. how far
+    2. where         7. how much
+    3. why           8. by whom
+    4. in what way   9. with whom
+    5. how long     10. by what means
+
+
+=Exercise 70=
+
+Name all the prepositional phrases in Exercise 179, explaining whether
+they are adjective or adverbial.
+
+
+=Exercise 71--The Clause=
+
+A _subordinate clause_, like a phrase, is a group of words used as a
+part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause must have a
+subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced
+
+    1. By _relative pronouns_:
+
+                 who, whose, whom, which, what, that
+
+    2. By _subordinate conjunctions_:
+
+      when             because          than             unless
+      where            since            provided         till
+      while            if               whereas          until
+      as               as soon as       wherever         before
+      as if            as long as       whether          after
+      though           in order that    why              for
+      although         lest             that             whenever
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+               { A lamp that _smokes_ }
+    ADJECTIVE: {                      } is a torture to a student.
+               { A _smoking_ lamp     }
+
+            { _When she was good_ }
+            {                     } she was very, very good.
+            {   _Sometimes_       }
+    ADVERB: {                     }
+            { _When she was bad_  }
+            {                     } she was horrid.
+            {   _Sometimes_       }
+
+Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite idea?
+
+                 { _where he lives_.
+    NOUN: I know {
+                 { _the house_.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three illustrating
+adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun clauses.
+
+
+=Exercise 72=
+
+Name all the clauses in Exercises 179, 185, and 186. Explain the use of
+each.
+
+
+=Exercise 73=
+
+Write sentences using each of the following words to introduce a phrase,
+and to introduce a clause.
+
+    1. after     3. for       5. until
+    2. before    4. since
+
+Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by an _object_ to
+form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed by a _subject_ to form a
+clause.
+
+_Illustration_
+
+                                { _Christmas_.--OBJECT.
+    I have not seen him _since_ {
+                                { _he_ went away.--SUBJECT.
+
+
+=Exercise 74=
+
+Name the complete subject in the following. Then name the simple
+subject, explaining by what elements--words, phrases, or clauses--it is
+modified.
+
+Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple predicate, explaining
+by what elements the verb is modified.
+
+      1. Modern business cannot be carried on by
+      old-fashioned methods.
+
+      2. When a man engages in business, he buys or sells.
+
+      3. The great routes of trade have changed from time to
+      time.
+
+      4. Your order will be filled within a few days.
+
+      5. Both blanks were properly filled out at the time.
+
+      6. Means of travel have developed from the slowly
+      moving caravan to the palatial railway coach.
+
+      7. Commerce originated when one human being demanded
+      something which had to be supplied by some one else.
+
+      8. The latest American and European styles will be
+      displayed in our new millinery department, which will
+      be formally opened on the first of March.
+
+      9. The prosperity of nations rests very largely on the
+      six inches of soil between the surface and the subsoil
+      of the territory.
+
+      10. One of the greatest losses to the Ohio farm lands
+      in the floods of 1913 came about because the water
+      took off the top soil from the hillside and valleys
+      and carried the vegetable material with it.
+
+      11. The conserving of the top soil is one of the
+      greatest problems in national prosperity.
+
+      12. We trust that shipment about September 8 will be
+      satisfactory to you, as it is the best that we can do
+      under the circumstances.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN
+
+
+FOR the plural of nouns see Chapter III.
+
+The classes to which nouns belong are distinguished as follows:
+
+A _common_ noun is the name given to an object to denote the class to
+which it belongs; as, _book_, _man_.
+
+A _proper_ noun is the name given to a particular object to distinguish
+it from others of the same class; as, _Mary_, _Republicans_, _England_.
+Proper nouns should always be capitalized.
+
+A _collective_ noun is a name which in the singular denotes a
+collection. It is usually plural in idea but singular in use; as,
+_congregation_, _crowd_.
+
+An _abstract_ noun is the name denoting a quality of an object; as,
+_power_, _purity_, _strength_.
+
+A _verbal_ noun is the name of an action. As its name suggests, it is
+made from a verb; as, _Sweeping_ is good exercise.
+
+
+=Exercise 75=
+
+In the following sentences supply necessary capital letters. Explain why
+the same word in one expression needs a capital and in another does not.
+
+      1. I have just taken out an endowment policy in the
+      northwestern mutual life insurance company.
+
+      2. There are many mutual life insurance companies in
+      the country.
+
+      3. His refusing the terms was practically a
+      declaration of independence.
+
+      4. On the fourth of July we celebrate the signing of
+      the declaration of independence, the first step in the
+      revolutionary war.
+
+      5. Mexico has had many revolutionary wars.
+
+      6. And king Arthur said, "The king who fights his
+      people fights himself."
+
+      7. When does the bank close?
+
+      8. I have an account with the first national bank.
+
+      9. This is the first national bank that was ever
+      established in this country.
+
+Explain to which class each noun in the foregoing sentences belongs. Be
+particularly careful to distinguish between common and proper nouns.
+
+
+=Exercise 76--Pronouns=
+
+The different classes of pronouns are distinguished as follows:
+
+The _personal_ pronoun is used in place of the name of a person or
+thing. The pronoun of the _first_ person indicates the speaker, the
+pronoun of the _second_ person indicates the person spoken to, and the
+pronoun of the _third_ person indicates the person spoken of. They are
+declined as follows:
+
+                     _First person_
+               _Singular_                   _Plural_
+    _Nom._    I                            we
+   _Poss._    my, mine                     our, ours
+   _Obj._     me                           us
+
+                   _Second person_
+    _Nom._    you (thou)                   you (ye)
+    _Poss._   your, yours (thy, thine)     your, yours
+    _Obj._    you (thee)                   you
+
+
+In modern usage _you_ is used for both the singular and the plural, but
+the verb that goes with _you_ is always plural.
+
+                           _Third person_
+                    _Singular_                         _Plural_
+              _Masc._       _Fem._       _Neut._
+    _Nom._       he          she          it            they
+    _Poss._      his         her, hers    its           their, theirs
+    _Obj._       him         her          it            them
+
+      NOTE.--The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_,
+      _ours_, _theirs_, and sometimes _his_ are possessive
+      case in form, but nominative or objective case in use.
+      That pencil is _mine_ really means, That pencil is
+      _my_ pencil. _Mine_ is used as a substitute for a
+      possessive pronoun and the noun it modifies.
+
+The personal pronouns compounded with _self_ are of two kinds:
+
+1. _Emphatic_ pronouns; as,
+
+    The buyer _himself_ told me.
+
+2. _Reflexive_ pronouns, referring back to the subject and at the same
+time being in the objective case; as,
+
+    John slipped and hurt _himself_.
+
+The _relative_ pronoun is so called because it relates or refers to
+another word, called its antecedent, to which it joins the clause that
+it introduces. The relative pronouns are _who_, _which_, _what_, _that_;
+and the compound relatives are _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_,
+_whichsoever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_.
+
+They are declined as follows:
+
+             _Singular and Plural_
+
+    _Nom._    who       which     whoever   whosoever
+    _Poss._   whose     of which  whosever  whosesoever
+    _Obj._    whom      which     whomever  whomsoever
+
+_That_, _what_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_, and _whatsoever_
+are not declined. They have the same form in the nominative and
+objective cases, and are not used in the possessive case.
+
+_What_ is peculiar in that it never has an antecedent expressed, but
+itself stands for both antecedent and relative. It is called the _double
+relative_. Compare the following:
+
+      I did not hear _the words that_ he said.
+
+      I did not hear _that which_ he said.
+
+      I did not hear _what_ he said.
+
+_That_ is called the restrictive relative, because it limits or
+restricts its antecedent to the meaning expressed in the clause
+introduced by _that_. A restrictive clause is one, therefore, that is
+needed to make the meaning of the sentence clear. Compare the following:
+
+      _Non-restrictive_: John Brown, _who_ has no disease,
+      needs no physician.
+
+      _Restrictive_: He _that_ hath no disease needs no
+      physician.
+
+Notice that a restrictive, or necessary, clause is not separated from
+the rest of the sentence by commas.
+
+_Who_ and _which_ are sometimes used with restrictive force; as,
+
+      1. Those _who_ have finished their work may leave.
+      (Not everybody.)
+
+      2. Have you read the book _which_ he recommended? (He
+      recommended but one.)
+
+_Interrogative_ pronouns are used in asking questions. They are _who_,
+_which_, _what_. _Who_ refers to persons; _which_ refers to persons or
+things, and is used to distinguish one object from another; _what_
+refers to things. They are declined as follows:
+
+                   _Singular and Plural_
+
+    _Nom._    who          which        what
+    _Poss._   whose        (of which)   (of what)
+    _Obj._    whom         which        what
+
+The interrogative pronouns _which_ and _what_ are frequently used as
+adjectives. In this case they are called _pronominal adjectives_.
+Compare:
+
+      Pronoun: _Which_ of these hats do you prefer?
+
+      Adjective: _Which_ hat do you prefer?
+
+The _demonstrative_ pronouns are _this_ and _that_ with their plurals
+_these_ and _those_. They are always used to point out, or demonstrate,
+the noun to which they refer. _This_ and _these_ are used for objects
+near at hand, or recently named; _that_ and _those_ are used for objects
+far away, or not recently named.
+
+The demonstrative pronouns are frequently used as adjectives; as,
+
+    Pronoun: _That_ is my book.
+    Adjective: _That_ book is mine.
+
+_Indefinite_ pronouns refer to objects or persons, but do not define or
+limit them. The indefinite pronouns are _each_, _every_, _either_,
+_neither_, _one_, _none_, _other_, _another_, _few_, _all_, _many_,
+_several_, _some_, _each other_, _one another_, and the compounds _any
+one_, _some one_, _every one_, _something_, _nothing_. Indefinite
+pronouns are frequently used as adjectives. _Each_, _every_, _either_,
+_one_, _another_, _any one_, _some one_, _every one_, whether they are
+used as pronouns or as adjectives, are singular in number. If another
+pronoun is used to refer to one of them, it must be in the singular
+number.
+
+
+=Exercise 77--Classes of Pronouns=
+
+In the following sentences, explain which pronouns represent the person
+speaking, which represent the person spoken to, and which represent the
+person spoken of. Tell which pronouns ask questions; which are used as
+adjectives; which are used to connect subordinate clauses to the word
+for which they stand. If the antecedent is expressed, point it out.
+
+      1. Who is talking?
+
+      2. The man who is speaking is the head of the credit
+      department.
+
+      3. If you are going, get ready.
+
+      4. Which is the better piece of cloth?
+
+      5. This is the better piece of cloth.
+
+      6. The one who wishes to succeed must exercise great
+      care in his work.
+
+      7. He that would succeed must work.
+
+      8. Many men fail because of laziness.
+
+      9. What did you say?
+
+      10. Can you guess whom I saw?
+
+      11. He himself told us.
+
+      12. A cousin of ours is coming to town.
+
+      13. The man whose life is above criticism need fear no
+      one.
+
+      14. Whoever lives the truth need fear no criticism.
+
+      15. I wish you would remove those files.
+
+      16. Ink that is thick makes illegible writing.
+
+      17. What paper should I destroy?
+
+      18. I cannot understand what any one is saying.
+
+      19. This is not my umbrella. It is yours.
+
+      20. No friend of his would talk in that way.
+
+      21. This is no book of theirs; it belongs to us.
+
+      22. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it.
+
+      23. I shall ask whomever I see.
+
+      24. Each of us has his work assigned.
+
+      25. Every boy has his work assigned.
+
+
+=Exercise 78=
+
+In the following sentences _he_, _his_, _they_, _their_, _them_, _it_,
+or _its_ should be inserted. Give the reason for your choice.
+
+      1. No man is allowed to leave ---- desk untidy.
+
+      2. Every one must put ---- tools away before leaving
+      the shop.
+
+      3. Every office worker is required to be in ---- place
+      at eight-thirty every morning.
+
+      4. In my business a person must learn to make up ----
+      mind quickly.
+
+      5. It was cold this morning. Every one wore ----
+      wraps.
+
+      6. Every clerk must do ---- own work.
+
+      7. If an employee has ideas for the improvement of the
+      business, ---- is requested to report ---- suggestions
+      to the superintendent.
+
+      8. The superintendent is anxious to have every workman
+      feel that ---- (has, have) a definite place in the
+      organization, and that if ---- (does not, don't) do
+      ---- work, the business will suffer.
+
+      9. No goods will be accepted unless ---- (are, is) in
+      good condition.
+
+      10. Every newspaper is anxious to increase ----
+      classified advertising.
+
+      11. No one cares to see ---- friends frown.
+
+      12. Every one must agree that ---- (has, have) ----
+      faults.
+
+      13. Not one of the banks had ---- deposits decreased.
+
+      14. Will any one let me take ---- umbrella?
+
+      15. Every one says that ---- had a delightful evening.
+
+      16. Who was it said I had ---- book?
+
+      17. Does each state pay over a part of ---- taxes to
+      the federal government?
+
+      18. Every one will find in the current publications a
+      wealth of information applicable to ---- specific
+      needs, much of which ---- will wish to file for easy
+      reference, no matter in what department of the world's
+      work ---- interest centers.
+
+      19. If any one could tell beforehand when ----
+      opportunities would arrive, ---- might be ready to
+      grasp each as ---- came.
+
+      20. If every one here would follow the directions that
+      ----(has, have) received, ---- would make fewer
+      mistakes in shipments.
+
+      21. Any one who wishes may give ---- opinion.
+
+      22. No one need expect to leave before ---- work is
+      finished.
+
+      23. Every one in the office took ---- vacation early
+      this year except me.
+
+      24. Each of the twenty banks sent ---- representative
+      to the meeting.
+
+      25. On applying for a position, each man is given a
+      blank that ---- must fill out carefully, making ----
+      answers as definite as possible.
+
+Some of the following are right, and some are wrong. Correct those that
+are wrong, explaining why they are wrong.
+
+      1. Neither one of them know what they are expected to
+      do.
+
+      2. Applicant after applicant handed in their names.
+
+      3. If any one has a complaint to make, he should
+      report it in writing to the superintendent.
+
+      4. Have either of the stenographers finished their
+      letters?
+
+      5. I wish everybody would do their own work and let me
+      do mine.
+
+      6. Each man did his work faithfully.
+
+      7. Has neither the carpenter nor the plumber yet
+      brought his tools?
+
+      8. Every one of the clerks must hand their report to
+      the head bookkeeper before five o'clock.
+
+      9. One of them must have neglected to hand in his
+      report.
+
+      10. Man after man yesterday promised me that they'd be
+      on hand to work this morning, and not one of them
+      showed themselves.
+
+
+=Exercise 79=
+
+In the following exercise, tell which of the italicized pronouns
+introduce restrictive, and which introduce non-restrictive clauses:
+
+      1. This is the best bargain _that_ we have ever
+      offered.
+
+      2. This is Mr. Burton, _whose_ work I recommended to
+      you.
+
+      3. The city _that_ I enjoyed most was Quebec.
+
+      4. I enjoyed walking on the old wall _that_ still
+      surrounds the town.
+
+      5. The club to _which_ I belong will hold a meeting
+      next week.
+
+      6. The club _that_ I belong to will hold a meeting
+      next Monday.
+
+      7. All those _whose_ daily work showed an improvement
+      were given an increase in salary.
+
+      8. The horse _that_ ran away belonged to my partner.
+
+      9. The greatest man is he _who_ feels himself the
+      least.
+
+      10. An old story tells us that when Caesar, _who_ was
+      a great Roman emperor, returned from a conquest
+      _which_ has ever since been famous, he brought back to
+      Rome a formula _that_ has revolutionized the world. It
+      was a formula for making soap, and was considered one
+      of the greatest treasures _that_ was captured during
+      the campaign. Caesar immediately saw the value _that_
+      it would have in the eyes of the world, and he forced
+      the soap-makers to reveal their secret.
+
+      11. The garrison is a handful of invalid soldiers,
+      _whose_ principal duty is to guard some of the outer
+      towers.
+
+      12. This is the gentleman _whom_ we met in Boston.
+
+      13. Mr. Carter, _who_ was a member of our Boston firm,
+      will take charge of our city sales.
+
+      14. We honestly believe that our latest Style Book,
+      _which_ goes with this letter, offers you more for
+      every dollar _that_ you spend than you can get
+      elsewhere.
+
+
+=Exercise 80--Case=
+
+Case is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which denotes its
+relation to other words in the sentence. There are three cases: the
+_nominative_, the _objective_, and the _possessive_. Although nouns are
+used in all three cases, no change of form occurs except in the
+possessive case.
+
+The _nominative_ case is used in the following ways:
+
+1. The principal use of the nominative case is as _subject_ of the
+sentence; as,
+
+    _Noun_:    The _business_ is prosperous.
+    _Pronoun_: _It_ has been established for five years.
+
+2. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used to complete the meaning of such
+verbs as _be_, _become_, _seem_, _appear_, _taste_, _feel_. Such a noun
+is in the nominative case, and is called a _predicate nominative_, or a
+_subjective complement_; as,
+
+    _Noun_:    Mr. Brown is the _manager_.
+             He seems a _gentleman_.
+    _Pronoun_: I think it is _she_.
+
+3. A noun in _apposition_ with another noun in the nominative case is
+also in the nominative case; as,
+
+    Mr. Brown, _the manager_, is very capable.
+    The man to whom you should apply is Mr. Brown, _the manager_.
+
+4. Sometimes a noun or a pronoun is used in direct address or in an
+exclamation, without having any grammatical relation to the rest of the
+sentence. It is then said to be _nominative independent_; as,
+
+    _Mr. Brown_, a gentleman wishes to speak to you.
+    A _strike_! Why are they declaring a strike?
+    _You!_ I thought you were in South America.
+
+5. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used with a participle to express an
+adverbial relation. Such a noun is in the nominative case, and is called
+_nominative absolute_, because it has no grammatical relation to any
+other part of the sentence; as,
+
+      _Mr. Brown_ having gone, we told the gentleman to see
+      Mr. Jones.
+
+      _He_ being the guide, we asked no questions.
+
+It is much better to use a clause to express such an idea; as,
+
+      As Mr. Brown had gone, we told the gentleman to see
+      Mr. Jones.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a pronoun in each
+of the following uses of the nominative case:
+
+    1. Subject.
+    2. Predicate Nominative.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun used
+
+    1. In direct address.
+    2. In exclamation.
+    3. In apposition with another noun in the nominative case.
+
+
+=Exercise 81--The Objective Case=
+
+A noun or a pronoun may be used in the objective case in the following
+ways:
+
+1. Direct object of a transitive verb; as,
+
+    I have a good _position_.
+    Do you know _him_?
+
+2. Object of a preposition; as,
+
+    I have just returned from the _library._
+    Bring the book to _me_.
+
+3. Indirect object of such verbs as _ask_, _give_, _teach_, showing the
+person for whom or to whom the action is done; as,
+
+    She brought _her mother_ some flowers.
+    I gave _her_ singing lessons.
+
+4. A noun as _second object_ after verbs of _making_, _choosing_,
+_calling_, _electing_; as,
+
+    They chose John _secretary_.
+
+5. A noun in _apposition_ with another objective; as,
+
+    Send your report to the secretary, _John Wilson_.
+
+6. Adverbial modifier; as,
+
+     We are going _home_.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a pronoun in each
+of the following uses of the objective case:
+
+    1. Direct object of a transitive verb.
+    2. Indirect object.
+    3. Object of a preposition.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun used as
+
+    1. Adverbial objective.
+    2. Second object.
+    3. Appositive of another noun in the objective case.
+
+
+=Exercise 82--The Possessive Case=
+
+To form the possessive case of nouns add an _apostrophe_ and _s_ to all
+singular nouns, and to all plural nouns that do not end in _s_; if a
+plural _noun_ ends in _s_ add only an apostrophe; as, _child's_,
+_children's_, _boys'_.
+
+      _Exception._--When, in long words, the additional _s_
+      in the singular would cause a disagreeable sound, some
+      writers use only the apostrophe; as,
+
+      We awaited the _princess's_ decision. We awaited the
+      _princess'_ decision.
+
+It is often better in such cases to use a phrase; as,
+
+    We awaited the decision _of the princess_.
+
+Thus, an _of_ phrase may be used instead of the possessive case. In
+speaking of an inanimate object one should use it instead of the
+apostrophe and _s_; as, _the top of the mountain_. However, we use such
+expressions as _last year's prices_.
+
+When, as in the name of a firm, two or more nouns are taken together
+with the idea of common possession, the sign of the possessive is added
+to the last noun only. If separate possession is implied, the sign of
+the possessive is added to each noun; as,
+
+    Have you seen _Wilson & King's_ new building?
+    This is _Mary and Helen's_ room.
+    Is this _Mary's or Helen's_ coat?
+
+A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case before a verbal noun; as,
+
+    I prefer to have _John's_ studying done before dinner.
+    I prefer to have _his_ studying done before dinner.
+
+Write sentences expressing relation between the words in the following
+pairs. Use one of them in the possessive case or use an _of_ phrase,
+whichever seems better.
+
+    the manager, desk     city, harbor
+    desk, top drawer      proprietor, private office
+    book, cover           typewriter, keys
+    city, mayor           ledger, first page
+
+Bring to class five incorrect possessive phrases taken from
+advertisements. Explain and correct the mistakes.
+
+
+=Exercise 83=
+
+Which of the italicized words would you use? Why?
+
+      1. Have you heard of _Mr. Bennett_, _Mr. Bennett's_
+      being appointed chairman of the meeting?
+
+      2. It will probably delay _him_, _his_ coming here.
+
+      3. I don't understand _him_, _his_ refusing to accept
+      the position.
+
+      4. We have heard a great deal of _him_, _his_ making a
+      success of photography.
+
+      5. The man's industry has resulted in _him_, _his_
+      gaining fame.
+
+      6. Will you sign this permit for _us_, _our_ visiting
+      the factory?
+
+      7. What do you say to _us_, _our_ making some candy?
+
+      8. I am very sorry that _me_, _my_ interrupting you
+      yesterday delayed your work.
+
+      9. The machine is in excellent condition. There is no
+      reason for _it_, _its_ needing any repair.
+
+      10. _Everybody_, _everybody's_ being on time is
+      absolutely necessary.
+
+
+=Exercise 84=
+
+Each of the following sentences is incorrect because the sign of the
+possessive case has been omitted. Insert the apostrophe or the
+apostrophe and _s_, wherever either is needed.
+
+      1. There is a new boys school in our town.
+
+      2. James brother John is our new bookkeeper.
+
+      3. For entrance to this course three years work in
+      mathematics and one years work in German are
+      required.
+
+      4. This new building will be occupied by J. M. Hopkins
+      mail order department.
+
+      5. The superintendents inspection was thorough.
+
+      6. The trouble will be in John agreeing to the
+      proposition.
+
+      7. All applications for help should be made to the
+      Womens Committees.
+
+      8. The employees rest rooms are on the sunny side of
+      the building.
+
+      9. Our fifteen years experience in selling bonds has
+      convinced us that investments paying a low rate of
+      interest are the safest.
+
+      10. In to-days mail I received a very large order from
+      Graham & Moore's successors.
+
+      11. Jones Brothers new store is on the corner of
+      Madison Street.
+
+      12. Last month sales show an increase of two thousand
+      dollars.
+
+      13. Everybodys business is nobodys business.
+
+      14. It is when to-morrows burden is added to the
+      burden of to-day that the weight is more than a man
+      can bear.
+
+      15. The present governor was the peoples choice.
+
+      16. I prefer Tennysons poems to Longfellows.
+
+      17. I have read both Longfellow and Tennysons poems.
+
+      18. I bought the book at Barlow and Companys new
+      store.
+
+      19. We are going to insist on Mary taking a long
+      vacation this year.
+
+      20. I have had the pleasure of staying at both your
+      friends houses.
+
+
+=Exercise 85--The Apostrophe=
+
+Some of the following sentences are right, and some are wrong. Correct
+those that are wrong, explaining why they are wrong.
+
+      1. The man who's coming this way is Mr. Burton.
+
+      2. Whose coat is that?
+
+      3. The man who's place you are taking has been with
+      this firm for twenty years.
+
+      4. The next one whose to give a report is the
+      treasurer.
+
+      5. The next one whose report we must hear is the
+      treasurer.
+
+      6. Don't you think it's too early to start?
+
+      7. He is a ladies tailor.
+
+      8. Remember your to let us know at once who's elected.
+
+      9. Its too late now to change its wording.
+
+      10. Mr. Jones' house is being repaired.
+
+      11. The Joneses' house is being repaired.
+
+      12. There coming as fast as their horse will bring
+      them.
+
+      13. I think you're typewriter needs cleaning.
+
+      14. Your coming too, are'nt you?
+
+      15. Every business has it's problems.
+
+      16. The Bon Ton has a big sale in mens' and womens'
+      coat's.
+
+      17. Why, it's March! No wonder their having a sale.
+
+      18. We shall give you a special discount if you will
+      send your dealer's name.
+
+      19. Most of the dealer's advertise very little.
+
+      20. It's just a year ago since we received your last
+      order.
+
+      21. Its not willingness we lack; it's time.
+
+      22. If you use our safety device, you may leave you're
+      window open with security, and you will arise
+      refreshed, ready for a big days work.
+
+      23. Lets take our vacation when they take their's.
+
+      24. I think we shall have to take our's in August. Two
+      of us must stay during July, for the work will not do
+      it's self, you know.
+
+      25. In any explanation it should be the writers
+      purpose to so describe his good's that the reader will
+      desire them. A good salesman never shows a necktie in
+      a box. He takes it out and with a deft twist forms
+      it's length into a four-in-hand over his finger. The
+      customer then sees not only the scarf, it's color and
+      its weave, but he sees it in it's relation to himself,
+      as it will look when it's tied.
+
+
+=Exercise 86=
+
+Supply _who_ or _whom_:
+
+      1. ---- did you take me for?
+
+      2. The shipping clerk, ---- I consider responsible for
+      the mistake, must go.
+
+      3. The shipping clerk, ---- I feel certain is
+      responsible for the mistake, must go.
+
+      4. ---- is it?
+
+      5. ---- shall I say called?
+
+      6. ---- do you wish to see?
+
+      7. ---- did you say was elected?
+
+      8. He is the one ---- every one thought should be
+      elected.
+
+      9. Choose the one ---- you think will give the best
+      service.
+
+      10. Choose the one ---- you think you can trust.
+
+      11. She asked me ---- did it.
+
+      12. ---- do you think is the best salesman in the
+      firm?
+
+      13. ---- do you regard as the best salesman in the
+      firm?
+
+      14. ---- was that ---- you were talking to?
+
+      15. He is the one ---- I was speaking about.
+
+      16. ---- do we play next week?
+
+      17. He is a workman ---- can be trusted.
+
+      18. He is a workman upon ---- you can depend.
+
+      19. This letter comes from Robert, ---- we all know
+      very well.
+
+      20. This letter comes from Robert, ---- we all know
+      writes good letters.
+
+      21. ---- do you consider to be most capable? [The
+      subject of the infinitive _to be_ must be in the
+      objective case.]
+
+      22. This booklet was written by the man ---- Mr.
+      Bardon considers [to be] the best correspondent in our
+      office.
+
+      23. He is the one ---- every one believes to be worthy
+      of the highest honors.
+
+      24. The critic ---- every one thought gave the most
+      truthful account of the performance is a man of great
+      culture.
+
+Supply _whoever_ or _whomever_:
+
+      1. Give the book to ---- needs it.
+
+      2. Give it to ---- you think best.
+
+      3. ---- I send can be trusted.
+
+      4. Send me ---- is there.
+
+      5. Send me ---- you find there.
+
+      6. ---- reaches the line first will receive the cup.
+
+      7. The cup will be given to ---- reaches the lines
+      first.
+
+      8. In the country lane he spoke to ---- he met.
+
+      9. ---- you choose may compete for the prize.
+
+      10. ---- you bring is welcome.
+
+
+=Exercise 87=
+
+Read the following sentences, using one of the forms in italic. Be able
+to give a reason for your choice.
+
+      1. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ are going camping next
+      summer.
+
+      2. It is a question that refers to you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      3. It is a question between you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      4. I am sure that it was _she_--_her_.
+
+      5. I am sure that we saw you and _he_--_him_.
+
+      6. _We_--_us_ boys are going camping.
+
+      7. Will you go camping with _we_--_us_ boys?
+
+      8. _They_--_them_ and their cousins are going camping.
+
+      9. We bought a large piece of ground so that my
+      brother and _I_--_me_ could have a garden.
+
+      10. It was bought for _he_--_him_ and _I_--_me_.
+
+      11. Is that _he_--_him_ entering the gate? Yes, that
+      is _he_--_him_.
+
+      12. _Who_--_whom_ should I meet at the station but old
+      Mr. McGregor, _who_--_whom_ I had not seen for several
+      years.
+
+      13. If I were _he_--_him_, I should start at once.
+
+      14. There is no need of _him_--_his_ staying any
+      longer.
+
+      15. He does not work so rapidly as _I_--_me_.
+
+      16. Mary and _she_--_her_ work in the same office.
+
+      17. There is no danger of _me_--_my_ failing.
+
+      18. Please let _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_ do the work
+      together.
+
+      19. There is no use of _us_--_our_ trying any more.
+
+      20. _Us_--_our_ giving up now will spoil everything.
+
+      21. My mother objected to _me_--_my_ going.
+
+      22. Why did you insist upon _us_--_our_ coming to-day?
+
+      23. I hardly think it is _he_--_him_ _who_--_whom_ is
+      to blame.
+
+      24. I should like to be _she_--_her_.
+
+      25. _They_--_them_ that do wrong shall be punished.
+
+      26. _They_--_them_ that do wrong I shall punish.
+
+      27. _He_--_him_ that is your friend you can call upon
+      in your hour of need.
+
+      28. _He_--_him_ that is your friend will respond to
+      your call.
+
+      29. The manager praised both the bookkeepers and
+      _we_--_us_ girls.
+
+      30. Was it you who called? Yes, it was _I_--_me_.
+
+      31. It surely was not _I_--_me_ whom you saw.
+
+      32. He reproved us both but _I_--_me_ more than
+      _she_--_her_.
+
+      33. Are you sure it's _I_--_me_ whom he appointed?
+
+      34. If it's really _I_--_me_ who was appointed, I'm
+      sure I should have been notified.
+
+      35. I'm sure it can't be _I_--_me_.
+
+
+=Exercise 88--_Same_ as a Pronoun=
+
+One of the worst constructions found in business letters of today is the
+use of _same_ as a pronoun. The word may be an adjective or a noun but
+never a pronoun.
+
+      _Wrong_: Will you please fill out the enclosed blank
+      and return _same_ as soon as possible?
+
+      _Right_: Will you please fill out the enclosed blank
+      and return _it_ as soon as possible?
+
+In each of the following sentences substitute a noun or a pronoun for
+_same_:
+
+      1. Will you not send us a check by Friday so that we
+      may use same for our pay roll on Saturday?
+
+      2. Do you wish to bid for our cinder output this year?
+      We have a sample car that we shall be glad to have you
+      inspect if you think you will have any use for same.
+
+      3. We have no use for the material this year, but we
+      thank you for giving us an opportunity to bid for
+      same.
+
+      4. If you are dissatisfied with the machine, return
+      same at our expense.
+
+      5. You state that you sent us an order on June 10, but
+      we cannot find any trace of same.
+
+      6. We are in the market for two dozen Standard clothes
+      wringers, and we should be glad to receive your lowest
+      price on same.
+
+      7. We have given you credit for this amount and desire
+      to thank you for your promptness in sending same.
+
+      8. We have your letter of November 6 and thank you for
+      same.
+
+      9. If you think you can use this type of machine, we
+      shall be glad to send you same on ten days' trial.
+
+      10. We have decided to use your machine if you will
+      give us a satisfactory guarantee as to strength,
+      efficiency, and freedom from leaks. As soon as
+      possible let us hear from you in regard to same.
+
+
+=Exercise 89--Nouns and Pronouns Incorrectly Used=
+
+                 _Wrong_                                  _Right_
+
+  1. We saw _lots_ of curious things.      We saw _a number_ of curious
+                                                 things.
+
+  2. Do you know that _party_?             Do you know that _man_?
+
+  3. I stayed at home the _balance_        I stayed at home the _rest_ of
+        of the day.                              the day.
+
+  4. What _business_ have you to go?       What _right_ have you to go?
+
+  5. The dress will be done in a           The dress will be done in a
+        _couple_ of days.                       _few_ days.
+
+  6. I'll walk a _piece_ with you.         I'll walk a _short distance_
+                                                 with you.
+  7. Did you get a _raise_ in pay?         Did you get an _increase_ in
+                                                 pay?
+  8. I'll send you a _postal_.             I'll send you a _postal card_.
+
+  9. Christmas is still a long _ways_      Christmas is still a long _way_
+        off.                                     off.
+
+ 10. What _line_ of business are you       What _kind_ of business are you
+        in now?                                  in now?
+
+ 11. If you expect to open a grocery,      If you expect to open a grocery,
+        let me give you a little                 let me give you a little
+        advice _along that line_.                advice _on the subject_.
+
+ 12. Have you anything new in the          Have you any new neckwear?
+        neckwear _line_?
+ 13. I have a _date_ with the dentist.     I have an _appointment_ with the
+                                                dentist.
+
+ 14. Have you a _date_ for this evening?   Have you an _engagement_ for
+                                                this evening?
+
+ 15. He always does his work in good       He always does his work _well_.
+        _shape_.
+
+ 16. That is a good _write-up_ on the      That is a good _article_ on the
+        tariff.                                 tariff.
+
+ 17. _Yourself_ and friends are invited.   _You_ and your friends are
+                                                invited.
+
+ 18. Don't _they_ have street cars in      Are there no street cars in
+        your town?                              your town?
+
+ 19. _It_ said in this morning's paper     This morning's paper said that
+        that the traffic men would              the traffic men would
+        strike.                                 strike.
+
+ 20. The book _what_ he advised is not     The book _that_ he advised is
+        fiction.                                not fiction.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB
+
+
+AS a rule, adverbs present more difficulty than do adjectives. Careless
+pupils frequently use an adjective when an adverb is necessary; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: He solved the problem very _quick_.
+    _Right_: He solved the problem very _quickly_.
+
+    _Wrong_: This is _real_ good candy.
+    _Right_: This is _really_ (or _very_) good candy.
+
+Until the habit of correct usage is formed, every sentence must be
+watched. When a word modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb,
+another adverb must be used, and an adjective may not correctly be
+substituted. As a rule, adverbs express the following ideas:
+
+    _Time_: We arrived _early_.
+    _Place_: We have been _here_ since January.
+    _Manner_: He walked _steadily_ onward.
+    _Cause_: _Why_ did you refuse the offer?
+    _Degree_: I am _very much_ surprised.
+    _Number_: I did it _once_ not _twice_.
+    _Assertion_: }
+    _Denial_:    } I do _not_ agree.
+
+      Adverb modifying a verb: See how _slowly_ the man
+      walks!
+
+      Adverb modifying an adjective: The weather has been
+      _extremely_ warm.
+
+      Adverb modifying an adverb: He dictates _very_
+      rapidly.
+
+It must be remembered, however, that verbs of the senses--_taste_,
+_feel_, _look_, _smell_, _sound_, and the like--are sometimes almost
+equal in meaning to the verb _be_. In that case, they are followed by
+adjectives and not by adverbs; as,
+
+    _Adjective_: He looked _angry_.
+    _Adverb_: He looked _angrily_ at us.
+
+
+=Exercise 90=
+
+Name the adjectives in the following selection, explaining with what
+noun each belongs.
+
+Name the adverbs, explaining what part of speech each modifies.
+
+      Since 1904 the number of live cattle exported from
+      this country has been steadily growing smaller.
+      Exports of dressed beef have also shrunk to such
+      insignificant proportions that the United States is no
+      longer an important factor in the foreign markets for
+      beef. Often has it been said that the competition of
+      cheap Argentine beef has deprived us of foreign
+      markets. It would be more nearly true to say that
+      foreigners buy the inferior article only because we
+      cannot supply them with all they want of the best
+      grade. Take, for instance, the Englishman's
+      willingness to pay considerably more for American
+      corn-fed beef than for Argentine.
+
+      The raising of cattle is important, also, from the
+      standpoint of the leather business. Obviously, with a
+      21 per cent increase in population in each decade,
+      many more shoes are necessary. Automobile and other
+      industries are making constantly increasing demands
+      for leather. Shoes cannot become cheaper in the face
+      of increased demand and diminished supply. Too much
+      depends upon the cattle industry for us to allow it to
+      wane.
+
+
+=Exercise 91=
+
+Which of the italicized words should you use in the following, and why?
+
+      1. Why do you walk so _slow_--_slowly_?
+
+      2. Speak _louder_--_more loudly_.
+
+      3. I cannot explain why he spoke so
+      _gentle_--_gently_.
+
+      4. The automobile was going very _swift_--_swiftly_.
+
+      5. The well has been dug very _deep_--_deeply_.
+
+      6. He is not _near_--_nearly_ so tall as you are.
+
+      7. Are you cutting that _even_--_evenly_?
+
+      8. She does pen and ink sketches
+      _beautiful_--_beautifully_.
+
+      9. Why can't I grow _quicker_--_more quickly_?
+
+      10. I feel _bad_--_badly_ this morning.
+
+      11. Can you do all I have asked? _Easy_--_easily_.
+
+      12. She does her work _good_--_well_.
+
+      13. She does her work _fine_--_finely_.
+
+      14. I am _real_--_very much_ surprised to see you.
+
+      15. He became _real_--_very_ angry.
+
+      16. I'm afraid it's not _near_--_nearly_ big enough.
+
+      17. She works twice as _quick_--_quickly_ as you do.
+
+      18. He _sure_--_surely_ is a good speaker. He seems
+      _sure_--_surely_ of himself.
+
+      19. Are you going? _Sure_--_surely_?
+
+      20. He says he is _near_--_nearly_ starved.
+
+      21. He worked _steady_--_steadily_ all morning. The
+      others did not work _near_--_nearly_ so hard.
+
+      22. I am speaking as _serious_--_seriously_ as I can.
+
+      23. The orange tastes _bitter_--_bitterly_.
+
+      24. Don't you think he has been acting
+      _queer_--_queerly_?
+
+      25. The coat is finished _nice_--_nicely_.
+
+
+=Exercise 92=
+
+Explain the proper position of the italicized adverbs in the following
+sentences. Remember that an adverb must stand as closely as possible to
+the word that it modifies, but remember also that an infinitive,
+although made up of two parts, is _one_ word and should not be split by
+an adverb.
+
+      1. I _merely_ want the Milwaukee list of customers.
+
+      2. You _almost_ write like her.
+
+      3. Your writing is like hers _almost_.
+
+      4. I can _not_ find one of the papers I had on the
+      desk.
+
+      5. He told me to _carefully_ add the figures in the
+      column.
+
+      6. I expect to _quickly_ finish my dictation.
+
+      7. I don't _even_ understand the first problem in the
+      lesson.
+
+      8. Don't say you don't _ever_ expect to go to school
+      again.
+
+      9. All the statements are _not_ on my desk.
+
+      10. He promised to _quickly_ settle the matter.
+
+      11. I wish you to _clearly_ understand the situation.
+
+      12. I _only_ have two more items to enter.
+
+      13. I _only_ expect to take a short vacation this
+      year.
+
+      14. He _only_ spoke of two causes of the loss in
+      trade.
+
+      15. I _only_ decided to take the Western instead of
+      the Eastern trip at the last moment.
+
+
+=Exercise 93--Comparison=
+
+Adjectives are compared so as to express different degrees of quality.
+There are three degrees of comparison, the _positive_, the
+_comparative_, and the _superlative_. When the object modified or
+described by the adjective is not compared with another, the first or
+_positive_ degree is used. When two objects are compared, the second or
+_comparative_ degree is used to denote more or less of the quality
+expressed by the adjective. When several objects are compared, the
+_superlative_ degree of the adjective is used to express the highest or
+the lowest possible degree of the adjective.
+
+The usual method of comparing an adjective is to add _er_ to the
+positive to form the comparative, and _est_ to form the superlative.
+Frequently, however, especially for an adjective of two or more
+syllables, the comparative is formed by prefixing _more_ or _less_ to
+the positive, and the superlative by prefixing _most_ or _least_.
+Besides the adjectives in these two classes there are some which do not
+follow any regular method and must, therefore, be watched a little more
+closely.
+
+The following table illustrates the different methods of comparison:
+
+     _Positive_           _Comparative_          _Superlative_
+    bright              brighter            brightest
+    dangerous           more dangerous      most dangerous
+    beautiful           more beautiful      most beautiful
+    good                better              best
+    bad                 worse               worst
+    ill                 worse               worst
+
+Be careful to avoid using a double sign for the comparative degree; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: This writing is _more neater_ than yours.
+
+Some adverbs are also compared; as,
+
+     _Positive_          _Comparative_       _Superlative_
+    well              better            best
+    quickly           more quickly      most quickly
+
+Some adjectives and adverbs cannot be compared because the positive
+degree in itself expresses a complete or _absolute_ meaning; as,
+
+    absolute,-ly   eternal        perfect        sufficient
+    circular       extreme        perpendicular  supreme
+    continual      faultless      perpetual      unanimous
+    dead           full           right          unique
+    decisive       impossible     round          universal
+    empty          incurable      square         white
+
+Compare those of the following adjectives that may be compared. Explain
+why some do not admit of comparison.
+
+    great      spotless   expensive  wise
+    tall       dear       parallel   high
+    desirable  east       old        new
+    honorable  early      exclusive  blank
+
+
+=Exercise 94=
+
+In the following exercise, select the correct one of the two italicized
+forms. Remember that the comparative degree is used in comparing two
+objects, the superlative in comparing three or more.
+
+      1. I had three pens. I have lost the _better_--_best_
+      one.
+
+      2. I have two clerks. John is the _older_--_oldest_.
+
+      3. Of the two colors, I think the tan is the
+      _more_--_most_ becoming to you.
+
+      4. You are the _taller_--_tallest_ of all the boys.
+
+      5. Of two professions, choose the _more_--_most_
+      honorable.
+
+      6. He is the _faster_--_fastest_ workman in the shop.
+
+      7. Which of your hands is the _cleaner_--_cleanest_?
+
+      8. Which do you like _better_--_best_, skating or
+      sleighing?
+
+      9. Which of your eyes has the _better_--_best_ vision?
+
+      10. Of all the shops, she likes Leslie's
+      _better_--_best_.
+
+      11. Which is _more_--_most_ durable, serge or
+      broadcloth?
+
+      12. Which tree lives _longer_--_longest_, the poplar
+      or the elm?
+
+      13. Which is the _best_--_better_ policy, honesty or
+      dishonesty?
+
+      14. He is the _wittier_--_wittiest_ one in the class.
+
+      15. He is the _wittier_--_wittiest_ boy in the class.
+      There is only one boy in the class besides him.
+
+      16. Of our twenty salesmen, he is considered
+      _better_--_best_ because he is _quicker_--_quickest_
+      witted than any other.
+
+      17. You should not mention the two men in one breath.
+      The _former_--_first_ is famous and the
+      _latter_--_last_ infamous.
+
+      18. Which of you two do you think deserves
+      _more_--_most_ praise?
+
+      19. Which of you two deserves _less_--_least_ praise?
+
+      20. Which of you two can run the _faster_--_fastest_?
+
+
+=Exercise 95=
+
+Remember that the double negative is wrong; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: I haven't no paper.
+    _Right_: I have no paper.
+
+Correct any of the following sentences that contain this mistake:
+
+      1. None of them didn't come.
+
+      2. I couldn't do the problem neither.
+
+      3. This paper isn't very good, I don't think.
+
+      4. Couldn't you find no better pen?
+
+      5. I didn't choose none of them.
+
+      6. I don't see nothing to complain of.
+
+      7. He couldn't hardly see across the street.
+
+      8. We didn't find the paper nowhere.
+
+      9. They can't scarcely believe the report.
+
+      10. She couldn't stay with us only a few minutes.
+
+
+=Exercise 96--Fewer, Less=
+
+_Fewer_ refers to a smaller number by counting, _less_ refers to a
+smaller quantity by measuring. Insert the correct word:
+
+      1. You are making ---- mistakes each day.
+
+      2. I am having ---- difficulty in writing shorthand.
+
+      3. There are ---- houses on this street than I had
+      thought.
+
+      4. The farther inland we went the ---- signs of
+      habitation we saw.
+
+      5. Each year there is ---- opportunity for an
+      uneducated man to rise.
+
+      6. Each year there are ---- opportunities for the
+      uneducated man to rise.
+
+
+=Most, Almost=
+
+_Most_ refers to quantity or number; _almost_ means _not quite_. Insert
+the correct word:
+
+      7. ---- people enjoy their work.
+
+      8. I have ---- finished the course in stenography.
+
+      9. ---- European cities are beautiful.
+
+      10. ---- all European cities are beautiful.
+
+
+=Real, Very=
+
+_Real_ is an adjective meaning _actual_; _very_ is an adverb of degree.
+Insert the correct word:
+
+      11. I'm ---- glad to see you.
+
+      12. Is your comb ---- amber?
+
+      13. The men of the Titanic were ---- heroes.
+
+      14. He is a ---- good soloist.
+
+      15. She is ---- entertaining in conversation; it was a
+      ---- pleasure to meet her.
+
+
+=Exercise 97--Adjectives and Adverbs Incorrectly Used=
+
+                 _Wrong_                                  _Right_
+   1. I don't like _those_ kind of pens.  I don't like _that_ kind of pens.
+
+   2. What sort of _a_ course are you     What sort of course are you
+         taking?                                taking?
+
+   3. His statements made me _mad_.       His statements made me _angry_.
+
+   4. Yours _respectively_.               Yours _respectfully_.
+          (Consult a dictionary for the correct use of _respectively_)
+
+   5. Do you want _in_?                   Do you want _to come in_?
+
+   6. Go _some place_ with me.            Go _somewhere_ with me.
+
+   7. My father is _some_ better.         My father is _somewhat_ better.
+
+   8. He comes _every once in a while_.   He comes _occasionally_.
+
+   9. Did you recognize the girl who      Did you recognize the girl who
+        drove _past?_                           drove _by_?
+
+  10. The two are _both_ alike.           The two are alike.
+
+  11. He is _liable_ to come any          He is _likely_ to come at any
+        minute.                                 minute.
+
+  12. That ring has a _funny_ design.     That ring has an _odd_ design.
+
+  13. I'd _sooner_ stay at home.          I'd _rather_ stay at home.
+
+  14. Are you _most_ ready?               Are you _almost_ ready?
+
+  15. I'm _kind of_ sleepy.               I'm _rather_ sleepy.
+
+  16. What _size_ hat do you wear?        What _sized_ hat do you wear?
+
+  17. _This here_ book is the one         _This_ book is the one I wish.
+        I wish.
+
+  18. He spoke _angry like_.              He spoke _angrily_.
+
+  19. His ideas are _no_ good.            His ideas are _worthless_ (or
+                                                _not good_).
+
+  20. He _seldom ever_ makes a mistake.   He _seldom_ (_hardly ever_)
+                                                makes a mistake.
+
+  21. I didn't work _any_ last night.     I didn't work _at all_ last
+                                                night.
+
+  22. I walked _this_ far yesterday.      I walked _as far as this_
+                                                yesterday.
+
+  23. I want to see you _badly_.          I want to see you _very much_.
+
+  24. He sells insurance _on the side_.   _In addition to his other
+                                                business_ he sells
+                                                insurance.
+
+  25. Don't talk _out loud_.              Don't talk _aloud_.
+
+  26. She is _very_ disappointed.         She is _very much_ disappointed.
+     (Before a perfect participle _too_ or _very_ may not be used without
+                    the addition of the adverb _much_)
+
+  27. She is a _cute_ (or _cunning_)      She is a _pretty_ child.
+        child.
+        (Look up the words _cute_ and _cunning_ in a dictionary)
+
+  28. He was lying face _down_ on         He was lying face _downward_ on
+        the grass.                              the grass.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE VERB
+
+
+VERBS may be _transitive_ or _intransitive_.
+
+A verb is transitive when it needs an object to complete its meaning;
+that is, when the action passes over (Latin, _transire_, to pass over)
+from the subject or doer to the object or receiver; as,
+
+    He _hit_ the ball.
+
+A verb is intransitive when it needs no object to complete its meaning;
+as,
+
+    The crowd _cheered_.
+
+Some intransitive verbs require a predicate noun or pronoun in the
+nominative case, or an adjective, to complete their meaning. They are
+the verbs _be_, _become_, _appear_, _seem_, _feel_, _taste_, _look_,
+_smell_; as,
+
+    _Adjective_: The berries taste _sour_.
+    _Noun_: John is my _brother_.
+    _Pronoun_: It is _I_.
+
+Such verbs are sometimes called _copulatives_.
+
+
+=Exercise 98=
+
+Tell whether each verb in the following sentences is transitive or
+intransitive and whether it is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the
+nominative or the objective case or by a complementary adjective.
+
+      1. Primitive people have left traces of very early
+      commercial relations.
+
+      2. Explorers visited the Ohio valley and found
+      articles of remote manufacture.
+
+      3. Checks and drafts are great conveniences to the
+      business man.
+
+      4. The United States Supreme Court made a decision
+      that labor unions are punishable under trust
+      penalties.
+
+      5. A labor union is different from a trust.
+
+      6. This is the opinion of the labor leader.
+
+      7. What is your opinion?
+
+      8. The total value of merchandise sent to
+      Latin-America from the United States exceeds that
+      supplied by any other single country.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating transitive verbs.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating intransitive verbs.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating copulative verbs.
+
+
+=Exercise 99--Voice=
+
+Voice is that property of the verb that shows whether the subject acts
+or is acted upon. If the subject acts, the verb is in the _active
+voice_. If the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the _passive
+voice_. Every sentence containing a transitive verb must have the
+following parts:
+
+       _Agent_(doer)        _Action_       _Receiver_
+    The runaway horse     injured        John.
+
+When the sentence is in the order shown above, the subject is the agent,
+and the verb expresses the action of the agent. When the sentence is
+written in this order, the verb is said to be in the _active voice_.
+
+However, without changing the meaning of the sentence, we may change the
+order of the ideas; thus,
+
+    _Receiver_     _Action_           _Agent_
+      John     was injured   by the runaway horse.
+
+The receiver of the action has become the subject, and the agent has
+become part of the predicate, being expressed in the phrase _by the
+runaway horse_. When the sentence is expressed in this order, the
+subject receiving or "suffering" the action, the verb is said to be in
+the _passive voice_. Only transitive verbs, therefore, may be changed to
+the passive voice.
+
+      NOTE.--There are certain intransitive verbs that
+      sometimes have a preposition so closely connected with
+      them that the two are treated almost like a transitive
+      verb, and may be made passive; as,
+
+    _Active_: The audience laughed _at_ the speaker.
+    _Passive_: The speaker was laughed _at_ by the audience.
+
+Write five sentences in the active voice.
+
+Change them to the passive voice.
+
+In the sentences that you have written, is the active form of the verb
+or the passive form better? Which is more direct in its wording? Which,
+then, is the better form to use regularly?
+
+
+=Exercise 100--Number and Person=
+
+The number of the verb is decided by the number of the subject. If the
+subject is a singular noun, or a pronoun that stands for a singular
+noun, it requires a singular verb; if the subject is plural, it requires
+a plural verb. As a rule, there is no difference between the singular
+and the plural forms of the verb except in the form for the third person
+singular; as,
+
+    I say        We say
+    You say      You say
+    He says      They say
+
+But as the third person of the verb is the one most often used, it must
+be carefully noted.
+
+The following subjects of verbs are singular and require a singular verb
+to accompany them:
+
+1. A collective noun that denotes a group of objects acting as one
+thing; as,
+
+    The crowd _is_ scattering.
+
+2. A group of words which, like a collective noun, is plural in form but
+singular in meaning; as,
+
+    Thirty dollars _is_ what I paid for the ring.
+
+3. A singular noun modified by _every_, _each_, _one_, _no_, _many a_;
+or the pronouns _each_, _everybody_, _either_, _neither_, and _none_
+when it means _not one_; as,
+
+    Each of us _has_ his lesson.
+    Many an opportunity _has_ been wasted.
+    Everybody _is_ here now.
+
+4. Singular[1] nouns or pronouns joined by _or_, _either--or_,
+_neither--nor_; as,
+
+    Either John or his father _is_ coming.
+
+5. Two nouns joined by _and_, denoting one person or thing; as,
+
+    The bookkeeper and stenographer _is_ an expert.
+
+      NOTE.--If two persons are meant, the article should be
+      repeated before the second noun.
+
+The following subjects of verbs are plural and require plural verbs:
+
+1. A collective noun denoting plurality; that is, referring to the
+individuals that compose the group; as,
+
+    The class _are_ all studious.
+
+2. A compound subject joined by _and_, when the objects joined are
+different; as,
+
+    The door and the window _are_ both open.
+
+3. The pronoun _you_, though it may denote only one person; as,
+
+    _Right_: You _were_ right.
+    _Wrong_: You _was_ right.
+
+
+
+=Exercise 101=
+
+In the following sentences, decide which of the italicized forms is
+correct. Give the reason for your choice.
+
+      1. Two dollars _is_--_are_ too much for you to pay.
+
+      2. Bread and butter _is_--_are_ what I prefer to eat.
+
+      3. Bread and butter _is_--_are_ both sold here.
+
+      4. His opinion and mine _is_--_are_ different.
+
+      5. The majority of the class _is_--_are_ present.
+
+      6. The class _is_--_are_ dismissed.
+
+      7. The congregation _is_--_are_ asked to remain a few
+      minutes after the close of the service.
+
+      8. The community _is_--_are_ rapidly changing.
+
+      9. A few of the books _was_--_were_ given to me.
+
+      10. There _was_--_were_ forty people present.
+
+      11. The secretary and treasurer _was_--_were_ asked to
+      read _his_--_their_ report.
+
+      12. One-third of the office _was_--_were_ late this
+      morning because the cars were not running.
+
+      13. He _don't_--_doesn't_ understand what I mean.
+
+      14. If the quality and the price _is_--_are_ right,
+      buy.
+
+      15. There _come_--_comes_ a crowd of people.
+
+      16. The library with its thousands of books
+      _was_--_were_ destroyed by fire.
+
+      17. There _don't_--_doesn't_ seem to be much
+      difference between the two.
+
+      18. The whole system of filing and indexing
+      _is_--_are_ wrong.
+
+      19. Safety as well as success _is_--_are_ at stake.
+
+      20. The state of public affairs _calls_--_call_ for
+      quick action.
+
+      21. Many a man _has_--_have_ neglected golden
+      opportunities.
+
+      22. Many men _has_--_have_ neglected golden
+      opportunities.
+
+      23. The committee _has_--_have_ given _its_--_their_
+      report.
+
+      24. Our team _was_--_were_ beaten.
+
+      25. One of us surely _is_--_are_ mistaken.
+
+      26. Every one _was_--_were_ happy when Tom was elected
+      president.
+
+      27. Tom and James _is_--_are_ going skating.
+
+      28. Tom with his brother James _is_--_are_ going
+      skating.
+
+      29. The only thing I have not prepared for dinner
+      _is_--_are_ the potatoes.
+
+      30. Fifty feet of sidewalk _was_--_were_ laid to-day.
+
+      31. None of the boys _is_--_are_ studying stenography.
+
+      32. Neither Tom nor his brother _is_--_are_ studying
+      stenography.
+
+      33. Both Tom and his brother _is_--_are_
+      stenographers.
+
+      34. Every one _is_--_are_ interested in the cost of
+      living.
+
+In the last sentence above substitute one of the following for _every
+one_, using the correct form of the verb with each:
+
+      each of us; everybody; all of us; several people; both
+      of the men; neither of the men; neither Mary nor John;
+      Mary and John; our club; our class; the nation; not
+      only Europe but America; Europe as well as America;
+      the nation as well as several of the larger cities
+
+
+=Exercise 102--Tense=
+
+The tense of the verb indicates the time of the action. There are three
+primary tenses, indicating action in the _present_, the _past_, and the
+_future_. Each of these tenses has also a _perfect_ tense, which,
+represents the action as being perfect or complete in the present, the
+past, and the future.
+
+The _present_ tense is the simplest form. It denotes that the action
+takes place now; as,
+
+    I write          We write
+    You write        You write
+    He writes        They write
+
+To be more exact, we may indicate that the action is continuing in the
+present time, and then we say,
+
+    I am writing        We are writing
+    You are writing     You are writing
+    He is writing       They are writing
+
+This is called the _present progressive_ tense.
+
+It may be that you wish to be emphatic, and you say,
+
+    I do write         We do write
+    You do write       You do write
+    He does write      They do write
+
+This is called the _emphatic present_ tense.
+
+The _past_ tense indicates that the action took place in past time; as,
+
+    I wrote                We wrote
+    You wrote              You wrote
+    He wrote               They wrote
+
+or, the _past progressive_; as,
+
+    I was writing          We were writing
+    You were writing       You were writing
+    He was writing         They were writing
+
+or, the _past emphatic_; as,
+
+    I did write            We did write
+    You did write          You did write
+    He did write           They did write
+
+The emphatic form is used only in the present and the past tenses.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The _future_ tense denotes that the action will take place at some
+future time. It is formed by using _shall_ or _will_ with the simplest
+form of the verb; as,
+
+    I shall write          We shall write
+    You will write         You will write
+    He will write          They will write
+
+The progressive form is not common. It is
+
+    I shall be writing     We shall be writing
+    You will be writing    You will be writing
+    He will be writing     They will be writing
+
+The three perfect tenses are formed by using the verb _have_ with the
+perfect participle of the verb.
+
+The _present perfect_ tense denotes that the action is complete at the
+present time. It is formed by the present tense of _have_ and the
+perfect participle of the verb; as,
+
+    I have written         We have written
+    You have written       You have written
+    He has written         They have written
+
+The progressive form is,
+
+    I have been writing         We have been writing
+    You have been writing       You have been writing
+    He has been writing         They have been writing
+
+The _past perfect_ denotes that the action was completed in past time.
+It is formed by using the past tense of _have_ and the perfect
+participle of the verb; as,
+
+    I had written               We had written
+    You had written             You had written
+    He had written              They had written
+
+The progressive form is,
+
+    I had been writing          We had been writing
+    You had been writing        You had been writing
+    He had been writing         They had been writing
+
+The _future perfect_ tense denotes that the action will be completed at
+some future time. It is formed by the future of _have_ and the perfect
+participle of the verb; as,
+
+    I shall have written        We shall have written
+    You will have written       You will have written
+    He will have written        They will have written
+
+The progressive form is rarely used. It is
+
+    I shall have been writing   We shall have been writing
+    You will have been writing  You will have been writing
+    He will have been writing   They will have been writing
+
+Giving all forms singular and plural, first, second, and third persons
+of each tense constitutes the _conjugation_ of a verb. Giving one person
+in each tense constitutes the _synopsis_ of the conjugation.
+
+The following is a synopsis of all the tenses of the active voice in the
+first person singular number of the verb _write_:
+
+                                  ACTIVE VOICE
+
+           {           {                 {I write (simple form)
+           {           {_Present_        {I am writing (progressive form)
+           {           {                 {I do write (emphatic form)
+           {           {
+           {_Primary_  {                 {I wrote (simple)
+           {           {_Past_           {I was writing (progressive)
+           {           {                 {I did write (emphatic)
+           {           {
+           {           {                 {I shall write (simple)
+           {           {_Future_         {I shall be writing (progressive)
+    TENSE  {
+           {           {                 {I have written (simple)
+           {           {_Present Perfect_{I have been writing (progressive)
+           {           {
+           {_Perfect_  {                 {I had written (simple)
+           {_or_       {_Past Perfect_   {I had been writing (progressive)
+           {_Secondary_{
+           {           {
+           {           {                 {I shall have written (simple)
+           {           {_Future Perfect_ {I shall have been writing
+           {           {                 {       (progressive)
+
+
+=Exercise 103=
+
+Conjugate the following in the active voice:
+
+      1. Simple past tense of _walk_.
+
+      2. Present progressive tense of _walk_.
+
+      3. Present perfect of _drive_. (See Exercise 108 for
+      the principal parts.)
+
+      4. Present perfect progressive of _drive_.
+
+      5. Future progressive of _ride_.
+
+      6. Past of _ride_.
+
+      7. Present progressive of _ride_.
+
+      8. Past emphatic of _ride_.
+
+      9. Past perfect of _ride_.
+
+      10. Present perfect progressive of _ride_.
+
+Give a synopsis of the progressive tenses of _begin_, using _he_ as the
+subject.
+
+
+=Exercise 104--Shall and Will=
+
+The auxiliary verbs used to form the future tenses are _shall_ and
+_will_. The two must be carefully distinguished because they denote
+different ideas, according to the person with which they are used. The
+rule is, to express simple future time, use _shall_ in the first person,
+_will_ in the second and third persons.
+
+The future tense of the verb _walk_ is conjugated as follows:
+
+    I shall walk      We shall walk
+    You will walk     You will walk
+    He will walk      They will walk
+
+This is the form to use when you expect the action to take place
+naturally.
+
+On the other hand, instead of letting things take their natural course
+as they do in the simple future, you may force them to take place. You
+may, for example, be determined to walk, or determined to make some one
+else walk. In that case the use is reversed; as,
+
+    I will walk        We will walk
+    You shall walk     You shall walk
+    He shall walk      They shall walk
+
+This form is used whenever the speaker has authority to bring about the
+action indicated by the verb.
+
+In questions of the first person always use _shall_. In questions of the
+second and third persons use the same form that you expect in the
+answer; as,
+
+      _Shall_ you be at home to-morrow? I _shall_.
+
+In the following sentences insert _shall_ or _will_, giving the reason
+for your choice:
+
+      1. I ---- finish the work by three o'clock, I think.
+
+      2. To-morrow he ---- feel sorry for this; I vow it.
+
+      3. I am sorry, but I ---- not be able to finish the
+      work before next week.
+
+      4. ---- you finish your business course in February or
+      in June? I ---- finish in June, I think.
+
+      5. ---- he finish in February? No, he ---- finish in
+      June.
+
+      6. The foreman declares he ---- not have another
+      chance.
+
+      7. He ---- see his mistake when it is too late.
+
+      8. They ---- surely be at the station to meet me.
+
+      9. I'm afraid you ---- be kicked if you go near that
+      horse.
+
+      10. If he doesn't take the examination, he ---- fail.
+
+      11. I am determined that I ---- win.
+
+      12. I ---- sail probably on the fifteenth.
+
+      13. He ---- be twenty-one to-morrow.
+
+      14. I ---- go in spite of him.
+
+      15. ---- you go by train, do you think?
+
+      16. I ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- send the
+      book at once.
+
+      17. I promise you John ---- know his lesson to-morrow.
+
+      18. ---- you be at home this evening?
+
+      19. ---- the train be on time?
+
+      20. ---- the store be open this evening?
+
+Conjugate the future and future perfect tenses of the following verbs:
+
+    drive    see      go       run      sweep
+    ride     choose   sing     eat      sell
+
+
+=Exercise 105--Should and Would=
+
+_Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses of _shall_ and _will_ and, in
+general, express the same ideas as do _shall_ and _will_, except that
+_should_ sometimes means _ought_; as,
+
+      You _should_ not speak in that way.
+
+_Would_, also, sometimes indicates an action that occurs frequently; as,
+
+      She _would_ often sit at the window all the morning.
+
+The use of _should_ and _would_ in indirect statements and questions is
+sometimes puzzling. First of all, decide whether _shall_ or _will_ would
+be used in the direct form of the sentence. If the direct form uses
+_shall_, use _should_ in the indirect; if the direct uses _will_, use
+_would_ in the indirect; as,
+
+      _Direct_: The market _will_ improve.
+
+      _Indirect_: He said that the market _would_ improve.
+
+In conditional clauses (_if_), use _should_ for all persons.
+
+Insert _should_ or _would_.
+
+      1. If I knew his address, I ---- send him a telegram.
+
+      2. He promised that he ---- not make the mistake
+      again. (The direct form would read, I will not ---- )
+
+      3. I promised that I ---- not make the mistake again.
+
+      4. You promised that you ---- not make the mistake
+      again.
+
+      5. Do you think that I ---- go?
+
+      6. I ---- if I were you.
+
+      7. I ---- think he ---- know better than to apply for
+      that position.
+
+      8. John said that, no matter what we thought, he ----
+      not go.
+
+      9. If you ---- decide to accept the offer, let me know
+      at once.
+
+      10. I am sorry he did that. He ---- not, of course.
+
+      11. If I ---- see him, I'd let him know.
+
+      12. If he ---- come during my absence, ask him to
+      wait.
+
+      13. I ---- think you would be more careful.
+
+      14. Let me know if you ---- not be able to come.
+
+
+=Exercise 106=
+
+Change the italicized verbs to past tense, future, present perfect, past
+perfect, future perfect. Wherever necessary, add sufficient to make the
+meaning of the tense clear; as,
+
+      _Present_: The manager _is now_ in his office.
+
+      _Past_: The manager _was_ in his office _a few minutes
+      ago_.
+
+      _Future_: The manager _will be_ in his office
+      _to-morrow at ten o'clock_.
+
+      _Present Perfect_: The manager _has been_ in his
+      office _all the morning_. (It is still morning.)
+
+      _Past Perfect_: The manager _had been_ in his office
+      _only a few moments when the president arrived_.
+
+      _Future Perfect_: _In about five minutes_ the manager
+      _will have been_ in the president's office _exactly
+      three hours_.
+
+      1. The cashier _opens_ the safe in the morning.
+
+      2. The mechanic _earns_ good wages.
+
+      3. The buyer _leaves_ to-night.
+
+      4. The bookkeeper _makes_ out the statements.
+
+      5. The correspondent _writes_ the booklets.
+
+      6. The advertising manager _approves_ the copy.
+
+      7. The adding machine _is broken_.
+
+      8. The chief clerk _attends_ to the incoming mail.
+
+      9. The superintendent _visits_ the factory every day.
+
+      10. The salesman _is selling_ five thousand dollars'
+      worth of goods a week.
+
+
+=Exercise 107=
+
+The present tense is used to indicate general truths--things true in
+past time and still true. Omit the incorrect form in the following
+sentences:
+
+      1. What did you say _is_--_was_ the meaning of the
+      term _bona fide_?
+
+      2. What _was_--_is_ the name of that book that you
+      enjoyed so much?
+
+      3. Didn't you know that the lion _is_--_was_ called
+      the king of beasts?
+
+      4. They told me that the legal rate of interest at
+      present _is_-_was_ six per cent.
+
+      5. Have you ever heard him try to prove that black
+      _is_--_was_ white?
+
+      6. What _is_--_was_ the name of the banker who
+      lectured to us yesterday?
+
+      7. I never could remember what the important products
+      of my county _are_--_were_.
+
+      8. The advocate of Equal Suffrage argued that mothers
+      _need_--_needed_ the ballot to protect their children.
+
+      9. She said that a democracy _is_--_was_ a government
+      of the people, by the people, and for the people, and
+      that women _are_-_were_ people as well as men.
+
+      10. The speaker asserted that this country
+      _needs_--_needed_ a tariff to protect home industries.
+
+
+=Exercise 108--Principal Parts=
+
+No one can be certain of using the correct form of a verb unless he
+knows the principal parts. Some verbs are regular; that is, they form
+their past tense and their perfect participle by adding _ed_ to the
+present tense; as,
+
+    _Present_      _Past_     _Perfect Participle_
+     walk       walked       walked
+
+Some verbs, however, are very irregular, having a different form for
+each of the principal parts. A list of such verbs follows:
+
+    _Present_              _Past_           _Perfect Participle_
+    arise               arose               arisen
+    awake               awoke or awaked     awaked
+    be                  was                 been
+    bear (carry)        bore                borne
+    beat                beat                beaten
+    become              became              become
+    begin               began               begun
+    bid                 bade                bidden
+    bite                bit                 bitten
+    blow                blew                blown
+    break               broke               broken
+    choose              chose               chosen
+    come                came                come
+    do                  did                 done
+    draw                drew                drawn
+    drink               drank               drunk
+    drive               drove               driven
+    eat                 ate                 eaten
+    fall                fell                fallen
+    fly                 flew                flown
+    forbid              forbade             forbidden
+    forsake             forsook             forsaken
+    freeze              froze               frozen
+    give                gave                given
+    go                  went                gone
+    grow                grew                grown
+    hide                hid                 hidden
+    know                knew                known
+    lie (to rest)       lay                 lain
+    ride                rode                ridden
+    ring                rang                rung
+    rise                rose                risen
+    run                 ran                 run
+    see                 saw                 seen
+    shake               shook               shaken
+    show                showed              shown
+    shrink              shrank              shrunk
+    sing                sang                sung
+    slay                slew                slain
+    slide               slid                slidden
+    sow                 sowed               sown
+    speak               spoke               spoken
+    spring              sprang              sprung
+    steal               stole               stolen
+    strive              strove              striven
+    swear               swore               sworn
+    swell               swelled             swelled, swollen
+    swim                swam                swum
+    take                took                taken
+    tear                tore                torn
+    throw               threw               thrown
+    wear                wore                worn
+    weave               wove                woven
+    write               wrote               written
+
+
+=Exercise 109=
+
+Some verbs, though irregularly formed, have the past tense and perfect
+participle alike. A list of such verbs follows:
+
+    _Present_              _Past_           _Perfect Participle_
+    bend                bent                bent
+    behold              beheld              beheld
+    beseech             besought            besought
+    bind                bound               bound
+    bleed               bled                bled
+    bless               blessed, blest      blessed, blest
+    bring               brought             brought
+    build               built               built
+    burn                burned, burnt       burned, burnt
+    buy                 bought              bought
+    catch               caught              caught
+    cling               clung               clung
+    clothe              clothed, clad       clothed, clad
+    creep               crept               crept
+    deal                dealt               dealt
+    dig                 dug                 dug
+    dream               dreamed, dreamt     dreamed, dreamt
+    dwell               dwelt               dwelt
+    flee                fled                fled
+    grind               ground              ground
+    hang                hung, hanged        hung, hanged
+    have                had                 had
+    hear                heard               heard
+    hold                held                held
+    kneel               knelt               knelt
+    lay                 laid                laid
+    lead                led                 led
+    leap                leapt               leapt
+    lend                lent                lent
+    pay                 paid                paid
+    say                 said                said
+    shine               shone               shone
+    sit                 sat                 sat
+    sleep               slept               slept
+    sling               slung               slung
+    speed               sped                sped
+    spin                spun                spun
+    stand               stood               stood
+    sting               stung               stung
+    strike              struck              struck
+    string              strung              strung
+    sweep               swept               swept
+    swing               swung               swung
+    teach               taught              taught
+    think               thought             thought
+    weep                wept                wept
+    win                 won                 won
+    wind                wound               wound
+    wring               wrung               wrung
+
+
+=Exercise 110=
+
+Some verbs have all three forms alike. A list of such follows:
+
+    _Present_    _Past_        _Perfect Participle_
+    bet         bet         bet
+    burst       burst       burst
+    cast        cast        cast
+    cost        cost        cost
+    cut         cut         cut
+    hit         hit         hit
+    hurt        hurt        hurt
+    knit        knit        knit
+    let         let         let
+    put         put         put
+    rid         rid         rid
+    set         set         set
+    shed        shed        shed
+    spread      spread      spread
+    sweat       sweat       sweat
+    wet         wet         wet
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] If one of the words so joined is plural, the verb should be plural.
+
+
+
+=Exercise 111=
+
+Choose the correct form of the italicized words below, and give the
+reason for your choice.
+
+      1. If it _don't_--_doesn't_ fit you, we shall alter
+      it.
+
+      2. I _knew_--_knowed_ I was right.
+
+      3. _Aren't_--_ain't_ you glad we came?
+
+      4. _Ain't_--_isn't_ he well?
+
+      5. We _done_--_did_ the right thing.
+
+      6. _Let_--_leave_ the book on the table.
+
+      7. _Let_--_leave_ me do as I planned.
+
+      8. Mary has _broke_--_broken_ her arm.
+
+      9. My mother has _gone_--_went_ to Boston.
+
+      10. Where _was_--_were_ you yesterday?
+
+      11. When the dinner bell _rang_--_rung_, we all
+      _come_--_came_ running in.
+
+      12. He _don't_--_doesn't_ know what you said.
+
+      13. To what hospital have they _taken_--_took_ him?
+
+      14. I _saw_--_seen_ him a few minutes ago.
+
+      15. I _saw_--_seen_ him yesterday.
+
+      16. I should _have_--_of_ brought my book.
+
+      17. My winter coat is _wore_--_worn_ out.
+
+      18. Have you ever _rode_--_ridden_ in an aeroplane?
+
+      19. I have _shown_--_showed_ you all the styles I
+      have.
+
+      20. _Don't_--_doesn't_ it seem odd that he
+      _don't_--_doesn't_ come?
+
+      21. She _don't_--_doesn't_ remember you.
+
+      22. We _began_--_begun_ the work yesterday.
+
+      23. I'm afraid my foot is _froze_--_frozen_.
+
+      24. We _ran_--_run_ all the way.
+
+      25. I've _shook_--_shaken_ him three times, but he
+      _don't_--_doesn't_ awake.
+
+      26. The bell _rang_--_rung_ just before you entered.
+
+      27. She _sang_--_sung_ very well.
+
+      28. He _swam_--_swum_ all yesterday morning.
+
+      29. Why _don't_--_doesn't_ some one tell John that his
+      coat is _tore_--_torn_?
+
+      30. _Don't_--_doesn't_ mother know that the vase is
+      _broke_--_broken_?
+
+
+=Exercise 112--Troublesome Verbs=
+
+=Lie, Lay=
+
+_Lie_ is intransitive; _lay_ is transitive. _Lie_ signifies _to rest_;
+_lay_, _to place_. Insert the correct form in the following:
+
+      1. He told me to ---- the book on the table. It ----
+      there now.
+
+      2. I ---- all day waiting for help to arrive.
+
+      3. Where did you ---- the purse?
+
+      4. I ---- it on your desk.
+
+      5. I have ---- the letters on your desk.
+
+      6. They told me to ---- down. I ---- down for about
+      two hours.
+
+      7. As I wished to bleach the clothes, I ---- them on
+      the grass.
+
+      8. ---- the bundle down and listen to me.
+
+      9. You will probably find your cap ----ing where it
+      has ----since you dropped it.
+
+      10. They let the field ---- fallow.
+
+      11. How long has it ---- fallow?
+
+      12. Yesterday he ---- on the grass almost all day.
+
+      13. The hunter ---- still and watched.
+
+      14. He ---- his gun beside him and waited.
+
+      15. It will ---- undisturbed till morning.
+
+      16. ---- down awhile before dinner.
+
+      17. I don't know how long he has ---- here.
+
+      18. He let his tools ---- in the rain.
+
+
+=Exercise 113--Troublesome Verbs=
+
+=Sit, Set=
+
+_Sit_ is intransitive and signifies _to rest_. _Set_ is transitive and
+means _to place_. Insert the correct form:
+
+      1. I have ---- the ferns in the rain.
+
+      2. ---- down for a few minutes.
+
+      3. She drew up a chair and ---- down, while we were
+      ----ting down the probable expenses of the new house.
+
+      4. Why don't you ---- us a good example?
+
+      5. ----ting the table is not strenuous enough for one
+      who has been ----ting all day.
+
+      6. The hen is ----ting on her eggs.
+
+      7. The man is ----ting out trees.
+
+      8. ---- still; I'll go.
+
+=Fly, Flow, Flee=
+
+Remember that birds _fly_; rivers _flow_; hunted creatures _flee_.
+
+      9. Still the river ---- on its accustomed course.
+
+      10. Every autumn the birds ---- south.
+
+      11. The birds have not yet ---- away.
+
+      12. The deer ---- before the dogs.
+
+=Rise, Raise=
+
+_Rise_ is intransitive; _raise_ is transitive.
+
+      13. I have been trying all morning to ---- this
+      window.
+
+      14. I set the bread to ----.
+
+      15. He will surely ---- in his profession.
+
+=Teach, Learn=
+
+      16. Will you ---- me how to play tennis?
+
+      17. I thought you had ---- how to play tennis.
+
+      18. I ---- (past tense) her the new system of filing.
+
+=May, Can=
+
+_May_ signifies permission; _can_ denotes possibility.
+
+      19. ---- I use your book?
+
+      20. ---- you write shorthand?
+
+      21. ---- I go with you?
+
+      22. My mother says that I ---- go with you.
+
+=Might, Could=
+
+_Might_ is the past tense of _may_, and _could_ is the past tense of
+_can_.
+
+      23. He said that I ---- go.
+
+      24. He ---- do the work if he wished.
+
+      25. Did you say I ---- use your typewriter?
+
+
+=Exercise 114--Accept, Except=
+
+_Accept_ means _to receive_. _Except_ as a verb means _to exclude_; as a
+preposition it means _with the exception of_. Insert the correct form in
+the following:
+
+      1. Did you ---- the position? Yes, no one applied for
+      it ---- me.
+
+      2. I have no other reason for not ----ing your
+      invitation ---- that I shall not be in the city.
+
+      3. ---- Mary all ----ed the invitation.
+
+      4. He would not ---- the money ---- on one condition.
+
+      5. Why do you ---- him from the general offer that you
+      are making?
+
+      6. I agree with you ---- on one point.
+
+      7. He ----ed the rebuke in silence.
+
+      8. We were forced to ---- their conditions.
+
+      9. He said he would not ---- the money ---- that he
+      knew he could return it.
+
+      10. You have answered everything ---- what I asked
+      you.
+
+
+=Exercise 115--Affect, Effect=
+
+_Affect_ means _to influence_. It is always a verb. _Effect_ as a verb
+means _to bring to pass_; as a noun it means _result_. Insert the
+correct form in the following sentences:
+
+      1. His opinion does not ---- the case.
+
+      2. How does war ---- trade?
+
+      3. His walking has had a good ---- upon his health.
+
+      4. The ruling did not ---- the wholesale dealers, but
+      it had a big ---- upon us.
+
+      5. What ---- did the loss have upon him?
+
+      6. The failure of the bank ----ed the small depositors
+      but had no ---- upon the big business men.
+
+      7. The ---- of the law has been startling because of
+      the number of people ----ed by it.
+
+      8. They ----ed the consolidation, but thereby produced
+      a bad ---- upon the price of their stock.
+
+      9. The accident seriously ----ed his nervous system.
+      In fact, the ---- of the fall is only gradually
+      disappearing.
+
+      10. Did the celebrated physician really ---- a cure?
+
+
+=Exercise 116--Lose, Loose=
+
+_Lose_ is a verb, while _loose_ is usually an adjective. The two should
+be carefully distinguished. Insert the correct form:
+
+      1. I have a note book with ---- leaves.
+
+      2. Aren't you afraid you will ---- some of the ----
+      leaves of that book?
+
+      3. Be careful that you don't ---- that ---- bolt.
+
+      4. Do you remember that you had warned me that I'd
+      ---- the ---- button on my coat? I did ---- it not
+      five minutes afterward.
+
+      5. One of the hinges of the door has become ----.
+
+      6. Do not ---- the ---- change in that pocket.
+
+      7. He will ---- the parcel as the cord is ----.
+
+      8. Did you ---- the ---- leaf journal?
+
+      9. She may ---- the money, as the clasp of her purse
+      is ----.
+
+      10. I keep my ---- journal paper together by a rubber
+      band so that there will be no chance of ----ing it.
+
+
+=Exercise 117--Had ought=
+
+    _Wrong_: We had ought to go.
+    _Right_: We ought to go.
+    _Wrong_: We had ought to have gone.
+    _Right_: We ought to have gone.
+
+Correct the following sentences:
+
+      1. I had ought to have studied harder.
+
+      2. You ought to do it, hadn't you?
+
+      3. Hadn't you ought to have gone?
+
+      4. Yes, I had ought to have gone yesterday.
+
+      5. Do you think I had ought to have accepted?
+
+      6. He had ought to come to-morrow.
+
+      7. The tickets had ought to have come from the
+      printer's yesterday.
+
+      8. We had not ought to stay out so late.
+
+      9. You had ought to wear your coat.
+
+      10. He had ought to have become naturalized.
+
+      11. You had ought to have washed the dishes before you
+      went out.
+
+      12. You had ought to take an umbrella.
+
+      13. You had ought to have heard what she said.
+
+      14. We hadn't ought to disagree.
+
+      15. You ought to have invested, hadn't you?
+
+
+=Exercise 118=
+
+Conjugation of the verb _be_ in the
+
+INDICATIVE MODE
+
+                 _Present Tense_
+
+    _Singular_                     _Plural_
+
+    I am                           We are
+    You are                        You are
+    He is                          They are
+
+                  _Past Tense_
+
+    I was                          We were
+    You were                       You were
+    He was                         They were
+
+                 _Future Tense_
+
+    I shall be                     We shall be
+    You will be                    You will be
+    He will be                     They will be
+
+              _Present Perfect Tense_
+
+    I have been                    We have been
+    You have been                  You have been
+    He has been                    They have been
+
+                _Past Perfect Tense_
+
+    I had been                     We had been
+    You had been                   You had been
+    He had been                    They had been
+
+              _Future Perfect Tense_
+
+    I shall have been              We shall have been
+    You will have been             You will have been
+    He will have been              They will have been
+
+The verb _be_ is used to form the progressive tenses of the active voice
+(See Exercise 102) and the simple tenses of the passive voice; as,
+
+PASSIVE VOICE
+
+                 _Present Tense_
+
+    _Singular_                     _Plural_
+
+    I am followed                  We are followed
+    You are followed               You are followed
+    He is followed                 They are followed
+
+                  _Past Tense_
+
+    I was followed                 We were followed
+    You were followed              You were followed
+    He was followed                They were followed
+
+                 _Future Tense_
+
+    I shall be followed            We shall be followed
+    You will be followed           You will be followed
+    He will be followed            They will be followed
+
+              _Present Perfect Tense_
+
+    I have been followed           We have been followed
+    You have been followed         You have been followed
+    He has been followed           They have been followed
+
+                _Past Perfect Tense_
+
+    I had been followed            We had been followed
+    You had been followed          You had been followed
+    He had been followed           They had been followed
+
+              _Future Perfect Tense_
+
+    I shall have been followed     We shall have been followed
+    You will have been followed    You will have been followed
+    He will have been followed     They will have been followed
+
+If we add the progressive form wherever it may be used, we have the
+following synopsis of the indicative mood:
+
+PASSIVE VOICE
+
+           {           { _Present_  I am followed (simple)
+           {           {            I am being followed (progressive)
+           {           {
+           { _Primary_ { _Past_     I was followed (simple)
+           {           {            I was being followed (progressive)
+    Tenses {           {
+           {           { _Future_   I shall be followed
+           {
+           {           { _Present Perfect_  I have been followed
+           { _Perfect_ { _Past Perfect_     I had been followed
+           {           { _Future Perfect_   I shall have been followed
+
+
+=Exercise 119=
+
+Conjugate the following in the passive voice:
+
+      1. Simple present of _pay_.
+
+      2. Progressive past of _pay_.
+
+      3. Present perfect of _throw_.
+
+      4. Future of _praise_.
+
+      5. Past perfect of _forget_.
+
+      6. Progressive present of _choose_.
+
+      7. Past progressive of _choose_.
+
+      8. Future of _choose_.
+
+      9. Future perfect of _choose._
+
+      10. Past perfect of _choose_.
+
+
+=Exercise 120=
+
+Supply the verb forms indicated. Use the active unless the passive is
+definitely called for.
+
+      1. The vegetables (present perfect of _lie_) in water
+      all the morning.
+
+      2. Rumors (past progressive passive of _spread_) far
+      and wide that Germany would fight England.
+
+      3. I thought the gingham (past perfect passive of
+      _shrink_) before the dress (past passive of _made_).
+
+      4. I am afraid my ear (present progressive of
+      _freeze_).
+
+      5. Is it true that your ring (present perfect passive
+      of _steal_)?
+
+      6. A sudden storm (past of _arise_) yesterday
+      afternoon, and a little boy (past passive of _drown_)
+      in the river where he and several of his companions
+      (past perfect progressive of _swim_) since noon.
+
+      7. I (present perfect of _speak_) of the matter to no
+      one.
+
+      8. I suppose that it (present perfect passive of
+      _break_).
+
+      9. I must (present perfect of _show_) him twenty
+      different styles, but he (past of _choose_) none of
+      them, for as soon as I (past of _show_) him one, he
+      (past of _shake_) his head.
+
+      10. She (past progressive of _wring_) out the clothes
+      when the door bell (past of _ring_).
+
+      11. I am afraid my purse (present passive of _lose_).
+
+      12. The knight (past of _say_) that he (past perfect
+      of _decide_) (infinitive of _follow_) the quest.
+
+      13. I thought I (past perfect of _bring_) you the
+      morning paper.
+
+      14. He (past of _swim_) the river twice yesterday.
+
+      15. There he stood (present participle of _ring_) the
+      dinner bell.
+
+      16. His coat (present perfect passive of _wet_)
+      through more than once.
+
+      17. The trip (past of _cost_) him a hundred dollars.
+
+      18. I (past of _see_) the superintendent yesterday,
+      but he said that there (present of _be_) no vacancies
+      at present.
+
+      19. They (past of _lay_) the clippings on the desk,
+      and then they (past of _sit_) down.
+
+      20. As he (past of _speak_), he (past progressive of
+      _shake_) from head to foot.
+
+      21. The clouds (past of _lie_) low on the horizon.
+
+      22. The building in which I work (present perfect
+      passive of _burn_).
+
+      23. Your employer (present perfect _deal_) fairly with
+      you.
+
+      24. I (present perfect of _have_) the same position
+      for three years.
+
+      25. I (future of _lend_) him no money.
+
+      26. The floor (past passive of _lay_) by an expert
+      workman.
+
+      27. The beads (past passive of _string_) on a waxed
+      thread.
+
+      28. He (present perfect of _throw_) the whole office
+      into confusion.
+
+      29. Before he came forward, he (past of _set_) the
+      child down.
+
+      30. After the storm, leaves and twigs (past
+      progressive of _lie_) thick upon the roads.
+
+      31. He (past of _drive_) to town yesterday. He (future
+      of _go_) again to-morrow.
+
+      32. The dictionary (present progressive of _lie_) on
+      the table where you (past of _lay_) it.
+
+      33. The dog (past of _lay_) the bone down, and then he
+      (past of _lie_) down.
+
+      34. He (past of _set_) the chair by the window and
+      then (past of _sit_) down.
+
+      35. I think we (future of _see_) him as we pass, for
+      he usually (present of _lie_) on a couch by the
+      window.
+
+      36. The snow (past perfect progressive of _fall_) for
+      several hours and now (past of _lie_) deep on every
+      path.
+
+      37. Everything (present perfect passive of _lay_) in
+      readiness.
+
+      38. (Present participle of _lie_) in the hammock, he
+      soon fell asleep.
+
+      39. I saw the man (present participle of _lie_) on the
+      ground.
+
+      40. After he (past perfect of _lie_) there a few
+      minutes, he suddenly (past of _sit_) up.
+
+      41. The biplane, which (past perfect progressive of
+      _lie_) in the hangar since it (past perfect passive of
+      _raise_) from the water in which it (past perfect of
+      _lie_) for two weeks, (past of _rise_) up over the
+      city.
+
+      42. Large crowds (past progressive of _sit_) on the
+      fields, (present participle of _wait_) for the
+      aeroplane (infinitive of rise).
+
+      43. Many people (past perfect of _set_) tents on the
+      field during the night and now (past progressive of
+      _get_) a good view of the flight.
+
+      44. All eyes (past progressive of _turn_) toward the
+      aeroplane, which (past progressive of _rise_)
+      steadily.
+
+      45. The biplane (past of _rise_) until it (past
+      perfect of _rise_) about five hundred feet above the
+      tallest building; then it (past passive of _raise_)
+      about fifty feet more to get it out of an air current
+      that (past progressive of _raise_) one end of it.
+
+
+=Exercise 121--Infinitives and Participles=
+
+_Infinitives_ are verb forms that are used as nouns, as adjectives, or
+as adverbs. _Participles_ are verb forms that are used as adjectives.
+Thus at the same time each acts as two parts of speech. As verbs both
+have the meaning of the verbs from which they are made; both have tense
+and voice; both may be modified by adverbial expressions; and, if they
+are made from transitive verbs, both may take objects.
+
+The Participle
+
+The tenses and voices of the participle are as follows:
+
+    ACTIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+
+    _Simple_                    _Progressive_
+
+    selling                        ----
+
+    _Perfect_
+
+    having sold               having been selling
+
+
+    PASSIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+
+    being sold                      ----
+
+    _Perfect_
+
+    having been sold                   ----
+
+The participle frequently introduces a phrase. Usually the phrase is
+used like an adjective; occasionally it is used like a noun (sometimes
+called the _gerund_ phrase).
+
+      _Adjective_: _Seeing your perplexity_, I'll offer a
+      suggestion. (Notice the punctuation.)
+
+      _Noun_(Gerund): _Playing tennis_ is good exercise.
+
+The Infinitive
+
+The infinitive is distinguished by the word _to_, either expressed or
+understood. The tenses and voices of the infinitive are as follows:
+
+    ACTIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+
+    _Simple_                    _Progressive_
+
+    to sell                    to be selling
+
+    _Perfect_
+
+    to have sold             to have been selling
+
+
+    PASSIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+
+    to be sold                      ----
+
+    _Perfect_
+
+    to have been sold                  ----
+
+The infinitive is often used to introduce a phrase; as,
+
+    _Noun_: _To get to the top of the hill_ was a difficult matter.
+    _Adverb_: I went _to buy the sugar_.
+    _Adjective_: It's a drawing _to be proud of_.
+
+Grouping all the facts that we have thus far learned about phrases, and
+expressing them in diagram form, we have the following:
+
+Phrases may be classified:
+
+    _According to Form_        _According to Use_
+
+    Prepositional              Adverbial
+    Participial (Gerund)       Adjective
+    Infinitive                 Noun
+
+The prepositional and infinitive phrases may have all three uses; the
+participial phrase has two--adjective and noun (gerund).
+
+
+Variety of Expression[2]
+
+Phrases are important because, like clauses, they help us to vary the
+form of our sentences. They help us, above all, to avoid the childish
+_so_ habit. Thus, instead of _They wished to make the ice smooth so they
+flooded the pond_, we may use, for example:
+
+      _Subordinate clause_: Because (as, since) they wished
+      to make the ice smooth, they flooded the pond.
+
+      _Participial phrase_: Wishing to make the ice smooth,
+      they flooded the pond.
+
+      _Infinitive phrase_: To make the ice smooth, they
+      flooded the pond.
+
+      _Gerund phrase_: Flooding the pond made the ice
+      smooth.
+
+      _Prepositional phrase modifying noun subject_: The
+      flooding of the pond made the ice smooth.
+
+
+Recast each of the following sentences in at least two of the ways shown
+above:
+
+      1. They wished to finish the work so they stayed till
+      six o'clock.
+
+      2. John hoped to arrive before the others so he
+      started early.
+
+      3. He saw that the cars were not running so he walked
+      so he would be on time.
+
+      4. They needed some gasoline so they had to stop at a
+      garage.
+
+      5. He wished to make a tool chest so he bought some
+      lumber.
+
+      6. They saw that he liked to read so they gave him
+      several books.
+
+      7. She wished to make a good appearance at the party
+      so she bought a new dress.
+
+      8. He was in a hurry so he walked fast.
+
+      9. We were afraid that we'd be late so we ran.
+
+      10. The campers thought they'd like a fire so they
+      gathered a quantity of dry leaves and wood.
+
+      11. I was very tired when I reached home so I couldn't
+      go to the lecture.
+
+      12. The work was difficult so it took three hours to
+      finish it.
+
+      13. The clock needed repairing so he took it to a
+      jeweler's.
+
+      14. The coat did not fit so she sent it back.
+
+      15. She didn't know where to take the train so she
+      asked a policeman.
+
+
+=Exercise 122--Mode=
+
+Mode is the form of the verb that indicates the manner of expressing the
+thought. The _modes_, or _moods_, that every one should be able to
+distinguish are the _indicative_ and the _subjunctive_. If the verb
+indicates a fact, we say it is in the indicative mode; if it expresses a
+supposition, a doubt, a statement contrary to fact, or a wish, we say it
+is in the subjunctive mode.
+
+    You _are_ good.       (A fact--indicative.)
+
+    I wish I _were_ good. (Contrary to fact, a wish--subjunctive.)
+
+In form the indicative and the subjunctive differ in the present and the
+past tenses of the verb _to be_, as follows:
+
+                   =Indicative of _be_=
+
+          _Present_                   _Past_
+    I am          We are       I was         We were
+    You are       You are      You were      You were
+    He is         They are     He was        They were
+
+                   =Subjunctive of _be_=
+
+          _Present_                   _Past_
+    If I be     If we be     If I were     If we were
+    If you be   If you be    If you were   If you were
+    If he be    If they be   If he were    If they were
+
+Other verbs in the subjunctive mode do not end in _s_ in the third
+person singular number, but use the same form as the other persons in
+the singular number; as, _if he go_, _if she walk_.
+
+_If_, _though_, _although_, or _lest_ usually introduce the subjunctive
+form.
+
+In modern English, the use of the subjunctive is becoming rare except in
+the past and past perfect tenses in statements contrary to fact, and in
+wishes, which are really statements contrary to fact; as,
+
+      1. If I were a king (but I'm not), I'd see that my
+      laws were obeyed.
+
+      2. I wish I were a king! (but I'm not).
+
+      3. If I had been careful, my work would be good. (I
+      was not careful.)
+
+      4. I wish I had been careful! (I was not.)
+
+Notice that the verb is in the past or in the past perfect tense.
+
+There are some careful writers who still use the present subjunctive to
+show a _possibility_; as,
+
+      Lest he start too late, remind him again that he must
+      meet the 4:15 train.
+
+In the following sentences, which form is better? May any of the
+sentences use either form?
+
+      1. I wish I _was_--_were_ rich.
+
+      2. If I _was_--_were_ you, I should go at once.
+
+      3. If his work _was_--_were_ exact, he would have no
+      trouble in holding a position.
+
+      4. If it _was_--_were_ true, why didn't you say so?
+
+      5. If he _was_--_were_ a millionaire, he could not
+      have been more lavish.
+
+      6. If such a thing _was_--_were_ possible, our
+      government would be no government.
+
+      7. If the election _was_--_were_ postponed, we should
+      have been informed.
+
+
+=Exercise 123=
+
+Insert _was_ or _were_ in each of the following sentences, in each case
+giving a reason for your choice. Remember that the indicative _was_ is
+used to denote a statement of fact in the past time, and the subjunctive
+_were_ (singular and plural) is used to denote a possibility, something
+that is supposed to be true, or a statement entirely contrary to fact,
+as in a wish.
+
+      1. I wish I ---- going with you.
+
+      2. As he ---- not well, he could not go.
+
+      3. If he ---- well, he could go.
+
+      4. If he ---- attentive in class, he would not fail.
+
+      5. They treated me as if I ---- one of the family.
+
+      6. When I ---- in the South I visited New Orleans.
+
+      7. Suppose she ---- your guest, how would you
+      entertain her?
+
+      8. He would appear very tall ---- it not for the
+      breadth of his shoulders.
+
+      9. We decided that if it ---- still raining by seven
+      o'clock, we should not go.
+
+      10. If our strawberries ---- ripe, I'd give you some.
+
+      11. If the package ---- left yesterday, as you say, it
+      must have been while I ---- not at home.
+
+      12. If he ---- late yesterday, he must start earlier
+      to-day.
+
+      13. If every man ---- honest, business life would be
+      very pleasant.
+
+      14. I saw that he ---- not interested.
+
+      15. If he ---- not interested, he surely looked as if
+      he ----.
+
+      16. ---- I certain that the bonds ---- safe, I should
+      invest in them.
+
+      17. As the tablecloth ---- stained, we laid it on the
+      grass to bleach it.
+
+      18. If that stained tablecloth ---- mine, I'd try
+      bleaching it.
+
+      19. If I ---- as interested in farming as you are, I'd
+      buy a farm.
+
+      20. If her work ---- best, why didn't she get the
+      higher salary?
+
+
+=Exercise 124--Verbs Incorrectly Used=
+
+            _Wrong_                              _Right_
+   1. _Let_ the book on the table.        _Leave_ the book on the table.
+
+   2. _Leave_ me go with you.             _Let_ me go with you.
+
+   3. Don't _blame it on_ me.             Don't _accuse_ me.
+
+   4. Do you _carry_ stationery?          Do you _sell_ stationery?
+
+   5. The child _aggravates_ me.          The child _irritates_ me.
+
+   6. Please _except_ my invitation.      Please _accept_ my invitation.
+
+   7. Where have you _located_?           Where have you _settled_?
+                 (_Locate_ is a transitive verb.)
+
+   8. I _expect_ you are very busy.       I _suppose_ you are very busy.
+
+   9. I _disremember_ seeing him.         I _don't remember_ seeing him.
+
+  10. Do you _mind_ where you saw it?     Do you _remember_ where you saw
+                                                it?
+
+  11. Where are you _stopping_?           Where are you _staying_?
+
+  12. Did you _extend an invitation_      Did you _invite_ him?
+        to him?
+
+  13. This clock needs _fixing_.          This clock needs _repairing_.
+
+  14. I should _admire_ to go.            I should _like_ to go.
+
+  15. I'd _love_ to go.                   I'd _like_ to go.
+
+  16. He didn't _show up_ on time.        He didn't _appear_ on time.
+
+  17. I _had_ a strange thing _happen_    A strange thing _happened_ to me
+        to me yesterday.                        yesterday.
+
+  18. I didn't _get to go_.               I _was unable to go_.
+
+  19. _Loan_ me your pencil.              _Lend_ me your pencil.
+    (_May I borrow your pencil?_ is correct. _Loan_ is a noun.)[3]
+
+  20. I _can't seem_ to understand        I _seem unable_ to understand
+        that problem.                           that problem.
+
+  21. I don't _take any stock_ in         I _have no confidence_ in such
+        such schemes.                           schemes.
+
+  22. How do you _size up_ the            What _do you think_ of the
+        situation?                              situation?
+
+  23. I _beg to state_. . . .             Omit.
+  (This expression has been so overdone in business letters that it
+                       should be avoided)
+
+  24. He _dove_ off the pier.             He _dived_ off the pier.
+
+  25. He _claims_ that he was             He _asserts_ (maintains) that he
+        deceived.                               was deceived.
+
+  26. _Can_ I take your pencil?           _May_ I take your pencil?
+
+  27. We expect to _get up_ a club.      We expect to _organize_ a club.
+
+  28. Did you notice how that show       Did you notice how that show
+        window was _got up_?                    window was _decorated_?
+
+  29. It is _going on_ ten o'clock.      It is _almost_ ten o'clock.
+
+  30. He said _to go_ at once.           He said _that we should go_ at
+                                                 once.
+
+      NOTE.--The secretary's daily report will be found an
+      excellent means of securing variety of expression in
+      pupils' writing. A different pupil is elected each
+      Monday to act as the secretary of the class for the
+      ensuing week, his duty being to report each day the
+      doings of the class on the preceding day. The
+      conditions are that not more than one _and_ be used in
+      each report and not more than one sentence begin with
+      the subject.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] See note on page 115.
+
+[3] _Loan_ for _lend_, though common in the United States, is not in
+approved use except sometimes in financial language.--_Webster's New
+International Dictionary._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION
+
+
+Prepositions
+
+IT is important in the study of prepositions to observe that there are
+certain words that are followed by certain prepositions. To change the
+preposition is to convey a different meaning from the one that the
+speaker intended, or to convey no meaning at all. A partial list of such
+words with their appropriate prepositions follows:
+
+    accompanied   with       anything having no life
+    accompanied   by         anything having life
+
+    acquit        of
+
+    accuse        of
+
+    adapted       to         a thing
+    adapted       for        a course, because of one's nature
+    adapted       from       an author
+
+    agree         to         a plan or proposition
+    agree         with       a person
+    agree         upon       something that must be decided
+
+    angry         at         a thing
+    angry         with       a person
+
+    compare       with       to bring out similar qualities
+    compare       to         without analyzing
+
+    comply        with
+
+    confer        on         meaning to give to
+    confer        with       meaning to talk to
+
+    confide       in         meaning to put faith in
+    confide       to         meaning to commit to one's keeping
+
+    conform       to
+
+    correspond    to, with   a thing, denoting similarity
+    correspond    with       meaning to write to
+
+    different     from
+
+    dependent     on         a person
+    dependent     for        a thing
+
+    independent   of
+
+    disappointed  in
+
+    employed      at         a certain place or salary
+    employed      in         a certain kind of business
+    employed      by         a certain person or company
+
+    enter         upon       duties
+    enter         at         a door
+
+    followed      by
+
+    influence     over, upon
+
+    expect        of
+
+    participate   in
+
+    profit        by
+
+    remonstrate   against    a thing
+    remonstrate   with       a person
+
+
+=Exercise 125=
+
+Insert the correct preposition in the following:
+
+      1. I shall comply ---- your request.
+
+      2. The chairman came upon the platform accompanied
+      ---- the speaker.
+
+      3. He took a walk accompanied ---- his dog.
+
+      4. The lecture will be accompanied ---- stereopticon
+      views.
+
+      5. Strikes are usually accompanied ---- riots.
+
+      6. The years of prosperity were followed ---- years of
+      famine.
+
+      7. He was accused ---- theft, but was acquitted ----
+      the accusation.
+
+      8. She is well adapted ---- the position that is open.
+
+      9. An electric iron is especially adapted ---- summer
+      use.
+
+      10. The selection was adapted ---- Irving.
+
+      11. This cloth is well adapted ---- summer clothing
+      because it is very light in weight.
+
+      12. I agree ---- you that the plan is impracticable.
+
+      13. Let us agree now ---- a place to spend our summer
+      vacation.
+
+      14. That is not a proposition ---- which I shall
+      agree.
+
+      15. It is silly to be angry ---- an inanimate object.
+
+      16. Don't be angry ---- a person because he tells you
+      your faults.
+
+      17. His report corresponds in all respects --- yours.
+
+      18. Mr. Giles suggested that you would be glad to have
+      us correspond ---- you concerning our new bond issues.
+
+      19. I shall confer ---- my lawyer.
+
+      20. The public has conferred a great honor ---- him.
+
+      21. One should always profit ---- his experiences.
+
+      22. The new device is entirely different ---- the old.
+
+      23. I am employed ---- a fairly large salary ---- a
+      business that is growing daily.
+
+      24. All employees must conform ---- the rules.
+
+      25. I am confiding ---- you because I know that I can
+      trust you.
+
+      26. She confided her child ---- the care of her
+      brother.
+
+      27. She is dependent ---- her brother ---- support.
+
+      28. You can have an influence for good ---- him.
+
+      29. I have remonstrated ---- the change several times.
+
+      30. Perhaps he will change his plans if we remonstrate
+      ---- him at once.
+
+
+=Exercise 126--Prepositions Incorrectly Used=
+
+Each of the incorrect sentences given below contains an unnecessary
+preposition. When the meaning of "Where are you going?" is entirely
+clear, there is nothing gained by saying "Where are you going _to_?"
+Omit such superfluous prepositions.
+
+                _Wrong_                               _Right_
+   1. I took it off _of_ the shelf.       I took it off the shelf.
+
+   2. I shall accept _of_ your            I shall accept your hospitality.
+        hospitality.
+   3. Where are you _at_?                 Where are you?
+
+   4. Where are you going _to_?           Where are you going?
+
+   5. It is a building _of from_          It is a building twenty to thirty
+        twenty to thirty stories in             stories in height.
+        height.
+   6. Look out _of_ the window.           Look out the window.
+
+   7. John copies _after_ his father      John copies his father
+        in everything.                          in everything.
+
+   8. I am wondering _about_ what         I am wondering what I should do.
+        I should do.
+
+   9. I shall consult _with_ my           I shall consult my lawyer.
+        lawyer.
+
+  10. He sat opposite _to_ me.            He sat opposite me.
+
+  11. I shall leave later _on_.           I shall leave later.
+
+_and_ for _to_
+
+  12. I shall try _and_ go.               I shall try _to_ go.
+
+_of_ for _have_
+
+  13. I might _of_ gone.                  I might _have_ gone.
+
+The wrong preposition
+
+  14. He fell _in_ the water.             He fell _into_ the water.
+
+  15. She died _with_ diphtheria.         She died _of_ diphtheria.
+
+  16. Divide the work _between_ the       Divide the work _among_ the four
+        four of us.                              of us.
+   (_Between_ may be used in speaking of only two persons or things)
+
+  17. It will be done _inside_ of an      It will be done _within_ an hour.
+         hour.
+  18. Are you angry _at_ me?              Are you angry _with_ me?
+
+Preposition must be used
+
+  19. It's no use to try.                 It's _of_ no use to try.
+
+  20. My sister stayed home.              My sister stayed _at_ home.
+
+  21. Why do you act that way?            Why do you act _in_ that way?
+
+  22. We left the third of June.          We left _on_ the third of June.
+
+
+=Exercise 127=
+
+The object of a preposition is always in the objective case. Some people
+have great difficulty in recognizing that in such expressions as _for
+you and me_, the pronoun _me_ is as much the object of the preposition
+_for_ as the pronoun _you_. Both words must be in the objective case.
+It is incorrect to say _for you and I_.
+
+In the following sentences omit the incorrect italicized form:
+
+      1. The invitation is for father and _I_--_me_.
+
+      2. Every one has finished his work except _he_--_him_
+      and _I_--_me_.
+
+      3. It's a question that you and _I_--_me_ must decide;
+      it refers to you and _I_--_me_ alone.
+
+      4. Girls like you and _she_--_her_ should have a good
+      influence over the others.
+
+      5. All but you and _I_--_me_ have left.
+
+      6. He did it for you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      7. No one objected but _they_--_them_ and _we_--_us_.
+
+      8. She sat opposite you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      9. They were sitting near you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      10. We expect you to return with mother and _I_--_me_.
+
+      11. He wanted my brother and _I_--_me_ to go into
+      business with his brother and _he_--_him_.
+
+      12. Neither _she_--_her_ nor her sister have I seen
+      for several months.
+
+      13. My companion and _I_--_me_ took up the trail of
+      the bear at once. For some distance it led _he_--_him_
+      and _I_--_me_ over the soft, yielding carpet of moss
+      and pine needles, and the footprints were quite easily
+      made out.
+
+      14. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ had, of course, to keep
+      a sharp lookout ahead and around for the grizzly.
+
+      15. All are going on the excursion except _he_--_him_
+      and _I_--_me_.
+
+      16. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ went fishing.
+
+      17. The rule applies to _we_--_us_ all--the manager,
+      _they_--_them_ who keep books, you, and _I_--_me_.
+
+      18. She beckoned to my companion and _I_--_me_.
+
+      19. The letter was to be read by the president or
+      _I_--_me_.
+
+      20. He did it for the sake of my father and _I_--_me_.
+
+      21. We study Shakespeare with her sister and
+      _she_--_her_.
+
+      22. _She_--_her_ and her sister went to the lecture
+      with my sister and _I_--_me_.
+
+      23. They sent for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_, not you
+      and _he_--_him_.
+
+      24. The program was arranged by the president and
+      _I_--_me_.
+
+      25. They found that his father and _he_--_him_ had
+      already left.
+
+      26. Mother is going to buy a birthday present to-day
+      for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_.
+
+      27. The play is interesting not only to you older
+      people but to _we_--_us_ younger ones also.
+
+      28. They expected the work to be done by _she_--_her_
+      and _I_--_me_.
+
+      29. The dispute between his neighbor and _he_--_him_
+      over their lot line was settled by the surveyors this
+      morning.
+
+      30. He wants to speak to you and _I_--_me_.
+
+
+=Exercise 128--Than, as=
+
+_Than_ and _as_ are not prepositions but conjunctions. They are used to
+introduce subordinate clauses. Usually the clause is incomplete, but the
+omitted part is easily understood from the preceding clause and must be
+supplied to show the case of the noun or the pronoun that is expressed;
+as,
+
+    _Right_: She is as tall as I [am].
+    _Right_: She is taller than he [is].
+    _Right_: I should invite you rather than her [than I should invite
+                  her].
+
+
+Use the correct one of the italicized pronouns in the following
+sentences:
+
+      1. I'll agree that he is richer than _I_--_me_, but
+      riches are not everything.
+
+      2. I shall send her rather than _he_--_him_.
+
+      3. No one felt sorrier than _she_--_her_.
+
+      4. No one knows more about an automobile than
+      _he_--_him_.
+
+      5. You are more capable of doing the work than
+      _he_--_him_.
+
+      6. We were nearer the goal than you or _he_--_him_.
+
+      7. You finished the work almost as quickly as
+      _she_--_her_.
+
+      8. She writes fully as well as _he_--_him_.
+
+      9. The manager said he would rather send me than
+      _he_--_him_.
+
+      10. I secured a position sooner than _she_--_her_.
+
+      11. It seems to me that they ought to go rather than
+      _we_--_us_.
+
+      12. I am surprised that you arrived sooner than
+      _they_--_them_.
+
+      13. They should have elected him rather than
+      _I_--_me_.
+
+      14. I am not so well-fitted as _he_--_him_ to hold the
+      position.
+
+      15. You are more popular than _he_--_him_.
+
+
+=Exercise 129--Correlatives=
+
+There are certain conjunctions, called _correlatives_, that are used in
+pairs. They are
+
+    both--and           as--as, so--as
+    either--or          not only--but also
+    neither--nor        whether--or
+    so--that            such--as
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+    Both--and            He has both skill and energy.
+
+    Either--or           I shall leave either Monday or Tuesday.
+
+    Neither--nor         I can neither sing nor play.
+
+    So--that             It rained so hard that we stayed at home.
+
+    As--as               We shall come as early as we can.
+
+    So--as               She is not so tall as you are.
+                         (Used in negative expressions.)
+
+    Not only--but also   We saw not only Mr. Brown but his wife also.
+
+    Whether--or          Whether I return to work or stay at
+                           home depends on my mother's health.
+
+    Such--as             We shall buy only such goods as we
+                           think we can sell.
+
+      Be very careful not to use the correlative _so as_
+      incorrectly for _so that_. _So as_ is used in negative
+      expressions of comparison; _so that_ is used to
+      express result.
+
+    _Wrong_: We went early _so as_ we could get good seats.
+    _Right_: We went early _so that_ we could get good seats.
+
+In the illustrations given above, notice that the correlatives always
+join two similar or _coördinate_ expressions. It is important that they
+be placed each immediately before one of the two coördinate expressions.
+
+    _Wrong_: I _neither_ can sing nor play.
+    _Right_: I can _neither_ sing nor play.
+
+Recast the following sentences, placing the correlative conjunctions
+before coördinate expressions:
+
+      1. Either you ordered it late or not at all.
+
+      2. He said he neither had money nor time.
+
+      3. We not only bought the books you wished but the
+      games also.
+
+      4. We like the place in which we live both on account
+      of its quietness and its pleasant surroundings.
+
+      5. I shall either go to Quebec or Montreal.
+
+      6. Either he must spray his trees or expect no fruit.
+
+      7. I neither like the appearance of the shop nor the
+      attitude of the clerks.
+
+      8. They did it both for the sake of your brother and
+      you.
+
+      9. This sample not only is much darker but heavier
+      also.
+
+      10. They are barred who neither can read nor write.
+
+
+=Exercise 130--Either--or, Neither--nor=
+
+These conjunctions are correctly used in speaking of two things only.
+Care must be taken to use _or_ with _either_ and _nor_ with _neither_.
+In comparing three or more things use _any of them_, _none of them_, or
+_no_.
+
+In the following sentences use only the correct italicized forms:
+
+      1. Neither effort _nor_--_or_ money was spared in the
+      undertaking.
+
+      2. I have considered planting maple, oak, and elm
+      trees, but _neither_--_none_ of them seems to grow
+      well in this climate.
+
+      3. We do not believe in _either_ enduring oppression
+      _nor_--_or_ killing the oppressor. We believe in
+      arbitration.
+
+      4. He has _no_--_neither_ time, patience, _nor_--_or_
+      energy.
+
+      5. If you ask me which of the three I prefer, I'll be
+      frank and tell you I like _neither_--_none_ of them.
+
+      6. Three courses will be given in the subject this
+      year; you may take _either_--_any_ one of them.
+
+      7. I had already passed three branch roads, but
+      _neither_--_none_ of them had looked familiar to me.
+
+      8. I hardly think he accepted _any_--_either_ of the
+      two offers he received.
+
+      9. Neither the doctor _or_--_nor_ his wife was at
+      home.
+
+      10. Both the books look shop-worn. I'll take
+      _neither_--_none_.
+
+
+=Exercise 131--Except, Without, Unless=
+
+_Except_ and _without_ are prepositions, and are used, therefore, to
+introduce phrases; _unless_ is a conjunction, and is used to introduce a
+clause.
+
+In the following sentences insert the correct form, giving a reason for
+your choice:
+
+      1. ---- you leave at once, you will miss your train.
+
+      2. I cannot learn to swim, ---- some one teaches me.
+
+      3. I cannot learn to swim ---- a teacher.
+
+      4. No one could do the work ---- me.
+
+      5. John expects to learn ---- studying.
+
+      6. John will discover that he cannot win promotion
+      ---- he works hard.
+
+      7. No one can learn how to spell ---- first learning
+      how to observe.
+
+      8. No one will learn to spell ---- he learns to
+      observe.
+
+      9. No one will succeed ---- he has energy and
+      patience.
+
+      10. No one will succeed ---- energy and patience.
+
+      11. You cannot succeed in any way ---- by seizing each
+      opportunity as it comes.
+
+      12. It is impossible to grow beautiful flowers ----
+      the soil is good.
+
+
+=Exercise 132--Like, as=
+
+_Like_ is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. _As_ is a
+conjunction and introduces a clause, and is therefore followed by a
+verb. _Like_ is not a conjunction and therefore may not be substituted
+for _as_ or _as if_.
+
+    _Wrong_: I wish I could play _like_ you can.
+    _Right_: I wish I could play _as_ you can.
+
+Insert the correct word in the following sentences:
+
+      1. The picture looks just ---- you.
+
+      2. I haven't a voice ---- my brother's.
+
+      3. I cannot sing ---- my brother can.
+
+      4. He walks just ---- you do.
+
+      5. I hope you will all enjoy the trip ---- I did.
+
+      6. For pleasure and exercise I think there is no game
+      ----tennis.
+
+      7. He said that the town looked just ---- it had when
+      he was a boy.
+
+      8. I cut the paper just ---- you said I should.
+
+      9. He talks ---- his father.
+
+      10. He has the same sort of drawl ---- his father
+      [has].
+
+      11. She was there ---- you said she would be.
+
+      12. They worked ---- beavers.
+
+      13. He looked ---- a tramp.
+
+      14. To give the stitch the proper twist throw the
+      thread over the needle ---- I do.
+
+      15. He walks ---- he were lame.
+
+
+=Exercise 133--As--as, So--as=
+
+Use _as_--_as_ in stating equality; use _so_--_as_ in negative
+comparisons.
+
+      1. You will find the new clerks fully ---- courteous
+      as were the old.
+
+      2. You will not find the new clerks ---- courteous as
+      were the old.
+
+      3. Elms do not grow ---- well in this climate as do
+      poplars.
+
+      4. We did not carry ---- much advertising this year as
+      we did last year, and we find that our receipts are
+      smaller.
+
+      5. Under our system of individual instruction a
+      student may advance ---- rapidly as his ability
+      permits.
+
+      6. You are not ---- tall as your sister.
+
+      7. I do not seem to learn languages ---- easily as
+      mathematics.
+
+      8. This house is not ---- large as the other.
+
+      9. He is ---- active as he was twenty years ago.
+
+      10. He is not ---- active as he was twenty years ago.
+
+
+=Exercise 134--Miscellaneous Blunders=
+
+=To, Too, Two=
+
+_To_ is a preposition; _too_ is an adverb, and means _excessively_ or
+_also_; _two_ is a numeral adjective. Insert the correct form in each of
+the following sentences:
+
+      1. The ---- sisters discovered that it was ---- late
+      for the 4:15 train.
+
+      2. It is ---- dark in that corner; come ---- the
+      light.
+
+      3. He spends ---- much time in dreaming, ---- little
+      in working.
+
+      4. He would have done better if he had not given ----
+      little heed ---- the advice of his ---- older
+      brothers.
+
+      5. ---- more hours were passed in the all ---- weary
+      task of waiting.
+
+      6. It was ---- cold ---- stay out more than ----
+      hours.
+
+      7. You may go ----, but don't stay ---- long.
+
+      8. ---- stay there for ---- weeks would be ----
+      tiresome.
+
+      9. The doctor said that the ---- men were ---- sick
+      ---- go home alone, and I thought so ----.
+
+      10. About ---- hours ago I met Mary who said that she
+      was going ---- the country ----.
+
+=There, Their=
+
+      11. ---- are seven brothers in ---- family.
+
+      12. ---- books are ---- on the table.
+
+      13. ---- is no doubt that ---- knowledge of
+      mathematics is greater than ---- knowledge of English.
+
+=Were, Where=
+
+      14. ---- have you been?
+
+      15. ---- you ever on a farm ---- alfalfa is grown?
+
+      16. ---- ---- you when the report was read?
+
+      17. I was just ---- you ----.
+
+=Of, Have=
+
+      18. You should ---- read more distinctly.
+
+      19. I could ---- done the work if I had had more ----
+      the necessary tools.
+
+      20. If I had tried harder, I might ---- done the work
+      better.
+
+
+
+
+PART II--COMPOSITION: ORAL AND WRITTEN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ORAL ENGLISH
+
+
+=Exercise 135=
+
+RETELL a story that you know or one that the instructor has read to you.
+See if you can tell the whole story in fairly long sentences without
+using a single _and_. You will be allowed to use three _and's_. As soon
+as you say the third, you must take your seat. Let the class keep count.
+
+The story may be an anecdote, a fable, or any other short incident that
+can easily be told in one or two minutes. You probably have read many
+such or have heard your father and your mother tell them. A joke that
+can be told in two or three sentences will not be long enough.
+
+The excessive use of _and_ spoils the telling of many stories. It is a
+mistake to think that the gap between the end of one sentence and the
+beginning of the next appears as great to the listener as it does to us
+as we are deliberating what to say next. To avoid the gap we bridge the
+two sentences with _and_. Its use in this way is hardly ever necessary
+if we think out a sentence to the end before we begin to speak it. When
+we have finished the thought, we should finish the sentence without
+trying to bind it artificially to the next one. The sentences will be
+bound together if the thought of one grows out of the thought of the
+preceding one.
+
+If the unfolding of the idea does not seem sufficient to tie the parts,
+there are better expressions to use than _and_. There are short
+expressions like _in this way_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _thus_,
+_therefore_, _besides_, _as might be expected_, and _too_. Another way
+to avoid _and_ is to change the form of the sentence: (1) better than
+the form, "I opened the window _and saw_," is, "_Opening_ the window, I
+saw;" (2) better than "I am going to the store _and buy_ some sugar,"
+is, "I am going to the store _to buy_ some sugar;" (3) better than
+"There was a boy _and his name_ was John," is, "There was a boy _whose_
+name was John;" (4) better than "I reached home _and found_ that my
+cousin had arrived," is, "_When_ I reached home, I found that my cousin
+had arrived." In place of _and_, therefore, we may use (1) participles,
+(2) infinitives, (3) relative pronouns, and (4) subordinate
+conjunctions.
+
+Above all, avoid _and everything_, as in, "I washed the dishes and swept
+the floor and everything." To try thus to complete an idea that is
+already complete shows childishness.
+
+
+=Exercise 136=
+
+Very likely in telling the story as suggested above you found yourself
+frequently using the word _so_ to connect two sentences. Perhaps, too,
+you used _why_ to begin sentences.
+
+Now tell one of your own experiences, being careful not to use _and_,
+_so_, or _why_. Introduce as much conversation as possible. What, if
+any, is the advantage of telling a story in the first person? Why is it
+good to introduce conversation?
+
+In your conversation make use of several of the following words:
+
+    replied        whispered      spoke          inquired
+    answered       agreed         cried          explained
+    asked          exclaimed      shouted        remarked
+    questioned     repeated       continued      suggested
+    promised       maintained     objected       rejoined
+    interrupted    quoted         returned       added
+
+
+=Exercise 137=
+
+Far too many boys and girls pay but little regard to the matter of
+choosing the word that will give the exact meaning that they wish to
+convey. In order to lend force to their words they have formed the habit
+of speaking in superlatives; like the girl who said, "We had a perfectly
+grand time, but I'm so beastly tired now that I'm nearly dead," and yet
+she showed no evidence of suffering.
+
+Isn't it a pity that our beautiful English language should be so
+degraded in common usage that it loses all its force and meaning?
+Instead of convincing people that she really was tired, the girl quoted
+above made herself ridiculous by her exaggeration. Yet isn't the
+quotation a fair example of the speech of many boys and girls? Surely
+everything about us is not either grand or beastly. The habit thus
+formed is difficult to break, but it must be broken if we wish to speak
+our language correctly.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Make a list of the slang phrases that you have acquired. For each one
+substitute a good English expression.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The reason we must watch our oral English closely is that it is in our
+conversation that our habits of speech are formed. The expressions we
+use then we unconsciously employ when we are writing or talking to the
+class. If we are accustomed to use considerable slang when we speak, we
+shall have difficulty in eliminating it from our writing or in finding a
+good word to express the idea for which we usually use slang. As a rule,
+slang and extravagant expressions of all kinds are used to serve such a
+variety of meanings that the use of them tends to limit the vocabulary
+to these expressions. Consider slang something undesirable and stop
+using it.
+
+
+=Exercise 138=
+
+Look up the words in each of the following groups. You will notice that
+there is a resemblance of meaning between all the words of each group,
+but that there is also a shade of difference in meaning that
+distinguishes each word from its companions. Discover that shade of
+difference. Use each word in a sentence.
+
+      1. Lovely, beautiful, pretty, handsome.
+
+      2. Awful, terrible, horrible, dreadful, fearful.
+
+      3. Nice, pleasant, delightful, dainty, fine,
+      agreeable.
+
+      4. Grand, imposing, splendid, impressive.
+
+      5. Love, like, adore, admire, revere.
+
+      6. Smart, clever, bright, quick-witted.
+
+      7. Fierce, ferocious, wild.
+
+      8. Guess, think, suppose, imagine.
+
+      9. Hate, dislike, despise, abhor, detest.
+
+      10. Scholar, student, pupil.
+
+
+=Exercise 139=
+
+Carelessness in speaking frequently results in wordiness, since the
+speaker in an effort to be clear or forceful repeats the idea two or
+three times. Such speech is tiresome. In each of the following sentences
+there are too many words to express the idea. See how many you can omit
+and yet preserve the meaning. Sometimes the sentence needs revision.
+
+      1. I haven't got any time.
+
+      2. Where does he live at?
+
+      3. Don't stand up; there's a chair.
+
+      4. The woman she had an accident.
+
+      5. You had ought to take more exercise.
+
+      6. I was just going to go.
+
+      7. I excuse you because you are a new beginner.
+
+      8. I can finish the work in three days' time.
+
+      9. The offices are both alike in all respects.
+
+      10. He engaged the both of us.
+
+      11. We applied to Mr. Abbot, he being the manager.
+
+      12. My mind often reverts back to the time when I
+      began in business.
+
+      13. That high building that is going up on Twelfth
+      Street is going to be twenty stories high when it is
+      finished.
+
+      14. From his appearance he looked to be in very poor
+      circumstances.
+
+      15. He is afraid of the results that will ensue if he
+      follows the course that he has planned.
+
+      16. The present state of affairs that is now
+      confronting the public has become what it now is
+      because the citizens are not public spirited.
+
+      17. The reason why I was not at work yesterday was
+      because I was not feeling as well as I might.
+
+      18. I shall never forget the terrible sights that I
+      saw the time that I witnessed the street car
+      collision.
+
+      19. I have been debating in my mind whether I ought to
+      accept the offer.
+
+      20. He was a mere little child when he first began to
+      work in the mine.
+
+      21. Mix together both the butter and the sugar, and
+      rub the two of them to a cream.
+
+      22. The two pieces of cloth are just exactly the same
+      in every way.
+
+      23. You will find this chair equally as comfortable as
+      the other.
+
+      24. He said that when he started in his business that
+      he had almost no capital at all.
+
+      25. It was the office of Morgan & Son where I got my
+      experience.
+
+      26. China is undergoing a vast change at the present
+      time.
+
+      27. At about the age of fourteen years he left his
+      home town.
+
+      28. They did it gladly and willingly.
+
+      29. He always shows great deference and respect when
+      he speaks to those who are in authority.
+
+      30. He is the proprietor and owner of the News.
+
+      31. You can easily get the training that will make you
+      a competent and efficient high-salaried trained man.
+
+      32. For sale, a large, commodious house, arranged with
+      every convenience to make it comfortable.
+
+      33. We are making all the necessary improvements that
+      are needed.
+
+      34. I went to high school to take up stenography.
+
+
+=Exercise 140--Making a Speech=
+
+One of the most profitable exercises to cultivate clear thinking and
+consequent clear expression is the making of speeches, usually spoken of
+as oral themes. In this exercise a pupil stands before the class to talk
+upon a subject about which he has thought, but upon which he has
+written nothing. He has two objects in view. First, he must choose those
+facts that will make his subject clear and interesting to his audience.
+Second, he must deliver them well; that is, he must stand in a good
+position before the class, use good grammar, no slang, and enunciate so
+that every one in the room can understand him. If his speech is to be
+longer than one paragraph, he should have an outline prepared, in which
+each division is clearly indicated, as well as the important details
+within each division.
+
+In making a speech, the best way is to start with a clear statement of
+the subject. Suppose you take (9) below. You might begin, "I am going to
+talk of a street car transfer. First, I shall tell you how it looks; and
+second, how it is used. Then first, a street car transfer--(describe it
+fully). In the second place, it is used--(give details)." After you have
+explained fully, to show that you have said all you intend to say,
+finish with a sentence of conclusion. _Therefore_, _consequently_, _for
+these reasons_, _thus we may see_, are instances of words which may be
+used to begin a sentence of conclusion.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Use each of the following questions as the subject for a speech. Answer
+each question clearly and completely. Use illustrations to show exactly
+what you mean.
+
+      1. What does it mean to be a hero?
+
+      2. What does it mean to be successful?
+
+      3. What does it mean to be unfortunate?
+
+      4. What does it mean to be generous?
+
+      5. What does it mean to be lenient?
+
+      6. What does it mean to be mercenary?
+
+      7. What does it mean to be diffident?
+
+      8. What does it mean to be penurious?
+
+      9. What is a street car transfer? How does it look and
+      how is it used?
+
+      10. What occupation do you wish to follow, and why?
+      What preparations are you making?
+
+      11. Why do we have a smoke ordinance?
+
+      12. Why must buildings have fire escapes?
+
+      13. Why do the farmers of Kansas insure their barns
+      against cyclones?
+
+      14. What is fire insurance?
+
+      15. Why is ventilation important?
+
+      16. Why do so many immigrants come to this country?
+
+      17. Why do cities grow?
+
+      18. Why was the steam engine an important invention?
+
+      19. Why was the telephone an important invention?
+
+      20. What is the principle of vaccination?
+
+      21. What is the principle of anti-toxin?
+
+      22. Of what good is the trade union to the laborer?
+
+      23. Why does the employer object to the union?
+
+      24. What is a monopoly?
+
+      25. What is meant by a corner in wheat?
+
+
+=Exercise 141=
+
+In your neighborhood you have frequently noticed a lawn and a garden
+that are very poorly kept, the garden needing weeding and the lawn both
+weeding and mowing. Imagine that you go to the owner to make him a
+proposition. You know the man slightly, and you have heard that he has a
+quick temper. Know exactly what work you will offer to do and how often
+you will do it. Be careful of your first sentences. Let them be
+especially courteous, so that you may not offend the gentleman by
+suggesting that he does not take care of his property. Tell him frankly
+that you would like to earn some money.
+
+In this exercise the class will represent the owner. Moreover, they will
+watch carefully so that they may point out to the speaker wherein his
+speech was not quite courteous or not quite clear.
+
+
+=Exercise 142=
+
+From one of the newspapers cut an advertisement of a position for which
+you think you can apply. Bring the advertisement with you and convince
+the class that you are fitted for the position.
+
+In this exercise you must be exact. Choose an advertisement for a kind
+of work about which you know something. If you have ever had any
+experience that would fit you for the position, do not fail to tell of
+it, since experience counts for much in the employer's estimate of an
+applicant.
+
+Let the class judge whether the speaker has been convincing and whether
+he has shown the properly courteous attitude toward an employer. Let
+them ask themselves such questions as: Is he alert in his manner? Does
+he make one feel that he is capable? Does he stand and talk as if he has
+confidence in himself? Is he too meek? Does he seem over-confident? Let
+each be able to offer suggestions for improvement.
+
+
+=Exercise 143=
+
+Imagine that you are an agent. Choose an article that is especially
+useful to housekeepers. Try to sell it to the class, or choose an
+individual member to whom you wish to sell it. Bring a sample with you
+for the purpose of demonstrating its usefulness.
+
+As in the preceding exercise the speaker must strive to be convincing.
+He must know all there is to be known about the article that he is
+demonstrating. If it is at all possible, he should have used it in order
+that he may explain exactly how it is operated and why it is better than
+a similar article that the housekeeper probably is at present using.
+
+
+=Exercise 144=
+
+You wish to start a business and need a certain amount of money. Try to
+convince the instructor or a selected pupil that you need it.
+
+Be sure that you are able to tell definitely the kind of business for
+which you wish the money, where you will start the business, why you
+think that this particular location is good, when you will be able to
+return the money, and what security you can give.
+
+Don't make the mistake of choosing something too big for a boy or a girl
+to carry through. Perhaps the following will be suggestive:
+
+      1. A newspaper stand.
+
+      2. A miniature truck farm in the empty lot next door.
+
+      3. A pop corn wagon.
+
+      4. A fruit cart or stand.
+
+      5. A shoe shining stand.
+
+      6. Raising ferns or flowers for sale.
+
+      7. Buying vegetables from a farmer and selling them to
+      housewives.
+
+      8. Printing business cards and blotters on a small
+      press.
+
+      9. Making place cards.
+
+      10. Making valentines.
+
+      11. Painting holiday postal cards or fancy cards for
+      Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving, and the like.
+
+      12. Printing on postal cards pretty scenes that you
+      have photographed perhaps in your town or at a summer
+      resort.
+
+      13. Making and selling cakes, doughnuts, and the like.
+
+      14. Selling crocheted or embroidered articles.
+
+
+=Exercise 145--Elements of Success=
+
+Prepare a short speech on each of the following. Wherever possible make
+your statements clear and forceful by using illustrations or examples.
+
+      1. Cheerfulness helps to bring success.
+
+      2. The habit of neatness is an asset.
+
+      3. The habit of punctuality is a necessity.
+
+      4. He was not promoted because he watched the clock.
+
+      5. He was not promoted because his excuse was always,
+      "I forgot."
+
+      6. He was not promoted because he learned nothing from
+      his mistakes.
+
+      7. He was not promoted because he was always
+      grumbling.
+
+      8. He was not promoted because he was content to be a
+      second-rate man.
+
+      9. He was not promoted because he ruined his ability
+      by half-doing things.
+
+      10. He was not promoted because he did not learn to
+      act on his own judgment.
+
+      11. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.
+
+      12. Experience is an expensive teacher.
+
+      13. Be not simply good--be good for something.
+
+      14. Not failure, but low aim, is crime.
+
+      15. To be successful one must have confidence in
+      himself.
+
+
+=Exercise 146=
+
+As in the preceding exercise prepare a speech on each of the following:
+
+      1. A dishonest person cannot succeed.
+
+      2. There is no excuse for discouragement.
+
+      3. You may secure a position through another's
+      influence, but you keep it through your own merit.
+
+      4. There is always room at the top.
+
+      5. There is no such thing as luck.
+
+      6. The proper attitude toward an employer is one of
+      deference.
+
+      7. A business woman should dress simply.
+
+      8. Perseverance is the key to success.
+
+      9. To accomplish much one must work systematically.
+
+      10. It is possible to cultivate a good memory.
+
+      11. The ability to converse is a business asset.
+
+      12. The habit of exaggeration is dangerous.
+
+
+=Exercise 147--Successful Men and Women=
+
+How can one measure the success of men or women? Is it by the money they
+make? the land they acquire? the fame they win? the good they do? By
+what means have they won success? Was it through favorable
+circumstances? strength of character? favoritism? physical strength?
+mental energy? daring? doing what they thought was right in spite of
+opposition? or simply doing nothing and waiting for success to come?
+
+Study the life and character of one or more of the following. Have they
+gained what you consider success? What qualities of character do you
+recognize in them? Would you care to be like any of them?
+
+Make a list of the habits that you recognize in their life and in the
+way they worked.
+
+Make a list of the characteristics of the ones that you study.
+
+    Florence Nightingale    Frances Willard         Bismarck
+    David Maydole           Ella Flagg Young        Gladstone
+    R. L. Stevenson         Helen Gould Shepard     Marshall Field
+    Booker T. Washington    Jane Addams             Carnegie
+    Captain Scott           Napoleon                J. Pierpont Morgan
+    Mary Antin              Franklin                Edison
+    Daniel Boone            Lincoln                 Roosevelt
+    Mary Lyon               Nathan Hale             Goethals
+
+
+=Exercise 148--Debating=
+
+A very great asset in business is the ability to see the truth or the
+falsity of a statement, and to advance proofs for or against it. This
+ability we shall try to acquire through the practice of debating; that
+is, through the making of speeches in which students take opposite sides
+of the same subject, trying by the presentation of facts and
+illustrations to prove that the side which they represent is the correct
+one. The statement that is thus argued is called a _proposition_.
+
+Debating is excellent practice because it teaches not only clear-cut
+reasoning, but also forceful expression. If a debater fails to make any
+of his several arguments convincing, if he introduces irrelevant matter,
+or, though he has prepared strong proofs, if he expresses them in
+incorrect English, the result will be poor. In working out a debate,
+therefore, observe the following carefully:
+
+1. Know your subject thoroughly. If you have insufficient knowledge, you
+cannot be convincing.
+
+2. Understand your point of view exactly and explain it clearly. If you
+and your opponent have different ideas of the word _trust_, for example,
+you can never argue on a subject that concerns the trusts. Define your
+position first of all.
+
+3. After you have gathered your facts, study them as a whole. What three
+arguments, let us say, stand out clearly in your mind as being
+irrefutable because of the strong proofs you have to back them? These
+are the ones that you should use; the rest will probably be of little
+value. Plan to give the weakest of the three first, so that your
+argument will gain force as you advance.
+
+4. Work out the details of each argument. A mere statement of each is
+not enough. It must be supported by many facts and illustrations.
+
+5. Prepare an outline. It will show you whether your arguments follow
+each other clearly, whether you have so arranged them as to secure
+climax. (See Exercise 152.)
+
+6. In talking, follow the plan explained in Exercise 140, being
+especially careful in conclusion to summarize the proofs that you have
+presented.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The conclusions that you reach in your arguments must be based upon
+statements that are true. In the following, some of the statements are
+false, and therefore the conclusions based upon them are false. Point
+out wherein the falsity consists. In others of the following, irrelevant
+matter has been introduced. Point it out, explaining why it is
+irrelevant.
+
+      1. We shall forget a great many facts that we learn at
+      school. Therefore it is useless to learn them.
+
+      2. Oil should be used instead of water in sprinkling
+      our streets, because oil does not evaporate so quickly
+      as water, and so does not allow the dust to rise.
+      Moreover, as the street must be cleaned before the oil
+      is laid, there is less dust to rise. When the oil lies
+      on the streets, it is very sticky, and clings to
+      everyone's shoes. In this way it is tracked into the
+      houses and stores, making everything dirty. Therefore
+      I think the streets should be oiled instead of being
+      watered.
+
+      3. Half of the keys would not work on the typewriter
+      that I used yesterday. This machine will work no
+      better, as it is made by the same company.
+
+      4. Last year September was very warm, and the winter
+      was extreme. This year September has been very warm,
+      and therefore the winter will be extreme.
+
+      5. My cousin never went to high school, and when he
+      went to work he earned eight dollars a week. I have
+      gone to high school for one year. Therefore I shall
+      receive more than eight dollars a week when I go to
+      work.
+
+      6. When you are working, your employer will never ask
+      you the definition of a noun. Therefore it is
+      unnecessary to know any grammar.
+
+      7. Every one should be punctual in doing his work. If
+      he is punctual, he will be promoted and earn a larger
+      salary. Money is a very important item in this world,
+      but it is not everything. A person must be satisfied
+      with his work so that he can do it cheerfully;
+      otherwise he will not succeed. Therefore I think every
+      one ought to be on time.
+
+      8. The day is either sunny or it is not sunny. To-day
+      is not sunny; therefore it is sunny.
+
+      9. It always rains when I wear new shoes. I am wearing
+      new shoes; therefore it will rain to-day.
+
+
+=Exercise 149=
+
+Find three reasons for each of the following propositions. State them
+concisely, reserving the strongest for the last.
+
+As above, find three reasons against each of the following.
+
+Expand one of the reasons that you advanced for one of the propositions
+given below. Using your statement as the opening sentence, develop it
+into a paragraph by explanations and illustrations.
+
+      1. The high school should have the same session as the
+      grades.
+
+      2. The high school session should begin at eight
+      o'clock and close at one, with no recess for luncheon.
+
+      3. Final examinations shall be abolished.
+
+      4. Every high school should teach manual training.
+
+      5. Every high school should offer business courses.
+
+      6. Every high school pupil should receive a business
+      training.
+
+      7. Stenography (or bookkeeping) is a more important
+      study than wood-working.
+
+      8. If a pupil fails in the first semester of a
+      subject, he should be allowed to try the second
+      without repeating the first.
+
+      9. A pupil should not be expected to learn a lesson
+      that he does not enjoy.
+
+      10. Moving picture shows do more harm than good.
+
+
+=Exercise 150=
+
+Let three or four pupils write upon the blackboard three arguments in
+support of the same one of the following propositions. Then let the
+class choose from all the arguments given those three or four that they
+think are best, giving in each case reasons for their choice.
+
+In the same way let them work out the negative of the same proposition.
+
+      1. Every city should have a public park in the
+      business district.
+
+      2. The large department stores should be abolished and
+      smaller stores, selling only one kind of commodity,
+      established.
+
+      3. The mail order house should be abolished.
+
+      4. It is bad business policy to conduct cut-price
+      sales.
+
+      5. The newspapers are the greatest educators of the
+      time.
+
+      6. Billboard advertisements destroy the beauty of a
+      city.
+
+      7. Women should be allowed to vote.
+
+      8. Labor unions are a benefit to the public.
+
+      9. All government should be conducted on the civil
+      service plan.
+
+      10. Underselling a competitor ruins trade.
+
+
+=Exercise 151=
+
+One or two weeks in advance let the class choose three members for each
+side of one of the following propositions. On the day of the debate let
+the rest of the class act as judges to decide which side has presented
+the most convincing arguments in the best English.
+
+      1. It is better to be a farm hand than a factory
+      employee.
+
+      2. Every girl should prepare herself to earn her own
+      living.
+
+      3. Trusts should be regulated, not abolished.
+
+      4. Strikes should be considered illegal.
+
+      5. Advertising has increased the cost of living. (See
+      Exercise 152.)
+
+      6. Communism would lower the cost of living.
+
+      7. The business of a city should not be centralized.
+
+      8. Labor troubles are brought about because the poor
+      ape the rich.
+
+      9. Contentment is better than wealth.
+
+      10. Tariff increases the cost of living.
+
+
+=Exercise 152--Outline for a Debate=
+
+Choose two or four members of the class to develop each side of the
+following debate. Wherever possible, definite figures should be used.
+
+_Resolved_, THAT ADVERTISING HAS INCREASED THE COST OF LIVING.
+
+_Affirmative_
+
+      I. Modern advertising is world-wide in extent.
+        (_a_) Practically all classes of articles are now extensively
+              advertised.
+            (1) Food stuffs; e.g., breakfast foods.
+            (2) Clothing; e.g., men's suits.
+            (3) Luxuries; e.g., automobiles.
+            (4) Investments; e.g., real estate.
+        (_b_) Every possible medium is used.
+            (1) Newspapers.
+            (2) Magazines.
+            (3) Billboards and street cars.
+            (4) Circulars and booklets.
+     II. An enormous amount of money is spent in advertising.
+        (_a_) The use of advertising agencies is growing more widespread.
+            (1) One agency has made the statement that it has nine men
+              whose salaries amount to $227,000 annually.
+        (_b_) More and more companies are engaging advertising managers.
+            (1) They draw large salaries.
+                (_x_) In many cases, $10,000 annually.
+        (_c_) Advertising rates are very high; for example,
+            (1) The rate for a certain magazine is $1000 a page per issue.
+            (2) Metropolitan newspapers charge as high a rate as $500
+              a page per issue.
+        (_d_) Many advertisers use each issue of a number of mediums,
+              making the cost run to an enormous total; for example,
+            (1) _Cream of Wheat_ is advertised in every issue of almost
+              every magazine.
+    III. The consumer pays for the advertising.
+        (_a_) The price that the consumer pays for an article must cover
+              the cost of production and the expense of distribution,
+              leaving fair margins of profit, since
+            (1) The manufacturer will no longer produce if his profit
+              ceases.
+            (2) He is not willing to take the cost of advertising from his
+              profit in manufacturing.
+            (3) The dealer will not take the advertising cost from his own
+              profit.
+     IV. Advertising increases prices.
+        (_a_) The cost of manufacture and the expense of distribution have
+              been steadily lowered, and yet prices of articles have
+              steadily advanced; therefore
+            (1) The rise is not due to the cost of manufacture.
+            (2) Nor to the expense of distribution.
+        (_b_) Competition necessitates an increased amount of advertising.
+            (1) If one firm begins to advertise, its competitors, for
+              self-protection, must follow suit.
+        (_c_) Competitive advertising raises expenses above the point where
+              there is a fair profit at the old price.
+            (1) For a given kind of goods there is usually a certain volume
+              of business, which grows with population.
+            (2) If all the firms competing in those goods increase their
+              expenses by advertising, they must raise prices to make the
+               same profit as previously.
+        (_d_) Advertised articles cost more than the unadvertised.
+             (1) Bulk rolled oats vs. package rolled oats.
+             (2) Bulk pickles and relishes vs. advertised brands.
+             (3) Bulk macaroni vs. package goods.
+
+_Negative_
+
+      I. The present increased advertising is the result of normal growth.
+         (_a_) Multiplied manufactures necessarily multiply advertisements.
+             (1) Every day new products are being put on the market.
+             (2) No product has the chance of a sale until it is known.
+             (3) In the present scope of community life the advertisement
+               is the most convenient means of acquainting consumers with
+               new products.
+         (_b_) Any unusual increase in advertising has a reasonable
+              explanation.
+             (1) Automobile advertising has increased as the automobile
+               has replaced the wagon and carriage, because of
+                 (_x_) Greater convenience.
+                 (_y_) Lower operating cost.
+             (2) Prepared breakfast food advertising has increased
+               as these foods have replaced cooked foods, because of
+                 (_x_) Greater convenience.
+     II. Increased advertising is done on the scale of old prices.
+         (_a_) Merchants dare not raise prices to make the consumer pay
+               for the advertising, since
+             (1) They must compete with manufacturers who do not
+               advertise and who have no overhead advertising expense.
+         (_b_) The most widely advertised articles are the inexpensive
+               necessary accessories.
+             (1) Food products.
+             (2) Soaps and soap powders.
+             (3) Toilet articles.
+         (_c_) They have not advanced in price.
+             (1) Quaker Oats.
+             (2) Ivory Soap; Sapolio.
+             (3) Mennen's Talcum Powder.
+    III. Widespread advertising works to the advantage, not the
+           disadvantage, of the consumer.
+         (_a_) It gives new opportunities
+             (1) To compare values.
+             (2) To buy to the best advantage; for example,
+                 (_x_) In advertised bargain sales.
+         (_b_) It reduces the cost of production and the selling expense,
+              thus tending to lower the price.
+             (1) By increasing sales, it reduces the cost per article.
+                 (_x_) Maximum purchasing power means minimum cost to the
+                   manufacturer.
+             (2) In taking the place of salesmen, it reduces expenses, thus
+               lowering the price; for example,
+                 (_x_) In mail order firms.
+             (3) Therefore the advertising expense is unimportant in
+               influencing a higher price.
+     IV. The most marked price advances have been in the unadvertised
+          necessaries of life.
+         (_a_) In breadstuffs.
+             (1) Less in quantity for higher prices than formerly.
+         (_b_) In meats and poultry.
+             (1) An advance of from 25 per cent to 100 per cent and more.
+         (_c_) In butter and eggs.
+             (1) An advance similar to that shown in meats and poultry.
+
+
+=Exercise 153--Additional Subjects for Debates=
+
+      1. The wages of women should be the same as those of
+      men in the same occupation.
+
+      2. The government should grant old age pensions.
+
+      3. Employers should be liable for the life and health
+      of employees.
+
+      4. The boycott is a legitimate method of obtaining
+      employees' demands.
+
+      5. National expositions do not benefit the cities in
+      which they are held.
+
+      6. Railroad combination lowers rates.
+
+      7. Piece-work should be prohibited by law.
+
+      8. National party lines should be discarded in
+      municipal elections.
+
+      9. City governments should be allowed to decide their
+      problems without intervention of the state
+      legislature.
+
+      10. Municipal offices should be appointive and not
+      elective.
+
+      11. The commission form of government is best for
+      large cities.
+
+      12. Immigration is the cause of municipal evils.
+
+      13. A personal property tax cannot be levied with
+      fairness.
+
+      14. The United States should not further extend its
+      colonial dependencies.
+
+      15. The President should be elected by a direct vote
+      of the people.
+
+      16. Ex-presidents of the United States should become
+      life members of the Senate.
+
+      17. The President and the Vice-President should be
+      prohibited from taking part in political campaigns.
+
+      18. The United States should subsidize a merchant
+      marine.
+
+      19. Foreign-built ships, owned by Americans, should be
+      granted the privilege of American register.
+
+      20. The governors of states should not have the power
+      to pardon.
+
+      21. A three-fourths vote of a jury should be
+      sufficient to render a verdict in criminal cases.
+
+      22. The coast defenses of the United States should be
+      increased.
+
+      23. The farmer is to blame for the high prices.
+
+      24. The results of Arctic explorations have not
+      justified the cost.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CHOOSING SUBJECTS
+
+
+IN Chapter X definite subjects were assigned for talks. Getting a
+subject for yourself sometimes seems difficult; you are likely to think
+that there is no topic upon which you can say more than a few sentences.
+Isn't it true that when you are talking to your friends you seldom are
+at a loss for something to say? Of course, what your companion says
+often suggests an idea on which you give your opinion. You speak about
+things that interest you, and the words come fairly easily. Why not
+apply the same principle to more formal composition, whether oral or
+written? Unless a subject interests you, do not use it. But be careful
+that you do not reject it as uninteresting until you have thought about
+it carefully, considering it from all sides. Often one subject will
+suggest another akin to it, but more interesting to you because you know
+more about it. For this reason choose very simple subjects, and become
+thoroughly familiar with them by thinking or reading about them, before
+you attempt to explain them.
+
+Sometimes, again, you will find that the subject you have chosen is not
+good because it is not definite enough. You hardly know where or how to
+begin to explain it, because it suggests no definite ideas. Perhaps, for
+instance, you have decided to write on the automobile and can think of
+nothing to say until you remember that you once saw an automobile race
+about which you can tell several interesting details; or you have seen
+an automobile accident and can write on the topic _A Runaway Electric_.
+If you can speak or write on a topic taken from your own observation,
+your composition will probably be good. You know the facts, you have an
+interest in the subject, and you will very likely say something of
+interest to others. Subjects taken from school life or neighborhood
+happenings, especially such things as you yourself have seen, are
+excellent. Perhaps on your way to school you noticed that several old
+houses are being torn down. You remember that you heard that a candy
+factory is to be erected. At once several suggestions for themes will
+come to you; as, _Why the Factory is Being Erected in this
+Neighborhood_, _How Neighborhoods Change in a Large City_, _The Work the
+Wrecking Company Carries on_. Perhaps your father owns property in the
+neighborhood, and you could write on _How Real Estate Values have
+Changed in this Neighborhood_.
+
+Next to your own experience, the best source from which to draw subjects
+is your reading. This may be divided into (1) books, (2) magazines and
+newspapers. Recall one of the books that you read in the grammar grades,
+perhaps _The Courtship of Miles Standish_. Drawing your material from
+this source, you can write _A Picture of Early Plymouth Days_, or a
+sketch of Miles Standish's character, using the title _Practice What You
+Preach_. But to try to tell the whole story to any one in two or three
+minutes would result in failure, for it would be a subject entirely too
+big to treat in so short a time. All the interesting details would have
+to be omitted, and, if the details are omitted, the story loses its
+vitality.
+
+It is the newspaper or the magazine, however, that offers us the most
+available source of subjects. Practically all that we know of the modern
+world and of the wonderful progress being made in invention and
+discovery, as well as of the accidents and disasters that take place, we
+have learned first from the newspaper and have verified later by the
+articles in magazines. Every issue of a newspaper or of a magazine
+contains suggestions for many subjects. Such magazines as _The World's
+Work_, _System_, _The Outlook_, _The Technical World_, and other
+magazines that deal with technical subjects in a popular way are
+excellent for this work.
+
+A third important source of subjects is the studies that you are now
+pursuing. Every new study affords a new point of view, which should
+suggest many topics for oral and written themes. Sometimes a good
+subject is the comparison of two of your studies by which you try to
+show, perhaps, how the one depends on the other.
+
+The subject, of course, is but the beginning of the composition.
+Developing the subject is fully as important as having a subject to
+develop. The ability to develop a subject clearly is very important in
+the business world. A business man sells his goods either by talking or
+by writing; by the salesman or by the letter and the advertisement.
+Unless the salesman talks in a convincing way, he probably will sell few
+goods. He must know not only what to say, but how to say it.
+
+
+=Exercise 154--The Subject as a Whole=
+
+First, you must see your subject in its entirety, as one thing. Ask
+yourself, "Just what does my title mean?" and if you have not as yet
+selected a title, study your subject from all sides until you can see
+how to narrow it to certain definite dimensions. Now you have set a sort
+of fence around your subject. Nothing outside must enter, but nothing
+inside must escape. The length of the composition you are to write
+usually helps you decide on the limits of your subject. If you are
+writing a book on Africa, you might include all that the title suggests
+to you of exploration, colonization, civilization, and Christianization.
+But if you are writing a very short theme--not over three pages--it is
+evident that the subject must be narrowed. Would _The Transvaal_ be
+good? _The Jungles of Africa?_ _Roosevelt in Africa?_ _African Mission
+Stations?_ _When I think of Africa I think of Stanley?_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Which of the following subjects would be good for short compositions,
+either oral or written? The oral theme should occupy two or three
+minutes, the written perhaps three pages. What is the objection to a one
+word subject?
+
+   1. Manufacturing.                      11. The dead letter office.
+   2. Household uses of electricity.      12. The clearing house.
+   3. The Constitution of the United      13. Business.
+        States.                           14. Honesty in business.
+   4. Why we celebrate the Fourth of      15. Physicians should
+        July.                                   advertise.
+   5. The destruction of our forests.     16. Paper.
+   6. Europe.                             17. How an electric bell works.
+   7. The westernizing of China.          18. Electrifying the railroads.
+   8. How railroads build cities.         19. How to make candy.
+   9. The fire drill at school.           20. Vocational education in
+  10. Education.                                Germany.
+
+
+
+
+=Exercise 155--The Divisions of the Subject=
+
+After you have selected your subject, decide into what divisions it
+naturally falls. If it is of the proper length, it probably will divide
+itself into two or three divisions. Each of these will constitute
+one-half or one-third of your composition, and within each division
+illustrations, reasons, and explanatory details will appear. Arrange the
+divisions in the order in which they naturally come, according to their
+relative time of happening or according to their relative importance,
+reserving the most important for the last.
+
+Sometimes this sort of division is difficult to make, because a subject
+can frequently be treated from different points of view, the point of
+view deciding the divisions. Sometimes you will find that you have made
+a number of small divisions, in each of which you can say only one or
+two sentences. This will at once suggest that you have not found the
+main parts of the subject, but have made unimportant divisions. Again,
+it may seem that you cannot divide your subject into satisfactory parts.
+In that case, you probably do not know enough about it. Think about it
+again, and, if you find that you really cannot divide it, choose
+another.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Choose one of the following subjects. Is the title definite and clear?
+If it is not, change it so that it will be. For example, _Photography_
+(5) is not a definite title. No one could attempt to explain the entire
+subject of photography in a few minutes. A better title for a theme
+would be one of the following: _How to Develop a Negative_; _How to
+Intensify [_or_ reduce] a Negative_; _Our Camera Club_; _The Photography
+Exhibit at the Art Museum_; _Kinematography_; _Flash Light Pictures
+without Smoke or Odor_; _The Conditions Necessary for a Good Snap Shot
+Picture_; _The Advantages of Using a Developing Machine_; _How My Camera
+Helped Pay for My Vacation_. Can you suggest still others?
+
+After having selected your title, decide into what divisions the subject
+naturally falls. For example, let us take (2) below. _A Ball Game_ is
+not a definite title. Instead, let us choose _Last Saturday's Football
+Game_. As stated above, a subject may be treated from different points
+of view, the point of view deciding the divisions. Thus, in treating
+_Last Saturday's Football Game_, we may divide:
+
+    _a_
+
+    LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME
+
+      I. The first quarter.
+     II. The second quarter.
+    III. The third quarter.
+     IV. The fourth quarter.
+
+    _b_
+
+    LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME
+
+      I. The excitement for a week before the game.
+     II. The tension during the struggle.
+    III. The celebration after the game.
+
+    _c_
+
+    THE TWO DECISIVE PLAYS IN SATURDAY'S GAME
+
+      I. The long forward pass.
+     II. The end run to the five-yard line.
+
+Still other divisions may be made if we consider the subject from the
+point of view of the teams or the players themselves. Can you suggest
+any such divisions?
+
+In the same way choose one of the subjects given below. Change it, if
+necessary. Then write out the topic of each division in as few words as
+possible.
+
+     1. An important electrical device.
+     2. A ball game.
+     3. Getting dinner.
+     4. The aeroplane.
+     5. Photography.
+     6. How styles change.
+     7. The back-to-the-farm movement.
+     8. Why oriental rugs are expensive.
+     9. Wireless telegraphy.
+    10. The business course in this school.
+
+
+=Exercise 156--The Outline=
+
+If your theme consists of more than one division, before you begin to
+speak or write you should prepare a definite working plan or outline. It
+should include enough to suggest the first sentence of each division and
+the more important details within each. The outline will help you in
+speaking or writing to arrange the topics so that they will follow one
+another clearly. If you have an outline, there will be much less danger
+of including details which do not belong to the subject and of omitting
+details which should appear.
+
+In the following very simple outlines notice the use of indentation:
+
+    1
+
+    THE PROBLEM OF KEEPING OUR CITIES CLEAN
+
+      I. The cleaning of streets.
+         (_a_) In summer.
+             (1) The cost of sprinkling.
+         (_b_) In winter.
+             (1) The cost of removing snow.
+     II. The cleaning of alleys.
+         (_a_) The disposal of garbage.
+    III. The smoke nuisance.
+         (_a_) Smoke consumers.
+         (_b_) Smoke inspection.
+
+    2
+
+    PUBLIC GYMNASIUMS
+
+      I. Definition of a public gymnasium.
+         (_a_) Location.
+         (_b_) Equipment.
+         (_c_) Management.
+     II. Benefits to the public.
+         (_a_) Keeps children off the streets.
+             (1) Congested districts.
+         (_b_) Develops them physically.
+         (_c_) Affords them pleasure.
+             (1) Outdoor and indoor games.
+             (2) Bathing at beaches connected with gymnasiums.
+
+One more suggestion is in place here. In writing an outline, be careful
+that you express similar subdivisions of a topic by similar grammatical
+elements. For example, in the first outline above, (_a_) under I is a
+phrase; (_b_) under I should be a similar phrase. It would be
+incorrectly worded _Winter_ or _What the winter problem is_. What is the
+advantage of such similarity?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Using the divisions you made for one of the subjects under Exercise 155,
+develop an outline for a theme.
+
+
+=Exercise 157=
+
+Choose one of the following subjects; restrict it or expand it, if
+necessary; select a proper title; write an outline; and then write or
+deliver your composition, following your outline closely. Notice that
+the shorter your title the more it includes, and therefore the longer
+your composition must be to deal adequately with the subject.
+
+      1. Giving talks before a class develops self-reliance.
+
+      2. Most inventors would not have succeeded without
+      perseverance.
+
+      3. The more training a man has, the better chance he
+      has to succeed.
+
+      4. Most rich men learned to save early.
+
+      5. The value of courtesy in a retail business.
+
+      6. The dangers of football.
+
+      7. The various methods of heating a house.
+
+      8. The sporting page often sells the newspaper.
+
+      9. Educational features of the modern newspaper.
+
+      10. Our national game.
+
+      11. Baseball is a better game than football.
+
+      12. The use of machinery has lowered the cost of
+      manufactured articles.
+
+      13. How to prevent taking colds.
+
+      14. Athletic contests develop courage.
+
+      15. Qualities essential to good salesmanship.
+
+      16. Our debate with ----.
+
+      17. The qualities of a good street car advertisement.
+
+      18. A good cartoon.
+
+      19. Learning to swim.
+
+      20. The trials of washing day.
+
+      21. Birds as money savers.
+
+      22. Birds as destroyers.
+
+      23. Open air as a cure for tuberculosis.
+
+      24. Making a raft.
+
+      25. Every one should open a savings account.
+
+      26. Laziness.
+
+      27. Tennis is better than baseball.
+
+      28. Our respiratory system.
+
+      29. The bad effects of ridicule.
+
+      30. The good effects of ridicule.
+
+
+=Exercise 158=
+
+Recall one of the books that you have read recently. Name two subjects
+that it suggests to you and that you can talk about. Write a careful
+outline for each of them, and be prepared to speak on one.
+
+
+=Exercise 159=
+
+Name a subject taken from one of your studies, history for example. Let
+it be definite enough so that you can tell all the details that you know
+about it in a speech lasting two or three minutes. Use examples and
+illustrations to make the subject interesting and clear. Prepare an
+outline.
+
+
+=Exercise 160=
+
+Reproduce an article that you have read in a current magazine. Be
+careful that you make the material your own before attempting to retell
+it. Do not under any circumstances try to memorize the article.
+Understand fully what it says, make an outline of the facts that you
+wish to reproduce, and then give them as if they were your own ideas. At
+the beginning of your speech tell the name and date of the magazine from
+which you are taking the facts.
+
+
+=Exercise 161=
+
+As has been said, most of us get our ideas of what is taking place in
+the world from the articles that we read in current newspapers and
+magazines. We cannot always form our opinion from what one newspaper on
+one day says of a particular event. We must read what it says on
+successive days and, if possible, consult other newspapers on the same
+subject, for it is well known that not all newspapers are non-partisan.
+If one in the city is known to be so, that is the paper to read for the
+material for this exercise. Then, if we can read what one of the
+magazines says on the same subject, our knowledge will probably be more
+definite and more nearly true.
+
+Let the class be divided into different sections, representing different
+kinds of news; for example, national, local, foreign, and business news.
+Under national news, you can perhaps find articles on national politics,
+legislative measures being discussed at Washington, rumors of war,
+immigration; under local news, anything pertaining to the city or the
+state in which you live; under foreign news, anything of interest to any
+of the other countries of the world; under business news, the prices of
+food products, strikes, panics, and their effect on business conditions.
+These are but suggestions. Such topics change so rapidly that nothing
+more definite can here be given.
+
+When you have been assigned to one of these divisions, prepare a talk on
+a topic that you understand thoroughly. Begin your talk with a clear
+statement of your subject, as explained in Exercise 140; amplify it by
+details or illustrations; and end with a sentence of conclusion,
+forecasting the future of your topic or restating what you have proved.
+
+
+=Exercise 162=
+
+For a week follow the same current event as recorded in the newspaper,
+taking notes as you read. Then choose from all your material only those
+facts that belong strictly to one topic. Write an outline, setting forth
+the facts in logical order. Deliver the speech, following your outline
+closely.
+
+
+=Exercise 163=
+
+Let the class choose four or six members one week in advance, who are to
+prepare a debate on a topic of current interest. Let the other members
+of the class act as judges or volunteer on either side, as the
+instructor may see fit. Such debates should occur as often as possible.
+
+
+=Exercise 164=
+
+About once a month devote a day to the production of a class paper. Let
+the class choose a name. During the first year let the items be
+developed into paragraphs. Longer compositions should be reserved for
+the second year.
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR ARTICLES FOR THE PAPER
+
+    1. A column of interesting business items clipped from leading papers.
+    2. An important news item that would make a good "story."
+    3. Original editorials on one or more of the following:
+       _a._ Needs or improvements in city, school, or home.
+       _b._ Recent city news.
+       _c._ Business news.
+       _d._ State news.
+       _e._ National news.
+       _f._ Foreign news.
+    4. Personal experiences, amusing incidents, or anecdotes, preferably
+           of the business world.
+    5. For sale advertisements, or "want ads" that the class would
+           understand.
+
+
+=Exercise 165=
+
+Criticise the following outlines. Each topic is supposed to represent a
+division in thought.
+
+1
+
+THE WHEAT HARVEST
+
+    1. A group of reapers.
+    2. Their costumes.
+    3. The field.
+    4. Starting the harvest.
+    5. Carting the sheaves to the barn.
+    6. The stacks.
+    7. The field after the harvest.
+
+2
+
+THE TONGUE
+
+    1. What it is.
+    2. It is a good thing.
+    3. It instructs.
+    4. Evils done by the tongue.
+    5. Especially slander.
+    6. Conclusion.
+
+3
+
+THE NEWSPAPER STRIKE
+
+    1. The cause.
+       (_a_) Strikers want higher wages.
+       (_b_) Poverty of the families of the strikers.
+       (_c_) Police have to protect newsboys against strikers.
+    2. Disadvantages.
+       (_a_) Newspapers are losing business.
+       (_b_) Newsboys sympathize with strikers.
+    3. Riots.
+       (_a_) Newsboys hurt and newspapers burned.
+       (_b_) Police cannot watch all sections of city.
+    4. Conclusion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+PUNCTUATION
+
+
+WHEN we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression that we put
+into our words and sentences. Some sentences we say all in one breath
+and with not much change in emphasis from one word to the next. We may
+be pretty sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its
+elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect compare the
+sentences given below.
+
+Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word group:
+
+      Steam and electricity are making one commercial
+      community of all nations.
+
+A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone; as,
+
+      Steam and electricity, _which are the greatest of all
+      discoveries_, are making one commercial community of
+      all nations.
+
+In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first. Sometimes
+for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial clause precedes the
+subject. Such inversion is always indicated; as,
+
+      _If the grape crop is large_, the price of grapes is
+      low.
+
+Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence to give clearness
+or force; as,
+
+      If, _on the other hand_, the season is poor, the price
+      of grapes is high.
+
+      What, _then_, determines the price of grapes?
+
+We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate in tone
+those groups of words that are subordinate in idea, and to bring out
+clearly those groups which, for one reason or another, are emphatic. The
+same thing is true in music. We cannot become good musicians until we
+learn phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form
+distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts, we cannot
+indicate the tone in which the words are spoken. We must show in some
+other way which groups of words belong together, which are important,
+and which are subordinate in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks
+have been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak the thoughts
+to ourselves; we hear the divisions between the parts of ideas; and, if
+we understand punctuation, we indicate the divisions.
+
+
+Questions
+
+1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word from the next? In
+ancient writing this was not done.
+
+2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next?
+
+3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain.
+
+4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is _separate_. If two words
+belong together in idea, the two making one idea, allow them to stand
+unseparated. If they give two ideas, separate them by a mark of
+punctuation. What is the difference in thought in the two sentences that
+follow?
+
+    (_a_) She is a pretty, energetic girl.
+    (_b_) She is a pretty energetic girl.
+
+
+=Exercise 166--The Apostrophe (')=
+
+The _apostrophe_ (') is used--
+
+1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See Exercise 82); as,
+
+      The _boy's_ writing is excellent.
+
+2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as,
+
+      _I'll_ attend to the matter.
+
+3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that usually have
+no plural; as,
+
+      Your _3's_ are too much like your _5's_, your _a's_
+      like your _u's_.
+
+      Don't use so many _and's_.
+
+Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following words
+correctly:
+
+    you're    we're     who's     they're
+    your      were      whose     there
+    it's      he's      don't     their
+    its       his       doesn't
+
+Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following:
+
+      1. I've received no reply.
+
+      2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one
+      thousand dollars.
+
+      3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much.
+
+      4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like
+      his 9's.
+
+      5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I
+      haven't.
+
+Point out the mistakes in the following:
+
+      1. For sale, A ladies fur coat.
+
+      2. The boy's have gone skating.
+
+      3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation.
+
+      4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation.
+
+      5. Dot your is and not your us.
+
+      6. Is this book your's or her's?
+
+
+=Exercise 167--Capitals=
+
+_Capitals_ are used for--
+
+1. The first word of every sentence.
+
+2. The first word of every line of poetry.
+
+3. The first word of a quotation (See Exercise 169).
+
+4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as,
+
+      Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote.
+
+5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed separately in an
+itemized list, as in an order for merchandise.
+
+6. The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ (not _oh_).
+
+7. The words _Bible_ and _Scripture_, the books of the Bible, all names
+applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns referring to Him.
+
+8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are considered
+proper nouns; as,
+
+      _a._ Names of the days of the week, holidays, and
+      months of the year, but not names of the seasons.
+
+      _b._ North, South, etc., when they refer to sections
+      of the country, but not when they refer to a direction
+      or a point of the compass.
+
+      _c._ Official titles or titles of honor when they are
+      used in connection with names, but not when they are
+      used without names; as,
+
+    Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt.
+    Nominations are now in order for vice-president.
+
+      _d._ Names of political parties.
+
+      _e._ Names of religious sects.
+
+      _f._ Names of important events or documents; as,
+
+    The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence.
+
+      _g._ The salutation in a letter; as,
+
+    Dear Sir, Gentlemen.
+
+      _h._ Words indicating relationship, when they are used
+      in connection with a proper name, or when used alone
+      as a name, but not when used with a possessive
+      pronoun; as,
+
+    We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock.
+    I expect my mother at four o'clock.
+
+9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition.
+Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are not capitalized; as,
+
+      The Call of the Wild.
+
+10. Such words as _Paragraph_, _Article_, or _Section_, when accompanied
+with a number; as,
+
+      Paragraph 26, Article 3.
+
+11. See Exercise 75.
+
+
+=Exercise 168=
+
+The _period_ (.) is used--
+
+1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as,
+
+      The business is prosperous.
+
+2. To indicate an abbreviation; as,
+
+      The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144
+      Pleasant St., Erie, Pa.
+
+The _interrogation mark_ (?) is used--
+
+To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question; as,
+
+      When did you order the goods?
+
+The _exclamation mark_ (!) is used--
+
+To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that shows strong
+feeling; as,
+
+      Such demands are inhuman!
+
+Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished his thought to
+be understood is the punctuation. The same words may express different
+ideas according to the mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the
+following to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey by each.
+Explain the circumstances under which each might have been spoken.
+
+     1. The price is too high.
+     2. The price is too high!
+     3. The price is too high?
+     4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn.
+     5. Corn! There'll be no corn!
+     6. You didn't tell him that.
+     7. You didn't tell him that!
+     8. You didn't tell him that?
+     9. You are enjoying yourself.
+    10. You are enjoying yourself?
+    11. You are enjoying yourself!
+
+
+=Exercise 169--Quotation Marks (" ")=
+
+1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should be enclosed in
+quotation marks. This is called a _direct quotation_.
+
+      He said, "The business is growing."
+
+Notice that the word _said_ is followed by a comma, and that the
+quotation begins with a capital letter.
+
+2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms part of a
+declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation mark before the
+quotation mark; as,
+
+    Have you been waiting long?
+    She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?"
+
+3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an exclamation mark;
+as,
+
+    Look!
+    He cried, "Look!"
+
+4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted words, the
+punctuation is as follows:
+
+(_a_) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a comma after
+the quotation and begin the words of explanation with a small letter;
+as,
+
+      "The business is growing," he said.
+
+(_b_) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an
+interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small
+letter; as,
+
+      "Have you been waiting long?" she asked.
+
+(_c_) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with an
+exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small
+letter; as,
+
+      "Look!" he cried.
+
+5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the speaker's words,
+the punctuation is as follows:
+
+(_a_) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated by any
+punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows:
+
+    I do not believe that the report is true.
+    "I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true."
+
+Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the words _he said_ do
+not belong to the quoted words.
+
+(_b_) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear between the
+interrupted parts must be used; as,
+
+      (1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require
+      but little care.
+
+      "I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem
+      to require but little care."
+
+      (2) Oh! The flames are higher!
+
+      "Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!"
+
+4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation just as elsewhere.
+When the thought ends, the sentence must end. The different sentences,
+however, must not be divided by quotation marks; as,
+
+      "The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do
+      not see them in the waiting room. I think they did not
+      come."
+
+5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several paragraphs,
+quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of the quotation, at
+the beginning of each succeeding paragraph, and at the end of the
+quotation--not at the end of each paragraph.
+
+6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one within is
+distinguished by single marks; as,
+
+      John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I
+      thought the work could be done more easily, he said,
+      'Thank you for your suggestion.'"
+
+7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words quoted with a
+special significance, such as slang, should be enclosed in quotation
+marks; as,
+
+      The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the
+      "good old way" is fast passing.
+
+8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate is not
+enclosed in quotation marks; as,
+
+      The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote?
+
+
+=Exercise 170=
+
+Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever the sense
+demands division:
+
+      1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown
+
+      2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion
+
+      3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion
+
+      4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I
+      think you can get definite information
+
+      5. How can we enforce the law asked the man
+
+      6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law
+
+      7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law
+
+      8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the
+      law
+
+      9. The question before us is how can we enforce the
+      law
+
+      10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you
+      may go
+
+      11. As I was walking along the river he continued I
+      heard a voice cry help
+
+      12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down
+
+      13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down
+
+      14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is
+      down
+
+      15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear
+      there is no other way to cross
+
+      16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one
+      know another way to cross
+
+      17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know
+      another way to cross
+
+      18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is
+      down
+
+      19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do
+
+      20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the
+      soldiers I heard a farmer shout you fellows better try
+      the bridge lower down
+
+
+=Exercise 171--Indirect Discourse=
+
+In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct quotations,
+or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's words were quoted
+exactly. When the substance of the thought is given in slightly
+different form, we have an indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in
+which no quotation marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a
+subordinate clause depending on a word of _thinking_, _saying_,
+_telling_, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced by
+_that_, and indirect questions by _when_, _where_, _why_, _whether_,
+_if_, _who_, _which_, _what_, and the like. When a sentence is changed
+from direct to indirect discourse, the person and usually the tense of
+the direct quotation are changed; as,
+
+    _Direct_: He said, "I do not believe the report."
+    _Indirect_: He said that he did not believe the report.
+
+    _Direct_: He said, "Germany is over-populated."
+    _Indirect_: He said that Germany is over-populated. (See Exercise 107.)
+
+    _Direct_: She said, "I did my work before I went to school."
+    _Indirect_: She said that she had done her work before she went to
+                  school.
+
+    _Direct_: "I have finished my work," said the girl.
+    _Indirect_: She says that she has finished her work.
+
+    _Direct_: "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked.
+    _Indirect_: I asked why he had not succeeded.
+
+    _Direct_: "When may I go?" she inquired.
+    _Indirect_: She inquired when she might go.
+
+In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations. Do
+not change the paragraphing.
+
+1
+
+THE SEAL'S LESSON
+
+      The baby seal said _that he could not swim_.
+
+      His mother answered _that he could try_.
+
+      The little fellow persisted _that he could never
+      learn_.
+
+      His mother looked at him sternly, and said _that every
+      seal must learn to swim_.
+
+      He replied _that the water was cold and that he liked
+      the sand better_, but because his mother insisted, he
+      slid into the water whimpering.
+
+      After he had gone a short distance, he turned around
+      and called out _that the water was much pleasanter
+      than the sand_.
+
+      His mother said _that she knew that it would be so_.
+      She said _that young people must do as they are told
+      because they have not had enough experience to judge
+      for themselves_.
+
+2
+
+A FAITHFUL SERVANT
+
+      A certain old time king said _that he needed a servant
+      who could be depended upon_. He said he knew _that
+      such a man is difficult to secure, and in the hope of
+      getting the right one, he would hire two_.
+
+      When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and,
+      showing them a large basket, told them _to fill it
+      with water_. He said _that he would return at night to
+      see what they had done_.
+
+      The men were very much in earnest when they began the
+      work, but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of
+      water into the basket, one of them stopped and said
+      _that he did not see any use in doing that because, as
+      soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again, and
+      his time was lost_.
+
+      His companion replied _that the kind of work that
+      their master gave them was no concern of theirs; that
+      they were paid to do the work; and, whether it seemed
+      useful to them or not, they ought to do it_.
+
+      The first speaker said _that the other man could do as
+      he pleased, but, as for him, he did not expect to
+      waste his time on such foolish work_. Throwing his
+      bucket down, he walked off.
+
+      The one that was left continued at the work until
+      about sunset, when he had nearly emptied the well.
+      Looking into the basket, he saw something glittering.
+      Stooping to look more closely, he found in the basket
+      a ring of great value which his bucket had scooped up
+      from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said _that
+      now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured
+      into the basket_.
+
+      Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of
+      his officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew
+      that the man had obeyed him, and he said _that he knew
+      he could trust him, and as a reward for obedience he
+      would make him master over other servants_.
+
+
+=Exercise 172--The Paragraph in Dialogue=
+
+In conversation the words of each speaker, together with the author's
+words of explanation, form one paragraph. Whenever the speaker changes,
+the paragraph changes; as,
+
+      "Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old
+      guardian of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden,
+      "Mimer, let me drink of the waters of wisdom."
+
+      "Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure
+      that you seek and one which many have sought before
+      but who, when they knew the price of it, turned back."
+
+      Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for
+      wisdom willingly."
+
+      "Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your
+      right hand, but your right eye, you must
+      give."--Keary: _The Heroes of Asgard_.
+
+However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says is formed into
+paragraphs according to the divisions into which it falls. (See Chapter
+XIV.)
+
+When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it is punctuated
+as follows:
+
+      This, however, was of use to me, the impression
+      continuing on my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy
+      some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, "Don't give
+      too much for the whistle," and I saved my money.
+
+Paragraph the following:
+
+1
+
+      On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when
+      we came to an extensive belt of woods, through the
+      midst of which ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an
+      appearance particularly muddy and treacherous. In
+      plunged the cart, but midway it stuck fast. Then
+      approached the long team and heavy wagon of our
+      friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice
+      is,--" began the captain, who had been anxiously
+      contemplating the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But
+      Wright, the muleteer, apparently had not as yet
+      decided the point in his own mind. He sat still in his
+      seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling in a low,
+      contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is,"
+      resumed the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any
+      man five pounds that if we try to go through, we shall
+      stick fast." "By the powers, we shall stick fast!"
+      echoed Jack, the captain's brother, shaking his large
+      head with an air of conviction. "Drive on! drive on!"
+      petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain,
+      turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give
+      my advice; and if people won't be reasonable, why,
+      they won't, that's all!"--Parkman: _The Oregon Trail_.
+
+2
+
+      Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door.
+      There was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair,
+      husking corn, was a good-looking young man. Rebecca
+      was a trifle shy at this encounter, but there was
+      nothing to do except explain her presence; so she
+      asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I am the
+      lady of the house at present," said the stranger with
+      a whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you
+      ever heard of the--would you like--er I mean, do you
+      need any soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I
+      do?" he responded unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I
+      didn't mean that; I have some soap to sell; I mean I
+      would like to introduce to you a very remarkable soap,
+      the best now on the market. It is called the--" "Oh! I
+      must know that soap," said the gentleman genially.
+      "Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very
+      purest," corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not
+      a trace." "And yet a child could do the Monday washing
+      with it and use no force?" "A babe," corrected
+      Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh? That child grows younger
+      every year, instead of older--wise child!"--Wiggin:
+      _Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm_.
+
+Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and paragraph:
+
+      When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a
+      day in early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay
+      cool on the grass. The boy said that the flowers
+      seemed brighter and the birds merrier than ever
+      before. When they came to a bend in the river, his
+      uncle said that this was a good place to try. He told
+      the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do
+      and move it on the surface of the water in imitation
+      of the leap of a frog. The boy did as he was told, but
+      he caught no fish. His uncle said that he should try
+      again. Suddenly the bait sank out of sight, and the
+      boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last. As he
+      spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said
+      that he should try again, because fishermen must have
+      patience. In a moment the boy felt something tug at
+      his line, and as he jerked it up, he saw a fine
+      pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable
+      excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to
+      look at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy
+      didn't have it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash
+      in the water, and the boy's hook hung empty. His uncle
+      assured him that there were more fish in the river,
+      but the boy would not be comforted. His uncle smiled
+      shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to brag
+      of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said
+      that he had seen older people doing that in more ways
+      than one, and so making fools of themselves. He said
+      that it was better not to boast of doing a thing until
+      it was done.
+
+
+=Exercise 173--The Comma (,)=
+
+=Rule 1.--The comma is used to separate a direct quotation from the
+words of explanation.=
+
+For illustration see the foregoing exercises.
+
+Write the following from dictation; then compare your version with the
+original:
+
+      Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other
+      occupations are hindered for want of men to do the
+      work. To test this statement thoroughly you need only
+      hunt up a first-class editor, reporter, business
+      manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or artist in any
+      branch of industry and try to hire him. You will find
+      that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious,
+      capable, reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get
+      a day's holiday except by courtesy of his employer, or
+      of his city, or of the great general public. But if
+      you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed,
+      unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters,
+      lawyers, doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.--_Mark
+      Twain._
+
+=Rule 2.--The comma is used to separate the members of a series.=
+
+
+=Exercise 174=
+
+Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary commas:
+
+      Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy
+      he could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence
+      more quickly than any one else in the neighborhood his
+      perseverance in his boyhood helps us to appreciate the
+      firm true steady hand that guided our country through
+      its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly showed his wise
+      brain his great courage and his kindness of heart his
+      character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year
+      it was built up after years of yearning years of
+      striving and years of hard work.
+
+In the above point out the instances where the comma is used--
+
+1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in the same case.
+
+2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying the same
+noun.
+
+3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun.
+
+This kind of succession is called a _series_. Each new member gives a
+new idea, the comma being used to help the reader to separate one from
+the next with ease. Notice that the comma is used between the last two
+members before the coördinate conjunction as well as between the other
+members.
+
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:[1]
+
+      You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds
+      now the company supplies power to mines and towns of
+      Colorado Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light
+      and power to Ophir Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns
+      in Colorado in Utah it supplies light to Mescal Eureka
+      Provo Logan and Bingham it also furnishes power for
+      the street railway systems of Salt Lake City
+      Farmington and Ogden.
+
+      The bonds offer such good security good interest and
+      ready convertibility that we expect our allotment to
+      be heavily oversubscribed will you therefore send us
+      your order before Monday.
+
+                                          Yours truly,
+
+3
+
+      Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie
+      forming a perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and
+      wild oats grazed short a herd of horses staring from
+      the slope I myself standing in the middle like a
+      ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse
+      performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully
+      he galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he
+      lifted forelegs to welcome he flung out hind legs to
+      repel he leaped as if springing over bayonets he
+      pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty
+      plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and
+      snuffed about me--just out of reach.
+
+4
+
+      Dear Madam:[4]
+
+      Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's
+      styles for ladies misses and children it contains
+      illustrations of the latest kinds of long coats of
+      skirts in the most fashionable cuts and materials of
+      hats that are new and particularly becoming and of
+      dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are
+      especially sure that you will like our waists they are
+      artistic in design stylish in cut and excellent in
+      workmanship they are selected from the leading fashion
+      centers are the creations of the best costumers and
+      always have individuality twenty years of selling
+      goods by mail have given us experience skill and
+      knowledge that make it certain we can please you.
+
+      The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five
+      dollar order one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten
+      dollar order and two dollars on an order for fifteen
+      dollars or more this offer expires September 30.
+
+                                                 Yours truly,
+
+5
+
+      Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower
+      efficiency for the hours worked have done more to
+      raise the cost of living than almost anything else
+      this higher cost of production we see on the farm in
+      the factory in transportation in merchandising and
+      even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of
+      excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and
+      expect not to double the rents that we must pay the
+      cost of building has increased as the demands of
+      laborers increased as their hours of work decreased
+      and as their wages advanced the materials that go into
+      a building the transportation of that material the
+      labor of assembling it and the labor of fashioning it
+      into a building have all advanced in price.
+
+      Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the
+      high cost of living because it has made most of us
+      think that we must have more conveniences more
+      luxuries more clothes and more amusements than our
+      fathers had with a return to the thrift of our fathers
+      with a return to their desire for work we shall no
+      longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there
+      is a real danger to our nation in our extravagance in
+      our indifference to cost in our sweep toward ease and
+      idleness and in our growing antipathy for work.
+
+
+=Exercise 175=
+
+Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five illustrating
+series of phrases; and five illustrating series of clauses.
+
+
+=Exercise 176=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+THE GOVERNMENT'S LAUNDRY
+
+      Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty
+      that one feels the need of gloves in handling it, and
+      the suspicion that it is germ laden might well be
+      verified. It has often been said that money spreads
+      contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be
+      questioned when one remembers that money goes into
+      every kind of home and is handled by many infected
+      persons. The government has long felt that something
+      should be done to lessen this means of spreading
+      disease, and a machine has finally been invented that
+      will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look
+      almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of
+      operating the device is hardly fifty cents for each
+      thousand bills, but it is estimated that it will save
+      the government as much as a million dollars a year.
+
+2
+
+LUCK AND LABOR
+
+      Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor
+      with keen eyes and strong will turns something up.
+      Luck lies in bed and wishes the postman would bring
+      him news of a fortune; labor turns out at six o'clock
+      and with busy pen or ringing hammer lays the
+      foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor
+      whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on
+      character.--_Cobden._
+
+The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence. Notice the
+thought expressed in these sentences. There is usually an idea of
+balance or contrast, and the two halves of the sentence express the two
+halves of the idea. The two members are usually distinct enough to
+require a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is omitted, a
+semicolon must separate the two members, as in the second selection
+above.
+
+      =Rule 3.--The comma is used before the coördinate
+      conjunction in a compound sentence. If the conjunction
+      is omitted, a semicolon must be used.=
+
+
+=Exercise 177=
+
+Separate the following into compound sentences and punctuate:
+
+1
+
+      Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but
+      recent experiments in Boston have proved it to be
+      successful in quenching fires in tanks of oil and
+      other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments were
+      conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same
+      principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the
+      floating sawdust forms a blanket that shuts off the
+      air from the flames and the lack of oxygen causes the
+      fire to die out the experiments were tried with both
+      wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to
+      extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet.
+
+2
+
+      Select the kind of business that suits your natural
+      inclination and temperament some men are naturally
+      mechanics others have a strong aversion to machinery
+      because they do not understand it some men are
+      imaginative others are purely practical some prefer
+      active work others like sedentary employment all
+      should select those occupations that suit them best.
+
+3
+
+      Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a
+      new material for sleepers and they have been
+      experimenting for some time past with cocobolo or
+      Japanese oak the wood is so hard that it is almost
+      impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed spikes
+      in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a
+      trifle more than those made from American oak but they
+      are expected to last twenty-five or thirty years the
+      reason for experimenting with foreign woods is that
+      native oak is becoming scarce and it is deemed wise to
+      search in time for a substitute.
+
+4
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come
+      of your decision in regard to the investment you were
+      considering at 475 Second Avenue let us have your
+      order and we shall at once prepare the contract of
+      sale the building is an especially attractive offering
+      at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the
+      return from it unusually large.
+
+                                        Yours very truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 178=
+
+When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase is put at the
+beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis, it is called an _initial_
+clause or participial phrase. A comma separates it from the independent
+clause to help the reader to see where the subordinate idea ends and
+where the main idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation,
+noticing the punctuation of initial elements:
+
+      If a city is to be kept in good condition, every
+      citizen must pay his share of the expense. If the
+      dreadful epidemics are to be exterminated, there must
+      be a good board of health to see that everything is
+      kept sanitary. When the health officers do their work
+      well, the health of the city improves. In order that
+      the decrees of the health department and of the courts
+      may be enforced, there must be a good police
+      department. Besides having these advantages, cities
+      need good streets and good schools. Because all of
+      these good things cost a great deal of money, high
+      taxes must be levied to pay for them.
+
+=Rule 4.--An initial clause or participial phrase must be set off from
+the rest of the sentence by a comma.=
+
+
+=Exercise 179=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+1
+
+      Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than
+      rubbish there now come from it every year millions of
+      dollars in profit. Formerly if it was not hauled away
+      to rot it was usually dumped into a neighboring stream
+      and there it did much harm even if we had the space it
+      would be impossible to explain all the products now
+      made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for
+      cattle may be made from the hulls but the most
+      important products are made from the kernels besides
+      making meal for cattle they are readily converted into
+      crude oil according to the degree of refining that it
+      receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps
+      lard compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the
+      way in which modern manufacturers utilize former waste
+      products the cotton seed is supreme.
+
+2
+
+      When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you
+      know that they come back to you as writing paper
+      because the metal buttons buckles and hooks that are
+      often left on the garments cannot be converted into
+      paper they used to be a source of annoyance to the
+      papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to remove
+      them before the garments went into the pulp vats some
+      were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp
+      they tore holes in the paper and often damaged the
+      rollers in order that such danger may be avoided the
+      pulp is now passed through a series of magnetized
+      rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every bit of
+      metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of
+      iron is collected it is sent to the foundry to return
+      to us in many new forms.
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we
+      found that the furniture which you ordered on the
+      tenth of last month left our factory on the fifteenth
+      if all had gone well you would have received the
+      articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised the
+      delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake
+      on the part of the railroad company although the goods
+      were properly billed to you they were allowed to go on
+      to Columbus if you do not receive them within ten
+      days' time let us hear from you again.
+
+                                             Yours truly,
+
+4
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am
+      sending you particulars of the property which I wish
+      to sell as I told you when I was in your office last
+      week the price at which I am holding the building is
+      $20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the
+      mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to
+      agree to accept present payment for the note that he
+      holds against me unless the buyer agrees to pay the
+      unpaid taxes for last year and the assessments levied
+      for improvements already made I shall not consider a
+      sale.
+
+      After all preliminary arrangements are made if you
+      will prepare a contract of sale and forward it to me I
+      will have the abstract brought down to date and
+      secured by a guaranty policy.
+
+      Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has
+      examined the property and is satisfied to pay the
+      price for it in its present condition I would suggest
+      that you do nothing more toward securing bids for
+      rebuilding the porches.
+
+                                        Yours very truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 180=
+
+Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases.
+
+Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses.
+
+
+=Exercise 181=
+
+The comma is used to separate the month from the year, the city from the
+county or state, the company from the place in which it is operated, or
+the like; as,
+
+      In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle,
+      Washington.
+
+This use of the comma indicates that words have been omitted, the
+sentence above really meaning,
+
+      In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from
+      Seattle in the state of Washington.
+
+The same use is shown in such sentences as,
+
+      Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen
+      dollars a week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten.
+
+=Rule 5.--The comma is used to indicate the omission of words.=
+
+Supply the necessary commas in the following:
+
+      1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1
+      1934.
+
+      2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding
+      $4,000,000 of stock of the par value of one dollar a
+      share.
+
+      3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah.
+
+      4. The transaction was officially conducted between
+      the Power Bond & Share Co. New York and the Pacific
+      Power Co. Tacoma Washington.
+
+      5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us
+      that the center of population of the United States is
+      four and one-quarter miles south of Unionville Monroe
+      County Indiana.
+
+      6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced
+      to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog
+      suggests the plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge;
+      the toadstool the umbrella; the duck the ship; the
+      fungus growth on trees the bracket.
+
+      7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United
+      States in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four
+      cents; in 1840 eighty-two cents; in 1850 $1.87; in
+      1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880 $16.33; in 1890
+      $24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it is
+      still increasing.
+
+      8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910
+      90,000,000.
+
+      9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the
+      United States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central
+      American states from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba
+      52%.
+
+      10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America
+      have shown an increase of 222%; those of the United
+      Kingdom an increase of 115%; and those of the United
+      States an increase of 130%.
+
+Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5.
+
+
+=Exercise 182--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+There are a number of expressions--words, phrases, and clauses--which
+are inserted into the sentence for clearness or emphasis. They add a bit
+of explanation but are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they
+might be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These may be of
+various kinds but are all similar in use. They should be set off by
+commas so that the reader will easily see that they are subordinate to
+the main idea of the sentence.
+
+A. The _appositive_ is a word or a group of words inserted lo explain
+the noun that it follows. (See Exercise 80.)
+
+Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences:
+
+      1. William E. Curtis, _one of the world's ablest
+      newspaper correspondents_, in his will expressed the
+      hope that his grandson would continue his life-work,
+      _a recital of the good that men had done and not of
+      the crimes they had committed_.
+
+      2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly
+      lessened office drudgery.
+
+      3. Wall street, the great center of business life,
+      fixes stock prices.
+
+      4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent
+      middle class of a country, suffer most from the strain
+      of high prices.
+
+      5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to
+      introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business
+      in the winter of 1861 with a very simple equipment,
+      two horse-drawn sleighs.
+
+      6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping
+      melons grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and
+      the Emerald Green varieties.
+
+      7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for
+      this year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise
+      Box," one hundred packages of selected vegetable and
+      flower seeds.
+
+      8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper,
+      produces branching plants about two feet in height.
+
+      9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a
+      native of Norway.
+
+=Rule 6.--The comma is used to separate an appositive from the rest of
+the sentence.=
+
+Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to set off an
+appositive.
+
+
+=Exercise 183--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+Similar in use to appositives are--
+
+B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject from the
+predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the like.
+
+In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately follows the
+subject and the object follows the verb. When, for the purpose of
+explanation, something is inserted between the two, it should be set off
+from the rest of the sentence by commas. Words that are thus inserted
+are called appositive or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated
+in the following:
+
+      In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals,
+      _evidently taking the suggestion from the popular
+      rural delivery service_, have established ice cream
+      routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads at
+      stated times so that, _with no more trouble than is
+      required to answer the postman's whistle_, dwellers on
+      the farms can now secure the hot weather luxury at
+      reasonable prices. The plan, _so far as one can tell
+      from present indications_, gives promise of meeting
+      with great success.
+
+=Rule 7.--Parenthetical expressions should be set off by commas.=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+1
+
+      The politics of the city as well as those of the
+      nation must be kept clean. The most intelligent men of
+      the community not the least intelligent should make
+      our political speeches and be our political leaders.
+      The very opposite we must confess is what we see too
+      often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own
+      ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time
+      to politics. We need not search far to discover that
+      too many of them even if they have the time do not
+      care to give it. At election the most influential
+      business and professional men either through lack of
+      interest or through laziness stay at home instead of
+      going to the polls. The men who are elected in nine
+      cases out of ten are not fit to hold office. The blame
+      belongs every one will agree to those who do not vote.
+
+2
+
+      England as most people know is becoming vastly
+      interested in the production of cotton in the Soudan.
+      This state of affairs for more reasons than one is a
+      matter of interest to the American manufacturer as
+      well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian
+      cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length
+      and strength of fiber is wanted because of the
+      brilliant finish it gives. For the manufacture of fine
+      goods including sateens India linens and mercerized
+      goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been
+      found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the
+      enlargement of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem
+      about a million acres from the desert in Lower Egypt
+      and although not more than half will probably be
+      planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's output
+      about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of
+      Agriculture after having experimented for years has
+      developed and acclimated in California a variety of
+      Egyptian cotton superior several experts say to the
+      real Egyptian. It now rests with the planters any one
+      can see to decide whether American manufacturers will
+      get their fine cotton at home or abroad.--_The Wall
+      Street Journal._
+
+3
+
+      For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy
+      people on both sides of the Atlantic are talking of
+      the perils of a "yellow" invasion. It is true that in
+      the past various invasions have been attended with
+      evil but civilization has passed on into an age when
+      migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen
+      are taking place silently and steadily for the good of
+      all. There is no reason to suppose that the overflow
+      and interflow of nations heretofore synonymous with
+      the progress of humanity should bring to us anything
+      but good. Commerce is to lead the van in the new
+      movement of the nations as it has in the past and the
+      merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to
+      anticipate and guide the statesman.--_The Commercial
+      and Financial Chronicle._
+
+4
+
+      The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class
+      of young business men seems to be that the saving of
+      little things in the course of the day consumes time
+      entirely out of proportion to the value of the things
+      saved but like all general rules it is carried too far
+      by young men who could hardly employ their time to
+      better advantage than in saving good though minor
+      materials that would otherwise be lost. The man who
+      originated the idea probably found it correct for
+      himself but like all principles catering to
+      indifference regarding details the idea is too readily
+      adopted by many young men who can ill afford its
+      practice. No one wishes a man to be parsimonious but
+      he should not allow anything to be wasted which can
+      with a reasonable exercise of effort be saved.
+
+
+=Exercise 184--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+C. _Independent elements_ are words, phrases, or clauses that have no
+direct grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. They
+are really a kind of parenthetical expression, but have less connection
+with the sentence than those given under B.
+
+The following is an argument against the trusts. The italicized
+expressions are independent elements. What different kinds do you
+discover?
+
+      _Gentlemen_, the big problem before us to-day,
+      _therefore_, is the trusts. Shall the people control
+      the trusts, or shall the trusts control the people?
+      _To state the question differently_, shall we all
+      continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we
+      turn our power over into the hands of a few and let
+      their word be law? This centralizing of power, _by the
+      way_, was the evil men tried to remedy by forming
+      republics, and shall we Americans, _do you think_, be
+      willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us
+      of liberty? _The answer being self-evident_, let us
+      proceed. It seems that the little violator of law can
+      be punished; the big violator cannot be, or, _at any
+      rate_, is not punished. The trusts, _most people
+      know_, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason
+      for destroying competition, _evidently_, is to swell
+      profits by charging all that the trade will bear. The
+      trust, _finally_, is not a method of doing business,
+      but a scheme for levying tribute.
+
+=Rule 8.--Independent elements are separated from the rest of the
+sentence by commas.=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+1
+
+
+                                   NEW YORK, May 12, 19--.
+    Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson,
+        5010 Prospect Ave.,
+              Milwaukee, Wis.
+
+    Dear Sir:
+
+      You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation
+      before you make any new plans however consider the
+      opportunity that we are offering you to see a new and
+      marvelously beautiful world for little more very
+      likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation at the
+      summer hotel to which you usually go.
+
+      The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is
+      new to you comparatively few people unfortunately have
+      yet awakened to its possibilities they do not realize
+      at least not fully that the climate in Jamaica Panama
+      and the Central and South American countries is
+      practically the same throughout the year moreover the
+      transportation rates are much lower than they are in
+      the North and the incidental expenses of travel such
+      as carriage fare and the cost of curios are
+      considerably less rough weather too is almost unknown
+      in the summer.
+
+      Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan
+      you have been considering a week's cruise of the great
+      lakes at an expense certainly of $40 or more and along
+      coasts that you have seen doubtless many times before
+      we offer a number of trips varying in length from
+      twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50 to
+      $130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America
+      thus for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long
+      pass shores much more beautiful visit cities far more
+      strange and return with a new almost magical store of
+      memories.
+
+      You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer
+      these remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is
+      that our ships carry an exceptionally large amount of
+      freight however do not think merely because our ships
+      carry freight that they are not splendidly equipped
+      for passenger travel on the other hand they are so
+      luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted
+      for tropical cruises you are missing an unusual
+      opportunity we assure you if you do not more fully
+      investigate our offer.
+
+                                        Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      We are learning year by year that as a rule financial
+      independence cannot be secured by most men except by
+      saving the savings bank is of course the first place
+      to invest savings because it will receive small sums
+      and pay an interest on them when a man's savings
+      however have reached $1000 for example what shall he
+      do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge
+      probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore
+      to put his money where it will be safe where it will
+      earn a fair rate of interest and if possible where he
+      can on short notice convert it into cash.
+
+3
+
+      A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his
+      savings a woman on the other hand invests because she
+      has received a legacy this may take the form of course
+      of property securities cash or life insurance it is
+      the function of sound investment most people know to
+      surround funds of this nature with strong security the
+      selection of conservative investments it is evident
+      must be made with care those companies naturally that
+      deal in conservative securities are the ones a
+      prospective investor should consult.
+
+4
+
+      Not long ago the editor of a financial journal
+      received a letter of inquiry from a woman she had she
+      said only two thousand dollars if she invested it as
+      some of her friends had advised her to do in a
+      well-known security she could not live on the
+      proceeds she had consequently made a connection with
+      a brokerage house and was making a living by buying
+      and selling speculative stocks her list by the way
+      showed a profit of $500 in four months what she wanted
+      to know of course was how she could make the gain a
+      second time in effect she was told to take her profits
+      and run as fast as she could she will not in all
+      probability take the advice and in a few months
+      possibly weeks she will write again for help in
+      rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have
+      learned at last that the way to keep her money is to
+      save it but she will not by that time in all
+      likelihood have any money to save.
+
+
+=Exercise 185--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+D. The _explanatory relative clause_.
+
+Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause. Like an
+appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the purpose of
+explanation and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+Because of this similarity, it is sometimes called an appositive
+relative clause.
+
+Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish a clause that may
+be omitted from the sentence without destroying the meaning from one
+that may not be omitted. The appositive clause may be omitted. A
+restrictive clause, because it restricts the meaning of the word it
+modifies, may not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of
+clearness, it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive clause, the
+former is called a non-restrictive clause.
+
+Notice the difference between the following:
+
+      1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, _which controls
+      the electric light and power supply of Chicago_, was
+      organized in 1907 by the consolidation of the Chicago
+      Edison Company and the Commonwealth Electric Company.
+
+The sentence makes complete sense without the relative clause.
+
+      2. The concern _that controls the electric light and
+      power supply of Chicago_ is the Commonwealth Edison
+      Company.
+
+The relative clause must be used to understand the sentence.
+
+In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2) it limits or
+restricts the meaning of _the concern_. The non-restrictive clause is
+shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2).
+
+Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses:
+
+      It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000
+      gallons of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000.
+      To supply this amount 120,000 cows are needed, which
+      are owned by 12,000 dairy farms. Health officers
+      conduct a systematic dairy farm inspection, which has
+      for its purpose the exclusion of diseased milk. Farm
+      owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now
+      see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have
+      discovered that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is
+      dangerous except when produced under sanitary
+      conditions, and now dairies are allowed to sell only
+      clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy
+      cow.
+
+Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the following
+sentences decide whether the italicized expressions are restrictive or
+non-restrictive. State whether they are phrases or clauses. Do any of
+the sentences need commas?
+
+      1. The man _wearing the brown coat_ is my brother.
+
+      2. My brother bought a new coat _which is brown_.
+
+      3. The lesson _that I take at nine o'clock_ is
+      English.
+
+      4. In English _which I take at nine o'clock_ we are
+      studying punctuation.
+
+      5. I am going to work in every city _that I visit_.
+
+      6. I am going to work in any city _where I can find
+      employment_.
+
+      7. I am going to work in Denver _where my uncle
+      lives_.
+
+      8. The house _on the hill_ is the oldest in town.
+
+      9. The house _that is the oldest in town_ is used as a
+      museum.
+
+      10. The Franklin Museum _which occupies the oldest
+      house in town_ is a very interesting place.
+
+      11. The town museum is the place _that I like to
+      visit_.
+
+      12. The chimney _that was blown down last night in the
+      storm_ should have been mended long ago.
+
+      13. The old ruined tower _which has long been a
+      picturesque sight in the village_ was blown down last
+      night.
+
+      14. We counted ten chimneys _that were blown down last
+      night_.
+
+      15. The stenography system _that I studied_ is
+      Munson's.
+
+      16. I think she uses Munson's _which she considers a
+      good system of stenography_.
+
+      17. Last year I pursued a course in stenography _which
+      I enjoyed very much_.
+
+      18. The book _that we use in class_ has a brown cover.
+
+      19. The only milk _that is fit to drink_ comes from a
+      clean dairy.
+
+      20. Systematic inspection has been carried on _which
+      has resulted in securing better milk_.
+
+=Rule 9.--A non-restrictive clause should be separated from the rest of
+the sentence by commas.=
+
+
+=Exercise 186=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+      1. We have an enormous crop of cotton the value of
+      which is estimated at one billion dollars.
+
+      2. "The root of the mail order evil is the idea which
+      the retail mail order houses have been able somehow to
+      instill into the minds of the buying public that the
+      local merchants ask too much for their goods."
+
+      3. Mr. Hilton who was sales manager at that time
+      induced the company to adopt this system.
+
+      4. The lecture will be delivered by Mr. Brenton who is
+      the head of the advertising department of Whitlock &
+      Co.
+
+      5. Our dog whose fur was wet by his plunge into the
+      lake came running toward us.
+
+      6. Genevieve who had always been the leader in the
+      games was not present.
+
+      7. A late product of the brain of George Westinghouse
+      who was the inventor of the air brake and numerous
+      electrical devices is an air spring for automobiles.
+      This little article has been patented by Mr.
+      Westinghouse who has the sole ownership. The spring
+      which has already proved popular with automobile
+      owners fits over the end of the regular spring and
+      "makes good roads out of bad ones."
+
+      8. Careful selection of investments upon which the
+      safety of your money depends is often difficult.
+      Careful watching of investments which is fully as
+      essential is much harder. Let us tell you about our
+      Investment Service which does this watching for you
+      and keeps you fully protected.
+
+      9. As a direct result of the conference between the
+      railroad and steamship interests of the South-Atlantic
+      and Gulf cotton ports which was held recently at Hot
+      Springs Va. an organization which will be known as the
+      South Atlantic and Steamship Cotton Inspection Bureau
+      has been created. The bureau will have a chief
+      inspector who will supervise the conduct of its
+      business at all ports and will arrange for the
+      employment of the inspectors. According to the rules
+      and regulations copies of which have been received by
+      the cotton agencies and the export departments of the
+      various New Orleans firms any bale that shows external
+      damage from water mud bad bagging or other causes must
+      be condemned and its condition noted and reported.
+
+      10. How would you like to wear a hat that has been
+      handed down through six generations in each of which
+      it was a treasured possession? The Italian peasants
+      who love finery are proud to do that very thing. Very
+      few of the poorer people who live in Italy own a hat.
+      When you see a beautifully woven Leghorn hat which is
+      also very dirty on the head of a little peasant child
+      you may be pretty sure that she is celebrating her
+      birthday by wearing the family heirloom. These hats
+      which are sometimes willed to a favorite relative and
+      which in some instances go the round of the family are
+      considered almost priceless. It is a frequent sight
+      along the dusty roads outside the little towns to see
+      untidy old women who are sauntering along twisting
+      twine as they go all vanity under the flopping brim of
+      an antiquated hat. This is almost the only souvenir
+      that tourists' money cannot buy.--_The Chicago
+      Tribune._
+
+
+=Exercise 187--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+E. When the subordinate element that comes at or near the close of the
+sentence gives an _additional_ idea, following the more or less complete
+idea in the rest of the sentence, it should be set off by a comma; as,
+
+      A signature clerk will easily recognize any alteration
+      in a signature, _although thousands of checks pass
+      through his hands daily_.
+
+      He gave a statement of the affairs of the company,
+      _explaining that he wished to make a loan_.
+
+=Rule 10.--A terminal adverbial clause or participial phrase giving an
+additional idea should be set off from the rest of the sentence by a
+comma.=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+      1. Popular-priced goods are the safest for a retail
+      stock however you consider the subject.
+
+      2. A sheriff seldom finds large quantities of
+      popular-priced goods on hand when he comes to take
+      possession of any retail store although he usually
+      finds expensive articles.
+
+      3. They bring higher prices relatively than the
+      heavier things even when they are disposed of under
+      forced sale.
+
+      4. The catalogue houses have little fear for
+      five-and-ten-cent stores because sixty-eight per cent
+      of their business is in big goods such as furniture
+      vehicles sewing-machines clothing and relatively
+      expensive things. They do not wish to increase the
+      sale of popular-priced articles although their
+      catalogue may be full of them because it costs them
+      more to pack one hammer or trowel than the profits can
+      stand.
+
+      5. Steel conditions remain about as they have been for
+      several weeks excepting that the price of rails has
+      been advancing for the last few days.
+
+      6. Steel men are of the opinion that to increase
+      prices too rapidly would spoil a good market because
+      most of the mills are so filled up with orders that
+      they would not be able to take advantage of increased
+      quotations for some time to come.
+
+      7. The steel business for the last three months has
+      been very encouraging as it shows that railroads are
+      dropping their policy of waiting until the last minute
+      to buy. It will probably mean more normal operation of
+      mills instead of spasmodic workings as has been the
+      case for the last few years.
+
+      8. Boraxated soap chips will benefit your tableware
+      and your hands making dishwashing a pleasure instead
+      of a task.
+
+      9. The man who works to the limit of his physical
+      powers is as foolish as the manufacturer who
+      immediately invests all his profits in his business
+      neglecting to have a reserve fund for unexpected
+      demands.
+
+      10. A wide-awake manager tries plan after plan testing
+      and re-testing them until he can apply them to his
+      company's needs.
+
+Write four sentences illustrating Rule 10.
+
+
+=Exercise 188=
+
+Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction
+for each:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      We wish to acknowledge your letter of recent date
+      assuring you that we thank you for the opportunity you
+      have given us of opening a monthly charge account in
+      your name. We shall spare no effort to make every
+      transaction as satisfactory as possible hoping thus to
+      merit a liberal share of your patronage.
+
+      Our bills are rendered on the first of each month
+      being payable between that date and the fifteenth.
+
+                                         Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Mr. Warner:
+
+      In reply to your inquiry I am sending the following
+      information assuring you that I am glad to be of
+      service to you.
+
+      The Lancaster Company has apparently abandoned its
+      plan of erecting a new building this year difficulties
+      having arisen it is said in their securing a suitable
+      location. About two years ago the firm purchased a
+      site on the corner of Harrison and Second streets but
+      they sold it again last year taking advantage of a
+      decided rise in real estate values. It is understood
+      we believe that the company will build in the near
+      future even now having two or three possible sites
+      under consideration.
+
+                                      Sincerely yours,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We offer you the benefits and privileges of our
+      Special Charge Account whereby purchases may be paid
+      for in weekly or monthly installments. You will find
+      this a most convenient arrangement because it permits
+      you to have a charge account without the usual
+      hardship of payment at a fixed time. Moreover a
+      Special Charge Account costs you nothing since our
+      prices are the same whether you pay cash or have
+      purchases charged. Please fill out the enclosed
+      application blank mailing it to us to-day.
+
+      You will no doubt enjoy reading the enclosed booklet
+      as it gives much interesting information on fashion
+      tendencies. The illustrations too are unusually
+      attractive although they hardly do justice to the
+      beautiful garments that we sell.
+
+                                         Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 189=
+
+Study the punctuation in the following selections from _The Wall Street
+Journal_; then write them from dictation:
+
+1
+
+TROUBLE IN INTRODUCING STEEL
+
+      "Strange as it now seems," said one of Carnegie's
+      "young men," now the vice-president of a large and
+      prosperous corporation in New York, "in the early days
+      of the steel industry we had the greatest difficulty
+      in the world in weaning the old manufacturers away
+      from the use of wrought iron, though they admitted the
+      superiority of steel. They would look at it, test it,
+      and agree that it seemed to possess all the desirable
+      qualities claimed for it, but it was more or less
+      untried by time, and they preferred to stick to the
+      old wrought iron, with which they were familiar.
+
+      "I remember one old chap with whom I had wrestled
+      long, but in vain, coming into my office and picking
+      up a long, soft steel rivet, which had been bent
+      double and hammered flat.
+
+      "'How many did you break in making this?' he asked,
+      picking it up and examining it curiously.
+
+      "'That's the first one we hammered over, and, what is
+      more to the point, we can do it with all steel of that
+      type,' I replied.
+
+      "The polite incredulity in his face stirred my
+      professional pride, and I said, 'If I let you go to
+      the mills, pick out a dozen of those rivets just as
+      they come from the rolls, and hammer them with your
+      own hands, will you use that steel hereafter, if it
+      comes up to the test?'
+
+      "He said he would, and the rest was easy, for it is
+      much easier not to break than to break that kind of
+      steel. Before long the old man came back with
+      perspiration dripping from the end of his nose but
+      with the light of conviction shining in his eye. The
+      firm had a new customer."
+
+2
+
+CONSERVATION
+
+      Leslie M. Shaw, former Secretary of the Treasury, was
+      in New York, attending a meeting of a board of which
+      he is a member. Something was said about the
+      present-day discussion of money power, and Shaw said
+      that it reminded him of a speech he had made in
+      Seattle in the campaign of 1896.
+
+      "I was speaking to a filled hall and had almost
+      finished," said Shaw, "when a long-whiskered man arose
+      about the middle of the hall and held up his hand,
+      saying he wanted to ask a question.
+
+      "'Go ahead,' I said.
+
+      "'How, then, Mr. Speaker, do you explain the unequal
+      distribution of wealth?' was his question.
+
+      "When I answered him with, 'In the same way that I
+      explain the unequal distribution of whiskers,' bedlam
+      broke loose.
+
+      "As soon as I could get quiet restored, I said: 'Now
+      don't think I returned the answer I did to make fun of
+      your whiskers. You will observe that I have no
+      whiskers, as I dissipate them by shaving them off.
+      Nature gives me abundance of whiskers, and, if I
+      conserved them as you do, I also should be abundantly
+      supplied. Now, it is the same way with money. The man
+      who conserves his money has more than his share, as
+      with whiskers; while the man who dissipates his money
+      is without his allotment.'"
+
+
+=Exercise 190--The Semicolon (;)=
+
+The semicolon is used between the propositions of a compound sentence
+when no coördinate conjunction is used. (See Exercise 176, 2.)
+
+      It is not work that kills men; it is worry.
+It is important not to overdo this use of the semicolon. Do
+not use it unless the two principal clauses of the sentence
+taken together easily form one idea.
+
+Especial care must be taken not to confuse coördinate conjunctions and
+conjunctive adverbs. The following are conjunctive adverbs: _then_,
+_therefore_, _consequently_, _moreover_, _however_, _so_, _also_,
+_besides_, _thus_, _still_, _otherwise_, _accordingly_. When they are
+used to join principal clauses, they should be preceded by a coördinate
+conjunction or a semicolon; as,
+
+    Fruit was plentiful, and therefore the price was low.
+    Fruit was plentiful; therefore the price was low.
+
+When there is a series of phrases or clauses, each of which is long and
+contains commas within itself, the sentence becomes clearer if the
+members of the series are separated by semicolons instead of by commas;
+as,
+
+      You know how prolific the American mind has been in
+      invention; how much civilization has been advanced by
+      the steamboat, the cotton-gin, the sewing-machine, the
+      reaping-machine, the typewriter, the electric light,
+      the telephone, the phonograph.
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      No man can deny that the lines of endeavor have more
+      and more narrowed and stiffened; no one who knows
+      anything about the development of industry in this
+      country can fail to have observed that the larger
+      kinds of credit are more and more difficult to obtain,
+      unless you obtain them upon the terms of uniting your
+      efforts with those who already control the industries
+      of the country; and nobody can fail to observe that
+      any man who tries to set himself up in competition
+      with any process of manufacture which has been taken
+      under the control of large combinations of capital
+      will presently find himself either squeezed out or
+      obliged to sell and allow himself to be
+      absorbed.--Woodrow Wilson: _The New Freedom._
+
+2
+
+      If the total amount of savings deposited in the
+      savings banks were equally divided among the
+      population of the country, the amount apportioned to
+      each person in 1820 would have been twelve cents; in
+      1830, fifty-four cents; in 1840, eighty-two cents; in
+      1850, $1.87; in 1860, $4.75; in 1870, $14.26; in 1880,
+      $16.33; in 1890, $24.75; in 1900, $31.78; in 1910,
+      $45.05, and it is steadily increasing. Remember the
+      fact that the population had increased from 10,000,000
+      in 1820 to over 90,000,000 in 1910; the "rainy day"
+      money, therefore, assumes gigantic proportions.
+
+3
+
+      In Germany, says _The Scientific American_, wood is
+      too expensive to be burned, and it is made into
+      artificial silk worth two dollars a pound and bristles
+      worth four dollars a pound; into paper, yarn, twine,
+      carpet, canvas, and cloth. Parquet flooring is made
+      from sawdust; the materials may be bought by the pound
+      and then mixed, so that the householder can lay his
+      own hardwood floors according to his individual taste
+      and ingenuity.
+
+4
+
+      The country gentlemen and country clergymen had fully
+      expected that the policy of these ministers would be
+      directly opposed to that which had been almost
+      constantly followed by William; that the landed
+      interest would be favored at the expense of trade;
+      that no addition would be made to the funded debt;
+      that the privileges conceded to Dissenters by the late
+      king would be curtailed, if not withdrawn; that the
+      war with France, if there must be such a war, would,
+      on our part, be almost entirely naval; and that the
+      government would avoid close connections with foreign
+      powers and, above all, with Holland.--_Macaulay._
+
+
+=Exercise 191--The Colon (:)=
+
+The colon is always used to indicate that something of importance
+follows, usually an enumeration or a list of some kind, or a quotation
+of several sentences or paragraphs; as,
+
+      1. Three things are necessary: intelligence,
+      perseverance, and tact.
+
+      2. The buffalo supplies them with almost all the
+      necessities of life: with habitation, food, and
+      clothing; with strings for their bows; with thread,
+      cordage, and trail-ropes for their horses; with
+      coverings for their saddles; and with the means of
+      purchasing all that they desire from traders.
+
+      3. Quoting from the current number of the _----
+      Magazine_, he read: (four paragraphs).
+
+Punctuate:
+
+      1. For the first fifty miles we had companions with us
+      Troche a little trapper and Rouville a nondescript in
+      the employ of the fur company.
+
+      2. About a week previous four men had arrived from
+      beyond the mountains Sublette Reddick and two others.
+
+      3. Reynal was gazing intently he began to speak at
+      last "Many a time when I was with the Indians I have
+      been hunting gold all through the Black Hills there's
+      a plenty of it here you may be certain of that I have
+      dreamed about it fifty times" etc.
+
+      4. Objects familiar from childhood surrounded me crags
+      and rocks a black and sullen brook that gurgled with a
+      hollow voice among the crevices a wood of mossy
+      distorted trees.
+
+
+=Exercise 192=
+
+The colon is used after _thus_, _as follows_, _the following_, or
+similar expressions; as,
+
+      Name the adverbs in the following: He left hurriedly
+      rather early in the morning.
+
+The colon is not used after _namely_, _as_, _that is_, _for example, for
+instance_, and the like. Such expressions are preceded by the semicolon
+and followed by the comma.
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+      1. The Christmas presents that he wants are the
+      following a toy train a toy automobile a toy circus
+      and a printing press.
+
+      2. Do the exercise thus first lunge to the left second
+      raise the arms forward and third wind the wand.
+
+      3. We are offering for sale three residences of the
+      size that you wish namely 438 Bishop Ave 1614
+      Winchester St and 2015 Logan Square.
+
+      4. The following are the two that we liked best 438
+      Bishop Ave and 2015 Logan Square.
+
+      5. One use of the comma is to set off an appositive
+      for example Mr Kearne the buyer has left the city.
+
+      6. The comma is used to set off an independent adverb
+      as We have not yet decided however when we shall
+      leave.
+
+      7. The plan is this I'll do the work and you pay for
+      the materials.
+
+      8. The officers are as follows Edward Lawrence for
+      President John Kelly for Secretary and Fred Morrison
+      for Treasurer.
+
+
+=Exercise 193--The Dash(--)=
+
+The dash is used to set off parenthetical expressions that have very
+little connection with the rest of the sentence; as,
+
+      In New York the Harlem River tunnel was comparatively
+      a simple one, but the first East River tunnels--the
+      two subway tubes from the Battery to
+      Brooklyn--presented all the difficulties known to
+      subaqueous construction.
+
+      These tunnels extend on under the great Pennsylvania
+      terminal building--another of the same decade's
+      accomplishments--to East Thirty-fourth Street.
+
+The dash is also used to indicate a sudden change or break in the
+thought; as,
+
+      1. When the millennium comes--if it ever does--all of
+      our problems will be solved.
+
+      2. "I believe--" began the lawyer.
+
+      "Believe!" interrupted his client. "I don't want you
+      to believe. I want you to know."
+
+The dash is used before a word that summarizes the preceding part of the
+sentence; as,
+
+      He had robbed himself of the most precious thing a man
+      can have in business--his friends.
+
+After a comma the dash has the effect of lengthening the separation; as,
+
+      One thing the Puritans desired,--freedom to worship
+      God.
+
+
+=Exercise 194--Parenthesis Marks ()=
+
+Parenthesis marks are used to enclose explanatory expressions that are
+not an essential part of the sentence; as,
+
+      The United States Department of Agriculture estimates
+      that the receipts of cattle at the six leading markets
+      (Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, South Omaha, St.
+      Joseph, and Sioux City) from January 1 to August 1 of
+      this year are 15 per cent less than they were in the
+      corresponding period of last year.
+
+_Wrong._--Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or a passage. A
+line should be drawn through a word that is wrong.
+
+Bring to class five sentences that illustrate the correct use of
+parenthesis marks.
+
+
+=Exercise 195--The Hyphen (-)=
+
+The hyphen is used when a word has been divided. It is always used at
+the end of the line and never at the beginning.
+
+When several short words are taken together to form one word, they are
+hyphenated; as,
+
+      a one-hundred-pound bag of coffee
+
+As a rule, when two words taken together are each accented, they must be
+written with the hyphen. When only one is accented, no hyphen is used;
+as,
+
+      follow-up, first-class, self-reliant, railroad,
+      steamship
+
+As a rule, nouns which are compounded of a participle and a noun use the
+hyphen; as,
+
+      talking-machine, driving-wheel
+
+When fractions are written out, the hyphen is used; as,
+
+      one-third, three-fifths
+
+In other numerals expressing a compound number the hyphen is also used;
+as,
+
+      twenty-one, sixty-six
+
+
+=Exercise 196=
+
+Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction
+for each:
+
+1
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      We are glad to tell you that contrary to the fears
+      expressed in your last letter there are no present
+      indications of sudden changes at least no indications
+      of drops in prices. With the exception of two fruits
+      and one vegetable grapes cantaloupes and cauliflower
+      all commodities sold on the wholesale fruit and
+      produce markets here were quoted yesterday at the
+      prices announced last Friday.
+
+      The change in grape prices affected the Red Peru
+      variety in which the supply has almost stopped the
+      price being raised from $1.05 to $1.25 a box. If one
+      may trust the forecast of local merchants the price
+      will probably remain at this higher point until the
+      supply is exhausted. Cantaloupes seem to be a trifle
+      scarce especially the pineapple variety the price of
+      which was raised from $1.10 to $1.30 a crate.
+      Cauliflower was raised to $1.35 a dozen heads the
+      staple price probably for the rest of the season.
+
+      Excepting these items we shall be glad to receive any
+      orders at Friday's quotations.
+
+                                           Yours truly,
+
+
+2
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      Your order of the 20th instant forwarded from our
+      Trenton office came this morning. We regret to say
+      however that we do not carry the Sanito brand of
+      canned goods as we do not consider the grade
+      first-class. If the Monsoon brand which is generally
+      acknowledged to be excellent will serve your purpose
+      we can fill your order at once.
+
+      We are now in a position to supply the trade with Mrs.
+      Keller's coffee of which we have fortunately secured
+      several thousand packages at a very low price. If you
+      wish any at $2.50 per dozen packages less than half
+      the retail price you will notice let us hear from you
+      at once.
+
+                                            Yours truly,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We acknowledge your letter of October 5 but we regret
+      that as yet we have no information in regard to the
+      excess charge of $1.02 which you were obliged to pay
+      on the express shipment of one piece 27 yds. of plaid
+      silk chiffon. We have taken up the matter with the
+      mill however and as soon as we receive their report we
+      shall write you again.
+
+      Asking your indulgence meanwhile we are
+
+                                               Yours truly,
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] Supply heading and introduction (see page 232).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE CLEAR SENTENCE
+
+
+BUSINESS men like to talk of brevity. They tell you that a talk or a
+letter must be brief. What they really mean is that the talk or the
+letter must be concise; that it must state the business clearly in the
+fewest possible words. Don't omit any essential fact when you write, but
+don't repeat. If you can express an idea in ten words, don't use twenty.
+In a later exercise we shall meet the sentence, _The size of the crops
+is always important, and it is especially so to the farmer, and this is
+because he has to live by the crops._ The writer of that sentence was
+very careless. He had a good idea and thought that, if he kept repeating
+it, he would make it stronger. Just the reverse is true. The sentence
+may be expressed in a very few words: _The size of the crop is vitally
+important to the farmer._
+
+If you wish to secure conciseness of expression, be especially careful
+to avoid joining or completing thoughts by these expressions: _and_,
+_so_, _why_, _that is why_, _this is the reason_, _and everything_.
+
+In this chapter we shall consider some of the larger faults that should
+be avoided in sentences.
+
+
+=Exercise 197--Unity of the Sentence=
+
+Give the definition of a sentence.
+
+How many thoughts may one sentence express?
+
+What is likely to happen when two thoughts are joined by _and_? What,
+then, is the danger in using the compound sentence?
+
+The compound sentence is good to use to express certain ideas,
+especially contrast; as,
+
+      It is not work that kills men; it is worry.
+
+      It is not the revolution that destroys the machinery,
+      but the friction [but it is the friction].
+
+The sentences which most clearly and easily give us one thought are the
+simple and the complex sentences.
+
+Compare the following sentences. Which of them leave _one_ idea in your
+mind?
+
+      The tongue is a sharp-edged tool.
+
+      A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows
+      keener with constant use.
+
+      A sharp tongue is like an edged tool, and it grows
+      keener with constant use.
+
+
+=Exercise 198=
+
+The following is wordy. Rewrite it, condensing as much as possible. Use
+simple and complex sentences rather than compound, expressing in each
+only one thought.
+
+      In the early summer the corn crop frequently seems to
+      be very poor, and so reports begin to circulate that
+      corn will be high in the autumn, but when the autumn
+      really comes, Wall Street, that great center of
+      business life, begins to see that the reports have
+      been greatly exaggerated and that crops really will be
+      very good, and so business begins to pick up. The size
+      of the crop largely settles the volume of the next
+      season's business, because so great a part of the
+      world's business activity is made up of buying and
+      selling the actual potatoes and corn and wheat and
+      cattle or the products made from these, and when the
+      crop is poor there are a great many people concerned,
+      because they will be poor just as the crops are poor,
+      and this applies to the farmer as well as to the
+      dealer.
+
+      The size of the crops is always important, and is
+      especially so to the farmer, and this is because he
+      has to live by the crops. A man may be living in the
+      city and working for a salary and begin to see that
+      his work is not supporting him, and if he is an
+      ambitious man, he will change his occupation. This the
+      farmer cannot do because he has made an enormous
+      investment; in the first place, he has invested in
+      his land, and then in his seed and farm implements,
+      and this investment often means all the available
+      money the farmer has, and often it means a mortgage on
+      his farm. He puts the mortgage on his farm in hope of
+      getting a good crop, and when his hope is not
+      realized, he is in trouble, because he may lose his
+      whole farm if he cannot pay the installments of
+      interest due on his mortgage; but then, on the other
+      hand, if we consider the other side of the question,
+      when the crop is large, the situation is altogether
+      different. Even if the farmer has put a mortgage on
+      his farm, he gets enough money from his produce to pay
+      the debt of that mortgage, and he need not worry how
+      he is to live during the next winter.
+
+      The town merchants depend on a good crop, because, if
+      the farmer has not a good return from his fields, he
+      will have almost no ready money, and so he cannot buy
+      much clothing or household furnishings. In Iowa, for
+      instance, there is a little town in the center of a
+      corn-raising community, and it is here that the
+      farmers congregate to do their buying, and in this
+      town there is quite a large department store, and it
+      is run by a woman. She does most of her buying in the
+      autumn and she prefers to do it personally, and so she
+      likes to make a trip to New York for the purpose, but
+      she never sets out until she knows that the corn crop
+      is good. And the reason for this is that she knows
+      that it will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the
+      trip East, to stay at a good hotel, and to spend the
+      requisite length of time choosing her purchases at the
+      different wholesale houses, and she knows that if
+      there is no corn crop she will sell very few coats and
+      hats and lace curtains, and it will never pay her to
+      run up her expenses into the hundreds of dollars, but
+      she will buy as best she can from the drummers, and
+      buy only a little, and thus the size of the crop
+      determines how much the farmer can buy, and,
+      therefore, how much the wholesale and retail dealers
+      can sell.
+
+
+=Exercise 199--Subordination in the Sentence=
+
+Sentences containing compound predicates may be made more direct in
+thought if one of the verbs is changed to a participle or an infinitive,
+because the predicate will then express only one action; as,
+
+      1. The carpenter _threw_ down his hammer _and walked_
+      out of the shop.
+
+      2. _Throwing_ down his hammer, the carpenter walked
+      out of the shop.
+
+      3. I _went_ downtown _and applied_ for the position.
+
+      4. I went downtown _to apply_ for the position.
+
+Change the following sentences so that one action is denoted by the
+predicate of each:
+
+      1. A teamster drove out of the alley east of the
+      theater and swung his horses directly in front of a
+      Madison street car.
+
+      2. The tongue struck the front of the car and bored a
+      hole in the fuse box.
+
+      3. The fire spread and burned the roof of the car.
+
+      4. The half dozen passengers were badly frightened and
+      got out quickly.
+
+      5. Several people ran and turned in a fire alarm.
+
+      6. In a few minutes the fire engines arrived and began
+      to fight the flames.
+
+      7. Crowds came from all directions and silently
+      watched the flames.
+
+      8. The people poured out of the theater and cheered
+      the firemen.
+
+      9. The half dozen passengers soon recovered and stood
+      on the curbstone in the crowd.
+
+      10. The firemen did their work quickly and departed
+      amid the cheers of the crowd.
+
+
+=Exercise 200--Combination of Short Sentences=
+
+Sometimes short sentences are bad because two or three of them are
+needed to express one complete thought. If that is the case, they should
+be combined, the most important detail being put into the principal
+clause, and the other details into modifiers, as in the preceding
+exercise.
+
+Make use of--
+
+    1. Adjectives.
+    2. Adverbs.
+    3. Participial phrases.
+    4. Infinitives.
+    5. Relative pronouns.
+    6. Subordinate conjunctions.
+
+Below, the first and second sentences together make one thought, which
+is expressed in the third.
+
+    John is a good reporter.
+    That is why he earns a good salary.
+    Because John is a good reporter, he earns a good salary.
+
+Combine the sentences of each group below into a single sentence, either
+simple or complex, omitting as many words as possible but no ideas:
+
+      1. We stayed at home for two reasons: first of all, we
+      thought Baltimore might be unpleasantly warm. Then,
+      the other reason was that we thought we ought to
+      economize.
+
+      2. In China the wedding takes place at the
+      bridegroom's house. This has been decorated with
+      strips of bright red paper, and they have the word
+      "Hsi" on them. This means "Live in happiness."
+
+      3. First in the procession come the standard bearers.
+      They are hired for the occasion. These men have red
+      coats put on over their dirty clothes. The men they
+      hire are usually beggars.
+
+      4. Six years ago I went sailing on Lake George with my
+      father. I was ten years old at that time. Two other
+      men went along with us. The boat that we went in
+      belonged to my father and these men.
+
+      5. The wind was high and it would come in gusts. This
+      made it hard to sail. It shifted the sails so quickly
+      that it would throw the boat over on one side.
+
+      6. Several times the boat leaned over at an angle of
+      forty degrees. This let the water come in on that
+      side. When this happened, we all had to jump to the
+      other side. We did this so that the boat would right
+      itself.
+
+      7. The heart is the most important organ in the body.
+      This is because if the heart stops beating, you cannot
+      live. Besides, all the other organs are connected with
+      it. It is something like the main spring in a watch.
+
+      8. This is a good machine. And since that's the case,
+      I don't see why it is that it doesn't work as it
+      should.
+
+      9. In every business there are many bad debts. Some
+      can be collected and others cannot be. This is because
+      the men who made them were given credit, and they
+      didn't have any money.
+
+      10. The night was dark, and there were no stars. The
+      fishermen stood on the shore, and they gazed at the
+      wild sea. A storm had arisen, and they could not go
+      out in their boats.
+
+
+=Exercise 201=
+
+As in the preceding exercise, rewrite the following, omitting as many
+words as possible, but no ideas. Use shorter, simpler expressions
+wherever possible.
+
+1
+
+      Uncle Sam now has an aerial navy, but it's a small
+      one, and foundations of it were recently laid. This
+      was done when contracts were signed for the delivery
+      of three aeroplanes and they are the first aeroplanes
+      that the United States bought. These aeroplanes are of
+      the latest development. They are all capable of rising
+      from land or water. They are able also to land on
+      water or on the deck of a ship, and they can carry at
+      least one passenger and are equipped with wireless
+      outfits. Two of them are Curtis machines and the third
+      is a Wright, and they ranged in price from $2,700 to
+      $5,500.
+
+2
+
+      The United States produces more steel than any two
+      European countries, and it is continuing to produce
+      more. Moreover, it has the productive capacity to
+      produce more than any other three or four countries
+      put together. This capacity is being still further
+      increased. At the present time, there is one very
+      important steel company. It is very large, and seems
+      to wish to monopolize the entire iron and steel
+      industry. Even at this time it owns half the principal
+      plants that are now producing steel and iron, and
+      controls half the trade of the entire steel and iron
+      industry, and when such a thing happens, it is a
+      matter of international concern.
+
+3
+
+Condense the following into a single sentence, either simple or complex:
+
+      The iron and steel industry is very important, and it
+      includes a great deal. First, the ore has to be mined,
+      and then the work includes everything up to making the
+      finest wire for musical instruments. Or, to put it
+      another way, you can say from smelting the ore to
+      building a battle ship. This is a very interesting
+      occupation and, as said before, very important. There
+      is hardly anything more interesting or important
+      except agriculture.
+
+
+=Exercise 202--Dangling Expressions=
+
+Sometimes a sentence is not clear because it contains a participle which
+does not modify anything in the sentence. A participle is part _verb_
+and part _adjective_. As a verb, it expresses the idea of the verb from
+which it is derived. As an adjective, it must modify a noun or a
+pronoun. The important point is that this noun or pronoun must be
+expressed in the sentence and not lie in the mind of the writer, as it
+does in the following:
+
+      Riding from Saugatuck to Holland last year, the
+      country showed unmistakable signs of lack of rain.
+
+Here the writer means, _We saw that the country_, etc., but he says that
+the country rode from Saugatuck to Holland.
+
+Again, an expression may be used which is really an incomplete clause.
+Do not use such a clause, unless the understood subject is the same as
+the subject expressed in the independent proposition.
+
+    _Wrong_: When almost exhausted, the camp was reached.
+    _Right_: When almost exhausted, we reached the camp.
+
+Recast the following sentences, correcting the dangling expressions:
+
+      1. You should not stop studying your lessons until
+      thoroughly prepared.
+
+      2. In talking to the postman yesterday, he said that
+      his route had been changed.
+
+      3. Owing two months' rent, the foreman laid me off.
+
+      4. Before becoming a physician, the law sets a very
+      severe examination.
+
+      5. Having eaten our luncheon very hastily, the
+      typewriters were soon clicking merrily again.
+
+      6. The difficulty could easily be settled, going about
+      it in the right way.
+
+      7. Although determined to get my money, the task was
+      harder than I had expected.
+
+      8. Having installed an adding machine, our office work
+      could be done in half the time.
+
+      9. On entering the car, the first thing that caught my
+      attention was the sign at the end.
+
+      10. Silk should be washed with warm water and a mild
+      soap, being careful not to rub it.
+
+      11. The house was redecorated, making it clean and
+      homelike.
+
+      12. The book should be carefully studied, reviewing
+      each chapter after it is read.
+
+      13. Going to work this morning, an accident happened.
+
+      14. Having entered college, Mr. Brown watched his
+      son's progress with pride.
+
+      15. Soon after abandoning the boat, it sank.
+
+      16. They say he will be lame, caused by a fall on the
+      ice while skating.
+
+      17. While trying to break the half mile record, his
+      back was injured.
+
+      18. Many people object to football, because in
+      tackling the boys' hearts are weakened.
+
+      19. He did not wish to take up an extra study, thus
+      lessening his chance of being eligible for athletics.
+
+      20. While a child, my father often told me stories of
+      Indian days.
+
+      21. Absorbed all day in superintending his work, in
+      the evening the newspaper brought him political news
+      enough to fill the hours between dinner and bed-time.
+
+      22. Discussing the happenings in the ward with an old
+      crony, his daughter would often sit near him
+      listening.
+
+      23. He is failing in his work, caused by his laziness.
+
+      24. Although a good tonic, I did not gain weight while
+      taking it.
+
+      25. In the new telephone, upon lifting the receiver, a
+      ticking sound is heard.
+
+      26. Leaving the window open when she went to lunch, of
+      course the papers were disarranged on her return.
+
+      27. Dictionaries must be returned to the desk after
+      using.
+
+
+=Exercise 203--Pronouns with Uncertain Antecedents=
+
+Sometimes the meaning of a sentence is not clear because the pronouns
+have uncertain antecedents.
+
+1. Sometimes a pronoun may refer to either of two antecedents; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: He gave his brother John the umbrella and then _he_ left.
+    _Right_: He gave the umbrella to his brother John, who then left.
+
+2. Sometimes the sentence must be entirely recast and a direct quotation
+used before the pronouns can be made clear; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: Tom told his father that _his_ suit case was lost.
+    _Right_: _a._ Tom said, "Father, your suit case is lost."
+             _b._ Tom said, "Father, my suit case is lost."
+
+3. Sometimes the pronoun refers to a word that has not been expressed or
+to an _idea_. In that case, the antecedent must be supplied; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send
+      _it_ in the enclosed envelope.
+    _Right_: If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send
+      _his contribution_ in the enclosed envelope.
+
+    _Wrong_: I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody does _that_ nowadays.
+    _Right_: I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody wears _them_ nowadays.
+
+4. A sentence containing an indefinite _they_ or _it_ is corrected thus:
+
+    _Wrong_: Don't _they_ have street cars where you live?
+    _Right_: Are there _no_ street cars where you live?
+
+Recast the following:
+
+      1. She asked her mother if she could go, and she said
+      she thought she ought to stay at home.
+
+      2. John told James he was sure he did not know the
+      office that he meant.
+
+      3. George told his father his watch had stopped.
+
+      4. The manager asked the clerk to bring his book.
+
+      5. A light touch is important in a typewriter, because
+      it makes it easy to write upon it.
+
+      6. The size of the crops is important to the farmers,
+      because they have to live by them.
+
+      7. They decided to reorganize the company, which is
+      always a difficult task.
+
+      8. They went into the hands of a receiver, which is an
+      indication that the affairs of the company had been
+      poorly managed.
+
+      9. There is a boat on the lake over which there is a
+      pleasant view, in which there is a club for working
+      girls.
+
+      10. He stole some money which brought about an
+      investigation.
+
+      11. She asked her aunt how old she was.
+
+      12. John is famous for telling anecdotes, and he got
+      it by remembering every story he reads.
+
+      13. The sleighing party last night was a success,
+      which is not always the case.
+
+      14. He told a lie, which is a bad thing to do.
+
+      15. They engaged a gardener, which doubled their
+      monthly expenses.
+
+      16. Why don't you get some of that new fur trimming
+      for your blue dress?
+
+      17. They had an accident on the street car this
+      morning.
+
+      18. In the newspaper it said that the lecture would
+      begin at 8:15.
+
+      19. They don't find iron in Illinois, do they?
+
+      20. Do they have the original paintings in our art
+      gallery?
+
+      21. It says "Closed" on that door.
+
+      22. It doesn't mention a bank draft in this book.
+
+      23. They have a great many foreigners in New York
+      City.
+
+      24. John accompanied his brother to the city where he
+      bought a typewriter.
+
+      25. I had expected to take the 9:30 train, but I
+      couldn't do it.
+
+      26. Going up to the horse he put a lump of sugar into
+      his mouth.
+
+      27. In letter writing one should always be exact and
+      arrange them in the customary form.
+
+      28. Those hooks are not rust-proof because the back of
+      my dress is stained with it.
+
+      29. The telephone is a great convenience to all. They
+      are now used in almost every house.
+
+      30. As we came down the road, it sounded like a train,
+      which, as we approached, grew louder and louder.
+
+
+=Exercise 204--Misplaced Modifiers=
+
+Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a modifier does not stand
+close to the word it modifies.
+
+    _Wrong_: I can't _even_ do the first problem.
+    _Right_: I can't do _even_ the first problem.
+
+Change the order of words in the following sentences, placing each
+modifier as closely as possible to the word which it modifies. Some of
+the sentences are incorrect because they contain split infinitives. (See
+Exercise 92.)
+
+      1. I only waited for him about ten minutes.
+
+      2. She stood at the window, trying to close it with a
+      troubled face.
+
+      3. The city is supplied with water from cold springs
+      which flow nearly a hundred million gallons of the
+      purest liquid that ever burst from the earth, daily.
+
+      4. The famous S. F. ice cream is made in this factory
+      containing fifty per cent pure cream.
+
+      5. A man should not be allowed to cast a vote, who
+      cannot read and write.
+
+      6. After taking the medicine for a short time, the
+      appetite is improved, and a desire is created for
+      food, that has not existed before.
+
+      7. In real value, this magazine towers head and
+      shoulders over all others to the woman who is in
+      charge of her home.
+
+      8. There are pages of fashion news and embroidery
+      hints and news articles of the day that will appeal to
+      the husband and father as the others do to the wife
+      and daughter as well as departments for the children.
+
+      9. The number of the sewing machine is 37A with a drop
+      head.
+
+      10. They neither are gentle nor well-mannered.
+
+      11. I only heard about the trouble yesterday.
+
+      12. He left the same station at which, thirty years
+      before, he had arrived very humbly, in his own special
+      car.
+
+      13. He urged his brother to buy a home in his letter.
+
+      14. The lighting system has been developed to a really
+      remarkable degree of perfection for the trains.
+
+      15. The dynamo is so arranged that when the train is
+      standing still or only traveling twenty miles an hour,
+      the lamps are lighted from a storage battery.
+
+      16. The batteries must be large enough during the run
+      to carry the entire lighting load.
+
+      17. Please send me 6 Dining Tables No. 46 that extend
+      to ten feet as soon as possible.
+
+      18. Large trees grow on each side of the house which
+      is a rambling affair shutting out the light.
+
+      19. They decided to give a bonus to the one doing the
+      best work, amounting to fifty dollars.
+
+      20. We had almost got to the corner before we saw the
+      fire.
+
+      21. I don't ever remember having seen so big a fire.
+
+      22. Remember to thoroughly oil the machine.
+
+      23. Do you need to in any way alter the machine?
+
+      24. If we expect to completely fill the order to-day,
+      we need more help.
+
+
+=Exercise 205--Omission of Necessary Words=
+
+Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a word has been omitted that
+is necessary to the sense; as,
+
+_Wrong_: The two officers that they elected are the president and
+secretary.
+
+_Right_: The two officers that they elected are the president and _the_
+secretary.
+
+_Wrong_: His writing is as good or better than yours.
+
+_Right_: His writing is as good _as_ or better than yours.
+
+_Wrong_: The library is where we go to read.
+
+_Right_: The library is _the place_ where we go to read.
+
+State the difference between the following typewriter ribbons:
+
+    1. A red and blue and black ribbon.
+    2. A red and a blue and black ribbon.
+    3. A red and blue and a black ribbon.
+    4. A red and a blue and a black ribbon.
+
+Supply the omitted part in each of the following:
+
+      1. I always have and I'm sure I always shall be
+      considerate of others' feelings.
+
+      2. They have a stenographer and bookkeeper, who are
+      kept busy all day.
+
+      3. I believe he has already or will soon begin the
+      work.
+
+      4. The cushions of the rocker are much softer than the
+      armchair.
+
+      5. The arrangement of your flat is much more
+      convenient than our house.
+
+      6. The number of shelves in your sideboard is just the
+      same as our china closet.
+
+      7. I think the articles you ordered will arrive as
+      soon or sooner than you expect.
+
+      8. She is as tall or taller than you.
+
+      9. When your message arrived, I had already or at
+      least had decided to begin cutting the goods.
+
+      10. It may not be better but it is fully as good as
+      the other article.
+
+      11. I think you cook fully as well if not better than
+      your sister.
+
+      12. His poems hold a place in our hearts second only
+      to the Bible.
+
+      13. Your idea is as good if not better than mine.
+
+      14. We decided to make the change both for the sake of
+      health and economy.
+
+      15. You will find the armchair fully as comfortable,
+      if not more so, than the rocker.
+
+      16. The river is where we had the most fun.
+
+      17. I know you better than Mary.
+
+      18. She went to the park but I didn't care to.
+
+      19. We didn't object to the scheme as much as you.
+
+      20. A conservatory is where there are all kinds of
+      flowers.
+
+
+=Exercise 206--Shift in Construction=
+
+Sometimes the meaning of the sentence is obscure because there has been
+a shift in construction. Do not change subject, person, tense, or any
+grammatical form without a good reason. Remember that _and_ is a
+coördinate conjunction. If there is an adjective before _and_, there
+must be an adjective after it. If a clause precedes, a clause must
+follow. In other words, _and_ joins two members of exactly the same
+structure. _And_ may not join one word and a phrase, nor may it join a
+prepositional and a participial phrase. Both members must be alike. In
+the following extract, parallel constructions are used correctly. Be
+able to tell what kinds of elements are used and how they are parallel.
+
+      To eat your cake and keep it too; to wear a gown with
+      the air of originality and distinction, and keep a
+      full purse; to have your house display taste and
+      refinement, and be praised as an economical housewife;
+      to dress your children daintily, and save money for
+      their education--use ABC transfer patterns. By their
+      aid you can make an inexpensive waist look like a
+      French blouse, have table linen of unrivaled elegance,
+      and dress your babies in the most approved style.
+      These patterns cost,--some ten, some fifteen cents.
+      They cover the entire field of dress,--waists, tunics,
+      panels, infants' clothes, underwear, men's apparel,
+      and neckwear; and of household articles,--towels,
+      table-linen, and pillow tops.
+
+Recast the following sentences, correcting the shift of construction in
+each:
+
+      1. In the large department stores every clerk is to
+      report on her way to lunch and coming back.
+
+      2. When one hears a cry of "Fire," your first thought
+      is to run.
+
+      3. He seemed fond of his work and to have skill in
+      doing it quickly.
+
+      4. I decided on taking the trip and to keep my
+      expenses within fifty dollars if possible.
+
+      5. X Y Z Cleaner is good for softening water and other
+      household uses.
+
+      6. Because of the rise in the price of meats and owing
+      to the fact that grocers charge more for butter and
+      eggs, people find it hard to live.
+
+      7. The office is well-heated and with plenty of light.
+
+      8. The crowds began to watch the fire and cheering
+      loudly.
+
+      9. I heard the opera last year and have gone again
+      this year.
+
+      10. It was wonderful to see how fast they worked and
+      their accuracy.
+
+      11. I can't decide whether to take up stenography or
+      if bookkeeping is better.
+
+      12. He taught us the principles of letter writing, and
+      somewhat of advertising was taken up.
+
+      13. Hoping that the work progressed, and unless a
+      landslide occurred, the Americans expected to remove
+      5,000,000 cubic yards each year.
+
+      14. The study of the earth has always been stimulated
+      by two fundamental passions of humanity--a desire for
+      wealth and because of their curiosity.
+
+      15. He insists on our taking the trip and to go
+      without further delay.
+
+      16. In reviewing, it is well to go over each part of
+      the course carefully, and you should make a note of
+      every point which you do not understand, and let each
+      ask those questions which he himself cannot answer.
+
+      17. Mr. Fitzmorris is a man of great technical skill
+      and who has handled the situation capably.
+
+      18. It will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the
+      trip East and spending the requisite length of time
+      choosing her purchases at the different wholesale
+      houses.
+
+      19. He had assumed control of the office, planned the
+      advertising, and the finances were also directed by
+      him.
+
+      20. We have decided to go on the excursion to the
+      Capitol and at the same time visiting Uncle John.
+
+
+=Exercise 207=
+
+What prevents clearness in the following?
+
+      1. The Federal Government began an investigation into
+      fire conditions in Europe in 1907, through our
+      consuls.
+
+      2. It cost $2.39 a year for fire in the United States
+      between 1901 and 1910, for every man, woman, and
+      child, and Germany does not even pay nineteen cents.
+
+      3. The number of our fires is increasing, which is
+      worse.
+
+      4. In ten years our population has increased 73 per
+      cent and 134 per cent is the increase in fires.
+
+      5. Having considered the details, the conclusion is
+      easily drawn that fire is a disgrace.
+
+      6. He only gets to the office at ten o'clock.
+
+      7. Having settled the plan of attack, the rest was
+      simple.
+
+      8. The manager warned him not to make the mistake
+      again and adding that mistakes are costly.
+
+      9. To keep flannels from shrinking, wash in the
+      following way, and you will find it very satisfactory.
+
+      10. To open a fruit jar run a knife under the edge and
+      it comes off easily.
+
+      11. I didn't even finish half the questions.
+
+      12. Electric lights are economical, clean, and give
+      more light than gas.
+
+      13. You should buy your suit now, both for the sake of
+      economy and style.
+
+      14. If in doubt as to the best word, a book of
+      synonyms should be consulted.
+
+      15. The comma fault is where, two principal clauses
+      are run together without a coördinate conjunction.
+
+Rewrite the following so that it will be correct, concise, and clear:
+
+      The Europeans were anxious for trade with the East,
+      for they were dependent upon them for spices and
+      luxuries. The three routes were through the
+      Mediterranean Sea, over the Suez Peninsula, down the
+      Red Sea, and across to India. Another was through the
+      Mediterranean and then through Arabia. The other was
+      from the Mediterranean and then through the Black Sea
+      and then by land to India. It became necessary to seek
+      a new route because the Turks held Constantinople, and
+      all vessels had to pass through the Mediterranean, and
+      the Turks held this by pirates. The first explorers
+      were working under the leadership of the King of
+      Portugal, and they solved the problem by going around
+      Africa and then to the Indies, but this was too long,
+      and so explorers tried other ways, and the result was
+      the discovery of America.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE PARAGRAPH
+
+
+The sentences developing each of the divisions of a composition make one
+_paragraph_. A paragraph, therefore, is the treatment of one of the
+natural divisions of a subject. The length depends on the topic to be
+treated. Two cautions may be given:
+
+1. Do not write paragraphs containing only one sentence. Such paragraphs
+do not represent divisions of the subject. They are simply statements
+which have not been expanded as they deserve, or they are sentences that
+should be placed with the preceding or succeeding sentences in order to
+make a good paragraph. Some business men in their letters and
+advertisements use the one-sentence paragraph too frequently to
+concentrate the attention of the reader. A writer divides his
+composition into paragraphs in order to aid the reader to follow the
+thoughts he is presenting. When the reader sees the indentation that
+indicates a new paragraph, he thinks that the writer has said all that
+he intends to say on the topic in hand and now intends to open a new
+topic. It is confusing to find that the new paragraph is simply another
+sentence on the same topic as the preceding paragraph. Notice the jerky
+effect of the following extract from a letter:
+
+      We are sending you a copy of our latest catalogue,
+      which gives illustrations and prices of all our stock.
+
+      The illustrations are all made from actual photographs
+      and are faithful in representing the shoe described.
+
+      Bear Brand Shoes are shipped in special fiber cases,
+      thus lessening freight bills and eliminating the
+      annoyance of shortage claims because they cannot be
+      opened without immediate detection.
+
+      Errors of any kind should be reported without delay.
+
+      Imperfect or damaged goods must be returned for our
+      inspection; otherwise no allowance will be made.
+
+2. Do not go to the other extreme, writing paragraphs of great length.
+Much depends, of course, on the matter to be treated, but, as a rule, in
+a student's theme a paragraph should be not longer than one page. If one
+of the divisions of your subject is necessarily long, subdivide it,
+allowing a paragraph to treat each of the subdivisions.
+
+Whether it is to be long or short, a paragraph must treat but one topic;
+from the first sentence to the last, it should be the development of one
+idea. Moreover, this topic must be revealed to the reader in no
+unmistakable way. Sometimes the subject is so simple that the topic may
+easily be gathered from the details given, but usually it is well to
+have one sentence that in a brief or general way states the topic. This
+is called the _topic sentence_. It may be at or near the beginning; in
+this case the rest of the paragraph defines or illustrates what it
+states. It may, however, be found at almost any point in the paragraph,
+not infrequently acting as a sentence of conclusion, summing up the
+details that have been presented.
+
+A paragraph that begins with a topic sentence sometimes ends with a
+sentence of conclusion. The first sentence states the topic, the
+following sentences explain or illustrate it, and the last sentence
+summarizes or otherwise indicates that the topic has been completed.
+This form has been called the _hammock_ paragraph, because it has a
+solid "post" at each end with a mass of details "swinging" between. It
+is a good form to use in writing paragraphs on given subjects, when each
+paragraph is to stand alone, complete in itself, not forming part of a
+longer composition. The practice of writing such paragraphs induces
+clear, forceful thinking.
+
+
+=Exercise 208=
+
+Study the following paragraphs for--
+
+    1. Topic sentence, if there is one.
+    2. Development of the topic.
+    3. Sentence of conclusion, if there is one.
+
+1
+
+      The problem in many large firms is how to develop
+      office efficiency to the highest possible degree. In
+      this respect the monthly examination scheme has been
+      found a great success. The examination consists of a
+      list of questions about merchandise and business
+      procedure. The questions are given out on the last
+      Saturday of the month, and the answers are returned
+      for criticism on the following Wednesday. The
+      employees are told that they may consult as many
+      authorities as they wish, but each man must write his
+      own paper. A poor percentage in three of these tests
+      usually means dismissal. Thus the inefficient are
+      dropped, and the ambitious who have studied are
+      recognized. The vice-president of one concern that
+      uses this system says that it is a strong reminder to
+      his men that they must make themselves worthy of the
+      organization. Besides maintaining an even standard of
+      efficiency, the plan has resulted in developing a
+      number of valuable executives, whose latent powers
+      were brought out by the rigidness of the tests.
+
+2
+
+      Every month the department head in one big eastern
+      concern, watch in hand, times a large force of typists
+      individually, testing how rapidly they can write a
+      letter of 200 words from their shorthand notes.
+      Rapidity, punctuation, spelling, and neatness are
+      carefully recorded. This plan has had a desirable
+      influence in bringing stenographers up to grade in
+      their daily work, because a good examination mark is
+      reduced one-half by careless daily work, and a poor
+      examination mark correspondingly raised by excellent
+      daily work. When both examination average and daily
+      average are excellent, the stenographer's salary is
+      increased; when both are below good, the stenographer
+      is dismissed. In this way the standard of stenographic
+      work is kept high.
+
+3
+
+      In his effort to succeed many a young business man
+      overlooks the detail of business courtesy. He does not
+      realize the value that a buyer places upon that
+      commodity. The more experienced man, however, knows
+      that courtesy does more to hold a buyer than do
+      bargain sales. In our large cities merchants have
+      incurred great expense to fit up rest rooms where
+      customers may spend an idle hour, write letters on
+      stationery that is provided, and read the latest
+      magazines. In the rural districts, where such luxuries
+      are often impossible, the merchant provides chairs for
+      his customers and a place for stationing their teams.
+      The country merchant, however, can often accomplish
+      his object more quickly than the city dealer by
+      spending an hour gossiping with his customers. He
+      recognizes the fact that buyers are flattered when the
+      proprietor himself takes the time to say a few words
+      to them. He knows just as well as his city competitor
+      does, that if a buyer feels at home in his store,
+      sales are practically guaranteed.
+
+4
+
+      The rural landscape of Norway, on the long easterly
+      slope that leads up to the watershed among the
+      mountains on the western coast, is not unlike that of
+      Vermont or New Hampshire. The railway from Christiania
+      to the Randsfjord carried us through a hilly country
+      of scattered farms and villages. Wood played a
+      prominent part in the scenery. There were dark
+      stretches of forest on the hilltops and in the
+      valleys; rivers filled with floating logs; sawmills
+      beside the waterfalls; wooden farmhouses painted
+      white; and rail-fences around the fields. The people
+      seemed sturdy, prosperous, independent. They had the
+      familiar habit of coming down to the station to see
+      the train arrive and depart. We might have fancied
+      ourselves on a journey through the Connecticut valley
+      if it had not been for the soft sing-song of the
+      Norwegian speech and the uniform politeness of the
+      railway officials.
+
+                            --Van Dyke: _Fisherman's Luck._
+
+5
+
+      The plan of the _Spectator_ must be allowed to be both
+      original and eminently happy. Every valuable essay in
+      the series may be read with pleasure separately; yet
+      the five or six hundred essays form a whole, and a
+      whole which has the interest of a novel. It must be
+      remembered, too, that at that time no novel, giving a
+      lively and powerful picture of the common life and
+      manners of England, had appeared. Richardson was
+      working as a compositor. Fielding was robbing birds'
+      nests. Smollett was not yet born. The narrative,
+      therefore, which connects together the Spectator's
+      essays gave to our ancestors their first taste of an
+      exquisite and untried pleasure. That narrative was,
+      indeed, constructed with no art or labor. The events
+      were such events as occur every day. Sir Roger comes
+      up to town to see Eugenio, as the worthy baronet
+      always calls Prince Eugene, goes with the Spectator on
+      the water to Spring Gardens, walks among the tombs in
+      the Abbey, and is frightened by the Mohawks, but
+      conquers his apprehension so far as to go to the
+      theater when the "Distressed Mother" is acted. The
+      Spectator pays a visit in the summer to Coverley Hall,
+      is charmed with the old house, the old butler, and the
+      old chaplain, eats a jack caught by Will Wimble, rides
+      to the assizes, and hears a point of law discussed by
+      Tom Touchy. At last a letter from the honest butler
+      brings to the club the news that Sir Roger is dead.
+      Will Honeycomb marries and reforms at sixty. The club
+      breaks up, and the Spectator resigns his functions.
+      Such events can hardly be said to form a plot; yet
+      they are related with such truth, such grace, such
+      wit, such humor, such pathos, such knowledge of the
+      human heart, such knowledge of the ways of the world
+      that they charm us on the hundredth perusal. We have
+      not the least doubt that if Addison had written a
+      novel on an extensive plan, it would have been
+      superior to any that we possess. As it is, he is
+      entitled to be considered not only as the greatest of
+      the English essayists, but as the forerunner of the
+      great English novelists.
+
+                          --Macaulay: _Essay on Addison._
+
+
+=Exercise 209=
+
+Prepare a paragraph developing each of the following topic sentences:
+
+      1. The kitchen was a cheerful place. (Tell all the
+      details that will explain the word _cheerful_.)
+
+      2. In the kitchen the preparations for the feast went
+      on merrily. (Give the details that will help one get
+      the picture.)
+
+      3. Examinations are helpful to the student. (In what
+      ways are they helpful? If possible, use examples to
+      illustrate the point.)
+
+      4. Winter is more enjoyable than summer. (Contrast the
+      pleasures of the one with those of the other, showing
+      that those of winter are more enjoyable.)
+
+      5. Riding a motorcycle is apt to make a boy reckless.
+      (Develop by using examples.)
+
+      6. A man must like his work if he is to succeed in it.
+
+      7. Farm lands vary in price.
+
+      8. The farmer feeds the world.
+
+      9. Every department store should have regular fire
+      drills.
+
+      10. Every sale ought to be an advertisement.
+
+
+=Exercise 210=
+
+Paragraph the following so that the paragraphs will represent the
+divisions in thought. If there are any topic sentences, underline them.
+
+1
+
+      I have often noticed that every one has his own
+      individual small economies, careful habits of saving
+      fractions of pennies in some one peculiar direction,
+      any disturbance of which annoys him more than spending
+      shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. An old
+      gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the
+      intelligence of the failure of a Joint Stock Bank, in
+      which some of his money was invested, with a stoical
+      mildness, worried his family all through a long
+      summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of
+      cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless
+      bankbook. Of course, the corresponding pages at the
+      other end came out as well, and this little
+      unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy)
+      chafed him more than all the loss of his money.
+      Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they came in.
+      The only way in which he could reconcile himself to
+      such a waste of his cherished article was by patiently
+      turning inside out all that were sent to him, and so
+      making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by
+      age, I see him casting wistful glances at his
+      daughters when they send a whole inside of a
+      half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines of
+      acceptance to an invitation written on only one of the
+      sides. I am not above owning that I have this human
+      weakness myself. String is my foible. My pockets get
+      full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted
+      together, ready for uses that never come. I am
+      seriously annoyed if any one cuts a string of a parcel
+      instead of patiently and faithfully undoing it fold by
+      fold. How people can bring themselves to use
+      India-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of
+      string, as lightly as they do I cannot imagine. To me
+      an India-rubber band is a precious treasure. I have
+      one which is not new--one that I picked up off the
+      floor nearly five years ago. I have really tried to
+      use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit
+      the extravagance. Small pieces of butter grieve
+      others. They cannot attend to conversation because of
+      the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some
+      people have of invariably taking more butter than they
+      want. Have you ever seen the anxious look (almost
+      mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article? They
+      would feel it a relief if they might bury it out of
+      their sight by popping it into their own mouths and
+      swallowing it down; and they are really made happy if
+      the person on whose plate it lies unused suddenly
+      breaks off a piece of toast (which he does not want at
+      all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is
+      not waste. Now, Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of
+      candles: We had many devices to use as few as
+      possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit
+      knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in
+      the dark or by firelight--and when I asked if I might
+      not ring for candles to finish stitching my
+      wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's holiday."
+      They were usually brought in with tea, but we burnt
+      only one at a time. As we lived in constant
+      preparation for a friend who might come in any evening
+      (but who never did), it required some contrivance to
+      keep our two candles of the same length, ready to be
+      lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The
+      candles took it in turns; and then, whatever we might
+      be talking of or doing, Miss Matty kept her eyes
+      habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and
+      extinguish it and light the other before they had
+      become too uneven in length to be restored to equality
+      in the course of the evening.
+
+                    --Adapted from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_.
+
+2
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      We are sorry to say that we have no more house coats
+      No. SP62 in size 38 at $4.50. As we advertised, SP62
+      is not a regular stock number, but represents a
+      collection of $5, $6, and $7.50 coats remaining after
+      the holiday sales and reduced to insure their being
+      sold before spring. At the opening of the sale there
+      were only a few coats in size 38, and they were sold
+      almost at once. In our catalogue, pages 68 to 71
+      inclusive, you will find descriptions of all our stock
+      house coats. On page 68 you will see No. 450HC, our
+      regular $4.50 coat. If you would like us to send you
+      one of these in size 38, we shall forward it to you at
+      once. However, if you would like a $5, $6, or $7.50
+      coat, you will, no doubt, send us the difference in
+      price on receipt of this letter. Of course, the more
+      expensive garments are made of better materials, but
+      all our coats show the same excellent workmanship. The
+      best way for you to get the exact shade of trimming
+      that you wish is to send us a sample of the goods that
+      you would like to match. We assure you that we shall
+      take all possible care to send you the proper color.
+
+                                          Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 211=
+
+Paragraphs may be developed in different ways. For example, if you were
+going to write on the process of making a layer cake, you would explain
+in detail the different ingredients in the mixture, the proportion of
+each, and the steps in the process before the product could be sold as a
+layer cake.
+
+By the use of explanatory details develop the following:
+
+     1. Making a kite.
+     2. Making a baseball.
+     3. Making fudge.
+     4. How to play checkers.
+     5. The manufacture of soap (or any article in a grocery).
+     6. The manufacture of a tin can.
+     7. The manufacture of pins.
+     8. Every man must have an ambition.
+     9. Why I intend to enter business.
+    10. The greatest modern invention.
+
+By the use of examples to illustrate your point develop the following:
+
+    1. Electricity is making housework easy and pleasant.
+    2. Many sons of poor parents have won great wealth.
+    3. The wireless apparatus has saved many lives.
+    4. A boy can show that he is a good citizen.
+    5. Young Americans have little respect for authority.
+
+By the use of comparison and contrast develop the following:
+
+    1. Improvements in modern lighting systems.
+    2. Improvements in modern heating systems.
+    3. Improvements in modern means of locomotion.
+    4. Two kinds of work, pleasure, or study.
+    5. Why I intend to have a business of my own.
+    6. The study that I like best.
+
+By explaining cause and effect develop the following:
+
+    1. The advantages of public gymnasiums.
+    2. The success of loose leaf devices.
+    3. The objections to football.
+
+
+=Exercise 212=
+
+Develop the following into paragraphs; in each case be able to show what
+method or methods you have employed:
+
+      1. A man who cannot read and write English should not
+      be allowed to vote.
+
+      2. Postal savings banks inspire the savings habit.
+
+      3. Women--the mothers of children--should vote.
+
+      4. Women should not vote because they do not read the
+      newspaper.
+
+      5. The effect of school slang is bad.
+
+      6. I wish I had seen the coronation of George V. Every
+      fairy story I had ever read would suddenly have become
+      real.
+
+      7. Canada would gain by reciprocity with the United
+      States.
+
+      8. The United States would gain by reciprocity with
+      Canada.
+
+      9. Our forests should be preserved.
+
+      10. The waste of lumber by forest fires results from
+      carelessness.
+
+      11. The waste of lumber in cutting railroad ties is
+      too great.
+
+      12. The rotation of crops enriches the soil.
+
+      13. Apples are more easily gathered than cherries.
+
+      14. Efforts should be made to keep the birds in our
+      city parks.
+
+      15. Every boy should learn a trade.
+
+      16. Peddlers should not be allowed to call their
+      wares.
+
+      17. Great crowds gathered in the city during aviation
+      week (or any celebration).
+
+      18. The electric toaster is good for hurry-up
+      breakfasts.
+
+      19. Ironing with an electric iron is more convenient
+      than with the old-fashioned kind.
+
+      20. The wireless apparatus makes sea voyages safer
+      than before.
+
+      21. A mixed diet is best.
+
+      22. Cats should be exterminated because they spread
+      disease.
+
+      23. The parcel post will decrease the profits of the
+      express companies.
+
+      24. A good book is opened with expectation and closed
+      with profit.
+
+      25. Merchants should charge for delivering purchases.
+
+      26. The object of the Child Welfare Exhibit is to
+      promote the best interests of children.
+
+      27. One of the best enactments of our time is the
+      Child Labor Law.
+
+
+=Exercise 213--Smooth Connection=
+
+We may as well confess at the beginning that smooth connection between
+sentences and paragraphs is a hard thing to learn. Primarily, it depends
+on clear thinking. In Exercise 135 we saw that the idea of one sentence
+must grow out of the idea of the preceding one. It is the same with
+paragraphs. The thought must develop gradually from one to the next.
+Each paragraph, we know, represents a unit within the larger unit of the
+composition; each represents a division of thought. Not infrequently the
+thought of one division differs considerably from the thought of the
+next. The tying together of such units is sometimes hard. It may be done
+in one of the following ways:
+
+1. By repeating at the beginning of the new paragraph or sentence part
+of the preceding paragraph or sentence.
+
+2. By using pronouns to refer to what has gone before.
+
+3. By using connecting links, sometimes called _transition words_
+because they indicate the transition from one division to the next.
+Besides those mentioned in Exercise 135, we may use a numeral
+connection, as, _in the first place_, _in the second place_; or an
+expression much like a numeral, as, _furthermore_, _in the next place_;
+or an expression showing that an adverse idea is to be presented, as,
+_on the other hand_, _however_, _in spite of this_, _nevertheless_. But
+whatever you do, choose the right link, especially if you use such a one
+as _possibly_, _probably_, _perhaps_, _certainly_, _surely_. Use the one
+that expresses your idea exactly. Have none rather than the wrong one.
+
+In the following the first and second paragraphs are connected according
+to (1) above; the second and third are connected according to (3) above.
+
+      There comes to every prosperous man a time when he
+      wishes to know the best way of securing a steady
+      income from his accumulated savings without the burden
+      of responsibility of managing some property in order
+      to gain his income. The merchant may not wish to put
+      back into the business all the earnings he gets from
+      it, and yet he wishes to prepare for his old age. The
+      farmer may wish to give up active work, but he
+      realizes how soon his broad acres may deteriorate
+      through soil-robbery when he rents his property "on
+      shares." With such a problem before him the thoughtful
+      man makes an effort to _learn_ how to act to secure a
+      good _income_ all his life.
+
+      One of the first things he _learns_, if he studies the
+      situation carefully, is that there is a wide
+      difference between an _income_ derived from one's
+      business ability, such as the profit secured from
+      running a store, factory, jobbing house, or farm, and
+      the income which is derived as the result of money
+      "working" by itself. In the first case, a man must of
+      necessity keep up his business responsibilities; in
+      the other, once he has selected a safe investment,
+      practically all he has to do is to collect his income
+      from time to time as it falls due. There is in the
+      latter no depreciation of land, buildings, machinery,
+      or the like; no insurance payments to worry about; no
+      crop failures to consider.
+
+      _It is evident, then_, that if one wishes to put
+      surplus money away--say the proceeds from the sale of
+      a business or a farm--and get a steady income from it
+      without bother or worry, the most important thing to
+      consider is how to go about it to select something
+      which, once purchased, will turn out to be a safe
+      investment.
+
+
+=Exercise 214=
+
+In the following paragraphs taken from Robert Louis Stevenson's _The
+Philosophy of Nomenclature_, point out all the transition words that
+join (1) sentence to sentence, and (2) paragraph to paragraph:
+
+      To begin, then: the influence of our name makes itself
+      felt from the very cradle. As a schoolboy I remember
+      the pride with which I hailed Robin Hood, Robert
+      Bruce, and Robert le Diable as my name-fellows; and
+      the feeling of sore disappointment that fell on my
+      heart when I found a freebooter or a general who did
+      not share with me a single one of my numerous
+      _praenomina_. Look at the delight with which two
+      children find they have the same name. They are
+      friends from that moment forth; they have a bond of
+      union stronger than exchange of nuts and sweetmeats.
+      This feeling, I own, wears off in later life. Our
+      names lose their freshness and interest, become trite
+      and indifferent. But this, dear reader, is merely one
+      of the sad effects of those "shades of the prison
+      house" which come gradually betwixt us and nature with
+      advancing years; it affords no weapon against the
+      philosophy of names.
+
+      In after life, although we fail to trace its working,
+      that name which careless godfathers lightly applied to
+      your unconscious infancy will have been moulding your
+      character and influencing with irresistible power the
+      whole course of your earthly fortunes. But the last
+      name is no whit less important as a condition of
+      success. Family names, we must recollect, are but
+      inherited nicknames; and if the _sobriquet_ were
+      applicable to the ancestor, it is most likely
+      applicable to the descendant also. You would not
+      expect to find Mr. M'Phun acting as a mute or Mr.
+      M'Lumpha excelling as a professor of dancing.
+      Therefore, in what follows, we shall consider names,
+      independent of whether they are first or last. And to
+      begin with, look what a pull _Cromwell_ had over
+      _Pym_--the one name full of a resonant imperialism,
+      the other mean, pettifogging, and unheroic to a
+      degree. Who would expect eloquence from _Pym_--who
+      would read poems by _Pym_--who would bow to the
+      opinions of _Pym_? He might have been a dentist, but
+      he should never have aspired to be a statesman. I can
+      only wonder that he succeeded as he did. Pym and
+      Habakkuk stand first upon the roll of men who have
+      triumphed, by sheer force of genius, over the most
+      unfavorable appellations. But even these have
+      suffered; and, had they been more fitly named, the one
+      might have been Lord Protector and the other have
+      shared the laurels with Isaiah. In this matter we must
+      not forget that all our great poets have borne great
+      names. Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Pope,
+      Wordsworth, Shelley--what a constellation of lordly
+      words! Not a single commonplace name among them--not a
+      Brown, not a Jones, not a Robinson; they are all names
+      that one would stop and look at on a door-plate. Now,
+      imagine if _Pepys_ had tried to clamber somehow into
+      the enclosure of poetry, what a blot would that name
+      have made upon the list! The thing is impossible. In
+      the first place, a certain natural consciousness that
+      men have would have held him down to the level of his
+      name, would have prevented him from rising above the
+      Pepsine standard, and so haply withheld him altogether
+      from attempting verse. Next, the booksellers would
+      refuse to publish, and the world to read them, on the
+      mere evidence of the fatal appellation. And now,
+      before I close this section, I must say one word as to
+      _punnable_ names, names that stand alone, that have a
+      significance and life apart from him that bears them.
+      These are the bitterest of all. One friend of mine
+      goes bowed and humbled through life under the weight
+      of this misfortune; for it is an awful thing when a
+      man's name is a joke, when he cannot be mentioned
+      without exciting merriment, and when even the
+      intimation of his death bids fair to carry laughter
+      into many a home.
+
+      So much for people who are badly named. Now for people
+      who are _too_ well named, who go topheavy from the
+      font, who are baptized into a false position, and who
+      find themselves beginning life eclipsed under the fame
+      of some of the great ones of the past. A man, for
+      instance, called William Shakespeare could never dare
+      to write plays. He is thrown into too humbling an
+      apposition with the author of _Hamlet_. His own name
+      coming after is such an anti-climax. "The plays of
+      William Shakespeare?" says the reader--"O no! The
+      plays of William Shakespeare Cockerill," and he throws
+      the book aside. In wise pursuance of such views, Mr.
+      John Milton Hengler, who not long since delighted us
+      in this favored town, has never attempted to write an
+      epic, but has chosen a new path and has excelled upon
+      the tight-rope. A marked example of triumph over this
+      is the case of Mr. Dante Gabriel Rosetti. On the face
+      of the matter, I should have advised him to imitate
+      the pleasing modesty of the last-named gentleman, and
+      confine his ambition to the sawdust. But Mr. Rosetti
+      has triumphed. He has even dared to translate from his
+      mighty name-father; and the voice of fame supports him
+      in his boldness.
+
+
+=Exercise 215=
+
+Turn back to Exercise 210, 1. How are the different paragraphs that you
+have made connected?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+BUSINESS LETTERS
+
+
+NOT long ago the head of one of the biggest mail order firms in this
+country said: "Business needs the boys and the girls. Do not let them
+think they can be but cogs in the great system of wheels. More to-day
+than at any previous time the world needs men and women who can speak
+and write _themselves_ into English. Four hundred million dollars is
+wasted every year in unprofitable advertising alone, and as much more in
+bad handling of good prospects and loss of customers through inefficient
+letters. We look to the future generation to conserve a part of this
+enormous loss. If a single page advertisement in a single issue costs
+$7500, what you say on that page is important. Look into any current
+magazine, and you will be tremendously impressed with the importance of
+English in this branch alone, not to mention its importance in letter
+writing."
+
+There is no greater power in business to-day than the ability to use
+convincing English in correspondence and in advertising. Any one who can
+write good letters, letters that the reader feels he must answer, has
+success ahead of him, because the market of a good letter is practically
+unrestricted. Wherever a letter can penetrate, it may create desire for
+an article and make sales.
+
+But what is a good letter? Nothing more than a bit of good English. Can
+you write clear, direct, crisp, yet fluent English? Then you can write
+good letters--but not till then.
+
+In modern business the letter has become the advertiser, the salesman,
+the collector, and the adjuster of claims. An advertisement must be
+attractive; it must arouse the interest of the one who sees it. A
+salesman must understand human nature; he must forestall objections by
+showing the customer how he will gain by buying. The collector and the
+adjuster of claims must be courteous and at the same time shrewd. If a
+letter is to meet all of these requirements it cannot be dashed off at a
+moment's notice. It must be thought out in detail and written carefully
+to include all that should be expressed. This means, especially in a
+sales letter:
+
+1. An unusually worded opening that puts the writer's affairs in the
+background and the reader's gain in the foreground. Begin with _you_,
+not _we_. The reader is interested in himself, his own progress, his own
+troubles, and not in the possessions of the writer, except as the writer
+can show that those possessions affect him.
+
+3. A clear, simply worded explanation of the purpose of the letter.
+
+3. Proof of advantages to the reader.
+
+4. Persuasion or inducement to act now.
+
+5. Conclusion, making this action easy.
+
+Above all, if a letter is to be good, it must not be too short. In the
+pursuit of brevity too many pupils in business English make the mistake
+of writing altogether too little to get the reader's attention; and if
+his attention is not aroused, the letter fails. The letter should be
+long enough to suggest interest in the welfare of the reader and
+enthusiasm for the subject under discussion.
+
+Enthusiasm in business involves knowledge both of your project and of
+your customer. You cannot attempt to write a letter of any kind unless
+you know the facts that require it. Perhaps it is a complaint that you
+must try to settle. Without a knowledge of the facts, of the truth or
+the untruth of the claim, how can you write the letter? Sometimes it
+requires both time and study to gather the necessary details, but they
+must be gathered.
+
+When you have your details and begin writing, be sincere. You must be so
+absolutely in earnest that the reader will at once feel and begin to
+share your enthusiasm.
+
+Knowledge of the person to whom you are writing is fully as important as
+knowledge of your subject. You must get his point of view, understand
+his character, and appeal to the qualities that you recognize in it, to
+the desires or ambitions, that it shows. To a certain extent all of us
+are alike. There are certain fundamental interests that we all possess;
+these may safely be appealed to at almost all times. But our employment,
+our habits of life, our ways of thinking make us different. The same
+argument, probably, will not always bring satisfactory replies from a
+manufacturer, a farmer, a judge, a minister or priest, a carpenter, and
+a woman. Some people like to receive a long letter that goes carefully
+into detail; others will not take the time to read such a letter. Each
+customer must be studied. This is so difficult a matter that no one can
+expect to learn it all at once.
+
+Finally, from the first word to the last be courteous. No matter how
+righteous your indignation, be courteous. You cannot afford to lose your
+temper. Courtesy does not imply flattery nor a lack of truth. Your
+letter can be strong and yet polite in tone. Lose your temper, and your
+letter will probably fail. Keep your temper, show thoughtfulness for the
+reader's interest, and your letter will more likely fulfill its purpose.
+
+
+=Exercise 216--The Form of the Letter=
+
+Before we look at some actual letters to judge of their effectiveness,
+we must learn the conventional form of a letter, the parts which many
+years of use have shown to be necessary. There are six parts to a formal
+or business letter:
+
+      1. The heading, which includes the writer's address
+      and the date.
+
+      2. The introduction, which includes the name and the
+      address of the one to whom you are writing.
+
+      3. The salutation; for example, Dear Sir:
+
+      4. The body of the letter, the important part.
+
+      5. The courteous close; for example, Yours truly,
+
+      6. The signature.
+
+Each part ends with a period except the salutation, which ends with a
+colon, and the courteous close, which ends with a comma. The various
+groups of words within the heading and the introduction are separated by
+commas.
+
+Why does the salutation end with a colon?
+
+Why does the courteous close end with a comma?
+
+
+The Arrangement
+
+In the following, notice the spacing. If the heading is short, it is put
+on one line; as,
+
+
+    _Heading_                        Hilliard, Fla., June 30, 1914.
+
+    _Introduction_        Mr. Thomas Barrett,
+                            Boston, Mass.
+
+    _Salutation_          Dear Sir:
+
+    _Body_                     ....................................
+                          .........................................
+                          ......................
+
+    _Courteous close_                        Yours truly,
+
+    _Signature_                                  Samuel Garth
+
+If the heading is long, arrange it in one of the following ways:
+
+1
+
+                                       334 Lexington Ave., Chicago,
+                                                      May 19, 1915.
+
+    Mr. Thomas Barrett,
+        Boston, Mass.
+    Dear Sir:
+
+2
+
+    334 Lexington Ave.,
+        Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915.
+
+3
+
+             334 Lexington Ave.,
+    Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915.
+
+4
+
+    334 Lexington Ave.,
+       Chicago, Ill.,
+          May 19, 1915.
+
+The superscription on the envelope is arranged and punctuated like the
+introduction in the letter, except that the punctuation may be omitted
+from the end of lines.
+
+There is a growing tendency to "block" the different parts of a letter;
+that is, to begin each item of each part directly below the first, with
+no indentation.
+
+There is also a tendency to use no abbreviations (except for titles like
+_Mr._), the name of the month and of the state and the word _street_,
+_avenue_, or _building_ being spelled out.
+
+      NOTE.--The punctuation as shown in the examples given
+      above is that in more prevalent use. Certain writers,
+      however, advocate the omission from the formal parts
+      of the letter of commas at the end of lines and of
+      periods (except to show abbreviations).
+
+Arrange the following headings, supplying capitals and punctuation
+marks:
+
+      1. 55 water st mobile ala june 16 19--
+
+      2. calmar iowa september 1 19--
+
+      3. 453 marquette building chicago ill jan 5 19--
+
+      4. 123 salem st springfield mass june 23 19--
+
+      5. highland park grand haven mich may 3 19--
+
+      6. 220 broadway new york n y february 15 19--
+
+      7. 78 main street portland oregon december 10 19--
+
+      8. 32 lincoln st kansas city mo oct 2 19--
+
+      9. room 15 1321 pennsylvania ave washington d c sept 2
+      19--
+
+      10. 25 chestnut st philadelphia pa april 14 19--
+
+      11. 212 tribune building new york n y march 2 19--
+
+      12. 98 dorchester ave boston mass feb 12 19--
+
+      13. 24 milk st boston mass June 14 19--
+
+      14. 231 west 39th st new york city march 4 19--
+
+      15. 345 newark ave jersey city n j (supply date)
+
+      16. 44 fifth ave detroit mich sept 1 19--
+
+      17. 102 west 42d st denver colorado (date)
+
+      18. Explain the difference between (16) and (17).
+      Notice that the name of the street in each case is a
+      numeral. Why is it spelled out in (16) and not in
+      (17)?
+
+
+=Exercise 217=
+
+Supplying the name of the firm and the business engaged in, write letter
+heads using the items given in Exercise 216. For example:
+
+
+    BARRETT, BROWN & CO.
+         _Groceries_
+          55 Water Street
+
+                           Decorah, Iowa, -- 19
+
+When may & be used?
+
+What is the advantage of using a letter head?
+
+In making letter heads, imagine you are a printer. Arrange the items so
+that they may show to the best advantage. Let your lines of printing or
+writing be of different lengths. Add any details that you wish, such as
+trade-mark designs or the names of officers.
+
+Arrange and punctuate:
+
+      1. citronelle business mens association citronelle
+      alabama may 2 19-- mr john harvey 19 e monroe st
+      rochester n y dear sir
+
+      2. 173 broadway new york June 10 19-- mr walter thomas
+      191 e main st waltham mass dear sir
+
+      3. 25 broad st maplewood n h messrs hausen & ottman 18
+      la salle station chicago ill gentlemen (supply date)
+
+      4. john randolph & co druggist 14 jefferson st
+      charleston s c jan 8 19-- gerhard mennen & co newark n
+      j gentlemen (letter head)
+
+      5. 43 south 5th ave madison wis aug 8 19-- the white
+      mountain freezer co nashua n h gentlemen
+
+Address an envelope for each of the above, using the following as a
+model.
+
+    +------------------------------------------+
+    |                                          |
+    |                                          |
+    |                                          |
+    |                                          |
+    |           Barrett, Brown & Co.,          |
+    |                     55 Water Street,     |
+    |                         Decorah, Iowa.   |
+    |                                          |
+    +------------------------------------------+
+
+
+=Exercise 218--Cautions=
+
+_The Heading_
+
+Always date your letters.
+
+Give your full address, even if you are certain that the one to whom you
+are writing knows it.
+
+_The Introduction_
+
+The person addressed must always be given a title. If you address one
+man, use _Mr._; if a firm, use _Messrs._; if a woman, _Miss_ or _Mrs._
+If a man has a title like _Professor_ or _Doctor_, it should be used,
+and _Mr._, of course, omitted.
+
+_Hon._ (Honorable) is used for a person who holds, or who has held, a
+public office. It is a very formal title.
+
+_Esq._(Esquire) is a legal form used by some correspondents in
+addressing any man. It is an English usage. It always follows the name,
+and, if it is used, _Mr._ is omitted. In this country _Mr._ is
+preferable.
+
+In writing to a man in his official capacity, the following form is
+correct when there is no street number or when the title is short.
+Notice that _Mr._ is omitted.
+
+    G. N. Fratt, Cashier,
+      First National Bank,
+        Racine, Wis.
+
+The following is correct when the title is long:
+
+    Mr. John Frederick Pierce,
+      Ass't. Engineer of Bridges and Buildings,
+        607 White Building, Seattle, Wash.
+
+Notice that in the last example, the city and the state are put on the
+same line as the street in order to make the three lines of about the
+same length. Four lines might have been used.
+
+_The Salutation_
+
+If you address one man, the salutation is _Dear Sir_; as,
+
+    Mr. John Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+
+    Dear Sir:
+
+If you address a firm, the salutation is _Gentlemen_; as,
+
+    Messrs. Brownleigh & King,
+        Portland, Oregon.
+
+    Gentlemen:
+
+If you address a woman, married or single, the salutation in business
+letters is _Dear Madam_; as,
+
+1.
+
+    Mrs. John Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+
+    Dear Madam:
+
+2.
+
+    Miss Florence Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+
+    Dear Madam:
+
+A more familiar form of salutation is either of the following:
+
+1
+
+    Miss Florence Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+    My dear Miss Pierce:
+
+2
+
+    Miss Florence Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+    Dear Miss Pierce:
+
+In using _Hon._, the salutation is usually _Sir_.
+
+_The Courteous Close_
+
+The courteous close corresponds in tone to the salutation. If the
+salutation is _Dear Sir_, _Gentlemen_, or _Dear Madam_, the courteous
+close should be one of the following:
+
+    Yours truly,
+    Yours very truly,
+    Very truly yours,
+    Respectfully yours,
+    Yours respectfully,
+    Sincerely yours,
+    Very sincerely yours,
+
+If the salutation is _Sir_, the courteous close should be _Respectfully
+yours_ or _Yours respectfully_.
+
+If the body of the letter and the courteous close do not agree in tone,
+the effect is often ridiculous. Suppose, for instance, that the
+courteous close of (2) under Exercise 220 were _Yours respectfully_.
+What would be the effect?
+
+_The Signature_
+
+If an unmarried woman is signing a business letter, she should avoid
+confusion by prefixing (Miss) to her name.
+
+A married woman should sign her own name, as, _Alice Pierce_; she should
+indicate her title, as _Mrs. John F. Pierce_, either below the other or
+at one side.
+
+No other title should be prefixed to a signature.
+
+If a letter is signed by the name of a firm, the signature of the one
+who dictated the letter is usually added; as,
+
+    Yours very truly,
+        Smith Lumber Co.
+            by ----
+
+This sort of signature gives a letter the "personal touch." Explain.
+
+
+Folding a Letter
+
+Business letter paper is about eight by ten inches. In folding a letter
+sheet, (1) turn the lower edge up to about one-eighth of an inch from
+the top; press the fold firmly, keeping the edges even; (2) turn the
+paper so that the folded edge is at your _left_ hand; (3) fold _from_
+you a little less than one-third the width of the sheet; (4) fold the
+upper edge _down_ toward you so that it projects a trifle beyond the
+folded edge. Without turning it over, pick it up and insert it in the
+envelope, putting in _first_ the edge that was folded last.
+
+Write the address and the salutation for:
+
+      1. A business house in your town.
+
+      2. Mr. John R. Tobin, president of the Detroit State
+      Bank, Detroit, Mich.
+
+      3. Miss Mabel Gunther, Shullsburg, Wis.
+
+      4. Professor C. M. Watson, Harvard College, Cambridge,
+      Mass.
+
+      5. John F. Campbell, Manager Bond Department, First
+      Trust and Savings Bank, Boston, Mass.
+
+      6. Taylor and Critchfield, Chicago, Ill.
+
+      7. Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald, 126 E. Second Street,
+      Washington, Ia.
+
+Write the courteous close and the signature for:
+
+      1. A letter from a business house in your town signed
+      by F. R. Wilson.
+
+      2. A letter from Miss Mabel Gunther (2 above).
+
+      3. A letter from Professor C. M. Watson (4 above).
+
+      4. A letter signed by John F. Campbell (5 above).
+
+      5. A letter from Taylor and Critchfield signed by you
+      yourself.
+
+      6. A letter from Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald (7 above).
+
+
+=Exercise 219--Ordering Goods=
+
+If an order includes a number of separate items, it is usually written
+on a separate sheet of paper. Firms often supply blanks for this
+purpose. If the order is short, it forms part of the letter. In any
+case, each item is placed on a separate line, so that the items may be
+checked as the order is filled. In the following, notice the arrangement
+and the punctuation:
+
+
+                         Hamilton, Montana, Feb. 16, 1914.
+
+    Messrs. MacBride & Dickens,
+        New York, N. Y.
+
+    Gentlemen:
+
+      At your earliest convenience please ship me the
+      following via the Northern Express Co. from St. Paul:
+
+    6 doz. A 68 assorted sizes Men's Black Caps @ 1.50  9.00
+    5 doz. D 71 Men's Cotton Handkerchiefs      @  .60  3.00
+    5 doz. X 30 Men's Linen Handkerchiefs       @ 2.00 10.00
+                                                      ------
+                                                      $22.00
+
+      Enclosed find a draft on New York for twenty-two
+      dollars.
+
+                                       Yours truly,
+                                              S. D. Jensen
+
+Write the letters outlined below:
+
+      1. Order fifty copies of the Business Arithmetic that
+      you are using. How shall you pay for them?
+
+      2. Clip from a newspaper an advertisement of
+      groceries. Imagine that you are a housekeeper, and
+      spend ten dollars to the best advantage, ordering
+      several articles.
+
+      3. Bring in an advertisement of household
+      necessities--linens, tinware, etc. Spend five dollars,
+      buying several articles.
+
+      4. Bring in an advertisement of furniture. Write a
+      letter ordering enough to furnish a parlor or a dining
+      room. Have the amount charged to your account.
+
+      5. A magazine offers one of several books as a premium
+      with a year's subscription. Answer the advertisement.
+
+
+=Exercise 220--The Tone of the Letter=
+
+Undue familiarity or an evidence of loss of temper will at once
+frustrate the object of a letter. A dignified letter never shows either.
+Just what constitutes a dignified letter is hard to define but fairly
+easy to feel. This much is certain: it must be simple in structure,
+direct in its wording, and so sincere in feeling that no one will doubt
+its truth. Any extravagance of language, therefore, has no place in a
+dignified letter.
+
+Study the following to see whether they show dignity:
+
+1
+
+
+                               Tuesday, 5 P.M.
+
+    Miss Sarah Howard,
+        Denver, Colorado.
+
+    Dear Madam:
+
+      I have a great piece of CONFIDENTIAL news for you.
+
+      Take advantage of the remarkable offer our company is
+      making to you, and it will mean thousands of DOLLARS
+      in your pocket. Understand that this offer is not open
+      to every one. You have been especially selected. You
+      are the only one in your town who will hear of this
+      remarkable offer.
+
+2
+
+
+    Elsworth, Brown & Co.,
+        120 Jefferson Ave.,
+            Detroit, Mich.
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      What is the matter with our last order? Have you
+      people gone out of business, or are you asleep? If we
+      don't get that order by the third, you'll never hear
+      from us again.
+
+3
+
+A letter to Mrs. Bixby, written Nov. 21, 1864.
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      I have been shown in the file of the War Department a
+      statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts
+      that you are the mother of five sons who have died
+      gloriously on the field of battle. I feel how weak and
+      fruitless must be any words of mine which should
+      beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming.
+      But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the
+      consolation that may be found in the thanks of the
+      republic they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly
+      Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement,
+      and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved
+      and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours to
+      have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of
+      freedom.
+
+                Yours very sincerely and respectfully,
+                                       Abraham Lincoln
+
+
+=Exercise 221=
+
+In writing the following letters, be definite and courteous:
+
+      1. You have advertised your eight-room, furnace-heated
+      house for sale for $3,500. A letter of inquiry desires
+      particulars. Answer it.
+
+      2. You live on a side street, which for the last week
+      has not been lighted. Write to the editor of the
+      paper, or to a town official, whichever you think
+      would remedy the matter. Be courteous. A letter to an
+      editor is begun: To the Editor of ----.
+
+      3. The cars on which you ride every day are very
+      dirty. Write to the mayor. He is addressed: Hon. ----.
+
+      4. You wish to have a telephone installed. Make
+      application.
+
+      5. Two weeks ago you wrote (4). Still you have no
+      telephone. Write again, stating the substance of (4)
+      and asking the reason for the delay.
+
+      6. Write the telephone company's reply. Be very
+      courteous. What good reason could you give for the
+      delay?
+
+      7. You understand that your Congressman has the
+      privilege of recommending a young man for the entrance
+      examinations of your state university. Write to him,
+      asking that he recommend you. Remember that he is a
+      stranger to you. What should you tell him?
+
+
+=Exercise 222.--Mistaken Ideas in Letter Writing=
+
+It is too bad that, to a number of people, the term _business letter_
+conveys the idea of a colorless, stilted composition full of trite and
+almost meaningless business formulas. No one reads such a letter unless
+he has to, and surely that is not the kind one should practice writing.
+Below are given a few of the expressions that should be avoided.
+
+I. Sometimes a writer tries to impress a reader with the volume of
+business he is doing by showing haste in his correspondence; as, in
+
+1. Omitting the subject; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: In reply to your question will say ----
+    _Right_: In reply to your question I will say ----
+
+2. Omitting articles and prepositions; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: Direct package care Western Canning Co.
+    _Right_: Direct the package in care of the Western Canning Co.
+
+3. Using abbreviations
+
+      _a._ Of the introduction. Write out the introduction
+      in detail, both name and address. Abbreviating this
+      part of the letter is highly discourteous.
+
+      _b._ In the body of the letter; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: The Co. sent a no. of large orders last year.
+
+      _c._ Of the courteous close; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: Yours etc.
+    _Wrong_: Yours resp'y.
+
+4. Using a phrase as a sentence; as,
+
+      _Wrong_: Yours of the 6th at hand and contents noted.
+
+It is much better to refer indirectly to the receipt of a letter; as,
+
+      In the order you sent us on Aug. 5  ----
+
+The same sort of mistake is seen in the all too frequent closing:
+
+    _Wrong_: Hoping that we hear from you soon,
+                                               Yours truly,
+    _Right_: Hoping that we hear from you soon, we are
+                                               Yours truly,
+
+Why use such an expression at all? Avoid _hoping_, _trusting_,
+_awaiting_, or any other artificial closing.
+
+II. Sometimes a writer makes an effort to be extremely courteous, but
+fails because he uses hackneyed wording; as,
+
+      1. _Kindly._--A good word in itself but greatly
+      abused.
+
+      2. _We beg to state._--Never use _beg_ in this sense.
+      You have no right to beg attention; earn it.
+
+      3. _Your favor_, _your esteemed favor_, _your valued
+      favor_.--Say, _Your letter_.
+
+      4. _Will you be so good as to._--Belongs in the class
+      with _beg to state_. Make your requests courteously,
+      but directly.
+
+      5. _Would say._--Avoid this expression.
+
+III. Sometimes in an effort to be clear a writer uses _same_ as a
+pronoun; as,
+
+      _Wrong_: If the books are not satisfactory, return
+      same.
+
+This is one of the worst of the distinctly business blunders. _Same_ is
+never a pronoun. Write to a man as you talk to him and you will not use
+_same_ in this way. (See Exercise 88.)
+
+IV. Sometimes in order to get attention a writer will use a liberal
+sprinkling of dashes and capitals, probably in imitation of advertising
+copy. Better than such artificial means is the attraction of a well
+worded letter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Criticise the following letters, pointing out all the expressions that
+should be improved. Rewrite the letters.
+
+1
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      We beg to acknowledge your esteemed favor of Apr. 6.
+      In regard to shoes received by you in poor shape as
+      per complaint, would say that on receipt of same will
+      try to locate cause of trouble. If due to defect in
+      manufacture, will credit you with value of same.
+
+      Hoping this is satisfactory to you,
+
+                                     Yours truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Yours of March 18 at hand. Referring to matter of
+      short weight, I beg to call your attention to C & A
+      car 87324, which you loaded for us March 7 at your
+      Auburn mine, gross weight 121,400 lbs. This car was
+      check weighed at Peoria March 11 on your company's
+      scales and showed gross weight 113,200 lbs. or
+      shortage 8,200 lbs. Having investigated car, I find
+      same was in good order and no indication of leakage,
+      and it would appear to be a case of carelessness at
+      time of loading. Therefore will request you to kindly
+      send me cr. memo, on 8,200 lbs.
+
+                                          Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 223--The Sales Letter=
+
+The object of the sales letter is to make the reader buy. How can you do
+it? To begin with, get his point of view--that of the user. Then imagine
+that he is present and talk to him on paper. Get his interest with your
+opening sentence. Explain what you have to sell. Show him that he needs
+it. Whet his desire to possess it, and, finally, make it easy and
+imperative for him to order today.
+
+The opening paragraph is all-important. It may make or mar a letter. If
+it is stilted or lacks directness, if it hasn't the personal, natural
+tone that makes the reader feel you are talking to him, or if it is
+stereotyped in its wording, the letter will probably go to the
+waste-basket.
+
+Contrast the two letters that follow. Both were written to accompany a
+catalogue. Notice that the first begins and ends in a stereotyped way;
+has too few details to arouse interest; asks for an order but has no
+inducement to give one now; and, throughout, lacks the personal,
+convincing tone that makes the second a good selling letter. Notice that
+the second begins with _you_, not with _we_, and keeps the same _you_
+attitude to the end.
+
+Turn back to the five essentials of a letter given on page 230. See if
+you can differentiate the five in the second letter.
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      In compliance with your request of recent date we are
+      sending you our latest general catalogue, inasmuch as
+      we do not know which department catalogue you wish. We
+      also have specialized books for jewelry, furniture,
+      hardware, and drygoods. On request we shall be glad to
+      send any one of these also.
+
+      We carry the biggest line of Variety Store Leaders in
+      the country, and our goods are always of the best. We
+      take particular pains to acquaint our customers with
+      the latest thing in the trade, and to give
+      business-getting suggestions. Our Co-operative Bureau
+      cheerfully answers all inquiries.
+
+      Trusting we shall hear from you with an order, we are
+
+                                       Yours truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Under separate cover you will receive a copy of our
+      latest general catalogue, published especially for
+      owners of Variety Stores. We are sending you the
+      general catalogue because we do not know whether you
+      are interested in a particular department. However, if
+      your business specializes in any one class of
+      goods--such as jewelry, furniture, hardware, or
+      drygoods--we shall be glad to supply you with the
+      departmental book you need. On the enclosed postal
+      card simply check the one you wish, and mail the card
+      to-day. We shall forward the catalogue at once.
+
+      You may know that we always have on hand between two
+      hundred and two hundred and fifty different Variety
+      Store Leaders, affording you a wide selection of
+      high-class goods of the finest materials, the neatest
+      workmanship, and the latest styles at very low prices.
+      After glancing over the catalogue you will agree with
+      us that in every department of our huge business a
+      dollar has full purchasing power.
+
+      A unique feature of our business, moreover, is the
+      Co-operative Bureau, which you will find a decided
+      help in building up your business. Each week the
+      Bureau sends out a Bulletin, acquainting our customers
+      with important business events in the larger trade
+      centers, with suggestions for new advertising and
+      selling methods, with notices of new stock additions
+      that make especially good leaders, and with advice how
+      best to display them. The Bureau invites
+      correspondence and sends customers, absolutely free
+      of charge, advice on new store arrangements, window
+      decorations, and advertising plans.
+
+      Your first order makes you a co-operating member and
+      entitles you to all the privileges of the Bureau and
+      the services of an institution with wide experience
+      and with a recognized reputation for square-dealing.
+      Fill out the enclosed order blank, mail it to-day, and
+      receive this week's Bulletin by return mail. It
+      contains several splendid suggestions for novel,
+      inexpensive advertising.
+
+                                      Yours truly,
+
+The letter given above is personal and yet dignified. Usually that is
+the best style to use, and the one that we wish to practice writing.
+Sometimes, however, results can best be obtained by using the colloquial
+or even jocular tone illustrated in the following letter sent to a
+retailer in Ottumwa, Iowa:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We sell cheese, a new brand, the finest kind you ever
+      tasted, put up in the most attractive package, to sell
+      at the most attractive price. Called Par Excellence
+      Creme, wrapped in silver foil with a gold label, it
+      sells for fifteen cents and costs you ten. Ever hear a
+      better proposition?
+
+      Better buy now before your rival gets ahead of you.
+      Everybody's calling for it. Why? Because we're
+      advertising everywhere. It has been out only one
+      month, and yet sales have trebled our highest
+      expectations. Half the sales of a new cheese depend on
+      the package and the price; the other half depend on
+      the quality. All three are right in Par Excellence
+      Creme.
+
+      Mr. S. R. King, our Iowa representative, tried to see
+      you last week, but, unfortunately, he was unable to
+      find you in. Now, he carries a full line of our
+      samples, and it's worth the time it takes just to see
+      how good they look, even if you don't care to buy. How
+      about it? Don't you want to see them? Mr. King will be
+      in Ottumwa next Wednesday.
+
+                                           Yours truly,
+
+This style is commonly called "snappy." It has its advantage, but should
+be used only rarely. Above all, if you do use it, avoid the dash. Notice
+how the dash spoils the following:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Have you ever eaten that king of nuts--the budded or
+      grafted paper shell pecan--the nut whose kernel is as
+      nutritious as beef and as sweet and delicious as
+      honey--the nut that is so delightfully palatable and
+      so wholesome, the discriminating epicures of two
+      continents have set their seal of approval on
+      it--creating a demand that literally cannot be
+      supplied--even at prices ranging as high as a dollar a
+      pound.
+
+To use the dash in this way seems to imply that you do not understand
+punctuation or sentence structure. If the paragraph is rewritten,
+removing the dashes and dividing into sentences, we get a much stronger
+appeal. The dash makes for weakness rather than for strength because it
+suggests hysterics.
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Have you ever eaten the king of nuts, the budded or
+      grafted paper shell pecan? The kernel is as nutritious
+      as beef and as sweet as honey. It is so wholesome and
+      so delicious that discriminating epicures of two
+      continents have set their approval on it, creating a
+      demand that literally cannot be supplied, even at
+      prices ranging as high as a dollar a pound.
+
+A very good way to open a sales letter is to get the attention by a bit
+of narration containing direct quotations, as shown in the following:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      "It saves seven per cent."
+
+      So said Mr. John H. Samuels, a manufacturer of
+      Birmingham, Ala.
+
+      He had watched his bookkeepers at their work, and it
+      seemed to him that their main business was turning and
+      flattening the springy pages of the bulgy ledger. Ten
+      seconds were wasted, he said, every time a page was
+      turned--almost every time an entry was made--and
+      hardly more than two minutes were needed to make the
+      entry. That was enough. Each of his twenty men was
+      wasting seven per cent of his time.
+
+      "Try hinged paper," suggested the head bookkeeper.
+
+      Accordingly, Mr. Samuels tried several kinds of hinged
+      paper, only to find that the hinged section tore,
+      broke, or cracked. The time that the clerks now saved
+      in flattening the leaves they wasted in rewriting the
+      pages that had torn out.
+
+      He had no more faith in hinged papers by the time that
+      he saw the advertisement of the Benton hinge. "As
+      strong as the rest of the paper!" he scoffed. "We'll
+      see about this!"
+
+      "Send me a sample," he wrote us. "If your ad tells the
+      truth, you get my order."
+
+      We sent it. He tested it. He pulled it, crumpled it,
+      ruled on it, erased it on both sides, and even creased
+      it. But it did not break.
+
+      Very cautiously and doubtingly he tried the paper in
+      one ledger for one month. He found that the book
+      rolled flat whenever it was opened, that no hinge
+      tore, and that every page could be used from binder to
+      outer edge.
+
+      "It does the work," he told our salesman at the end of
+      the month. "It saves seven per cent. Send me a
+      consignment."
+
+      If you, too, are paying seven per cent of your
+      bookkeepers' salaries for waste motion, let us send
+      you a sample. It will cut down your expenses as it cut
+      down Mr. Samuels'.
+
+      Remember that you put yourself under no obligation to
+      us. You take no risks. Simply promise to use the paper
+      if we send it free.
+
+                                         Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 224=
+
+Study the following letters and letter openings for good and bad
+qualities:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      People who have not had much of what the world calls
+      "good luck" find it hard to believe an opportunity
+      when it comes--they don't feel sure about it--on the
+      other hand, people who have had many opportunities
+      have a natural confidence that every opening presented
+      is intended for them and they grasp it with an
+      assurance that begets success.
+
+      You may be one of those who have not had many chances
+      to do what you would like to do and therefore not sure
+      that my offer is an opportunity. For that reason let
+      us again go over the points of advantage....
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      I am taking the liberty of writing you again because I
+      fear you do not fully realize the value of the
+      proposition I am offering you. Why, man, it's the
+      opportunity of a life-time!... (extended for three
+      pages.)
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      If we wanted to know just what kind of person you are,
+      do you know where we'd go to find out? We'd ask your
+      old friends and neighbors, who know all about you from
+      close association.
+
+      If you want to find out about us--what we are doing
+      and what improvements we are making in southern
+      Florida--the best place to get this information is
+      from the people of Florida, who know the facts from
+      first-hand observation. The enclosed clipping is an
+      editorial expression--not a paid advertisement--from
+      the Ft. Meyers Press. The editor is under no
+      obligation to us and is merely expressing the opinion
+      of the people here. . . .
+
+4
+
+
+                                     New York, Right Now.
+
+                       A DEAL OF IMPORTANCE
+
+      It affects YOU! It is so important I must forego the
+      pleasure of a personal letter in order to write 5,000
+      people to-day--500 of whom--the wide-awake ones who
+      read this letter through--will be able to coin it into
+      dollars--real money--money you can spend.
+
+      What we now offer you has never before been offered by
+      any body in the world. It is a combination we are
+      fortunate enough, just at this time, to be able to
+      offer you, because of an important deal we have just
+      closed--a deal that may easily spell dollars to you.
+      Read every word of this letter--it may be--possibly
+      is--the only thing to make you a successful and
+      wealthy man. . . .
+
+5
+
+
+                                   R F D 4 Logansport, Ind.
+                                          8-26-11.
+
+      Mr. M. H. Smith, etc.
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      I acknowledge getting your telegram over the telephone
+      yesterday, and if I had been in funds would have
+      answered by return telegram, but such is life. I
+      accommodated a friend by loaning him $750, which will
+      probably be paid the last week of never. I thank you
+      for the offer, and when I am in funds will call on you
+      either personally or by letter.
+
+                                     Very truly yours,
+
+
+=Exercise 225--Opening an Account=
+
+Imagine that you are manager of a wholesale dry goods house. You have
+received an order from P. H. Powley, 23 Water street, Franklin, Mich. As
+you do not know Mr. Powley, write him, stating in as courteous a way as
+possible that, since this is his first order, he must either furnish
+references or send a remittance. Make your letter direct and personal.
+Include some good selling talk.
+
+The exercise above illustrates the method that might be adopted in case
+of a small order. If Mr. Powley had sent a large order, the wholesale
+house would no doubt consult a financial agency to discover his
+financial condition; his _rating_, it is called. If his name were not
+found in the book of the agency, the wholesale house would require Mr.
+Powley to send a correct account of his financial standing; that is, a
+list of his assets and liabilities. If he refused, they would not do
+business with him. Why? The principal financial agencies are Bradstreet
+and Dun. Besides these, there are many mercantile agencies. They give
+any information that is required concerning a business man. All such
+information is confidential.
+
+In connection with this exercise study the letters that follow:
+
+
+                  REQUEST TO OPEN AN ACCOUNT
+
+                               Madison, Wis., Sept. 16, 1915.
+
+      Wilson, Brighton, & Co.,
+        68 Broadway, New York.
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      Until recently I was in the employ of Samuel Stratton
+      & Co. of Milwaukee, but I have now started a business
+      of my own, for which I should like to open an account
+      with your house. As to my business ability and
+      financial standing, I refer you to my late employers,
+      Samuel Stratton & Co. of Milwaukee, and to the Madison
+      State Bank of this city.
+
+      If on investigation you decide to accept me as a
+      customer, will you please send the goods on the
+      enclosed order, deducting your usual discount for
+      cash? Upon receipt of the goods and of the invoice, I
+      shall at once forward a sight draft on the Broadway
+      National Bank of your city.
+
+                               Respectfully yours,
+                                      George R. Scott
+
+REPLY NO. 1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      In seeking information through the usual outside
+      channels for basing credit for you, we find our
+      reports have not been sufficient in detail to permit
+      us to arrange this matter satisfactorily. These
+      reports all speak very highly of you in a personal
+      way, but do not give us the required information
+      financially.
+
+      We assume you want our goods for your Christmas trade.
+      It is imperative, therefore, that we ship immediately.
+      We suggest that on this order you send us a draft, in
+      consideration of which we shall be pleased to allow
+      you a special discount of 4%. Understand that we
+      suggest these terms on this first order only, as we
+      feel confident that we can easily arrange a credit
+      basis for future shipments. We sincerely trust you
+      will take no offense at the above suggestion, as we
+      have made it in your interest.
+
+                               Yours very truly,
+
+REPLY NO. 2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Thank you for the order you sent us yesterday. Its
+      size confirms the belief we have always held that
+      D---- is a rapidly growing business center, the right
+      place for a retailer to settle and prosper.
+
+      After careful consideration of your letter, however,
+      we have decided to hold back your order for a short
+      time. You cannot regret this more than we do. We do
+      not like to lose your account, and yet, under the
+      circumstances, we feel we cannot send you the order.
+      We hope you can sell the property you mentioned in
+      your letter and thus clear up the balances against
+      you. Then we shall gladly open an account for you.
+
+      We are especially sorry we cannot send the order at
+      once, as you no doubt need your fall stock now. Don't
+      you think it would be the best solution if you would
+      send us your remittance for $250 now, so that we may
+      send the goods? We know what it means to buy in the
+      open market so late in the season. We assure you that
+      on receipt of a remittance the order will go through
+      immediately.
+
+                                      Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 226=
+
+      1. Order from the Grand Rapids Furniture Co., Grand
+      Rapids, Mich., 5 mahogany rockers, 1 Turkish rocker, 2
+      brass beds, 12 dining room chairs, 2 dining room
+      tables. Supply catalogue numbers and give shipping
+      directions.
+
+      2. The Grand Rapids Furniture Co. replies,
+      acknowledging the receipt of the above order (give
+      date) but stating that you did not mention how you
+      would pay for the goods. On receipt of a certified
+      check to cover the amount, or of the names of two
+      reliable references, they will be pleased to send you
+      the order. Make this a good sales letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 227=
+
+      1. You are a florist of Rockford, Ill. Write to S. M.
+      Porter & Son, 155 S. State Street, Chicago, saying
+      that this fall you are opening a new department of
+      Landscape Gardening. Judging by advance orders, you
+      will need approximately 200 shade trees, maples and
+      poplars; 200 fruit trees of various kinds; and several
+      hundred flowering shrubs. You will probably duplicate
+      the order in the spring. Ask for terms, saying that
+      you would like to open an account. Give two
+      references.
+
+      2. S. M. Porter & Son reply, acknowledging your order,
+      and saying that they will be pleased to do business
+      with you on sixty days' credit, terms 50 and 5%. If
+      this is satisfactory, they will add your name to their
+      books. Make it a sales letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 228=
+
+      1. Samuel Radford of Douglas, Mich., wishes to buy a
+      motor boat. He orders of the Modern Steel Boat Co.,
+      manufacturers of high grade motor boats, Detroit,
+      Mich., boat No. 172. page 425, catalogue No. 10. The
+      price as listed is $192. He accepts the offer they
+      made him ---- (date), of ---- (terms) and encloses a
+      certified check for the amount. He gives full shipping
+      directions. (Be sure you can do this.) He asks how
+      cheaply he can obtain cushions for the boat.
+
+      2. The company reply: They have shipped the boat. (Is
+      this sufficiently detailed?) A set of new cushions to
+      fit the boat costs $25. They have a set of secondhand
+      cushions in excellent condition for $15. If Radford
+      desires either of these, he should wire at once at
+      their expense.
+
+      3. Telegraph his decision.
+
+
+=Exercise 229=
+
+      1. Messrs. Lee and Watkins, druggists of Gallon, Ohio,
+      wish to open an account with Pierce, King & Co., 17 S.
+      Albany St., Baltimore, Md., for the purchase of large
+      orders on ninety days' credit. They say they do a very
+      large business as they have the only drug store within
+      a radius of several miles. They give several names as
+      references. Write the letter.
+
+      2. You are a traveling salesman for Pierce, King & Co.
+      They write you at the Union Hotel, Columbus, telling
+      you of the foregoing letter, a copy of which they
+      enclose, and asking you to investigate the standing of
+      Messrs. Lee and Watkins.
+
+      Reply that you visited the drug store in question on a
+      Tuesday (give date), because in your experience the
+      early part of the week is very quiet in the business
+      of small towns. Say that two clerks were kept busy
+      constantly and that several people spoke of the
+      enormous business done on Saturdays and market days.
+      The firm has good credit in the town. You are
+      satisfied that the gentlemen in question are reliable.
+
+      3. Write from Pierce, King & Co. to Messrs. Lee and
+      Watkins, acknowledging the receipt of their letter
+      ---- (date) and expressing pleasure in being able to
+      enter their name on the firm's books. Write as
+      courteous a letter as you can.
+
+      4. Imagine that the salesman's reply (2) had been
+      unfavorable. Write to Messrs. Lee and Watkins,
+      refusing them credit but trying to get their cash
+      business.
+
+
+=Exercise 230--Letters Requesting Payment=
+
+It is better not to make threats in a collection letter except as a last
+resort, and then the threat should be carried out. It is advisable in a
+first letter of the kind to take for granted that a customer is honest
+and that the failure to pay is an oversight. If some inducement for
+further purchases is included in the letter in the form of good selling
+talk, a remittance will probably be sent, and perhaps another order as
+well.
+
+If the customer, however, takes no notice of the first letter, a second,
+making the request for payment more urgent, may follow. The tone of the
+second letter and subsequent letters will depend on the value that you
+put on the customer's trade. Finally, if he ignores all of these
+letters, dally no longer. Say that if payment is not made by a certain
+date, you will draw on him at sight. If he does not honor the draft, put
+the matter in the hands of your attorney.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Study the following letters. Select from them those that you think would
+make a good series:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Ten days ago we mailed you a statement of your
+      account, which was due at that time. As we have heard
+      nothing from you, we have concluded that the letter
+      must have miscarried. We are, therefore, enclosing a
+      duplicate of the former statement. We trust that it
+      will reach you safely and have your prompt attention.
+
+                                       Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Evidently you, too, are experiencing the increase in
+      business that our customers in general are reporting.
+      In the rush of orders you probably have overlooked the
+      fact that your account with us is three weeks
+      over-due. Your remittances hitherto have been very
+      prompt, and we trust that this reminder will be
+      treated equally promptly.
+
+      By the way, have you found that the Holeless Socks are
+      coming up to our guarantee? From all parts of the
+      country we are getting flattering reports in the form
+      of big orders. We feel that they merit their
+      popularity, and with the extensive advertising
+      campaign that we have inaugurated they are bound to
+      continue in favor.
+
+      We are especially prepared at present to give you an
+      attractive price, enabling you to realize large
+      profits on these socks. If you need more of them, we
+      can make shipment at once.
+
+                                   Yours very truly,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      In looking over our accounts, we find that your
+      purchases have lately been increasing considerably and
+      that your payments have been few and unimportant.
+      Statements have been sent regularly, we believe, but
+      have probably been overlooked because of the stress of
+      your other affairs. Such things, of course, can happen
+      with any of us, especially when we have many other
+      matters to look after.
+
+      We have always valued your account, and we greatly
+      desire our pleasant relations to continue. As the
+      amount that you owe us is now long over-due, we would
+      appreciate your returning the enclosed bill to be
+      receipted during the next few days.
+
+                                      Yours very truly,
+
+4
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Your attention has twice been called to your account
+      for $----, but for some reason you do not reply to our
+      letters.
+
+      Our terms, as you know, are thirty days, and we cannot
+      allow a longer extension except by special
+      arrangement. We have borne the matter very patiently,
+      realizing that unusual conditions sometimes prevent
+      one's doing as he desires. At the same time, it is
+      entirely out of reason that your account should still
+      be owing at this time. May we not expect your
+      remittance by return mail?
+
+      Should we not hear from you by the 15th, we shall draw
+      on you, and, if you have not remitted in the meantime,
+      please provide for our draft upon its arrival.
+
+                                            Yours truly,
+
+5
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      On March 15 we drew on you for $250. Our draft has
+      been returned to us by the Blank Bank, unpaid.
+
+      Your account is long past due, and, although we are
+      willing to do almost anything to accommodate our
+      customers, we feel that in your case the time for
+      concessions has passed. We desire your check at once
+      for the balance due us.
+
+      You are credited with using considerable money in your
+      business, and it would seem that you should without
+      difficulty be able to take care of amounts such as you
+      owe us. If we do not hear from you by April 1, we
+      shall send a second draft. If you permit this to be
+      returned unpaid, we shall be compelled to take action
+      to force collection. We wish to express the hope,
+      however, that you will not allow this to be done.
+
+                                       Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 231=
+
+Letter (2) above is written primarily to get a check for the over-due
+account and incidentally to get another order. Suppose that the customer
+sends an order and no money. You do not wish to extend further credit
+until the old balance is paid. Write a tactful letter, saying that you
+will hold back the order until you receive a check to pay the over-due
+account.
+
+
+=Exercise 232=
+
+Write the letters in the following transaction:
+
+      1. J. F. Brookmeyer, Peru, Ind., is a dealer in shoes.
+      He opened an account with you a month ago. He has
+      purchased shoes to the amount of $250. You rendered an
+      account on the first of the month, two weeks ago.
+      Write a letter saying that you do not carry over
+      accounts from month to month, as your small margin of
+      profit makes it impossible for you to carry an
+      irregular account. Make it a courteous sales letter as
+      well as a collection letter.
+
+      2. J. H. Brookmeyer sends a certified check for the
+      full amount, apologizing for the delay.
+
+
+=Exercise 233=
+
+      1. John R. Phillips, 32 New York Building, Seattle,
+      Washington, owes you $470. Write him, saying that you
+      need the money. Give a good reason. Make it a
+      courteous, friendly letter.
+
+      2. Mr. Phillips has not answered (1). Write him again,
+      saying that if you do not get a remittance by ----,
+      you will draw on him at sight.
+
+      3. Your bank notifies you that your draft has been
+      returned unpaid. Write Phillips, asking for an
+      explanation. Say that unless you hear by ----, you
+      will bring suit.
+
+      4. Phillips writes an apologetic letter, giving
+      illness as the reason for his non-payment. He says he
+      was in the hospital and did not receive letters (1)
+      and (2). He encloses fifty dollars and promises to pay
+      at least half the balance next month, the full amount
+      within sixty days. Write his letter.
+
+      5. Accept this offer.
+
+
+=Exercise 234--Answering Complaints=
+
+      1. A mail order house discovered that its files
+      contained the names of 10,000 people who had once been
+      customers but who had not bought anything for the last
+      two or three years. Write a letter in the name of the
+      manager frankly asking why the customer has stopped
+      buying. Advertise the stock.
+
+      2. One correspondent in reply demands a return of $16,
+      which he had paid for a coat that was "not worth a
+      cent." How would you reply to this letter so that the
+      one making the complaint would send in an order? Write
+      the letter.
+
+In connection with this exercise study the following letter:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We wish to acknowledge your letter of April 16, in
+      which you say that on April 14 you received a bill for
+      five S & Q Railway bonds, which Mr. Wensley had sold
+      you on the 11th at 100 and interest; that you sent us
+      your check for the amount on the same day; and that on
+      the 16th, two days afterward, you received a letter
+      from us, offering a new block of these bonds at 99 and
+      interest.
+
+      This complication was brought about through a peculiar
+      chain of circumstances, an explanation of which, we
+      feel, is only just both to you and to us. When Mr.
+      Wensley came to the office on Saturday, the 12th, he
+      told us that he had your order for five of these bonds
+      at 100¼ and interest. The market price was then 100
+      and interest, and we were very glad to give you the
+      benefit of the more favorable price. At that time we
+      had no intimation that more of these bonds were
+      coming on the market. Quite unexpectedly on Monday we
+      received notice from our Boston office that they had
+      in view a new block of the bonds. Even at that time we
+      did not know definitely that we would get them. On
+      Tuesday, again quite unexpectedly, we were instructed
+      by our Boston office that the bonds had been secured
+      and were to be offered immediately at 99 and interest.
+      So suddenly did the entire transaction take place that
+      we were unable to prepare a new circular, and on
+      Tuesday night we merely sent out a letter, telling our
+      customers that we had an additional block of these
+      bonds. In fact, the new circular will not be ready
+      until about noon of to-morrow.
+
+      We realize that you should have been informed of the
+      new price. The bonds, however, came on the market so
+      quickly and in taking care of the details of the
+      offering we were so busy that the matter,
+      unfortunately, was overlooked. We are glad, therefore,
+      to make adjustment of the price now by having our
+      banking department send you our check for $50.
+
+      It is unnecessary for us to say, we presume, that we
+      regret this occurrence and to assure you that had we
+      known of the new bonds on Saturday we would have
+      advised you to hold off your purchase until the
+      offering was ready. We feel that you know us and the
+      policy of our house well enough to be sure that we
+      would not willfully take advantage of you in this way.
+      We trust that the arrangement that we have made
+      satisfactorily straightens out the matter.
+
+                                  Yours very truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 235=
+
+1. What is the advantage of the policy shown in the following suggestion
+from _System_?
+
+      The manager of a retail establishment says: "We never
+      refuse to refund money. If a dissatisfied customer
+      returns a purchase, before we ask what the trouble is
+      we refund his money gladly. When he is free to walk
+      out of the store with his money, we try to find the
+      source of the trouble. Generally we can adjust the
+      difficulty and make a sale."
+
+2. State the advantage in the policy of a large clothing concern which
+follows the sale of every suit or overcoat with a letter to the
+customer, asking him whether the purchase is proving satisfactory.
+
+3. Write such a letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 236=
+
+      1. Conrad H. Harwood of 122 Winter Street, Vandalia,
+      Ill., writes to Wilson, Black & Co., manufacturers of
+      shoes, 100 Second Street, Lynn, Mass., asking why they
+      are not sending his order of ---- (the goods ordered)
+      of ---- (date). He is losing sales because of the
+      delay. If the goods are not received before ----,
+      Harwood will cancel the order.
+
+      2. Wilson, Black & Co. acknowledge the receipt of
+      Harwood's letter and say that this is the first notice
+      they have received of such an order. The first letter
+      must have miscarried. They have shipped the goods. Be
+      very courteous.
+
+
+=Exercise 237=
+
+      1. C. F. Gardner, a merchant of 432 Puyallup Ave.,
+      Tacoma, Wash., has received notice from the C.M. &
+      P.S.R.R. freight office that a box of goods has
+      arrived from Messrs. Fiske & Jones, Detroit, Mich.
+      Gardner ordered the goods a month ago. He writes
+      Messrs. Fiske & Jones that he refuses to accept the
+      goods because of the delay. He has bought elsewhere in
+      the meantime.
+
+      2. Fiske & Jones apologize for the delay and explain
+      that it was due to the unreliability of one of their
+      shipping clerks, who has since been discharged. They
+      had known nothing of the matter until Gardner's letter
+      of complaint arrived. They assure him that he will
+      never suffer another such inconvenience.
+
+      3. Fiske & Jones telegraph the C.M. & P.S.R.R. to
+      return the goods at Fiske & Jones's expense. Write the
+      telegram.
+
+
+=Exercise 238--Letters of Application=
+
+A letter of application usually has three parts. In writing such a
+letter, first, tell where you saw the advertisement and apply for the
+position; second, tell your qualifications and give your references;
+third, end the letter appropriately, possibly asking for an interview.
+
+This is a difficult kind of letter to write. Not only should it be neat
+in appearance and clearly written, but it should also be so carefully
+worded that it will show enough of the writer's individuality to
+distinguish it from a form. Be neither hesitant nor bold, but tell your
+qualifications in a simple, straightforward way.
+
+Study the following letters. Are they convincing? Do they show the
+personality of the writers, or are they mere forms?
+
+1
+
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      Your advertisement in to-day's Record for a salesman
+      who knows the tea and coffee business interests me. I
+      should like you to consider my application for the
+      position.
+
+      Since my graduation from the Blank High School, four
+      years ago, I have been employed as salesman for the
+      Economy Wholesale Coffee Co., a firm doing business in
+      this city and its outlying districts. During these
+      four years I have gathered a wide knowledge of the
+      principles of the buying and selling of coffees and
+      teas and of the grades and blends of both, just the
+      training, it seems to me, that you wish to secure.
+
+      You may depend upon my taking an active interest in
+      your business, because I have an intense desire to
+      advance. I myself vouch for my honesty and
+      earnestness, and Mr. Robert Brown of the firm
+      mentioned above has assured me that he will supply you
+      with any information that you may wish as to my
+      character or ability. He endorses my desire to secure
+      a broader opportunity.
+
+      If the position that you have to offer is one in which
+      there is a real future for an energetic, capable man,
+      I should like to have an interview with you.
+
+                                Yours very respectfully,
+
+2
+
+
+    Dear Sir:
+
+      I am answering your advertisement in to-day's Record
+      for a clerk because I wish to get started in the
+      wholesale dry goods business, my idea being to work
+      into the sales department. If the position that you
+      advertise affords such an opportunity, I wish to apply
+      for it.
+
+      I have had a little experience in the retail dry goods
+      business, having worked as clerk for Mr. Amos Jones of
+      this city during the past two summers. What I have
+      seen and learned of the business makes me feel that I
+      have ability as a dry goods salesman. I shall be glad
+      to work hard in a clerical position if only I get a
+      chance to learn and to advance.
+
+      I am eighteen years of age and have just graduated
+      from the Blank High School, where I took the four-year
+      commercial course. This, as you know, includes
+      business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and some business
+      practice. During the last two years I was business
+      manager of the high school paper. This position gave
+      me considerable experience in handling details rapidly
+      and in soliciting advertising. It is this latter
+      experience that makes me feel that I would have
+      success in selling.
+
+      I am confident that I can please you, and I should be
+      grateful if you will grant me an interview. Mr. Amos
+      Jones, 815 E. 47th St., will be glad to give you any
+      information that you may wish as to my work, and if
+      you desire I can furnish other references.
+
+                                  Yours respectfully,
+
+
+=Exercise 239=
+
+Apply for the following positions:
+
+      1. OFFICE MAN--who can handle correspondence and
+      general office work for growing North side
+      manufacturing company. Good opportunity for the right
+      man. State experience and salary expected. Address A.
+      H. Stanton, 17 Elm St.
+
+      2. MAIL ORDER MAN--up-to-date, experienced; must have
+      ability and be capable of handling a large volume of
+      correspondence; must also be a pusher and
+      systematizer. In reply give references, age, and
+      detailed experience. Address X. W. 291 News.
+
+      3. AMBITIOUS YOUNG MEN--who are willing to start at
+      the bottom to learn steel and iron business; must be
+      high school or college graduates, or have equivalent
+      education, and furnish exceptional references; very
+      good opportunity for the future. Address A. F. 361
+      Times.
+
+      4. BRIGHT YOUNG MAN--for office work in large
+      manufacturing plant, Northwest side; must be neat,
+      quick, and accurate at figures. State age, experience,
+      and salary expected. Address J. F. Holtz & Co., 320 W.
+      Exchange St.
+
+      5. OFFICE CLERK--a girl who can write a plain, rapid,
+      legible hand; desirable, permanent position, and
+      excellent chance for advancement. Give age,
+      experience, if any, and where formerly employed.
+      Salary $6.00 to start. Address T. P. 514 Chronicle.
+
+      6. HELP WANTED--salesman having established trade on
+      rubber or leather footwear in Michigan, northern
+      Indiana, northwest Ohio, or eastern Wisconsin. Good
+      chance to become connected with live middle-western
+      jobbing house. Give late experience. Address G724 Boot
+      and Shoe Recorder, Boston, Mass.
+
+
+=Exercise 240--Contract for Painting Iron Work=
+
+      1. James W. Walker & Co., 325 Second St., Pittsburgh,
+      are receiving bids for painting the iron work of the
+      bridge to be constructed over the Cheesequake Creek at
+      Morgan Station, New Brunswick, N. J. The Barnard
+      Emerson Co., of Harrisburg, Pa., write saying they
+      would like to figure on the work. They ask James W.
+      Walker & Co; to send plans and specifications. Write
+      the letter sent by the Barnard Emerson Co.
+
+      2. James W. Walker & Co. reply that they are sending
+      plans and specifications. They say that bids must be
+      in by March 10. Write the letter.
+
+      3. The Barnard Emerson Co. write that page two, line
+      four, of the specifications for the bridge to be
+      constructed (state in detail) reads "and paint all
+      beams underneath two coats of dark green," and page
+      four, line ten, reads "all upright beams above and
+      underneath to be painted two coats of light green
+      between shades three and four." They ask which is
+      correct. Write the letter. Be exact.
+
+      4. James W. Walker & Co. reply that page two, line
+      four, is correct. Explain in detail.
+
+      5. The Barnard Emerson Co. agree to do the work on
+      (repeat exactly what bridge you mean) for three
+      thousand dollars. They guarantee to finish the work by
+      April 30, according to the specifications. They will
+      forfeit fifty dollars for every day after that date
+      until the bridge is finished. Write the proposal or
+      bid.
+
+      6. James W. Walker & Co. write, saying that they
+      accept the bid above and that they enclose duplicate
+      contracts, one of which they have signed and which the
+      Barnard Emerson Co. is to keep. The other the Barnard
+      Emerson Co. is to sign and return to James W. Walker &
+      Co.
+
+
+=Exercise 241--Contract for the Delivery of Property=
+
+      1. The Arlington Coal Company, Old Colony Building,
+      Chicago, Ill., write to the Red Rock Coal Company,
+      Auburn, Ill., saying that they need several cars of
+      egg coal per week throughout the year. They ask if the
+      Red Rock Coal Co. wish to offer some on contract. If
+      so, they must state how the coal is screened, and give
+      their lowest price. Write the letter.
+
+      2. The Red Rock Coal Co. reply that they will offer
+      egg coal for shipment at the rate of two cars per week
+      throughout the year, at $1.15 per net ton, cars f.o.b.
+      mines. If a contract were drawn up for three or more
+      cars per week, they would give the coal for $1.12½ per
+      net ton. They say their egg is an excellent steam
+      producing coal and gives general satisfaction. It is
+      shipped from the Red Rock mine via the Chicago & Alton
+      Railroad, freight rate being 82¢ per ton. Write the
+      letter.
+
+      3. The Arlington Coal Co. write that the Red Rock Coal
+      Co. may send a one year contract drawn in triplicate
+      for three cars of egg coal per week at $1.12½ per net
+      ton, cars f.o.b. mines. Of course it is understood
+      that the usual clauses regarding accidents or other
+      unavoidable happenings on either side will be
+      inserted. Write the letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 242--Contract for Construction=
+
+      NEWS ITEM.--Bids will be received until Dec. 12 by the
+      Chairman of the Board of Public Works, North Bend,
+      Washington, for the construction of a solid concrete
+      bridge over the Snoqualmie River at North Bend; double
+      arch, with one pier in the river; span of arch 92
+      feet; width of bridge 50 feet. Plans may be had by
+      addressing the Chairman.
+
+The McClaine Construction Co., of Spokane, Wash., send in a bid for
+$25,000, guaranteeing to use Atlas Portland cement, crushed rock for the
+coarse aggregate, and torpedo sand for the fine aggregate, the concrete
+to be reinforced with the Kahn system of reinforcement as set forth in
+the specifications. The company specify, further, that they shall be
+paid extra for excavation, on the scale of 25¢ a yard for earth, 75¢ a
+yard for loose rock and hard pan, and $1.00 a yard for solid rock. Write
+the letter that they send.
+
+
+=Exercise 243--Form Letters=
+
+It frequently happens in business that you receive a number of letters
+requiring practically the same answer. In such cases, the best plan is
+to have one letter that is as good a letter of its kind as you can
+write. Use that as an answer to all those to which it can be made to
+apply. You may have to add a bit of information or change a word here
+and there, but, practically, you are using the same form for all the
+letters. When you have mastered the form, the answering of letters of
+this class will be a simple matter. The letter accompanying a catalogue
+may easily be a form. (See the second letter in Exercise 223.)
+
+The danger, however, is that the use of form letters tends to make work
+mechanical. When letters are different, they must receive different
+replies. A form letter should never be used just because it is easy to
+use when it does not really apply.
+
+Mandel Bros., Chicago, Ill., announce their annual sale of silk
+remnants. Make this a good advertisement that will reach several classes
+of customers. Have in it as one item white wash silk of heavy quality,
+36 inches wide, at 47 cents a yard.
+
+      1. Make out a sales letter for the above.
+
+      2. Several mail orders have been received in excess of
+      the supply. Make out a form letter that could be sent
+      when the money is returned. What is the advantage of a
+      form letter in this case?
+
+
+=Exercise 244--Circular and Follow-up Letters=
+
+There is a class of letters that usually originates in the advertising
+department of a firm. They are not sent out to answer inquiries, but to
+solicit new customers and to keep old ones. Such letters are printed in
+large numbers in imitation of typewriting, and the introduction and the
+salutation are afterward carefully filled in on the typewriter. The
+intention, of course, is to make the recipient feel that he has received
+a personal letter. Firms are generally careful to fill in the signature
+in pen and ink. These are called _circular_ letters. (See the last
+letter in Exercise 223.)
+
+These letters are very important and each year more numerous. Frequently
+a series of them is written, each one expanding one argument in a series
+of arguments. If all the letters are read, one after the other, you have
+a complete list of reasons why you should buy the particular article
+which the letters advertise. These letters are sent out regularly, so
+that the effect of one may not quite wear off before the next arrives.
+It is frequently the case that not until the third or fourth letter is
+sent out does any reply come. Such letters should be definitely planned
+in order to present arguments that are true and attractive. They must be
+simply and clearly written. They are called _follow-up_ letters.
+
+The following series of follow-up letters was intended to be sent to
+women who keep no maids. The series was planned to contain five letters.
+Write two more, using different appeals from those in the letters here
+given.
+
+1
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      Do you remember the fairy tale of Little Two-Eyes?
+
+      A fairy, out of pity for the child's hunger, spread a
+      table before her each day as she was watching the goat
+      in the field, and when her appetite was satisfied all
+      the child had to say was, "Table clear yourself," and
+      the dishes magically disappeared.
+
+      "This is a beautiful way to keep house," was Two-Eyes'
+      verdict, and every woman, thinking of her own distaste
+      of dirty dishes, will agree.
+
+      "How I hate dishwashing!" You have said it hundreds of
+      times--after every meal, probably.
+
+      "I like to cook and bake," you declare. "They are
+      really interesting. There is fun in trying new
+      recipes--but the dishes!"
+
+      You enjoy giving luncheon and dinner parties. It is a
+      delightful way of meeting one's friends. Moreover, you
+      are justly proud of your skill in cooking, and you
+      like to show your beautiful china. But what a damper
+      it is on your spirit of good-fellowship, after the
+      guests are gone, to have to spend an hour or more
+      washing the dishes. Then you would like to say, with
+      the child in the story, "Dishes wash yourselves!"
+      Wouldn't you?
+
+      Well, you may. For thirty days--ninety meals--we will
+      put the Fairy Dishwasher in your home, without
+      charging you a penny.
+
+      The machine is simplicity itself. Wheel the cabinet
+      into your dining room, alongside your serving table,
+      and, as a course is finished, without rising from your
+      place, stack the dishes into the washer. When you have
+      finished the meal, wheel the cabinet into your
+      kitchen, make the connection, and turn the switch. In
+      a few minutes the dishes are washed and dried. Having
+      friends in to dinner is fun when the Fairy washes the
+      dishes.
+
+      Let the Fairy do yours. Simply return this letter to
+      us in the enclosed envelope, making sure that your
+      name and address are correct, and we'll send you the
+      Fairy. Use it three times a day for thirty days. Then
+      if you think you can get along as well without the
+      machine, all that you need to do is to send us a
+      postal card, telling us so. We'll take back the Fairy
+      and ask no questions.
+
+      But send to-day.
+
+                                  Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      Did you ever envy another woman's smooth, white hands?
+      You looked at hers, and then you looked at yours; you
+      sighed and thought, "It's dishwashing."
+
+      But what can you do? Haven't you tried everything to
+      make dishwashing less drudgery? Haven't you tried
+      patent soaps and tepid water, only to find that the
+      dishes were not clean? Haven't you tried dish mops,
+      scrapers, and rubber gloves, only to find that the mop
+      and the scraper saved but one hand? As for rubber
+      gloves, as likely as not, the first time you used them
+      they were caught on the prong of a fork and were
+      thereafter useless. Yes, you've tried everything;
+      haven't you?
+
+      No, you haven't. You have not tried the only sure help
+      that there is. Stop your drudgery and let the Fairy
+      wash your dishes.
+
+      For thirty days--ninety trials--we will put the Fairy
+      Dishwasher in your home, absolutely free of charge,
+      guaranteed to wash and sterilize your dishes in
+      boiling water, without a touch of your hand.
+
+      Do your manicuring while the Fairy does the dishes.
+
+      Pay no money, but send the enclosed postal card
+      to-day. It will bring the Fairy at once.
+
+                                      Very truly yours,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      An extra hour of leisure every day! What is it worth
+      to you?
+
+      Think what you could do if some one would give you an
+      extra hour of leisure every day. There's the book you
+      would like to read, the call you ought to make, the
+      embroidery you wish you could finish. There are the
+      thousand and one things that a housekeeper continually
+      wishes she could do--but where can she get the time?
+
+      And yet you waste at least an hour each day washing
+      dishes when the Fairy Dishwasher will not only save
+      you the time but rid you of a distasteful task. You
+      pay 16-2/3 cents a day for five months and the Fairy
+      does your dishes every day; you buy yourself an extra
+      hour every day,--you are an hour ahead every day for
+      the rest of your life.
+
+      Is it worth the price?
+
+      Remember that we allow you to use the Fairy for thirty
+      days--ninety meals--before you pay a penny. Then for
+      five months you send us five dollars a month, and we
+      guarantee that you will declare it the best
+      twenty-five dollars that you ever spent.
+
+      Send the enclosed postal card to-day. It will bring
+      the Fairy and a booklet of full directions.
+
+                                   Very truly yours,
+
+
+=Exercise 245=
+
+You have bought a big tract of land in Alabama. You wish to sell a part
+uncleared, to set out a part in pecan trees, and to devote a part to
+truck farms. Write three letters to the same man, making each one
+stronger than the one before. Keep in mind the five essentials of a good
+letter. (See page 230.)
+
+      1. Offer the uncleared land at a very low price. Offer
+      as many inducements as you can, such as desirability
+      of location, fertility of the soil, and comparison in
+      price with other land in the same neighborhood.
+
+      2. You received no response from (1). Try to sell the
+      section in which you are planting pecan trees. What
+      inducements could you offer that might reach a man who
+      was not affected by (1)?
+
+      3. You received no response from (1) or (2). Try to
+      sell a truck farm. What inducements could you offer
+      that might lead a man to buy a truck farm when he had
+      no interest in either uncleared land or pecan trees?
+
+
+=Exercise 246=
+
+      1. The _Modern Magazine_ offers a set of Mark Twain's
+      complete works absolutely free if you subscribe for
+      one year for the _Modern Magazine_ and the _Household
+      Magazine_ at the regular price of $2 for the _Modern
+      Magazine_ and $1.50 for the _Household Magazine_. This
+      offer expires ---- (date). Write the letter.
+
+      2. You have not responded. The _Modern Magazine_ feels
+      that you could not have understood its offer. These
+      are no cheap books. To prove this, the firm is willing
+      to send you the books to allow you to examine them
+      before you send any money. If you accept them, pay the
+      express agent; if not, return the books at the expense
+      of the _Modern Magazine_. Remember that this offer
+      expires ---- (date).
+
+      3. You have not responded. The magazine extends the
+      time. Give a reason for the extension of the time.
+
+What criticism can you make on (3)?
+
+
+=Exercise 247=
+
+A druggist was obliged to move from his corner store four doors east on
+a side street. He decided to advertise by sending a series of follow-up
+letters embodying the following ideas:
+
+      1. Change of location because ----.
+
+      2. Stick to your druggist because he holds the key to
+      your health.
+
+      3. What is the reason that my trade is staying with
+      me? (Prizes for the best answer.)
+
+      4. The reasons why trade stays with me--what my
+      patrons say.
+
+      5. The pure food question--why we must handle only
+      fresh drugs.
+
+      6. We are registered pharmacists--what this means to
+      you.
+
+      7. Why our sales expense is smaller now than
+      formerly--how you profit.
+
+
+=Exercise 248=
+
+A furniture house selling goods on monthly payments decides to advertise
+by sending a series of follow-up letters, using the following reasons
+why you should buy, one in each letter:
+
+      1. Variety of stock; assurance that they can please,
+      no matter what you wish. Amplify.
+
+      2. Reliability of the firm.
+
+      3. The small profit on which they run their business
+      gives you an excellent opportunity of buying good
+      values at low prices.
+
+      4. Buying on the "easy payment" plan enables you to
+      have the use of your furniture while you are still
+      paying for it.
+
+Why is (4) a poor argument?
+
+
+=Exercise 249=
+
+Write a series of letters to sell an electric washing machine, using the
+following items:
+
+      1. The machine is ball bearing; therefore very easy to
+      work. You can sit down while you do your week's
+      washing. The only work required is hanging the clothes
+      out of doors.
+
+      2. It saves laundry bills.
+
+      3. Summary of (1) and (2). The investment required is
+      not large. Special plans for payment.
+
+      4. The machine is durable.
+
+      5. Summary of the above. The following figures show
+      that during the time that has elapsed since (1) was
+      received the machine might have been paid for out of
+      the money spent for laundry bills.
+
+
+
+
+PART III--BUSINESS PRACTICE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+MANUFACTURE
+
+
+THE following chapters will furnish exercises in composition, both oral
+and written, based upon the various phases of business. They are
+intended to show the application of the principles underlying
+manufacturing, buying, and selling. Of course, we cannot expect to go
+into great detail in any one of the divisions. That must be reserved for
+future study, perhaps reserved until the time that you enter a
+particular business. We must remember that our first consideration is
+the study of English, the problem of clear-cut expression. Underlying
+clear-cut expression is clear-cut thinking. It cannot be repeated too
+often that without a definite thought there can be no definite wording
+of the thought. To say, "I know, but I don't know how to tell it," shows
+a lazy brain. Learn to exercise your thinking powers so that you can
+force them to stay upon a subject until you have thought it out
+carefully and can express it. All of the oral exercises in the following
+chapters require careful preparation. This does not mean that they
+should be written out before the recitation, but it does mean that they
+must be carefully thought out. The preparation need not take a
+particular form. The main thing is that you know exactly the points that
+you wish to make before you begin to speak. If the exercise calls for a
+paragraph, have clearly in mind the plan by which you expect to expand
+your thought. Perhaps you expect to begin with, or to lead up to, a
+topic sentence. Remember that this may be done in several ways. Choose
+whichever plan seems best. If the exercise does not call for a
+particular form, such as a paragraph or a debate, you are left free to
+develop your thought in the way that you think fits your subject best
+and to the length which you think it demands.
+
+There are many different kinds of businesses. We shall not attempt to
+consider any except the most common and fundamental. Some, like farming
+or mining, consist in bringing forth certain products from the ground.
+Such products are called raw materials, of which an example is wheat.
+Some raw materials are sold and used unchanged, but most of them go
+through the process of manufacture in order to be directly usable. The
+miller is an example of a manufacturer, because from wheat he makes
+flour. In this chapter we shall study the principles underlying
+manufacture.
+
+The exercises do not by any means exhaust the subject. Each one is to be
+considered as a nucleus about which others are to be grouped. If you
+live in a manufacturing district, other subjects will easily suggest
+themselves. If you have studied Industrial History or Commercial
+Geography, you probably have in mind a number of topics for discussion.
+If you know but little about raw materials, read some of the books
+suggested in Exercise 257. At all events let your work be definite.
+Whatever statements you make be able to substantiate by an illustration
+of something that you have seen or heard or read.
+
+
+=Exercise 250--Manufacture=
+
+Almost all the things we eat, wear, and use every day are manufactured
+articles. Each one of them requires its own particular process in the
+making, involving the necessity in most cases of complex and expensive
+machinery, of expert workmen, and of still more expert management. Take,
+for example, the shoes we wear, in the manufacture of which an amazing
+number of complicated machines and of expert workmen is necessary.
+According to the United States Department of Labor, men's rough shoes go
+through eighty-four distinct processes performed by skilled workmen and
+automatic machines. No less amazing is the amount of work turned out by
+these machines. It has been estimated that the McKay machine, which
+attaches the soles to the uppers, sews up in about one hour and a half
+one hundred pairs, an amount which it would take ninety-eight hours, or
+about eleven whole working days, to sew by hand.
+
+Each manufacturing business has peculiarities, machinery, methods, and
+even a language of its own; sometimes men must spend years in the study
+of the technicalities of certain manufacturing businesses before they
+become expert in them. It is evident that we cannot take up any one of
+them here except in so far as the principles of one apply to all, and
+these can be set down only very briefly.
+
+The first essential to successful manufacturing is correct buying. In
+fact, in some businesses this is so essential that the buyer gets a
+larger salary than the manager himself. We can see the reason for this
+when we consider that a good buyer must understand not only the
+materials that he buys, but also the manufacturing processes, so that,
+knowing the process through which the raw materials will go in his
+particular business, he will buy those materials that will make the most
+profitable manufactured articles.
+
+The next essential, and in most cases the most important one from the
+manufacturing standpoint, is a management capable of producing the best
+product at the least cost. The managers decide what shall be produced
+and how; they hire the workmen and decide what each shall do; they
+decide what shall be done by hand and what by machinery; and they choose
+the machines. Sometimes they go even so far as to determine exactly the
+method in which each task shall be done, and whenever they see that it
+would be advantageous to install a machine, they do so. Pursuing this
+policy, a Chicago yeast concern not long ago put in three machines for
+wrapping the small yeast cakes, eliminating the services of 140 girls
+and cutting the cost of wrapping to three-fifths of what it had been. In
+the steel business the early success of Andrew Carnegie and the famous
+Bill Jones was largely due to the fact that on several occasions they
+did not hesitate to break up half a million dollars' worth of machinery
+and replace it with newer and more efficient kinds.
+
+The third essential to manufacturing success is aggressive marketing of
+the product. From the standpoint of money success this is probably the
+most important consideration; so important is it, in fact, that it will
+be more fully discussed in the chapter following.
+
+
+=Exercise 251--Manufactured Articles=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. Define the word _industry_. When is a business
+      called an industry? (Consult an unabridged
+      dictionary.)
+
+      2. _a._ Name several raw materials.
+
+      _b._ Name some industries whose business it is to
+      produce raw materials.
+
+      3. Name some companies or industries whose business it
+      is, or whose principal function it is, to manufacture
+      from raw materials.
+
+      4. Name some companies or groups of companies that
+      make articles more useful by transporting them to
+      places where they are needed.
+
+      5. Name some wholesale houses. In what does their
+      business consist?
+
+      6. Name several kinds of retail businesses. In what
+      does their business consist?
+
+      7. Name some companies that manufacture only one
+      article.
+
+      8. Name some companies that manufacture more than one
+      article, but all of the same class. This is the
+      largest group.
+
+      9. Name some companies that manufacture several
+      different kinds of articles.
+
+      10. Name some companies which, in manufacturing one
+      product, make a secondary or by-product.
+
+      11. Name a number of by-products and what they are
+      by-products of.
+
+_Oral or Written_
+
+In each of the following emphasize the labor involved, not the machinery
+used; prepare outlines:
+
+      1. Select any manufactured article that you have seen
+      on a grocer's shelves, and trace it through (2), (3),
+      (4), (5), and (6) above, from the raw material until
+      the product is in the housekeeper's hands. If possible
+      make your information exact by visiting a factory in
+      which the article is made. The information contained
+      in advertisements of well-known articles may help you.
+
+      2. Trace the labor that is necessary to put a loaf of
+      bread on the table.
+
+      3. Trace the changes that the mineral undergoes to be
+      suitable for the making of edged tools, such as knives
+      or axes.
+
+      4. Trace the changes that cotton must undergo before
+      it is suitable for wearing as a dress or a pair of
+      stockings.
+
+      5. Trace the changes that wool undergoes before it can
+      be worn as a sweater or a winter coat.
+
+      6. Trace the changes that the skins of animals undergo
+      before they can be worn as a muff.
+
+      7. Trace the changes that silk undergoes before it can
+      be worn as a neck-tie.
+
+      8. Trace the changes that hemp undergoes before it can
+      be used as a rope.
+
+      9. Trace the changes that hides undergo before they
+      can be worn as shoes.
+
+      10. Trace wood from the tree to a piece of fine
+      furniture or to the case of a musical instrument.
+
+      11. Trace the steps in the process of making maple
+      sugar.
+
+      12. Trace the steps in making a piece of glazed
+      pottery.
+
+      13. Trace clay to bricks.
+
+      14. Trace flax to a tablecloth.
+
+      15. Trace the steps necessary to make a five dollar
+      gold piece.
+
+
+=Exercise 252=
+
+Subjects for Themes, Oral or Written
+
+The following are suggestions for theme subjects on manufacture. Develop
+one or more as the teacher directs.
+
+     1. Household uses for asbestos.
+     2. Making turpentine from wood.
+     3. A convenient electrical device.
+     4. The advantages of the fireless cooker.
+     5. The advantages of concrete as a building material.
+     6. The way to make a plaster cast.
+     7. How iron castings are made.
+     8. Artificial flowers from feathers, paper, or cloth.
+     9. How a suction sweeper works.
+    10. The safety match.
+    11. The uses of wood pulp.
+    12. Patent roofing.
+    13. The manufacture of plate glass.
+    14. Utilizing cotton seed.
+    15. The advantages and the disadvantages of using baking powder.
+
+
+=Exercise 253=
+
+Suggestions for Debates
+
+      1. The average young man has a better chance to
+      succeed in business than in a profession.
+
+      2. A manufacturing business offers a better
+      opportunity for a young man at the present time than a
+      mercantile business.
+
+      3. Manufacturing industries would suffer if
+      immigration were restricted.
+
+      4. The labor union should be abolished.
+
+      5. The labor union has no right to restrict the number
+      of apprentices.
+
+      6. The profit-sharing plan produces greater efficiency
+      in the working-force.
+
+
+=Exercise 254=
+
+Imagine that you are Stanley M. Benner, 171 South St., Buffalo, N. Y.,
+proprietor of a factory making men's shirts and collars.
+
+      1. Write an order to The American Printing Mill, 1038
+      Canal St., Passaic, N. J., for several bolts each of
+      percale, madras, corded madras, and silk striped
+      madras. Use catalogue numbers.
+
+      2. Write another order to The Trescott Silk Mill, 976
+      River St., Paterson, N. J., for several bolts each of
+      No. 62, No. 14, and No. 20 shirting silks, No. 62
+      being a striped silk and the others figured. Be
+      definite in ordering the colors that you wish.
+
+      3. You have received an order from Spencer & Mitchell,
+      1925 Pearl St., Albany, N. Y. Write a letter, thanking
+      them for the order and explaining when and how the
+      goods will be sent.
+
+      4. You have received an order from William F. Atwood,
+      590 Jackson St., Wilmington, Del., for a certain style
+      of collar on which there has been a run. Write a
+      letter, explaining that it will take about three weeks
+      to fill the orders that you now have for this collar
+      and that you therefore cannot send Mr. Atwood's goods
+      before the end of the month.
+
+      5. The goods have arrived from The Trescott Silk Mill.
+      You find, however, that two bolts of No. 14 are badly
+      soiled. Write a letter, saying that you are returning
+      the bolts and asking to have the matter adjusted.
+
+      6. A. W. Trescott, President of The Trescott Silk
+      Mill, replies, expressing regret that the goods were
+      soiled and saying that two clean bolts of No. 14 are
+      being sent at once. Write his letter.
+
+      7. You have on hand about 50 gross men's striped
+      madras collars, for which there is no longer a call.
+      Write to Markham Bros., wholesale jobbers, 1765
+      Greenwich St., New York City, asking what price they
+      will offer for the lot.
+
+      8. Accept their offer of $1.50 a gross for the
+      collars.
+
+      9. A customer sends a cash order for goods at last
+      year's prices, 10% below present prices. Write a
+      politic reply.
+
+      10. Owing to the mildness of the winter, you fear that
+      you will not sell your stock of men's flannel shirts.
+      Write a circular letter, offering the shirts in lots
+      of 25 dozen each, assorted sizes and colors, at a 35%
+      reduction in price. Address one letter to. Frederick
+      H. Howard, a dealer at 775 Cedar St., Harrisburg, Pa.
+
+      11. A teamsters' strike has delayed your shipments.
+      You have received so many complaints of the
+      non-arrival of goods that you decide to prepare a form
+      letter that will answer all the complaints. Address
+      one letter to William A. Spaulding, 2937 Waterman St.,
+      Providence, R. I.
+
+      12. Miss Sarah MacComb has a small dry goods store in
+      Norwich, Conn. She has owed you $125 for six months.
+      You have been lenient with Miss MacComb because you
+      know that she has had difficulty in meeting her bills.
+      However, you feel that she should pay at least a part
+      of her indebtedness to you. Write a courteous letter,
+      longer and more persuasive than if it were to go to a
+      man, demanding payment but retaining the customer's
+      good will. This is a difficult letter to write.
+      Prepare it carefully.
+
+
+=Exercise 255=
+
+      1. You have been manager of the Forsyth Furniture Co.,
+      Grand Rapids, Mich. You have financial backing for
+      $25,000 and are looking for a location for a factory
+      of your own. Write the same letter to the Secretary of
+      the Chamber of Commerce of Great Falls, Mont.;
+      Memphis, Tenn.; Houston, Texas; Indianapolis, Ind. Ask
+      the Secretary to tell you the prospects for such a
+      factory in his city, and what inducements the city
+      will offer you. (By writing to different cities, the
+      teacher can obtain their booklets and their special
+      offers to manufacturers.)
+
+      2. Investigate the conditions in one of the cities
+      mentioned above and reproduce the letter that the
+      Secretary wrote.
+
+      3. Of the four cities, Great Falls appeals to you as
+      the best location for your factory. Write again,
+      asking the Secretary especially about the water power
+      facilities offered and the rates charged for
+      electrical power.
+
+      4. He replies that Great Falls has the most extensive
+      power in the United States, the hydro-electric power
+      being ready for delivery in any quantity at
+      exceptionally low rates. He tells of the many
+      factories that are already located in Great Falls
+      because of its water power facilities.
+
+      5. Great Falls is your choice. After your factory is
+      built and your machinery installed, write to the
+      Secretary of the Sand Point Lumber Co., Sand Point,
+      Idaho, asking him to submit figures for a contract for
+      supplying all your fir lumber. Tell him you think you
+      will use about a million board feet a year.
+
+      6. The Secretary replies, offering you a contract on
+      the following terms: For all amounts under 250,000
+      feet a year, a rate of 12 cents a foot; under 500,000,
+      11 cents; over 500,000, 10 cents. All goods are to be
+      billed at the highest rate and rebates made at the end
+      of the year, terms of payment being 90 days, 5% for 30
+      days.
+
+      7. Write to the Central American Supply Co.,
+      Tehuantepec, Mexico, ordering 50,000 feet No. 1
+      Mahogany Veneer. Have it charged to your account,
+      which you have previously opened.
+
+      8. Write to Gregory Bros., wholesale dry goods
+      merchants, 12141 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.,
+      ordering 15 bolts No. 7 Green Denim; 10 bolts No. 09
+      Green Panne Velvet; 50 yds. No. 216 Tapestry; 50 yds.
+      No. 16 Tapestry; 100 bolts Green and 100 bolts Brown
+      No. 5 Guimpe. Instruct them to ship the goods at once
+      and draw on you at sight through the First National
+      Bank of Great Falls. (See page 344.)
+
+      9. Write to the Excelsior Varnish Co., Merchants'
+      National Bank Building, St. Paul, Minn., ordering
+      articles such as varnish, stains, oils, enamels, and
+      finishing wax.
+
+      10. Write an order to a St. Louis firm for leather.
+
+      11. Write an order to a Spokane firm for springs.
+
+      12. Find out where a Great Falls merchant would buy
+      oak and birch, and write an order for each.
+
+      13. Write to the Hanover National Bank of New York
+      City (because you happen to know the cashier of that
+      bank), explaining that you are having a very decided
+      increase in your business and that, in order to take
+      care of the demand, you require a loan of $10,000.
+      Explain further that the rates are too high in Great
+      Falls for you to take a loan there. Say that you are
+      enclosing a statement of your assets and liabilities.
+
+      14. A dealer in Portland, Ore., writes, complaining
+      that he has not yet received the goods that he ordered
+      ten days ago. Write an appropriate reply.
+
+      15. You receive an order, one item of which is 3 doz.
+      oil mops, which you do not carry. Reply that you have
+      referred the matter to ---- a firm which you can
+      recommend highly.
+
+
+=Exercise 256=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+Principles involved in manufacture:
+
+1. The location of a factory.
+
+    _a._ Where necessary raw materials can be obtained easily and cheaply.
+    _b._ Where land is not expensive.
+    _c._ Where the coal or water supply will make power inexpensive.
+    _d._ Where transportation facilities are good.
+
+2. The advantages of using machinery in manufacture.
+
+    _a._ Relative amount of work turned out.
+    _b._ Relative cost of work turned out.
+    _c._ Relative cleanliness of work turned out.
+    _d._ Relative uniformity of work turned out.
+
+3. The number of working hours.
+
+      Some factories have made the experiment of reducing
+      the number of working hours from ten to eight without
+      reducing the wages of the workers. They have found
+      that the quantity of work turned out is increased and
+      the quality improved. Can you explain why?
+
+4. The advantages of the profit-sharing plan, both for employer and for
+employee.
+
+      This is a plan by which a certain per cent of the
+      profits of the business is divided annually among the
+      employees. (See a very interesting article in _System_
+      for March, 1911, or read _Profit-sharing between
+      Employer and Employee_ by N. P. Gilman.)
+
+5. Specialized labor.
+
+      There was a time when a man made all the parts of a
+      pair of shoes. Why in modern factories does he make
+      only one part? Which system tends to make shoes of
+      uniform workmanship? Is uniformity a good quality in
+      manufacture? This principle applies to any kind of
+      factory.
+
+6. Special products.
+
+      Suppose that you manufactured a large number of styles
+      of millinery, or novelty, footwear. Would you expect
+      your profits on these to be larger or smaller than on
+      your staple styles? Give reasons and illustrations.
+
+7. Why is there a struggle between labor and capital?
+
+8. What is the cause of strikes?
+
+9. Are strikes a good thing for manufacture?
+
+10. A visit to a shoe factory (or any other factory).
+
+
+=Exercise 257=
+
+Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks
+
+If you have access to a public library, you can probably obtain some of
+the following books. They are all simple and interesting, and any of
+them will suggest several topics for talks.
+
+      ALLEN, N. B., Industrial Studies.
+
+      BAKER, R. S., Boys' Books of Inventions.
+
+      BARNARD, CHARLES, Tools and Machines.
+
+      CARPENTER, F. G., How the World is Fed; How the World
+      is Clothed; How the World is Housed; Geographical
+      Readers.
+
+      CHAMBERLAIN, J. F., How We are Fed; How We are
+      Clothed.
+
+      CHASE, A. and CLOW, E., Stories of Industries (two
+      volumes).
+
+      COCHRANE, C. H., The Wonders of Modern Mechanism.
+
+      COCHRANE, ROBERT, Romance of Industry and Invention.
+
+      DOUBLEDAY, RUSSELL, Stories of Invention.
+
+      FORMAN, S. E., Useful Inventions.
+
+      GIBSON, C. R., The Romance of Modern Manufacture.
+
+      LANE, M. A. L., Industries of To-day.
+
+      LITTLE CHRONICLE CO., Industries of a Great City.
+
+      MOWRY, W. A. and MOWRY, A. M., Inventions and
+      Inventors.
+
+      PARTON, J., Captains of Industry (two series).
+
+      ROCHELEAU, W. F., Products of the Soil; Minerals;
+      Manufactures.
+
+      TOWLE, G. M., Heroes and Martyrs of Invention.
+
+      WILLIAMS, A., How it is Made.
+
+
+=Exercise 258=
+
+Study the punctuation of the following; then write from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      It is stated that practical experience with gas
+      mantles made of artificial silk--that is, silk made
+      from wood pulp--has proved them to be far superior to
+      those made of cotton, especially where the mantles are
+      exposed to excessive vibration. Several German towns
+      are said to be obtaining exceptionally good results
+      from these new mantles used in conjunction with
+      pressure gas, and it is asserted that the mantles are
+      in good condition after being used for seven or eight
+      weeks. Artificial silk, according to reports, has also
+      been used experimentally by several manufacturers of
+      incandescent gas mantles in the United Kingdom. The
+      reports are all very encouraging, except that there
+      seems to be one difficulty that is purely
+      mechanical--the knitting of the artificial silk. The
+      knots and other imperfections in the yarn cause a
+      considerable amount of waste. However, the
+      knitting-machine makers are experimenting to overcome
+      it.--_Daily Consular and Trade Report._
+
+2
+
+      As the production of wool in this country, although
+      approximating 320,000,000 pounds a year, does not
+      begin to meet the demands for the raw material, there
+      is a yearly importation of from 156,000,000 to over
+      300,000,000 pounds. When each new census reveals the
+      fact that there are fewer sheep of shearing age in the
+      country than there were ten years before, the question
+      of wool production becomes one of still greater
+      importance. A solution may be found in a Peruvian
+      product. A variety of cotton grows in Peru whose long,
+      rough, crinkly fiber mixes so readily with wool that
+      manufacturers use it in connection with wool in
+      manufacturing "all wool" goods. It grows on a small
+      tree that yields two or three crops a year for seven
+      or eight years. The area, however, in which it is
+      being successfully cultivated in Peru is so limited
+      that the annual output is only about 16,000,000
+      pounds, of which the United States takes approximately
+      5,500,000 pounds. As the region in which it thrives is
+      practically rainless, perhaps a way may be found to
+      persuade the rough Peruvian to make a home for itself
+      in the hot and arid regions of our Southwest. It would
+      be a triumph of agriculture, certainly, to raise
+      vegetable wool in regions not fitted for real
+      sheep.--_The Wall Street Journal._
+
+3
+
+THE CASTING OF METALS
+
+      As is well known, some metals are unsuitable for
+      casting, while others, like iron, can readily be cast
+      into any desired shape. The property of casting well,
+      it is said, depends upon whether the metal contracts
+      or expands in solidifying from the liquid form. Iron,
+      like water, expands in solidifying, and hence the
+      solid metal may be seen floating in the liquid iron
+      about it. The expansion causes it to fill the die into
+      which it is poured, and so it can be cast easily. Gold
+      and silver contract in cooling, and are, therefore,
+      not suitable for casting.--_Harper's Weekly._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DISTRIBUTION
+
+
+CORRECT buying and the most efficient methods of manufacture play a
+large part in the successful carrying on of a business, but the most
+important consideration is the successful marketing or distributing of
+the product after it has been manufactured or bought. Very few products
+are so superior in quality that they sell themselves purely on merit.
+Competition in business to-day is so keen that, in order to find a
+market for his product, a merchant must create a demand for it. Thus at
+its very foundation, distribution is merely a process of creating a
+demand and then filling that demand. For instance, the retail merchant
+is concerned with bringing the customers to his store rather than to his
+competitor's across the street. The wholesale merchant is concerned with
+having the retailers handle his goods rather than those of another firm.
+The mail order merchant is concerned with getting the farmer's business
+before some other dealer gets it. The salesman is concerned with writing
+the order before a rival from another house writes it.
+
+In the first place, the merchant must handle those things that his
+customers consider necessary or desirable. Overcoats cannot be sold in
+August, ashsifters on the equator, nor electric fans in Iceland.
+Different peoples, different times, and different conditions create
+different demands, and it is the merchant's business to study those
+demands and to fill them. In the second place, he must leave no stone
+unturned in endeavoring to make his product more desirable than that of
+his competitors. This may mean extensive advertising campaigns,
+expensive displays, outlay for costly catalogues and booklets, the
+expenditure of money for inducements to bring customers, or the hiring
+of expert salesmen. In fact, thousands of plans are carried out every
+year in this endeavor to increase trade.
+
+The getting of new and additional business, however, is only one of the
+important considerations that the merchant must always have in mind. He
+must also keep what business he already has by maintaining the standard
+of his goods and by giving his customers satisfactory service. One of
+the first essentials in this question of service is promptness and
+exactness of delivery. In this the merchant must depend very largely on
+the transportation companies, and therefore a brief study of these
+facilities will be especially in place at this point.
+
+
+Transportation
+
+Transportation is an essential item in the problem of distribution. If
+you wished to drink a cup of coffee and found that none could be had
+except in Brazil, you would begin to realize how much the steamship
+company and the railroad company have done in transporting and hauling
+it where you might buy it. The same is true of our oranges from
+California and Florida, our apples from Washington and Oregon, and our
+grain from the Middle States. In fact, in the case of many products the
+most important item is not growing them, but bringing them to market,
+since the transportation charges are often much greater than the actual
+cost of producing. Thousands of barrels of apples rot on the ground
+every year because their quality does not warrant the high
+transportation charges, the lack of transportation rendering them
+useless. In a smaller measure, the delivery wagons in our cities and
+towns are essential to us because they save us the trouble of carrying
+our purchases about. Thus, the element of transportation enters into our
+lives every day, saving us inconvenience, bringing to us necessities
+that we demand and luxuries that we like, and, at the same time,
+increasing the price of commodities.
+
+Common carriers, as transportation companies are called, are of two
+general classes:
+
+    1. Those operating on water--the steamship companies.
+    2. Those operating on land--the railroad companies.
+
+THE STEAMSHIP COMPANY
+
+Steamship companies operate three general kinds of lines: (1) lines
+consisting of the largest and fastest steamers which carry only
+passengers, mail, and valuable parcels; (2) lines using slower steamers
+which carry both passengers and freight; and (3) lines employing
+vessels--steamers, sailing vessels, and barges--which carry only
+freight. The cost of hauling cargoes by water is in every case less per
+mile than that of carrying the same quantity of goods on land. It costs,
+for example, over four times as much to carry a bushel of wheat from
+Chicago to New York by rail as it does to carry it across the Atlantic.
+It is for this very reason that the traffic on our navigable rivers, the
+Ohio and the Mississippi, and on the Great Lakes is so heavy. Whenever a
+cargo can be shipped as well by water as by rail and there is no hurry
+for delivery, it is shipped by water. However, because so much of our
+freight must be rushed from place to place, the railroads get the bulk
+of the inland traffic.
+
+THE RAILROAD COMPANY
+
+The services of the railroad company embrace the hauling of freight, the
+carrying of passengers, and the transporting of express and of mail. The
+hauling of freight is the most important item in the railroad business,
+about three-quarters of the total income being derived from this source.
+Each year over one billion tons of freight are turned over by shippers
+to the railroads, who use almost two and one-half million freight cars
+to carry it. About one-half of this tonnage is minerals, mainly ore and
+coal; about one-seventh consists of manufactured articles; and
+one-twelfth of agricultural products. Commodities are grouped into from
+ten to fourteen classes, on each one of which the freight rate is
+different from that of the others. By freight rate is meant the cost of
+shipping a certain unit, usually 100 pounds or a ton, from one place to
+another; it is dependent on the distance. There are certain bulky
+commodities like coal, livestock, lumber, grain, and cement, which are
+almost always handled in carload lots. They are not included in the
+freight classification, but have a special ex-class freight rate.
+Freight rates depend also on whether the goods are shipped by slow or
+_local_ freight or by fast or _through_ freight.
+
+There are a hundred different kinds of papers used in carrying on the
+railroad freight business. Only four of the most important will be
+considered here. When a shipper turns over his goods to the railroad
+company at its freight depot, he gets from the agent a _receipt for
+freight_, which is merely a receipt for the goods he has turned over. In
+the ordinary course of business these receipts are exchanged at the
+company's office for a _bill of lading_ in triplicate. The original and
+one copy are given to the shipper. The second copy is kept by the
+railroad. This bill of lading may be of two kinds, _straight_ or
+_order_. If a straight bill of lading is given, the original is sent to
+the person to whom the goods are shipped, who is called the _consignee_,
+who on the presentation of the bill of lading is entitled to the goods
+after paying the charges. An order bill of lading is much like a check,
+in that it can be assigned to another person. Like the straight bill it
+states the name of the consignee or the person for whom the goods are
+intended and his address, but the consignee cannot get possession of the
+goods until he has paid for them. To collect payment, the shipper
+attaches to the order bill of lading a draft for the amount of the
+goods and the freight, and through his bank and the bank of the
+consignee the amount is collected. The consignee then gets possession of
+the order bill of lading, which entitles him to possession of the goods.
+This is more fully explained on page 344. The railroad's most important
+paper is the _way bill_, which shows the conductor or the agent of the
+company just what articles are included in the shipment, so that it can
+be checked when unloaded. When the goods arrive at their destination,
+the consignee is notified and is sent a _freight bill_ showing the
+freight charges. When he presents his bill of lading and pays the
+charges, the _freight bill_ is receipted and the goods are his.
+
+In quoting prices on goods, manufacturers and distributors usually
+designate whether they will pay the freight or whether it is to be paid
+by the consignee. In the latter case the price is quoted f. o. b. at the
+place from which the goods are shipped, which means freight on board at
+that point. That is to say, if a distributor located at Detroit quotes
+his automobiles f. o. b. Detroit, he means that he will see that the
+goods get into the railroad company's hands at Detroit, but that the
+consignee pays the freight from Detroit to the destination. The latter
+is the common practice in shipping.
+
+In the following exercises we shall treat the subject of distribution
+under four heads:
+
+      I. The Retail Merchant.
+     II. The Wholesale Merchant.
+    III. The Mail Order Merchant.
+     IV. The Salesman.
+
+
+
+
+I.--THE RETAIL MERCHANT
+
+
+=Exercise 259=
+
+_Oral_
+
+You are opening a grocery store. Remember that your object is to sell
+the largest possible amount of goods. Develop each of the following
+suggestions:
+
+      1. What kind of location would you desire?
+
+      2. How would you have the front of your store painted?
+      Would you try to make it stand out from the rest?
+
+      3. Do you think it would pay you to have the interior
+      newly and brightly redecorated? To put in the best and
+      brightest lights?
+
+      4. What quality of stock would you select? The same
+      for all neighborhoods? Give your reasons. Would
+      advertised brands bring you more trade?
+
+      5. Do you think window display would pay? Would you
+      recommend freak or ordinary displays? Price-marked or
+      non-price-marked? Give your reasons.
+
+      6. Does the delivery wagon pay? Would it be advisable
+      to buy a new wagon and a good horse? What other
+      considerations would enter?
+
+      7. Would you sometimes cut the price of some necessity
+      to draw people? Give reasons for your answer.
+
+      8. Is it a good thing to have a general cut-price-sale
+      to bring customers to your store? Even if you lose
+      money by it?
+
+      9. Would you give credit? Would the class of people
+      you served come into consideration?
+
+      10. Is the use of trading stamps and premiums good
+      policy?
+
+      11. Why do you often find a meat market in connection
+      with a grocery?
+
+      12. There are two kinds of retail meat markets: (1)
+      the one that sells goods which can be retailed at a
+      low price, and (2) the one that sells superior goods
+      at a higher price. Which policy would you follow and
+      why?
+
+      13. Could a retailer combine the two spoken of in
+      (12)? Consider cost, space, satisfaction of the
+      customer.
+
+      14. Would you advertise by means of handbills? By
+      circular letters?
+
+      15. What would you do if another grocery opened across
+      the street from yours?
+
+
+=Exercise 260=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. You have bought Burton & Sanders' grocery at Fort
+      Wayne, Indiana. Send out a circular letter advertising
+      the new White Front Grocery and telling what the
+      policy of the new management will be. Explain that the
+      opening sale will begin next Monday and that a
+      special feature of the sale will, be twenty pounds of
+      granulated sugar for eighty cents with a two dollar
+      order.
+
+      2. At the same time have an article appear in a local
+      newspaper, telling that Burton & Sanders have sold
+      their store to you and that you are making extensive
+      improvements, especially in sanitary means of handling
+      provisions. In addition, let the article give an
+      account of your business career in another town. Would
+      such an article be of value to you? Write it.
+
+      3. Write to Peabody, Harper & Co., Rush Street Bridge,
+      Chicago, Ill., saying that you would like to open an
+      account with them. Give as references a bank in your
+      town and one in Logansport, where you used to live.
+      Ask Peabody, Harper & Co. what terms they can offer
+      you.
+
+      4. You have decided to advertise in a local paper.
+      Write to the advertising manager, asking him for
+      yearly rates for a half-column every evening and a
+      quarter-page every Friday.
+
+      5. Find out what are the advertising rates of a paper
+      in your town and answer (4).
+
+      6. Reproduce a letter that a woman living in town
+      sends, ordering two dollars' worth of groceries and
+      requesting that you send, in addition, the twenty
+      pounds of sugar you advertise in (1). She encloses a
+      check for $2.80.
+
+      7. You are in receipt of a letter from Peabody, Harper
+      & Co., answering your inquiry in (3) and offering you
+      sixty days' credit and 2% discount for payment within
+      ten days. Write the letter.
+
+      8. Send an order to Peabody, Harper & Co. for $200
+      worth of groceries. Among the items let there be 6
+      cases of canned tomatoes, first quality, at $1.75 a
+      case. Ask them to send the goods by the Pennsylvania
+      R. R.
+
+      9. Your business is increasing and you need another
+      clerk, (a) Write an advertisement for one. _(b_) Apply
+      for the position.
+
+      10. Write a short circular advertising an inexpensive
+      novelty that a grocer might sell. These circulars are
+      to be wrapped with purchases.
+
+      11. Peabody, Harper & Co. write, confirming your order
+      in (8) and enclosing a straight bill of lading.
+
+      12. When the goods arrive, you find no tomatoes among
+      them. Write a complaint to the wholesale house.
+
+      13. Peabody, Harper & Co. reply to your letter in
+      (12), apologizing for the mistake, explaining how it
+      occurred (supply an explanation), and telling you that
+      they have sent one case by express at their expense.
+      The rest will follow by freight.
+
+      14. The tomatoes sent by freight do not arrive. Write
+      to the grocery company, asking the latter to send out
+      a "tracer"; that is, to request the railroad company
+      to trace the goods on its lines.
+
+      15. The grocery company telephones the railroad
+      company, requesting the latter to trace the goods and
+      to report. The grocery company also writes a letter
+      confirming its request. Write the letter.
+
+      16. (_a_) The railroad company reports that by mistake
+      the goods were carried through to Lima, but that they
+      are being returned to Fort Wayne. (_b_) The grocery
+      company informs you of the developments and hopes that
+      the delay has caused you no great inconvenience. Write
+      both letters.
+
+
+=Exercise 261=
+
+      1. You wish to get a partner to open a meat market in
+      connection with your grocery. Write to a friend in
+      Lafayette, Ind., who you think will be interested,
+      proposing the plan. Tell him of the opportunities, as
+      you see them, of business in Fort Wayne and the
+      surrounding country. Tell him that with $4,000
+      additional capital you and he could set up a much
+      larger establishment, invest in a motor wagon, and
+      thus secure the trade of the outlying districts.
+
+      2. Your friend replies that the proposal appeals
+      strongly to him, but that he has only $2,000 in cash.
+      However, he holds a mortgage for $2,000 on ---- (state
+      the location of the house) in Lafayette, and, if he
+      can sell the mortgage, he will be glad to avail
+      himself of the offer.
+
+      3. After the partnership is formed, your partner
+      writes to Orr & Locket, 14 W. Randolph St., Chicago,
+      Ill., ordering the following to be shipped by
+      Pennsylvania R.R.: 1 Refrigerator No. 361; 2 Meat
+      Blocks No. 3; 1 Scale No. M. 30; 1/6 doz. Saws No. 33
+      (16 in.); 1/6 doz. Saws No. 33 (22 in.); 1/4 doz.
+      Knives No. 955; 1/4 doz. Knives No. 490; 1/6 doz.
+      Steels No. 82; 1/6 doz. Cleavers No. 09; 1/4 doz.
+      Block Scrapers. He explains that he is the same man
+      who formerly had a meat market in Lafayette.
+
+      4. Orr & Locket acknowledge the receipt of the order,
+      enclose the invoice, and offer him 5% discount for
+      payment within 30 days. Write the letter.
+
+      5. A Detroit manufacturer sends you f.o.b. prices on
+      his motor wagons. Investigate the prices and write the
+      letter.
+
+      6. Order one of them. (Remember the f.o.b. item.)
+
+      7. He writes confirming your order, saying that the
+      car is now in the shipper's hands and that his bank
+      has sent the order bill of lading with draft attached
+      to the First National Bank of your city. Write the
+      letter. (See page 344.)
+
+      8. At the same time the shipper's bank sends a letter
+      to the First National Bank of your city enclosing the
+      order bill of lading with draft drawn on you for
+      collection. A copy of this letter is also mailed to
+      you. Write it.
+
+      9. You telephone your bank to draw on your account for
+      the amount of the draft and to send you the bill of
+      lading. You confirm this understanding by a letter.
+      Write it.
+
+      10. Your bank writes, confirming the telephone
+      conversation and enclosing the bill of lading and a
+      receipt for the correct amount. You present your bill
+      of lading, pay the freight charges, and get your motor
+      wagon. Write the letter the bank sends.
+
+      11. The automobile manufacturer has meanwhile received
+      through his bank a credit for the amount you paid for
+      the car and writes acknowledging its receipt. Write
+      the letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 262=
+
+Choose four or six members of the class, one-half of whom are to argue
+in favor of the policy indicated in the plan outlined below and one-half
+of whom are to argue against it.
+
+A certain grocer opened a store with the determination of doing a
+strictly cash business, and of making no deliveries unless the purchaser
+paid for the delivery. This was his plan as suggested by _System_:
+
+      1. To those who would carry their own purchases he
+      sold everything for cash much lower than any other
+      grocer in town sold it.
+
+      2. If the customer bought very bulky goods, or if he
+      did not wish to be his own delivery man, the grocer
+      charged him for delivery a certain percentage of the
+      total of his cash purchases. Yet the customer bought
+      more cheaply than he could buy in any other grocery in
+      town.
+
+      3. Those who wished to pay once a month instead of at
+      every visit he advised to deposit a certain sum of
+      money with him as banker and to buy against that,
+      paying cash prices and receiving 3% interest on the
+      amount left on deposit.
+
+
+II.--THE WHOLESALE MERCHANT
+
+
+=Exercise 263=
+
+_Oral_
+
+Each of the following should be developed into a paragraph:
+
+      1. You are a manufacturer and wholesale distributor
+      with a factory on the outskirts of a town; would you
+      have a warehouse in the center of the town? Give
+      reasons for your answer.
+
+      2. What would be the advantage of having your
+      warehouse near the railroad freight depots? Near the
+      docks?
+
+      3. What would be the advantage of being located in a
+      large city with many railroads and with water
+      transportation facilities--Chicago, for example?
+
+      4. Speed gets orders. With this in view, what would
+      you recommend with respect to the equipment for
+      handling? What would you suggest about the number of
+      people through whose hands the order would have to go
+      before being shipped?
+
+      5. If you were looking for big trade in a big city,
+      what kind of stock would you carry? Musical
+      instruments? Clothing?
+
+      6. Would it be a good plan to make a specialty of
+      certain brands for leaders and to quote a special
+      price on them?
+
+      7. If you were just starting a wholesale hardware or
+      grocery business, state which you think would be the
+      better policy: (1) to concentrate on one kind of goods
+      in one territory and to take on other kinds and
+      territories later, or (2) to work all kinds of goods
+      as widely as possible from the very beginning. Explain
+      fully.
+
+      8. Would you bear part of the expense of retailers'
+      advertising, especially of window displays, provided
+      they handled your goods?
+
+      9. Would it be good business for the salesmen of the
+      firm to suggest selling methods to retailers and to
+      plan window displays for them? Give your reasons.
+
+      10. Do you think it would increase sales to offer a
+      money prize to the retailer selling the largest amount
+      of a certain kind of your goods, the sale of which you
+      wished materially to increase?
+
+      11. Tell which you think would be the better policy:
+      (1) to undersell your competitors for a time and then,
+      when you had the trade, to raise your prices, or (2)
+      to set one price and maintain it from the beginning.
+      Give your reasons.
+
+      12. If you were getting out a new brand of carpenters'
+      tools, where would you advertise? Would you conduct an
+      extensive national campaign?
+
+      13. If you were bringing out a new soap or washing
+      powder, where would you advertise? Would you conduct
+      an extensive national advertising campaign? What would
+      your answer be if you were introducing a new brand of
+      crackers?
+
+      14. Would bringing out novelties from time to time
+      help the sale of your staple articles? Explain.
+
+      15. Do you think it would pay to send circulars to the
+      housewives of a certain locality to get the local
+      grocers' trade? After you had the local grocers'
+      trade?
+
+
+=Exercise 264=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. You are Thos. H. Peabody of Peabody, Harper & Co.'s
+      wholesale grocery. Prepare a circular letter,
+      announcing your removal to a new building. The letter
+      will be printed in imitation of typewriting and the
+      introduction filled in later on the typewriter.
+      Remember you are seeking patronage. Address one letter
+      to Walter T. Barth, 350 E. Water St., Milwaukee, Wis.
+
+      2. Write an advertisement to appear in the January
+      number of _The Grocer and Country Merchant_, a
+      grocers' trade journal. It will announce your change
+      of location.
+
+      3. You receive an order from a retailer in which he
+      asks for a certain brand of coffee that you do not
+      carry. Write a letter telling him you do not handle
+      that brand and offering him another. Make the letter
+      as courteous as possible.
+
+      4. Write an advertisement for (1) a bookkeeper; (2) a
+      stenographer.
+
+      5. Answer (1) or (2) above.
+
+      6. Write an advertisement for a traveling salesman.
+
+      7. Answer (6) telling why you think you could sell
+      groceries although you have had no experience.
+
+      8. Write a circular letter to send to the trade
+      setting forth the merits of a new brand of canned
+      fruit. Say that you are offering the brand at a very
+      attractive price in the expectation that retailers
+      will make it a leader. Write to Mr. Barth (1).
+
+      9. You have made a contract with the manufacturers of
+      the canned fruit mentioned in (8), by which you secure
+      the exclusive sale but take the responsibility of
+      advertising. Write to an advertising agency, saying
+      that you are considering a three months' advertising
+      campaign. Explain that you do not wish the expense to
+      exceed five thousand dollars.
+
+      10. The advertising agency replies that, as five
+      thousand dollars is a comparatively small sum for a
+      campaign, it would suggest that the advertising be
+      confined to one class: street car, billboard,
+      newspaper, or magazine. Write the letter.
+
+      11. Notify the agency of your choice, giving your
+      reasons.
+
+      12. Write a series of three letters to send to
+      housewives, advertising the canned fruit, with the
+      purpose of having them ask for this brand at their
+      grocers': (1) Telling the name of the canned fruit,
+      its excellence, its price, and where it may be bought;
+      (2) Asking if the housewife has as yet bought any, and
+      if she has not, telling her she can get a sample at
+      her grocer's on presentation of this letter; (3)
+      Asking how she liked the fruit and quoting a letter of
+      recommendation received from Mrs. A., who lives in the
+      neighborhood. Urge her to buy, but not too abruptly. A
+      letter to a woman should be fairly long. (See page
+      265.)
+
+
+=Exercise 265=
+
+      1. For two months you have been without a credit man.
+      You wish to be very careful in your choice because of
+      the importance of the position. J. B. Wright of 439
+      Russell Ave., Indianapolis, is a personal friend of
+      yours. He has heard that you need a credit man and he
+      recommends Joseph Haddon, who worked for him three
+      years in that capacity until a year ago when he went
+      to Colorado because of the ill-health of his wife.
+      Meanwhile, Mr. Wright's son has been acting as his
+      credit man. Mrs. Haddon has now recovered, and her
+      husband is anxious to get another position. Reproduce
+      Mr. Wright's letter.
+
+      2. Write the letter Mr. Wright sends Mr. Haddon in
+      Colorado, suggesting that the latter apply for the
+      position.
+
+      3. At the same time Joseph Haddon writes, applying for
+      the position. Write the letter of application.
+
+      4. Write Mr. Haddon's letter thanking Mr. Wright for
+      his interest. Remember that the two men know each
+      other.
+
+      5. Joseph Haddon, whom you have engaged, is proving to
+      be a very alert credit man. He has made a study of
+      your credit files and has discovered that you have a
+      great many accounts of long standing that ought to be
+      collected. He prepares a courteous letter to send to
+      the debtors, telling them that he has just been made
+      credit man and that he personally would like to get
+      into closer touch with their particular situation to
+      find out how soon he might expect a remittance from
+      them, so that he could plan the future of his
+      department. Write the letter. (See page 254.)
+
+      6. A number of retailers remit the amount that they
+      owe. Some explain their situation in detail, but a
+      great many do not respond to (5). Write another
+      letter, still courteous, but more emphatic than (5),
+      to those who did not respond. (See page 255.)
+
+      7. Still a number do not respond. Write a third
+      letter, saying that you will place the matter in the
+      hands of your attorney unless you receive a remittance
+      within ten days.
+
+      8. Mr. Haddon discovers that there are about a hundred
+      retailers who used to be customers, but who have
+      bought nothing for about two years. He reports this to
+      the sales manager, Mr. James Woodworth, who writes a
+      letter to the retailers to induce them to send another
+      order, using the canned fruit spoken of in (8) of
+      Exercise 264 as a means of interesting them.
+
+      9. Nathaniel Sears, a dealer in general merchandise at
+      Joplin, Mo., writes to you asking for an open account.
+      He says that he did a $10,000 business last year and
+      that, apparently, sales this year will be larger. He
+      gives no references. You refer the matter to Mr.
+      Haddon, who looks up Mr. Sears in Bradstreet and then
+      writes to one of your salesmen at St. Louis, asking
+      him to investigate the financial standing of Mr.
+      Sears. Write to the salesman.
+
+      10. After three days the salesman reports that Mr.
+      Sears seems to be doing a good business, but he thinks
+      the dealer is living beyond his means. He owes two
+      wholesale houses $500 and $850 respectively; his
+      property in Joplin is heavily mortgaged, and yet he is
+      making extensive improvements on his residence; his
+      son and his daughter are at expensive boarding
+      schools. Write the letter. Be exact in your
+      information.
+
+      11. As Mr. Woodworth, write Mr. Sears a courteous
+      letter, refusing him credit but attempting to secure
+      his cash business.
+
+      12. Charles Freeman, 141 Park Place, Newark, Ohio,
+      writes in answer to (5) saying that he is unable to
+      pay his account of $500. After the harvest his
+      outstanding bills will be paid by the farmers, and
+      then he can remit. He says he is willing to give his
+      90 day note for the amount he owes.
+
+      13. Mr. Haddon writes, accepting the note.
+
+
+III.--THE MAIL ORDER MERCHANT
+
+
+=Exercise 266=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. Suppose you were starting a mail order business.
+      Would it make any difference in possible profits if
+      your center of operations were in a large or a small
+      city? Give your reasons.
+
+      2. Would you try to be near good transportation?
+
+      3. What kind of stock would you advertise principally:
+      bulky articles or those easily handled? expensive
+      goods or those of more moderate price?
+
+      4. Your catalogue is your salesman. What would this
+      statement suggest about the cost of running your
+      business as compared with that of Peabody, Harper &
+      Co., who employ five salesmen?
+
+      5. How would you bring special attention to your
+      leaders in your catalogue?
+
+      6. Why is it advisable not to give your catalogue away
+      free, but to charge a nominal sum for it?
+
+      7. Would you sell as cheaply as you could or would you
+      try to sell for as high a price as possible even if
+      you sold less?
+
+      8. Is it profitable for a mail order merchant to sell
+      one spool of thread or one pocket-knife? Consider the
+      handling and the packing.
+
+      9. Why can the mail order merchant sell more cheaply
+      than the country dealer?
+
+    10. _a._ How is the parcel post favorable to the mail order dealer?
+        _b._ Why did the country merchant object so strenuously to the
+              passage of the parcel post law?
+
+      11. Some distributors who handle only one kind of
+      article sometimes pay the freight. Would this plan be
+      advisable for a mail order house to adopt?
+
+      12. Since the purchaser pays the freight, is it
+      advisable for him to buy a large or a small order at
+      one time?
+
+
+=Exercise 267=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. A customer who wishes to buy some furniture
+      complains that he can purchase what he wishes from
+      another firm that will pay the freight. Write a letter
+      meeting his objection.
+
+      2. You have just added a new clothing department and
+      have published a special clothing catalogue, which you
+      will be glad to send to your customers free of charge.
+      Write a letter telling of the new department and
+      drawing special attention to your three-piece serge
+      suit for $15. Enclose a sample of the cloth.
+
+      3. Write, especially to farmers, saying that with the
+      facilities now offered by the parcel post you are able
+      to supply their wants quickly; as, for example, for a
+      broken part of a piece of farm machinery. Write a
+      fairly long letter in a friendly tone.
+
+      4. In the fall write a letter, addressing the farmers'
+      wives, saying that, as winter is at hand, it would be
+      well for them to put in a supply of groceries when
+      prices are reasonable. Enclose a folder giving some
+      attractive bargains. Write the folder.
+
+      5. Write a letter, saying that you have just put up a
+      new building. Invite your customer to come to see it.
+      Explain that every afternoon from 2 to 4 o'clock there
+      will be a band concert in your large visitors' hall.
+
+
+=Exercise 268=
+
+1. Let one pupil be chosen to dictate to the class each of the letters
+outlined below. He is to use no notes. The class will represent
+stenographers.
+
+2. Discuss and improve the letters that have been dictated.
+
+      1. Borroughs & Brown, a mail order firm at N. 11th and
+      Callowhill Streets, Philadelphia, send you their
+      catalogue and an advertising letter. Write the letter.
+
+      2. Write, stating that in their catalogue No. 6, page
+      673, Borroughs & Brown list a washing machine such as
+      you wish, called the "Pride Swing" washing machine,
+      No. 4-A-459. The measurements as listed are: depth 13
+      inches, diameter 21 inches. The price is $5.25. This
+      is too small for your purpose. Ask if they can supply
+      you with the same style 30 inches in diameter. Ask the
+      price.
+
+      3. Borroughs & Brown write that they have no such
+      machine in stock, but, since there have been many
+      requests lately for a larger machine, they have
+      decided to consult the factory, and if it is
+      advisable, they will reproduce the "Pride Swing"
+      machine in larger size. (Letter head.)
+
+      4. Borroughs & Brown, Dept. 18, House Furnishings,
+      write to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., Saginaw, Mich.,
+      stating that they have had several orders for a larger
+      "Pride Swing" washing machine which the Wiggins
+      Company manufacture. Burroughs & Brown ask concerning
+      a 30-inch machine. Write the letter.
+
+      5. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. telegraph Borroughs &
+      Brown that before they can state a price on a 30-inch
+      "Pride Swing" machine, they must make samples,
+      calculating cost of materials and workmanship. Write
+      the telegram. Confirm by letter. Write the letter.
+
+      6. Borroughs & Brown write you, giving the information
+      contained in (5) above.
+
+      7. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. write Borroughs & Brown,
+      stating that after several experiments they find that
+      the coil springs by which the "Pride Swing" machine is
+      operated are too weak for the larger sized tub. The
+      manufacture of suitable springs will cause some delay
+      in their final report.
+
+      8. Ten days later. Telegram. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg.
+      Co. to Borroughs & Brown, stating that they have now
+      perfected a "Pride Swing Special" machine; width 30
+      inches, depth 18 inches; price $8, with a discount of
+      50%.
+
+      9. Borroughs & Brown write you that they have
+      perfected a "Pride Swing Special" washing machine, No.
+      4-B-459, 30 inches in diameter, 18 inches in depth,
+      price $7. Add a courteous close.
+
+      10. Order five machines. Give full shipping
+      directions. Say that you will pay according to the
+      offer made on page 25, catalogue No. 6; viz., $20 upon
+      receipt of the goods and $5 per month until they are
+      paid for. Give two references.
+
+      11. Borroughs & Brown telegraph the W. F. Wiggins Mfg.
+      Co. ordering 100 machines, five of which are to be
+      sent directly to you. Write, confirming the telegram.
+
+      12. Two weeks later than letter (10) write again,
+      explaining that you have not received the machines you
+      ordered. Ask the reason for the delay.
+
+      13. Two weeks later than (11) write a telegram from
+      Borroughs & Brown to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co.,
+      asking why the machines have not been sent.
+
+      14. Send a telegram from the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. to
+      Borroughs & Brown, saying that, owing to a teamsters'
+      and shipping clerks' strike, they have not been able
+      to fill any of their orders for the last two weeks.
+      The machines have been sent. (State how and when.)
+      Write a letter, confirming the telegram.
+
+      15. Borroughs & Brown write to inform you that the
+      strike was the cause of the delay in the shipment of
+      the machines you ordered ----. The machines were
+      shipped ----. Add a courteous close.
+
+
+=Exercise 269=
+
+Conduct a transaction of your own, using the above as a model, except in
+the method of payment.
+
+
+IV.--THE SALESMAN
+
+Salesmanship is a branch of distribution about which many volumes have
+been written. We cannot consider it minutely from the personal view of
+the salesman, but can only touch upon it from the point of view of
+distribution. The salesman is merely a force in distribution like
+correspondence, circulars, and advertising. But the salesman has the
+advantage over these in that he is able to bring his personality to bear
+in the problem of getting business. It is by means of his personality
+that the salesman gets the attention and confidence of the customer,--a
+thing which is extremely hard to do in a letter, a circular, or an
+advertisement. Securing a buyer's confidence is very important, because
+no suspicious customer has ever yet bought anything.
+
+In addition to a pleasing personality a good salesman must have a wide
+and thorough knowledge of his wares. If he does not know his goods, the
+sale drags; whereas, if he knows everything good there is to be known
+about them, his enthusiasm instills enthusiasm into the customer.
+
+After bringing his knowledge and his enthusiasm into play, he must next
+call on his perseverance and his tact; perseverance to keep at the
+customer until he gets the order, and tact to know in each case just how
+to go about getting the order and just when to stop. Many salesmen talk
+too much; many more do not talk enough.
+
+
+=Exercise 270=
+
+_Oral_
+
+In talking on any of the following subjects be sure you know just what
+you are going to say before you begin, and then say it clearly and
+convincingly. Don't say too much and don't say too little. Just exactly
+how much you should say no one can tell you. You must watch your
+audience. If they look puzzled, give more details; if they look bored,
+try shorter, more concise sentences, or bring your talk to a close.
+After you have explained all your points, sum them up briefly at the
+end. Remember that your talk must, first, attract attention; second,
+hold the interest; and third, create enthusiasm and desire to buy.
+
+To supplement what facts you get from observation, study advertisements
+and catalogues to get material for (9) to (20) below:
+
+      1. Get up a talk to persuade a freshman or a group of
+      freshmen to subscribe to the school paper.
+
+      2. To persuade girls to contribute to a fund to be
+      used to buy suits for the football team.
+
+      3. To induce particularly uninterested freshmen to buy
+      tickets for a school activity; for example, a debate.
+
+      4. As a real estate agent induce a classmate to
+      establish a home in your neighborhood.
+
+      5. Try to sell the manager of the baseball team a new
+      line of athletic goods.
+
+      6. Try to sell a set of Dickens' (or any other
+      author's) works to a boy who is not fond of reading.
+      You must enjoy the books that you recommend.
+
+      7. Try to sell the class or the teacher a new kind of
+      loose leaf note book for science or English work.
+
+      8. As an agent for the publishers try to sell this
+      text book to your English class or to your English
+      teacher.
+
+      9. You are trying to sell an automobile to a farmer.
+      By means of concrete examples develop the following
+      items into a talk:
+
+    _a._ The business opportunities to be gained.
+    _b._ The social opportunities to be gained.
+
+
+      10. Get up a talk to sell a runabout to a physician
+      who has a small practice. Suppose that he owns a horse
+      and a buggy. Be tactful.
+
+      11. You are a salesman for an automobile house and are
+      trying to sell a gasoline car to a man who is partial
+      to an electric car. Meet the objections to the
+      gasoline car and put forward its advantages.
+
+      12. You are trying to sell an electric runabout to a
+      woman. Develop the following into a talk:
+
+    _a._ Ease of operation.
+    _b._ Noiselessness and comfort.
+    _c._ Elegant appearance.
+
+      13. You are trying to sell the manager of a local
+      express company a motor truck. Gather all the data you
+      can and present it in a talk on why he should replace
+      his horses and wagons with motor trucks. Be as
+      specific as possible.
+
+      14. Get up a talk showing why a man with considerable
+      means should trade his two year old car as part
+      payment for the latest model.
+
+      15. Get up a talk to sell a phonograph.
+
+      16. To sell an electric washing machine.
+
+      17. To sell a piano.
+
+      18. To sell a vacuum cleaner.
+
+      19. To sell a subscription to a magazine.
+
+      20. To obtain an order for groceries or teas and
+      coffees. The offer of premiums might add to the
+      effectiveness of your talk.
+
+
+=Exercise 271=
+
+The following paragraph was adapted from William C. Freeman's
+_Advertising Talks_.
+
+      George Washington's Cherry Tree Story has served a
+      good purpose through all of these years. "I cannot
+      tell a lie" is a phrase that has been used in every
+      schoolroom in America to impress upon young minds the
+      importance of truth telling. The phrase is also
+      serving its purpose outside the schoolroom. In all
+      professions and in all kinds of business, men know
+      that in order to make good they must tell the truth.
+      There never was, in all the history of the country, a
+      greater movement than now toward universal truth
+      telling. There is not even that winking at "white"
+      lies that used to prevail. The man who does not make a
+      direct statement, who does not earn a reputation for
+      being honest, has no chance of succeeding. Time was
+      when the trickster was regarded as shrewd and was
+      accepted in the community as being right both socially
+      and commercially. To-day the man who has money without
+      a reputation for integrity is a bankrupt, as far as
+      real friends and public opinion are concerned. The
+      expression "I cannot tell a lie" has been changed
+      to-day to "I will not tell a lie even if the lie seems
+      more expedient than the blunt truth." So George
+      Washington's Cherry Tree Story is as good to-day as it
+      ever was.
+
+Prepare paragraphs on the following suggestions, expanding each by
+examples:
+
+     1. As a salesman, be honest with your customers.
+     2. Cultivate tact.
+     3. Cultivate a conscience.
+     4. Learn to avoid friction.
+     5. Acknowledge your mistakes.
+     6. Don't criticise.
+     7. Don't procrastinate.
+     8. Don't boast.
+     9. Don't buy your clothes on time.
+    10. Don't borrow from fellow clerks.
+    11. Don't think your employer can't see whether you are working.
+    12. Don't sell a merchant a larger order than he can move.
+    13. Study the duties of the man ahead of you.
+    14. New ideas count with your employer.
+    15. He can who thinks he can.
+
+
+=Exercise 272=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. A request has come in from your territory for your
+      automobile catalogue. Write a letter to accompany the
+      catalogue, inviting the inspection of your cars. Make
+      it as personal as possible.
+
+      2. You have just been talking with a prospective
+      buyer. Drive home some of the strong points of your
+      car in a letter exploiting strength, reliability, and
+      speed. Use the following as a basis of your letter:
+      The Up-to-the-minute car breaks the record from New
+      York to San Francisco, making the trip in ten days,
+      fifteen hours, and thirteen seconds.
+
+      3. You have just shown your motor truck to a business
+      man. Strengthen the impression you made on him by
+      writing him a letter summing up the important
+      advantages of the motor truck. Use the following
+      extract from a letter:
+
+      "It has not missed a single trip since I have had it,
+      and it takes the place of three wagons and twelve
+      horses. My route from Waltham is so long that a pair
+      of horses going over it one day has to be laid off the
+      next."
+
+      "This truck makes three trips each day. I have had it
+      on the road nearly four months and have covered over
+      four thousand (4,000) miles with no expense for
+      repairs."
+
+      4. A prospective customer has lost interest. Try to
+      arouse him once more by telling him of a particularly
+      good sale recently made, or of a new model just
+      received, or of a new device lately perfected. Your
+      object is to get him to inspect your cars again.
+
+      5. Write a letter to a wealthy man who bought one of
+      your cars two years ago, offering him half of what he
+      paid for the car in exchange for a new model. Make him
+      see that it would be to his advantage to accept the
+      offer.
+
+      6. Write an advertisement to appear in a local
+      newspaper asking for an automobile salesman.
+
+      7. Answer the advertisement, telling why you think you
+      could sell cars, although you have had no experience.
+
+      8. Write a letter to a friend telling him you have
+      been offered the agency for the Up-to-the-minute car.
+      Ask him to be your partner, and try to show him why
+      you will succeed. He will be expected to bear half the
+      office expenses, and he will get half the commissions.
+
+
+=Exercise 273--Suggestions for Debates=
+
+      1. The mail order house ruins the trade of the country
+      merchant.
+
+      2. The giving of free samples does not attract
+      desirable purchasers.
+
+      3. The use of trading stamps should be abolished.
+
+      4. The motor wagon is more advantageous for the
+      average grocer than the horse and wagon.
+
+      5. All manufactured food products should be sold in
+      sanitary, sealed packages.
+
+
+=Exercise 274=
+
+_Oral or Written_
+
+Prepare paragraphs on the following:
+
+      1. A merchant must know his neighborhood before he
+      buys his stock.
+
+      2. Selling by weight rather than by measure benefits
+      dealer and consumer.
+
+      3. Giving short weights does not prove profitable.
+
+      4. The price of a certain kind of goods, or of an
+      article, that is going out of style should be reduced
+      to move it quickly.
+
+      5. If merchants did not deliver purchases, goods would
+      be cheaper.
+
+      6. Hard work and patience spell the merchant's
+      success.
+
+      7. The middle man gets the bulk of the profit.
+
+      8. The telegraph is a great aid to the business man.
+
+      9. There is a difference between day and night
+      telegraphic rates.
+
+      10. Money may be sent by telegraph.
+
+      11. The night letter is very useful to the merchant.
+
+      12. The parcel post is a great help to the farmer.
+
+      13. The parcel post tends to increase the business of
+      the mail order firms.
+
+      14. The object of an automobile exhibit is to sell
+      cars.
+
+      15. The five-and-ten-cent stores have succeeded
+      because ----.
+
+
+=Exercise 275=
+
+Prepare paragraphs on the following:
+
+   1. The importance of transportation facilities to the farmer.
+   2. The importance of transportation facilities to the manufacturer.
+   3. The steamship in international trade.
+   4. Transportation before the days of the railroad.
+   5. The influence of the railroad in the advance of civilization.
+   6. Electrifying the railroads.
+   7. Speed, the cause of railroad accidents.
+   8. The observation car.
+   9. The care of food in the refrigerator car.
+  10. The work of the railroad repair-shop.
+  11. The advantage of railroad transportation over water transportation.
+  12. The advantage of water transportation over railroad transportation.
+  13. Why the larger railroads in our country run east and west.
+  14. The advantages of the pay-as-you-enter car.
+  15. The importance of the interurban electric railroads in country trade.
+  16. The disadvantages of the elevated system in large cities.
+  17. Congestion in the business district of a large city.
+  18. The underground system as a solution for congested traffic.
+  19. The work of a transfer company.
+  20. The motor truck decreases the business of the express companies.
+  21. The automobile decreases railroad suburban business.
+
+
+=Exercise 276=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+    1. The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
+
+    2. How railroads control other railroads.
+
+    3. Railroad earnings.
+
+    4. Different kinds of railroad traffic.
+
+    5. The relation between the express companies and the
+    railroads.
+
+    6. Railroad rates and rebates.
+
+    7. Government ownership of railroads.
+
+    8. The influence of the Panama canal in the growth of
+    business in the southern states.
+
+    9. The influence of the canal in the growth of
+    business in the central West.
+
+    10. The influence of the canal in the growth of
+    business in South America.
+
+    11. The deep water way.
+
+    12. The parcel post zones.
+
+
+=Exercise 277=
+
+=Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks=
+
+      BOLTON, S. K., Successful Women.
+
+      CHAMBERLAIN, J. F., How We Travel.
+
+      DRYSDALE, W., Helps for Ambitious Boys; Helps for
+      Ambitious Girls.
+
+      FOWLER, N. C., Practical Salesmanship; Starting in
+      Life.
+
+      HALE, E. E., What Career?
+
+      HIGINBOTHAM, H. N., The Making of a Merchant.
+
+      LASELLE, M. A. and WILEY, K. E., Vocations for Girls.
+
+      LUNDGREN, CHARLES, The New Salesmanship.
+
+      LYDE, L. W., Man and his Markets.
+
+      MALLON, I. A. S., The Business Girl.
+
+      MANSON, G. J., Ready for Business.
+
+      MARSDEN, O. S., The Secret of Achievement; The Young
+      Man Entering Business.
+
+      MITTEN, G. E., The Book of the Railway.
+
+      MOODY, W. D., Men Who Sell Things.
+
+      REED, _et al._, Careers for the Coming Men.
+
+      ROCHELEAU, W. F., Transportation.
+
+      ROLLINS, F. W., What can a Young Man do?
+
+      STOCKWELL, H. G., Essential Elements of Business
+      Character.
+
+      STODDARD, W. O., Men of Business.
+
+      THE VOCATION BUREAU, Boston, Vocations for Boys.
+      (Pamphlets on _The Grocer_, _The Machinist_, _The
+      Architect_, _etc._)
+
+      WHITE, S. J., Business Openings for Girls.
+
+
+=Exercise 278=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      Transportation is a great business as well as
+      manufacturing or farming. History tells us that very
+      early people did not have a settled home, but, when
+      the grass began to give out in one part of the
+      country, several members of the community, perhaps
+      whole tribes, took their belongings on their backs and
+      sought for a new place to settle. It is reasonable to
+      suppose that they wished to keep up some sort of
+      intercourse with their friends. At once difficulties
+      arose, since hostile tribes lived between them and
+      their old home. It was a brave man, indeed, who
+      ventured to encounter the dangers of the trip between
+      the settlements. Such a set of men arose in the
+      peddlers, who set out alone or in caravans with
+      articles of produce or manufacture and braved the
+      dangers even of a desert to exchange what they carried
+      for the produce of the old home. This is the earliest
+      form of transportation. Compare this simple form with
+      the modern railroad, steamship, and express service.
+
+2
+
+CAPTURING THE LATIN AMERICAN TRADE
+
+      No empty iteration of the Monroe doctrine, no
+      reservation of canal privileges, will capture the
+      trade of Latin America. This will be accomplished only
+      by efforts to produce and to sell those countries the
+      kind of goods that they want; measured, labeled, and
+      packed their way; offered in the language that they
+      understand; and, moreover, sold at attractive prices.
+      Our consuls abroad report that in all these essentials
+      American dealers are deficient and that British,
+      French, and German manufacturers fill the South
+      American markets.
+
+      To these rivals must be added another, for, in spite
+      of old South American prejudices against Spain and
+      Spanish goods, the Spaniards are quietly regaining
+      their footing in those republics of whose trade a
+      century ago the home country enjoyed the monopoly. Her
+      advantages, we know, are a common language and
+      familiarity with the ways of life and the tastes of
+      the buyers. Spain produces just the kind of wine,
+      olive oil, and canned goods that South America wants;
+      she turns out the kind of paper, the patterns of
+      cotton goods, the styles of tools and implements, the
+      clothing, shoes, and weapons used in Latin America;
+      and the result is that she gets the trade. One-sixth,
+      at least, of her entire exports goes to her former
+      possessions.
+
+3
+
+      South Africa has been successfully operating an
+      agricultural parcel post. By its instrumentality gold,
+      diamonds, minerals, wool, feathers, saddlery, boots
+      and shoes, confectionery, fruit, plants, seed, butter
+      and eggs suitably packed, and other farm products are
+      transported, and the producer and consumer have been
+      brought together. From the report of the Department of
+      Posts and Telegraphs we learn that the scheme has
+      worked well, is a recognized and popular feature of
+      the postal system, and is entirely feasible. The
+      sparse settlements and widely scattered population
+      have not operated to bar its success, as was feared at
+      the time of its introduction.
+
+4
+
+      The duty of applying the remedy for wrecks rests,
+      primarily, with the railroad managers. And what is the
+      remedy, and how is it to be applied? It would seem
+      that there can be but one answer: there must be stern
+      discipline for taking risks. There must be thorough
+      instruction as to what risks are and how to avoid
+      them, just such instruction as the "safety first"
+      movement is leading up to, but extended to every man
+      in every department of every road. In addition, the
+      promise that no engineman will be censured for losing
+      or not making up time or for not running fast when it
+      is not considered safe to do so must be changed to the
+      positive, unequivocal statement that there will be a
+      substantial penalty for every case of running fast
+      when it is not safe to do so.--_Railway Age Gazette._
+
+5
+
+      More and more attention, each year, is being given by
+      the railroad managers to the locating of new kinds of
+      industry along their lines. The roads in the West and
+      the South nearly all have efficient industrial
+      departments, land departments, or immigration
+      departments. Their men seek out new industries, meet
+      the steamers to tempt immigrants into their region,
+      arrange for the purchase or rental of lands, and get
+      together reports of the soil, the products, and the
+      advantages of any desired location. Perhaps the
+      greatest effort, however, is bent upon the location of
+      new factories along the route. In one year one
+      southern railroad induced more than seven hundred men
+      to establish industries along its lines, after the
+      railroads had made complete and painstaking
+      investigation of all the conditions that would
+      confront the prospective manufacturers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ADVERTISING
+
+
+ADVERTISING is one of the most vital forces in the problem of
+distribution. Every advertisement is a salesman and is written and sent
+out with the idea of doing the work of one. It may bring in actual
+orders or it may merely do "missionary work"; that is, it may introduce
+a certain article or product and educate the people to see its
+advantages so that when next they desire that particular sort of
+article, they will order the one that they have seen advertised.
+
+Many an article that has had practically no sale has by means of an
+effective advertising campaign been brought to a point of wide
+distribution and ready sale. How many safety razors would the
+manufacturers sell if they had never advertised their product? Very few.
+But when day after day, everywhere a man looks--in street cars,
+newspapers, magazines, and on billboards--he sees staring at him a
+reason why he should use a safety razor, he soon comes to feel that he
+needs one. It is just the same as though the country were covered with
+salesmen who were constantly after every one to get him to see the
+advantage of the safety razor. The advertised articles may in themselves
+be no better than the unadvertised brands, but advertising has created a
+demand for the one over the other. The secret of selling success is
+creating a demand.
+
+The importance of advertising is demonstrated by an experience which the
+city of Chicago had on Wednesday, March 2, 1911. On the afternoon
+before, a dispute arose between two newspapers and their printers,
+ending in a temporary strike of the printers. As a result, all papers
+published on March 2 contained only four pages each, in contrast to the
+usual twenty-four, because they contained not a single advertisement.
+Fortunately, the strike lasted only one day, as the local printers were
+at once reprimanded by the International Typographical Union. But the
+losses that newspapers and retail business men suffered on this one day
+convinced them of the power of advertising. Street cars, downtown
+streets, and department stores were almost empty. To be sure, billboards
+still proclaimed their wares, but, as soon as newspaper advertising
+ceased, the great mass of shopping stopped.
+
+
+=Exercise 279=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. What are some of the advertising methods used in a
+      retail business?
+
+      2. What are some of the advertising methods used in a
+      wholesale business? Where are the advertisements
+      published?
+
+      3. What is the principal advertising medium of the
+      mail order house? Explain why it is effective.
+
+      4. What is classified advertising? Why are newspapers
+      anxious to increase it? Name several reasons.
+
+      5. What is "display" advertising as distinguished from
+      classified? What is the principal medium of this kind
+      of advertising?
+
+      6. Give several instances of advertising by means of
+      the distribution of "novelties," such as calendars. Is
+      such advertising effective?
+
+      7. Is the distribution of samples good advertising? Be
+      specific in your answer.
+
+      8. Is it a good thing to have a trade-mark? Name some
+      trade-marks that you think are good advertising.
+
+      9. Is a bargain table good advertising? What is its
+      advantage in a retail store?
+
+      10. What class of advertising is done in the
+      classified columns of a newspaper?
+
+      11. What class of articles and products is advertised
+      in the street cars and trains? Expensive or
+      inexpensive? Things you use every day or not?
+
+      12. Are articles advertised by billboards usually
+      widely advertised articles or not?
+
+      13. What kind of articles would you advertise in:
+
+    1. The newspaper rather than the magazine?
+    2. The magazine rather than the newspaper?
+    3. The street car rather than on the billboard?
+    4. The trade papers rather than the newspapers?
+
+      14. Suppose you were bringing out a new soap and you
+      could use only one of the following mediums: (1)
+      newspapers; (2) local and trade magazines; (3) street
+      cars; (4) billboards and posters. Which would you
+      choose and why? Would your answer be the same if you
+      had real estate to sell? A new machine? If you were
+      producing a new play?
+
+      15. NEWS ITEM.--The University of Wisconsin has issued
+      a bulletin, stating that of all the money spent for
+      food, shelter, and clothing 90% is spent by women.
+      Would the following be good advertising for a
+      magazine: "The women of the country read this paper"?
+      Give reasons for your answer.
+
+      16. Do handbills suggest cheapness to you?
+
+
+=Exercise 280=
+
+_Oral_
+
+Discuss the value of each of the following as forms of advertising:
+
+    1. Location.
+    2. Furnishings of the office or the store.
+    3. Letter headings.
+    4. Window displays.
+    5. Electric (or other) signs.
+    6. Moving electric signs.
+    7. Colors (especially reds, greens, and yellows) as against black and
+           white.
+    8. White lettering on a black background.
+
+
+=Exercise 281=
+
+Fundamentally, the same principles apply to the advertisement as apply
+to the sales letter (See page 230). First of all, you must look at your
+goods from the standpoint of the user; see his gain in buying rather
+than your profit in selling. Your products, then, will probably fall
+into one of the following general classes:
+
+      1. Something entirely new for which you must create a
+      demand by showing its advantage to the buyer, arousing
+      his sense of need and, consequently, his desire to
+      possess.
+
+      2. Something new but filling a long-felt need--"Just
+      what you've been looking for"--the value of which will
+      appeal to the buyer almost as soon as the product is
+      explained. Comparison with the article that now
+      imperfectly fills the want suggests itself.
+
+      3. A new brand of an old staple, like crackers, of
+      which the superiority must be dwelt upon to induce
+      buyers to ask for it. Even after the article is
+      selling well, continuous advertising is necessary to
+      keep the name before the public.
+
+A paying advertisement appeals to a large class of people or, better
+still, to several classes. For a moment let us analyze a few of the
+appeals to which almost every one responds; let us consider the reasons
+back of our purchases. Why do we buy one article and not another? We buy
+it first, perhaps, because we need it or think we need it; second,
+because we think it will taste good or be comfortable or good-looking or
+because it will afford us amusement; third, because we think it is
+better, though possibly more expensive, than any other brand on the
+market, and our pride or our desire to emulate responds to it; fourth,
+because we think it is good for our health or our safety; and, fifth,
+because we shall save money or make money thereby. Summing up, we may
+say that the motives to which appeals may safely be made are:
+
+    1. Need, conscious or unconscious (usefulness, quality, or durability).
+    2. Comfort, amusement, or appetite.
+    3. Pride, desire to emulate, or vanity.
+    4. Safety (of health or personal possessions).
+    5. Economy or gain.
+
+Clip from magazines and bring to class good advertisements that appeal
+to the motives named above. Try to find those advertisements that make
+an appeal to only one motive in one advertisement.
+
+
+=Exercise 282=
+
+The following catch phrases have been taken from advertisements in
+various places. Tell (1) whether their appeal is general; (2) whether
+they induce one to buy; and (3) if they do, which of the motives given
+above have been used by the advertiser. Frequently more than one motive
+is used in one advertisement.
+
+      1. For a delicatessen store: Good things to eat.
+
+      2. For a chewing gum: The taste lasts.
+
+      3. For a motor washer: Two cents a week pays your
+      washing bill.
+
+      4. For a refrigerator: Are you poisoning your family?
+
+      5. For a summer drink: It's wet.
+
+      6. For stockings: Wear like 60, look like 50, cost but
+      25.
+
+      7. For a shaving soap: Comfort for your face, economy
+      for your purse.
+
+      8. For a liniment: Don't rub--it penetrates.
+
+      9. For a hair tonic: What does your mirror say?
+
+      10. For a clothing store: Exclusive styles for
+      exclusive women.
+
+      11. For an inexpensive scouring powder: Why pour money
+      down the sink?
+
+      12. For canned goods: When company comes.
+
+      13. For a varnish: Water won't hurt it.
+
+      14. For bread: The human hand never touches it.
+
+      15. For a fountain pen: It can't leak.
+
+
+=Exercise 283=
+
+Bring to class two advertisements containing catch phrases that you
+think are good. To which of the motives given above does each appeal?
+
+
+=Exercise 284=
+
+Bring in two advertisements of articles that have suggestive names. What
+is the value of a suggestive name?
+
+
+=Exercise 285--Good and Bad Headlines=
+
+A good headline has the following qualities:
+
+First, it should be short. Professor Walter Dill Scott determined by
+experiments that the average person can ordinarily attend to only about
+four visual objects at the same time--four letters, four words, four
+simple pictures, or four geometrical figures. As the headline of an
+advertisement is intended to be taken in at one glance, it should,
+therefore, be not longer than four words--preferably less, provided the
+interest of the phrase is the same. Short words, too, can be taken in
+more readily than long words.
+
+Second, the best headline is a command. People instinctively obey a
+command, unless it is so worded that they rebel against the manner of
+expression.
+
+Third, a good headline is suggestive. It touches upon the things that
+the reader is thinking about. It shows that the article that is offered
+for sale has a close connection with the interests that absorb the
+reader's mind. It is a direct answer to his thoughts, feelings, hopes,
+or worries.
+
+The following headlines were taken from the advertisements in one issue
+of a magazine. Judge of their effectiveness, using the three principles
+given above as a basis for your decision:
+
+     1. Get That Job!
+     2. Foot Comfort.
+     3. Ventilate, but Don't Catch Cold!
+     4. A New Filing Cabinet.
+     5. Are You Open to Conviction?
+     6. Low Priced Envelope Sealer.
+     7. Shave for 1c Without Stropping.
+     8. What a Wonderful Trip!
+     9. Save 30% on Your Furniture.
+    10. You Have a Right to Independence.
+    11. Just Out!
+    12. Get the Dust Out of Your Home--It's Dangerous.
+    13. The Easiest Riding Car in the World.
+    14. Our Seeds Grow.
+    15. That Raise! (Sub-heading in smaller type: What Would a Raise
+          in Salary Mean to You?)
+
+
+=Exercise 286=
+
+Some advertisers choose headlines merely for the purpose of attracting
+attention, forgetting that the headline should suggest what the
+following illustration and text explain. A few years ago a well-known
+automobile company ran an advertisement with the headline _$1000 Worth
+of Folly_. The headline was followed by a picture of the automobile. The
+advertisement was intended to convey the idea that, as this car might be
+bought for $3000, any one paying $4000 for an automobile was foolishly
+squandering $1000. As a matter of fact, the only suggestion that the
+reader got from the advertisement was that any one who paid $1000 for
+the illustrated car would be a fool.
+
+      1. Bring to class an advertisement in which the
+      headline has no connection with the rest of the
+      advertisement, being used merely to catch the
+      attention.
+
+      2. Find an advertisement in which the headline
+      suggests the opposite of what the advertisement is
+      intended to convey.
+
+      3. How might either advertisement be improved?
+
+
+=Exercise 287=
+
+Still-life advertisements are not interesting. The picture of a furnace,
+or a typewriter, or a house attracts less attention than the same
+objects with human beings represented moving in the picture.
+
+Bring to class two advertisements of the same kind of article, in one of
+which a still-life illustration is used and in the other of which human
+beings are used to center the attention upon the article that is offered
+for sale.
+
+
+=Exercise 288=
+
+Bring to class (1) an advertisement that is not good because it contains
+too much--lacks a center upon which the attention naturally focuses; and
+(2) an advertisement that is good because it has a definitely defined
+center of attraction.
+
+
+=Exercise 289=
+
+Bring to class an advertisement in which the principle of balance is
+used to advantage, two illustrations, one on each side of the text,
+being used to convey one impression.
+
+
+=Exercise 290=
+
+In writing the following, try to embody the principles that have been
+brought out in previous exercises:
+
+      1. An entertainment is to be given in the school hall.
+      Write an advertisement to appear in the school paper.
+
+      2. Write an announcement of the same entertainment--to
+      be posted on the bulletin board.
+
+      3. Write an advertisement for a debate.
+
+      4. For a football, baseball, or basket-ball game.
+
+      5. For an inter-class contest.
+
+      6. You have permission to secure advertisements to be
+      printed in the program of the entertainment spoken of
+      above. Suppose that you are to write the copy for the
+      different advertisements. Use one-eighth, one-quarter,
+      one-half, or one page, as you wish.
+
+      Advertise a grocery.
+
+      7. A meat market.
+
+      8. A dry goods store.
+
+      9. A candy store.
+
+      10. A bakery.
+
+      11. A bank.
+
+      12. A tailor's shop.
+
+      13. A photographer's studio.
+
+      14. A barber shop.
+
+      15. A drug store.
+
+
+=Exercise 291=
+
+      1. Write a handbill announcing a 20% discount sale to
+      run three days in your dry goods store.
+
+      2. Describe a chair, table, or other article of
+      furniture in your own home. The description is to form
+      part of an advertisement to appear in a mail order
+      catalogue.
+
+      3. You are advertising a new brand of coffee in the
+      street car. Write the card. Would you use an
+      illustration? If so, of what kind?
+
+      4. As in (3) advertise a new brand of pork and beans.
+
+      5. As in (3) advertise a shoe sale.
+
+      6. Advertise a well-known brand of soap in a magazine.
+      Use your own idea. Would you use an illustration?
+
+      7. How would you advertise an automobile which has
+      proved its merits? Remember, your object is to keep
+      the name before the public. How would you advertise a
+      new make of automobile? How much space would you use
+      in either case? Write both advertisements.
+
+      8. A half-page advertisement by the Hudson Cereal
+      Company, 110 Hudson St., New York, of their
+      Nervo-Cereal Coffee contains the item: "Can you thread
+      a needle, holding the thread one inch from the end? If
+      you cannot, you are nervous. Is coffee to blame?"
+      Exploit the aroma and flavor of the cereal coffee.
+
+      9. The Central Packing Company is running a series of
+      advertisements of their Premium Extract of Beef. This
+      one is to appear just before Thanksgiving. Entitle it
+      "Four Delicious Dishes for the Thanksgiving Dinner,"
+      and then in as attractive a form as possible give four
+      recipes, making a point of the necessity of using
+      Premium Extract for the right flavor. At the end sum
+      up the merits of Premium Extract and mention the
+      silver premiums given with the certificates under the
+      metal caps.
+
+      10. The Bay City Mill Co., Bay City, Mich., sells fine
+      finished lumber suitable for making furniture at home.
+      Prepare an advertisement to show how simple it is to
+      make tables and chairs at home with their plans and
+      their specially cut lumber. Illustrate by giving the
+      plans and working directions for making a useful
+      table, showing how easy it is with their specially cut
+      lumber. Set an attractive price on the lumber
+      necessary to make this table. Sum up by exploiting a
+      book of plans, which may be had for the asking.
+
+
+=Exercise 292=
+
+The following paragraph is taken from Professor Scott's _Theory of
+Advertising_. What is the subject of the paragraph? Is there a topic
+sentence? By what plan is the paragraph developed?
+
+      Many of those who use illustrations for their
+      advertisements follow the philosophy of the Irish boy
+      who said that he liked to stub his toe because it felt
+      so good when it stopped hurting. Many of us are unable
+      to see how the boy had made any gain after it was all
+      over, but he was satisfied, and that was sufficient.
+      The philosophic disciples of the Irish boy are found
+      in advertisers who have certain things to dispose of
+      which will not do certain harmful things. First they
+      choose an illustration which will make you believe
+      that what they have to sell is just what you do not
+      want, and then in the text they try to overcome this
+      false impression and to show you that what they have
+      to offer is not so bad after all. Most of us are
+      unable to see how the advertiser has gained, even if
+      he has succeeded in giving us logical proof that his
+      goods are not so bad as we were at first led to think.
+      We are not logically inclined, and we take the
+      illustration and the text, and we combine the two. The
+      best that the text can do is to destroy the evil
+      effect of the illustration. Of course, when we read in
+      the text that the illustration does not correctly
+      represent the goods, we ought to discard the
+      illustration entirely and think only of the text, but,
+      unfortunately, we are not constructed in that way. The
+      impression made by the illustration and that made by
+      the text fuse and form a whole which is the result
+      formed by these two elements.
+
+Write paragraphs on each of the following:
+
+      1. Advertising is essential in modern business.
+
+      2. Advertising helps the housewife economize.
+
+      3. The study of advertisements saves the shopper's
+      time and strength.
+
+      4. Advertised goods cost more than the unadvertised
+      brands. (Give the reasons.)
+
+      5. Trade-marked and advertised goods have increased
+      the cost of living.
+
+      6. Increased advertising causes the styles to change
+      quickly.
+
+      7. Every advertisement must catch and hold the
+      attention. Some accomplish this object by causing a
+      laugh. (Describe one such.)
+
+      8. Some advertisements hold the attention because they
+      appeal to our love of the mysterious. One such is ----
+      (describe it).
+
+      9. Some advertisements succeed because of their clever
+      color scheme. One such is ----.
+
+      10. Every successful advertisement contains a
+      convincing argument.
+
+      11. Mouth to mouth advertising is the best and the
+      cheapest.
+
+      12. Advertised goods are better because they have to
+      be.
+
+      13. The consumer pays for all the advertising.
+
+      14. The cost of advertising is paid by the competitors
+      who do not advertise.
+
+      15. Advertising tends to create uniform prices.
+
+      16. The advertising expert is a student of men.
+
+
+=Exercise 293=
+
+Give your opinion as to the effectiveness of the following
+advertisements:
+
+1
+
+      A department store that was anxious to increase its
+      trade on Mondays and Wednesdays included the following
+      coupons in its circular advertisement one week:
+
+    THIS COUPON AND 19c               THIS COUPON AND 50c
+    Monday only                       Wednesday only
+    good for                          good for
+    _6 Spools J. & P. Coats'_    _Misses' or Children's_
+    _Best 6 Cord Machine_        _White Canvas Pumps_
+    _Thread_                     2 strap model, heavy or light soles,
+    Regular 30c value                 trimmed with dainty bow on
+                                      vamp. All sizes up to 2.
+                                      $1.50 value
+
+2
+
+$10,000 IN CASH TO CHARITY
+
+      We ask our customers to decide by their votes the 250
+      institutions that shall receive this amount. Each ten
+      cents' worth purchased entitles the purchaser to one
+      vote.
+
+3
+
+      The following appeared in the center of a page
+      otherwise blank. On the opposite page appeared the
+      advertisement of a well-known article.
+
+      The announcement on the following page is so important
+      that we have decided to leave this page blank.
+
+4
+
+      The following was part of a circular:
+
+      Following our annual custom we will again this year
+      give away absolutely free a beautiful silk flag to
+      every customer making a purchase of $1 or over,
+      Tuesday and Wednesday, July 2 and 3.
+
+5
+
+      The following appeared in a newspaper:
+
+      A WORD OF APPRECIATION
+
+      We have now been in our new location somewhat over a
+      month. Our business has been all that we expected; in
+      some departments, indeed, there is an increase,
+      notably in the neckwear, ready-to-wear clothes, hats,
+      and tailoring departments.
+
+      Naturally, we had an abundance of faith in our new
+      location; nevertheless, we must confess that there
+      were times when we had anxious moments. We discovered,
+      however, that our moving was at the "psychological
+      moment"; we soon learned that in the minds of the
+      people there was but one thought--success for Michigan
+      Avenue.
+
+      We have always felt that there was a closer bond of
+      sympathy between our customers and us than is usually
+      the case between buyer and seller. The unusual
+      interest taken in our new store and in our success has
+      more than confirmed us in this impression. Our
+      experience during the last forty days has really made
+      life worth living.
+
+      The minds of hundreds of our customers have reverted
+      to the beginning of our business in our old Dearborn
+      Street store, twenty years ago, and they have made
+      comparisons between that and the wonderful
+      establishment we now possess; they have done it in a
+      way that would almost suggest that it was their
+      business that they were talking of rather than ours.
+      It made us feel that, although we have made our
+      mistakes, nevertheless we must have served the public
+      well, and we insert this article in the hope that a
+      few of our well-wishers may read it and understand
+      that we appreciate and are grateful.
+
+
+=Exercise 294=
+
+Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks
+
+  BALMER, EDWIN, The Science of Advertising.
+  BELLAMY, FRANCIS (ed), Effective Magazine Advertising.
+  BRIDGEWATER, HOWARD, Advertising, or The Art of Making Known.
+  CALKINS, E. E. and HOLDEN, R., Modern Advertising.
+  CHERINGTON, PAUL T., Advertising as a Business Force.
+  DELAND, L. F., Imagination in Business.
+  DE WEESE, TRUMAN A., Advertising (The Business Man's Library, Vol. vii).
+  EDGAR, ALBERT E., How to Advertise a Retail Store.
+  FOWLER, N. C., Building Business.
+  SCOTT, W. D., The Theory of Advertising.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE
+
+
+Lands, buildings, and houses are called real property or real estate,
+and the business pertaining to them, the real estate business. Every one
+of us has more or less to do with this business. If we do not own
+property, we pay _rent_. Rent is the money paid for the use of a piece
+of land, or a building, or part of a building, and is usually paid at
+certain stated intervals of time--monthly, for example. The owner of the
+building is called the _landlord_; the one who rents, the _tenant_.
+Sometimes there is no condition as to how long a tenant shall remain in
+one place and pay rent, but, as a rule, the landlord requires the tenant
+to sign a _lease_. This is a contract between the landlord and the
+tenant, stating that in consideration of the landlord's furnishing the
+tenant a place in which to live with certain conveniences--such as heat,
+hot water, and other services--the tenant agrees to pay rent for a
+certain length of time, usually a year or more. If the tenant moves out
+before his lease expires and refuses to pay the rent, he breaks the
+contract and, as is usually the case when a contract is broken, a
+lawsuit may follow. In large cities where land is in some places very
+valuable, owners may not care to sell the property on which others wish
+to build, but lease it to the builders for a certain term of years,
+usually ninety-nine years.
+
+Suppose you no longer wish to pay rent, but to own the house in which
+you live. If you buy a piece of property from John Smith and pay him
+your money for it, you wish to be assured that after a few months John
+Smith will not come to you and claim the property as his. To protect
+you John Smith gives you a _deed_ to the property. A deed is a contract
+between the buyer and the seller of the property. It states that, in
+consideration of the buyer's paying a certain stipulated sum of money,
+the seller releases and conveys the property to the buyer. This deed
+shows that you now own the property. At the same time you should receive
+a _clear title_ to the property; that is, you wish to be sure that no
+one else has a claim on the property. If John Smith guarantees that the
+title is clear, he gives you a _warranty deed_ for the property, in
+which he will "warrant and defend the same against all lawful claims
+whatsoever." If, however, he simply turns over the property to you as it
+stands, he gives you a _quitclaim deed_, in which he relinquishes or
+quits all his interest in it. If you have no debts on the property, you
+own it in _fee simple_.
+
+Very often in buying property, the purchaser pays only a part of the
+purchase price himself, paying for the balance by borrowing the
+necessary amount from a third party. For example, if the house you
+bought from John Smith cost $6,000 and you had only $4,000, you would be
+forced to borrow the other $2,000 to pay John Smith. You would then go
+to your bank or to some person who had money to invest and would borrow
+the required amount, and to guarantee that you would pay the money back,
+you would give a _mortgage_ on the property. A mortgage is a contract
+which states that, in consideration of one party's giving the second
+party a certain sum of money, the second party agrees to pay interest on
+that money at a stipulated rate, and at the end of a certain length of
+time agrees to pay the money back; and that, in case the second party
+does not pay back the amount at the end of the time, the first party is
+empowered to take possession of the property, to sell it, and to get the
+amount due him. This last procedure is called _foreclosing the
+mortgage_. It is a common practice to mortgage property; almost all the
+property in a city is mortgaged.
+
+Some men and firms make a special business of transferring property,
+buying and selling it for others, making leases, and collecting rents.
+They are called real estate agents, and for their services get a
+_commission_, which is a certain percentage of the purchase or the
+selling price and a certain percentage of the amount of rent collected.
+This percentage varies according to whether the amount of money involved
+is large or small, the percentage being larger when small sums of money
+are involved than when large sums are involved.
+
+
+=Exercise 295=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. What is a lease?
+
+      2. Explain why owners of valuable property lease it.
+
+      3. What is a deed? Explain the two kinds.
+
+      4. What is meant by a clear title?
+
+      5. What is meant by fee simple?
+
+      6. Why is it important to be careful about the title?
+
+      7. What is a mortgage?
+
+      8. Explain why property is often mortgaged. Does the
+      mortgage benefit the owner? Explain.
+
+      9. What is meant by foreclosing?
+
+      10. What is an agent? How is he usually paid?
+
+      11. Why do people employ real estate agents to take
+      care of renting? To sell their property?
+
+      12. Why is property near a railroad valuable? For
+      what?
+
+      13. Why is a corner lot worth more than an inside lot?
+
+      14. Why is property on a car line more valuable than
+      on a side street?
+
+      15. What effect would the building of a new street car
+      line have on the value of adjacent property? Why?
+
+
+=Exercise 296=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. Suppose that you are a landlord and that in your
+      lease no mention is made of giving your tenants
+      janitor service, but you yourself take care of the
+      furnace. Other landlords in the block supply janitor
+      service. After one of your tenants has moved in, he
+      demands that the back porch be scrubbed once a week
+      and the garbage emptied daily. What would you do?
+      Consider the points for and against.
+
+      2. Suppose some boys playing ball on the street break
+      a plate glass window in the store you own. Would you
+      expect your tenant to pay for repairs?
+
+_Written_
+
+      3. Write to Francis L. Russell, a real estate agent,
+      asking his terms for collecting the rent of ---- (tell
+      the location of the house, the number of the tenants,
+      and the rent you receive).
+
+      4. As if you were Francis L. Russell write a reply,
+      saying that you will undertake the collection for a
+      commission of 5%.
+
+      5. Imagine you are a tenant in the same building. The
+      kitchen sink cannot be used in your flat because of a
+      stoppage in the plumbing. You have told the agent
+      once. Write him (see 3) again, stating that unless he
+      sends a plumber you will not pay your next month's
+      rent. (Is there any reason for writing this, rather
+      than telephoning it?)
+
+      6. The plumber has submitted a bill of $5.98 for the
+      repairs suggested in (5). The agent writes to the
+      landlord, enclosing a check for the rent that he has
+      collected, less the amount of the plumber's bill and
+      his commission.
+
+      7. You are a lawyer. Write to the landlord, informing
+      him that the mortgage which your client holds against
+      the landlord's property expires in thirty days. Ask
+      the landlord whether he expects to pay the money or
+      whether he wishes a renewal of the loan for three
+      years. Your client is willing to give such a renewal.
+
+      8. The landlord replies that he is enclosing $100 to
+      pay the interest due on the mortgage and that he
+      desires a renewal of the loan. If the lawyer will
+      prepare the papers, he will come to sign them at the
+      specified time. Write the letter.
+
+      9. You are an insurance agent. Write to the landlord
+      that the fire insurance on his property expires in
+      sixty days. Ask him to allow you to write a new
+      policy. Inform him that the rate now will be 3-3/4%
+      instead of if 1-3/4% as it was formerly, because a
+      garage has been erected one door north of his
+      property. (Why should the rate be higher?)
+
+      10. One of the tenants has paid no rent for two
+      months. You decide that he never will be able to pay.
+      As landlord you make out and deliver to him a _Five
+      days' notice of removal_. At the same time, you write
+      a letter to your lawyer, explaining the state of
+      affairs and asking him to take charge of enforcing the
+      notice. (This means that if the tenant does not move,
+      the case must come up in court. If it is decided in
+      the landlord's favor, the tenant must move. If he
+      refuses, the lawyer engages a constable to eject him.)
+      Write the letter.
+
+      11. Francis L. Russell writes three short
+      advertisements, offering for sale (1) a large 12 room
+      residence, mortgage $6,000, price $15,000; (2) a 3
+      apartment building, clear, price $16,000; (3) a large
+      12 apartment building, mortgage $25,000, price
+      $41,000, terms to suit. Where would you advertise?
+      Write the advertisements.
+
+      12. You get inquiries about all of the above. Write
+      answers describing the buildings more fully, and make
+      appointments with the writers to inspect the property.
+
+      13. A man is interested in the 12 flat building, but
+      he has only $10,000. Offer him the property for
+      $40,000 on these terms: $10,000 down, a first mortgage
+      for $20,000 to run 10 years at 5%, and a second
+      mortgage for $10,000 to run 5 years at 5½%, $2,000 to
+      be paid each year with interest. Make it as attractive
+      as possible. Tell him you will arrange for the
+      mortgages.
+
+      14. (_a_) Write to your bank, the First National, and
+      explain that, although the first mortgage on the 12
+      flat building for $25,000 still has 3 years to run,
+      you would like to arrange for a 10 year mortgage for
+      $20,000, if your prospective buyer takes the property.
+      (_b_) Write to George R. Scott, who owns the building,
+      offering him the second mortgage. Explain that
+      although it is a second mortgage the fact that $2,000
+      of the principal is paid each year makes it
+      attractive. (How would the owner benefit if the buyer
+      failed to make his payments after 2 years?) Sign
+      yourself Francis L. Russell.
+
+      15. You have put through the deal. Write to the new
+      owner, offering to take care of the renting for a
+      commission equal to 2½% of the amount collected.
+
+
+=Exercise 297--Farm Lands=
+
+1. You own a large tract of land in the South, West, or Southwest.
+Choose your own locality. Prepare a pamphlet setting forth the
+advantages of this particular spot in a series of paragraphs: (1)
+scenery, (2) climate and healthfulness, (3) crops, (4) profits from the
+crops, (5) price of labor, (6) chances for pleasure, e.g., hunting,
+fishing, etc., (7) transportation facilities, (8) price of the land. Use
+a firm name and address.
+
+2. Arrange and punctuate:
+
+      Nov. 1, 19-- [For the introduction supply the same
+      firm name used in (1)]. Gentlemen I have just returned
+      from an extended trip through (the district spoken of
+      above) with reference to the forty acres I purchased
+      from you I desire to say that I am convinced that it
+      will prove a paying investment I am so pleased that I
+      shall certainly try to induce several of my friends to
+      purchase near my site while on the property I
+      carefully inspected the farm worked by Mr S R Jackson
+      I must say what he is accomplishing the immense crop
+      of vegetables and fruit he is marketing amazed me no
+      doubt what he is doing I may do for I made sure by
+      careful examination that the soil on my land is
+      exactly like his you may depend upon it that within
+      the next two months I shall move my family upon the
+      land for I am eager to develop it sincerely yours F W
+      Farrell
+
+What advantage would there be in including such a letter as (2) in the
+booklet spoken of in (1)?
+
+3. To prove the possibilities of the land spoken of in (1), you intend
+to start a model farm. Advertise for a farmer. Your plan is to give him
+60 acres to develop for himself, in return for which he shall
+demonstrate the possibilities of the land.
+
+4. Write a letter applying for the position. You must have farming
+experience, some money, a knowledge of crops, and a good deal of
+enthusiasm.
+
+5. Write an advertisement of your land for a big newspaper. Exploit its
+most striking features, especially the price. Study such advertisements
+before you write yours.
+
+6. Reproduce a letter you received in answer to (5), asking for more
+information concerning the lands.
+
+7. Write the reply to (6). Say you are enclosing the booklet spoken of
+in (1); tell of the model farm being established (3); and induce the
+inquirer to become a purchaser.
+
+8. Prepare a series of three follow-up letters to be sent out to
+prospective purchasers who write as in (6) but who do not answer your
+letter in (7). Make each letter set forth one of the following
+advantages of buying a piece of your land: (1) The profits from the
+crops are large; (2) The conditions are ideal--mention climate, water,
+neighbors, transportation; (3) It is a good investment, since the land
+will certainly rise in value--tell of other land in the neighborhood
+that has risen in value within the last year. Arrange the letters in the
+order that you think will be most effective.
+
+
+=Exercise 298=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+      1. The cause of changes in city real estate values.
+
+      2. The price of downtown property in your town.
+
+      3. The rise in property values in the last few years.
+
+      4. The causes of the rise.
+
+      5. Stove heated or steam heated property--which is the
+      better income producer?
+
+      6. The Mortgage.--(_a_) Why people mortgage their
+      property; (_b_) Why people loan money on mortgages.
+
+      7. The increase in the total value of farm lands
+      during the last ten years.
+
+      8. The decrease in the value of farm lands in the
+      East.
+
+      9. The reasons for the growth of the West.
+
+      10. Will the South be a new West?
+
+      11. The reclamation of swamp lands.
+
+      12. The success of irrigation.
+
+
+=Exercise 299--Insurance=
+
+An exposition of the subject of insurance is hardly in place here,
+especially as every one, to a certain extent at least, is acquainted
+with the fundamental reasons why insurance is purchased. The questions
+below should be used as a rudimentary review that will prepare for the
+letters that follow.
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. What is the object of insurance?
+
+      2. What is meant by a policy?
+
+      3. By the premium?
+
+      4. By the beneficiary?
+
+      5. By life insurance?
+
+      6. By fire insurance?
+
+      7. By accident insurance?
+
+      8. By marine insurance?
+
+      9. What is the difference between a straight life and
+      a 20 year endowment policy?
+
+      10. Between the above and a 20 year pay policy?
+
+      11. Between the above and a term policy?
+
+      12. Why is it that the mortgagee, and not the owner,
+      holds the fire insurance policy? Why must the amount
+      of insurance equal or exceed the amount of the
+      mortgage?
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. You are an insurance agent. A man came to your
+      office to-day to inquire about a life insurance
+      policy. Write him a letter, repeating what you told
+      him, advocating his taking out a straight life policy.
+
+      2. A new building has just been erected in your
+      neighborhood. Write to the owner, soliciting him to
+      let you write the fire insurance policy.
+
+      3. Write to a man who rides downtown on the train
+      every day. Convince him that he needs to take out an
+      accident insurance policy. Point out that the premium
+      is only $25 a year. If the man is injured he will
+      receive $25 weekly; if he is killed by accident, his
+      beneficiary will receive $5,000; if he is killed on a
+      train or in an elevator, $10,000.
+
+      4. Write to one of your clients, informing him that
+      the premium on his life insurance policy falls due in
+      ten days.
+
+      5. Write to another of your clients, informing him
+      that the insurance on his property runs out in ten
+      days. Inform him that, if he wishes the policy
+      renewed, he should let you know at once and remit the
+      premium.
+
+      6. From the client mentioned in (5) you receive a
+      letter in which he explains that the paint store which
+      formerly adjoined his property has been replaced by a
+      grocery. He would like a new policy at a lower rate.
+      Reproduce the letter. A paint store is insured at the
+      highest, or hazard, rate. The rate on property
+      adjoining a paint store would also be very high.
+
+      7. You investigate the matter and find that the facts
+      are as stated in (6). Write your client, offering him
+      a rate of 1½% and enclosing a bill for $45.
+
+      8. He replies that, since the risk of fire is now so
+      much less, he wishes to take only $2,000 worth of
+      insurance. He asks you to write such a policy, and he
+      encloses his check for $30. Write the letter.
+
+      9. A man writes to you, saying that he wishes to take
+      out an endowment policy for his fifteen year old
+      daughter, who has already been examined. He wishes to
+      give the insurance to her as a birthday present. He
+      encloses a check for the premium and asks you to send
+      the contract to her on her birthday (Name the date).
+      Write the father's letter.
+
+      10. Write a letter to accompany the birthday present.
+      Remember you do not know the daughter.
+
+
+=Exercise 300=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+MUST REFORM OUR FARMING
+
+      The average yield of wheat in the United States for
+      the five years ending in 1910 was eight-tenths of a
+      bushel per acre more than in the five years ending in
+      1905, but it was less than four-tenths of a bushel
+      more than for the ten ending in 1900. The average corn
+      product for the ten years ending in 1910 was a little
+      less than for the ten years ending in 1875.
+      Thirty-five years had not advanced us a step. European
+      countries--Great Britain, France, Germany--with
+      inferior soils and less favorable climate produce
+      crops practically double our own. In our studies of
+      conservation we find no waste comparable, either in
+      magnitude or importance, to this. The farm will fail,
+      and the foundations of our prosperity be undermined,
+      unless agriculture is reformed. The percentage of our
+      people actively engaged in farming had fallen from
+      47.36 in 1870 to an estimated 32 in 1910. Every man on
+      the farm to-day must produce food for two mouths
+      against one forty years ago.
+
+      --_J. J. Hill._
+
+2
+
+THE FARMING SPECIALS
+
+      One of the latest and most successful activities of
+      the railroads is the practice of carrying knowledge of
+      the best farming methods to the farmers by means of
+      special trains equipped like agricultural colleges.
+      These trains, bearing experts and all the equipment
+      for exhibiting the new methods of agriculture, bring
+      the knowledge to the farmers free, and the railroads
+      are glad to give it, for every bit of knowledge comes
+      back to them in a hundred fold profit in freight. In
+      the summer eager audiences all over the country listen
+      to the preaching of better methods and larger crops.
+      Dozens of special trains travel through the
+      agricultural regions disseminating information. The
+      "Breakfast Bacon Special" has been run to encourage
+      Iowa farmers to raise more hogs to take advantage of
+      the high price of bacon. The Cotton Belt Route
+      southwest of St. Louis runs the "Squealer Special" to
+      prove to the Arkansas and Panhandle farmers the
+      money-making advantages of blooded hogs over the
+      razor-back variety. Down the Mississippi Valley the
+      Illinois Central sends the "Boll Weevil Special" to
+      conduct a campaign against that pest. The Harriman
+      lines have six trains operating in California every
+      year. In one year they visited more than seventy-five
+      thousand people. Better farming specials run in
+      practically every state south of the Ohio and Potomac
+      and west of the Mississippi. The New York Central also
+      has two trains in operation in New York.--_The
+      Business Almanac._
+
+3
+
+      A large proportion of farmers give little or no
+      attention to the selection of seed; yet it has been
+      demonstrated that a careful selection would add
+      hundreds of millions of dollars to the total value of
+      the crops. If, for example, a variety of wheat were
+      developed capable of producing one more kernel to the
+      head, it would mean an addition, so Burbank says, of
+      15,000,000 bushels to our average wheat crop. It is
+      possible, however, to do even more than this. At the
+      Minnesota station a variety, selected for ten years
+      according to a definite principle, yielded twenty-five
+      per cent more than the parent variety. Applied to our
+      average crop, that increase would amount to
+      185,000,000 bushels, worth about $140,000,000. As for
+      corn, it has been officially stated that our average
+      yield could easily be doubled. After exhaustive
+      experiments the Department of Agriculture says that by
+      merely testing individual ears of seed corn and
+      rejecting those of low vitality an average yield of
+      nearly fourteen per cent could be secured, adding
+      about $200,000,000 to the value of the crop. Does
+      scientific seed selection seem worth while?--_The Wall
+      Street Journal._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+BANKING
+
+
+IMAGINE that you are a druggist in a small town. Suppose that a woman
+comes in to buy two ounces of camphor and in exchange gives you three
+eggs. In a few moments, perhaps, a man enters to buy a safety razor and
+brings with him wheat enough to pay the bill. Another, again, wishes to
+trade a turkey for a fountain pen. You can readily see the inconvenience
+to which you would be put in such exchange of actual commodities; yet
+this was the method used in primitive times, a method called _barter_.
+
+To overcome the inconvenience of barter, as civilization advanced, it
+became necessary to establish a common medium of exchange, which could
+be accepted for anything one had to sell and with which one could buy
+anything he wished. This is what we call _money_. To meet the
+requirements, money must not be bulky, must be durable, and must not
+readily change in value. In civilized countries gold and silver are the
+bases of exchange.
+
+But gold and silver are heavy and inconvenient to carry about in large,
+or for that matter in small, quantities, and for convenience the
+following kinds of paper money have been established:
+
+1. _Gold Certificates_ are issued with the government's guarantee that
+there is gold deposited in the Treasury equal to the amount of the face
+of the bill. At any time the one holding such a bill may demand of the
+Treasury that he receive gold for it.
+
+2. _Silver Certificates_ are similar to gold certificates, except that
+silver is deposited in the Treasury instead of gold.
+
+3. _United States Treasury Notes_ are promissory notes of the government
+to pay the sum indicated. They are not payable on demand.
+
+4. _National Bank Notes_ are promissory notes issued by the national
+banks and are payable on demand of the bearer. Before a national bank
+may issue such notes, it must own United States government bonds of at
+least the amount for which it issues notes. These bonds are held by the
+Treasurer of the United States as security that the bank will pay its
+notes. According to the Owen Glass Bill, passed in December of 1913,
+national bank notes may at the option of the banks be gradually
+withdrawn from circulation.
+
+Credit
+
+_Credit_ is a promise to pay at some future time for a thing which you
+receive now. Its use is probably as old as the practice of exchange and
+quite as important. The simplest and most extensive form of credit is
+"book" credit, such as you get at the grocer's or butcher's or at the
+department store. To explain a little more complex kind of credit:
+Suppose you owe Smith one hundred dollars. At the same time Smith owes
+Jones one hundred dollars. Because you owe Smith, he may give Jones an
+order to collect the money from you. With this order Jones may pay his
+lawyer, let us say. Perhaps the lawyer has bought a bill of goods from
+you. He pays you with the same order. You destroy the "note," and thus
+four actual transactions have been taken care of without the use of any
+money. The business institution which deals especially with credits is
+the bank.
+
+Banks
+
+A bank which fulfills every banking function must have these three
+departments: (1) the commercial department, (2) the savings department,
+(3) the trust department. Some institutions specialize in one department
+more than in either of the others, and thus, taking the name from their
+principal function, banks are known as follows: (i) commercial banks or
+banks of deposit, (2) savings banks, (3) trust companies.
+
+Banks of Deposit
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Banks of deposit or commercial banks are business men's banks. Their two
+principal functions are (1) receiving money for safe-keeping on deposit,
+and (2) loaning money to business men at interest. The deposit function
+is based on confidence and credit. The business man takes his money to
+the bank not only because it is convenient for him to do so, but also
+because he has confidence that the money will be more carefully
+protected than if he kept it in his own possession. In depositing his
+money in the bank, the business man uses a _deposit slip_ such as the
+one illustrated here. The teller puts down the amount in the _bank book_
+of the depositor, who is credited with that amount on the bank's books.
+He is entitled to draw just that much actual cash or that much credit in
+the form of _checks_. (See page 339.) Most firms do not deposit a sum of
+money and then promptly draw it out again in the form of checks to pay
+current liabilities, but maintain a fairly steady balance in the bank.
+On large average monthly balances most banks allow interest, varying
+from one per cent on balances of one thousand dollars to three per cent
+on balances of ten thousand dollars or more.
+
+Discount
+
+Because a large bank has many depositors, the aggregate of all the
+balances makes a considerable sum of money. Bankers have learned by
+experience just what proportion of their deposits they can depend on to
+remain steadily on deposit as a balance, and thus they know what
+proportion of their deposits it is safe to use for the purpose of
+_discount_. The simplest case of the discount function is the discount
+of a promissory note. In the note shown in the illustration after ninety
+days John H. Blodgett will receive from Lucius Thomas five hundred
+dollars with interest. But perhaps Blodgett cannot wait ninety days for
+his money. In this case, he takes the note to his banker, who will pay
+him the five hundred dollars less a certain percentage or discount,
+which is the bank's profit on the transaction. The bank then collects
+the note when it becomes due.
+
+[Illustration: PROMISSORY NOTE]
+
+Collateral
+
+Instead of cashing a note held by one of its customers, the bank may
+itself loan money at interest for a short period of thirty, sixty, or
+ninety days, taking the note of the business man to whom the money is
+loaned. In most cases, however, unless the bank knows the business man
+well, a certain amount of _collateral_ is demanded as an assurance that
+the borrower will pay the loan when it becomes due. The amount of
+collateral deposited with the bank is usually 10% to 25% in excess of
+the amount loaned, and it may take the form of stocks or bonds;
+mortgages on real estate; liens on stock, fixtures, or personal
+property; or warehouse receipts. When the amount borrowed is paid, the
+collateral is returned; if it is not paid within a reasonable time, the
+collateral is sold, and the amount loaned, with interest to date, is
+taken from the proceeds.
+
+There are, of course, other functions of banks of deposit practised
+quite generally by all banks, and these will be explained later. The
+functions just described, however, distinguish banks of deposit in a
+general way from the other two classes.
+
+Savings Banks
+
+A savings bank accepts from its depositors small amounts of money which
+are not subject to withdrawal by check, but on which it pays a low rate
+of interest. As a general rule, an account may be opened with one
+dollar; and when the initial deposit is made, the depositor is furnished
+with a pass book, similar to the bank book, in which further deposits,
+interest credits, and withdrawals are recorded. Interest is compounded
+every four or six months, and money must, as a general rule, remain on
+deposit until an interest payment date before the depositor receives any
+interest on it. The usual rate of interest is three per cent, although
+four is often paid. Frequently, before banks allow deposits to be
+withdrawn, they demand a certain number of days' notice, usually thirty.
+It is well to investigate the conditions under which the depositor
+places his money in the safe-keeping of the bank, because the withdrawal
+requirements are often stringent. Because of the stability of this
+class of deposit, banks are always anxious to increase their savings
+accounts, as a large proportion of the funds may be used for loans.
+
+A form of the savings bank established in the United States in 1911 is
+the postal savings bank, in which the post-office is made the depository
+for savings. The post-office in the town deposits its funds in the local
+national or state bank, which, as security for safe-keeping, must
+deposit with the Treasurer of the United States bonds at least equal in
+value to the amount of savings deposited in the bank. Postal savings
+banks are practically absolutely safe, because, if the bank which takes
+care of the funds should fail, the bonds may be sold, so that the savers
+will receive their money. From deposits made in the postal savings bank,
+the return to the depositor is only two per cent, whereas the return
+from deposits made in the bank's own savings department is three, three
+and a half, and sometimes four per cent.
+
+Trust Companies
+
+_The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund_
+
+      A miner named Richards was killed in an accident in an
+      Alaska mine. Among his possessions were found a number
+      of letters and a baby stocking containing a little
+      gold dust. The letters told that Richards had a little
+      six-year-old daughter, who was now left destitute. The
+      rough miners made up a fund of $2,500 in gold dust,
+      depositing it with the United States Commissioner of
+      the Territory of Alaska, to be held by him until the
+      proper disposition of it could be made. A committee
+      was appointed, who agreed that one hundred dollars a
+      year for ten years should be used to give the child a
+      common school education, and then five hundred dollars
+      each year to give her a college education. A legal
+      guardian was appointed, and the Kansas City Trust
+      Company asked to act as co-guardian to invest the
+      money and make the required remittances. The funds
+      were first deposited by the commissioner in a bank in
+      Portland, which sent them to the Kansas City Trust
+      Company. Correspondence was of course carried on at
+      the same time, the Kansas City Trust Company agreeing
+      to accept the trust without remuneration. They have
+      invested the money in five per cent bonds, thus
+      increasing the fund yearly.
+
+This is called a _trust_ because the money is entrusted for safe-keeping
+and investment to the bank, which is called the _trustee_. A bank may
+also become the trustee for property left at the death of a person, both
+when there is a will and when there is none. When there is no will and
+the bank takes charge of the affairs of the deceased, the bank is called
+the _administrator_; when there is a will, the _executor_. Another
+important function of the trust company is acting as _receiver_ for a
+company which has failed; that is, adjusting the company's affairs in
+the way fairest both to the stockholders and to the company's creditors.
+The trust company often acts, also, as _agent_ for its clients'
+property, performing the same duties as a real estate agent.
+
+Form of Remittance
+
+Banks as a class are distinguished one from the other according as they
+specialize in one or more of the functions described above. However,
+there are certain services that all banks perform and certain facilities
+that they all offer in connection with the payment of money from one
+person to another. These concern the forms of remittance.
+
+If you have studied business arithmetic or bookkeeping, you very likely
+know the definite forms that are used. At all events, you know that
+currency should never go through the mails. The following is a brief
+review of the more important forms that may be used. Study the
+illustrations carefully, noticing particularly the similarity of form in
+all. Uniformity in such matters is desirable because it saves time as
+well as misunderstandings. The forms we shall consider are:
+
+    1. The check
+        _a._ Personal
+        _b._ Certified
+    2. The money order
+        _a._ Express
+        _b._ Postal
+    3. The bank draft
+    4. The time draft
+    5. The sight draft
+
+_Check._--A check is a written order on a bank, signed by a depositor,
+directing the bank to pay a certain person a certain sum of money. When
+the bank pays the order, it deducts the amount from the depositor's
+account. The one who signs the check is called the _drawer_ or maker;
+the person to whom or to whose order a check is made payable is called
+the _payee_; the bank on which a check is drawn is called the _drawee_.
+
+[Illustration: CHECK AND STUB]
+
+Of course, before you could write a check for one hundred dollars, you
+must have deposited at least one hundred dollars in the bank on which
+the check is drawn. The bank supplies you with a check book, consisting
+of blank checks, each attached to a stub. When you write a check, you
+put the same information on the stub to be kept for reference. Then you
+tear off the check through the perforated line, using it to pay for
+whatever you may have purchased.
+
+_Certified Check._--Suppose, however, that you are writing this check to
+pay a debt to a stranger who lives in another city. He may hesitate to
+accept it as money. That he may have no cause to doubt your ability to
+pay the check, you take it to your bank to have the cashier investigate
+your account. If he finds that you have sufficient funds, he writes or
+stamps _Accepted_ or _Certified_ on the check and signs his name. At the
+same time the amount of the check is deducted from your account. Such a
+check is accepted without question when the holder is properly
+identified.
+
+_Endorsement._--If A gives you his check for twenty-five dollars, you
+could not receive the money until you had endorsed the check; that is,
+put your name on the back, which is, in effect, giving a receipt for the
+money. You may do this in various ways. You may endorse:
+
+      1. In blank; that is, merely write your name across
+      the back.
+
+      2. In full, by saying, "Pay to the order of ----" and
+      signing your name.
+
+      3. By restricting the payment to a particular person;
+      as, "Pay to ----" This check cannot now be cashed by
+      anyone except the one named in the endorsement.
+
+[Illustration: EXPRESS MONEY ORDER]
+
+_Express Money Order._--An express money order is much like a check,
+except that it is drawn on an express company instead of on a bank and
+reads, for example: Continental Express Company agrees to transmit and
+pay to the order of ---- (the one to whom you are sending the money)
+---- (the amount). The order is signed by the treasurer of the company
+and countersigned by the agent who sells it. You can buy such an order
+at any express office. It may be endorsed like a check.
+
+[Illustration: POSTAL MONEY ORDER]
+
+_Postal Money Order._--The other form of money order, the postal, is an
+agreement signed by the postmaster of one city that the postmaster of
+another city will pay the amount of money named in the order to the
+person named in the order.
+
+_Bank Draft._--A bank draft is very much like a check, except that
+instead of two individuals dealing with each other two banks conduct the
+transaction, their places of business being in different cities or
+villages. A bank draft is sometimes called a bank check, because in the
+case of both a draft and a check one party draws upon another with whom
+the first has funds deposited. As a general rule, banks and business
+houses require that remittances be sent to them by drafts drawn on New
+York or Chicago banks, as there is a charge called _exchange_ made in
+the collection of checks drawn on local banks.
+
+In the draft that follows, the State Bank of Utah, of which Henry T.
+McEwan is Assistant Cashier, makes out the draft. The bank which is
+ordered to pay the money is the National Park Bank of New York. The
+money is to be paid to Henry L. Fowler. The State Bank of Utah is called
+the drawer; the National Park Bank of New York, on whom the draft is
+drawn, is the drawee; Henry L. Fowler is the payee.
+
+[Illustration: BANK DRAFT]
+
+[Illustration: ENDORSEMENT]
+
+The payment indicated above was probably made without actually sending
+the money from Salt Lake City to New York. It was done in this way:
+
+Henry L. Fowler of Salt Lake City owes one hundred dollars to a man
+living in an Eastern city, let us say Charles Emery of Rochester, N. Y.
+Mr. Fowler goes to the State Bank of Utah in Salt Lake City and "buys a
+draft on New York," made payable to himself. The bank makes out the
+above, charging Mr. Fowler one hundred dollars plus a fraction of one
+per cent for its trouble. Mr. Fowler endorses it in full to Mr. Emery of
+Rochester and sends the draft to the latter. He has the draft made
+payable to himself so that the endorsement will constitute a full
+record of the transaction. Mr. Emery takes the draft to his own bank in
+Rochester, endorses it in blank, and receives the one hundred dollars.
+Thus Mr. Fowler has paid out the money and Mr. Emery has received it.
+
+The way the banks conduct the transaction is as follows: There are
+certain big money centers in the country; e.g., New York, Chicago, St.
+Louis, San Francisco. Important banks in other places have money on
+deposit in at least one bank in each of these centers. The banks which
+thus deal with one another are called _correspondents_. The National
+Park Bank is the correspondent of the State Bank of Utah. When Mr. Emery
+cashes the draft at his Rochester bank, the latter sends it to its New
+York correspondent, and at the same time charges the correspondent one
+hundred dollars. The correspondent presents the draft to the National
+Park Bank, which pays the money and charges the same amount to the State
+Bank of Utah. Explain how this settles the transaction.
+
+_Time Draft._--A time draft is much like a bank draft, in that two banks
+conduct the principal part of the transaction for two individuals, but
+no money is actually paid at the time the draft is drawn. The details of
+a transaction of this kind are explained on the following page.
+
+[Illustration: TIME DRAFT]
+
+Horace Prang of 1008 Elm Street, Columbus, Ohio, owes Loetzer & Co. five
+hundred dollars, due August 27, 1915. Loetzer & Co. make out the draft
+above and deposit it in the Bank of Buffalo. The latter sends the draft
+to its correspondent in Columbus, which presents the draft to Horace
+Prang. If he is willing to pay the note when it falls due, he writes
+across the face of it, "_Accepted_" adds the date, and signs his name.
+It is now returned to the Bank of Buffalo. The Bank of Buffalo will then
+discount the draft for Loetzer & Co.
+
+_Sight Draft._--A sight draft is much like a time draft, except that the
+amount is paid by the person on whom it is drawn as soon as it is
+presented, instead of after a stipulated length of time.
+
+[Illustration: SIGHT DRAFT]
+
+Suppose the Empire Elevator Co. of Buffalo has sold $420 worth of grain
+to the Smith Milling Co. of Springfield, Mass. When the grain is loaded
+on the cars, the railroad company gives the Empire Elevator Co. a bill
+of lading. Now, the Smith Milling Co. must possess this bill of lading
+before it can take the grain from the cars at Springfield. The Empire
+Elevator Co. deposits the bill of lading with the above draft in the
+Marine National Bank of Buffalo. This bank sends both to its
+correspondent in Springfield. The Springfield bank presents the draft to
+the Smith Milling Co., who may take the grain from the cars on payment
+of the draft. In case of non-payment, both draft and bill of lading are
+returned to the Marine National Bank of Buffalo, and the Empire Elevator
+Co. must make arrangements for the return or the disposal of the grain.
+
+
+=Exercise 301=
+
+      1. F. R. Thompson, sales manager of the New York Trust
+      and Savings Bank, sends a circular letter to a number
+      of banks, saying that he is enclosing a booklet that
+      describes a number of bonds suitable for the security
+      of postal savings deposits, the legality of which has
+      been carefully investigated. In his letter he mentions
+      especially Omaha, Nebraska, School 4½% bonds, price to
+      net 4.40%; Seattle, Washington, Harbor 5% bonds, price
+      to net 4½%; and Hoquiam, Washington, Bridge 5½% bonds,
+      price to net 5%. Reproduce the letter, addressing it
+      to W. W. Fallows, Cashier of the Mercantile National
+      Bank of Pueblo, Colorado.
+
+      2. Mr. Fallows answers, saying that his knowledge of
+      the postal savings law is vague and that he would be
+      glad if Mr. Thompson would give him definite
+      information on the subject.
+
+      3. Mr. Thompson replies that he is enclosing a copy of
+      the postal savings law. He assures Mr. Fallows that he
+      can serve the latter both in buying the proper
+      securities and in depositing them with the Treasurer
+      of the United States. Application for such deposits
+      must be made by the bank itself. Mr. Thompson will
+      gladly inform him if Mr. Fallows does not know the
+      steps to be taken or the report to be submitted.
+
+      4. Punctuate, using a letterhead:
+
+      Mercantile Trust Company New York City Dec 2 19--
+      manager the bank of Scotland 3c bishop E C London
+      England dear sir we are sending you herewith advice of
+      the issuance of our circular letter of credit No. 262
+      in favor of Miss Helen Jackson for 300 pounds sterling
+      Miss Jackson is at present in Paris France and the
+      letter of credit has been forwarded to Messrs Thomas
+      Cooke and Son 1 Place de l'Opera Paris we have
+      requested Messrs Thomas Cooke and Son to forward to
+      you two specimens of Miss Jacksons signature which we
+      have signed and forwarded to Messrs Thomas Cooke and
+      Son for that purpose so that you may have these
+      signatures before any drafts against the letter of
+      credit are presented to you yours very truly James R
+      Hudson treasurer.
+
+      What is a letter of credit? How did Miss Jackson get
+      it?
+
+      The Bank of Scotland is the correspondent of the
+      Mercantile Trust Company. Explain.
+
+      Why should the New York bank forward Miss Jackson's
+      signature?
+
+      5. Write the letter that the Mercantile Trust Company
+      sends to Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son.
+
+      6. Write the letter that Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son
+      send to the Bank of Scotland.
+
+      7. W. T. Randall, cashier of the Milwaukee Trust and
+      Savings Bank, Milwaukee, Wis., writes a letter, the
+      purpose of which is to secure savings accounts. A club
+      of 500 members is to be formed. Each member is to buy
+      a share by paying one dollar and to pay one dollar per
+      week per share, the amount to draw interest at 3%.
+      After forty-eight weeks he gets credit for fifty
+      dollars per share, thus securing over 5% interest on
+      his money. Make the offer attractive.
+
+      8. Some time ago a bank in your city discounted a note
+      held by George Carpenter, signed by Martin Kugerman.
+      The note falls due in ten days. As cashier write to
+      Mr. Kugerman, telling him that you hold the note and
+      that you hope he will be able to remit on the day of
+      maturity.
+
+      9. Your bank loaned Clarence Wentworth $500 for ninety
+      days, taking as security $700 worth of collateral. The
+      note falls due in a week. Write to Mr. Wentworth,
+      reminding him that the note falls due and asking him
+      whether he wishes to pay it off or whether he wishes
+      it extended.
+
+      10. John Elsworth, who has an account with you,
+      writes, saying that by registered mail he is sending
+      you certificates of 20 shares Union Pacific common
+      stock, 50 shares National Biscuit Co. preferred stock,
+      5 (bonds) American Telephone and Telegraph convertible
+      4½'s, 3 (bonds) New York and East River Gas Co. first
+      mortgage 5's. He asks you to take care of them and
+      collect dividends and interest when they are due,
+      crediting them to his account.
+
+      11. Your correspondent, the First National Bank of
+      Janesville, Wis., writes, asking you to forward by
+      registered mail $5,000 in currency.
+
+
+=Exercise 302=
+
+      1. Mr. Henry Carroll of Wausau, Wis., writes to Mr.
+      Randall (Exercise 301, 7), asking him to buy 10 shares
+      of C. & N. W. R. R. preferred stock at 134 or better.
+      When they are bought, he adds, they can be sent through
+      any bank in Wausau.
+
+      2. Mr. Randall replies by sending the 10 shares of
+      stock to the bank's correspondent in Wausau, the First
+      National Bank, telling the latter to deliver them to
+      Mr. Henry Carroll on payment of the enclosed draft for
+      $1340 with exchange. Write the letter.
+
+      3. A dressmaker in South Bend, Ind., has applied to
+      Marshall Field & Co., Retail, State and Washington
+      Streets, Chicago, for a charge account. The department
+      store makes inquiries concerning her at her bank, the
+      Commercial and Savings Bank of South Bend. Write the
+      letter.
+
+      4. The bank replies that she has maintained a small
+      but steady balance, that she has never overdrawn her
+      account, and that in their opinion her credit would be
+      good up to $100 monthly. Write the letter.
+
+      5. Theodore Buchanan of St. Louis sends Philip Newborg
+      of your city a check for $100 with which he pays a
+      debt to Charles Springer of Minneapolis. Springer
+      endorses it and deposits it in the Security National
+      Bank. The check is returned marked N.S.F., and the
+      Security National Bank notifies Springer of the
+      situation and of the fact that his account has been
+      charged with $104, the amount of the draft plus
+      expenses.
+
+      6. One of the depositors of the Milwaukee Trust and
+      Savings Bank brings to the Cashier a note which is
+      about due, and asks the bank to collect it. The maker
+      of the note is William T. Adams of Seattle. The
+      Cashier writes to the bank's correspondent in Seattle,
+      the Scandinavian American Bank, asking the latter to
+      collect. Write the letter. (See Exercise 301, 7.)
+
+      7. The Scandinavian American bank writes to William T.
+      Adams, telling him that it holds a note signed by him,
+      due ----, and asking him to make prompt payment. Write
+      the letter.
+
+      8. Mr. Adams pays the note. The Seattle Bank notifies
+      the Milwaukee Bank, enclosing a draft for the amount.
+      Write the letter.
+
+      9. See Exercise 301, 10. As John Elsworth's banker
+      send the coupons for the American Telephone and
+      Telegraph bonds to your correspondent in New York, the
+      National City Bank, because the interest is payable in
+      New York. Ask the bank to make the collection. Write
+      the letter.
+
+      10. The National City Bank makes the collection and
+      informs you by means of a printed form that it has
+      credited you with the amount, $112.50. The form is
+      just like a letter except that it is already printed
+      with blanks left for the name and the address and for
+      itemizing the coupons collected. Write such a form.
+
+      11. One of your depositors has overdrawn his account.
+      Notify him of the fact. Do this courteously so that
+      the depositor may have no reason to withdraw his
+      account.
+
+      12. In your city there is a real estate dealer who
+      often has large sums of money idle for a short time
+      because, when he sells one piece of property, he does
+      not always have another immediately in view. He is not
+      a depositor in your bank. Write to him, inducing him
+      to take out a Certificate of Deposit at such times and
+      telling him that the advantages of such a certificate
+      are that he will get 3% interest on the money
+      deposited and that he may draw out the money at any
+      time.
+
+      13. One of your depositors has written to you, asking
+      for a loan of $5,000 for nine months. Write to him,
+      saying that it is not your practice to make time loans
+      for definite periods longer than six months, as it is
+      not a good plan thus to tie up your deposits. Explain
+      that as most of a bank's deposits are payable on
+      demand, you would suggest his taking out a demand loan
+      for $5,000, payable on the demand of the bank. Under
+      ordinary business conditions such a loan might easily
+      run for nine months.
+
+      14. R. F. Marsden, President of the Truesdale Cotton
+      Mill, Birmingham, Ala., has written to you, asking
+      whether he can secure a loan next fall on the cotton
+      in the mill as collateral. Reply that you feel certain
+      that satisfactory arrangements could be made if the
+      cotton were stored in an accredited warehouse, so that
+      you could accept the warehouse receipt as collateral.
+
+
+=Exercise 303=
+
+Punctuate and paragraph the following letter, which explains one
+function of a trust company:
+
+      Dear sir as you are one of our clients you are
+      familiar with the reputation of this bank for sound
+      banking and conservative investments you may not
+      however be aware that we have a fully equipped trust
+      department prepared to act in any of the numerous
+      capacities in which the services of trust companies
+      have proved of special value at this time we wish to
+      call your particular attention to the service which
+      this department is prepared to render as trustee under
+      agreement it is natural that one who has accumulated
+      property should desire to superintend or direct its
+      disposition formerly this was done by will now however
+      as the complex laws of the various states frequently
+      necessitate the payment of double or triple
+      inheritance taxes it is becoming a more and more
+      common practice for a man during his lifetime to
+      administer his own estate so to speak this may be
+      accomplished through the establishment of a trust with
+      respect to either a part or all of one's property it
+      can be accomplished not only with absolute safety to
+      the donor but with entire secrecy as well the terms of
+      the trust being regarded as absolutely confidential
+      furthermore the donor has the satisfaction of
+      disposing of his property during his lifetime in
+      accordance with his desires the life of a trust
+      company unlike that of any individual is of perpetual
+      duration death does not interfere with its management
+      of the trust estate its financial responsibility and
+      the safeguards thrown around trust estates by the
+      state laws insure the safety of a trust fund if you
+      are interested in this subject let us discuss it with
+      you either in person or by correspondence when this
+      bank is named in a trust capacity no charge is made
+      for service or advice in connection with the drafting
+      of the trust instruments yours truly
+
+Before writing the following, re-read The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund,
+page 337.
+
+      1. Suppose that you were a newspaper correspondent in
+      Alaska at the time Richards was killed. For your home
+      paper write an account of the finding of the baby
+      stocking. In what ways would this account differ from
+      a magazine article on the same subject?
+
+      2. As if you were the United States Commissioner of
+      the Territory of Alaska, write to a Portland bank
+      saying that you are sending the $2,500 to them, and
+      asking them to put the funds in the care of a reliable
+      trust company.
+
+      3. The Portland bank writes to the Kansas City Trust
+      Company, asking if the latter will accept the trust.
+      Write the letter.
+
+      4. The Kansas City Trust Company replies that it will
+      accept the trust without remuneration. Write the
+      letter.
+
+      5. The Portland bank informs the United States
+      Commissioner of the Territory of Alaska of the
+      disposition of the funds. Write the letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 304=
+
+=Topics for Investigation and Discussion=
+
+     1. The panic of 1907 and some of its lessons.
+     2. Future banking reform.
+     3. Government supervision of banks.
+     4. Unscrupulous banking companies.
+     5. Clearing house certificates.
+     6. Postal savings banks.
+     7. The work of the clearing house.
+     8. The need of banks in a community.
+     9. The development of real estate firms into banks.
+    10. The Owen Glass Currency Bill.
+
+
+=Exercise 305=
+
+Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks
+
+    CROCKER, U. H., The Cause of Hard Times.
+    FONDA, ARTHUR J., Honest Money.
+    GIBBS, H. C., A Bimetallic Primer.
+    MCADAMS, GRAHAM, An Alphabet in Finance.
+    NEWCOMB, SIMON, The A B C of Finance.
+    NORTON, S. F., Ten Men of Money Island, or The Primer of Finance.
+    REEVES, JOHN, The Rothschilds: The Financial Rulers of Nations.
+    WHITE, HORACE, Money and Banking.
+
+
+=Exercise 306=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      THE DAILY ROUTINE OF THE CLEARING HOUSE
+
+      Each bank sends two clerks to the Clearing House: a
+      delivering clerk and a settling clerk. There are three
+      rows of seats running through the clearing room
+      lengthwise, one in the center and one on each side
+      parallel with it. The settling clerks occupy these
+      seats and each one has a sufficient amount of desk
+      room in front of him to do his work on, his space
+      being separated from his neighbors' by a wire screen.
+      The delivery clerks, with their packages of checks in
+      separate envelopes, stand in the open space in front
+      of the settling clerks. At two minutes before 10
+      o'clock the manager, whose station is an elevated open
+      space at the extreme end of the room, strikes a bell.
+
+      The movement has all the precision of a military
+      drill. When the second bell sounds, at exactly 10
+      o'clock, each delivery clerk takes one step forward,
+      hands the proper package to the settling clerk of the
+      bank next to him, drops the accompanying ticket
+      showing the amount into an aperture like a letter box,
+      and places before the settling clerk his schedule, on
+      which the latter places his initials. Thus the
+      procession moves uninterruptedly until each delivery
+      clerk has presented to each settling clerk the proper
+      package and ticket. Usually this part of the operation
+      is completed in ten minutes. Meanwhile the proof
+      clerk, who occupies a desk near the manager, has
+      entered the claims of each bank under the head "Bank
+      Cr." on a broad sheet of paper.
+
+      Inasmuch as the amount of each bank's claim against
+      the Clearing House (entered under the head "Banks
+      Cr.") is the sum of all the tickets which its delivery
+      clerk has pushed into the letter boxes of the other
+      banks, it follows that all the tickets of all the
+      banks should equal all the entries under that head.
+      The next step in the operation is for each settling
+      clerk to arrange the amounts of all the tickets in his
+      letter box in a column, add it up, and send the amount
+      to the proof clerk, who transcribes and arranges it
+      according to the bank's number under the head "Banks
+      Dr.," so that the debit of Bank A shall be on the same
+      line with its credit.
+
+      Then the difference between the two will show how much
+      the bank owes the Clearing House or how much the
+      Clearing House owes the bank. The time occupied by the
+      settling clerks in arranging their tickets and adding
+      up the columns is about half an hour. As fast as these
+      footings are completed, they are sent to the proof
+      clerk, who puts them in the debit column opposite the
+      credits of the banks, respectively. When all are
+      completed, if no error has been made, the footings of
+      the credit and debit columns must be exactly equal and
+      the footings of the two other columns, which show the
+      differences, must be exactly equal. Then these
+      differences are read off slowly and in a distinct tone
+      by the manager, so that each settling clerk can write
+      down the sum that his bank has to pay or to receive.
+      As time is money at the Clearing House, a fine is
+      exacted for every error and every delay in making
+      footings, for every disobedience of the orders of the
+      manager, or for every instance of disorderly
+      conduct.--Horace White: _Money and Banking_.
+
+2
+
+      The Treasury, in connection with its money washing,
+      has asked national banks to exercise more care in
+      sending in money for redemption. Banks frequently put
+      into the same bundle, good notes, bad notes, and notes
+      of different denominations. When they are mixed in
+      this way, it requires a good deal of work to separate
+      the money. The Treasury thinks that the banks could do
+      this work, so that, when the money reaches Washington,
+      it could easily be separated by packages instead of
+      each package having to be separated first. The
+      Assistant Secretary says he believes that, when he
+      gets the subject worked out in detail, new washed
+      money will be returned to the bank in any denomination
+      desired on the same day that it is received; that
+      money unfit for laundering will be destroyed and new
+      money issued. This expeditious handling of money sent
+      in for redemption cannot, however, be attained, he
+      admits, without the co-operation of the banks. In a
+      short time, he believes, all banks will see that it is
+      to their benefit to do this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE CORPORATION
+
+
+THE study that we have thus far made of the various kinds of businesses
+would be incomplete did we not briefly outline the different types of
+organization by which modern business is conducted. This will naturally
+lead us to a discussion of stocks and bonds, which are of great
+importance in every big business and of interest to individuals as means
+of investment. However, as the subjects are probably outside the
+experience of most students, we shall treat them as simply as possible,
+letting the chapter stand rather for the information it contains than
+for its application to the study of English expression.
+
+Business to-day is carried on in three different ways; viz., by
+individuals, by partnerships, and by corporations. The grocer, the
+butcher, the baker, or any one man who carries on a business is an
+example of the first. If, however, the grocer and the butcher, or the
+grocer and the baker, combine their businesses for the good of both,
+they form a partnership. When the amount of capital necessary for
+carrying on the business becomes so large that the money of many people
+is needed, a _corporation_ is formed. The amount of money which any one
+individual invests in the company is represented by a certain number of
+shares of the _capital stock_ of the company, entitling him to his
+portion of the dividends, or interest on the money he has invested.
+These shares of the capital stock are transferable and can be bought and
+sold like an automobile or a house. Since there is no time limit as to
+how long a corporation may do business, a change in the ownership of
+part of the stock, or the death of a stockholder, is not accompanied by
+the same result as in a partnership, where the death of one of the
+partners sometimes breaks up the business. Furthermore, in a partnership
+each one of the partners is personally liable for any debts made by any
+of the partners in behalf of the business, whereas the personal
+possessions of a stockholder in a corporation cannot be held as security
+for any debts incurred by the corporation. These are two of the more
+important advantages of corporate organization over partnership.
+
+
+The Finances of a Corporation
+
+It has been estimated that if one were to count money, dollar by dollar,
+one dollar every second for eight hours six days a week, it would take
+him six weeks to count one million dollars, and over one hundred years
+to count a billion dollars. This may help us to appreciate the sums of
+money spoken of in the following: In 1914 the market value of the
+Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago was over $83,000,000. The
+valuation placed on the properties of the Chicago Railways Company in
+1914 exceeded $79,000,000. The Union Pacific Railroad Company had
+invested in its properties in 1914 approximately $500,000,000. The
+capital obligations of the United States Steel Corporation in 1914 were
+over $1,500,000,000. There are hundreds of such organizations in our
+country, the investments in which run to and beyond $50,000,000 each. It
+must be plain that, except in a very few cases, these vast amounts of
+money do not represent the investment of one, or of a few, but of many
+persons. In uniting their capital, these persons decrease the cost of
+making or distributing the product and so increase their profits.
+
+
+Stocks
+
+When a large company of this kind is organized, a certain amount of
+money is agreed upon to be the capital of the company, and it is
+divided into small portions, ordinarily $100 each, called _shares_. The
+total of the shares is called the _authorized capital stock_. These
+shares are sold, the purchasers of the shares being called
+_shareholders_, or _stockholders,_ of the company. The number of shares
+a person holds determines what part of the profits he is entitled to.
+For example, if a company is organized for 1000 shares of $100 each, or
+a capital stock of $100,000, and you owned 100 shares, you would be
+entitled to one-tenth of the divided profits of the company. Such
+profits of the company, divided proportionately among the stockholders,
+constitute the _dividends_.
+
+Often the capital stock is of two kinds, _preferred_ and _common_, as in
+the case of the Union Pacific R. R., which has $200,000,000 of
+authorized preferred stock and $296,178,700 of authorized common stock.
+As the names signify, preferred stock is ordinarily better than common
+stock, the dividends on preferred stock being paid before any dividends
+are paid on common stock and usually at a stated rate of interest; as,
+4, 5, or 6 per cent. In the case of the Union Pacific, this rate is 4
+per cent. If the company earns only enough profits to pay the dividends
+on the preferred stock, the common gets no dividends. On the other hand,
+if the profits are enormous, the common occasionally gets more than the
+preferred.
+
+
+Par and Market Value
+
+The _par value_ of a stock is the face value of one share of stock,
+indicated on the face of the certificate. This may be $10 or $50 or
+$100, whatever the amount agreed upon for one share when the company is
+organized. The amount most commonly used as par is $100. The _market
+value_ of the stock, however, need not be this amount, but may be
+greater or less, dependent on how successful the company is and what
+rate of dividends it pays. If a company's standing is very good and the
+dividends are high (over 6 per cent), the stock will probably sell on
+the market above par. If the company's finances are in a doubtful
+condition and there are evidences that the company will pay small
+dividends, if any at all, the market price of the stock will fall below
+par. For example, in January, 1914, Union Pacific R. R. common stock
+sold for about $158 per share, because the finances of the company were
+in good condition and the company had paid 10 per cent dividends
+steadily each year since July 1, 1907. If, however, any occasion should
+arise to make the public doubt the payment of future dividends at the
+same rate, the stock would probably decline. To go to the other extreme,
+in the same month Wabash R. R. common stock sold as low as $8½ per
+share, although the par is $100. This was because for some years the
+company had paid no dividends and was then in the hands of receivers. To
+take a middle case in the same month and year, Erie R. R. first
+preferred stock sold at about $45 per share, notwithstanding the fact
+that since 1907 no dividends had been paid. The reason for this
+seemingly high price was that the company had for some time been
+reconstructing its property, had gradually increased its business, had
+earned a $9,000,000 surplus in 1913, and had a good outlook to a
+dividend in the near future.
+
+These are not the only influences that affect the price of stocks. The
+old factor of supply and demand has a great influence on price. If, for
+example, a financier decides to buy a large "block" of some stock, the
+market will almost immediately be affected, and that stock will go up.
+One example will suffice. In 1901 E. H. Harriman set out to buy
+$155,000,000 worth of Northern Pacific stock in the open market to gain
+control of the Northern Pacific railroad. Of course, the market felt the
+demand, and the price of the stock rose from a little above par until it
+touched $1,000 a share before it started back to normal. When Mr.
+Harriman unloaded that same stock in 1906, because he failed to gain
+control, the market went down so considerably that he lost $10,000,000
+and almost caused a panic.
+
+Often the stocks of a company sell below par because the stock is
+watered; that is, the company has issued more stock than there is value
+invested in the property. Many of our railroads, for example, were built
+on borrowed money--that is, from the proceeds of the sale of bonds--and,
+to make the bonds sell more readily, stocks were given away with them.
+This, of course, increased the capitalization greatly without increasing
+the value. The temptation in forming new companies, especially in mining
+schemes and wildcat ventures, is to water the stock heavily by voting a
+large block of stock gratis to the organizers. Before one invests in any
+of these companies, he should thoroughly investigate them. Sometimes
+companies water their stocks when their dividends have become very large
+and they wish to bring the rate down to that commonly paid. The Wells
+Fargo Express Company did this in 1910, presenting their stockholders
+with $16,000,000 worth of new stock without any new investment in the
+property.
+
+
+Bonds
+
+Suppose that A owns a house with a store in it, and in the store he
+carries on a grocery business. Suppose that by enlarging his store and
+putting in a bigger stock of goods he can make more money. The
+improvements will cost $1,000, but he hasn't the money. He goes to B to
+ask B to lend him $1,000 for five years, offering B the house as
+security. B gives A the $1,000 and in return gets a certain amount of
+interest each year and A's mortgage note against the property. This
+means that, if at the end of five years A cannot pay the $1,000, B has
+the right to sell A's house and collect the money due him.
+
+When a corporation borrows money to extend its properties, plants, or
+rights, the transaction is really the same, although the form is
+somewhat different. Just as all the capital stock of a corporation is
+divided into shares owned by a number of people, so, when the
+corporation borrows money, the amount borrowed is divided into smaller
+parts of $500 or $1,000 each, called _bonds_, which the corporation
+sells through its bankers to people who have idle money to invest. Twice
+each year, as stated in the bond, the corporation pays interest on the
+borrowed money at the rate, probably, of 4, 4½, 5, or 6 per cent. After
+a definite number of years, as stated in the bond, the corporation is
+obliged to pay back the amount of money that it borrowed. This is called
+_redeeming_ the bonds. To show that it intends to pay back the amount
+borrowed at the end of the time stated, or redeem the bonds when they
+become due, the corporation puts a mortgage on its real estate,
+buildings, machinery, and equipment. When the bonds become due--or
+_mature_, as it is called--if the corporation does not pay back the
+amount borrowed, the holders of the bonds may take possession of the
+company's real estate, buildings, machinery, and equipment on which the
+company has placed the mortgage and may sell them to recover the money
+they have loaned. Thus, while the stockholders of a corporation have no
+assurance that they will ever get their money back or will ever get any
+interest on it, the holders of carefully selected bonds are reasonably
+sure of getting a certain amount of interest each year and of getting
+their money back when the bonds mature. Shares of stock represent the
+investment made by the stockholders who own the company, whereas bonds
+represent the investment of those who loan money to the company. We can
+readily see, then, that the stockholders take the greater risk. For this
+reason it is expected that stocks should yield a higher profit than
+bonds, and this is usually the case.
+
+The greater portion of the bonds that are issued by corporations run for
+long periods--twenty, forty, fifty, and even one hundred years. At
+times when money rates are high, corporations that need funds are
+reluctant to pay a high rate for so many years, and so they issue _short
+time bonds_ to run from two to five years, in the hope that at the end
+of the time money rates will be lower and more favorable to their
+issuing long time bonds. Many companies, especially industrial
+corporations and railroads, have issued obligations to pay, _notes_
+running from six months to five years. They are not usually secured by a
+mortgage on the property but are merely the company's promise to pay,
+the interest and the principal taking precedence over the dividends on
+the preferred and the common stocks.
+
+
+Corporate Organization
+
+Before a corporation can carry on its business, it must obtain a charter
+from one of the states of the United States, whose laws it must obey.
+The laws of some states are more lenient than those of others, allowing
+the corporations more privileges. New Jersey is thus lenient;
+consequently we find many large corporations--such as the United States
+Steel Corporation, the American Sugar Refining Company, and
+others--organized under the laws of New Jersey. After the charter is
+granted and the stock bought by the stockholders, the latter have a
+meeting, at which they elect a small number of men to be _directors_,
+who, as the name signifies, conduct the business of the company for the
+stockholders. They choose a president, one or more vice-presidents, a
+treasurer, a secretary, and any other officers necessary to carry on the
+business under the control of the directors. The term of office of the
+directors is usually so fixed that the term of a part of them expires
+each year, so that each year the stockholders have an annual meeting at
+which they elect new directors or re-elect the old ones whose term has
+expired.
+
+
+The Railroad
+
+Corporations divide themselves into three large groups; viz., railroad
+companies, public utility corporations, and industrial corporations. Of
+these, the group composed of the largest and most powerful corporations
+is the railroad group.
+
+Railroads have two general sources of income, the larger being the
+revenue received from operating trains, both freight and passenger; and
+the smaller being the return from investments in other companies, from
+real estate, and from the rental of lines, terminals, stations, and cars
+to other railroads. To carry on the second or smaller part of its
+business, the company needs an organization much like any other
+business, but to conduct the first part it requires a special
+organization. This divides itself into four departments, usually with a
+vice-president at the head of each: (1) the traffic department, (2) the
+operating department, (3) the finance and accounting department, and (4)
+the legal department.
+
+It is the duty of the traffic department to get the business for the
+company and adjust all traffic claims. In short, it does everything to
+increase the business and the earnings. This department naturally
+divides into the freight traffic and passenger traffic departments, with
+a superintendent or manager at the head of each.
+
+After the traffic department has solicited the business for the company,
+it is the duty of the operating department to render the services
+required by the traffic department. The work is done by four large
+divisions: (1) the engineering or construction department, whose duty it
+is to build the roads over which the company may operate; (2) the
+maintenance-of-way department, whose duty it is to see that the roadbed
+and rails are kept in good order and repair; (3) the equipment
+department, whose duty it is to see that the company is supplied with
+proper locomotives and cars and to see that such equipment is kept in
+repair; and (4) the transportation department, which has to do with the
+operating of the trains.
+
+The financial policy of a railroad is usually in charge of one of the
+vice-presidents, who must be a man of experience in financial matters
+and who acts with the approval of the directors. The accounting
+department is more important than may appear at first sight. Railroads
+are now under the supervision and regulation of the government, and one
+of the rights that the government has is to examine the books of the
+company at any time and to require all companies to submit a monthly
+report to the government.
+
+The legal department of a railroad is especially important for two
+reasons: (1) In performing its services, the company has business
+dealings with a large number of persons, and in the adjustment of claims
+against the railroad, expert legal advice is constantly necessary. (2)
+The railroad, as stated above, is under the regulation and control of
+the state and the national governments, and the enforcement of this
+regulation makes the railroad a party to numerous proceedings in the
+courts and before the Interstate Commerce Commission. The large
+railroads operate in from ten to twenty states. It can thus easily be
+seen that the legal department has a great deal more to do than if the
+railroad operated under but one political power.
+
+
+Public Utility Corporations
+
+Public utility corporations supply services without which the people of
+to-day could not very well live. They are those supplying water, light,
+heat, power, telephones, local transportation, gas, etc. They may
+properly be called public necessity corporations. The nature of these
+businesses practically gives them a monopoly in their locality; this is
+the reason that they have grown so enormously during the last thirty
+years. The Commonwealth Edison Company, which supplies a large part of
+Chicago with light and power, began in 1887 with a capital of $500,000
+and in 1914 its capital obligations had a market value of over
+$83,000,000. The American Telephone and Telegraph Company began in 1885
+with $12,000,000 of capital stock and in 1914 had practically
+$340,000,000. The other public service corporations have kept pace,
+according to the growth of the locality they serve. In the depression of
+1907 this class of corporation kept steadily increasing the volume of
+its business when all others went back a step. Since these corporations
+are dependent on the local community for their business, if the
+community grows the company must grow, and usually faster than the
+community. For this reason the stocks and bonds of these companies are
+usually a good investment.
+
+It is a common practice for municipalities to demand a share of the
+profits of the company, by way of a fixed sum, a certain percentage of
+the gross profits, or a share of the net profits. For example the city
+of Chicago receives, from the Commonwealth Edison Company each year 3
+per cent of its gross receipts from the sale of current and 10 per cent
+of its gross receipts from the rental of conduit space, amounting in
+1913 to more than $300,000, quite a considerable sum. The Chicago
+Railways Company and the Chicago City Railway Company, the two large
+street car companies of Chicago, after deductions for expenses and
+charges and 5 per cent on the amount invested are made from the gross
+income, pay to the city 55 per cent of the surplus earnings, keeping for
+themselves 45 per cent. Whenever these companies pay part of their
+earnings to the municipality, they are really under municipal
+supervision, and their books and accounts are open to examination by
+the city at any time. These companies are called quasi-municipal
+corporations.
+
+
+Industrial Corporations
+
+As the name indicates, industrial corporations are those that carry on
+our industries. They are by far the largest class of corporations and
+have among their number some very powerful companies, whose assets run
+up toward the billions. This class of corporations has not had the
+gradual, steady growth of the public utility corporations, but in the
+case of the most successful, the growth has been amazing. The Standard
+Oil Company for many years prior to its dissolution had paid dividends
+on its capital stock of about $100,000,000 at the rate of 40 per cent a
+year. The Steel Corporation is said to have produced a thousand
+millionaires and is still producing them. This class of corporations has
+not been so closely under the supervision of the federal and municipal
+authorities as the railroads and public utility corporations, and their
+financing has been carried on in a looser fashion than that of the other
+two classes. For this reason the securities of these corporations are
+not generally regarded as highly as those of the other two. However, the
+federal government has taken and is taking steps to regulate these
+corporations, and this will tend to bring them eventually to the
+standards of the railroad and public utility corporations.
+
+
+=Exercise 307=
+
+_Oral_
+
+Explain carefully:
+
+      1. What is a corporation?
+
+      2. What is a share of stock?
+
+      3. What is a bond? a security?
+
+      4. Explain the difference between par and market
+      values.
+
+      5. Why do stocks and bonds vary in value?
+
+      6. What is the difference between preferred and common
+      stock?
+
+      7. What are dividends?
+
+      8. What is meant by watered stock?
+
+      9. What are the advantages of a corporation over a
+      partnership?
+
+      10. The following was copied from a morning paper.
+      Explain it.
+
+      "The Canadian Westinghouse Company, Ltd., declared its
+      regular quarterly dividend of 1½% and an extra
+      dividend of 1% on its stock, both payable Jan. 10."
+
+      11. Explain the following bond quotations:
+
+      MUNICIPAL BONDS
+
+    _Security_                     _Maturity_      _Yield per cent about_
+
+    Albany, Ga., 5's              Nov. 1, 1941          4.75
+    King Co., Wash., 4½'s         Nov. 1, 1931          4.50
+
+      RAILROAD BONDS
+
+    Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fé, general    Oct. 1, 1995      4.20
+       mortgage, 4's
+    Louisville and Nashville, unified        Feb. 1, 1946      4.35
+       mortgage, 4's
+
+      PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATION BONDS
+
+    New York Telephone Co., 4's   Nov. 1, 1939          4.75
+    Chicago Railways, first
+      mortgage, 5's                 Feb. 1, 1927          4.99
+
+      12. Why are the bonds of successful public utility
+      corporations a good investment?
+
+      13. Which company do you think would grow faster, a
+      light and power company or a gas company? What effect
+      would the growth or the failure to grow have on the
+      price of the stocks of each?
+
+      14. Should a street car company pay part of its
+      earnings to the city?
+
+      15. If the population of a city doubled, what effect
+      would there be on the price of public utility stocks?
+
+
+=Exercise 308=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+      1. Harnessing our streams to secure electric power.
+
+      2. The growth of the Interurban.
+
+      3. In your own town:
+
+      _a._ Have gas rates increased or decreased? Can you
+      explain the change?
+
+      _b._ Have electric light rates increased or decreased?
+      Can you explain the change?
+
+4. Street railway, electric light, and gas company franchises.
+
+5. The earnings of the street car company in your city.
+
+6. Municipal ownership of public utility corporations.
+
+7. The effect of mergers and consolidations of big corporations.
+
+8. The effect of a trust on competition.
+
+9. Trusts and prices.
+
+10. Government suits against trusts.
+
+11. The tariff and the steel industry, the wool industry, and the sugar
+industry.
+
+12. Railroad rate increases.
+
+
+=Exercise 309=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      In New London, Connecticut, stands the oldest grist
+      mill in the country. It is a picturesque building,
+      having a water wheel like the one that it originally
+      used when New London was first settled. The town was
+      in the center of an agricultural community, and a mill
+      to grind corn was a need that soon manifested itself
+      to the settlers. Accordingly, in 1650 at a town
+      meeting, six men were chosen to build a mill. John
+      Winthrop and his heirs were granted the right to carry
+      on the grist mill as long as they maintained the
+      building placed in their charge. This is one of the
+      first monopolies recorded in New England history.
+
+2
+
+      The same standards by which a farming or a
+      manufacturing investment may be judged are not
+      applicable to a mining investment. A farmer may earn
+      eight per cent on his capital, and with care his
+      investment may increase in value. A manufacturer may
+      earn eight per cent on his investment, and, if he
+      keeps up his machinery, his business may be as
+      valuable ten years, or even twenty years, hence; but a
+      mine, after each dividend is paid, is that much nearer
+      its end. Now, it is well known among mining men that
+      the average life of a gold or silver mine is under,
+      rather than over, ten years. There are exceptions to
+      this rule, of course, but, granting that the life of a
+      certain gold or silver mine is to be ten years, then,
+      in order to pay back both principal and interest,
+      dividends of at least sixteen per cent should be
+      distributed. Copper mining, of which the statistics
+      have been most accurately kept in New York and Boston,
+      offers many inducements to the investor; but too much
+      care cannot be taken in the matter of selection, for
+      copper stocks, in not a few instances, have been
+      boosted out of all reason. As with gold and silver
+      mines, so it is with copper mines. They have so much
+      ore to begin with, and after each dividend are that
+      much nearer to the day when they will close down. For
+      such mines, provided they have a good lease of life,
+      eight per cent or even ten per cent may be regarded as
+      only moderate returns. These are merely samples of
+      some general principles to be followed.--_Roger W.
+      Babson._
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      At the close of a year which has presented many
+      perplexing problems, not only to investors and dealers
+      in bonds, but also to borrowing municipalities and
+      corporations, there are several factors in the
+      situation which in our opinion offer strong
+      encouragement to every one in any way interested in
+      bond investments.
+
+      Of special significance is the marked change in
+      sentiment which has recently taken place. There is
+      every indication that this country enters the new year
+      with an unusually substantial feeling of confidence.
+      While a notable increase in the demand for bonds would
+      undoubtedly bring out a large amount of new financing,
+      on the other hand, there has been an accumulation of
+      funds during the period of depressed markets, and it
+      is generally understood that investment dealers are
+      carrying comparatively small amounts of bonds.
+
+      January has an almost unbroken record of higher
+      average bond prices than the average prices in
+      December. It is not our intention to predict an
+      advance this January, although there are
+      unquestionably many reasons for anticipating at least
+      a moderate improvement; but, viewing the question in
+      its broader aspects, we find many convincing arguments
+      in favor of the purchase of bonds at this time. It is
+      recognized that the decline in prices has been due to
+      a variety of causes, which, except in a few individual
+      cases, are not the result of any depreciation in real
+      values. Basic conditions are admittedly sound. We,
+      accordingly, not only recommend the judicious purchase
+      of bonds for the investment of surplus funds, but also
+      suggest consideration of the advisability in some
+      cases of converting short time securities into long
+      time bonds.
+
+      What conditions could be more favorable from the
+      standpoint of the purchaser of bonds than an extremely
+      low level of prices; a wide-spread belief that
+      fundamental conditions are sound; a general feeling of
+      confidence that the problems which have tended to
+      disturb business during the past year have been, or
+      are being, solved; and a conviction that we are
+      entering upon a period of probable ease in money
+      rates?
+
+    Very truly yours,
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES
+
+  _A_, Italian, 9.
+
+  Abbreviation, objectionable, of the introduction of a letter, 242;
+    of the courteous close, 242.
+
+  Abbreviations, of states, 26-27;
+    of commercial terms, 27-28;
+    of titles in letters, 235;
+    objectionable in the body of the letter, 242.
+
+  _Able_ and _ible_, 33.
+
+  Absolute use of the nominative case, 65.
+
+  Abstract noun, defined, 57.
+
+  Accent, indication of, 17;
+    words changing meaning with change of, 17.
+
+  _Accept_ and _except_, 102.
+
+  Account, opening an, 250;
+    letters for opening an, 250 ff.
+
+  Accounting department of a railroad, work of the, 360-361.
+
+  Active voice of verbs, defined, 84;
+    conjugation of, 88 ff.
+
+  _Ad_, prefix, 32.
+
+  Adjective, the, defined, 49;
+    and the adverb, 75 ff.;
+    following verbs of the senses, 75;
+    clause, 54;
+    comparison of, 78.
+
+  Adjective endings, peculiar, 33 ff.
+
+  Adjective modifiers, 49.
+
+  Adjective pronouns, use of, 61.
+
+  Adjectives and adverbs, confused, 51;
+    incorrectly used, 81-82;
+    _real_ and _very_, 81;
+    _most_ and _almost_, 81.
+
+  Adjectives, punctuation of series of, 171 ff.
+
+  Adjectives to be distinguished, 80-81;
+    _fewer_ and _less_, 80;
+    _almost_ and _most_, 81.
+
+  Adverb modifiers, 49.
+
+  Adverb, the, defined, 49;
+    and the adjective, 75 ff.
+
+  Adverbial, clause, 54;
+    modifier, case of, 66.
+
+  Adverbs, conjunctive, 45;
+    and adjectives confused, 51;
+    and prepositions confused, 52;
+    ideas denoted by, 75;
+    modifying different parts of speech, 75;
+    correct position of, 77;
+    absolute use of, 79;
+    incorrectly used, 81-82.
+
+  Advertised articles, classes of, 311.
+
+  Advertisements, motives appealed to in, 311;
+    catch phrases used in, 312;
+    suggestive names used in, 313;
+    good and bad headlines for, 313;
+    of still-life, 314;
+    without a definite center, 315;
+    illustrating the principle of balance, 315;
+    exercises to write, 315 ff.;
+    paragraph topics dealing with, 317 ff.;
+    some examples of, 318 ff.
+
+  Advertising, 308 ff.;
+    importance of, 308;
+    different forms of, 309-310;
+    fundamentals of, 310-311;
+    outline for debate on, 141 ff.;
+    bibliography for, 320.
+
+  _Affect_ and _effect_, 102-103.
+
+  Affirmative of debate on advertising, 141 ff.
+
+  _After_, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  Agent, 134, 299-300;
+    commission of, 323.
+
+  Agreement, grammatical, 71-72, 85 ff.
+
+  Amusement, motive appealed to in advertising, 311.
+
+  Analysis, word, 29 ff.
+
+  _Ance_ and _ence_, 34.
+
+  _And_, in compound sentence, 45, 173 ff.;
+   in series, punctuation with, 171 ff.;
+   used in joining parallel expressions, 211 ff.;
+   for _to_, 119;
+   excessive use of, 127-128.
+
+  Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes, 29 ff.
+
+  Answering complaints, letters to be used in, 257 ff.
+
+  _Ant_ and _ent_, 33.
+
+  Antecedents, uncertain, 207 ff.
+
+  Apostrophe, the, used to form the possessive case, 67, 69, 159;
+    used to indicate the omission of letters, 160;
+    to show plural of letters and figures, 160.
+
+  Appeals made in advertisements, 311-312.
+
+  Application, letters of, 259 ff.
+
+  Appositives, case of, 65, 66;
+    punctuation with, 179-180.
+
+  Article, incorrect omission of in business letters, 242.
+
+  _As_, case following, 121;
+    a conjunction, 124;
+    followed by an understood verb, 124;
+    punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _As_--_as_, used in expressions stating equality, 125.
+
+  _As follows_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _Atlas_, story of the derivation of, 5.
+
+  Authorized capital stock, 355.
+
+
+  Baby blunder, 44.
+
+  Balance, principle of, used in advertisements, 315.
+
+  Bank draft, 341-343.
+
+  Banking:
+    inconvenience of barter, 332;
+    kinds of paper money, 332-333;
+    credit, 333;
+    discount, 335;
+    collateral, 335;
+    promissory note, 336;
+    forms of remittance, 338 ff.;
+    letters pertaining to, 345 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion, 349-350;
+    bibliography for, 350;
+    dictation exercises on, 350 ff.
+
+  Banks, departments of, 333;
+    of deposit, 334 ff.;
+    savings, 334, 336 ff.;
+    trust companies, 334, 337 ff.
+
+  _Be_, conjugation, indicative, 104;
+    subjunctive, 112;
+    used to form progressive tenses, 88 ff., 105;
+    used to form passive voice, 105 ff.
+
+  _Before_, used as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  _Beg to state_, 243.
+
+  Bibliography, on manufacture, 280;
+    on distribution, 304-305;
+    on advertising, 320;
+    on banking, 350.
+
+  _Bill of lading_, 285;
+    _straight_ or _order,_ 285.
+
+  Blunder, baby, 44.
+
+  Body of the letter, 232.
+
+  Bonds, 357 ff.;
+    redemption of, 358;
+    maturity of, 358;
+    long period, 358;
+    short time, 358.
+
+  Breve, 9.
+
+  Brevity in business letters, mistaken for conciseness, 199.
+
+  Business letters, 229 ff.;
+    essentials of, 230;
+    the form of, 231;
+    the arrangement of, 232;
+    cautions in writing, 235 ff.;
+    directions for folding, 238;
+    to order goods, 239;
+    the tone of, 240;
+    mistaken ideas in writing, 241 ff.;
+    to make sales, 244;
+    to accompany a catalogue, 245 ff.;
+    to open an account, 250;
+    to make collections, 253 ff.;
+    to answer complaints, 257 ff.;
+    applying for positions, 259 ff.;
+    form, 264;
+    circular and follow-up, 264 ff.
+
+  Business news, to suggest topics for talks, 155.
+
+  Business thinking, importance of, 2.
+
+
+  _c_ and _g_, pronunciation of, 24.
+
+  _Can_ and _may_, 102.
+
+  Capital stock, explained, 353;
+    preferred, 355;
+    common, 355;
+    par and market values of, 355 ff.
+
+  Capitals, use of, 160 ff.
+
+  Caret, the, 9.
+
+  Carriers, common, 284.
+
+  Case, defined, 64;
+    nominative, 64 ff.;
+    objective, 64, 66;
+    possessive, 64, 67;
+    exercise in, 70 ff.;
+    following prepositions, 66, 119.
+
+  Cause and effect, paragraphs developed by, 223.
+
+  Caution, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Cautions in writing business letters, 235 ff.
+
+  _Cede_, _ceed_, _sede_, 34.
+
+  Certificate, the gold, 332;
+    the silver, 332.
+
+  Certified check, the, 339-340.
+
+  Check, the, 338 ff.;
+    personal, 339;
+    certified, 339-340.
+
+  Choosing subjects, suggestions for, 146 ff.
+
+  _Cion_, _sion_, _tion_, 34.
+
+  _Cious_, _tious_, 33.
+
+  Circular letters, 264 ff.
+
+  Class paper, suggestions for a, 156.
+
+  Classes of advertisements, 311.
+
+  Clause, the, defined, 42;
+    principal, 42;
+    subordinate, 42;
+    incorrectly used as a sentence, 45;
+    introductory words for, 54;
+    adjective, 54;
+    adverb, 54;
+    noun, 54;
+    modifiers, 54;
+    introduced by _than_ or _as_, 121;
+    initial, punctuation of, 176;
+    restrictive and non-restrictive, 59-60;
+    punctuation of relative, 185 ff.;
+    coming at the end of the sentence, punctuation of, 188-189;
+    incomplete, 205-206;
+    misplaced, 209 ff.
+
+  Clauses, punctuation of series of, 171 ff.
+
+  Clear title to property, explained, 322.
+
+  Clearing house, daily routine of, 350-351.
+
+  Clearness of the sentence, mistakes that prevent:
+    dangling expressions, 205 ff.;
+    pronouns with uncertain antecedents, 207 ff.;
+    misplaced modifiers, 209-210;
+    omission of necessary words, 210-211;
+    shift of construction, 211 ff.
+
+  Close, courteous, of business letters, 232, 237.
+
+  Coherence between sentences, 127-128; 224 ff.;
+    between paragraphs, 224 ff.
+
+  Collateral, 335-336.
+
+  Collection letters, 253 ff.
+
+  Collective noun, defined, 57.
+
+  Colon, use of the, 194.
+
+  Colonization, 307.
+
+  Combination of short sentences to secure unity, 202 ff.
+
+  Comfort, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Comma fault, the, 44 ff.
+
+  Comma, use of the, in direct quotations, 163 ff.;
+    in series, 171 ff.;
+    in compound sentences, 45, 173 ff.;
+    to set off initial clauses or participial phrases, 175 ff.;
+    to separate the month from the year, etc., 178;
+    to indicate the omission of words, 178;
+    to set off appositives, 179 ff.;
+    to set off parenthetical expressions, 180 ff.;
+    to set off independent elements, 182 ff.;
+    to set off non-restrictive clauses, 185 ff.;
+    to set off modifiers coming at the end of the sentence, 188 ff.
+
+  Command used in good headlines of advertisements, 313.
+
+  Commercial department of a bank, 333.
+
+  Commercial terms, abbreviations of, 27-28.
+
+  Commission, agent's, 323.
+
+  Common carriers, 284.
+
+  Common noun, defined, 57.
+
+  Common stock, 355.
+
+  Companies, kinds of, 273.
+
+  Company, the steamship, 284;
+    the railroad, 284 ff.
+    (See _Corporation_, 353 ff.)
+
+  Comparative degree, of adjectives, 78;
+    of adverbs, 79.
+
+  Comparison and contrast, paragraphs developed by, 223.
+
+  Comparison, of adjectives, 78;
+    of adverbs, 79;
+    negative, 125.
+
+  Complaint, letters answering, 257 ff.
+
+  Complement, subjective, 65.
+
+  Complex sentence, defined, 42.
+
+  Composition, oral and written, 127 ff.
+
+  Compound nouns, plural of, 20.
+
+  Compound relatives, 59.
+
+  Compound sentence, defined, 42;
+    punctuation of, 45, 173 ff.
+
+  _Con_, prefix, 32.
+
+  Conciseness of expression, 199.
+
+  Condensation to secure clearness, 200.
+
+  Conjugation, of _write_, active voice, 88 ff.;
+    of _be_, 104 ff.;
+    of _follow_, passive voice, 105 ff.
+
+  Conjunction, and the preposition, 116 ff.
+
+  Conjunctions.
+    Coördinate, 45;
+      punctuation with, 45, 173 ff.;
+      distinguished from conjunctive adverbs, 45.
+    Subordinate, list of, 54;
+      _than_ and _as_, 121.
+    Correlative, 122.
+
+  Conjunctive adverbs, 45;
+    distinguished from coördinate conjunctions, 45;
+    punctuation with, 45.
+
+  Connection, smooth, 127-128, 224 ff.;
+    methods of securing, 224 ff.
+
+  Conservation, 191-192.
+
+  Consignee, 285.
+
+  Consonant, final, doubling of, 22;
+    silent, words containing, 11.
+
+  Construction, letters dealing with contract for, 263;
+    shift of, 211.
+
+  Contract, letters dealing with, for painting iron-work, 262;
+    for the delivery of property, 263;
+    for construction, 263.
+
+  Contraction, apostrophe used with, 160.
+
+  Coördinate conjunctions, 45;
+    punctuation with, 45, 173 ff.
+
+  Coördinate expressions, 122 ff.
+
+  Copulative verbs, defined, 83.
+
+  Corporate organization, 359.
+
+  Corporation, the, 353 ff.;
+    finances of, 354;
+    capital stock of, 354 ff.;
+    dividends of, 355;
+    stockholders of, 355;
+    bonds of, 357 ff.;
+    organization of, 359;
+    directors of, 359;
+    railroad, 360-361;
+    public utility, 361-362;
+    industrial, 363;
+    topics for investigation and discussion on, 365;
+    dictation exercises on, 365 ff.
+
+  Correlatives, defined, 122;
+    correct position of with coördinate expressions, 122-123;
+    _either--or_ and _neither--nor_, 123.
+
+  Cost of living, paragraph on, 173.
+
+  Cotton seed, paragraph on, 176.
+
+  Cotton in the Soudan, paragraph, 181.
+
+  _Could_ and _might_, 102.
+
+  Courteous close, in business letters, 232, 237.
+
+  Courtesy in business letters, 231, 240.
+
+  Credit, 333.
+
+  Credit letters, 250 ff.
+
+  Currency, bill, 333;
+    legislation, 333, 349.
+
+  Current events, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+
+  Dangling expressions, 205 ff.
+
+  Dash, use of, 195 ff.;
+    too free use of in business letters, 243, 247.
+
+  Dead letter sale, 190.
+
+  Debate, outline for a, 141 ff.;
+    subjects for, 139 ff., 144;
+    on manufacture, suggestions for, 275;
+    on distribution, 290, 302.
+
+  Debating, 137 ff.;
+    proposition for, 137;
+    six rules for, 137 ff.;
+    false conclusions in, 138;
+    irrelevant matter in, 138.
+
+  Declarative sentence, defined, 41.
+
+  Declension of pronouns, personal, 58;
+    relative, 59;
+    interrogative, 60.
+
+  Deed, 322.
+
+  Degrees of comparison, 78-79.
+
+  Demonstrative pronouns, 60.
+
+  Departments, of banks, 333;
+    of railroads, 360.
+
+  Deposit, banks of, 334;
+    slip, 334.
+
+  Details, explanatory, necessary to secure interest, 147;
+    paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Development of paragraphs, methods of, 222-223.
+
+  _dg_, words containing, 25.
+
+  Diacritical marks, 8, 10.
+
+  Diaeresis, 9.
+
+  Dialogue, paragraphing in, 168 ff.
+
+  Dictation exercises, for series, 171;
+    for compound sentences, 173-174;
+    for initial clauses or participial phrases, 176;
+    for parenthetical expressions, 180-181;
+    for independent elements, 182-183;
+    for non-restrictive relative clauses, 186;
+    for the semicolon, 193-194;
+    on manufacture, 280-281;
+    on distribution, 305 ff.;
+    on real estate, 329 ff.;
+    on banking, 350 ff.;
+    on corporations, 365 ff.
+
+  Direct discourse, 163 ff.;
+    use of comma in, 170.
+
+  Directors of corporations, 359.
+
+  Discount, 335.
+
+  Discourse, direct, 163 ff.;
+    indirect, 166 ff.
+
+  Discussion and investigation topics, on manufacture, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 304;
+    on real estate, 327;
+    on banking, 349-350;
+    on the corporation, 365.
+
+  Dishwasher, letters to sell a, 265 ff.
+
+  Distribution.
+    Transportation an essential element, 283 ff.;
+    the steamship company, 284;
+    the railroad company, 284 ff.;
+    the retail merchant, 286 ff.;
+    the wholesale merchant, 291 ff.;
+    the mail order merchant, 295 ff.;
+    the salesman, 298 ff.;
+    suggestions for debates, 302;
+    subjects for paragraphs, 303 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion, 304;
+    bibliography, 304 ff.;
+    dictation exercises, 305 ff.
+
+  Dividends, 355.
+
+  Dividing a subject into its natural divisions, 149 ff.
+
+  Dot, 9.
+
+  Double relative, 59.
+
+  Doubling final consonants, rule for, 22.
+
+  Draft, bank, 341 ff.;
+    time, 343-344;
+    sight, 344-345.
+
+  Dropping of final _e_, 22, 25.
+
+  Druggist, outline of advertising letters sent by, 268-269.
+
+  Durability, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+
+  _E_, final, retained, 25.
+
+  _Each_, _every_, 62, 86 (3)
+
+  Economy, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  _Effect_ and _affect_, 102.
+
+  Efficiency, office, 217;
+    stenographic, 217.
+
+  _ei_ or _ie_, 24.
+
+  _Either--or_, 123.
+
+  Electric washing machine, outline of letters to sell, 269.
+
+  Elements, independent, case of, 65;
+    punctuation of, 182.
+
+  Emphatic pronouns, 59.
+
+  Emulation, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  _ence_ and _ance_, 34.
+
+  Endings, peculiar adjective, 33;
+    peculiar noun and verb, 34.
+
+  Endorsing a check, methods of, 340.
+
+  English, oral, 1, 127 ff.;
+    written, 1.
+    (See _Punctuation_, _The Clear Sentence_, _Business Letters_.)
+
+  _ent_, 33.
+
+  Enthusiasm in business, 230.
+
+  _eous_, 33.
+
+  Essentials, of a sales letter, 230;
+    in manufacture, 272-273;
+    of an advertisement, 310-311.
+
+  _Every_, number of, 86.
+
+  Examples and illustrations, paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Examples of advertisements, 318 ff.
+
+  _Except_, a preposition, 124;
+    incorrectly used as a conjunction, 124.
+
+  _Except_ and _accept_, 102.
+
+  Exclamation mark, use of, 162.
+
+  Exclamatory sentence, defined, 41.
+
+  Explanatory details, paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Explanatory expressions, punctuation of, 179 ff.
+    Appositives, 179;
+    parenthetical expressions, 180;
+    independent elements, 182;
+    explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of, 185;
+    subordinate elements coming at the end of the sentence, 188.
+
+  Exports in cattle, paragraph on, 76.
+
+  Express money order, 340-341.
+
+  Expression, conciseness of, 199;
+    variety of, 111.
+
+
+  _f_, and _fe_, plurals of nouns ending in, 19.
+
+  False conclusions in debating, 137-138.
+
+  Farm lands, 325 ff.;
+    outline of letters to sell, 267-268;
+    letters pertaining to, 325 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion on, 327;
+    dictation exercises on, 329 ff.
+
+  Farm reform, 329.
+
+  Farming specials, 330.
+
+  _Favor, your esteemed_, and similar expressions, to avoid, 243.
+
+  Fee simple, 322.
+
+  _Fewer_ and _less_, 80.
+
+  Figures, plural of, 20, 160.
+
+  Final consonant, rule for doubling, 22.
+
+  Final _e_, dropped, 22, 25;
+    retained, 25-26.
+
+  Finance department of a railroad, 360-361.
+
+  Finances of a corporation, 354.
+
+  _Fly_, _flow_, _flee_, 101.
+
+  Folding a letter, directions for, 238.
+
+  _Follow_, conjugation of in the passive voice, 105 ff.;
+    synopsis of, passive, 106.
+
+  _Following, the_, punctuation after, 195.
+
+  Follow-up letter, the, 264 ff.
+
+  _For_, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  Foreclosing a mortgage, 322.
+
+  Foreign plurals, 21.
+
+  Foreign news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+  _For example_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _For instance_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Form letter, the, 264.
+
+  Form of the business letter, 231.
+
+  Formation, of participles, 21 ff.;
+    of possessive case, 67;
+    of infinitives, 110.
+
+  Freight bill, 286.
+
+  Freight, receipt for, 285.
+
+  Furniture, outline of letters to sell, 269.
+
+  Future tense, 88 ff.;
+    progressive, 89;
+    perfect, 90.
+
+
+  _G_, pronunciation of, 24.
+
+  Gas mantles, paragraph on, 280-281.
+
+  Gold certificates, 332.
+
+  Good and bad headlines in advertisements, 313-314.
+
+  Government's Laundry, the, 173-174.
+
+  Greek roots, 30.
+
+
+  _Had ought_, 103.
+
+  "Hammock" paragraph, 216.
+
+  _Have_ and _of_, 119.
+
+  Heading of the business letter, 232, 235.
+
+  Headlines of advertisements, good and bad, 313-314.
+
+  Health, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  _Herculean_, 5.
+
+  Homonyms, 14-15.
+
+  How to advance, paragraph on, 177.
+
+  _Hoping_ and similar expressions, to avoid, 242-243.
+
+  Hyphen, use of, 196.
+
+
+  _Ible_, 33.
+
+  Ideas, mistaken, in letter writing, 241 ff.
+
+  _ie_ or _ei_, 24.
+
+  Illustrations and examples, paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Imperative sentence, defined, 41.
+
+  _In_, prefix, 33.
+
+  Income of railroads, 360.
+
+  Incorrectly used, nouns and pronouns, 73-74;
+    adjectives and adverbs, 81-82;
+    verbs, 114-115;
+    prepositions, 118-119.
+
+  Indefinite _it_ or _they_, 207 ff.
+
+  Indefinite pronouns, 61;
+    used as adjectives, 61.
+
+  Independent elements, case of, 65;
+    punctuation of, 182.
+
+  Indicative mode, defined, 112;
+    of _be,_ 112.
+
+  Indirect discourse, 166 ff.
+
+  Indirect object, 66.
+
+  Industrial corporations, 363.
+
+  Industry, 273.
+
+  Infinitive, defined, 109;
+    tenses and voices of, 110;
+    split, 77, 209.
+
+  Initial clause or participial phrase, punctuation of, 176.
+
+  Insurance, 327 ff.;
+    letters pertaining to, 328 ff.
+
+  Insurance and real estate, 321 ff.
+
+  Interesting words, 1 ff.
+
+  Interjection, 49;
+    _O_, 161.
+
+  Interrogation mark, use of, 162;
+    position of with quotation marks, 163 ff.
+
+  Interrogative pronouns, declined, 60.
+
+  Interrogative sentence, 41.
+
+  Intransitive verb, 83.
+
+  Introduction of the letter, 232, 235-236.
+
+  Investigation and discussion, topics for, on manufacture, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 304;
+    on real estate, 327;
+    on banking, 349-350;
+    on the corporation, 365.
+
+  Investments, mining, 365-366.
+
+  Investors, 184, 185.
+
+  _ious_, 33.
+
+  Irregular plurals of nouns, 19.
+
+  Irregular verbs, principal parts of, 95 ff.
+
+  _ise_, _ize_, _yze_, 34.
+
+  _It_ used indefinitely, 207 ff.
+
+  _Italic_, derivation of, 3.
+
+  Italian _a_, 9.
+
+  _Its_ and _it's_, 160 ff.
+
+
+  _k_, insertion of, 25.
+
+  _Kindly_, abuse of, 243.
+
+
+  Labor, 274.
+
+  Local news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+  Land business, the, 325 ff.
+
+  Latin-American trade, the, 306.
+
+  Latin prefixes and suffixes, 31.
+
+  _Lay_ and _lie_, 100-101.
+
+  _Learn_ and _teach_, 101.
+
+  Lease, 321.
+
+  _Least_, used in the superlative degree, 78.
+
+  Legal department of a railroad, 360-361.
+
+  Length of good headlines in advertisements, 313.
+
+  _Less_ and _fewer_, 80.
+
+  Letter beginnings, 240, 247, 248-249.
+
+  Letter, to investors, 47;
+    to accompany a style book, 172;
+    to sell a trip on the water, 183-184;
+    to sell a house coat, 221-222;
+    ordering goods, 239;
+    from A. Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby, 240-241;
+    to accompany a catalogue, 245 ff.;
+    to sell cheese, 246;
+    to sell hinged paper, 247-248;
+    to open an account, 250-251;
+    credit, 251-252;
+    requesting payment, 254 ff.;
+    answering a complaint, 257-258;
+    of application, 260-261;
+    follow-up, 265 ff.;
+    from a bank, soliciting a trust (to be punctuated), 348-349;
+    market, 366.
+
+  Letters, plurals of, 20.
+
+  Letters, business, in the manufacturing business, 276 ff.;
+    in the retail business, 287 ff.;
+    in the wholesale business, 292 ff.;
+    in the mail order business, 295 ff.;
+    to help the salesman, 301;
+    pertaining to banking, 345 ff.
+    (See _Business letters_, _Letter_.)
+
+  _Lie_ and _lay_, 100-101.
+
+  _Like_, followed by the objective case, 124.
+
+  _Loose_ and _lose_, 103.
+
+  _Lose_ and _loose_, 103.
+
+  Luck and labor, paragraph on, 174.
+
+
+  Macron, the, 9.
+
+  Magazine advertising, 311 ff.
+
+  Mail order business, the, 295 ff..
+
+  Manufacture, 270 ff.;
+    essentials in, 272-273;
+    subjects for themes on, 275;
+    suggestions for debates on, 275;
+    letters in, 276 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussions on, 278 ff.;
+    bibliography for, 280;
+    dictation exercises in, 280 ff.
+
+  Market letter, 366.
+
+  Market value, 355 ff.
+
+  Marks, diacritical, 7;
+    question, 162;
+    quotation, 163 ff.
+
+  Materials, raw, 274.
+
+  Maturity of bonds, 358, 364.
+
+  _May_ and _can_, 102.
+
+  Merchant, the retail, 286 ff.;
+    the wholesale, 291 ff.;
+    the mail order, 295 ff.
+
+  Methods of endorsing a check, 340.
+
+  _Might_ and _could_, 102.
+
+  Mining investment, principles of, 365.
+
+  Misplaced modifiers, 209-210.
+
+  Mispronounced, words commonly, 13, 17.
+
+  Mistaken ideas in letter writing, 241 ff.
+
+  Mode, defined, 112;
+    indicative and subjunctive of _be_, 112;
+    subjunctive denoting possibility, 113.
+
+  Model letters. (See _Letter_.)
+
+  Modern business done by letter, 229 ff.
+
+  Modifiers, adjective and adverb, word, 49;
+    phrase, 52 ff.;
+    clause, 54-55;
+    used to secure unity, 202;
+    misplaced, 209-210.
+
+  Money, 332;
+    kinds of paper, 332 ff.;
+    its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Money order, express, 340-341;
+    postal, 341.
+
+  Monosyllables ending in silent _e_, 9.
+
+  Month from year, comma used to separate, 178.
+
+  _More_ or _less_, used in the comparative degree, 78.
+
+  Mortgage, 322, 357 ff.;
+    foreclosing a, 322.
+
+  _Most_ or _least_, used in the superlative degree, 78.
+
+  Motives to which advertisements appeal, 311.
+
+
+  _Namely_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Names, suggestive, in advertising, 313.
+
+  National bank notes, 333.
+
+  National news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+  Necessary words, omission of, 210-211.
+
+  Need, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Negative comparison, 125.
+
+  Negative, outline for a debate on advertising, 143 ff.
+
+  _Neither--nor_, 123.
+
+  News, to suggest topics for talks, 155.
+
+  Nominative absolute, 65.
+
+  Nominative case, 64 ff.;
+    as subject, 64;
+    as subjective complement (predicate nominative), 65;
+    as appositive, 65;
+    independent, 65;
+    absolute, 65.
+
+  _Nor_, 123.
+
+  Notes, 359;
+    promissory, 336.
+
+  Noun, defined, 49;
+    clause, 54;
+    and the pronoun, 57 ff.;
+    common, 57;
+    proper, 57;
+    collective, 57;
+    abstract, 57;
+    verbal, 57;
+    modified by _every_ and similar words, 86;
+    collective, number of, 86.
+
+  Nouns, rules for plurals of, regular, 18;
+    ending in _y_, 19;
+    ending in _o_, 19;
+    ending in _f_ and _fe_, 19;
+    irregular, 19-20;
+    compound, 20;
+    foreign, 21;
+    possessive case of, 67;
+    incorrectly used, 73-74;
+    joined by _or_, 86;
+    punctuation of series of, 171 ff.
+
+  Number of verb, 86.
+
+
+  _O_, capitalization of, 161.
+
+  _o_, plural of nouns ending in, 19.
+
+  Object, of a preposition, 55, 66;
+    of a transitive verb, 66;
+    indirect, 66;
+    second, 66.
+
+  Objective case, 64, 66;
+    as direct object of a transitive verb, 66;
+    as object of a preposition, 66, 119;
+    as indirect object, 66;
+    as second object, 66;
+    as appositive, 66;
+    as adverbial modifier, 66;
+    following _like_, 124.
+
+  Observation, subjects taken from, 146 ff.
+
+  Obsolete words, 3.
+
+  _Of_ and _have_, 119.
+
+  _Of_ phrase substituted for the possessive case, 67.
+
+  _Oh_, 161.
+
+  Omission, of letters, 160;
+    of necessary words, 210 ff.;
+    of subject in business letters, 242.
+
+  Opening an account, letters for, 240 ff.
+
+  Operating department of a railroad, 360.
+
+  Oral English, exercises in, 127 ff.
+
+  Oral expression, 127 ff.;
+    variety of, 111.
+
+  Oral reproduction, from magazines, 147;
+    from newspapers, 154 ff.
+
+  Oral exercises, in general, 127 ff.;
+    on manufacture, 273 ff.;
+    in the retail trade, 286;
+    in the wholesale trade, 290 ff.;
+    in the mail order business, 295;
+    in connection with the salesman, 299 ff.
+
+  Order bill of lading, 285.
+
+  Ordering goods, letter for, 239.
+
+  Order, express money, 340-341;
+    postal money, 341.
+
+  Organization, corporate, 359;
+    of a railroad, 360.
+
+  Outline, for a debate, 141 ff.;
+    how to make an, 151 ff.
+
+
+  Paper money, kinds of, 332 ff.
+
+  Paragraph, the, 215 ff.;
+    in dialogue, 168 ff.;
+    proper length of, 215-216;
+    topic sentence in, 216 ff.;
+    "hammock," 216;
+    how developed, 222-223.
+
+  Paragraphs on, Sacramento City, 48;
+    exports in cattle, 76;
+    cost of living, 173;
+    the government's laundry, 173-174;
+    luck and labor, 174;
+    sawdust, 174-175;
+    a new kind of wood, 175;
+    hogs as mortgage lifters, 175;
+    cotton seed, 176;
+    making paper, 176-177;
+    how to advance, 177;
+    bubonic plague, 177;
+    politics of a city, 181;
+    cotton in the Soudan, 181;
+    the "yellow" invasion, 182;
+    saving, 182, 184, 193;
+    investors, 184, 185;
+    Chicago's milk supply, 186;
+    the dead letter sale, 190;
+    industries, controlled, 193;
+    the secret blotter, 197;
+    a mummy's doll, 198;
+    office efficiency, 217;
+    stenographic efficiency, 217;
+    business courtesy, 218;
+    the rural landscape of Norway, 218;
+    the _Spectator_, 218-219;
+    income, 225;
+    gas mantles, 280-281;
+    production of wool, 281;
+    casting metals, 281;
+    transportation, 305;
+    the Latin-American trade, 306;
+    the parcel post in Africa, 306;
+    the remedy for wrecks, 306-307;
+    colonization, 307;
+    farm reform, 329;
+    farming specials, 330;
+    selection of seed, 330-331;
+    the clearing house, 350-351;
+    washed money, 351-352;
+    an early monopoly, 365;
+    mining investments, 365-366.
+
+  Paragraphs, subjects for. See _Subjects_.
+
+  Parenthesis marks, use of, 196;
+    wrongly used to cancel expressions, 196.
+
+  Parenthetical expressions, punctuation of, 180 ff.
+
+  Participle, defined, 109;
+    tenses and voices of, 109;
+    the dangling, 205-206.
+
+  Participles, formation of, 21;
+    of verbs in _y_, 23.
+
+  Participial phrases, punctuation of, 176 ff.;
+    188 ff.
+
+  Parts of speech:
+    The noun and the pronoun, 49, 57 ff.;
+    the adjective and the adverb, 49, 75, ff.;
+    the verb, 49, 83 ff.;
+    the preposition and the conjunction, 49, 116 ff.;
+    the interjection, 49.
+
+  Parts, principal, of irregular verbs, 95 ff.
+
+  Par value, 355.
+
+  Passive voice, defined, 84;
+    conjugation of _follow_, in the, 105 ff.;
+    synopsis of _follow_ in the, 106.
+
+  Past tense, 88;
+    progressive form of, 89;
+    emphatic form of, 89;
+    perfect, 90.
+
+  Payment, letters requesting, 253 ff.
+
+  Perfect tenses, 89 ff.
+
+  Period, use of, 162.
+
+  Personal pronouns declined, 58.
+
+  Personality essential in a salesman, 298.
+
+  Persons of the pronouns, 58.
+
+  Phrase modifiers, 52 ff.
+
+  Phrases, prepositional, 52 ff.;
+    adverbial, 52-53;
+    adjective, 52-53;
+    classification of, 110;
+    punctuation of series of, 171 ff.;
+    initial participial, punctuation of, 176;
+    incorrectly used as a sentence, 45, 242.
+
+  Plurals, of nouns, 18 ff.;
+    of letters and figures, 20, 160;
+    of foreign nouns, 21.
+
+  Positive degree, 78, 79.
+
+  Possessive case, 64, 67;
+    rules for forming, 67;
+    separate possession, in the, 67;
+    with verbal nouns, 67 ff.;
+    _of_ phrase substituted for, 67;
+    use of the apostrophe in the, 159.
+
+  Possibility, use of the subjunctive mode to show, 113 ff.
+
+  Postal money order, 341.
+
+  Predicate, of the sentence, 41;
+    nominative, 65.
+
+  Preferred stock, 355.
+
+  Prefix, usually constituting a syllable, 16;
+    Anglo-Saxon, 29;
+    Latin, 31;
+    _ad_, _con_, and _in_, 32-33.
+
+  Present tense, 88;
+    progressive, 88;
+    emphatic, 88;
+    perfect, 89.
+
+  Preposition, defined, 49;
+    phrase introduced by, 52;
+    followed by the objective case, 66, 119;
+    and the conjunction, 116 ff.;
+    the wrong, 119;
+    necessary, 119.
+
+  Prepositional phrases, 52-53.
+
+  Prepositions, and adverbs confused, 52;
+    list of, 53;
+    used with certain verbs, 116-117;
+    incorrectly used, 118-119.
+
+  Pride, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Principal clauses, 42.
+
+  Principal parts of irregular verbs, 95 ff.
+
+  Progressive tenses, 88 ff.; 105.
+
+  Promissory note, 335.
+
+  Pronominal adjectives, 60.
+
+  Pronoun, defined, 49;
+    and the noun, 57 ff.;
+    incorrect use of _same_ as a pronoun, 72-73.
+
+  Pronouns, 58 ff.;
+    personal, declined, 58;
+    emphatic, 59;
+    reflexive, 59;
+    list of relative, 54;
+    declension of relative, 59;
+    compound relative, 59;
+    double relative, 59;
+    restrictive relative, 59 ff.;
+    interrogative declined, 60;
+    demonstrative, 60;
+    indefinite, 61;
+    adjective, 61;
+    possessive in form, not in use, 59 (note);
+    incorrectly used, 73 ff.;
+    joined by _or_, 86.
+
+  Pronunciation, 7 ff.;
+    slurring syllables in, 7;
+    of _c_ and _g_, 24.
+
+  Proper noun, defined, 57;
+    capitalization of, 57, 161.
+
+  Proposition for debate, 137.
+
+  Public utility corporations, 361 ff.
+
+  Punctuation, 158 ff.;
+    apostrophe, 159 ff.;
+    capitals, 160 ff.;
+    period, 162;
+    interrogation mark, 162;
+    exclamation mark, 162;
+    quotation marks, 163 ff.;
+    comma, 170 ff.;
+    semicolon, 192 ff.;
+    colon, 194 ff.;
+    dash, 195 ff.;
+    parenthesis marks, 196;
+    hyphen, 196 ff.;
+    of series, 170 ff.;
+    of compound sentences, 45, 173 ff.;
+    of initial clause or participial phrase, 175 ff.;
+    of explanatory expressions, 179 ff.;
+    after _as follows_, etc., 195;
+    after _namely_, etc., 195.
+
+
+  Quality, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Questions for discussion on, manufacture, 273-274;
+    the retail merchant, 286-287;
+    the wholesale merchant, 291-292;
+    the mail order merchant, 295;
+    advertising, 309-310;
+    real estate, 323;
+    the corporation, 363-364.
+
+  Quitclaim deed, 322.
+
+  Quotation marks, use of, 163 ff.
+
+  Quotations, use of comma in, 170 ff.
+
+
+  Railroad, the, 360;
+    sources of income of, 360;
+    organization of, 360;
+    departments of, 360 ff.
+
+  Railroad company, the, 284, 360.
+
+  _Raise_ and _rise_, 101.
+
+  Raw materials, 274.
+
+  Reading, subjects taken from, 147 ff.
+
+  _Real_ and _very_, 81.
+
+  Real estate and insurance, 321.
+
+  Real estate business, 321 ff.
+    Rent, 321;
+    lease, 321;
+    warranty deed, 322;
+    quitclaim deed, 322;
+    clear title, 322;
+    fee simple, 322;
+    mortgage, 322;
+    foreclosing a mortgage, 322;
+    agent and commission, 323;
+    letters in, 324 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion, 327.
+
+  Receipt for freight, 285.
+
+  Redemption of bonds, 358.
+
+  Reflexive pronouns, 59.
+
+  Reform, farm, 329.
+
+  Relative pronouns, list of, 54, 59;
+    declined, 59;
+    double, 59;
+    restrictive, 59 ff.;
+    compound, 59.
+
+  Relative value of different forms of advertising, 310.
+
+  Remedy for wrecks, 306-307.
+
+  Remittance, forms of, 338 ff.
+    Check, 339;
+    certified check, 339 ff.;
+    endorsement, methods of, 340;
+    express money order, 340;
+    postal money order, 341;
+    bank draft, 341 ff.;
+    time draft, 343 ff.;
+    sight draft, 344 ff.
+
+  Rent, 321.
+
+  Reproduction, oral, from magazines, 147 ff.;
+    from newspapers, 154 ff.
+
+  Requesting payment, letters, 253 ff.
+
+  Restricting the subject, 150.
+
+  Restrictive relative pronouns, 59 ff.
+
+  Retail merchant, the, 286 ff.
+
+  Richards' baby stocking fund, 337.
+
+  _Rise_ and _raise_, 101.
+
+  Roots, Greek, 30.
+
+  Rules.
+    For spelling:
+      regular plurals in _s_ and _es_, 18;
+      changing final _y_ to _i_, 19;
+      nouns in _o_, 19;
+      nouns in _f_ and _fe_, 19;
+      plural by change of vowel, 19;
+      by adding _en_, 19;
+      no change for the plural, 20;
+      two plurals, 20;
+      compound nouns, 20;
+      plurals of letters and figures, 20;
+      foreign plurals, 21;
+      doubling final consonant, 21-22;
+      retaining _y_ before _ing_, 23;
+      _ie_ or _ei_, 24;
+      soft _c_ and _g_, 24;
+      dropping final silent _e_, 25;
+      retaining final _e_, 25-26.
+    For punctuation:
+      the apostrophe, to show the possessive case of nouns, 159;
+      to show omission of letters, 160;
+      to show plurals of letters, figures, and words not
+            regularly nouns, 160;
+      capitals, 160 ff.;
+      the period, 162;
+      the interrogation mark, 162;
+      the exclamation mark, 162;
+      quotation marks, 163 ff.;
+      comma in direct quotations, 170;
+      comma in series, 171 ff.;
+      comma in compound sentence, 173 ff.;
+      comma after initial clause or participial phrase, 175 ff.;
+      comma to separate month from year, etc., 178;
+      comma to show omission of words, 178;
+      comma to set off appositive, 179 ff.;
+      comma to set off parenthetical expressions, 180 ff.;
+      comma to set off independent elements, 182 ff.;
+      comma to set off non-restrictive relative clause, 185 ff.;
+      comma to set off subordinate element at the end of the sentence,
+            188 ff.;
+      the semicolon, 192 ff.;
+      the colon, 194 ff.;
+      the dash, 195 ff.;
+      parenthesis marks, 196;
+      the hyphen, 196.
+
+
+  _S 1_, comma fault, 44.
+
+  _S 2_, use of phrase or clause as sentence, 45.
+
+  Sacramento City, paragraph on, 48.
+
+  _Salary_, 3.
+
+  Sales letter, the, 244 ff.
+
+  Salesman, the, 298 ff.;
+    letters to help the, 301-302.
+
+  Salutation, the, of business letters, 232, 236-237.
+
+  _Same_, not a pronoun, 72-73;
+    distinctly business blunder, 243.
+
+  Saving, paragraphs on, 182, 184, 193.
+
+  Savings banks, 334, 336; postal, 337.
+
+  Savings department of bank, 332.
+
+  _Saw_ and _seen_, 99-100.
+
+  Sawdust, paragraph on, 174.
+
+  Second object, 66.
+
+  Secretary's report, the, 115 (note).
+
+  _Sede_, _cede_, _ceed_, 34.
+
+  Selection of seed, 330-331.
+
+  Semicolon, uses of, 45, 174, 192 ff.
+
+  Sentence, the, and its elements, 41 ff.;
+    subject of, 41;
+    simple, 42;
+    complex, 42;
+    compound, 42;
+    compound, punctuation of, 45, 174;
+    predicate of, 41;
+    declarative, defined, 41;
+    interrogative, defined, 41;
+    imperative, defined, 41;
+    exclamatory, defined, 41;
+    simple, defined, 42;
+    compound, defined, 42;
+    complex, defined, 42;
+    errors, 44.
+
+  Separation, the keynote of punctuation, 159.
+
+  Series, punctuation of, 171 ff.
+
+  _Set_, and _sit_, 101.
+
+  _Shall_ and _will_, 89, 92.
+
+  Shareholders, 355.
+
+  Shares, of capital stock, 355.
+
+  Shift in construction, 211 ff.
+
+  Short sentences, combination of, 202 ff.
+
+  _Should_ and _would_, 93-94.
+
+  Sight draft, 344-345.
+
+  Signature, the, in business letters, 232, 237-238.
+
+  Silent consonant, words containing, 11.
+
+  Silent vowels, 11.
+
+  Silver certificates, 332.
+
+  Simple sentence, defined, 42.
+
+  _Since_, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  _sion_, _tion_, _cion_, 34.
+
+  _Sit_ and _set_, 101.
+
+  Slang, 129.
+
+  Slurring of syllables, 7.
+
+  Smooth connection, 127-128, 224;
+    methods of securing, 224.
+
+  Snappy style, in letter writing, 246.
+
+  _So--as_, in negative comparisons, 125.
+
+  _So_ habit, to avoid the, 111, 128.
+
+  Soudan, cotton in the, 181.
+
+  South Africa, parcel post in, 306.
+
+  Specials, railroad farming, 330.
+
+  _Spectator, The_, paragraph from Macaulay, 218-219.
+
+  Speech, parts of, 48 ff.
+
+  Speech, plan in making, 131 ff.;
+    outline for, 151 ff.
+
+  Spelling, rules, 18 ff.;
+    500 words for, 36 ff.
+
+  Split infinitive, 77, 209.
+
+  States, abbreviation of names of, 26-27.
+
+  Steamship company, the, 284.
+
+  Steel, trouble in introducing, 191.
+
+  Stenographic efficiency, 217.
+
+  Still-life advertisements, 314.
+
+  Stock, capital, common and preferred, 353, 355;
+    authorized capital, 355.
+
+  Stockholders, 355.
+
+  Stocks, of a corporation, 354 ff.
+
+  Straight bill of lading, 285.
+
+  Style, in letter writing, 244 ff.
+
+  Subject, as a whole, 148;
+    divisions of, 149 ff.;
+    making outline of, 151 ff.;
+    restricting the, 150, 153;
+    of the sentence, 41, 65;
+    simple, 55;
+    complete, 55;
+    of subordinate clause, 55;
+    compound, number of, 86;
+    incorrect omission of, in business letters, 242.
+
+  Subjective complement, 65.
+
+  Subjects, how to choose, 146 ff.;
+    for debates, 141, 144, 275, 290, 302;
+    for compositions on manufacture, 274, 275, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 299, 301, 303, 304;
+    on advertising, 317, 318;
+    suggested by personal experience, 147;
+    suggested by reading, 147, 154.
+
+  Subjunctive mode, defined, 112;
+    of _be_, 112;
+    used to denote possibility, 113.
+
+  Subordinate clauses, adjective, adverb, noun, 54;
+    subject of, 55.
+
+  Subordinate conjunctions, list of, 54.
+
+  Subordination, in the sentence, 201 ff.
+
+  Subscription, outline of letters to sell, 268.
+
+  Success, elements of, 135.
+
+  Successful men and women, 136.
+
+  Suffix, usually constituting a syllable, 16;
+    Anglo-Saxon, 29;
+    adjective, 30;
+    verb, 31;
+    noun, 31;
+   _able_ and _ible_, 33;
+   _ant_ and _ent_, 33.
+
+  Suggestions for debates, 139 ff., 144;
+    on manufacture, 275;
+    on distribution, 290, 302.
+
+  Suggestive names in advertisements, 313;
+    headlines, 313-314.
+
+  Superlative degree, of adjectives, 78;
+    of adverbs, 79.
+
+  Superlatives, to be avoided, 129.
+
+  Syllabication, 15.
+
+  Syllables, slurred, 7;
+    division of words into, 15 ff.
+
+  Synopsis of _write_, active voice, 91.
+
+
+  _Teach_ and _learn_, 101.
+
+  Technical words, 4.
+
+  Tense, defined, 88;
+    of participle, 109;
+    of infinitive, 110.
+
+  Tenses, distinguished, 88 ff.
+    (See _Present tense_, _Past tense_, _Perfect tenses_.)
+
+  _Than_ and _as_, case following, 121.
+
+  _That_, restrictive relative, 59 ff.
+
+  _That is_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _The following_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Themes, oral, 127 ff.
+    (See _Oral themes_.)
+
+  _There_, _their_, 126.
+
+  Thinking, business, 2.
+
+  _Thus_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Tilde, 9.
+
+  Time draft, 343-344.
+
+  _Tion_, _sion_, _cion_, 34.
+
+  _Tious_, troublesome ending, 33.
+
+  Title, clear, to property, 322.
+
+  Titles, 150;
+    of officials and of honor, 161;
+    of books and plays, 162.
+
+  _To_, _too_, _two_, distinguished, 125-126.
+
+  Tone, of the letter, 240.
+
+  Topic sentence, in the paragraph, 216 ff.
+
+  Topics for investigation and discussion, on manufacture, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 304;
+    on real estate, 327;
+    on banking, 349-350;
+    on the corporation, 365.
+
+  Trade, Latin-American, 306.
+
+  Traffic department of railroad, 359.
+
+  Transitive verb, followed by objective case, 66;
+    defined, 83.
+
+  Transportation, 283.
+
+  Troublesome verbs, 100 ff.;
+    _lie_ and _lay_, 100 ff.;
+    _sit_, _set_, 101;
+    _fly_, _flow_, _flee_, 101;
+    _rise_, _raise_, 101;
+    _teach_, _learn_, 101;
+    _may_, _can_, 102;
+    _might_, _could_, 102;
+    _accept_, _except_, 102;
+    _affect_, _effect_, 102 ff.;
+    _lose_, _loose_, 103.
+
+  Trust companies, 334, 337.
+
+  Trust department of a bank, 332.
+
+
+  Uncertain antecedents, pronouns with, 207 ff.
+
+  United States treasury notes, 333.
+
+  Unity, in the sentence, 199;
+    in the paragraph, 216.
+
+  Unless, a conjunction, 124.
+
+  Until, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  Usefulness, its appeal in advertising, 311.
+
+  Utility corporations, public, 36 ff.
+
+
+  Value, par of stock, 355 ff.;
+    market, 355 ff.
+
+  Vanity, its appeal in advertising, 311.
+
+  Variety of expression, 111.
+
+  Verb, the, 83 ff.;
+    defined, 49;
+    transitive, 66, 83;
+    intransitive, 83;
+    copulative, 83;
+    active voice of, 84;
+    passive voice of, 84;
+    number of, 85;
+    person of, 85;
+    singular with certain words, 85 ff.;
+    plural with certain subjects, 86;
+    tense of, 88 ff.;
+    _shall_ and _will_, 92;
+    _should_ and _would_, 93;
+    conjugation of _be_, 104 ff.;
+    _be_ used to make progressive tenses, 105;
+    _be_ used to make passive voice, 105 ff.;
+    the participle, 109;
+    the infinitive, 110;
+    mode, 112 ff.;
+    conjugation of _write_, active voice, 88 ff.;
+    _follow_, passive voice, 105 ff.;
+    synopsis of _write_, active voice, 91;
+    synopsis of _follow_, passive voice, 106.
+
+  Verbal noun, defined, 57;
+    possessive case with, 67 ff.
+
+  Verbs, incorrectly used, 114;
+    participles of verbs in _y_, 23;
+    taking two objects, 66;
+    taking indirect and direct objects, 66;
+    principal parts of irregular, 95 ff.;
+    troublesome, 100 ff.;
+    _lie_, _lay_, distinguished, 100;
+    _sit_ and _set_, distinguished, 101;
+    _fly_, _flow_, _flee_, distinguished, 101;
+    _rise_ and _raise_, distinguished, 101;
+    _teach_ and _learn_, distinguished, 101;
+    _may_ and _can_, distinguished, 102;
+    _might_ and _could_, distinguished, 102;
+    _accept_ and _except_, distinguished, 102;
+    _affect_ and _effect_, distinguished, 102;
+    _lose_ and _loose_, distinguished, 103;
+    _had ought_, incorrectly used, 103;
+    certain prepositions used with, 116 ff.
+
+  _Very_ and _real_, distinguished, 81
+
+  Voice, active and passive, defined, 84;
+    of the participle, 109;
+    of the infinitive, 110.
+
+  Vowels, pronunciation of, 9;
+    length of, in monosyllables ending in _e_, 9;
+    words containing silent, 11.
+
+
+  Warranty deed, 322.
+
+  Washed money, 351-352.
+
+  Washing machine, letters to sell, outline, 269.
+
+  Watered stock, 357.
+
+  Way-bill, railroad, 286.
+
+  _Were_, _where_, distinguished, 126.
+
+  _What_, double relative, 59.
+
+  _Who_, and _which_, used restrictively, 60.
+
+  _Who_ and _whom_, 70 ff.
+
+  _Whoever_ and _whomever_, 71.
+
+  Wholesale merchant, the, 291 ff.
+
+  _Why_, childish use of, 128.
+
+  _Will_ and _shall_, 89, 92 ff.
+
+  _Will you be so good as to_, 243.
+
+  Wish, subjunctive to express, 113.
+
+  _Without_, a preposition, 124;
+    incorrectly used as conjunction, 124.
+
+  Word analysis, 29 ff.
+
+  Words, interesting, 1 ff.;
+    obsolete, 3;
+    technical, 4;
+    similarly pronounced 14, 15;
+    frequently mispronounced, 13, 17;
+    containing _dg_, 25;
+    ending in silent _e_, retain or drop _e_, 25;
+    analysis of, 32;
+    easily confused, list of, 35 ff.;
+    500 for spelling, 36 ff.;
+    used as different parts of speech, 51;
+    omission of, punctuation to show, 178.
+
+  Wordiness, 130 ff, 200-201.
+
+  _Would_ and _should_, 93 ff.
+
+  _Would say_, to be avoided, 243.
+
+  _Write_, conjugation of, active voice, 88 ff.;
+    synopsis of, passive voice, 91.
+
+  Writing advertisements, exercises in, 315-316.
+
+  Written composition, 1, 127 ff.
+
+  Written expression, 1, 127 ff.
+
+
+  _Y_, nouns ending in, plural of, 19.
+
+  "Yellow" invasion, paragraph on the, 182.
+
+  _You_ attitude, the, in letter writing, 244.
+
+  _Yze_, _ize_, _ise_, 34.
+
+
+
+
+  *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+  
+  
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Text uses both "to-day" and "today."
+
+Obvious punctuation errors were corrected.
+
+Pages 116-117, entry for "confide" was originally placed after
+"correspond." It was relocated to be in the correct alphabetical order.
+
+Pages 171-172, the examples were placed out of order. The section
+beginning "reporter, business manager" to the end of the paragraph was
+originally located after a space following the Abraham Lincoln
+paragraph. The first part of the Abraham Lincoln paragraph originally
+ended with "nor a year it". The rest of that paragraph was originally
+located at the top of the next page. These paragraphs have been adjusted
+to read correctly. Copies of the original pages may be seen in the
+trascriber's notes for the HTML version of this text.
+
+Page 245, "foward" changed to "forward" (We shall forward)
+
+Page 337, "committe" changed to "committee" (A committee was appointed)
+
+Page 359, "natually" changed to "naturally" (will naturally lead us)
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH***
+
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diff --git a/38046-0.zip b/38046-0.zip
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@@ -0,0 +1,20915 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Business English, by Rose Buhlig
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Business English
+       A Practice Book
+
+
+Author: Rose Buhlig
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 18, 2011  [eBook #38046]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes, Emmy, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 38046-h.htm or 38046-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38046/38046-h/38046-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38046/38046-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+      Due to the constraints of a plain text file, not all letters
+      can be represented as originally printed. These letters are
+      represented as follows:
+
+         [=x] letter with a macron above
+         [x=] letter with a macron below
+         [.x] letter with a dot above
+         [x.] letter with dot below
+         [x:] letter with diaresis below
+         [)x] letter withe a breve above
+         [+x] letter with a tack above
+         [~x] letter with tilde above
+         [\x] letter with a slash through it
+
+
+
+
+
+BUSINESS ENGLISH
+
+A Practice Book
+
+by
+
+ROSE BUHLIG
+
+Tilden High School, Chicago
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers
+Boston    New York    Chicago
+
+Copyright, 1914,
+By D. C. Heath & Co.
+2FI
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+THE author of this book and the writer of this preface have never met.
+Their respective fields of labor are a thousand miles apart. Yet such is
+the force of ideas that many of their thoughts and sympathies are
+common.
+
+Business English! The very name is an anomaly. From a literary point of
+view there is no such thing. English is English whether it be used to
+express the creations of our imagination, our aesthetic appreciations,
+or our daily wants. There is no magical combination of words, phrases,
+and sentences that is peculiar and distinctive to business transactions.
+Business English as used in these pages means effective communication,
+both oral and written. The author's aim throughout has been to teach the
+art of using words in such a way as to make people think and act. To do
+this she has applied the principles of literary composition to the
+highly complex and ever increasing problems of our business life. She
+realizes that business is vital, and that the problems of commerce are
+not to be met and handled with dead forms and stereotyped expressions of
+legal blanks.
+
+To use our language effectively it is necessary to have an understanding
+of its elements. Thus the author has very wisely devoted much space to
+word-study and English grammar. This is a field commonly neglected in
+books on the subject. The people engaged in business are, on the whole,
+woefully weak in the grammar of our language. It is believed that the
+treatment herein will be a great aid in correcting this deficiency. If
+we have ideas, we must express them in words, and our words should be so
+chosen and arranged as not to offend, but to please and interest. This
+result can be secured by a systematic study of Part I.
+
+Part II deals with oral and written composition. Here the author has
+arranged her subjects in such a way as to give the whole a cumulative
+effect. The method throughout is inductive, and sufficient examples are
+always given to warrant the conclusions drawn. Most textbooks on
+Business English neglect the subject of oral English. This book regards
+the spoken word as important as the written word.
+
+If there be any one feature in this textbook more to be commended than
+another, it is the exposition in Part III. The situations arising in
+many different kinds of business are here analyzed. The author believes
+that the way to become a good business correspondent is, first, to learn
+what the situation demands and, second, to practice meeting the demands.
+We must know before we write. Given a knowledge of the subject, we must
+have much practice in expressing ourselves in such a way as to make our
+composition effective. The author meets this need by supplying many and
+varied exercises for practice. These exercises are live, practical, and
+up-to-date. The problems to be solved are real, not imaginary. Thus the
+power to be gained in meeting these situations and solving these
+problems will prove a real asset to those who contemplate a business
+career. It is confidently hoped that both teachers and pupils will find
+in this work material which will help them to prepare themselves to meet
+the many problems and demands of our growing commercial needs.
+
+                                   DANIEL B. DUNCAN
+
+    COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+          _January, 1914._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  PART I--WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR
+
+  CHAPTER                                      PAGE
+
+      I INTERESTING WORDS                        1
+     II PRONUNCIATION                            7
+    III SPELLING RULES                          18
+     IV WORD ANALYSIS                           29
+      V THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS           41
+     VI THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN                57
+    VII THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB            75
+   VIII THE VERB                                83
+     IX THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION    116
+
+
+  PART II--COMPOSITION: ORAL AND WRITTEN
+
+      X ORAL ENGLISH                           127
+     XI CHOOSING SUBJECTS                      146
+    XII PUNCTUATION                            158
+   XIII THE CLEAR SENTENCE                     199
+    XIV THE PARAGRAPH                          215
+     XV BUSINESS LETTERS                       229
+
+
+  PART III--COMPOSITION: BUSINESS PRACTICE
+
+    XVI MANUFACTURE                            270
+   XVII DISTRIBUTION                           282
+  XVIII ADVERTISING                            308
+    XIX REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE              321
+     XX BANKING                                332
+    XXI THE CORPORATION                        353
+
+  INDEX                                        369
+
+
+
+
+BUSINESS ENGLISH
+
+
+
+
+PART I--WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTERESTING WORDS
+
+
+BUSINESS English is the expression of our commercial life in English. It
+is not synonymous with letter writing. To be sure, business letters are
+important, but they form only a part of one of the two large divisions
+into which the subject naturally falls.
+
+First, there is _oral expression_, important because so many of our
+business transactions are conducted personally. Thousands of salesmen
+daily move from place to place over the entire country, earning their
+salaries by talking convincingly of the goods that they have to sell. A
+still greater number of clerks, salesmen, managers, and officials orally
+transact business in our shops, stores, offices, and banks. Complaints
+are adjusted; difficulties are disentangled; and affairs of magnitude
+are consummated in personal interviews, the matter under discussion
+often being thought too important to be entrusted to correspondence. In
+every business oral English is essential.
+
+Second, there is _written expression_. This takes account of the writing
+of advertisements, circulars, booklets, and prospectuses, as well as of
+letters. And in the preparation of these oral English is fundamental. It
+precedes and practically includes the written expression. For example,
+we say colloquially that a good advertisement "talks." We mean that the
+writer has so fully realized the buyer's point of view that the words of
+the advertisement seem to speak directly to the reader, arousing his
+interest or perhaps answering his objection. Oral English is
+fundamental, too, in the writing of letters, for most letters are
+dictated and not written. The correspondent dictates them to his
+stenographer or to a recording machine in the same tone, probably, that
+he would use if the customer were sitting before him.
+
+But in taking this point of view, we should not minimize the importance
+of written business English. In a way, it is more difficult to write
+well than it is to talk well. In talking we are not troubled with the
+problems of correct spelling, proper punctuation, and good paragraphing.
+We may even repeat somewhat, if only we are persuasive. But in writing
+we are confronted with the necessity of putting the best thoughts into
+the clearest, most concise language, at the same time obeying all the
+rules of spelling, punctuation, and grammar. The business man must be
+sure of these details in order to know that his letters and advertising
+matter are correct. The stenographer, especially, must be thoroughly
+familiar with them, so that she may correctly transcribe what has been
+dictated.
+
+Business English is much the same as any other English. It consists in
+expression by means of words, sentences, and paragraphs. Moreover, they
+are much the same kind of words, sentences, and paragraphs that appear
+in any book that is written in what is commonly called the literary
+style. In a business letter the words are largely those of every day
+use, and but few are technical. It is the manner in which the words are
+put together, the idea back of the sentence, that makes the only
+difference.
+
+We shall begin the study of business English with a study of words, for
+in all expression, whether oral or written, a knowledge of words, of
+their meaning and suggestive power, is fundamental. On the choice of
+words depends not only the correctness but also the effectiveness of
+expression--the courtesy of a letter, the appeal of an advertisement,
+the persuasiveness of a salesman's talk. A mastery of words cannot be
+gained at once. Every time one speaks, he must consider what words will
+best convey his idea. In this chapter only the barest beginning of such
+study can be made. The exercises show the value of the subject.
+
+The study of words is interesting because words themselves are
+interesting. Sometimes the interest consists in the story of the
+derivation. As an example, consider the word _italic_. Many words in
+this book are written in italic to draw attention to them. Literally the
+word means "relating to Italy or its people." It is now applied to a
+kind of type in which the letters slope toward the right. The type was
+called italic because it was dedicated to the states of Italy by the
+inventor, Manutius, about the year 1500. An unabridged dictionary will
+tell all about the word.
+
+The word _salary_ tells a curious story. It is derived from a Latin
+word, _salarium_, meaning "salt money." It was the name of the money
+that was given to the Roman soldiers for salt, which was a part of their
+pay. Finally, instead of signifying only the salt money, it came to mean
+the total pay.
+
+Practically all of this information a good dictionary gives. In other
+words, a dictionary is a story book containing not one, but hundreds of
+thousands of stories. Whenever possible it tells what language a word
+came from, how it got its different meanings, and how those meanings
+have changed in the course of time. For it is natural that words should
+change just as styles change, names of ancient things being lost and
+names for new things being made. As the objects themselves have gone out
+of use, their names have also gone. When a word has gone entirely out of
+use, it is marked _obsolete_ in the dictionary. On the other hand, new
+inventions must be named. Thus new words are constantly being added to
+the language and the dictionary because they are needed.
+
+There is a large class of words that we shall not have time to
+consider. They are called _technical_. Every profession, business, or
+trade has its distinctive words. The technical words that a printer
+would use are entirely different from those which a dentist, a
+bookkeeper, or a lawyer would use. You will learn the technical terms of
+your business most thoroughly after you enter it and see the use for
+such terms.
+
+None of the words, therefore, that you will be asked to search out in
+the dictionary are, strictly speaking, technical. It is evident that it
+will do you no good to search out the words in the dictionary, unless
+you learn them--unless you use them correctly in speaking and writing.
+There is pleasure in thus employing new material, as everybody knows.
+Use your eyes and ears. When you hear a new word, or read one, focus the
+mind upon it for a moment until you can retain a mental picture of its
+spelling and of its pronunciation. Then as soon as possible look it up
+in the dictionary to fix its spelling, pronunciation, and definition. Do
+this regularly, and you will have reason to be proud of your vocabulary.
+
+An excellent way to increase the number of words that you know is to
+read the right kind of books. The careful study of the words used in the
+speeches and addresses of noted men is good practice. The conditions
+that called forth the speech were probably important, and the speech
+itself interesting, or it would not be preserved. When a man has an
+interesting or important message to give, he usually gives it in clear,
+exact, simple language. Therefore the vocabulary that he uses is worth
+copying. As for stories, there is a kind that furnishes a wealth of
+material that modern authors are constantly using or referring to, and
+this is found in stories of the Bible, stories of Greek and Northern
+gods and goddesses, stories of the _Iliad_, the _Odyssey_, the _�neid_,
+stories of chivalry--all old stories. Every one should know them well,
+because they are the basis of many allusions in which a single word
+oftentimes suggests a whole story. The meaning of the word _herculean_,
+for instance, is missed if you do not know the story of Hercules and
+know that he was famous for his strength.
+
+
+=Exercise 1=
+
+_Atlas_ is an interesting word. Originally it was the name of a Greek
+god, who carried the world on his shoulders. Then it is supposed that in
+the sixteenth century the famous geographer Mercator prefixed his
+collection of maps with the picture of Atlas supporting the world. Thus
+a collection of maps in a volume came to be called an _atlas_. Consult
+an unabridged dictionary for the origin of each of the following:
+
+    rival       fortune     cereal      boycott
+    dollar      finance     china       derrick
+    bankrupt    milliner    java        mercury
+    cash        pullman     cashmere    colossal
+    mint        grocer      macadam     turbine
+
+
+=Exercise 2=
+
+The days of the week and the months of the year are interesting in their
+derivation. Monday, for example, represents the day sacred to the Moon
+as a deity. Explain the origin of each of the following:
+
+    Sunday       Saturday     May          October
+    Tuesday      January      June         November
+    Wednesday    February     July         December
+    Thursday     March        August
+    Friday       April        September
+
+
+=Exercise 3=
+
+Look up the derivation of the following:
+
+    cancel        bead          ambition      hospital
+    pecuniary     paper         influence     pavilion
+    cheat         book          virtue        mackintosh
+    speculation   bayonet       peevish       chapel
+    pha�ton       tawdry        disaster      omnibus
+
+
+=Exercise 4=
+
+Explain the origin of each of the following:
+
+    curfew        tulip         turquoise     good-bye
+    pompadour     aster         amethyst      dismal
+    hyacinth      dunce         tantalize     titanic
+    dandelion     humor         umbrella      volcano
+    dahlia        villain       sandwich      tangle
+    begonia       echo          lunatic       babble
+
+
+=Exercise 5=
+
+Name the image that each of the following suggests to you:
+
+    howl        sputter     rasping     munch
+    skim        prance      clatter     trickle
+    squeal      click       wheeze      shuffle
+    moan        thud        trudge      bulge
+    squeak      patter      chuckle     gobble
+    squawk      spatter     toddling    swish
+
+
+=Exercise 6=
+
+Bring to class a list of words which, because they are the names of
+modern inventions, have come into the language in modern time.
+
+
+=Exercise 7=
+
+How many words can you name which might be called the technical terms of
+school life, words which always carry with them a suggestion of the
+school room? Bring in a list of twenty such words.
+
+
+=Exercise 8=
+
+How many words can you name which are used only in the business world?
+Bring in a list of twenty such words.
+
+
+=Exercise 9=
+
+How many words can you name which apply particularly to money and the
+payment or non-payment of money? Bring in a list of twenty or more such
+words.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PRONUNCIATION
+
+
+WE are judged by our speech. If we clip syllables, run words together,
+or pronounce them incorrectly, we shall merit the criticism of being
+careless or even ignorant. Yet clear enunciation and correct
+pronunciation are sometimes difficult. We learn most words by hearing
+others say them, and, if we do not hear the true values given to the
+different syllables, we shall find it hard to distinguish the correct
+from the incorrect forms. Children whose parents speak a foreign
+language usually have to watch their speech with especial care; Germans,
+for example, find difficulty in saying _th_ and Irish people in saying
+_oi_ as in _oil_. The exercises in this chapter are given for the
+purpose of correcting such habits. The words in the exercises should be
+pronounced repeatedly, until the correct forms are instinctive.
+
+Train the ear to hear the difference between sounds, as in _just_ and in
+_jest_. Don't slide over the final consonant in such words as _going_
+and _reading_. Watch words containing _wh_. The dictionary tells us that
+_where_ was originally written _hwar_, the _h_ coming before the _w_;
+and we still pronounce it so, although we write the _w_ before the _h_.
+The word _whether_ is of the same kind. The dictionary tells us that it
+was first spelled _hweder_. Such words should be carefully noted and
+their pronunciation practiced.
+
+Then there is the habit of slurring syllables. We may understand what is
+meant by the expression "C'm' on" or "Waja say?", but most of us would
+prefer not to be included in the class of people who use either. Correct
+speech cannot be mastered without an effort.
+
+In the following exercises watch every vowel and every consonant so that
+you may give each one its full value.
+
+
+=Exercise 10--Diacritical Marks=
+
+Although an _a_ is always written _a_, it is not always given the same
+quality or length of sound. When we discover a new word, it is important
+that we know exactly the quality to give each of the vowels in it. For
+this purpose _diacritical marks_ have been invented. They are
+illustrated in the following list from Webster's _International
+Dictionary_.
+
+     [=a] as in [=a]te, f[=a]te, l[=a]b�or
+     [+a] "  "  sen�[+a]te, del�ic[+a]te, [+a]e�rial
+      �   "  "  c�re, sh�re, p�r�ent
+     [)a] "  "  [)a]m, [)a]dd, r[)a]n�dom
+      �   "  "  �rm, f�r, f�ther
+     [.a] "  "  [.a]sk, gr[.a]ss, p[.a]ss, d[.a]nce
+     [a=] "  "  fi�n[a=]l, in�f[a=]nt, guid�[=a]nce
+     [a:] "  "  [a:]ll, [a:]we, sw[a:]rm, t[a:]lk
+     [=e] "  "  [=e]ve, m[=e]te, ser[=e]ne�
+     [+e] "  "  [+e]vent�, d[+e]pend�, soci�[+e]ty
+     [)e] "  "  [)e]nd, m[)e]t, [)e]xcuse�, [)e]fface�
+     [~e] "  "  f[~e]rn, h[~e]r, [~e]r�mine, ev�[~e]r
+     _e_  "  "  re�c_e_nt, de�c_e_ncy, pru�d_e_nce
+     [=i] "  "  [=i]ce, t[=i]me, s[=i]ght, insp[=i]re�
+     [+i] "  "  [+i]dea�, tr[+i]bu�nal, b[+i]ol�ogy
+     [)i] "  "  [)i]ll, p[)i]n, p[)i]t�y, adm[)i]t�
+     [=o] "  "  [=o]ld, n[=o]te, [=o]�ver, pr[=o]pose�
+     [+o] "  "  [+o]bey�, t[+o]bac�co, sor�r[+o]w
+      �   "  "  �rb, l�rd, �r�der, abh�r�
+     [)o] "  "  [)o]dd, n[)o]t, t[)o]r�rid, [)o]ccur�
+     [=u] "  "  [=u]se, p[=u]re, d[=u]�ty, ass[=u]me�
+     [+u] "  "  [+u]nite�, ac�t[+u]ate, ed[+u]ca�tion
+     [u:] "  "  r[u:]de, r[u:]�mor, intr[u:]de�
+     [u.] "  "  f[u.]ll, p[u.]t, f[u.]lfill�
+     [)u] "  "  [)u]p, t[)u]b, st[)u]d�y
+      �   "  "  �rn, f�r, conc�r�
+     [)y] "  "  pit�[)y], in�jur[)y], divin�it[)y]
+    [=oo] "  "  f[=oo]l, f[=oo]d, m[=oo]n
+    [)oo] "  "  f[)oo]t, w[)oo]l, b[)oo]k
+      ou  "  "  out, thou, devour�
+      oi  "  "  oil, noi�sy, avoid�
+
+    [=a] is called long _a_, and is marked with the _macron_
+    [)a] is called short _a_, and is marked with the _breve_
+    � is called caret _a_, and is marked with the _caret_
+    � is called Italian _a_, and is marked with the _diaeresis_
+    [.a] is called short Italian _a_, and is marked with the _dot_
+    [~e] is called tilde _e_, and is marked with the _tilde_ or _wave_
+
+
+=Exercise 11--Vowels=
+
+Of the twenty-six letters in the alphabet, how many are vowels? Name
+them. What are the other letters called?
+
+Compare the _[)a]_ in _hat_ and the _[=a]_ in _hate_. Which has more
+nearly the sound of _a_ in the alphabet? This is called the natural or
+long sound of the vowel. The other is called the short sound.
+
+Drop the _e_ from _hate_. Explain the result.
+
+Name other monosyllables ending in _e_ and containing the long _a_
+sound.
+
+Explain the difference in pronunciation between _Pete_, _pet_, _ripe_,
+_rip_, _hope_, _hop_, _cube_, _cub_.
+
+Find other monosyllables ending in _e_ and containing a long vowel that
+becomes short if the _e_ is dropped.
+
+=Monosyllables ending in silent _e_ usually contain a long vowel sound,
+which becomes short when the final _e_ is dropped.=
+
+
+=Exercise 12=
+
+Pronounce carefully the following words containing the short Italian
+_a_:
+
+    adv[.a]nce      cl[.a]ss      l[.a]nce     pl[.a]ster
+    adv[.a]ntage    contr[.a]st   l[.a]st      p[.a]stor
+    [.a]fter        ench[.a]nt    m[.a]sk      pr[.a]nce
+    b[.a]sket       Fr[.a]nce     m[.a]ster    r[.a]fter
+    br[.a]nch       gl[.a]nce     m[.a]stiff   sh[.a]ft
+    br[.a]ss        gl[.a]ss      p[.a]ss      surp[.a]ss
+    ch[.a]ff        gr[.a]ss      p[.a]st      t[.a]sk
+
+
+=Exercise 13=
+
+Pronounce the following carefully, noting each _a_ that is marked:
+
+    h�lf            ide[.a]         c�lm            aud[=a]cious
+    p[.a]th         c[.a]n't        [=a]pricot      [.a]gh[.a]st
+    [.a]sk          c[)a]tch        m[.a]dr[)a]s    [)a]lgebr[.a]
+    f�ther          v[+a]c[=a]tion  [)a]gile        forb[)a]de
+    d[.a]nce        extr[.a]        c[.a]st         tr[.a]nce
+    l[.a]ss         c[.a]sket       gr[.a]nt        [=a]vi[=a]tion
+
+
+=Exercise 14=
+
+Pronounce the vowel _o_ in the following very carefully. Don't give the
+sound _feller_ or _fella_ when you mean _fellow_.
+
+    fellow      swallow     theory      borrow
+    potato      follow      position    heroism
+    window      original    factory     donkey
+    pillow      evaporate   ivory       memory
+    chocolate   mosquito    licorice    oriental
+
+
+=Exercise 15=
+
+The vowel _u_ needs particular attention. When it is long, it is sounded
+naturally, as it is in the alphabet. Do not say _redooce_ for _reduce_.
+
+    reduce         picture        educate        figure
+    produce        stupid         judicial       duty
+    conducive      student        calculate      accumulate
+    endure         genuine        curiosity      Tuesday
+    duration       induce         regular        particular
+    singular       avenue         tune           institute
+    nutriment      constitution   culinary       January
+    revenue        introduce      opportunity    manufacture
+
+
+=Exercise 16=
+
+Using diacritical marks indicate the value of the vowels in the
+following. Try marking them without first consulting a dictionary. After
+you have marked them, compare your markings with those used in a
+dictionary.
+
+    pupil         different     diacritical   gigantic
+    alphabet      several       radiating     gymnasium
+    natural       letter        Wyoming       system
+    result        eraser        typical       merchant
+
+
+=Exercise 17=
+
+Pronounce carefully, noting that in each word at least one consonant is
+silent, and sometimes a vowel as well. Draw an oblique line through the
+silent letter or letters in each.
+
+    through     chasten    sword       island
+    although    often       fasten      daughter
+    wrong       soften      calf        might
+    yacht       subtle      hasten      bouquet
+    gnaw        almond      naughty     honest
+    psalm       glisten     thumb       palm
+    whistle     salve       should      knack
+    salmon      chestnut    knowledge   castle
+    answer      folks       listen      thigh
+    knot        right       debt        honor
+
+
+=Exercise 18=
+
+Pronounce the following, paying particular attention to the vowels.
+Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each group.
+
+    accept     bile       least      prevision
+    except     boil       lest       provision
+
+    affect     carol      eleven     poor
+    effect     coral      leaven     pure
+
+    addition   descent    neither    radish
+    edition    dissent    nether     reddish
+
+    assay      emerge     pasture    sentry
+    essay      immerge    pastor     century
+
+    baron      Francis    pillar     sit
+    barren     Frances    pillow     set
+
+    been       jest       point      wrench
+    bean       just       pint       rinse
+               gist
+
+
+=Exercise 19=
+
+Enunciate the consonant sounds carefully in the following. Distinguish
+between the meanings of the words in each group.
+
+    acts         close        treaties     rows
+    ax           clothes      treatise     rouse
+
+    advice       crossed      princes      rues
+    advise       across       princess     ruse
+
+    alms         formerly     prince       either
+    elms         formally     prints       ether
+
+    bodice       grays        price        running
+    bodies       grace        prize        ruin
+
+    cease        lose         recent       walking
+    seize        loose        resent       walk in
+
+    chance       plaintive    sects        weather
+    chants       plaintiff    sex          whether
+
+    does         pair         news         worst
+    dose         payer        noose        worsted (yarn)
+    doze
+
+
+=Exercise 20=
+
+Pronounce the following, making sure that each syllable is correct.
+Guard against slurring the words in the last column.
+
+    been       such       barrel     Did you?
+    gone       put        faucet     Don't you?
+    to         with       suburb     Go on.
+    for        tiny       hearth     Our education
+    aunt       and        nothing    You are
+    far        poem       office     You're not
+    our        catch      peril      We're coming
+    kept       toward     forbade    They're coming
+    says       donkey     spirit     What did you say?
+    rid        again      semi       Where are you going?
+    since      against    scared     Where have you been?
+    sleek      honest     saucy      I want to go.
+    creek      savage     turnip     I'm going to go.
+    where      swept      roof       To-morrow morning
+    boil       velvet     proof      Next month
+    hoist      direct     hydrant    Last Saturday
+
+
+=Exercise 21=
+
+Enunciate carefully:
+
+    salary        gentleman     supple        gymnasium
+    because       library       subtle        perspiration
+    ideal         wrestle       italic        clapboards
+    suite         vessel        insect        cupboard
+    thirty        friendship    orchid        archangel
+    tomato        judgment      hovel         candelabra
+    grimy         cowardice     several       extraordinary
+    patron        miserable     pumpkin       civilization
+    omelet        guarantee     accurate      horseshoe
+    hundred       gelatine      guardian      laboratory
+    coupon        glycerine     delinquent    tenacious
+    awkward       paraffine     secretary     measure
+    hurrah        portrait      audacious     February
+    pigeon        mercantile    conquer       cellar
+    history       juvenile      conquest      perfect
+    diamond       thousand      congress      grandmother
+    asylum        overalls      licorice      generally
+
+
+=Exercise 22=
+
+Be especially careful of the sounds _th_ and _wh_. Add no syllable to a
+word and omit none. Consult a dictionary for any word below about which
+you are not certain:
+
+    when          length        diphthong     generally
+    where         strength      diphtheria    forget
+    while         height        anesthetic    recognize
+    wharf         width         betrothal     hungry
+    which         depth         theory        geography
+    wheel         there         theme         instead
+    wheeze        them          arithmetic    isolated
+    why           eleventh      bathe         writing
+    whiff         twelfth       lathe         kettle
+    whence        thought       believe       language
+    whet          throat        bronchitis    leisure
+    what          wreaths       government    volume
+    whale         paths         courteous     column
+    wheat         months        different     always
+    wheedle       mouths        engine        once
+    whelp         myths         English       twice
+    whimper       breadths      surprise      arctic
+    whip          moths         deaf          Italian
+    whit          bath          children      picture
+    whither       earth         cruel         often
+
+
+=Exercise 23--Homonyms=
+
+A homonym is a word having the same sound as another but differing from
+it in meaning. Use each of the following in a sentence to show its
+meaning.
+
+    aloud         draft         fowl          principal
+    allowed       draught       foul          principle
+
+    ascent        faint         gate          peal
+    assent        feint         gait          peel
+
+    aught         canvas        great         quire
+    ought         canvass       grate         choir
+
+    bad           cereal        hew           seen
+    bade          serial        hue           scene
+
+    bale          cession       kernel        soul
+    bail          session       colonel       sole
+
+    berry         cite          leased        strait
+    bury          site          least         straight
+
+    boy           coarse        lesser        stair
+    buoy          course        lessor        stare
+
+    by            compliment    mite          sweet
+    buy           complement    might         suite
+
+    council       feign         miner         there
+    counsel       fain          minor         their
+
+    current       flour         need          wood
+    currant       flower        knead         would
+
+
+=Exercise 24=
+
+Do the same with the following:
+
+    aisle         clause        kill          sail
+    isle          claws         kiln          sale
+    awl           climb         key           ring
+    all           clime         quay          wring
+
+    base          draught       lie           serge
+    bass          draft         lye           surge
+
+    blew          dew           medal         sole
+    blue          due           meddle        soul
+
+    bough         done          peer          shone
+    bow           dun           pier          shown
+
+    bread         dual          pore          steel
+    bred          duel          pour          steal
+
+    bear          flue          profit        stationary
+    bare          flew          prophet       stationery
+
+    bridal        freeze        quarts        wade
+    bridle        frieze        quartz        weighed
+
+    capital       guilt         rest          wave
+    capitol       gilt          wrest         waive
+
+    ceiling       heard         root          wrap
+    sealing       herd          route         rap
+
+
+=Exercise 25--Syllabication=
+
+What is a syllable?
+
+Choose a word and notice that every vowel sound in it makes a syllable.
+Therefore, you never have two vowels in one syllable unless the two are
+pronounced as one sound.
+
+In pronouncing notice carefully to which syllable a consonant belongs;
+as in _dif-fer-ent_, _beau-ti-fy_, _dai-sy_.
+
+Divide the following words into syllables. If you cannot decide with
+which syllable a consonant belongs, consult a dictionary.
+
+    paper      grocer     rotate     mystery
+    tomato     erect      repeat     regular
+    vinegar    polish     general    arithmetic
+
+If a syllable, especially an accented syllable, ends in a vowel, what is
+usually the length of the vowel?
+
+If the syllable ends in a consonant, what is usually the length of the
+vowel of the syllable?
+
+When a consonant is doubled, the division is usually made between the
+two letters; as,
+
+    blot-ter            skip-ping           remit-tance
+    neces-sary          throt-tle           span-ning
+
+As a rule, a prefix constitutes one syllable; as,
+
+    pro-long    pre-fer    con-stant   de-fect     ad-mit
+    re-ceive    se-lect    dis-trust   e-merge     im-merse
+
+As a rule, a suffix constitutes one syllable; as,
+
+    labor-er          soft-ly           beauti-fy         selec-tion
+    mole-cule         revolution-ist    percent-age       fanat-ic
+
+When two or more letters together give one sound, they must not be
+divided; as,
+
+    math-ematics     ex-change        paragraph-ing    abolish-ing
+    bow-ing          toil-ing         nation-al        gra-cious
+
+Can a word of one syllable be divided?
+
+Do not divide a syllable of one letter from the rest of the word. The
+division _ever-y_ is wrong.
+
+
+=Exercise 26=
+
+Divide the following words into syllables, using the suggestions given
+in the preceding exercise:
+
+    accountant        dissatisfaction   manufacturer      reference
+    advertisement     economy           material          repeatedly
+    anecdote          employment        mechanical        salesman
+    annually          energetic         neighborhood      security
+    application       environment       occupation        separate
+    automobile        especially        opportunity       signature
+    beginning         establishment     organized         specification
+    collection        expenditure       permanent         stenography
+    comparison        factory           preparation       suburban
+    competent         furniture         president         superintend
+    confirmation      illustration      quotation         systematic
+    consequence       impression        realize           telephone
+    correspondence    improvement       receptacle        treasurer
+    counterfeit       judgment          recognition       unanimous
+    customer          machinist         recommend         unusual
+
+
+=Exercise 27--Accent=
+
+What is accent?
+
+Divide into syllables, indicate the accent, and pronounce the following:
+
+    expand        volume        defect        interesting
+    mischievous   usually       incomparable  theatre
+    exquisite     tedious       hospitable    generally
+    column        inquiry       impious
+
+In the following words the meaning changes with the accent. Use each
+word in a sentence to show its meaning.
+
+    ob�ject    subject    contrast   desert
+    ob-ject�   insult     protest    extract
+    tor�ment   essay      conflict   compact
+    tor-ment�  transfer   compound   survey
+    minute (notice the vowel change)
+    refuse (notice the consonant change)
+
+Bring to class a list of words that you have heard mispronounced in your
+classes. Be sure that you can pronounce them correctly.
+
+
+=Exercise 28=
+
+The following words are frequently mispronounced. Divide them into
+syllables, mark the accent, and pronounce carefully.
+
+    municipal     exquisite     champion      accurately
+    interesting   gondola       inquiry       Genoa
+    influence     finance       inexplicable  alias
+    illustrate    deficit       despicable    expert
+    inventory     pretense      mischievous   impious
+    alternate     dirigible     perfume       detail
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SPELLING RULES
+
+
+=Exercise 29--Plurals of Nouns=
+
+    (_a_) dress, dresses      (_b_) chair, chairs
+    splash, splashes               wave, waves
+    business, businesses           book, books
+    church, churches               pencil, pencils
+    fox, foxes                     paper, papers
+
+The usual way of forming the plural of English nouns is illustrated by
+the words in column (_b_) above. What is it?
+
+If you add _s_ to the singular form _dress_, could you distinguish the
+pronunciation of the plural from the pronunciation of the singular? Does
+this suggest a reason for adding _es_ to form the plural?
+
+How many syllables must you use to pronounce the plural of fox? Does
+this suggest another reason for adding _es_ to form the plural?
+
+Every word that ends in a sibilant or hissing sound (_ch_, _s_, _sh_,
+_ss_, _x_, _z_) forms its plural like _fox_. Give several illustrations.
+
+=Rule 1.--Nouns regularly form the plural by adding _s_, but those
+ending in a sibilant must add_es_.=
+
+
+=Exercise 30=
+
+    (_a_) lady, ladies       (_b_) valley, valleys
+    ally, allies                  alley, alleys
+    soliloquy, soliloquies        journey, journeys
+
+Name five words belonging to group (_a_) above. Does a vowel or a
+consonant precede the _y_ in each case?
+
+Name other words belonging to the group (_b_) above. Does a vowel or a
+consonant precede the _y_ in each case?
+
+=Rule 2.--Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant (and nouns ending
+in _quy_) form the plural by changing _y_ to _i_ and adding _es_.=
+
+
+=Exercise 31--Words ending in o=
+
+(_a_)
+
+    potato, potatoes      hero, heroes          mulatto, mulattoes
+    tomato, tomatoes      buffalo, buffaloes    cargo, cargoes
+    negro, negroes        echo, echoes          motto, mottoes
+
+(_b_)
+
+    solo, solos           piano, pianos         memento, mementos
+    halo, halos           lasso, lassos         canto, cantos
+    zero, zeros           quarto, quartos       soprano, sopranos
+                          stilletto, stillettos
+
+The older English words ending in _o_ form the plural by adding _es_, as
+in potatoes; those more recently taken into the language form the plural
+by adding _s_, as in quartos.
+
+
+=Exercise 32--Nouns in f and fe=
+
+    leaf, leaves      calf, calves      wife, wives
+    loaf, loaves      sheaf, sheaves    shelf, shelves
+    half, halves      wolf, wolves      elf, elves
+    life, lives       beef, beeves      wharf, wharves (or wharfs)
+    self, selves      knife, knives
+
+With the exception of the words given above, nouns ending in an _f_
+sound form the plural in the regular way; as,
+
+    hoof, hoofs     scarf, scarfs   beliefs, beliefs
+    chief, chiefs   reef, reefs     grief, griefs
+
+
+=Exercise 33--Irregular Plurals=
+
+Some nouns form their plural by a change of vowel; as,
+
+    man     men         foot    feet
+    woman   women       tooth   teeth
+    goose   geese       mouse   mice
+
+A few words retain the old time plural _en_; as,
+
+              brother  brethren
+    child   children        ox      oxen
+
+A few words are the same in both singular and plural; as,
+
+    sheep, trout, deer
+
+Some nouns have two plurals which differ in meaning; as,
+
+    _Singular_                _Plural_
+
+    brother                brothers  brethren
+    penny                  pennies   pence
+    pea                    peas      pease
+    die                    dies      dice
+
+Consult a dictionary for the difference in meaning between the two
+plurals of each word.
+
+
+=Exercise 34--Compound Nouns=
+
+    _Singular_                _Plural_
+
+    brother-in-law         brothers-in-law
+    father-in-law          fathers-in-law
+    court-martial          courts-martial
+    commander-in-chief     commanders-in-chief
+    man-of-war             men-of-war
+    major general          major generals
+    goose quill            goose quills
+    bill of fare           bills of fare
+    spoonful               spoonfuls
+    cupful                 cupfuls
+
+=Rule 3.--Compound nouns usually add the sign of the plural to the
+fundamental part of the word.=
+
+      NOTE.--In _spoonfuls_ the thought is of one spoon many
+      times full.
+
+=Plural of Letters and Figures=
+
+=Rule 4.--Letters and figures form the plural by adding the apostrophe
+(') and _s_; as,=
+
+    a  a's        3  3's
+    w  w's        5  5's
+
+The same rule applies to the plural of words which ordinarily have no
+plural; as,
+
+    Don't use so many _and's_ and _if's_.
+
+
+=Exercise 35--Foreign Plurals=
+
+Some nouns derived from foreign languages retain their original plural.
+The following are in common use.
+
+Consult a dictionary for their pronunciation and definition.
+
+    _Singular_     _Plural_     _Singular_     _Plural_
+
+    crisis        crises        stratum       strata
+    thesis        theses        radius        radii
+    hypothesis    hypotheses    parenthesis   parentheses
+    focus         foci          synopsis      synopses
+    datum         data          basis         bases
+    alumnus       alumni        automaton     automata
+    alumna        alumnae       analysis      analyses
+    oasis         oases         nucleus       nuclei
+    axis          axes          phenomenon    phenomena
+    genus         genera
+
+Some words admit of two plurals, one the foreign plural, and one the
+regular English plural; as,
+
+    _Singular_         _Plural_
+
+    beau          beaux       beaus
+    formula       formulae    formulas
+    vertex        vertices    vertexes
+    index         indices     indexes
+    cherub        cherubim    cherubs
+    seraph        seraphim    seraphs
+    bandit        banditti    bandits
+
+Consult a dictionary to see whether there is any difference of meaning
+between the two plurals of these words.
+
+
+=Exercise 36--The Formation of Participles=
+
+    _Rap_, _rapping_, _rapped_      _Reap_, _reaping_, _reaped_
+
+_Rap_ is a monosyllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a
+single vowel. The final consonant in such words is doubled before a
+suffix beginning with a vowel is added.
+
+In _reap_ the final consonant is not doubled because it is preceded by
+two vowels.
+
+Make the participles of the following verbs:
+
+    chat    lap     suit    step
+    cheat   leap    sit     steep
+    rot     train   sop     trot
+    root    trim    soap    treat
+
+    _Trap_, _trapping_, _trapped_    _Track_, _tracking_, _tracked_
+
+Why is the final consonant in _trap_ doubled before _ing_ or _ed_ is
+added?
+
+The final consonant in _track_ is not doubled because _track_ ends with
+two consonants.
+
+    _Pin_, _pinning_        _Pine_, _pining_
+
+_Pine_ drops the silent _e_ because the tendency in English is to drop
+endings that are not needed for pronunciation before adding a suffix
+beginning with a vowel.
+
+Form the participles of the following verbs:
+
+    knot    rob     flop
+    note    robe    elope
+    deal    swim    quit    (_u_ is not here a vowel)
+    clap    strike  crawl   (_w_ is here a vowel)
+    stop    oil     wax     (_x_ equals _cks_)
+    peal    rush    bow     (_w_ is here a vowel)
+
+
+=Exercise 37=
+
+Exercise 36 applies also to words of more than one syllable accented on
+the last syllable, if they retain the accent on the same syllable after
+the suffix is added. Thus we have
+
+=Rule 5.--Monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, ending
+in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final
+consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.=
+
+Form participles from the following words that are accented on the last
+syllable:
+
+    prefer        intervene     escape        expel
+    refer         reveal        acquire       contain
+    occur         repeal        secure        forbid
+    permit        pursue        conceal       incur
+    interfere     erase         arrange       forget
+    retain        control       acquit        repel
+
+Form participles from the following words not accented on the last
+syllable:
+
+    benefit   travel    marvel    shelter
+    revel     answer    exhibit   render
+    quarrel   profit    shovel    limit
+
+Words in which the accent changes do not double the final consonant
+before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel; as,
+
+    confer    conference         infer     inference
+    refer     reference          prefer    preferable
+
+Explain why the final consonant is _not_ doubled in each of the
+following words:
+
+    neglect     neglecting      lean        leaning
+    prefer      preference      select      selecting
+    creep       creeping        receipt     receipting
+    wonder      wondering       answer      answering
+
+
+=Exercise 38=
+
+=Rule 6.--In forming the present participle of verbs ending in _y_,
+retain the _y_ before adding _ing_; as,=
+
+    study     studying          obey      obeying
+    carry     carrying          convey    conveying
+    pity      pitying
+
+In forming the perfect participle, if in the present tense the _y_ is
+preceded by a consonant, the _y_ is changed to _i_ and _ed_ added; if
+the _y_ is preceded by a vowel, the _y_ is retained; as,
+
+    study     studied   carry     carried   pity      pitied
+
+but
+
+    obey      obeyed    convey    conveyed
+
+Compare with Rule 2.
+
+
+=Exercise 39=
+
+=Rule 7.--In words containing a long _e_ sound spelled either _ie_ or
+_ei_, _ei_ follows _c_; _ie_ follows one of the other consonants; as,=
+
+    _ei_                    _ie_
+    deceive          relieve     siege
+    perceive         believe     yield
+    receive          belief      grief
+    conceive         chief       field
+    conceit          priest      piece
+    receipt          niece       wield
+                     reprieve    lien
+
+_Exceptions._--Either, neither, weird, seize, leisure.
+
+The following couplet may help in remembering when to write _ie_ and
+when to write _ei_:
+
+    When the letter _c_ you spy,
+    Put the _e_ before the _i_.
+
+
+=Exercise 40--The Pronunciation of _c_ and _g_=
+
+The letter _c_ is pronounced sometimes like _s_ and sometimes like _k_.
+
+What sound does _c_ have before _a_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _e_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _i_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _o_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _u_? Illustrate.
+
+Before _y_? Illustrate.
+
+If _c_ is pronounced like _k_, it is called hard and is marked _[\c]_.
+
+If _c_ is pronounced like _s_, it is called soft and is marked _�_. The
+mark used to indicate the soft _c_ is called the _cedilla_.
+
+Make a statement telling when _c_ is hard and when it is soft.
+
+What sound does _g_ have before each of the vowels, as in _game_,
+_gone_, _gymnasium_, _Gunther_, _gentle_?
+
+=Rule 8.--_C_ and _g_ usually are soft before _e_, _i_, and _y_.=
+
+
+=Exercise 41=
+
+Words ending in silent _e_, according to Rule 5, drop the _e_ before a
+suffix beginning with a vowel. Exceptions occur when the _e_ is needed
+to preserve the soft sound of _c_ and _g_. Tell why _e_ is dropped in
+_encouraging_ and retained in _courageous_.
+
+In words containing _dg_, as in _judge_ and _lodge_, the _d_ gives the
+_g_ the soft sound, and there is no need to retain the _e_ before adding
+a suffix, as in _judgment_.
+
+=Rule 9.--Words ending in silent _e_ usually drop the _e_ before adding
+a suffix beginning with a vowel, unless the _e_ is needed to preserve
+the pronunciation; as after soft _c_ and _g_, when the suffix begins
+with _a_ or _o_.=
+
+Tell why the _e_ is retained before the suffix in the following:
+
+    noticeable     damageable     pronounceable  outrageous
+    courageous     peaceable      serviceable    manageable
+
+Tell why the _e_ is dropped before adding the suffix in the following:
+
+    managing           curable            erasure
+    besieging          admirable          realization
+    receiving          obliging           precedence
+                       perseverance
+
+The fact that _c_ has two different sounds causes a slight peculiarity
+in words ending in _c_. Final _c_ has the sound of _k_. When words end
+in _c_, the letter _k_ is usually added before a suffix beginning with
+either _e_, _i_, or _y_, to show that _c_ is not pronounced like _s_;
+as,
+
+    frolic         frolicked      frolicking
+
+If the _k_ is not added, the _c_ changes its pronunciation; as,
+
+    public                          publicity
+
+
+=Exercise 42=
+
+It follows by inference from Rule 9 that words ending in silent _e_
+retain the _e_ before a suffix beginning with a consonant; as,
+
+    move        movement          disgrace    disgraceful
+    defense     defenseless       fate        fateful
+    arrange     arrangement       fierce      fiercely
+    noise       noiseless         manage      management
+    severe      severely          rude        rudeness
+
+_Exceptions._--Truly, duly, wisdom, awful, wholly.
+
+Bring to class a list of twenty words that retain the final _e_ before a
+suffix beginning with a consonant.
+
+
+=Exercise 43=
+
+What spelling rule does each of the following words illustrate?
+
+    advantageous     gigantic         boxes            admittance
+    mimicking        piece            libraries        occurrence
+    arrangement      receipt          keys             acquittal
+
+
+=Exercise 44--Abbreviations=
+
+Write abbreviations for the months of the year. Are there any that
+should not be abbreviated?
+
+The abbreviations for the states and territories are:
+
+    Alabama, Ala.                   Maryland, Md.
+    Arizona, Ariz.                  Massachusetts, Mass.
+    Arkansas, Ark.                  Michigan, Mich.
+    California, Cal.                Minnesota, Minn.
+    Colorado, Colo.                 Mississippi, Miss.
+    Connecticut, Conn.              Missouri, Mo.
+    Delaware, Del.                  Montana, Mont.
+    District of Columbia, D.C.      Nebraska, Nebr.
+    Florida, Fla.                   Nevada, Nev.
+    Georgia, Ga.                    New Hampshire, N.H.
+    Idaho, Idaho                    New Mexico, N. Mex.
+    Illinois, Ill.                  New York, N.Y.
+    Indiana, Ind.                   New Jersey, N.J.
+    Iowa, Ia.                       North Carolina, N.C.
+    Kansas, Kans.                   North Dakota, N. Dak.
+    Kentucky, Ky.                   Ohio, O.
+    Louisiana, La.                  Oklahoma, Okla.
+    Maine, Me.                      Oregon, Ore.
+    Pennsylvania, Pa.               Utah, Utah
+    Philippine Islands, P.I.        Vermont, Vt.
+    Porto Rico, P.R.                Virginia, Va.
+    South Carolina, S.C.            Washington, Wash.
+    South Dakota, S.D.              Wisconsin, Wis.
+    Tennessee, Tenn.                West Virginia, W. Va.
+    Texas, Tex.                     Wyoming, Wyo.
+
+      NOTE.--It is much better to write the full name rather
+      than the abbreviation whenever the former would make
+      the address clearer, especially as regards similar
+      abbreviations, such as Cal. and Colo.
+
+
+=Exercise 45--Abbreviations of Commercial Terms=
+
+    A 1, first class              doz., dozen
+    @, at                         E. & O.E., errors and omissions excepted
+    acct., account                ea., each
+    adv., advertisement           e.g., for example
+    agt., agent                   etc., and so forth
+    a.m., forenoon                exch., exchange
+    amt., amount                  ft., foot
+    app., appendix                f.o.b., free on board
+    atty., attorney               gal., gallon
+    av., average                  i.e., that is
+    avoir., avoirdupois           imp., imported
+    bal., balance                 in., inches
+    bbl., barrel                  inst., this month (instant)
+    B/L, bill of lading           Jr., junior
+    bldg., building               kg., keg
+    B/S, bill of sale             lb., pound
+    bu., bushel                   ltd., limited
+    C.B., cash book               mdse., merchandise
+    C., hundred                   mem., memorandum
+    coll., collection, collector  mo., month
+    Co., company                  M.S. (MSS)., manuscript
+    C.O.D., cash on delivery      mtg., mortgage
+    cr., creditor                 N.B., take notice
+    cwt., hundredweight           no., number
+    D., five hundred              O.K., all right
+    dept., department             per, by
+    disc., discount               p.m., afternoon
+    do., ditto                    %, per cent
+    dr., debtor, debit            St., street
+    pkg., package                 str., steamer
+    pp., pages                    ult., last month
+    pr., pair                     U.S.M., United States Mail
+    pc., piece                    viz., namely
+    pk., peck                     vol., volume
+    prox., next month             W/B, way bill
+    pt., pint                     wt., weight
+    Sr., senior
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WORD ANALYSIS
+
+
+To learn English words thoroughly we must spend some thought on the way
+in which they are made up, on the language from which they have been
+derived, and on the changes in meaning made by adding prefixes and
+suffixes. Three important influences in building the English have been
+the Anglo-Saxon, the Greek, and the Latin languages. The simplest words
+in the language are Anglo-Saxon. The following exercises illustrate how
+words have been multiplied by Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes.
+
+
+=Exercise 46=
+
+Name as many words as you can that make use of each of the following
+prefixes. Give only such as are recognizable English words without the
+prefix.
+
+    _a_--aboard               _mis_--misjudge
+    _be_--becalm              _un_--unknown
+    _fore_--foretell          _up_--uproot
+
+Give the meaning of each of the prefixes used above.
+
+What part of speech does each prefix make?
+
+
+=Exercise 47=
+
+Using the following Teutonic suffixes, form English words. Be careful
+that the root taken alone is an English word.
+
+    _dom_--kingdom           _ness_--goodness
+    _hood_--manhood          _ship_--friendship
+
+What does each suffix mean?
+
+What part of speech does it make?
+
+
+=Exercise 48=
+
+As above, form words using the following suffixes:
+
+    _en_--darken       _ful_--fearful
+    _en_--golden       _ly_--smoothly
+    _ish_--sweetish    _like_--childlike
+    _less_--fearless   _some_--lonesome
+
+Define each suffix.
+
+What part of speech does it make?
+
+
+=Exercise 49--Greek Roots=
+
+Below is given a list of common Greek roots with the English meaning of
+each. Form words using one or more of the roots for each word, and
+define the words you make. For instance, give the meaning of
+_telephone_, _telegraph_, and _monarch_.
+
+    _Greek_ _English_           _Greek_ _English_
+
+    _phon_--hear                _chron_--time
+    _tele_--far                 _cycl_--circle
+    _graph_--write              _geo_--earth
+    _scop_--see                 _polit_--government
+    _micro_--small              _cra_--rule
+    _mono_--one                 _demo_--people
+    _arch_--chief               _hydro_--water
+    _metr_--measure             _poly_--many
+    _baro_--pressure, weight    _pluto_--riches
+
+How many names of modern inventions have you made?
+
+
+=Exercise 50=
+
+What words belonging to your vocabulary end in the following suffixes?
+Choose only such as have an English word for the root.
+
+Adjective Suffixes
+
+     1. _able_, _ible_--able to be, fit to be
+        _Readable_, fit to be read.
+
+     2. _al_, _eal_, _ial_--relating to, having to do with
+
+     3. _ant_, _ent_--being, inclined to
+
+     4. _ate_--having the quality of, inclined to
+
+     5. _ic_--like, relating to
+
+     6. _ive_--relating to, of the nature of, belonging to
+
+     7. _ory_, _ary_--relating to
+
+     8. _ous_--full of, abounding in
+
+Verb Suffixes
+
+    1. _ate_--to make
+
+    2. _fy_, _ify_--to make
+
+    3. _ise_, _ize_--to make
+
+Noun Suffixes
+
+     1. _age_--condition, act, collection of
+
+     2. _ance_, _ancy_, _ence_, _ency_--state of being
+
+     3. _ary_, _ory_--one who, place where, that which
+
+     4. _ant_, _ent_--one who
+
+     5. _ist_, _ite_--one who
+
+     6. _ion_, _sion_, _tion_--act of, state of being
+
+     7. _ity_, _ty_--quality of being
+
+     8. _ment_--that which, act or state of being
+
+     9. _or_, _er_, _ar_--one who
+
+    10. _try_--state of
+
+    11. _tude_, _itude_--condition of being
+
+    12. _ure_--condition of being, that which
+
+
+=Exercise 51=
+
+The following is a list of the more commonly used Latin prefixes:
+
+     1. _a_, _ab_--away from                16. _intro_--toward the inside
+     2. _ad_--toward                       17. _mono_--one
+     3. _ante_--before                     18. _non_--not
+     4. _anti_--against                    19. _ob_--in the way of, against
+     5. _bi_--two, twice                   20. _per_--through
+     6. _circum_--around                   21. _pre_--before
+     7. _con_--together with, against      22. _post_--after
+     8. _contra_--against                  23. _pro_--before
+     9. _de_--from, apart from, down from  24. _re_--again, back
+    10. _dis_--apart, not                  25. _semi_--half, partly
+    11. _dia_--through                     26. _se_--away from
+    12. _ex_--out of                       27. _sub_--under, below
+    13. _in_, _en_--into              28. _super_--above, more than
+        _en_--to cause to be               29. _trans_--across
+    14. _in_, _un_--not               30. _uni_--one
+    15. _inter_--between
+
+
+=Exercise 52=
+
+Analyze the following words, telling prefix, root, suffix, part of
+speech, and meaning:
+
+    business        package         truthfulness    unsuccessful
+    useless         anteroom        workmanlike     agreement
+    prefix          monotone        nervousness     uniformity
+    beautify        breakage        disrespectful   misguidance
+    semicircle      pleasant        perfection      crystallize
+    kingship        sameness        progressive     precaution
+    incase          subway          undeniable      imaginary
+    enrich          disown          displeasure     supernatural
+    pianist         readmit         endurance       melodious
+    bicycle         adjuster        reaction        interlineal
+
+
+=Exercise 53=
+
+When the prefixes _ad_, _con_, and _in_ are used to form English words,
+the final consonant of each is often changed to the initial consonant of
+the root to which it is joined.
+
+_Ad_ assumes the forms _ab_, _ac_, _af_, _ag_, _al_, _an_, _ap_, _ar_,
+_as_, _at_, assimilating the _d_ with the first letter of the word to
+which it is prefixed; as,
+
+    ab-breviate     al-literation   ar-rest
+    ac-cept         al-lot          as-sign
+    ac-cumulate     an-nex          as-sist
+    af-fect         an-nounce       at-tract
+    af-flict        ap-position     at-tribute
+    ag-gregate      ap-prove        at-tune
+
+_Con_ assumes the forms _col_, _cor_, _com_, by assimilation; it takes
+the form _com_ before _p_; and it drops the _n_ before a vowel; as,
+
+    col-lateral     com-mercial     com-pose
+    col-lect        cor-relate      co-operate
+    com-mission     cor-respond     co-ordinate
+
+_In_ assumes the forms _il_, _im_, _ir_, by assimilation and takes the
+form of _im_ before _p_.
+
+    il-lusion    im-migrate   ir-ruption   im-port
+
+
+=Exercise 54--Peculiar Adjective Endings=
+
+The suffixes _able_ and _ible_ are sometimes troublesome because it is
+difficult to know which ending to write. As a rule, if the new word was
+made from another English word, the ending is _able_, as _blamable_. The
+words ending in _ible_ are derived from the Latin, and, as a rule, the
+ending cannot easily be separated from the root and still leave the
+latter an English word. Examples are:
+
+    divisible     intelligible  digestible    audible
+    visible       permissible   flexible      incredible
+    possible      terrible      horrible      indelible
+
+The suffixes _ant_ and _ent_ must also be carefully noted. No rule can
+be given for using one rather than the other. Whenever in doubt, consult
+a dictionary. Note the following:
+
+      _ant_            _ent_
+    important        independent
+    pleasant         convalescent
+    triumphant       competent
+    luxuriant        convenient
+    stagnant         confident
+
+The endings _eous_ and _ious_, where _e_ and _i_ are often confused, are
+illustrated in the following:
+
+     _eous_            _ious_
+    hideous           delirious
+    miscellaneous     impious
+    courteous         studious
+
+The endings _cious_ and _tious_ are shown in the following:
+
+     _cious_             _tious_
+    conscious           fictitious
+    precious            superstitious
+    delicious           cautious
+    gracious            ambitious
+    suspicious          nutritious
+
+The endings _gious_ and _geous_ are illustrated in the following:
+
+     _gious_             _geous_
+    religious          courageous
+
+
+=Exercise 55--Peculiar Noun and Verb Endings=
+
+Nouns in _ance_ and _ence_:
+
+      _ance_            _ence_
+    acceptance        intelligence
+    appearance        reference
+    annoyance         patience
+    acquaintance      negligence
+    remittance        diligence
+    ignorance         residence
+
+Nouns in _sion_, _cion_, and _tion_:
+
+     _sion_        _cion_         _tion_
+    exclusion     coercion      acquisition
+    aversion      suspicion     precaution
+
+Verbs in _ise_, _yze_, and _ize_:
+
+    _ise_          _yze_         _ize_
+    advise        analyze       baptize
+    supervise     paralyze      recognize
+
+Verbs in _ceed_, _sede_, and _cede_:
+
+    _ceed_         _sede_        _cede_
+    exceed        supersede     concede
+    proceed                     intercede
+    succeed                     precede
+
+
+=Exercise 56=
+
+What other words can you form from the following? Explain what prefixes
+or suffixes you use in each case and what part of speech you form.
+
+    success      consider     real         change
+    please       doubt        publish      attend
+    occur        apply        regular      satisfy
+    emphasize    industry     operate      assess
+    second       busy         practice     resist
+    expense      distribute   organ        define
+    depend       locate       work         sense
+    attract      install      desire       preside
+    effect       vital        count        sign
+
+
+=Exercise 57=
+
+There are many words the meanings of which are easily confused. The
+spelling and the definitions of such must be mastered. Analysis in this
+exercise and in the one following does not require separation into
+prefix, root, and suffix, but it necessitates a careful study of the
+words, first, to note the difference in spelling; second, to consult a
+dictionary, if necessary, for the difference in meaning.
+
+Define each word clearly.
+
+Use each in a sentence to illustrate its meaning.
+
+    accept--except             common--mutual
+    add--annex                 complementary--complimentary
+    advice--advise             continual--continuous
+    affect--effect             contraction--abbreviation
+    after--afterward           contradiction--denial
+    ascend--assent             currant--current
+    assure--promise            defective--deficient
+    attain--obtain             deprecate--depreciate
+    benefit--advantage         effective--efficient
+    brief--concise             eligible--illegible
+    center--middle             eminent--prominent
+    claim--maintain            expect--hope
+    combine--combination       intelligent--intelligible
+
+
+=Exercise 58=
+
+As above, define each word carefully and use it in a sentence to
+illustrate its meaning.
+
+    healthful--healthy         proficient--efficient
+    inventory--invoice         proscribe--prescribe
+    invite--invitation         purpose--propose
+    last--latest               quiet--quite
+    later--latter              recommend--recommendation
+    liable--likely--apt        refer--allude
+    loose--lose                repair--fix
+    need--want                 requirement--requisite--requisition
+    perspective--prospective   respectfully--respectively
+    positive--definite         scarcely--hardly
+    practicable--practical     stationary--stationery
+    precede--proceed           therefore--accordingly
+    principal--principle
+
+
+=500 SPELLING WORDS=
+
+Lesson 1
+
+    business        losing          surprising      height
+    receive         loosely         Saturday        depth
+    believe         across          Wednesday       eighth
+    wholly          whether         excellent       daily
+    obliged         describe        exercise        earnest
+
+Lesson 2
+
+    attached        decision        probable        seize
+    attacked        buying          usable          siege
+    gentlemen       studying        salable         friend
+    although        relying         desirable       Messrs.
+    thoroughly      occasion        honorable       nickel
+
+Lesson 3
+
+    disappoint      knew            acquittal       stopped
+    disappear       design          occurrence      referred
+    disapprove      forty           compelling      planned
+    disagree        fourth          beginning       swimming
+    anxious         purpose         permitted       submitted
+
+Lesson 4
+
+    all right       persuade        Norwegian       variety
+    already         pursued         possession      prairie
+    tongue          prepared        accumulate      neighbor
+    separate        repaired        dissatisfy      soldier
+    crystal         necessary       dissolve        shoulder
+
+Lesson 5
+
+    their           awkward         opportunity     scheme
+    advise          mucilage        development     schedule
+    advice          familiar        statistics      accurately
+    laboratory      peculiar        accidental      efficient
+    until           similar         competent       Spaniard
+
+Lesson 6
+
+    policy          patient         merchandise     conscious
+    rough           ancient         mercantile      precious
+    disease         partial         scarcity        suspicion
+    balance         facial          indebted        physician
+    decease         ambitious       estimate        caution
+
+Lesson 7
+
+    ascend          noticeable      vengeance       emergency
+    assent          serviceable     address         compliance
+    minute          manageable      salary          reference
+    conceal         exchangeable    currency        apparel
+    immense         advantageous    withhold        typical
+
+Lesson 8
+
+    edition         especially      appreciate      imitate
+    addition        pamphlet        essential       initial
+    identify        illustrate      eligible        official
+    illegal         February        legible         curtain
+    nuisance        punctual        illegible       adjacent
+
+Lesson 9
+
+    later           crystallize     lieutenant      lenient
+    latter          neutralize      anthracite      naphtha
+    weighed         conceit         bituminous      liquid
+    destroy         catarrh         rheumatism      gauge
+    indelible       colonel         influential     sieve
+
+Lesson 10
+
+    duly            interfered      analyze         attorneys
+    durable         transferred     analysis        specialty
+    mutual          reconcile       paralyze        sympathy
+    bargain         accidental      banana          campaign
+    misspell        irregular       molasses        mattress
+
+Lesson 11
+
+    ached           designate       vicinity        recognize
+    social          available       guardian        technical
+    forfeit         adequately      celebrate       hygiene
+    opposite        subordinate     porcelain       angel
+    parallel        sufficient      poultice        angle
+
+Lesson 12
+
+    society         associate       rumored         remittance
+    sirloin         definitely      courtesy        remuneration
+    laborer         spherical       obstinacy       restaurant
+    visitor         commercial      financial       government
+    souvenir        permissible     sapphire        acquaintance
+
+Lesson 13
+
+    quite           appropriate     convenient      knowledge
+    least           distinguish     exaggerate      principal, _a_
+    written         mysterious      confidential    stationary, _a_
+    among           appearance      endeavoring     judgment
+    psalm           conference      immediately     implement
+
+Lesson 14
+
+    assure          greatly         embarrassment   auxiliary
+    expect          grateful        organization    conciliate
+    prompt          deserve         advertisement   principle, _n_
+    eliminate       bureau          assessment      stationery, _n_
+    illuminate      deficient       accommodate     parenthesis
+
+Lesson 15
+
+    coupon          indispensable   measure         proprietor
+    length          innumerable     condemn         transient
+    vehicle         investigate     security        persistent
+    customer        incandescent    liniment        signature
+    costumer        effervescent    mosquito        mischievous
+
+Lesson 16
+
+    canal           company's       repetition      sulphur
+    channel         real estate     abbreviated     benefited
+    liquid          equivalent      unabridged      unanimous
+    recent          assignment      assurance       itemize
+    trough          extravagant     pneumatic       calcimine
+
+Lesson 17
+
+    precede         freight         authority       leisure
+    proceed         achieve         mortgage        neuralgia
+    procession      between         specimen        dyspepsia
+    precision       imagine         solicitor       substantial
+    extinguish      autumn          co�perates      passenger
+
+Lesson 18
+
+    merely          mechanical      preliminary     omitted
+    cashier         permanent       miscellaneous   omission
+    urgent          prominent       subscription    committee
+    hesitate        precaution      incredible      commission
+    anchored        interval        anticipation    precisely
+
+Lesson 19
+
+    specify         preparation     athletics       deceit
+    equity          coincidence     excursion       receipt
+    accrue          irresolute      suggestion      obstacle
+    concrete        vaccination     courageous      promissory
+    summary         glycerine       concession      compulsory
+
+Lesson 20
+
+    deficit         sceptical       anniversary     rhythm
+    mansion         conscience      presumption     rhubarb
+    mention         interruption    guaranteed      fatigue
+    reckoned        approximately   prejudice       synopsis
+    license         avoirdupois     privilege       emphatic
+
+Lesson 21
+
+    scholar         Elkhart         industrious     collision
+    scissors        Memphis         hideous         delusion
+    career          Niagara         artificial      oxygen
+    sincere         Raleigh         cantaloupe      martyr
+    chiffonier      Oregon          unscrupulous    apology
+
+Lesson 22
+
+    receipt         Cincinnati      sovereign       chemical
+    welfare         Des Moines      committee       frontier
+    feigned         Decatur         ingredients     fulfilled
+    chord           Dubuque         counterfeit     facsimile
+    scythe          Alleghany       responsible     identical
+
+Lesson 23
+
+    exceed          Paducah         foreign         Cheyenne
+    succeed         Eau Claire      solemnity       metallic
+    secede          Peoria          assassinate     nauseated
+    immigrant       Savannah        pneumonia       invariably
+    emigrant        Manila          diphtheria      injurious
+
+Lesson 24
+
+    adoption        Minneapolis     fraudulent      mahogany
+    scientific      Indianapolis    negligence      corduroy
+    guidance        Syracuse        diligence       Schenectady
+    syllable        Milwaukee       ridiculous      duplicate
+    Fort Wayne      Valparaiso      comparative     re�nforce
+
+Lesson 25
+
+    Duluth          Massachusetts   preferable      periodical
+    Missouri        Connecticut     preferred       insertion
+    Wisconsin       enthusiastic    publicity       excursion
+    luxurious       acknowledgment  prevailing      plateau
+    twelfth         professional    damageable      tragedy
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS
+
+
+In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they are used singly. We
+studied their pronunciation and the way in which they were formed to
+express a definite meaning. In this chapter we shall begin a review of
+grammar, a study of words not according to their pronunciation or their
+definition, but according to their use as they are arranged with other
+words to express complete ideas. The simplest group into which words are
+thus arranged is the sentence, consisting of two important parts, the
+subject and the predicate. The subject is the part about which something
+is told, and the predicate is the part that tells about the subject; as,
+
+    _Subject_      _Predicate_
+    The sun       shines brightly
+
+There are several different kinds of sentences, named according to the
+meaning which they express. They are as follows:
+
+    The _declarative_ sentence states a fact.
+    The _interrogative_ sentence asks a question.
+    The _imperative_ sentence commands or entreats.
+    The _exclamatory_ sentence expresses deep feeling.
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+    _Declarative_: John closed the door.
+    _Interrogative_: Did John close the door?
+    _Imperative_: Close the door.
+    _Exclamatory_: What a noise the door made!
+
+Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure or form. If
+a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it is a _simple_ sentence.
+If it is made up of two independent parts, it is a _compound_ sentence.
+If it has one independent part and one or more dependent parts, each of
+which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is
+_complex_. The independent part of the sentence is called a _principal
+clause_, and the dependent part is called a _subordinate clause_. A
+_phrase_ is also a dependent part of a sentence, but it differs from a
+subordinate clause in that it contains no subject or predicate. Both
+phrases and subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns,
+adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions:
+
+A _simple_ sentence contains one principal clause.
+
+A _compound_ sentence contains two or more principal clauses.
+
+A _complex_ sentence contains one principal clause and one or more
+subordinate clauses.
+
+A _phrase_ is a group of related words used as a part of speech. (See
+Exercises 68 and 69.)
+
+A _clause_ is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. A
+subordinate clause is used as a part of speech. It usually has an
+introductory word to distinguish it from a principal clause. (See
+Exercise 71.)
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+     _Simple sentence_: To-day most of the world's big
+     questions are business questions.
+
+     _Complex sentence_: The view _that_ business is only
+     humdrum routine and sordid money-making needs revising,
+     _since_ most of the world's big questions are business
+     questions.
+
+     _Compound sentence_: Many people still belittle
+     business, calling it humdrum routine and sordid
+     money-making, _but_ this view needs revising.
+
+    _Phrase_:             (_a_) _of_ the world's big questions.
+                          (_b_) _calling_ it humdrum routine and sordid
+                                money-making.
+
+    _Subordinate clause_: (_a_) _that_ business is only humdrum routine
+                                and sordid money-making.
+                          (_b_) _since_ most of the world's big questions
+                                are business questions.
+
+
+=Exercise 59=
+
+Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences: _a._ Declarative,
+_b._ Interrogative, _c._ Imperative, _d._ Exclamatory.
+
+Examine each of the sentences below and tell
+
+_a._ Whether it is simple, complex, or compound.
+
+_b._ Its subject and its predicate.
+
+_c._ Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any).
+
+      1. Your subscription expires with this issue.
+
+      2. This special offer will continue until the tenth of
+      November.
+
+      3. The last shipment of castings that you made to us
+      is decidedly unsatisfactory.
+
+      4. Your imitation typewritten letters have greatly
+      assisted us in the sale of our property, and we thank
+      you for calling our attention to them.
+
+      5. The advertised poster was sent to you to-day in a
+      special tube.
+
+      6. Without doubt you will be interested in the booklet
+      which we enclose.
+
+      7. The machine which is standing there has just been
+      repaired.
+
+      8. The wheel that holds the type may be changed in an
+      instant by the operator.
+
+      9. Whenever he wishes, the operator may write in
+      different sizes of type on the same sheet of paper.
+
+      10. Many of our styles have been copied exactly from
+      the best designs that have recently been displayed in
+      the Parisian exhibits.
+
+      11. Why are the department stores acquiring motor
+      wagons?
+
+      12. One reason is the economy of the motor wagon.
+
+      13. Economy does not entirely explain the keenness
+      which department stores are displaying in acquiring
+      motor wagons.
+
+      14. In such establishments the quick delivery of
+      merchandise is a necessity.
+
+      15. The best means of transportation must be employed,
+      or a loss of trade will follow.
+
+      16. Any one can cite examples that prove that faults
+      in delivery cause a loss of trade.
+
+      17. Machine service develops fewer errors than horse
+      service (develops).
+
+      18. The area which department stores serve is being
+      greatly increased from year to year, and not even the
+      establishment of the parcel post has avoided the
+      necessity for sending package merchandise too far
+      distant for conveyance by horses.
+
+      19. Electric machines usually make the house-to-house
+      package deliveries, and gasoline trucks, besides
+      hauling furniture, transfer large loads from the store
+      or warehouse to the distributing stations.
+
+      20. In one store each transfer truck is loaded twice
+      daily with fifty trunks containing parcels.
+
+=Exercise 60--Sentence Errors=
+
+=S. 1.= THE BABY BLUNDER.--In writing, one of the most elementary forms
+of correctness is shown in the proper division into sentences. The
+ability instinctively to end a sentence at the right place is called the
+"sentence sense." Students who do not possess it or who have not learned
+the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and phrases
+frequently make the mistake of setting off too much or too little for
+one sentence. For example, they run two sentences together as one; as,
+
+_Wrong_: Motor wagons are economical, department stores of all large
+cities are acquiring them.
+
+The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the sentence
+error--one of the worst possible mistakes in writing. It is sometimes
+called the _comma fault_ or the _baby blunder_. For brevity we shall
+call it _S 1_ (sentence error number one). _Motor wagons are economical_
+is a principal clause. _Department stores of all large cities are
+acquiring them_ is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not
+stand in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct,
+divide into two sentences; as,
+
+_Right_: Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of all large
+cities are acquiring them.
+
+Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is closely connected.
+In that case they may be put into the same sentence, provided they are
+properly connected or separated. Use a comma _plus_ a co�rdinate
+conjunction (as _and_, _or_, _but_) to connect them, or a semicolon (;)
+to separate them.
+
+Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs _so_, _then_,
+_therefore_, _thus_, _also_, _still_, _otherwise_, _however_, _hence_,
+_consequently_, _moreover_, _nevertheless_. When they are used to join
+the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is not sufficient
+punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon or a comma and a co�rdinate
+conjunction must be used.
+
+_Wrong_: He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to lose his
+trade.
+
+_Right_: He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to lose his
+trade.
+
+_Right_: He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry to lose his
+trade.
+
+=S. 2.=--The first form of the sentence error (_S 1_) is made by using
+too much for one sentence. The second form (_S 2_) is made by using too
+little. It consists in writing a subordinate clause or a phrase as a
+sentence; as,
+
+1. _Wrong_: I told her I would attend to the matter at my earliest
+convenience. _Probably on my way from work in the evening._
+
+2. _Wrong_: His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. _Which he decided
+to do._
+
+
+=Exercise 61=
+
+Each sentence should express one complete thought. Some of the following
+are really two sentences (_S 1_), and some are only parts of sentences
+(_S 2_). Correct each, naming the mistake.
+
+      1. You will find the booklet interesting it is also
+      instructive.
+
+      2. Up to last January he was a salesman for Colgate &
+      Co. since then he has opened a business of his own.
+
+      3. I didn't know you had come, when did you arrive?
+
+      4. Did any one take the newspaper, I left it here only
+      a moment ago.
+
+      5. I shall take my vacation in September have you had
+      yours?
+
+      6. I must go now good-bye I'll see you on Saturday.
+
+      7. The opening sentence held the man's attention, he
+      read it again and again.
+
+      8. I'll have to run to catch the train, otherwise I
+      shall be late for work.
+
+      9. The advertisement is attractive, still it has not
+      paid well.
+
+      10. We wished to reduce office drudgery therefore we
+      installed adding and addressing machines.
+
+      11. These problems all require a knowledge of square
+      root for example, take the fourth.
+
+      12. Do you expect to come home for Christmas or shall
+      you stay in New York I don't remember now which you
+      said.
+
+      13. First I read a statement that recommended the
+      bonds then I read an article that condemned them
+      without question the result was that I didn't know
+      what to do.
+
+      14. One-half of the statements are here, the others
+      are in the safe.
+
+      15. If your name is not correct on this envelope,
+      please notify us we wish to insure your receiving our
+      bulletin regularly.
+
+      16. The supply of fruit was greater than the demand,
+      that is why fruit was cheap.
+
+      17. Flies are dangerous. Especially in a sick room
+      from which they carry germs to others.
+
+      18. In the country the trees were loaded with fruit,
+      their branches had to be propped so that they would
+      not break.
+
+      19. When he was twenty-three years of age, Richard T.
+      Crane, the late millionaire head of the immense Crane
+      Manufacturing Company, came to Chicago, he started a
+      brass foundry, which grew into the present giant
+      establishment.
+
+      20. We spent last summer in the Bitter Root Valley we
+      camped within view of Willoughby Falls.
+
+      21. I want to congratulate you on your appointment I
+      heard of it only yesterday.
+
+      22. It surely was not I whom you saw I wonder who it
+      could have been.
+
+      23. Not one of us has a salary of three thousand
+      dollars so we do not worry over the income tax.
+
+      24. Please send me the booklet you offered in the
+      Business Magazine, I'd also like particulars of your
+      advertised discount sale of typewriters.
+
+      25. Sooner or later shingles are sure to warp and
+      curl, thus they pull out the nails and allow the rain
+      to beat in, furthermore, shaded shingles soon rot and
+      allow the water to soak through.
+
+      26. This sealing and stamping machine is endorsed by
+      business men in all our large cities nevertheless it
+      is not expensive.
+
+      27. If you wish to prove the excellence of our paper,
+      just tear off a corner of this sheet then tear off a
+      corner of your present letterhead with a magnifying
+      glass examine both torn edges.
+
+      28. The superior paper will show long, linen fibers
+      the poorer, on the other hand, will have short, woody
+      fibers.
+
+      29. When a German army is on the march, it stops every
+      twenty minutes for a rest. Experiments having shown
+      that a soldier can cover more ground when he is given
+      this period of relaxation.
+
+      30. Two thousand convicts will be released according
+      to a plan worked out by the governor; five hundred
+      will be given their freedom at once, and, if the plan
+      is a success one thousand five hundred others will be
+      released. One-half their wages of fifty cents a day to
+      go to their families and one-half to the penitentiary
+      fund. If they leave the state or commit any crime
+      while they are on parole, to serve the balance of
+      their term and an extension of time. They will be put
+      to work on roads and bridges the counties need several
+      thousand such laborers but cannot pay union prices.
+
+
+=Exercise 62=
+
+Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      There is no safer way to invest money than in a good
+      first mortgage on city real estate by a good mortgage
+      we mean one that is properly drawn and with such
+      security as absolutely insures the holder against loss
+      we have made a specialty of first mortgage loans, and
+      we offer investors the benefit of our wide experience
+      in such matters we investigate properties frequently
+      and keep investors informed on their investment we
+      look after all details and collections without extra
+      charge you will find it to your interest to consult
+      us.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+2
+
+      Stick to your legitimate business do not go out into
+      outside operations few men have brains enough for more
+      than one business to dabble in stocks, to put a few
+      thousand dollars into a mine, a few more into a
+      manufactory, and a few more into an invention is
+      enough to ruin any man be content with fair returns do
+      not become greedy do not think that men are happy in
+      proportion as they are rich and therefore do not aim
+      too high be content with moderate wealth make friends
+      a time will come when all the money in the world will
+      not be worth to you as much as one staunch friend.
+
+3
+
+      Sacramento City is a great commercial center its
+      wholesale and jobbing business extends hundreds of
+      miles to the north, south, west, and east it is fast
+      becoming a substantial manufacturing center large six
+      and eight story buildings are rapidly taking the place
+      of the old two story structures a new city hall has
+      just been completed which cost $150,000 and a new
+      court house $1,000,000 the city has recently issued
+      bonds amounting to $800,000 for new schools scarcely a
+      week passes without recording some new enterprise all
+      the main highways are macadamized so that automobile
+      travel is possible every day of the year and the
+      farmer can haul his produce to market at a minimum
+      cost market conditions are good and any class of
+      produce finds ready sale at remunerative
+      prices.--(From an advertisement.)
+
+Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing exercise:
+
+    1. According to meaning.
+    2. According to form.
+
+
+=Exercise 63--Parts of Speech=
+
+There are eight different kinds of words called parts of speech, which
+are used to make sentences. They are as follows:
+
+    _Noun_: The _horse_ is brown.
+    _Pronoun_: _He_ is the best horse of all.
+    _Verb_: He _galloped_ to town.
+    _Adjective_: The _brown_ horse is my favorite.
+    _Adverb_: He runs _swiftly_.
+    _Preposition_: We shall ride _to_ town.
+    _Conjunction_: The night is clear _and_ cold.
+    _Interjection_: _Oh!_ My horse stumbled.
+
+Thus a _noun_ names something. A word that stands for a noun is a
+_pronoun_. Sometimes a different part of speech is used like a noun, and
+for the time being it becomes a noun. The _verb_ is a very important
+part of speech, since without it there can be no sentence. The verb
+makes an assertion, asks a question, or gives a command. _Adjectives_
+are words that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go with
+or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. _Prepositions_ and
+_conjunctions_ connect. Prepositions join their objects to other words
+in the sentence; conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. An
+_interjection_, such as the exclamation _oh_, is used without having
+grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. A preposition
+always takes an object, the preposition and its object making a
+_phrase_. Grouping this information, we have:
+
+                  {_Nouns_ are names of persons and things.
+                  {_Pronouns_ are substitutes for nouns.
+                  {_Verbs_ make assertions, ask questions, or give
+                  {    commands.
+                  {_Adjectives_ modify nouns and pronouns.
+  PARTS OF SPEECH {_Adverbs_ modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
+                  {  They usually answer the questions _how?_ _when?_
+                  {    _where?_ _why?_ _to what degree?_
+                  {_Prepositions_ join object nouns or pronouns to other
+                  {    words in the sentence.
+                  {_Conjunctions_ join words, phrases, and clauses.
+                  {_Interjections_ are independent words used as
+                  {    exclamations.
+
+
+A word is not always the same part of speech. We may say, "Did you
+_starch_ the clothes?" in which case _starch_ is a verb. A grocer may
+say, "The _starch_ in these packages is always clean." In this sentence
+_starch_ is a noun. The part of speech depends entirely on the way the
+word is used.
+
+In the following, name the part of speech of each word in italic. Judge
+by the way the word is used in the sentence.
+
+      1. The desks have _green_ pads.
+
+      2. _Green_ is a restful color.
+
+      3. In the valley is a _mill_, which grinds _flour_. It
+      is a _flour_ mill.
+
+      4. I saw him _stretch_ out his hand.
+
+      5. The _stretch_ of _waste_ land amazed him.
+
+      6. Europeans say that Americans _waste_ more than they
+      use.
+
+      7. One of our great problems is how to lessen _waste_.
+
+      8. After the stormy _night_, the _day_ dawned bright
+      and clear.
+
+      9. He has been working _night_ and _day_.
+
+      10. The old man went _home_ sad and weary.
+
+      11. _Home_ is the best place in the world.
+
+      12. We must _fine_ you for such an offense.
+
+      13. Your _fine_ is five dollars.
+
+      14. We use _fine_ sand in our concrete.
+
+      15. I can talk _better_ than I can write.
+
+      16. John wrote the _better_ circular.
+
+      17. Talking will not _better_ the matter.
+
+      18. Young people should learn to respect their
+      _betters_.
+
+      19. Suddenly there was a _pause_ in the music.
+
+      20. Did you see those men _pause_?
+
+      21. He was our guide for he knew the _ins_ and _outs_
+      of the place.
+
+      22. Have you ever been _in_ the house?
+
+      23. Where are you going--_in_ or _out_?
+
+      24. _Good_ apples are expensive.
+
+      25. The _good_ of the people is our first
+      consideration.
+
+      26. I shall not go _if_ it rains.
+
+      27. What is the use of saying _if_?
+
+      28. I _like_ to see her just _like_ this, for in
+      _like_ mood I do not know her _like_.
+
+      29. _Little_ drops of water make the mighty ocean.
+
+      30. I can do _little_ of the work until the typewriter
+      is repaired.
+
+      31. Do not _belittle_ your work.
+
+      32. She studies too _little_.
+
+
+=Exercise 64=
+
+Each of the following may be used as different parts of speech. Write
+sentences illustrating as many uses as possible for each word.
+
+    sound    paper    dress    ring
+    light    shoe     box      dawn
+    ride     long     ink      curb
+    iron     warm     walk     use
+    hear     cold     rule     cement
+
+
+=Exercise 65=
+
+Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which are adverbs.
+Remember that an adjective goes with a noun or pronoun; an adverb with
+another adverb, an adjective, or a verb, and usually answers the
+question _how?_ _when?_ _where?_ _why?_ _how much?_ or _how long?_
+
+      1. You are walking too _fast_.
+
+      2. Send perishable articles by _fast_ freight.
+
+      3. He has been a _well_ man since he has stopped
+      working indoors.
+
+      4. He writes very _well_.
+
+      5. The fire is _bright_.
+
+      6. It burns _brightly_.
+
+      7. That is a _very poor_ reason.
+
+      8. The berries look _good_, but they taste _sour_.
+
+      9. They are not _good_ berries.
+
+      10. The sun shone _brilliant_ above us. (Compare with
+      _brilliantly_.)
+
+      11. The bookkeeper looks _angry_.
+
+      12. He looked at us _angrily_.
+
+      13. The flowers are _sweet_.
+
+      14. They smell _sweet_. (May we say, _The flowers
+      smell sweetly?_)
+
+      15. Act _frankly_, speak _gently_.
+
+      16. Let your actions be _frank_, your speech _gentle_.
+
+      17. Laborers complain that they have to work _too
+      hard_.
+
+
+=Exercise 66=
+
+Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each case use both parts
+of speech in sentences.
+
+    cold      sure      polite    courteous
+    smooth    exact     precise   easy
+    bitter    bad       extreme   nice
+    loud      general   honest    glad
+
+
+=Exercise 67=
+
+Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which are
+adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase. It must be
+followed by an object.
+
+      1. He is the best man _in_ the office.
+
+      2. John was leaving as I came _in_ this evening.
+
+      3. He did not have his coat _on_.
+
+      4. It was hanging _over_ his arm.
+
+      5. He stood _on_ the top step several minutes,
+      wondering whether he should wear the coat.
+
+      6. The handle fell _off_ as I took the cup _off_ the
+      shelf.
+
+      7. The aeroplane flies _over_ the city.
+
+      8. I am going _over_ to the factory.
+
+Write sentences using _above_, _across_, _down_, _up_, _underneath_ both
+as adverbs and as prepositions.
+
+
+=Exercise 68--Prepositional Phrases=
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+      _Adjective_: The opinions _of some people_ must be
+      taken with caution.
+
+      _Adverb_: We shall return _within a year_.
+
+      _Noun_: _From New York to San Francisco_ is a long
+      trip.
+
+What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below? Remember
+that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb modifies a verb, an
+adjective, or an adverb.
+
+      1. The waves are rolling in, white _with foam_.
+
+      2. A million dollars was invested _in the business_.
+
+      3. I will abide _on thy right side_ and keep the
+      bridge _with thee_.
+
+      4. _In summer_ milk soon turns sour.
+
+      5. I have come _for help_.
+
+      6. The people _on the bridge_ cheered _for hours_.
+
+      7. He threw up his hat _for joy_.
+
+      8. _On the table before them_ stood a deer roasted
+      whole.
+
+      9. We shall stay here _until spring_.
+
+      10. We came _in sight of the king's palace_.
+
+      11. We drove _to the factory_ today _with the
+      superintendent_.
+
+      12. He works _from sunrise to sunset_.
+
+
+=Exercise 69=
+
+The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common. A list of
+prepositions follows. They should be learned.
+
+    about        before       except       toward
+    above        behind       for          under
+    aboard       below        from         underneath
+    across       beneath      in           until
+    after        beside       into         up
+    against      between      of           upon
+    along        betwixt      on           with
+    amid         beyond       over         within
+    amidst       but (except) past         without
+    among        by           through      to the extent of
+    around       concerning   throughout   from under
+    athwart      down         till         according to
+    at           during       to           except for
+
+Write three sentences containing prepositional _adjective_ phrases.
+
+Prepositional _adverbial_ phrases may express the following ideas:
+
+      Time, telling _when_ something happened.
+
+      Place, telling _where_ something happened.
+
+      Manner, telling _how_ something happened.
+
+      Means, telling _how_ something happened.
+
+      Cause or purpose, telling _why_ something happened.
+
+      Degree, telling _how long_ something lasted; _how far_
+      it went; _how much_ it cost, etc.
+
+      Agent, telling _by whom_ it was done.
+
+      Accompaniment, telling _with whom_ it was done.
+
+Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling:
+
+    1. when          6. how far
+    2. where         7. how much
+    3. why           8. by whom
+    4. in what way   9. with whom
+    5. how long     10. by what means
+
+
+=Exercise 70=
+
+Name all the prepositional phrases in Exercise 179, explaining whether
+they are adjective or adverbial.
+
+
+=Exercise 71--The Clause=
+
+A _subordinate clause_, like a phrase, is a group of words used as a
+part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause must have a
+subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced
+
+    1. By _relative pronouns_:
+
+                 who, whose, whom, which, what, that
+
+    2. By _subordinate conjunctions_:
+
+      when             because          than             unless
+      where            since            provided         till
+      while            if               whereas          until
+      as               as soon as       wherever         before
+      as if            as long as       whether          after
+      though           in order that    why              for
+      although         lest             that             whenever
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+               { A lamp that _smokes_ }
+    ADJECTIVE: {                      } is a torture to a student.
+               { A _smoking_ lamp     }
+
+            { _When she was good_ }
+            {                     } she was very, very good.
+            {   _Sometimes_       }
+    ADVERB: {                     }
+            { _When she was bad_  }
+            {                     } she was horrid.
+            {   _Sometimes_       }
+
+Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite idea?
+
+                 { _where he lives_.
+    NOUN: I know {
+                 { _the house_.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three illustrating
+adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun clauses.
+
+
+=Exercise 72=
+
+Name all the clauses in Exercises 179, 185, and 186. Explain the use of
+each.
+
+
+=Exercise 73=
+
+Write sentences using each of the following words to introduce a phrase,
+and to introduce a clause.
+
+    1. after     3. for       5. until
+    2. before    4. since
+
+Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by an _object_ to
+form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed by a _subject_ to form a
+clause.
+
+_Illustration_
+
+                                { _Christmas_.--OBJECT.
+    I have not seen him _since_ {
+                                { _he_ went away.--SUBJECT.
+
+
+=Exercise 74=
+
+Name the complete subject in the following. Then name the simple
+subject, explaining by what elements--words, phrases, or clauses--it is
+modified.
+
+Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple predicate, explaining
+by what elements the verb is modified.
+
+      1. Modern business cannot be carried on by
+      old-fashioned methods.
+
+      2. When a man engages in business, he buys or sells.
+
+      3. The great routes of trade have changed from time to
+      time.
+
+      4. Your order will be filled within a few days.
+
+      5. Both blanks were properly filled out at the time.
+
+      6. Means of travel have developed from the slowly
+      moving caravan to the palatial railway coach.
+
+      7. Commerce originated when one human being demanded
+      something which had to be supplied by some one else.
+
+      8. The latest American and European styles will be
+      displayed in our new millinery department, which will
+      be formally opened on the first of March.
+
+      9. The prosperity of nations rests very largely on the
+      six inches of soil between the surface and the subsoil
+      of the territory.
+
+      10. One of the greatest losses to the Ohio farm lands
+      in the floods of 1913 came about because the water
+      took off the top soil from the hillside and valleys
+      and carried the vegetable material with it.
+
+      11. The conserving of the top soil is one of the
+      greatest problems in national prosperity.
+
+      12. We trust that shipment about September 8 will be
+      satisfactory to you, as it is the best that we can do
+      under the circumstances.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN
+
+
+FOR the plural of nouns see Chapter III.
+
+The classes to which nouns belong are distinguished as follows:
+
+A _common_ noun is the name given to an object to denote the class to
+which it belongs; as, _book_, _man_.
+
+A _proper_ noun is the name given to a particular object to distinguish
+it from others of the same class; as, _Mary_, _Republicans_, _England_.
+Proper nouns should always be capitalized.
+
+A _collective_ noun is a name which in the singular denotes a
+collection. It is usually plural in idea but singular in use; as,
+_congregation_, _crowd_.
+
+An _abstract_ noun is the name denoting a quality of an object; as,
+_power_, _purity_, _strength_.
+
+A _verbal_ noun is the name of an action. As its name suggests, it is
+made from a verb; as, _Sweeping_ is good exercise.
+
+
+=Exercise 75=
+
+In the following sentences supply necessary capital letters. Explain why
+the same word in one expression needs a capital and in another does not.
+
+      1. I have just taken out an endowment policy in the
+      northwestern mutual life insurance company.
+
+      2. There are many mutual life insurance companies in
+      the country.
+
+      3. His refusing the terms was practically a
+      declaration of independence.
+
+      4. On the fourth of July we celebrate the signing of
+      the declaration of independence, the first step in the
+      revolutionary war.
+
+      5. Mexico has had many revolutionary wars.
+
+      6. And king Arthur said, "The king who fights his
+      people fights himself."
+
+      7. When does the bank close?
+
+      8. I have an account with the first national bank.
+
+      9. This is the first national bank that was ever
+      established in this country.
+
+Explain to which class each noun in the foregoing sentences belongs. Be
+particularly careful to distinguish between common and proper nouns.
+
+
+=Exercise 76--Pronouns=
+
+The different classes of pronouns are distinguished as follows:
+
+The _personal_ pronoun is used in place of the name of a person or
+thing. The pronoun of the _first_ person indicates the speaker, the
+pronoun of the _second_ person indicates the person spoken to, and the
+pronoun of the _third_ person indicates the person spoken of. They are
+declined as follows:
+
+                     _First person_
+
+       _Singular_                        _Plural_
+    _Nom._  I                            we
+    _Poss._ my, mine                     our, ours
+    _Obj._  me                           us
+
+                     _Second person_
+
+    _Nom._ you (thou)                    you (ye)
+    _Poss._ your, yours (thy, thine)     your, yours
+    _Obj._ you (thee)                    you
+
+
+In modern usage _you_ is used for both the singular and the plural, but
+the verb that goes with _you_ is always plural.
+
+                           _Third person_
+
+           _Singular_                         _Plural_
+           _Masc._          _Fem._            _Neut._
+    _Nom._       he          she          it            they
+    _Poss._      his         her, hers    its           their, theirs
+    _Obj._       him         her          it            them
+
+     NOTE.--The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_,
+     _ours_, _theirs_, and sometimes _his_ are possessive
+     case in form, but nominative or objective case in use.
+     That pencil is _mine_ really means, That pencil is _my_
+     pencil. _Mine_ is used as a substitute for a possessive
+     pronoun and the noun it modifies.
+
+The personal pronouns compounded with _self_ are of two kinds:
+
+1. _Emphatic_ pronouns; as,
+
+    The buyer _himself_ told me.
+
+2. _Reflexive_ pronouns, referring back to the subject and at the same
+time being in the objective case; as,
+
+    John slipped and hurt _himself_.
+
+The _relative_ pronoun is so called because it relates or refers to
+another word, called its antecedent, to which it joins the clause that
+it introduces. The relative pronouns are _who_, _which_, _what_, _that_;
+and the compound relatives are _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_,
+_whichsoever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_.
+
+They are declined as follows:
+
+             _Singular and Plural_
+
+    _Nom._    who       which     whoever   whosoever
+    _Poss._   whose     of which  whosever  whosesoever
+    _Obj._    whom      which     whomever  whomsoever
+
+_That_, _what_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_, and _whatsoever_
+are not declined. They have the same form in the nominative and
+objective cases, and are not used in the possessive case.
+
+_What_ is peculiar in that it never has an antecedent expressed, but
+itself stands for both antecedent and relative. It is called the _double
+relative_. Compare the following:
+
+      I did not hear _the words that_ he said.
+
+      I did not hear _that which_ he said.
+
+      I did not hear _what_ he said.
+
+_That_ is called the restrictive relative, because it limits or
+restricts its antecedent to the meaning expressed in the clause
+introduced by _that_. A restrictive clause is one, therefore, that is
+needed to make the meaning of the sentence clear. Compare the following:
+
+      _Non-restrictive_: John Brown, _who_ has no disease,
+      needs no physician.
+
+      _Restrictive_: He _that_ hath no disease needs no
+      physician.
+
+Notice that a restrictive, or necessary, clause is not separated from
+the rest of the sentence by commas.
+
+_Who_ and _which_ are sometimes used with restrictive force; as,
+
+      1. Those _who_ have finished their work may leave.
+      (Not everybody.)
+
+      2. Have you read the book _which_ he recommended? (He
+      recommended but one.)
+
+_Interrogative_ pronouns are used in asking questions. They are _who_,
+_which_, _what_. _Who_ refers to persons; _which_ refers to persons or
+things, and is used to distinguish one object from another; _what_
+refers to things. They are declined as follows:
+
+                   _Singular and Plural_
+
+    _Nom._    who          which        what
+    _Poss._   whose        (of which)   (of what)
+    _Obj._    whom         which        what
+
+The interrogative pronouns _which_ and _what_ are frequently used as
+adjectives. In this case they are called _pronominal adjectives_.
+Compare:
+
+      Pronoun: _Which_ of these hats do you prefer?
+
+      Adjective: _Which_ hat do you prefer?
+
+The _demonstrative_ pronouns are _this_ and _that_ with their plurals
+_these_ and _those_. They are always used to point out, or demonstrate,
+the noun to which they refer. _This_ and _these_ are used for objects
+near at hand, or recently named; _that_ and _those_ are used for objects
+far away, or not recently named.
+
+The demonstrative pronouns are frequently used as adjectives; as,
+
+    Pronoun: _That_ is my book.
+    Adjective: _That_ book is mine.
+
+_Indefinite_ pronouns refer to objects or persons, but do not define or
+limit them. The indefinite pronouns are _each_, _every_, _either_,
+_neither_, _one_, _none_, _other_, _another_, _few_, _all_, _many_,
+_several_, _some_, _each other_, _one another_, and the compounds _any
+one_, _some one_, _every one_, _something_, _nothing_. Indefinite
+pronouns are frequently used as adjectives. _Each_, _every_, _either_,
+_one_, _another_, _any one_, _some one_, _every one_, whether they are
+used as pronouns or as adjectives, are singular in number. If another
+pronoun is used to refer to one of them, it must be in the singular
+number.
+
+
+=Exercise 77--Classes of Pronouns=
+
+In the following sentences, explain which pronouns represent the person
+speaking, which represent the person spoken to, and which represent the
+person spoken of. Tell which pronouns ask questions; which are used as
+adjectives; which are used to connect subordinate clauses to the word
+for which they stand. If the antecedent is expressed, point it out.
+
+      1. Who is talking?
+
+      2. The man who is speaking is the head of the credit
+      department.
+
+      3. If you are going, get ready.
+
+      4. Which is the better piece of cloth?
+
+      5. This is the better piece of cloth.
+
+      6. The one who wishes to succeed must exercise great
+      care in his work.
+
+      7. He that would succeed must work.
+
+      8. Many men fail because of laziness.
+
+      9. What did you say?
+
+      10. Can you guess whom I saw?
+
+      11. He himself told us.
+
+      12. A cousin of ours is coming to town.
+
+      13. The man whose life is above criticism need fear no
+      one.
+
+      14. Whoever lives the truth need fear no criticism.
+
+      15. I wish you would remove those files.
+
+      16. Ink that is thick makes illegible writing.
+
+      17. What paper should I destroy?
+
+      18. I cannot understand what any one is saying.
+
+      19. This is not my umbrella. It is yours.
+
+      20. No friend of his would talk in that way.
+
+      21. This is no book of theirs; it belongs to us.
+
+      22. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it.
+
+      23. I shall ask whomever I see.
+
+      24. Each of us has his work assigned.
+
+      25. Every boy has his work assigned.
+
+
+=Exercise 78=
+
+In the following sentences _he_, _his_, _they_, _their_, _them_, _it_,
+or _its_ should be inserted. Give the reason for your choice.
+
+      1. No man is allowed to leave ---- desk untidy.
+
+      2. Every one must put ---- tools away before leaving
+      the shop.
+
+      3. Every office worker is required to be in ---- place
+      at eight-thirty every morning.
+
+      4. In my business a person must learn to make up ----
+      mind quickly.
+
+      5. It was cold this morning. Every one wore ----
+      wraps.
+
+      6. Every clerk must do ---- own work.
+
+      7. If an employee has ideas for the improvement of the
+      business, ---- is requested to report ---- suggestions
+      to the superintendent.
+
+      8. The superintendent is anxious to have every workman
+      feel that ---- (has, have) a definite place in the
+      organization, and that if ---- (does not, don't) do
+      ---- work, the business will suffer.
+
+      9. No goods will be accepted unless ---- (are, is) in
+      good condition.
+
+      10. Every newspaper is anxious to increase ----
+      classified advertising.
+
+      11. No one cares to see ---- friends frown.
+
+      12. Every one must agree that ---- (has, have) ----
+      faults.
+
+      13. Not one of the banks had ---- deposits decreased.
+
+      14. Will any one let me take ---- umbrella?
+
+      15. Every one says that ---- had a delightful evening.
+
+      16. Who was it said I had ---- book?
+
+      17. Does each state pay over a part of ---- taxes to
+      the federal government?
+
+      18. Every one will find in the current publications a
+      wealth of information applicable to ---- specific
+      needs, much of which ---- will wish to file for easy
+      reference, no matter in what department of the world's
+      work ---- interest centers.
+
+      19. If any one could tell beforehand when ----
+      opportunities would arrive, ---- might be ready to
+      grasp each as ---- came.
+
+      20. If every one here would follow the directions that
+      ----(has, have) received, ---- would make fewer
+      mistakes in shipments.
+
+      21. Any one who wishes may give ---- opinion.
+
+      22. No one need expect to leave before ---- work is
+      finished.
+
+      23. Every one in the office took ---- vacation early
+      this year except me.
+
+      24. Each of the twenty banks sent ---- representative
+      to the meeting.
+
+      25. On applying for a position, each man is given a
+      blank that ---- must fill out carefully, making ----
+      answers as definite as possible.
+
+Some of the following are right, and some are wrong. Correct those that
+are wrong, explaining why they are wrong.
+
+      1. Neither one of them know what they are expected to
+      do.
+
+      2. Applicant after applicant handed in their names.
+
+      3. If any one has a complaint to make, he should
+      report it in writing to the superintendent.
+
+      4. Have either of the stenographers finished their
+      letters?
+
+      5. I wish everybody would do their own work and let me
+      do mine.
+
+      6. Each man did his work faithfully.
+
+      7. Has neither the carpenter nor the plumber yet
+      brought his tools?
+
+      8. Every one of the clerks must hand their report to
+      the head bookkeeper before five o'clock.
+
+      9. One of them must have neglected to hand in his
+      report.
+
+      10. Man after man yesterday promised me that they'd be
+      on hand to work this morning, and not one of them
+      showed themselves.
+
+
+=Exercise 79=
+
+In the following exercise, tell which of the italicized pronouns
+introduce restrictive, and which introduce non-restrictive clauses:
+
+      1. This is the best bargain _that_ we have ever
+      offered.
+
+      2. This is Mr. Burton, _whose_ work I recommended to
+      you.
+
+      3. The city _that_ I enjoyed most was Quebec.
+
+      4. I enjoyed walking on the old wall _that_ still
+      surrounds the town.
+
+      5. The club to _which_ I belong will hold a meeting
+      next week.
+
+      6. The club _that_ I belong to will hold a meeting
+      next Monday.
+
+      7. All those _whose_ daily work showed an improvement
+      were given an increase in salary.
+
+      8. The horse _that_ ran away belonged to my partner.
+
+      9. The greatest man is he _who_ feels himself the
+      least.
+
+      10. An old story tells us that when Caesar, _who_ was
+      a great Roman emperor, returned from a conquest
+      _which_ has ever since been famous, he brought back to
+      Rome a formula _that_ has revolutionized the world. It
+      was a formula for making soap, and was considered one
+      of the greatest treasures _that_ was captured during
+      the campaign. Caesar immediately saw the value _that_
+      it would have in the eyes of the world, and he forced
+      the soap-makers to reveal their secret.
+
+      11. The garrison is a handful of invalid soldiers,
+      _whose_ principal duty is to guard some of the outer
+      towers.
+
+      12. This is the gentleman _whom_ we met in Boston.
+
+      13. Mr. Carter, _who_ was a member of our Boston firm,
+      will take charge of our city sales.
+
+      14. We honestly believe that our latest Style Book,
+      _which_ goes with this letter, offers you more for
+      every dollar _that_ you spend than you can get
+      elsewhere.
+
+
+=Exercise 80--Case=
+
+Case is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which denotes its
+relation to other words in the sentence. There are three cases: the
+_nominative_, the _objective_, and the _possessive_. Although nouns are
+used in all three cases, no change of form occurs except in the
+possessive case.
+
+The _nominative_ case is used in the following ways:
+
+1. The principal use of the nominative case is as _subject_ of the
+sentence; as,
+
+    _Noun_:    The _business_ is prosperous.
+    _Pronoun_: _It_ has been established for five years.
+
+2. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used to complete the meaning of such
+verbs as _be_, _become_, _seem_, _appear_, _taste_, _feel_. Such a noun
+is in the nominative case, and is called a _predicate nominative_, or a
+_subjective complement_; as,
+
+    _Noun_:    Mr. Brown is the _manager_.
+             He seems a _gentleman_.
+    _Pronoun_: I think it is _she_.
+
+3. A noun in _apposition_ with another noun in the nominative case is
+also in the nominative case; as,
+
+    Mr. Brown, _the manager_, is very capable.
+    The man to whom you should apply is Mr. Brown, _the manager_.
+
+4. Sometimes a noun or a pronoun is used in direct address or in an
+exclamation, without having any grammatical relation to the rest of the
+sentence. It is then said to be _nominative independent_; as,
+
+    _Mr. Brown_, a gentleman wishes to speak to you.
+    A _strike_! Why are they declaring a strike?
+    _You!_ I thought you were in South America.
+
+5. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used with a participle to express an
+adverbial relation. Such a noun is in the nominative case, and is called
+_nominative absolute_, because it has no grammatical relation to any
+other part of the sentence; as,
+
+      _Mr. Brown_ having gone, we told the gentleman to see
+      Mr. Jones.
+
+      _He_ being the guide, we asked no questions.
+
+It is much better to use a clause to express such an idea; as,
+
+      As Mr. Brown had gone, we told the gentleman to see
+      Mr. Jones.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a pronoun in each
+of the following uses of the nominative case:
+
+    1. Subject.
+    2. Predicate Nominative.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun used
+
+    1. In direct address.
+    2. In exclamation.
+    3. In apposition with another noun in the nominative case.
+
+
+=Exercise 81--The Objective Case=
+
+A noun or a pronoun may be used in the objective case in the following
+ways:
+
+1. Direct object of a transitive verb; as,
+
+    I have a good _position_.
+    Do you know _him_?
+
+2. Object of a preposition; as,
+
+    I have just returned from the _library._
+    Bring the book to _me_.
+
+3. Indirect object of such verbs as _ask_, _give_, _teach_, showing the
+person for whom or to whom the action is done; as,
+
+    She brought _her mother_ some flowers.
+    I gave _her_ singing lessons.
+
+4. A noun as _second object_ after verbs of _making_, _choosing_,
+_calling_, _electing_; as,
+
+    They chose John _secretary_.
+
+5. A noun in _apposition_ with another objective; as,
+
+    Send your report to the secretary, _John Wilson_.
+
+6. Adverbial modifier; as, We are going _home_.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a pronoun in each
+of the following uses of the objective case:
+
+    1. Direct object of a transitive verb.
+    2. Indirect object.
+    3. Object of a preposition.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun used as
+
+    1. Adverbial objective.
+    2. Second object.
+    3. Appositive of another noun in the objective case.
+
+
+=Exercise 82--The Possessive Case=
+
+To form the possessive case of nouns add an _apostrophe_ and _s_ to all
+singular nouns, and to all plural nouns that do not end in _s_; if a
+plural _noun_ ends in _s_ add only an apostrophe; as, _child's_,
+_children's_, _boys'_.
+
+      _Exception._--When, in long words, the additional _s_
+      in the singular would cause a disagreeable sound, some
+      writers use only the apostrophe; as,
+
+      We awaited the _princess's_ decision. We awaited the
+      _princess'_ decision.
+
+It is often better in such cases to use a phrase; as,
+
+    We awaited the decision _of the princess_.
+
+Thus, an _of_ phrase may be used instead of the possessive case. In
+speaking of an inanimate object one should use it instead of the
+apostrophe and _s_; as, _the top of the mountain_. However, we use such
+expressions as _last year's prices_.
+
+When, as in the name of a firm, two or more nouns are taken together
+with the idea of common possession, the sign of the possessive is added
+to the last noun only. If separate possession is implied, the sign of
+the possessive is added to each noun; as,
+
+    Have you seen _Wilson & King's_ new building?
+    This is _Mary and Helen's_ room.
+    Is this _Mary's or Helen's_ coat?
+
+A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case before a verbal noun; as,
+
+    I prefer to have _John's_ studying done before dinner.
+    I prefer to have _his_ studying done before dinner.
+
+Write sentences expressing relation between the words in the following
+pairs. Use one of them in the possessive case or use an _of_ phrase,
+whichever seems better.
+
+    the manager, desk     city, harbor
+    desk, top drawer      proprietor, private office
+    book, cover           typewriter, keys
+    city, mayor           ledger, first page
+
+Bring to class five incorrect possessive phrases taken from
+advertisements. Explain and correct the mistakes.
+
+
+=Exercise 83=
+
+Which of the italicized words would you use? Why?
+
+      1. Have you heard of _Mr. Bennett_, _Mr. Bennett's_
+      being appointed chairman of the meeting?
+
+      2. It will probably delay _him_, _his_ coming here.
+
+      3. I don't understand _him_, _his_ refusing to accept
+      the position.
+
+      4. We have heard a great deal of _him_, _his_ making a
+      success of photography.
+
+      5. The man's industry has resulted in _him_, _his_
+      gaining fame.
+
+      6. Will you sign this permit for _us_, _our_ visiting
+      the factory?
+
+      7. What do you say to _us_, _our_ making some candy?
+
+      8. I am very sorry that _me_, _my_ interrupting you
+      yesterday delayed your work.
+
+      9. The machine is in excellent condition. There is no
+      reason for _it_, _its_ needing any repair.
+
+      10. _Everybody_, _everybody's_ being on time is
+      absolutely necessary.
+
+
+=Exercise 84=
+
+Each of the following sentences is incorrect because the sign of the
+possessive case has been omitted. Insert the apostrophe or the
+apostrophe and _s_, wherever either is needed.
+
+      1. There is a new boys school in our town.
+
+      2. James brother John is our new bookkeeper.
+
+      3. For entrance to this course three years work in
+      mathematics and one years work in German are
+      required.
+
+      4. This new building will be occupied by J. M. Hopkins
+      mail order department.
+
+      5. The superintendents inspection was thorough.
+
+      6. The trouble will be in John agreeing to the
+      proposition.
+
+      7. All applications for help should be made to the
+      Womens Committees.
+
+      8. The employees rest rooms are on the sunny side of
+      the building.
+
+      9. Our fifteen years experience in selling bonds has
+      convinced us that investments paying a low rate of
+      interest are the safest.
+
+      10. In to-days mail I received a very large order from
+      Graham & Moore's successors.
+
+      11. Jones Brothers new store is on the corner of
+      Madison Street.
+
+      12. Last month sales show an increase of two thousand
+      dollars.
+
+      13. Everybodys business is nobodys business.
+
+      14. It is when to-morrows burden is added to the
+      burden of to-day that the weight is more than a man
+      can bear.
+
+      15. The present governor was the peoples choice.
+
+      16. I prefer Tennysons poems to Longfellows.
+
+      17. I have read both Longfellow and Tennysons poems.
+
+      18. I bought the book at Barlow and Companys new
+      store.
+
+      19. We are going to insist on Mary taking a long
+      vacation this year.
+
+      20. I have had the pleasure of staying at both your
+      friends houses.
+
+
+=Exercise 85--The Apostrophe=
+
+Some of the following sentences are right, and some are wrong. Correct
+those that are wrong, explaining why they are wrong.
+
+      1. The man who's coming this way is Mr. Burton.
+
+      2. Whose coat is that?
+
+      3. The man who's place you are taking has been with
+      this firm for twenty years.
+
+      4. The next one whose to give a report is the
+      treasurer.
+
+      5. The next one whose report we must hear is the
+      treasurer.
+
+      6. Don't you think it's too early to start?
+
+      7. He is a ladies tailor.
+
+      8. Remember your to let us know at once who's elected.
+
+      9. Its too late now to change its wording.
+
+      10. Mr. Jones' house is being repaired.
+
+      11. The Joneses' house is being repaired.
+
+      12. There coming as fast as their horse will bring
+      them.
+
+      13. I think you're typewriter needs cleaning.
+
+      14. Your coming too, are'nt you?
+
+      15. Every business has it's problems.
+
+      16. The Bon Ton has a big sale in mens' and womens'
+      coat's.
+
+      17. Why, it's March! No wonder their having a sale.
+
+      18. We shall give you a special discount if you will
+      send your dealer's name.
+
+      19. Most of the dealer's advertise very little.
+
+      20. It's just a year ago since we received your last
+      order.
+
+      21. Its not willingness we lack; it's time.
+
+      22. If you use our safety device, you may leave you're
+      window open with security, and you will arise
+      refreshed, ready for a big days work.
+
+      23. Lets take our vacation when they take their's.
+
+      24. I think we shall have to take our's in August. Two
+      of us must stay during July, for the work will not do
+      it's self, you know.
+
+      25. In any explanation it should be the writers
+      purpose to so describe his good's that the reader will
+      desire them. A good salesman never shows a necktie in
+      a box. He takes it out and with a deft twist forms
+      it's length into a four-in-hand over his finger. The
+      customer then sees not only the scarf, it's color and
+      its weave, but he sees it in it's relation to himself,
+      as it will look when it's tied.
+
+
+=Exercise 86=
+
+Supply _who_ or _whom_:
+
+      1. ---- did you take me for?
+
+      2. The shipping clerk, ---- I consider responsible for
+      the mistake, must go.
+
+      3. The shipping clerk, ---- I feel certain is
+      responsible for the mistake, must go.
+
+      4. ---- is it?
+
+      5. ---- shall I say called?
+
+      6. ---- do you wish to see?
+
+      7. ---- did you say was elected?
+
+      8. He is the one ---- every one thought should be
+      elected.
+
+      9. Choose the one ---- you think will give the best
+      service.
+
+      10. Choose the one ---- you think you can trust.
+
+      11. She asked me ---- did it.
+
+      12. ---- do you think is the best salesman in the
+      firm?
+
+      13. ---- do you regard as the best salesman in the
+      firm?
+
+      14. ---- was that ---- you were talking to?
+
+      15. He is the one ---- I was speaking about.
+
+      16. ---- do we play next week?
+
+      17. He is a workman ---- can be trusted.
+
+      18. He is a workman upon ---- you can depend.
+
+      19. This letter comes from Robert, ---- we all know
+      very well.
+
+      20. This letter comes from Robert, ---- we all know
+      writes good letters.
+
+      21. ---- do you consider to be most capable? [The
+      subject of the infinitive _to be_ must be in the
+      objective case.]
+
+      22. This booklet was written by the man ---- Mr.
+      Bardon considers [to be] the best correspondent in our
+      office.
+
+      23. He is the one ---- every one believes to be worthy
+      of the highest honors.
+
+      24. The critic ---- every one thought gave the most
+      truthful account of the performance is a man of great
+      culture.
+
+Supply _whoever_ or _whomever_:
+
+      1. Give the book to ---- needs it.
+
+      2. Give it to ---- you think best.
+
+      3. ---- I send can be trusted.
+
+      4. Send me ---- is there.
+
+      5. Send me ---- you find there.
+
+      6. ---- reaches the line first will receive the cup.
+
+      7. The cup will be given to ---- reaches the lines
+      first.
+
+      8. In the country lane he spoke to ---- he met.
+
+      9. ---- you choose may compete for the prize.
+
+      10. ---- you bring is welcome.
+
+
+=Exercise 87=
+
+Read the following sentences, using one of the forms in italic. Be able
+to give a reason for your choice.
+
+      1. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ are going camping next
+      summer.
+
+      2. It is a question that refers to you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      3. It is a question between you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      4. I am sure that it was _she_--_her_.
+
+      5. I am sure that we saw you and _he_--_him_.
+
+      6. _We_--_us_ boys are going camping.
+
+      7. Will you go camping with _we_--_us_ boys?
+
+      8. _They_--_them_ and their cousins are going camping.
+
+      9. We bought a large piece of ground so that my
+      brother and _I_--_me_ could have a garden.
+
+      10. It was bought for _he_--_him_ and _I_--_me_.
+
+      11. Is that _he_--_him_ entering the gate? Yes, that
+      is _he_--_him_.
+
+      12. _Who_--_whom_ should I meet at the station but old
+      Mr. McGregor, _who_--_whom_ I had not seen for several
+      years.
+
+      13. If I were _he_--_him_, I should start at once.
+
+      14. There is no need of _him_--_his_ staying any
+      longer.
+
+      15. He does not work so rapidly as _I_--_me_.
+
+      16. Mary and _she_--_her_ work in the same office.
+
+      17. There is no danger of _me_--_my_ failing.
+
+      18. Please let _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_ do the work
+      together.
+
+      19. There is no use of _us_--_our_ trying any more.
+
+      20. _Us_--_our_ giving up now will spoil everything.
+
+      21. My mother objected to _me_--_my_ going.
+
+      22. Why did you insist upon _us_--_our_ coming to-day?
+
+      23. I hardly think it is _he_--_him_ _who_--_whom_ is
+      to blame.
+
+      24. I should like to be _she_--_her_.
+
+      25. _They_--_them_ that do wrong shall be punished.
+
+      26. _They_--_them_ that do wrong I shall punish.
+
+      27. _He_--_him_ that is your friend you can call upon
+      in your hour of need.
+
+      28. _He_--_him_ that is your friend will respond to
+      your call.
+
+      29. The manager praised both the bookkeepers and
+      _we_--_us_ girls.
+
+      30. Was it you who called? Yes, it was _I_--_me_.
+
+      31. It surely was not _I_--_me_ whom you saw.
+
+      32. He reproved us both but _I_--_me_ more than
+      _she_--_her_.
+
+      33. Are you sure it's _I_--_me_ whom he appointed?
+
+      34. If it's really _I_--_me_ who was appointed, I'm
+      sure I should have been notified.
+
+      35. I'm sure it can't be _I_--_me_.
+
+
+=Exercise 88--_Same_ as a Pronoun=
+
+One of the worst constructions found in business letters of today is the
+use of _same_ as a pronoun. The word may be an adjective or a noun but
+never a pronoun.
+
+      _Wrong_: Will you please fill out the enclosed blank
+      and return _same_ as soon as possible?
+
+      _Right_: Will you please fill out the enclosed blank
+      and return _it_ as soon as possible?
+
+In each of the following sentences substitute a noun or a pronoun for
+_same_:
+
+      1. Will you not send us a check by Friday so that we
+      may use same for our pay roll on Saturday?
+
+      2. Do you wish to bid for our cinder output this year?
+      We have a sample car that we shall be glad to have you
+      inspect if you think you will have any use for same.
+
+      3. We have no use for the material this year, but we
+      thank you for giving us an opportunity to bid for
+      same.
+
+      4. If you are dissatisfied with the machine, return
+      same at our expense.
+
+      5. You state that you sent us an order on June 10, but
+      we cannot find any trace of same.
+
+      6. We are in the market for two dozen Standard clothes
+      wringers, and we should be glad to receive your lowest
+      price on same.
+
+      7. We have given you credit for this amount and desire
+      to thank you for your promptness in sending same.
+
+      8. We have your letter of November 6 and thank you for
+      same.
+
+      9. If you think you can use this type of machine, we
+      shall be glad to send you same on ten days' trial.
+
+      10. We have decided to use your machine if you will
+      give us a satisfactory guarantee as to strength,
+      efficiency, and freedom from leaks. As soon as
+      possible let us hear from you in regard to same.
+
+
+=Exercise 89--Nouns and Pronouns Incorrectly Used=
+
+                 _Wrong_                                    _Right_
+     1. We saw _lots_ of curious things.       We saw _a number_ of curious
+                                                   things.
+     2. Do you know that _party_?              Do you know that _man_?
+
+     3. I stayed at home the _balance_         I stayed at home the _rest_
+                                                   of the day.
+          of the day.
+     4. What _business_ have you to go?        What _right_ have you to go?
+
+     5. The dress will be done in a            The dress will be done in a
+          _couple_ of days.                        _few_ days.
+
+     6. I'll walk a _piece_ with you.          I'll walk a _short distance_
+                                                   with you.
+
+     7. Did you get a _raise_ in pay?          Did you get an _increase_
+                                                   in pay?
+
+     8. I'll send you a _postal_.              I'll send you a _postal
+                                                   card_.
+
+     9. Christmas is still a long _ways_       Christmas is still a long
+          off.                                     _way_ off.
+
+    10. What _line_ of business are you        What _kind_ of business are
+                                                   you in now?
+          in now?
+    11. If you expect to open a grocery,       If you expect to open a
+          let me give you a little advice          grocery, let me give you
+           _along that line_.                      a little advice _on the
+                                                   subject_.
+
+    12. Have you anything new in the           Have you any new neckwear?
+          neckwear _line_?
+
+    13. I have a _date_ with the dentist.      I have an _appointment_ with
+                                                   the dentist.
+
+    14. Have you a _date_ for this evening?    Have you an _engagement_ for
+                                                   this evening?
+
+    15. He always does his work in good        He always does his work
+          _shape_.                                 _well_.
+
+    16. That is a good _write-up_ on the       That is a good _article_ on
+          tariff.                                  the tariff.
+
+    17. _Yourself_ and friends are invited.    _You_ and your friends are
+                                                   invited.
+
+    18. Don't _they_ have street cars in       Are there no street cars in
+          your town?                               your town?
+
+    19. _It_ said in this morning's paper      This morning's paper said
+          that the traffic men would               that the traffic men
+          strike.                                  would strike.
+
+    20. The book _what_ he advised is not      The book _that_ he advised
+          fiction.                                 is not fiction.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB
+
+
+AS a rule, adverbs present more difficulty than do adjectives. Careless
+pupils frequently use an adjective when an adverb is necessary; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: He solved the problem very _quick_.
+    _Right_: He solved the problem very _quickly_.
+
+    _Wrong_: This is _real_ good candy.
+    _Right_: This is _really_ (or _very_) good candy.
+
+Until the habit of correct usage is formed, every sentence must be
+watched. When a word modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb,
+another adverb must be used, and an adjective may not correctly be
+substituted. As a rule, adverbs express the following ideas:
+
+    _Time_: We arrived _early_.
+    _Place_: We have been _here_ since January.
+    _Manner_: He walked _steadily_ onward.
+    _Cause_: _Why_ did you refuse the offer?
+    _Degree_: I am _very much_ surprised.
+    _Number_: I did it _once_ not _twice_.
+    _Assertion_: }
+    _Denial_:    } I do _not_ agree.
+
+      Adverb modifying a verb: See how _slowly_ the man
+      walks!
+
+      Adverb modifying an adjective: The weather has been
+      _extremely_ warm.
+
+      Adverb modifying an adverb: He dictates _very_
+      rapidly.
+
+It must be remembered, however, that verbs of the senses--_taste_,
+_feel_, _look_, _smell_, _sound_, and the like--are sometimes almost
+equal in meaning to the verb _be_. In that case, they are followed by
+adjectives and not by adverbs; as,
+
+    _Adjective_: He looked _angry_.
+    _Adverb_: He looked _angrily_ at us.
+
+
+=Exercise 90=
+
+Name the adjectives in the following selection, explaining with what
+noun each belongs.
+
+Name the adverbs, explaining what part of speech each modifies.
+
+      Since 1904 the number of live cattle exported from
+      this country has been steadily growing smaller.
+      Exports of dressed beef have also shrunk to such
+      insignificant proportions that the United States is no
+      longer an important factor in the foreign markets for
+      beef. Often has it been said that the competition of
+      cheap Argentine beef has deprived us of foreign
+      markets. It would be more nearly true to say that
+      foreigners buy the inferior article only because we
+      cannot supply them with all they want of the best
+      grade. Take, for instance, the Englishman's
+      willingness to pay considerably more for American
+      corn-fed beef than for Argentine.
+
+      The raising of cattle is important, also, from the
+      standpoint of the leather business. Obviously, with a
+      21 per cent increase in population in each decade,
+      many more shoes are necessary. Automobile and other
+      industries are making constantly increasing demands
+      for leather. Shoes cannot become cheaper in the face
+      of increased demand and diminished supply. Too much
+      depends upon the cattle industry for us to allow it to
+      wane.
+
+
+=Exercise 91=
+
+Which of the italicized words should you use in the following, and why?
+
+      1. Why do you walk so _slow_--_slowly_?
+
+      2. Speak _louder_--_more loudly_.
+
+      3. I cannot explain why he spoke so
+      _gentle_--_gently_.
+
+      4. The automobile was going very _swift_--_swiftly_.
+
+      5. The well has been dug very _deep_--_deeply_.
+
+      6. He is not _near_--_nearly_ so tall as you are.
+
+      7. Are you cutting that _even_--_evenly_?
+
+      8. She does pen and ink sketches
+      _beautiful_--_beautifully_.
+
+      9. Why can't I grow _quicker_--_more quickly_?
+
+      10. I feel _bad_--_badly_ this morning.
+
+      11. Can you do all I have asked? _Easy_--_easily_.
+
+      12. She does her work _good_--_well_.
+
+      13. She does her work _fine_--_finely_.
+
+      14. I am _real_--_very much_ surprised to see you.
+
+      15. He became _real_--_very_ angry.
+
+      16. I'm afraid it's not _near_--_nearly_ big enough.
+
+      17. She works twice as _quick_--_quickly_ as you do.
+
+      18. He _sure_--_surely_ is a good speaker. He seems
+      _sure_--_surely_ of himself.
+
+      19. Are you going? _Sure_--_surely_?
+
+      20. He says he is _near_--_nearly_ starved.
+
+      21. He worked _steady_--_steadily_ all morning. The
+      others did not work _near_--_nearly_ so hard.
+
+      22. I am speaking as _serious_--_seriously_ as I can.
+
+      23. The orange tastes _bitter_--_bitterly_.
+
+      24. Don't you think he has been acting
+      _queer_--_queerly_?
+
+      25. The coat is finished _nice_--_nicely_.
+
+
+=Exercise 92=
+
+Explain the proper position of the italicized adverbs in the following
+sentences. Remember that an adverb must stand as closely as possible to
+the word that it modifies, but remember also that an infinitive,
+although made up of two parts, is _one_ word and should not be split by
+an adverb.
+
+      1. I _merely_ want the Milwaukee list of customers.
+
+      2. You _almost_ write like her.
+
+      3. Your writing is like hers _almost_.
+
+      4. I can _not_ find one of the papers I had on the
+      desk.
+
+      5. He told me to _carefully_ add the figures in the
+      column.
+
+      6. I expect to _quickly_ finish my dictation.
+
+      7. I don't _even_ understand the first problem in the
+      lesson.
+
+      8. Don't say you don't _ever_ expect to go to school
+      again.
+
+      9. All the statements are _not_ on my desk.
+
+      10. He promised to _quickly_ settle the matter.
+
+      11. I wish you to _clearly_ understand the situation.
+
+      12. I _only_ have two more items to enter.
+
+      13. I _only_ expect to take a short vacation this
+      year.
+
+      14. He _only_ spoke of two causes of the loss in
+      trade.
+
+      15. I _only_ decided to take the Western instead of
+      the Eastern trip at the last moment.
+
+
+=Exercise 93--Comparison=
+
+Adjectives are compared so as to express different degrees of quality.
+There are three degrees of comparison, the _positive_, the
+_comparative_, and the _superlative_. When the object modified or
+described by the adjective is not compared with another, the first or
+_positive_ degree is used. When two objects are compared, the second or
+_comparative_ degree is used to denote more or less of the quality
+expressed by the adjective. When several objects are compared, the
+_superlative_ degree of the adjective is used to express the highest or
+the lowest possible degree of the adjective.
+
+The usual method of comparing an adjective is to add _er_ to the
+positive to form the comparative, and _est_ to form the superlative.
+Frequently, however, especially for an adjective of two or more
+syllables, the comparative is formed by prefixing _more_ or _less_ to
+the positive, and the superlative by prefixing _most_ or _least_.
+Besides the adjectives in these two classes there are some which do not
+follow any regular method and must, therefore, be watched a little more
+closely.
+
+The following table illustrates the different methods of comparison:
+
+     _Positive_           _Comparative_          _Superlative_
+    bright              brighter            brightest
+    dangerous           more dangerous      most dangerous
+    beautiful           more beautiful      most beautiful
+    good                better              best
+    bad                 worse               worst
+    ill                 worse               worst
+
+Be careful to avoid using a double sign for the comparative degree; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: This writing is _more neater_ than yours.
+
+Some adverbs are also compared; as,
+
+     _Positive_          _Comparative_       _Superlative_
+    well              better            best
+    quickly           more quickly      most quickly
+
+Some adjectives and adverbs cannot be compared because the positive
+degree in itself expresses a complete or _absolute_ meaning; as,
+
+    absolute,-ly   eternal        perfect        sufficient
+    circular       extreme        perpendicular  supreme
+    continual      faultless      perpetual      unanimous
+    dead           full           right          unique
+    decisive       impossible     round          universal
+    empty          incurable      square         white
+
+Compare those of the following adjectives that may be compared. Explain
+why some do not admit of comparison.
+
+    great      spotless   expensive  wise
+    tall       dear       parallel   high
+    desirable  east       old        new
+    honorable  early      exclusive  blank
+
+
+=Exercise 94=
+
+In the following exercise, select the correct one of the two italicized
+forms. Remember that the comparative degree is used in comparing two
+objects, the superlative in comparing three or more.
+
+      1. I had three pens. I have lost the _better_--_best_
+      one.
+
+      2. I have two clerks. John is the _older_--_oldest_.
+
+      3. Of the two colors, I think the tan is the
+      _more_--_most_ becoming to you.
+
+      4. You are the _taller_--_tallest_ of all the boys.
+
+      5. Of two professions, choose the _more_--_most_
+      honorable.
+
+      6. He is the _faster_--_fastest_ workman in the shop.
+
+      7. Which of your hands is the _cleaner_--_cleanest_?
+
+      8. Which do you like _better_--_best_, skating or
+      sleighing?
+
+      9. Which of your eyes has the _better_--_best_ vision?
+
+      10. Of all the shops, she likes Leslie's
+      _better_--_best_.
+
+      11. Which is _more_--_most_ durable, serge or
+      broadcloth?
+
+      12. Which tree lives _longer_--_longest_, the poplar
+      or the elm?
+
+      13. Which is the _best_--_better_ policy, honesty or
+      dishonesty?
+
+      14. He is the _wittier_--_wittiest_ one in the class.
+
+      15. He is the _wittier_--_wittiest_ boy in the class.
+      There is only one boy in the class besides him.
+
+      16. Of our twenty salesmen, he is considered
+      _better_--_best_ because he is _quicker_--_quickest_
+      witted than any other.
+
+      17. You should not mention the two men in one breath.
+      The _former_--_first_ is famous and the
+      _latter_--_last_ infamous.
+
+      18. Which of you two do you think deserves
+      _more_--_most_ praise?
+
+      19. Which of you two deserves _less_--_least_ praise?
+
+      20. Which of you two can run the _faster_--_fastest_?
+
+
+=Exercise 95=
+
+Remember that the double negative is wrong; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: I haven't no paper.
+    _Right_: I have no paper.
+
+Correct any of the following sentences that contain this mistake:
+
+      1. None of them didn't come.
+
+      2. I couldn't do the problem neither.
+
+      3. This paper isn't very good, I don't think.
+
+      4. Couldn't you find no better pen?
+
+      5. I didn't choose none of them.
+
+      6. I don't see nothing to complain of.
+
+      7. He couldn't hardly see across the street.
+
+      8. We didn't find the paper nowhere.
+
+      9. They can't scarcely believe the report.
+
+      10. She couldn't stay with us only a few minutes.
+
+
+=Exercise 96--Fewer, Less=
+
+_Fewer_ refers to a smaller number by counting, _less_ refers to a
+smaller quantity by measuring. Insert the correct word:
+
+      1. You are making ---- mistakes each day.
+
+      2. I am having ---- difficulty in writing shorthand.
+
+      3. There are ---- houses on this street than I had
+      thought.
+
+      4. The farther inland we went the ---- signs of
+      habitation we saw.
+
+      5. Each year there is ---- opportunity for an
+      uneducated man to rise.
+
+      6. Each year there are ---- opportunities for the
+      uneducated man to rise.
+
+
+=Most, Almost=
+
+_Most_ refers to quantity or number; _almost_ means _not quite_. Insert
+the correct word:
+
+      7. ---- people enjoy their work.
+
+      8. I have ---- finished the course in stenography.
+
+      9. ---- European cities are beautiful.
+
+      10. ---- all European cities are beautiful.
+
+
+=Real, Very=
+
+_Real_ is an adjective meaning _actual_; _very_ is an adverb of degree.
+Insert the correct word:
+
+      11. I'm ---- glad to see you.
+
+      12. Is your comb ---- amber?
+
+      13. The men of the Titanic were ---- heroes.
+
+      14. He is a ---- good soloist.
+
+      15. She is ---- entertaining in conversation; it was a
+      ----pleasure to meet her.
+
+
+=Exercise 97--Adjectives and Adverbs Incorrectly Used=
+
+                _Wrong_                               _Right_
+   1. I don't like _those_ kind of pens.   I don't like _that_ kind of
+                                                pens.
+
+   2. What sort of _a_ course are you      What sort of course are you
+        taking?                                 taking?
+
+   3. His statements made me _mad_.        His statements made me _angry_.
+
+   4. Yours _respectively_.                Yours _respectfully_.
+         (Consult a dictionary for the correct use of _respectively_)
+
+   5. Do you want _in_?                    Do you want _to come in_?
+
+   6. Go _some place_ with me.             Go _somewhere_ with me.
+
+   7. My father is _some_ better.          My father is _somewhat_ better.
+
+   8. He comes _every once in a while_.    He comes _occasionally_.
+
+   9. Did you recognize the girl who       Did you recognize the girl who
+        drove _past?_                           drove _by_?
+
+  10. The two are _both_ alike.            The two are alike.
+
+  11. He is _liable_ to come any minute.   He is _likely_ to come at any
+                                                minute.
+
+  12. That ring has a _funny_ design.      That ring has an _odd_ design.
+
+  13. I'd _sooner_ stay at home.           I'd _rather_ stay at home.
+
+  14. Are you _most_ ready?                Are you _almost_ ready?
+
+  15. I'm _kind of_ sleepy.                I'm _rather_ sleepy.
+
+  16. What _size_ hat do you wear?         What _sized_ hat do you wear?
+
+  17. _This here_ book is the one I wish.  _This_ book is the one I wish.
+
+  18. He spoke _angry like_.               He spoke _angrily_.
+
+  19. His ideas are _no_ good.             His ideas are _worthless_ (or
+                                                _not good_).
+
+  20. He _seldom ever_ makes a mistake.    He _seldom_ (_hardly ever_)
+                                                makes a mistake.
+
+  21. I didn't work _any_ last night.      I didn't work _at all_ last
+                                                night.
+
+  22. I walked _this_ far yesterday.       I walked _as far as this_
+                                                yesterday.
+
+  23. I want to see you _badly_.           I want to see you _very much_.
+
+  24. He sells insurance _on the side_.    _In addition to his other
+                                                business_ he sells
+                                                insurance.
+
+  25. Don't talk _out loud_.               Don't talk _aloud_.
+
+  26. She is _very_ disappointed.          She is _very much_
+                                                disappointed.
+     (Before a perfect participle _too_ or _very_ may not be used without
+                      the addition of the adverb _much_)
+
+  27. She is a _cute_ (or _cunning_)       She is a _pretty_ child.
+        child.
+       (Look up the words _cute_ and _cunning_ in a dictionary)
+
+  28. He was lying face _down_ on the      He was lying face _downward_
+         grass.                                 on the grass.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE VERB
+
+
+VERBS may be _transitive_ or _intransitive_.
+
+A verb is transitive when it needs an object to complete its meaning;
+that is, when the action passes over (Latin, _transire_, to pass over)
+from the subject or doer to the object or receiver; as,
+
+    He _hit_ the ball.
+
+A verb is intransitive when it needs no object to complete its meaning;
+as,
+
+    The crowd _cheered_.
+
+Some intransitive verbs require a predicate noun or pronoun in the
+nominative case, or an adjective, to complete their meaning. They are
+the verbs _be_, _become_, _appear_, _seem_, _feel_, _taste_, _look_,
+_smell_; as,
+
+    _Adjective_: The berries taste _sour_.
+    _Noun_: John is my _brother_.
+    _Pronoun_: It is _I_.
+
+Such verbs are sometimes called _copulatives_.
+
+
+=Exercise 98=
+
+Tell whether each verb in the following sentences is transitive or
+intransitive and whether it is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the
+nominative or the objective case or by a complementary adjective.
+
+     1. Primitive people have left traces of very early
+     commercial relations.
+
+     2. Explorers visited the Ohio valley and found articles
+     of remote manufacture.
+
+     3. Checks and drafts are great conveniences to the
+     business man.
+
+     4. The United States Supreme Court made a decision that
+     labor unions are punishable under trust penalties.
+
+     5. A labor union is different from a trust.
+
+     6. This is the opinion of the labor leader.
+
+     7. What is your opinion?
+
+     8. The total value of merchandise sent to Latin-America
+     from the United States exceeds that supplied by any
+     other single country.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating transitive verbs.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating intransitive verbs.
+
+Write three sentences illustrating copulative verbs.
+
+
+=Exercise 99--Voice=
+
+Voice is that property of the verb that shows whether the subject acts
+or is acted upon. If the subject acts, the verb is in the _active
+voice_. If the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the _passive
+voice_. Every sentence containing a transitive verb must have the
+following parts:
+
+       _Agent_(doer)        _Action_       _Receiver_
+    The runaway horse       injured          John.
+
+When the sentence is in the order shown above, the subject is the agent,
+and the verb expresses the action of the agent. When the sentence is
+written in this order, the verb is said to be in the _active voice_.
+
+However, without changing the meaning of the sentence, we may change the
+order of the ideas; thus,
+
+    _Receiver_     _Action_           _Agent_
+      John       was injured     by the runaway horse.
+
+The receiver of the action has become the subject, and the agent has
+become part of the predicate, being expressed in the phrase _by the
+runaway horse_. When the sentence is expressed in this order, the
+subject receiving or "suffering" the action, the verb is said to be in
+the _passive voice_. Only transitive verbs, therefore, may be changed to
+the passive voice.
+
+      NOTE.--There are certain intransitive verbs that
+      sometimes have a preposition so closely connected with
+      them that the two are treated almost like a transitive
+      verb, and may be made passive; as,
+
+    _Active_: The audience laughed _at_ the speaker.
+    _Passive_: The speaker was laughed _at_ by the audience.
+
+Write five sentences in the active voice.
+
+Change them to the passive voice.
+
+In the sentences that you have written, is the active form of the verb
+or the passive form better? Which is more direct in its wording? Which,
+then, is the better form to use regularly?
+
+
+=Exercise 100--Number and Person=
+
+The number of the verb is decided by the number of the subject. If the
+subject is a singular noun, or a pronoun that stands for a singular
+noun, it requires a singular verb; if the subject is plural, it requires
+a plural verb. As a rule, there is no difference between the singular
+and the plural forms of the verb except in the form for the third person
+singular; as,
+
+    I say        We say
+    You say      You say
+    He says      They say
+
+But as the third person of the verb is the one most often used, it must
+be carefully noted.
+
+The following subjects of verbs are singular and require a singular verb
+to accompany them:
+
+1. A collective noun that denotes a group of objects acting as one
+thing; as,
+
+    The crowd _is_ scattering.
+
+2. A group of words which, like a collective noun, is plural in form but
+singular in meaning; as,
+
+    Thirty dollars _is_ what I paid for the ring.
+
+3. A singular noun modified by _every_, _each_, _one_, _no_, _many a_;
+or the pronouns _each_, _everybody_, _either_, _neither_, and _none_
+when it means _not one_; as,
+
+    Each of us _has_ his lesson.
+    Many an opportunity _has_ been wasted.
+    Everybody _is_ here now.
+
+4. Singular[1] nouns or pronouns joined by _or_, _either--or_,
+_neither--nor_; as,
+
+    Either John or his father _is_ coming.
+
+5. Two nouns joined by _and_, denoting one person or thing; as,
+
+    The bookkeeper and stenographer _is_ an expert.
+
+      NOTE.--If two persons are meant, the article should be
+      repeated before the second noun.
+
+The following subjects of verbs are plural and require plural verbs:
+
+1. A collective noun denoting plurality; that is, referring to the
+individuals that compose the group; as,
+
+    The class _are_ all studious.
+
+2. A compound subject joined by _and_, when the objects joined are
+different; as,
+
+    The door and the window _are_ both open.
+
+3. The pronoun _you_, though it may denote only one person; as,
+
+    _Right_: You _were_ right.
+    _Wrong_: You _was_ right.
+
+
+
+=Exercise 101=
+
+In the following sentences, decide which of the italicized forms is
+correct. Give the reason for your choice.
+
+      1. Two dollars _is_--_are_ too much for you to pay.
+
+      2. Bread and butter _is_--_are_ what I prefer to eat.
+
+      3. Bread and butter _is_--_are_ both sold here.
+
+      4. His opinion and mine _is_--_are_ different.
+
+      5. The majority of the class _is_--_are_ present.
+
+      6. The class _is_--_are_ dismissed.
+
+      7. The congregation _is_--_are_ asked to remain a few
+      minutes after the close of the service.
+
+      8. The community _is_--_are_ rapidly changing.
+
+      9. A few of the books _was_--_were_ given to me.
+
+      10. There _was_--_were_ forty people present.
+
+      11. The secretary and treasurer _was_--_were_ asked to
+      read _his_--_their_ report.
+
+      12. One-third of the office _was_--_were_ late this
+      morning because the cars were not running.
+
+      13. He _don't_--_doesn't_ understand what I mean.
+
+      14. If the quality and the price _is_--_are_ right,
+      buy.
+
+      15. There _come_--_comes_ a crowd of people.
+
+      16. The library with its thousands of books
+      _was_--_were_ destroyed by fire.
+
+      17. There _don't_--_doesn't_ seem to be much
+      difference between the two.
+
+      18. The whole system of filing and indexing
+      _is_--_are_ wrong.
+
+      19. Safety as well as success _is_--_are_ at stake.
+
+      20. The state of public affairs _calls_--_call_ for
+      quick action.
+
+      21. Many a man _has_--_have_ neglected golden
+      opportunities.
+
+      22. Many men _has_--_have_ neglected golden
+      opportunities.
+
+      23. The committee _has_--_have_ given _its_--_their_
+      report.
+
+      24. Our team _was_--_were_ beaten.
+
+      25. One of us surely _is_--_are_ mistaken.
+
+      26. Every one _was_--_were_ happy when Tom was elected
+      president.
+
+      27. Tom and James _is_--_are_ going skating.
+
+      28. Tom with his brother James _is_--_are_ going
+      skating.
+
+      29. The only thing I have not prepared for dinner
+      _is_--_are_ the potatoes.
+
+      30. Fifty feet of sidewalk _was_--_were_ laid to-day.
+
+      31. None of the boys _is_--_are_ studying stenography.
+
+      32. Neither Tom nor his brother _is_--_are_ studying
+      stenography.
+
+      33. Both Tom and his brother _is_--_are_
+      stenographers.
+
+      34. Every one _is_--_are_ interested in the cost of
+      living.
+
+In the last sentence above substitute one of the following for _every
+one_, using the correct form of the verb with each:
+
+      each of us; everybody; all of us; several people; both
+      of the men; neither of the men; neither Mary nor John;
+      Mary and John; our club; our class; the nation; not
+      only Europe but America; Europe as well as America;
+      the nation as well as several of the larger cities
+
+
+=Exercise 102--Tense=
+
+The tense of the verb indicates the time of the action. There are three
+primary tenses, indicating action in the _present_, the _past_, and the
+_future_. Each of these tenses has also a _perfect_ tense, which,
+represents the action as being perfect or complete in the present, the
+past, and the future.
+
+The _present_ tense is the simplest form. It denotes that the action
+takes place now; as,
+
+    I write          We write
+    You write        You write
+    He writes        They write
+
+To be more exact, we may indicate that the action is continuing in the
+present time, and then we say,
+
+    I am writing        We are writing
+    You are writing     You are writing
+    He is writing       They are writing
+
+This is called the _present progressive_ tense.
+
+It may be that you wish to be emphatic, and you say,
+
+    I do write         We do write
+    You do write       You do write
+    He does write      They do write
+
+This is called the _emphatic present_ tense.
+
+The _past_ tense indicates that the action took place in past time; as,
+
+    I wrote                We wrote
+    You wrote              You wrote
+    He wrote               They wrote
+
+or, the _past progressive_; as,
+
+    I was writing          We were writing
+    You were writing       You were writing
+    He was writing         They were writing
+
+or, the _past emphatic_; as,
+
+    I did write            We did write
+    You did write          You did write
+    He did write           They did write
+
+The emphatic form is used only in the present and the past tenses.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The _future_ tense denotes that the action will take place at some
+future time. It is formed by using _shall_ or _will_ with the simplest
+form of the verb; as,
+
+    I shall write          We shall write
+    You will write         You will write
+    He will write          They will write
+
+The progressive form is not common. It is
+
+    I shall be writing     We shall be writing
+    You will be writing    You will be writing
+    He will be writing     They will be writing
+
+The three perfect tenses are formed by using the verb _have_ with the
+perfect participle of the verb.
+
+The _present perfect_ tense denotes that the action is complete at the
+present time. It is formed by the present tense of _have_ and the
+perfect participle of the verb; as,
+
+    I have written         We have written
+    You have written       You have written
+    He has written         They have written
+
+The progressive form is,
+
+    I have been writing         We have been writing
+    You have been writing       You have been writing
+    He has been writing         They have been writing
+
+The _past perfect_ denotes that the action was completed in past time.
+It is formed by using the past tense of _have_ and the perfect
+participle of the verb; as,
+
+    I had written               We had written
+    You had written             You had written
+    He had written              They had written
+
+The progressive form is,
+
+    I had been writing          We had been writing
+    You had been writing        You had been writing
+    He had been writing         They had been writing
+
+The _future perfect_ tense denotes that the action will be completed at
+some future time. It is formed by the future of _have_ and the perfect
+participle of the verb; as,
+
+    I shall have written        We shall have written
+    You will have written       You will have written
+    He will have written        They will have written
+
+The progressive form is rarely used. It is
+
+    I shall have been writing   We shall have been writing
+    You will have been writing  You will have been writing
+    He will have been writing   They will have been writing
+
+Giving all forms singular and plural, first, second, and third persons
+of each tense constitutes the _conjugation_ of a verb. Giving one person
+in each tense constitutes the _synopsis_ of the conjugation.
+
+The following is a synopsis of all the tenses of the active voice in the
+first person singular number of the verb _write_:
+
+                                  ACTIVE VOICE
+
+           {           {                 {I write (simple form)
+           {           {_Present_        {I am writing (progressive form)
+           {           {                 {I do write (emphatic form)
+           {           {
+           {_Primary_  {                 {I wrote (simple)
+           {           {_Past_           {I was writing (progressive)
+           {           {                 {I did write (emphatic)
+           {           {
+           {           {                 {I shall write (simple)
+           {           {_Future_         {I shall be writing (progressive)
+    TENSE  {
+           {           {                 {I have written (simple)
+           {           {_Present Perfect_{I have been writing (progressive)
+           {           {
+           {_Perfect_  {                 {I had written (simple)
+           {_or_       {_Past Perfect_   {I had been writing (progressive)
+           {_Secondary_{
+           {           {
+           {           {                 {I shall have written (simple)
+           {           {_Future Perfect_ {I shall have been writing
+           {           {                 {     (progressive)
+
+
+=Exercise 103=
+
+Conjugate the following in the active voice:
+
+      1. Simple past tense of _walk_.
+
+      2. Present progressive tense of _walk_.
+
+      3. Present perfect of _drive_. (See Exercise 108 for
+      the principal parts.)
+
+      4. Present perfect progressive of _drive_.
+
+      5. Future progressive of _ride_.
+
+      6. Past of _ride_.
+
+      7. Present progressive of _ride_.
+
+      8. Past emphatic of _ride_.
+
+      9. Past perfect of _ride_.
+
+      10. Present perfect progressive of _ride_.
+
+Give a synopsis of the progressive tenses of _begin_, using _he_ as the
+subject.
+
+
+=Exercise 104--Shall and Will=
+
+The auxiliary verbs used to form the future tenses are _shall_ and
+_will_. The two must be carefully distinguished because they denote
+different ideas, according to the person with which they are used. The
+rule is, to express simple future time, use _shall_ in the first person,
+_will_ in the second and third persons.
+
+The future tense of the verb _walk_ is conjugated as follows:
+
+    I shall walk      We shall walk
+    You will walk     You will walk
+    He will walk      They will walk
+
+This is the form to use when you expect the action to take place
+naturally.
+
+On the other hand, instead of letting things take their natural course
+as they do in the simple future, you may force them to take place. You
+may, for example, be determined to walk, or determined to make some one
+else walk. In that case the use is reversed; as,
+
+    I will walk        We will walk
+    You shall walk     You shall walk
+    He shall walk      They shall walk
+
+This form is used whenever the speaker has authority to bring about the
+action indicated by the verb.
+
+In questions of the first person always use _shall_. In questions of the
+second and third persons use the same form that you expect in the
+answer; as,
+
+      _Shall_ you be at home to-morrow? I _shall_.
+
+In the following sentences insert _shall_ or _will_, giving the reason
+for your choice:
+
+      1. I ---- finish the work by three o'clock, I think.
+
+      2. To-morrow he ---- feel sorry for this; I vow it.
+
+      3. I am sorry, but I ---- not be able to finish the
+      work before next week.
+
+      4. ---- you finish your business course in February or
+      in June? I ---- finish in June, I think.
+
+      5. ---- he finish in February? No, he ---- finish in
+      June.
+
+      6. The foreman declares he ---- not have another
+      chance.
+
+      7. He ---- see his mistake when it is too late.
+
+      8. They ---- surely be at the station to meet me.
+
+      9. I'm afraid you ---- be kicked if you go near that
+      horse.
+
+      10. If he doesn't take the examination, he ---- fail.
+
+      11. I am determined that I ---- win.
+
+      12. I ---- sail probably on the fifteenth.
+
+      13. He ---- be twenty-one to-morrow.
+
+      14. I ---- go in spite of him.
+
+      15. ---- you go by train, do you think?
+
+      16. I ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- send the
+      book at once.
+
+      17. I promise you John ---- know his lesson to-morrow.
+
+      18. ---- you be at home this evening?
+
+      19. ---- the train be on time?
+
+      20. ---- the store be open this evening?
+
+Conjugate the future and future perfect tenses of the following verbs:
+
+    drive    see      go       run      sweep
+    ride     choose   sing     eat      sell
+
+
+=Exercise 105--Should and Would=
+
+_Should_ and _would_ are the past tenses of _shall_ and _will_ and, in
+general, express the same ideas as do _shall_ and _will_, except that
+_should_ sometimes means _ought_; as,
+
+      You _should_ not speak in that way.
+
+_Would_, also, sometimes indicates an action that occurs frequently; as,
+
+      She _would_ often sit at the window all the morning.
+
+The use of _should_ and _would_ in indirect statements and questions is
+sometimes puzzling. First of all, decide whether _shall_ or _will_ would
+be used in the direct form of the sentence. If the direct form uses
+_shall_, use _should_ in the indirect; if the direct uses _will_, use
+_would_ in the indirect; as,
+
+      _Direct_: The market _will_ improve.
+
+      _Indirect_: He said that the market _would_ improve.
+
+In conditional clauses (_if_), use _should_ for all persons.
+
+Insert _should_ or _would_.
+
+      1. If I knew his address, I ---- send him a telegram.
+
+      2. He promised that he ---- not make the mistake
+      again. (The direct form would read, I will not ---- )
+
+      3. I promised that I ---- not make the mistake again.
+
+      4. You promised that you ---- not make the mistake
+      again.
+
+      5. Do you think that I ---- go?
+
+      6. I ---- if I were you.
+
+      7. I ---- think he ---- know better than to apply for
+      that position.
+
+      8. John said that, no matter what we thought, he ----
+      not go.
+
+      9. If you ---- decide to accept the offer, let me know
+      at once.
+
+      10. I am sorry he did that. He ---- not, of course.
+
+      11. If I ---- see him, I'd let him know.
+
+      12. If he ---- come during my absence, ask him to
+      wait.
+
+      13. I ---- think you would be more careful.
+
+      14. Let me know if you ---- not be able to come.
+
+
+=Exercise 106=
+
+Change the italicized verbs to past tense, future, present perfect, past
+perfect, future perfect. Wherever necessary, add sufficient to make the
+meaning of the tense clear; as,
+
+      _Present_: The manager _is now_ in his office.
+
+      _Past_: The manager _was_ in his office _a few minutes
+      ago_.
+
+      _Future_: The manager _will be_ in his office
+      _to-morrow at ten o'clock_.
+
+      _Present Perfect_: The manager _has been_ in his
+      office _all the morning_. (It is still morning.)
+
+      _Past Perfect_: The manager _had been_ in his office
+      _only a few moments when the president arrived_.
+
+      _Future Perfect_: _In about five minutes_ the manager
+      _will have been_ in the president's office _exactly
+      three hours_.
+
+      1. The cashier _opens_ the safe in the morning.
+
+      2. The mechanic _earns_ good wages.
+
+      3. The buyer _leaves_ to-night.
+
+      4. The bookkeeper _makes_ out the statements.
+
+      5. The correspondent _writes_ the booklets.
+
+      6. The advertising manager _approves_ the copy.
+
+      7. The adding machine _is broken_.
+
+      8. The chief clerk _attends_ to the incoming mail.
+
+      9. The superintendent _visits_ the factory every day.
+
+      10. The salesman _is selling_ five thousand dollars'
+      worth of goods a week.
+
+
+=Exercise 107=
+
+The present tense is used to indicate general truths--things true in
+past time and still true. Omit the incorrect form in the following
+sentences:
+
+      1. What did you say _is_--_was_ the meaning of the
+      term _bona fide_?
+
+      2. What _was_--_is_ the name of that book that you
+      enjoyed so much?
+
+      3. Didn't you know that the lion _is_--_was_ called
+      the king of beasts?
+
+      4. They told me that the legal rate of interest at
+      present _is_-_was_ six per cent.
+
+      5. Have you ever heard him try to prove that black
+      _is_--_was_ white?
+
+      6. What _is_--_was_ the name of the banker who
+      lectured to us yesterday?
+
+      7. I never could remember what the important products
+      of my county _are_--_were_.
+
+      8. The advocate of Equal Suffrage argued that mothers
+      _need_--_needed_ the ballot to protect their children.
+
+      9. She said that a democracy _is_--_was_ a government
+      of the people, by the people, and for the people, and
+      that women _are_-_were_ people as well as men.
+
+      10. The speaker asserted that this country
+      _needs_--_needed_ a tariff to protect home industries.
+
+
+=Exercise 108--Principal Parts=
+
+No one can be certain of using the correct form of a verb unless he
+knows the principal parts. Some verbs are regular; that is, they form
+their past tense and their perfect participle by adding _ed_ to the
+present tense; as,
+
+    _Present_      _Past_     _Perfect Participle_
+     walk       walked       walked
+
+Some verbs, however, are very irregular, having a different form for
+each of the principal parts. A list of such verbs follows:
+
+    _Present_              _Past_           _Perfect Participle_
+    arise               arose               arisen
+    awake               awoke or awaked     awaked
+    be                  was                 been
+    bear (carry)        bore                borne
+    beat                beat                beaten
+    become              became              become
+    begin               began               begun
+    bid                 bade                bidden
+    bite                bit                 bitten
+    blow                blew                blown
+    break               broke               broken
+    choose              chose               chosen
+    come                came                come
+    do                  did                 done
+    draw                drew                drawn
+    drink               drank               drunk
+    drive               drove               driven
+    eat                 ate                 eaten
+    fall                fell                fallen
+    fly                 flew                flown
+    forbid              forbade             forbidden
+    forsake             forsook             forsaken
+    freeze              froze               frozen
+    give                gave                given
+    go                  went                gone
+    grow                grew                grown
+    hide                hid                 hidden
+    know                knew                known
+    lie (to rest)       lay                 lain
+    ride                rode                ridden
+    ring                rang                rung
+    rise                rose                risen
+    run                 ran                 run
+    see                 saw                 seen
+    shake               shook               shaken
+    show                showed              shown
+    shrink              shrank              shrunk
+    sing                sang                sung
+    slay                slew                slain
+    slide               slid                slidden
+    sow                 sowed               sown
+    speak               spoke               spoken
+    spring              sprang              sprung
+    steal               stole               stolen
+    strive              strove              striven
+    swear               swore               sworn
+    swell               swelled             swelled, swollen
+    swim                swam                swum
+    take                took                taken
+    tear                tore                torn
+    throw               threw               thrown
+    wear                wore                worn
+    weave               wove                woven
+    write               wrote               written
+
+
+=Exercise 109=
+
+Some verbs, though irregularly formed, have the past tense and perfect
+participle alike. A list of such verbs follows:
+
+    _Present_              _Past_           _Perfect Participle_
+    bend                bent                bent
+    behold              beheld              beheld
+    beseech             besought            besought
+    bind                bound               bound
+    bleed               bled                bled
+    bless               blessed, blest      blessed, blest
+    bring               brought             brought
+    build               built               built
+    burn                burned, burnt       burned, burnt
+    buy                 bought              bought
+    catch               caught              caught
+    cling               clung               clung
+    clothe              clothed, clad       clothed, clad
+    creep               crept               crept
+    deal                dealt               dealt
+    dig                 dug                 dug
+    dream               dreamed, dreamt     dreamed, dreamt
+    dwell               dwelt               dwelt
+    flee                fled                fled
+    grind               ground              ground
+    hang                hung, hanged        hung, hanged
+    have                had                 had
+    hear                heard               heard
+    hold                held                held
+    kneel               knelt               knelt
+    lay                 laid                laid
+    lead                led                 led
+    leap                leapt               leapt
+    lend                lent                lent
+    pay                 paid                paid
+    say                 said                said
+    shine               shone               shone
+    sit                 sat                 sat
+    sleep               slept               slept
+    sling               slung               slung
+    speed               sped                sped
+    spin                spun                spun
+    stand               stood               stood
+    sting               stung               stung
+    strike              struck              struck
+    string              strung              strung
+    sweep               swept               swept
+    swing               swung               swung
+    teach               taught              taught
+    think               thought             thought
+    weep                wept                wept
+    win                 won                 won
+    wind                wound               wound
+    wring               wrung               wrung
+
+
+=Exercise 110=
+
+Some verbs have all three forms alike. A list of such follows:
+
+    _Present_    _Past_        _Perfect Participle_
+    bet         bet         bet
+    burst       burst       burst
+    cast        cast        cast
+    cost        cost        cost
+    cut         cut         cut
+    hit         hit         hit
+    hurt        hurt        hurt
+    knit        knit        knit
+    let         let         let
+    put         put         put
+    rid         rid         rid
+    set         set         set
+    shed        shed        shed
+    spread      spread      spread
+    sweat       sweat       sweat
+    wet         wet         wet
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] If one of the words so joined is plural, the verb should be plural.
+
+
+
+=Exercise 111=
+
+Choose the correct form of the italicized words below, and give the
+reason for your choice.
+
+      1. If it _don't_--_doesn't_ fit you, we shall alter
+      it.
+
+      2. I _knew_--_knowed_ I was right.
+
+      3. _Aren't_--_ain't_ you glad we came?
+
+      4. _Ain't_--_isn't_ he well?
+
+      5. We _done_--_did_ the right thing.
+
+      6. _Let_--_leave_ the book on the table.
+
+      7. _Let_--_leave_ me do as I planned.
+
+      8. Mary has _broke_--_broken_ her arm.
+
+      9. My mother has _gone_--_went_ to Boston.
+
+      10. Where _was_--_were_ you yesterday?
+
+      11. When the dinner bell _rang_--_rung_, we all
+      _come_--_came_ running in.
+
+      12. He _don't_--_doesn't_ know what you said.
+
+      13. To what hospital have they _taken_--_took_ him?
+
+      14. I _saw_--_seen_ him a few minutes ago.
+
+      15. I _saw_--_seen_ him yesterday.
+
+      16. I should _have_--_of_ brought my book.
+
+      17. My winter coat is _wore_--_worn_ out.
+
+      18. Have you ever _rode_--_ridden_ in an aeroplane?
+
+      19. I have _shown_--_showed_ you all the styles I
+      have.
+
+      20. _Don't_--_doesn't_ it seem odd that he
+      _don't_--_doesn't_ come?
+
+      21. She _don't_--_doesn't_ remember you.
+
+      22. We _began_--_begun_ the work yesterday.
+
+      23. I'm afraid my foot is _froze_--_frozen_.
+
+      24. We _ran_--_run_ all the way.
+
+      25. I've _shook_--_shaken_ him three times, but he
+      _don't_--_doesn't_ awake.
+
+      26. The bell _rang_--_rung_ just before you entered.
+
+      27. She _sang_--_sung_ very well.
+
+      28. He _swam_--_swum_ all yesterday morning.
+
+      29. Why _don't_--_doesn't_ some one tell John that his
+      coat is _tore_--_torn_?
+
+      30. _Don't_--_doesn't_ mother know that the vase is
+      _broke_--_broken_?
+
+
+=Exercise 112--Troublesome Verbs=
+
+=Lie, Lay=
+
+_Lie_ is intransitive; _lay_ is transitive. _Lie_ signifies _to rest_;
+_lay_, _to place_. Insert the correct form in the following:
+
+      1. He told me to ---- the book on the table. It ----
+      there now.
+
+      2. I ---- all day waiting for help to arrive.
+
+      3. Where did you ---- the purse?
+
+      4. I ---- it on your desk.
+
+      5. I have ---- the letters on your desk.
+
+      6. They told me to ---- down. I ---- down for about
+      two hours.
+
+      7. As I wished to bleach the clothes, I ---- them on
+      the grass.
+
+      8. ---- the bundle down and listen to me.
+
+      9. You will probably find your cap ----ing where it
+      has ----since you dropped it.
+
+      10. They let the field ---- fallow.
+
+      11. How long has it ---- fallow?
+
+      12. Yesterday he ---- on the grass almost all day.
+
+      13. The hunter ---- still and watched.
+
+      14. He ---- his gun beside him and waited.
+
+      15. It will ---- undisturbed till morning.
+
+      16. ---- down awhile before dinner.
+
+      17. I don't know how long he has ---- here.
+
+      18. He let his tools ---- in the rain.
+
+
+=Exercise 113--Troublesome Verbs=
+
+=Sit, Set=
+
+_Sit_ is intransitive and signifies _to rest_. _Set_ is transitive and
+means _to place_. Insert the correct form:
+
+      1. I have ---- the ferns in the rain.
+
+      2. ---- down for a few minutes.
+
+      3. She drew up a chair and ---- down, while we were
+      ----ting down the probable expenses of the new house.
+
+      4. Why don't you ---- us a good example?
+
+      5. ----ting the table is not strenuous enough for one
+      who has been ----ting all day.
+
+      6. The hen is ----ting on her eggs.
+
+      7. The man is ----ting out trees.
+
+      8. ---- still; I'll go.
+
+=Fly, Flow, Flee=
+
+Remember that birds _fly_; rivers _flow_; hunted creatures _flee_.
+
+       9. Still the river ---- on its accustomed course.
+
+      10. Every autumn the birds ---- south.
+
+      11. The birds have not yet ---- away.
+
+      12. The deer ---- before the dogs.
+
+=Rise, Raise=
+
+_Rise_ is intransitive; _raise_ is transitive.
+
+      13. I have been trying all morning to ---- this
+      window.
+
+      14. I set the bread to ----.
+
+      15. He will surely ---- in his profession.
+
+=Teach, Learn=
+
+      16. Will you ---- me how to play tennis?
+
+      17. I thought you had ---- how to play tennis.
+
+      18. I ---- (past tense) her the new system of filing.
+
+=May, Can=
+
+_May_ signifies permission; _can_ denotes possibility.
+
+      19. ---- I use your book?
+
+      20. ---- you write shorthand?
+
+      21. ---- I go with you?
+
+      22. My mother says that I ---- go with you.
+
+=Might, Could=
+
+_Might_ is the past tense of _may_, and _could_ is the past tense of
+_can_.
+
+      23. He said that I ---- go.
+
+      24. He ---- do the work if he wished.
+
+      25. Did you say I ---- use your typewriter?
+
+
+=Exercise 114--Accept, Except=
+
+_Accept_ means _to receive_. _Except_ as a verb means _to exclude_; as a
+preposition it means _with the exception of_. Insert the correct form in
+the following:
+
+      1. Did you ---- the position? Yes, no one applied
+      for it ---- me.
+
+      2. I have no other reason for not ----ing your
+      invitation ---- that I shall not be in the city.
+
+      3. ---- Mary all ----ed the invitation.
+
+      4. He would not ---- the money ---- on one condition.
+
+      5. Why do you ---- him from the general offer that you
+      are making?
+
+      6. I agree with you ---- on one point.
+
+      7. He ----ed the rebuke in silence.
+
+      8. We were forced to ---- their conditions.
+
+      9. He said he would not ---- the money ---- that he
+      knew he could return it.
+
+      10. You have answered everything ---- what I asked
+      you.
+
+
+=Exercise 115--Affect, Effect=
+
+_Affect_ means _to influence_. It is always a verb. _Effect_ as a verb
+means _to bring to pass_; as a noun it means _result_. Insert the
+correct form in the following sentences:
+
+      1. His opinion does not ---- the case.
+
+      2. How does war ---- trade?
+
+      3. His walking has had a good ---- upon his health.
+
+      4. The ruling did not ---- the wholesale dealers, but
+      it had a big ---- upon us.
+
+      5. What ---- did the loss have upon him?
+
+      6. The failure of the bank ----ed the small depositors
+      but had no ---- upon the big business men.
+
+      7. The ---- of the law has been startling because of
+      the number of people ----ed by it.
+
+      8. They ----ed the consolidation, but thereby produced
+      a bad ---- upon the price of their stock.
+
+      9. The accident seriously ----ed his nervous system.
+      In fact, the ---- of the fall is only gradually
+      disappearing.
+
+      10. Did the celebrated physician really ---- a cure?
+
+
+=Exercise 116--Lose, Loose=
+
+_Lose_ is a verb, while _loose_ is usually an adjective. The two should
+be carefully distinguished. Insert the correct form:
+
+      1. I have a note book with ---- leaves.
+
+      2. Aren't you afraid you will ---- some of the ----
+      leaves of that book?
+
+      3. Be careful that you don't ---- that ---- bolt.
+
+      4. Do you remember that you had warned me that I'd
+      ---- the ---- button on my coat? I did ---- it not
+      five minutes afterward.
+
+      5. One of the hinges of the door has become ----.
+
+      6. Do not ---- the ---- change in that pocket.
+
+      7. He will ---- the parcel as the cord is ----.
+
+      8. Did you ---- the ---- leaf journal?
+
+      9. She may ---- the money, as the clasp of her purse
+      is ----.
+
+      10. I keep my ---- journal paper together by a rubber
+      band so that there will be no chance of ----ing it.
+
+
+=Exercise 117--Had ought=
+
+    _Wrong_: We had ought to go.
+    _Right_: We ought to go.
+    _Wrong_: We had ought to have gone.
+    _Right_: We ought to have gone.
+
+Correct the following sentences:
+
+      1. I had ought to have studied harder.
+
+      2. You ought to do it, hadn't you?
+
+      3. Hadn't you ought to have gone?
+
+      4. Yes, I had ought to have gone yesterday.
+
+      5. Do you think I had ought to have accepted?
+
+      6. He had ought to come to-morrow.
+
+      7. The tickets had ought to have come from the
+      printer's yesterday.
+
+      8. We had not ought to stay out so late.
+
+      9. You had ought to wear your coat.
+
+      10. He had ought to have become naturalized.
+
+      11. You had ought to have washed the dishes before you
+      went out.
+
+      12. You had ought to take an umbrella.
+
+      13. You had ought to have heard what she said.
+
+      14. We hadn't ought to disagree.
+
+      15. You ought to have invested, hadn't you?
+
+
+=Exercise 118=
+
+Conjugation of the verb _be_ in the
+
+INDICATIVE MODE
+
+                 _Present Tense_
+
+    _Singular_                     _Plural_
+
+    I am                           We are
+    You are                        You are
+    He is                          They are
+
+                  _Past Tense_
+
+    I was                          We were
+    You were                       You were
+    He was                         They were
+
+                 _Future Tense_
+
+    I shall be                     We shall be
+    You will be                    You will be
+    He will be                     They will be
+
+              _Present Perfect Tense_
+
+    I have been                    We have been
+    You have been                  You have been
+    He has been                    They have been
+
+                _Past Perfect Tense_
+
+    I had been                     We had been
+    You had been                   You had been
+    He had been                    They had been
+
+              _Future Perfect Tense_
+
+    I shall have been              We shall have been
+    You will have been             You will have been
+    He will have been              They will have been
+
+The verb _be_ is used to form the progressive tenses of the active voice
+(See Exercise 102) and the simple tenses of the passive voice; as,
+
+PASSIVE VOICE
+
+                 _Present Tense_
+
+    _Singular_                     _Plural_
+
+    I am followed                  We are followed
+    You are followed               You are followed
+    He is followed                 They are followed
+
+                  _Past Tense_
+
+    I was followed                 We were followed
+    You were followed              You were followed
+    He was followed                They were followed
+
+                 _Future Tense_
+
+    I shall be followed            We shall be followed
+    You will be followed           You will be followed
+    He will be followed            They will be followed
+
+              _Present Perfect Tense_
+
+    I have been followed           We have been followed
+    You have been followed         You have been followed
+    He has been followed           They have been followed
+
+                _Past Perfect Tense_
+
+    I had been followed            We had been followed
+    You had been followed          You had been followed
+    He had been followed           They had been followed
+
+              _Future Perfect Tense_
+
+    I shall have been followed     We shall have been followed
+    You will have been followed    You will have been followed
+    He will have been followed     They will have been followed
+
+If we add the progressive form wherever it may be used, we have the
+following synopsis of the indicative mood:
+
+PASSIVE VOICE
+
+            {            { _Present_  I am followed (simple)
+            {            {            I am being followed (progressive)
+            {            {
+            { _Primary_  { _Past_     I was followed (simple)
+            {            {            I was being followed (progressive)
+    Tenses  {            {
+            {            { _Future_   I shall be followed
+            {
+            {            { _Present Perfect_  I have been followed
+            { _Perfect_  { _Past Perfect_     I had been followed
+            {            { _Future Perfect_   I shall have been followed
+
+
+=Exercise 119=
+
+Conjugate the following in the passive voice:
+
+      1. Simple present of _pay_.
+
+      2. Progressive past of _pay_.
+
+      3. Present perfect of _throw_.
+
+      4. Future of _praise_.
+
+      5. Past perfect of _forget_.
+
+      6. Progressive present of _choose_.
+
+      7. Past progressive of _choose_.
+
+      8. Future of _choose_.
+
+      9. Future perfect of _choose._
+
+      10. Past perfect of _choose_.
+
+
+=Exercise 120=
+
+Supply the verb forms indicated. Use the active unless the passive is
+definitely called for.
+
+      1. The vegetables (present perfect of _lie_) in water
+      all the morning.
+
+      2. Rumors (past progressive passive of _spread_) far
+      and wide that Germany would fight England.
+
+      3. I thought the gingham (past perfect passive of
+      _shrink_) before the dress (past passive of _made_).
+
+      4. I am afraid my ear (present progressive of
+      _freeze_).
+
+      5. Is it true that your ring (present perfect passive
+      of _steal_)?
+
+      6. A sudden storm (past of _arise_) yesterday
+      afternoon, and a little boy (past passive of _drown_)
+      in the river where he and several of his companions
+      (past perfect progressive of _swim_) since noon.
+
+      7. I (present perfect of _speak_) of the matter to no
+      one.
+
+      8. I suppose that it (present perfect passive of
+      _break_).
+
+      9. I must (present perfect of _show_) him twenty
+      different styles, but he (past of _choose_) none of
+      them, for as soon as I (past of _show_) him one, he
+      (past of _shake_) his head.
+
+      10. She (past progressive of _wring_) out the clothes
+      when the door bell (past of _ring_).
+
+      11. I am afraid my purse (present passive of _lose_).
+
+      12. The knight (past of _say_) that he (past perfect
+      of _decide_) (infinitive of _follow_) the quest.
+
+      13. I thought I (past perfect of _bring_) you the
+      morning paper.
+
+      14. He (past of _swim_) the river twice yesterday.
+
+      15. There he stood (present participle of _ring_) the
+      dinner bell.
+
+      16. His coat (present perfect passive of _wet_)
+      through more than once.
+
+      17. The trip (past of _cost_) him a hundred dollars.
+
+      18. I (past of _see_) the superintendent yesterday,
+      but he said that there (present of _be_) no vacancies
+      at present.
+
+      19. They (past of _lay_) the clippings on the desk,
+      and then they (past of _sit_) down.
+
+      20. As he (past of _speak_), he (past progressive of
+      _shake_) from head to foot.
+
+      21. The clouds (past of _lie_) low on the horizon.
+
+      22. The building in which I work (present perfect
+      passive of _burn_).
+
+      23. Your employer (present perfect _deal_) fairly with
+      you.
+
+      24. I (present perfect of _have_) the same position
+      for three years.
+
+      25. I (future of _lend_) him no money.
+
+      26. The floor (past passive of _lay_) by an expert
+      workman.
+
+      27. The beads (past passive of _string_) on a waxed
+      thread.
+
+      28. He (present perfect of _throw_) the whole office
+      into confusion.
+
+      29. Before he came forward, he (past of _set_) the
+      child down.
+
+      30. After the storm, leaves and twigs (past
+      progressive of _lie_) thick upon the roads.
+
+      31. He (past of _drive_) to town yesterday. He (future
+      of _go_) again to-morrow.
+
+      32. The dictionary (present progressive of _lie_) on
+      the table where you (past of _lay_) it.
+
+      33. The dog (past of _lay_) the bone down, and then he
+      (past of _lie_) down.
+
+      34. He (past of _set_) the chair by the window and
+      then (past of _sit_) down.
+
+      35. I think we (future of _see_) him as we pass, for
+      he usually (present of _lie_) on a couch by the
+      window.
+
+      36. The snow (past perfect progressive of _fall_) for
+      several hours and now (past of _lie_) deep on every
+      path.
+
+      37. Everything (present perfect passive of _lay_) in
+      readiness.
+
+      38. (Present participle of _lie_) in the hammock, he
+      soon fell asleep.
+
+      39. I saw the man (present participle of _lie_) on the
+      ground.
+
+      40. After he (past perfect of _lie_) there a few
+      minutes, he suddenly (past of _sit_) up.
+
+      41. The biplane, which (past perfect progressive of
+      _lie_) in the hangar since it (past perfect passive of
+      _raise_) from the water in which it (past perfect of
+      _lie_) for two weeks, (past of _rise_) up over the
+      city.
+
+      42. Large crowds (past progressive of _sit_) on the
+      fields, (present participle of _wait_) for the
+      aeroplane (infinitive of rise).
+
+      43. Many people (past perfect of _set_) tents on the
+      field during the night and now (past progressive of
+      _get_) a good view of the flight.
+
+      44. All eyes (past progressive of _turn_) toward the
+      aeroplane, which (past progressive of _rise_)
+      steadily.
+
+      45. The biplane (past of _rise_) until it (past
+      perfect of _rise_) about five hundred feet above the
+      tallest building; then it (past passive of _raise_)
+      about fifty feet more to get it out of an air current
+      that (past progressive of _raise_) one end of it.
+
+
+=Exercise 121--Infinitives and Participles=
+
+_Infinitives_ are verb forms that are used as nouns, as adjectives, or
+as adverbs. _Participles_ are verb forms that are used as adjectives.
+Thus at the same time each acts as two parts of speech. As verbs both
+have the meaning of the verbs from which they are made; both have tense
+and voice; both may be modified by adverbial expressions; and, if they
+are made from transitive verbs, both may take objects.
+
+The Participle
+
+The tenses and voices of the participle are as follows:
+
+    ACTIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+
+    _Simple_                    _Progressive_
+     selling                        ----
+
+    _Perfect_
+    having sold               having been selling
+
+
+    PASSIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+
+    being sold                        ----
+
+    _Perfect_
+   having been sold                   ----
+
+The participle frequently introduces a phrase. Usually the phrase is
+used like an adjective; occasionally it is used like a noun (sometimes
+called the _gerund_ phrase).
+
+      _Adjective_: _Seeing your perplexity_, I'll offer a
+      suggestion. (Notice the punctuation.)
+
+      _Noun_(Gerund): _Playing tennis_ is good exercise.
+
+The Infinitive
+
+The infinitive is distinguished by the word _to_, either expressed or
+understood. The tenses and voices of the infinitive are as follows:
+
+    ACTIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+
+    _Simple_                    _Progressive_
+    to sell                     to be selling
+
+    _Perfect_
+    to have sold             to have been selling
+
+
+    PASSIVE VOICE
+
+    _Present_
+    to be sold                      ----
+
+    _Perfect_
+    to have been sold               ----
+
+The infinitive is often used to introduce a phrase; as,
+
+    _Noun_: _To get to the top of the hill_ was a difficult matter.
+    _Adverb_: I went _to buy the sugar_.
+    _Adjective_: It's a drawing _to be proud of_.
+
+Grouping all the facts that we have thus far learned about phrases, and
+expressing them in diagram form, we have the following:
+
+Phrases may be classified:
+
+    _According to Form_        _According to Use_
+    Prepositional              Adverbial
+    Participial (Gerund)       Adjective
+    Infinitive                 Noun
+
+The prepositional and infinitive phrases may have all three uses; the
+participial phrase has two--adjective and noun (gerund).
+
+
+Variety of Expression[2]
+
+Phrases are important because, like clauses, they help us to vary the
+form of our sentences. They help us, above all, to avoid the childish
+_so_ habit. Thus, instead of _They wished to make the ice smooth so they
+flooded the pond_, we may use, for example:
+
+      _Subordinate clause_: Because (as, since) they wished
+      to make the ice smooth, they flooded the pond.
+
+      _Participial phrase_: Wishing to make the ice smooth,
+      they flooded the pond.
+
+      _Infinitive phrase_: To make the ice smooth, they
+      flooded the pond.
+
+      _Gerund phrase_: Flooding the pond made the ice
+      smooth.
+
+      _Prepositional phrase modifying noun subject_: The
+      flooding of the pond made the ice smooth.
+
+
+Recast each of the following sentences in at least two of the ways shown
+above:
+
+      1. They wished to finish the work so they stayed till
+      six o'clock.
+
+      2. John hoped to arrive before the others so he
+      started early.
+
+      3. He saw that the cars were not running so he walked
+      so he would be on time.
+
+      4. They needed some gasoline so they had to stop at a
+      garage.
+
+      5. He wished to make a tool chest so he bought some
+      lumber.
+
+      6. They saw that he liked to read so they gave him
+      several books.
+
+      7. She wished to make a good appearance at the party
+      so she bought a new dress.
+
+      8. He was in a hurry so he walked fast.
+
+      9. We were afraid that we'd be late so we ran.
+
+      10. The campers thought they'd like a fire so they
+      gathered a quantity of dry leaves and wood.
+
+      11. I was very tired when I reached home so I couldn't
+      go to the lecture.
+
+      12. The work was difficult so it took three hours to
+      finish it.
+
+      13. The clock needed repairing so he took it to a
+      jeweler's.
+
+      14. The coat did not fit so she sent it back.
+
+      15. She didn't know where to take the train so she
+      asked a policeman.
+
+
+=Exercise 122--Mode=
+
+Mode is the form of the verb that indicates the manner of expressing the
+thought. The _modes_, or _moods_, that every one should be able to
+distinguish are the _indicative_ and the _subjunctive_. If the verb
+indicates a fact, we say it is in the indicative mode; if it expresses a
+supposition, a doubt, a statement contrary to fact, or a wish, we say it
+is in the subjunctive mode.
+
+    You _are_ good.       (A fact--indicative.)
+
+    I wish I _were_ good. (Contrary to fact, a wish--subjunctive.)
+
+In form the indicative and the subjunctive differ in the present and the
+past tenses of the verb _to be_, as follows:
+
+                   =Indicative of _be_=
+
+          _Present_                   _Past_
+    I am          We are       I was         We were
+    You are       You are      You were      You were
+    He is         They are     He was        They were
+
+                   =Subjunctive of _be_=
+
+          _Present_                   _Past_
+    If I be     If we be     If I were     If we were
+    If you be   If you be    If you were   If you were
+    If he be    If they be   If he were    If they were
+
+Other verbs in the subjunctive mode do not end in _s_ in the third
+person singular number, but use the same form as the other persons in
+the singular number; as, _if he go_, _if she walk_.
+
+_If_, _though_, _although_, or _lest_ usually introduce the subjunctive
+form.
+
+In modern English, the use of the subjunctive is becoming rare except in
+the past and past perfect tenses in statements contrary to fact, and in
+wishes, which are really statements contrary to fact; as,
+
+      1. If I were a king (but I'm not), I'd see that my
+      laws were obeyed.
+
+      2. I wish I were a king! (but I'm not).
+
+      3. If I had been careful, my work would be good. (I
+      was not careful.)
+
+      4. I wish I had been careful! (I was not.)
+
+Notice that the verb is in the past or in the past perfect tense.
+
+There are some careful writers who still use the present subjunctive to
+show a _possibility_; as,
+
+      Lest he start too late, remind him again that he must
+      meet the 4:15 train.
+
+In the following sentences, which form is better? May any of the
+sentences use either form?
+
+      1. I wish I _was_--_were_ rich.
+
+      2. If I _was_--_were_ you, I should go at once.
+
+      3. If his work _was_--_were_ exact, he would have no
+      trouble in holding a position.
+
+      4. If it _was_--_were_ true, why didn't you say so?
+
+      5. If he _was_--_were_ a millionaire, he could not
+      have been more lavish.
+
+      6. If such a thing _was_--_were_ possible, our
+      government would be no government.
+
+      7. If the election _was_--_were_ postponed, we should
+      have been informed.
+
+
+=Exercise 123=
+
+Insert _was_ or _were_ in each of the following sentences, in each case
+giving a reason for your choice. Remember that the indicative _was_ is
+used to denote a statement of fact in the past time, and the subjunctive
+_were_ (singular and plural) is used to denote a possibility, something
+that is supposed to be true, or a statement entirely contrary to fact,
+as in a wish.
+
+      1. I wish I ---- going with you.
+
+      2. As he ---- not well, he could not go.
+
+      3. If he ---- well, he could go.
+
+      4. If he ---- attentive in class, he would not fail.
+
+      5. They treated me as if I ---- one of the family.
+
+      6. When I ---- in the South I visited New Orleans.
+
+      7. Suppose she ---- your guest, how would you
+      entertain her?
+
+      8. He would appear very tall ---- it not for the
+      breadth of his shoulders.
+
+      9. We decided that if it ---- still raining by seven
+      o'clock, we should not go.
+
+      10. If our strawberries ---- ripe, I'd give you some.
+
+      11. If the package ---- left yesterday, as you say, it
+      must have been while I ---- not at home.
+
+      12. If he ---- late yesterday, he must start earlier
+      to-day.
+
+      13. If every man ---- honest, business life would be
+      very pleasant.
+
+      14. I saw that he ---- not interested.
+
+      15. If he ---- not interested, he surely looked as if
+      he ----.
+
+      16. ---- I certain that the bonds ---- safe, I should
+      invest in them.
+
+      17. As the tablecloth ---- stained, we laid it on the
+      grass to bleach it.
+
+      18. If that stained tablecloth ---- mine, I'd try
+      bleaching it.
+
+      19. If I ---- as interested in farming as you are, I'd
+      buy a farm.
+
+      20. If her work ---- best, why didn't she get the
+      higher salary?
+
+
+=Exercise 124--Verbs Incorrectly Used=
+
+    _Wrong_                                       _Right_
+
+   1. _Let_ the book on the table.    _Leave_ the book on the table.
+
+   2. _Leave_ me go with you.         _Let_ me go with you.
+
+   3. Don't _blame it on_ me.          Don't _accuse_ me.
+
+   4. Do you _carry_ stationery?       Do you _sell_ stationery?
+
+   5. The child _aggravates_ me.       The child _irritates_ me.
+
+   6. Please _except_ my invitation.   Please _accept_ my invitation.
+
+   7. Where have you _located_?        Where have you _settled_?
+                 (_Locate_ is a transitive verb.)
+
+   8. I _expect_ you are very busy.    I _suppose_ you are very busy.
+
+   9. I _disremember_ seeing him.      I _don't remember_ seeing him.
+
+  10. Do you _mind_ where you saw it?  Do you _remember_ where you saw
+                                            it?
+
+  11. Where are you _stopping_?        Where are you _staying_?
+
+  12. Did you _extend an invitation_ to him?  Did you _invite_ him?
+
+  13. This clock needs _fixing_.     This clock needs _repairing_.
+
+  14. I should _admire_ to go.       I should _like_ to go.
+
+  15. I'd _love_ to go.              I'd _like_ to go.
+
+  16. He didn't _show up_ on time.   He didn't _appear_ on time.
+
+  17. I _had_ a strange thing        A strange thing _happened_ to me
+        _happen_ to me yesterday.        yesterday.
+
+  18. I didn't _get to go_.          I _was unable to go_.
+
+  19. _Loan_ me your pencil.         _Lend_ me your pencil.
+    (_May I borrow your pencil?_ is correct. _Loan_ is a noun.)[3]
+
+  20. I _can't seem_ to understand   I _seem unable_ to understand
+        that problem.                      that problem.
+  21. I don't _take any stock_ in    I _have no confidence_ in such
+        such schemes.                      schemes.
+  22. How do you _size up_ the       What _do you think_ of the situation?
+        situation?
+
+  23. I _beg to state_....           Omit.
+  (This expression has been so overdone in business letters that it should
+                          be avoided)
+
+  24. He _dove_ off the pier.        He _dived_ off the pier.
+
+  25. He _claims_ that he was        He _asserts_ (maintains) that he was
+        deceived.                        deceived.
+  26. _Can_ I take your pencil?      _May_ I take your pencil?
+
+  27. We expect to _get up_ a club.  We expect to _organize_ a club.
+
+  28. Did you notice how that show   Did you notice how that show
+         window was _got up_?               window was _decorated_?
+
+  29. It is _going on_ ten o'clock.  It is _almost_ ten o'clock.
+
+  30. He said _to go_ at once.       He said _that we should go_ at once.
+
+    NOTE.--The secretary's daily report will be found an
+    excellent means of securing variety of expression in
+    pupils' writing. A different pupil is elected each
+    Monday to act as the secretary of the class for the
+    ensuing week, his duty being to report each day the
+    doings of the class on the preceding day. The
+    conditions are that not more than one _and_ be used in
+    each report and not more than one sentence begin with
+    the subject.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[2] See note on page 115.
+
+[3] _Loan_ for _lend_, though common in the United States, is not in
+approved use except sometimes in financial language.--_Webster's New
+International Dictionary._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION
+
+
+Prepositions
+
+IT is important in the study of prepositions to observe that there are
+certain words that are followed by certain prepositions. To change the
+preposition is to convey a different meaning from the one that the
+speaker intended, or to convey no meaning at all. A partial list of such
+words with their appropriate prepositions follows:
+
+    accompanied   with       anything having no life
+    accompanied   by         anything having life
+
+    acquit        of
+
+    accuse        of
+
+    adapted       to         a thing
+    adapted       for        a course, because of one's nature
+    adapted       from       an author
+
+    agree         to         a plan or proposition
+    agree         with       a person
+    agree         upon       something that must be decided
+
+    angry         at         a thing
+    angry         with       a person
+
+    compare       with       to bring out similar qualities
+    compare       to         without analyzing
+
+    comply        with
+
+    confer        on         meaning to give to
+    confer        with       meaning to talk to
+
+    confide       in         meaning to put faith in
+    confide       to         meaning to commit to one's keeping
+
+    conform       to
+
+    correspond    to, with   a thing, denoting similarity
+    correspond    with       meaning to write to
+
+    different     from
+
+    dependent     on         a person
+    dependent     for        a thing
+
+    independent   of
+
+    disappointed  in
+
+    employed      at         a certain place or salary
+    employed      in         a certain kind of business
+    employed      by         a certain person or company
+
+    enter         upon       duties
+    enter         at         a door
+
+    followed      by
+
+    influence     over, upon
+
+    expect        of
+
+    participate   in
+
+    profit        by
+
+    remonstrate   against    a thing
+    remonstrate   with       a person
+
+
+=Exercise 125=
+
+Insert the correct preposition in the following:
+
+      1. I shall comply ---- your request.
+
+      2. The chairman came upon the platform accompanied
+      ---- the speaker.
+
+      3. He took a walk accompanied ---- his dog.
+
+      4. The lecture will be accompanied ---- stereopticon
+      views.
+
+      5. Strikes are usually accompanied ---- riots.
+
+      6. The years of prosperity were followed ---- years of
+      famine.
+
+      7. He was accused ---- theft, but was acquitted ----
+      the accusation.
+
+      8. She is well adapted ---- the position that is open.
+
+      9. An electric iron is especially adapted ---- summer
+      use.
+
+      10. The selection was adapted ---- Irving.
+
+      11. This cloth is well adapted ---- summer clothing
+      because it is very light in weight.
+
+      12. I agree ---- you that the plan is impracticable.
+
+      13. Let us agree now ---- a place to spend our summer
+      vacation.
+
+      14. That is not a proposition ---- which I shall
+      agree.
+
+      15. It is silly to be angry ---- an inanimate object.
+
+      16. Don't be angry ---- a person because he tells you
+      your faults.
+
+      17. His report corresponds in all respects --- yours.
+
+      18. Mr. Giles suggested that you would be glad to have
+      us correspond ---- you concerning our new bond issues.
+
+      19. I shall confer ---- my lawyer.
+
+      20. The public has conferred a great honor ---- him.
+
+      21. One should always profit ---- his experiences.
+
+      22. The new device is entirely different ---- the old.
+
+      23. I am employed ---- a fairly large salary ---- a
+      business that is growing daily.
+
+      24. All employees must conform ---- the rules.
+
+      25. I am confiding ---- you because I know that I can
+      trust you.
+
+      26. She confided her child ---- the care of her
+      brother.
+
+      27. She is dependent ---- her brother ---- support.
+
+      28. You can have an influence for good ---- him.
+
+      29. I have remonstrated ---- the change several times.
+
+      30. Perhaps he will change his plans if we remonstrate
+      ---- him at once.
+
+
+=Exercise 126--Prepositions Incorrectly Used=
+
+Each of the incorrect sentences given below contains an unnecessary
+preposition. When the meaning of "Where are you going?" is entirely
+clear, there is nothing gained by saying "Where are you going _to_?"
+Omit such superfluous prepositions.
+
+                _Wrong_                               _Right_
+   1. I took it off _of_ the shelf.          I took it off the shelf.
+
+   2. I shall accept _of_ your hospitality.  I shall accept your
+                                                  hospitality.
+   3. Where are you _at_?                    Where are you?
+
+   4. Where are you going _to_?              Where are you going?
+
+   5. It is a building _of from_ twenty      It is a building twenty to
+        to thirty stories in height.            thirty stories in height.
+
+   6. Look out _of_ the window.              Look out the window.
+
+   7. John copies _after_ his father         John copies his father in
+        in everything.                          everything.
+
+   8. I am wondering _about_ what I          I am wondering what I
+        should do.                              should do.
+
+   9. I shall consult _with_ my lawyer.      I shall consult my lawyer.
+
+  10. He sat opposite _to_ me.               He sat opposite me.
+
+  11. I shall leave later _on_.              I shall leave later.
+
+_and_ for _to_
+
+  12. I shall try _and_ go.                  I shall try _to_ go.
+
+_of_ for _have_
+
+  13. I might _of_ gone.                     I might _have_ gone.
+
+The wrong preposition
+
+  14. He fell _in_ the water.                He fell _into_ the water.
+
+  15. She died _with_ diphtheria.            She died _of_ diphtheria.
+
+  16. Divide the work _between_ the          Divide the work _among_ the
+        four of us.                              four of us.
+  (_Between_ may be used in speaking of only two persons or things)
+
+  17. It will be done _inside_ of            It will be done _within_ an
+        an hour.                                  hour.
+
+  18. Are you angry _at_ me?                 Are you angry _with_ me?
+
+Preposition must be used
+
+  19. It's no use to try.                    It's _of_ no use to try.
+
+  20. My sister stayed home.                 My sister stayed _at_ home.
+
+  21. Why do you act that way?               Why do you act _in_ that way?
+
+  22. We left the third of June.             We left _on_ the third of
+                                                   June.
+
+
+=Exercise 127=
+
+The object of a preposition is always in the objective case. Some people
+have great difficulty in recognizing that in such expressions as _for
+you and me_, the pronoun _me_ is as much the object of the preposition
+_for_ as the pronoun _you_. Both words must be in the objective case.
+It is incorrect to say _for you and I_.
+
+In the following sentences omit the incorrect italicized form:
+
+      1. The invitation is for father and _I_--_me_.
+
+      2. Every one has finished his work except _he_--_him_
+      and _I_--_me_.
+
+      3. It's a question that you and _I_--_me_ must decide;
+      it refers to you and _I_--_me_ alone.
+
+      4. Girls like you and _she_--_her_ should have a good
+      influence over the others.
+
+      5. All but you and _I_--_me_ have left.
+
+      6. He did it for you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      7. No one objected but _they_--_them_ and _we_--_us_.
+
+      8. She sat opposite you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      9. They were sitting near you and _I_--_me_.
+
+      10. We expect you to return with mother and _I_--_me_.
+
+      11. He wanted my brother and _I_--_me_ to go into
+      business with his brother and _he_--_him_.
+
+      12. Neither _she_--_her_ nor her sister have I seen
+      for several months.
+
+      13. My companion and _I_--_me_ took up the trail of
+      the bear at once. For some distance it led _he_--_him_
+      and _I_--_me_ over the soft, yielding carpet of moss
+      and pine needles, and the footprints were quite easily
+      made out.
+
+      14. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ had, of course, to keep
+      a sharp lookout ahead and around for the grizzly.
+
+      15. All are going on the excursion except _he_--_him_
+      and _I_--_me_.
+
+      16. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ went fishing.
+
+      17. The rule applies to _we_--_us_ all--the manager,
+      _they_--_them_ who keep books, you, and _I_--_me_.
+
+      18. She beckoned to my companion and _I_--_me_.
+
+      19. The letter was to be read by the president or
+      _I_--_me_.
+
+      20. He did it for the sake of my father and _I_--_me_.
+
+      21. We study Shakespeare with her sister and
+      _she_--_her_.
+
+      22. _She_--_her_ and her sister went to the lecture
+      with my sister and _I_--_me_.
+
+      23. They sent for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_, not you
+      and _he_--_him_.
+
+      24. The program was arranged by the president and
+      _I_--_me_.
+
+      25. They found that his father and _he_--_him_ had
+      already left.
+
+      26. Mother is going to buy a birthday present to-day
+      for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_.
+
+      27. The play is interesting not only to you older
+      people but to _we_--_us_ younger ones also.
+
+      28. They expected the work to be done by _she_--_her_
+      and _I_--_me_.
+
+      29. The dispute between his neighbor and _he_--_him_
+      over their lot line was settled by the surveyors this
+      morning.
+
+      30. He wants to speak to you and _I_--_me_.
+
+
+=Exercise 128--Than, as=
+
+_Than_ and _as_ are not prepositions but conjunctions. They are used to
+introduce subordinate clauses. Usually the clause is incomplete, but the
+omitted part is easily understood from the preceding clause and must be
+supplied to show the case of the noun or the pronoun that is expressed;
+as,
+
+    _Right_: She is as tall as I [am].
+    _Right_: She is taller than he [is].
+    _Right_: I should invite you rather than her [than I should
+                invite her].
+
+
+Use the correct one of the italicized pronouns in the following
+sentences:
+
+      1. I'll agree that he is richer than _I_--_me_, but
+      riches are not everything.
+
+      2. I shall send her rather than _he_--_him_.
+
+      3. No one felt sorrier than _she_--_her_.
+
+      4. No one knows more about an automobile than
+      _he_--_him_.
+
+      5. You are more capable of doing the work than
+      _he_--_him_.
+
+      6. We were nearer the goal than you or _he_--_him_.
+
+      7. You finished the work almost as quickly as
+      _she_--_her_.
+
+      8. She writes fully as well as _he_--_him_.
+
+      9. The manager said he would rather send me than
+      _he_--_him_.
+
+      10. I secured a position sooner than _she_--_her_.
+
+      11. It seems to me that they ought to go rather than
+      _we_--_us_.
+
+      12. I am surprised that you arrived sooner than
+      _they_--_them_.
+
+      13. They should have elected him rather than
+      _I_--_me_.
+
+      14. I am not so well-fitted as _he_--_him_ to hold the
+      position.
+
+      15. You are more popular than _he_--_him_.
+
+
+=Exercise 129--Correlatives=
+
+There are certain conjunctions, called _correlatives_, that are used in
+pairs. They are
+
+    both--and           as--as, so--as
+    either--or          not only--but also
+    neither--nor        whether--or
+    so--that            such--as
+
+_Illustrations_
+
+    Both--and            He has both skill and energy.
+
+    Either--or           I shall leave either Monday or Tuesday.
+
+    Neither--nor         I can neither sing nor play.
+
+    So--that             It rained so hard that we stayed at home.
+
+    As--as               We shall come as early as we can.
+
+    So--as               She is not so tall as you are.
+                         (Used in negative expressions.)
+
+    Not only--but also   We saw not only Mr. Brown but his wife also.
+
+    Whether--or          Whether I return to work or stay at
+                           home depends on my mother's health.
+
+    Such--as             We shall buy only such goods as we
+                           think we can sell.
+
+      Be very careful not to use the correlative _so as_
+      incorrectly for _so that_. _So as_ is used in negative
+      expressions of comparison; _so that_ is used to
+      express result.
+
+    _Wrong_: We went early _so as_ we could get good seats.
+    _Right_: We went early _so that_ we could get good seats.
+
+In the illustrations given above, notice that the correlatives always
+join two similar or _co�rdinate_ expressions. It is important that they
+be placed each immediately before one of the two co�rdinate expressions.
+
+    _Wrong_: I _neither_ can sing nor play.
+    _Right_: I can _neither_ sing nor play.
+
+Recast the following sentences, placing the correlative conjunctions
+before co�rdinate expressions:
+
+      1. Either you ordered it late or not at all.
+
+      2. He said he neither had money nor time.
+
+      3. We not only bought the books you wished but the
+      games also.
+
+      4. We like the place in which we live both on account
+      of its quietness and its pleasant surroundings.
+
+      5. I shall either go to Quebec or Montreal.
+
+      6. Either he must spray his trees or expect no fruit.
+
+      7. I neither like the appearance of the shop nor the
+      attitude of the clerks.
+
+      8. They did it both for the sake of your brother and
+      you.
+
+      9. This sample not only is much darker but heavier
+      also.
+
+      10. They are barred who neither can read nor write.
+
+
+=Exercise 130--Either--or, Neither--nor=
+
+These conjunctions are correctly used in speaking of two things only.
+Care must be taken to use _or_ with _either_ and _nor_ with _neither_.
+In comparing three or more things use _any of them_, _none of them_, or
+_no_.
+
+In the following sentences use only the correct italicized forms:
+
+      1. Neither effort _nor_--_or_ money was spared in the
+      undertaking.
+
+      2. I have considered planting maple, oak, and elm
+      trees, but _neither_--_none_ of them seems to grow
+      well in this climate.
+
+      3. We do not believe in _either_ enduring oppression
+      _nor_--_or_ killing the oppressor. We believe in
+      arbitration.
+
+      4. He has _no_--_neither_ time, patience, _nor_--_or_
+      energy.
+
+      5. If you ask me which of the three I prefer, I'll be
+      frank and tell you I like _neither_--_none_ of them.
+
+      6. Three courses will be given in the subject this
+      year; you may take _either_--_any_ one of them.
+
+      7. I had already passed three branch roads, but
+      _neither_--_none_ of them had looked familiar to me.
+
+      8. I hardly think he accepted _any_--_either_ of the
+      two offers he received.
+
+      9. Neither the doctor _or_--_nor_ his wife was at
+      home.
+
+      10. Both the books look shop-worn. I'll take
+      _neither_--_none_.
+
+
+=Exercise 131--Except, Without, Unless=
+
+_Except_ and _without_ are prepositions, and are used, therefore, to
+introduce phrases; _unless_ is a conjunction, and is used to introduce a
+clause.
+
+In the following sentences insert the correct form, giving a reason for
+your choice:
+
+      1. ---- you leave at once, you will miss your train.
+
+      2. I cannot learn to swim, ---- some one teaches me.
+
+      3. I cannot learn to swim ---- a teacher.
+
+      4. No one could do the work ---- me.
+
+      5. John expects to learn ---- studying.
+
+      6. John will discover that he cannot win promotion
+      ---- he works hard.
+
+      7. No one can learn how to spell ---- first learning
+      how to observe.
+
+      8. No one will learn to spell ---- he learns to
+      observe.
+
+      9. No one will succeed ---- he has energy and
+      patience.
+
+      10. No one will succeed ---- energy and patience.
+
+      11. You cannot succeed in any way ---- by seizing each
+      opportunity as it comes.
+
+      12. It is impossible to grow beautiful flowers ----
+      the soil is good.
+
+
+=Exercise 132--Like, as=
+
+_Like_ is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. _As_ is a
+conjunction and introduces a clause, and is therefore followed by a
+verb. _Like_ is not a conjunction and therefore may not be substituted
+for _as_ or _as if_.
+
+    _Wrong_: I wish I could play _like_ you can.
+    _Right_: I wish I could play _as_ you can.
+
+Insert the correct word in the following sentences:
+
+      1. The picture looks just ---- you.
+
+      2. I haven't a voice ---- my brother's.
+
+      3. I cannot sing ---- my brother can.
+
+      4. He walks just ---- you do.
+
+      5. I hope you will all enjoy the trip ---- I did.
+
+      6. For pleasure and exercise I think there is no game
+      ----tennis.
+
+      7. He said that the town looked just ---- it had when
+      he was a boy.
+
+      8. I cut the paper just ---- you said I should.
+
+      9. He talks ---- his father.
+
+      10. He has the same sort of drawl ---- his father
+      [has].
+
+      11. She was there ---- you said she would be.
+
+      12. They worked ---- beavers.
+
+      13. He looked ---- a tramp.
+
+      14. To give the stitch the proper twist throw the
+      thread over the needle ---- I do.
+
+      15. He walks ---- he were lame.
+
+
+=Exercise 133--As--as, So--as=
+
+Use _as_--_as_ in stating equality; use _so_--_as_ in negative
+comparisons.
+
+      1. You will find the new clerks fully ---- courteous
+      as were the old.
+
+      2. You will not find the new clerks ---- courteous as
+      were the old.
+
+      3. Elms do not grow ---- well in this climate as do
+      poplars.
+
+      4. We did not carry ---- much advertising this year as
+      we did last year, and we find that our receipts are
+      smaller.
+
+      5. Under our system of individual instruction a
+      student may advance ---- rapidly as his ability
+      permits.
+
+      6. You are not ---- tall as your sister.
+
+      7. I do not seem to learn languages ---- easily as
+      mathematics.
+
+      8. This house is not ---- large as the other.
+
+      9. He is ---- active as he was twenty years ago.
+
+      10. He is not ---- active as he was twenty years ago.
+
+
+=Exercise 134--Miscellaneous Blunders=
+
+=To, Too, Two=
+
+_To_ is a preposition; _too_ is an adverb, and means _excessively_ or
+_also_; _two_ is a numeral adjective. Insert the correct form in each of
+the following sentences:
+
+      1. The ---- sisters discovered that it was ---- late
+      for the 4:15 train.
+
+      2. It is ---- dark in that corner; come ---- the
+      light.
+
+      3. He spends ---- much time in dreaming, ---- little
+      in working.
+
+      4. He would have done better if he had not given ----
+      little heed ---- the advice of his ---- older
+      brothers.
+
+      5. ---- more hours were passed in the all ---- weary
+      task of waiting.
+
+      6. It was ---- cold ---- stay out more than ----
+      hours.
+
+      7. You may go ----, but don't stay ---- long.
+
+      8. ---- stay there for ---- weeks would be ----
+      tiresome.
+
+      9. The doctor said that the ---- men were ---- sick
+      ---- go home alone, and I thought so ----.
+
+      10. About ---- hours ago I met Mary who said that she
+      was going ---- the country ----.
+
+=There, Their=
+
+      11. ---- are seven brothers in ---- family.
+
+      12. ---- books are ---- on the table.
+
+      13. ---- is no doubt that ---- knowledge of
+      mathematics is greater than ---- knowledge of English.
+
+=Were, Where=
+
+      14. ---- have you been?
+
+      15. ---- you ever on a farm ---- alfalfa is grown?
+
+      16. ---- ---- you when the report was read?
+
+      17. I was just ---- you ----.
+
+=Of, Have=
+
+      18. You should ---- read more distinctly.
+
+      19. I could ---- done the work if I had had more ----
+      the necessary tools.
+
+      20. If I had tried harder, I might ---- done the work
+      better.
+
+
+
+
+PART II--COMPOSITION: ORAL AND WRITTEN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ORAL ENGLISH
+
+
+=Exercise 135=
+
+RETELL a story that you know or one that the instructor has read to you.
+See if you can tell the whole story in fairly long sentences without
+using a single _and_. You will be allowed to use three _and's_. As soon
+as you say the third, you must take your seat. Let the class keep count.
+
+The story may be an anecdote, a fable, or any other short incident that
+can easily be told in one or two minutes. You probably have read many
+such or have heard your father and your mother tell them. A joke that
+can be told in two or three sentences will not be long enough.
+
+The excessive use of _and_ spoils the telling of many stories. It is a
+mistake to think that the gap between the end of one sentence and the
+beginning of the next appears as great to the listener as it does to us
+as we are deliberating what to say next. To avoid the gap we bridge the
+two sentences with _and_. Its use in this way is hardly ever necessary
+if we think out a sentence to the end before we begin to speak it. When
+we have finished the thought, we should finish the sentence without
+trying to bind it artificially to the next one. The sentences will be
+bound together if the thought of one grows out of the thought of the
+preceding one.
+
+If the unfolding of the idea does not seem sufficient to tie the parts,
+there are better expressions to use than _and_. There are short
+expressions like _in this way_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _thus_,
+_therefore_, _besides_, _as might be expected_, and _too_. Another way
+to avoid _and_ is to change the form of the sentence: (1) better than
+the form, "I opened the window _and saw_," is, "_Opening_ the window, I
+saw;" (2) better than "I am going to the store _and buy_ some sugar,"
+is, "I am going to the store _to buy_ some sugar;" (3) better than
+"There was a boy _and his name_ was John," is, "There was a boy _whose_
+name was John;" (4) better than "I reached home _and found_ that my
+cousin had arrived," is, "_When_ I reached home, I found that my cousin
+had arrived." In place of _and_, therefore, we may use (1) participles,
+(2) infinitives, (3) relative pronouns, and (4) subordinate
+conjunctions.
+
+Above all, avoid _and everything_, as in, "I washed the dishes and swept
+the floor and everything." To try thus to complete an idea that is
+already complete shows childishness.
+
+
+=Exercise 136=
+
+Very likely in telling the story as suggested above you found yourself
+frequently using the word _so_ to connect two sentences. Perhaps, too,
+you used _why_ to begin sentences.
+
+Now tell one of your own experiences, being careful not to use _and_,
+_so_, or _why_. Introduce as much conversation as possible. What, if
+any, is the advantage of telling a story in the first person? Why is it
+good to introduce conversation?
+
+In your conversation make use of several of the following words:
+
+    replied        whispered      spoke          inquired
+    answered       agreed         cried          explained
+    asked          exclaimed      shouted        remarked
+    questioned     repeated       continued      suggested
+    promised       maintained     objected       rejoined
+    interrupted    quoted         returned       added
+
+
+=Exercise 137=
+
+Far too many boys and girls pay but little regard to the matter of
+choosing the word that will give the exact meaning that they wish to
+convey. In order to lend force to their words they have formed the habit
+of speaking in superlatives; like the girl who said, "We had a perfectly
+grand time, but I'm so beastly tired now that I'm nearly dead," and yet
+she showed no evidence of suffering.
+
+Isn't it a pity that our beautiful English language should be so
+degraded in common usage that it loses all its force and meaning?
+Instead of convincing people that she really was tired, the girl quoted
+above made herself ridiculous by her exaggeration. Yet isn't the
+quotation a fair example of the speech of many boys and girls? Surely
+everything about us is not either grand or beastly. The habit thus
+formed is difficult to break, but it must be broken if we wish to speak
+our language correctly.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Make a list of the slang phrases that you have acquired. For each one
+substitute a good English expression.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The reason we must watch our oral English closely is that it is in our
+conversation that our habits of speech are formed. The expressions we
+use then we unconsciously employ when we are writing or talking to the
+class. If we are accustomed to use considerable slang when we speak, we
+shall have difficulty in eliminating it from our writing or in finding a
+good word to express the idea for which we usually use slang. As a rule,
+slang and extravagant expressions of all kinds are used to serve such a
+variety of meanings that the use of them tends to limit the vocabulary
+to these expressions. Consider slang something undesirable and stop
+using it.
+
+
+=Exercise 138=
+
+Look up the words in each of the following groups. You will notice that
+there is a resemblance of meaning between all the words of each group,
+but that there is also a shade of difference in meaning that
+distinguishes each word from its companions. Discover that shade of
+difference. Use each word in a sentence.
+
+      1. Lovely, beautiful, pretty, handsome.
+
+      2. Awful, terrible, horrible, dreadful, fearful.
+
+      3. Nice, pleasant, delightful, dainty, fine,
+      agreeable.
+
+      4. Grand, imposing, splendid, impressive.
+
+      5. Love, like, adore, admire, revere.
+
+      6. Smart, clever, bright, quick-witted.
+
+      7. Fierce, ferocious, wild.
+
+      8. Guess, think, suppose, imagine.
+
+      9. Hate, dislike, despise, abhor, detest.
+
+      10. Scholar, student, pupil.
+
+
+=Exercise 139=
+
+Carelessness in speaking frequently results in wordiness, since the
+speaker in an effort to be clear or forceful repeats the idea two or
+three times. Such speech is tiresome. In each of the following sentences
+there are too many words to express the idea. See how many you can omit
+and yet preserve the meaning. Sometimes the sentence needs revision.
+
+      1. I haven't got any time.
+
+      2. Where does he live at?
+
+      3. Don't stand up; there's a chair.
+
+      4. The woman she had an accident.
+
+      5. You had ought to take more exercise.
+
+      6. I was just going to go.
+
+      7. I excuse you because you are a new beginner.
+
+      8. I can finish the work in three days' time.
+
+      9. The offices are both alike in all respects.
+
+      10. He engaged the both of us.
+
+      11. We applied to Mr. Abbot, he being the manager.
+
+      12. My mind often reverts back to the time when I
+      began in business.
+
+      13. That high building that is going up on Twelfth
+      Street is going to be twenty stories high when it is
+      finished.
+
+      14. From his appearance he looked to be in very poor
+      circumstances.
+
+      15. He is afraid of the results that will ensue if he
+      follows the course that he has planned.
+
+      16. The present state of affairs that is now
+      confronting the public has become what it now is
+      because the citizens are not public spirited.
+
+      17. The reason why I was not at work yesterday was
+      because I was not feeling as well as I might.
+
+      18. I shall never forget the terrible sights that I
+      saw the time that I witnessed the street car
+      collision.
+
+      19. I have been debating in my mind whether I ought to
+      accept the offer.
+
+      20. He was a mere little child when he first began to
+      work in the mine.
+
+      21. Mix together both the butter and the sugar, and
+      rub the two of them to a cream.
+
+      22. The two pieces of cloth are just exactly the same
+      in every way.
+
+      23. You will find this chair equally as comfortable as
+      the other.
+
+      24. He said that when he started in his business that
+      he had almost no capital at all.
+
+      25. It was the office of Morgan & Son where I got my
+      experience.
+
+      26. China is undergoing a vast change at the present
+      time.
+
+      27. At about the age of fourteen years he left his
+      home town.
+
+      28. They did it gladly and willingly.
+
+      29. He always shows great deference and respect when
+      he speaks to those who are in authority.
+
+      30. He is the proprietor and owner of the News.
+
+      31. You can easily get the training that will make you
+      a competent and efficient high-salaried trained man.
+
+      32. For sale, a large, commodious house, arranged with
+      every convenience to make it comfortable.
+
+      33. We are making all the necessary improvements that
+      are needed.
+
+      34. I went to high school to take up stenography.
+
+
+=Exercise 140--Making a Speech=
+
+One of the most profitable exercises to cultivate clear thinking and
+consequent clear expression is the making of speeches, usually spoken of
+as oral themes. In this exercise a pupil stands before the class to talk
+upon a subject about which he has thought, but upon which he has
+written nothing. He has two objects in view. First, he must choose those
+facts that will make his subject clear and interesting to his audience.
+Second, he must deliver them well; that is, he must stand in a good
+position before the class, use good grammar, no slang, and enunciate so
+that every one in the room can understand him. If his speech is to be
+longer than one paragraph, he should have an outline prepared, in which
+each division is clearly indicated, as well as the important details
+within each division.
+
+In making a speech, the best way is to start with a clear statement of
+the subject. Suppose you take (9) below. You might begin, "I am going to
+talk of a street car transfer. First, I shall tell you how it looks; and
+second, how it is used. Then first, a street car transfer--(describe it
+fully). In the second place, it is used--(give details)." After you have
+explained fully, to show that you have said all you intend to say,
+finish with a sentence of conclusion. _Therefore_, _consequently_, _for
+these reasons_, _thus we may see_, are instances of words which may be
+used to begin a sentence of conclusion.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Use each of the following questions as the subject for a speech. Answer
+each question clearly and completely. Use illustrations to show exactly
+what you mean.
+
+      1. What does it mean to be a hero?
+
+      2. What does it mean to be successful?
+
+      3. What does it mean to be unfortunate?
+
+      4. What does it mean to be generous?
+
+      5. What does it mean to be lenient?
+
+      6. What does it mean to be mercenary?
+
+      7. What does it mean to be diffident?
+
+      8. What does it mean to be penurious?
+
+      9. What is a street car transfer? How does it look and
+      how is it used?
+
+      10. What occupation do you wish to follow, and why?
+      What preparations are you making?
+
+      11. Why do we have a smoke ordinance?
+
+      12. Why must buildings have fire escapes?
+
+      13. Why do the farmers of Kansas insure their barns
+      against cyclones?
+
+      14. What is fire insurance?
+
+      15. Why is ventilation important?
+
+      16. Why do so many immigrants come to this country?
+
+      17. Why do cities grow?
+
+      18. Why was the steam engine an important invention?
+
+      19. Why was the telephone an important invention?
+
+      20. What is the principle of vaccination?
+
+      21. What is the principle of anti-toxin?
+
+      22. Of what good is the trade union to the laborer?
+
+      23. Why does the employer object to the union?
+
+      24. What is a monopoly?
+
+      25. What is meant by a corner in wheat?
+
+
+=Exercise 141=
+
+In your neighborhood you have frequently noticed a lawn and a garden
+that are very poorly kept, the garden needing weeding and the lawn both
+weeding and mowing. Imagine that you go to the owner to make him a
+proposition. You know the man slightly, and you have heard that he has a
+quick temper. Know exactly what work you will offer to do and how often
+you will do it. Be careful of your first sentences. Let them be
+especially courteous, so that you may not offend the gentleman by
+suggesting that he does not take care of his property. Tell him frankly
+that you would like to earn some money.
+
+In this exercise the class will represent the owner. Moreover, they will
+watch carefully so that they may point out to the speaker wherein his
+speech was not quite courteous or not quite clear.
+
+
+=Exercise 142=
+
+From one of the newspapers cut an advertisement of a position for which
+you think you can apply. Bring the advertisement with you and convince
+the class that you are fitted for the position.
+
+In this exercise you must be exact. Choose an advertisement for a kind
+of work about which you know something. If you have ever had any
+experience that would fit you for the position, do not fail to tell of
+it, since experience counts for much in the employer's estimate of an
+applicant.
+
+Let the class judge whether the speaker has been convincing and whether
+he has shown the properly courteous attitude toward an employer. Let
+them ask themselves such questions as: Is he alert in his manner? Does
+he make one feel that he is capable? Does he stand and talk as if he has
+confidence in himself? Is he too meek? Does he seem over-confident? Let
+each be able to offer suggestions for improvement.
+
+
+=Exercise 143=
+
+Imagine that you are an agent. Choose an article that is especially
+useful to housekeepers. Try to sell it to the class, or choose an
+individual member to whom you wish to sell it. Bring a sample with you
+for the purpose of demonstrating its usefulness.
+
+As in the preceding exercise the speaker must strive to be convincing.
+He must know all there is to be known about the article that he is
+demonstrating. If it is at all possible, he should have used it in order
+that he may explain exactly how it is operated and why it is better than
+a similar article that the housekeeper probably is at present using.
+
+
+=Exercise 144=
+
+You wish to start a business and need a certain amount of money. Try to
+convince the instructor or a selected pupil that you need it.
+
+Be sure that you are able to tell definitely the kind of business for
+which you wish the money, where you will start the business, why you
+think that this particular location is good, when you will be able to
+return the money, and what security you can give.
+
+Don't make the mistake of choosing something too big for a boy or a girl
+to carry through. Perhaps the following will be suggestive:
+
+      1. A newspaper stand.
+
+      2. A miniature truck farm in the empty lot next door.
+
+      3. A pop corn wagon.
+
+      4. A fruit cart or stand.
+
+      5. A shoe shining stand.
+
+      6. Raising ferns or flowers for sale.
+
+      7. Buying vegetables from a farmer and selling them to
+      housewives.
+
+      8. Printing business cards and blotters on a small
+      press.
+
+      9. Making place cards.
+
+      10. Making valentines.
+
+      11. Painting holiday postal cards or fancy cards for
+      Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving, and the like.
+
+      12. Printing on postal cards pretty scenes that you
+      have photographed perhaps in your town or at a summer
+      resort.
+
+      13. Making and selling cakes, doughnuts, and the like.
+
+      14. Selling crocheted or embroidered articles.
+
+
+=Exercise 145--Elements of Success=
+
+Prepare a short speech on each of the following. Wherever possible make
+your statements clear and forceful by using illustrations or examples.
+
+      1. Cheerfulness helps to bring success.
+
+      2. The habit of neatness is an asset.
+
+      3. The habit of punctuality is a necessity.
+
+      4. He was not promoted because he watched the clock.
+
+      5. He was not promoted because his excuse was always,
+      "I forgot."
+
+      6. He was not promoted because he learned nothing from
+      his mistakes.
+
+      7. He was not promoted because he was always
+      grumbling.
+
+      8. He was not promoted because he was content to be a
+      second-rate man.
+
+      9. He was not promoted because he ruined his ability
+      by half-doing things.
+
+      10. He was not promoted because he did not learn to
+      act on his own judgment.
+
+      11. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.
+
+      12. Experience is an expensive teacher.
+
+      13. Be not simply good--be good for something.
+
+      14. Not failure, but low aim, is crime.
+
+      15. To be successful one must have confidence in
+      himself.
+
+
+=Exercise 146=
+
+As in the preceding exercise prepare a speech on each of the following:
+
+      1. A dishonest person cannot succeed.
+
+      2. There is no excuse for discouragement.
+
+      3. You may secure a position through another's
+      influence, but you keep it through your own merit.
+
+      4. There is always room at the top.
+
+      5. There is no such thing as luck.
+
+      6. The proper attitude toward an employer is one of
+      deference.
+
+      7. A business woman should dress simply.
+
+      8. Perseverance is the key to success.
+
+      9. To accomplish much one must work systematically.
+
+      10. It is possible to cultivate a good memory.
+
+      11. The ability to converse is a business asset.
+
+      12. The habit of exaggeration is dangerous.
+
+
+=Exercise 147--Successful Men and Women=
+
+How can one measure the success of men or women? Is it by the money they
+make? the land they acquire? the fame they win? the good they do? By
+what means have they won success? Was it through favorable
+circumstances? strength of character? favoritism? physical strength?
+mental energy? daring? doing what they thought was right in spite of
+opposition? or simply doing nothing and waiting for success to come?
+
+Study the life and character of one or more of the following. Have they
+gained what you consider success? What qualities of character do you
+recognize in them? Would you care to be like any of them?
+
+Make a list of the habits that you recognize in their life and in the
+way they worked.
+
+Make a list of the characteristics of the ones that you study.
+
+    Florence Nightingale    Frances Willard         Bismarck
+    David Maydole           Ella Flagg Young        Gladstone
+    R. L. Stevenson         Helen Gould Shepard     Marshall Field
+    Booker T. Washington    Jane Addams             Carnegie
+    Captain Scott           Napoleon                J. Pierpont Morgan
+    Mary Antin              Franklin                Edison
+    Daniel Boone            Lincoln                 Roosevelt
+    Mary Lyon               Nathan Hale             Goethals
+
+
+=Exercise 148--Debating=
+
+A very great asset in business is the ability to see the truth or the
+falsity of a statement, and to advance proofs for or against it. This
+ability we shall try to acquire through the practice of debating; that
+is, through the making of speeches in which students take opposite sides
+of the same subject, trying by the presentation of facts and
+illustrations to prove that the side which they represent is the correct
+one. The statement that is thus argued is called a _proposition_.
+
+Debating is excellent practice because it teaches not only clear-cut
+reasoning, but also forceful expression. If a debater fails to make any
+of his several arguments convincing, if he introduces irrelevant matter,
+or, though he has prepared strong proofs, if he expresses them in
+incorrect English, the result will be poor. In working out a debate,
+therefore, observe the following carefully:
+
+1. Know your subject thoroughly. If you have insufficient knowledge, you
+cannot be convincing.
+
+2. Understand your point of view exactly and explain it clearly. If you
+and your opponent have different ideas of the word _trust_, for example,
+you can never argue on a subject that concerns the trusts. Define your
+position first of all.
+
+3. After you have gathered your facts, study them as a whole. What three
+arguments, let us say, stand out clearly in your mind as being
+irrefutable because of the strong proofs you have to back them? These
+are the ones that you should use; the rest will probably be of little
+value. Plan to give the weakest of the three first, so that your
+argument will gain force as you advance.
+
+4. Work out the details of each argument. A mere statement of each is
+not enough. It must be supported by many facts and illustrations.
+
+5. Prepare an outline. It will show you whether your arguments follow
+each other clearly, whether you have so arranged them as to secure
+climax. (See Exercise 152.)
+
+6. In talking, follow the plan explained in Exercise 140, being
+especially careful in conclusion to summarize the proofs that you have
+presented.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The conclusions that you reach in your arguments must be based upon
+statements that are true. In the following, some of the statements are
+false, and therefore the conclusions based upon them are false. Point
+out wherein the falsity consists. In others of the following, irrelevant
+matter has been introduced. Point it out, explaining why it is
+irrelevant.
+
+      1. We shall forget a great many facts that we learn at
+      school. Therefore it is useless to learn them.
+
+      2. Oil should be used instead of water in sprinkling
+      our streets, because oil does not evaporate so quickly
+      as water, and so does not allow the dust to rise.
+      Moreover, as the street must be cleaned before the oil
+      is laid, there is less dust to rise. When the oil lies
+      on the streets, it is very sticky, and clings to
+      everyone's shoes. In this way it is tracked into the
+      houses and stores, making everything dirty. Therefore
+      I think the streets should be oiled instead of being
+      watered.
+
+      3. Half of the keys would not work on the typewriter
+      that I used yesterday. This machine will work no
+      better, as it is made by the same company.
+
+      4. Last year September was very warm, and the winter
+      was extreme. This year September has been very warm,
+      and therefore the winter will be extreme.
+
+      5. My cousin never went to high school, and when he
+      went to work he earned eight dollars a week. I have
+      gone to high school for one year. Therefore I shall
+      receive more than eight dollars a week when I go to
+      work.
+
+      6. When you are working, your employer will never ask
+      you the definition of a noun. Therefore it is
+      unnecessary to know any grammar.
+
+      7. Every one should be punctual in doing his work. If
+      he is punctual, he will be promoted and earn a larger
+      salary. Money is a very important item in this world,
+      but it is not everything. A person must be satisfied
+      with his work so that he can do it cheerfully;
+      otherwise he will not succeed. Therefore I think every
+      one ought to be on time.
+
+      8. The day is either sunny or it is not sunny. To-day
+      is not sunny; therefore it is sunny.
+
+      9. It always rains when I wear new shoes. I am wearing
+      new shoes; therefore it will rain to-day.
+
+
+=Exercise 149=
+
+Find three reasons for each of the following propositions. State them
+concisely, reserving the strongest for the last.
+
+As above, find three reasons against each of the following.
+
+Expand one of the reasons that you advanced for one of the propositions
+given below. Using your statement as the opening sentence, develop it
+into a paragraph by explanations and illustrations.
+
+      1. The high school should have the same session as the
+      grades.
+
+      2. The high school session should begin at eight
+      o'clock and close at one, with no recess for luncheon.
+
+      3. Final examinations shall be abolished.
+
+      4. Every high school should teach manual training.
+
+      5. Every high school should offer business courses.
+
+      6. Every high school pupil should receive a business
+      training.
+
+      7. Stenography (or bookkeeping) is a more important
+      study than wood-working.
+
+      8. If a pupil fails in the first semester of a
+      subject, he should be allowed to try the second
+      without repeating the first.
+
+      9. A pupil should not be expected to learn a lesson
+      that he does not enjoy.
+
+      10. Moving picture shows do more harm than good.
+
+
+=Exercise 150=
+
+Let three or four pupils write upon the blackboard three arguments in
+support of the same one of the following propositions. Then let the
+class choose from all the arguments given those three or four that they
+think are best, giving in each case reasons for their choice.
+
+In the same way let them work out the negative of the same proposition.
+
+      1. Every city should have a public park in the
+      business district.
+
+      2. The large department stores should be abolished and
+      smaller stores, selling only one kind of commodity,
+      established.
+
+      3. The mail order house should be abolished.
+
+      4. It is bad business policy to conduct cut-price
+      sales.
+
+      5. The newspapers are the greatest educators of the
+      time.
+
+      6. Billboard advertisements destroy the beauty of a
+      city.
+
+      7. Women should be allowed to vote.
+
+      8. Labor unions are a benefit to the public.
+
+      9. All government should be conducted on the civil
+      service plan.
+
+      10. Underselling a competitor ruins trade.
+
+
+=Exercise 151=
+
+One or two weeks in advance let the class choose three members for each
+side of one of the following propositions. On the day of the debate let
+the rest of the class act as judges to decide which side has presented
+the most convincing arguments in the best English.
+
+      1. It is better to be a farm hand than a factory
+      employee.
+
+      2. Every girl should prepare herself to earn her own
+      living.
+
+      3. Trusts should be regulated, not abolished.
+
+      4. Strikes should be considered illegal.
+
+      5. Advertising has increased the cost of living. (See
+      Exercise 152.)
+
+      6. Communism would lower the cost of living.
+
+      7. The business of a city should not be centralized.
+
+      8. Labor troubles are brought about because the poor
+      ape the rich.
+
+      9. Contentment is better than wealth.
+
+      10. Tariff increases the cost of living.
+
+
+=Exercise 152--Outline for a Debate=
+
+Choose two or four members of the class to develop each side of the
+following debate. Wherever possible, definite figures should be used.
+
+_Resolved_, THAT ADVERTISING HAS INCREASED THE COST OF LIVING.
+
+_Affirmative_
+
+      I. Modern advertising is world-wide in extent.
+        (_a_) Practically all classes of articles are now extensively
+              advertised.
+            (1) Food stuffs; e.g., breakfast foods.
+            (2) Clothing; e.g., men's suits.
+            (3) Luxuries; e.g., automobiles.
+            (4) Investments; e.g., real estate.
+        (_b_) Every possible medium is used.
+            (1) Newspapers.
+            (2) Magazines.
+            (3) Billboards and street cars.
+            (4) Circulars and booklets.
+     II. An enormous amount of money is spent in advertising.
+        (_a_) The use of advertising agencies is growing more widespread.
+            (1) One agency has made the statement that it has nine men
+              whose salaries amount to $227,000 annually.
+        (_b_) More and more companies are engaging advertising managers.
+            (1) They draw large salaries.
+                (_x_) In many cases, $10,000 annually.
+        (_c_) Advertising rates are very high; for example,
+            (1) The rate for a certain magazine is $1000 a page per issue.
+            (2) Metropolitan newspapers charge as high a rate as $500
+              a page per issue.
+        (_d_) Many advertisers use each issue of a number of mediums,
+              making the cost run to an enormous total; for example,
+            (1) _Cream of Wheat_ is advertised in every issue of almost
+              every magazine.
+    III. The consumer pays for the advertising.
+        (_a_) The price that the consumer pays for an article must cover
+              the cost of production and the expense of distribution,
+              leaving fair margins of profit, since
+            (1) The manufacturer will no longer produce if his profit
+              ceases.
+            (2) He is not willing to take the cost of advertising from his
+              profit in manufacturing.
+            (3) The dealer will not take the advertising cost from his own
+              profit.
+     IV. Advertising increases prices.
+        (_a_) The cost of manufacture and the expense of distribution have
+              been steadily lowered, and yet prices of articles have
+              steadily advanced; therefore
+            (1) The rise is not due to the cost of manufacture.
+            (2) Nor to the expense of distribution.
+        (_b_) Competition necessitates an increased amount of advertising.
+            (1) If one firm begins to advertise, its competitors, for
+              self-protection, must follow suit.
+        (_c_) Competitive advertising raises expenses above the point where
+              there is a fair profit at the old price.
+            (1) For a given kind of goods there is usually a certain volume
+              of business, which grows with population.
+            (2) If all the firms competing in those goods increase their
+              expenses by advertising, they must raise prices to make the
+              same profit as previously.
+        (_d_) Advertised articles cost more than the unadvertised.
+             (1) Bulk rolled oats vs. package rolled oats.
+             (2) Bulk pickles and relishes vs. advertised brands.
+             (3) Bulk macaroni vs. package goods.
+
+_Negative_
+
+      I. The present increased advertising is the result of normal growth.
+         (_a_) Multiplied manufactures necessarily multiply advertisements.
+             (1) Every day new products are being put on the market.
+             (2) No product has the chance of a sale until it is known.
+             (3) In the present scope of community life the advertisement
+               is the most convenient means of acquainting consumers with
+               new products.
+         (_b_) Any unusual increase in advertising has a reasonable
+               explanation.
+             (1) Automobile advertising has increased as the automobile
+               has replaced the wagon and carriage, because of
+                 (_x_) Greater convenience.
+                 (_y_) Lower operating cost.
+             (2) Prepared breakfast food advertising has increased
+               as these foods have replaced cooked foods, because of
+                 (_x_) Greater convenience.
+     II. Increased advertising is done on the scale of old prices.
+         (_a_) Merchants dare not raise prices to make the consumer pay
+               for the advertising, since
+             (1) They must compete with manufacturers who do not
+               advertise and who have no overhead advertising expense.
+         (_b_) The most widely advertised articles are the inexpensive
+               necessary accessories.
+             (1) Food products.
+             (2) Soaps and soap powders.
+             (3) Toilet articles.
+         (_c_) They have not advanced in price.
+             (1) Quaker Oats.
+             (2) Ivory Soap; Sapolio.
+             (3) Mennen's Talcum Powder.
+    III. Widespread advertising works to the advantage, not the
+           disadvantage, of the consumer.
+         (_a_) It gives new opportunities
+             (1) To compare values.
+             (2) To buy to the best advantage; for example,
+                 (_x_) In advertised bargain sales.
+         (_b_) It reduces the cost of production and the selling expense,
+              thus tending to lower the price.
+             (1) By increasing sales, it reduces the cost per article.
+                 (_x_) Maximum purchasing power means minimum cost to the
+                   manufacturer.
+             (2) In taking the place of salesmen, it reduces expenses, thus
+               lowering the price; for example,
+                 (_x_) In mail order firms.
+             (3) Therefore the advertising expense is unimportant in
+               influencing a higher price.
+     IV. The most marked price advances have been in the unadvertised
+          necessaries of life.
+         (_a_) In breadstuffs.
+             (1) Less in quantity for higher prices than formerly.
+         (_b_) In meats and poultry.
+             (1) An advance of from 25 per cent to 100 per cent and more.
+         (_c_) In butter and eggs.
+             (1) An advance similar to that shown in meats and poultry.
+
+
+=Exercise 153--Additional Subjects for Debates=
+
+      1. The wages of women should be the same as those of
+      men in the same occupation.
+
+      2. The government should grant old age pensions.
+
+      3. Employers should be liable for the life and health
+      of employees.
+
+      4. The boycott is a legitimate method of obtaining
+      employees' demands.
+
+      5. National expositions do not benefit the cities in
+      which they are held.
+
+      6. Railroad combination lowers rates.
+
+      7. Piece-work should be prohibited by law.
+
+      8. National party lines should be discarded in
+      municipal elections.
+
+      9. City governments should be allowed to decide their
+      problems without intervention of the state
+      legislature.
+
+      10. Municipal offices should be appointive and not
+      elective.
+
+      11. The commission form of government is best for
+      large cities.
+
+      12. Immigration is the cause of municipal evils.
+
+      13. A personal property tax cannot be levied with
+      fairness.
+
+      14. The United States should not further extend its
+      colonial dependencies.
+
+      15. The President should be elected by a direct vote
+      of the people.
+
+      16. Ex-presidents of the United States should become
+      life members of the Senate.
+
+      17. The President and the Vice-President should be
+      prohibited from taking part in political campaigns.
+
+      18. The United States should subsidize a merchant
+      marine.
+
+      19. Foreign-built ships, owned by Americans, should be
+      granted the privilege of American register.
+
+      20. The governors of states should not have the power
+      to pardon.
+
+      21. A three-fourths vote of a jury should be
+      sufficient to render a verdict in criminal cases.
+
+      22. The coast defenses of the United States should be
+      increased.
+
+      23. The farmer is to blame for the high prices.
+
+      24. The results of Arctic explorations have not
+      justified the cost.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CHOOSING SUBJECTS
+
+
+IN Chapter X definite subjects were assigned for talks. Getting a
+subject for yourself sometimes seems difficult; you are likely to think
+that there is no topic upon which you can say more than a few sentences.
+Isn't it true that when you are talking to your friends you seldom are
+at a loss for something to say? Of course, what your companion says
+often suggests an idea on which you give your opinion. You speak about
+things that interest you, and the words come fairly easily. Why not
+apply the same principle to more formal composition, whether oral or
+written? Unless a subject interests you, do not use it. But be careful
+that you do not reject it as uninteresting until you have thought about
+it carefully, considering it from all sides. Often one subject will
+suggest another akin to it, but more interesting to you because you know
+more about it. For this reason choose very simple subjects, and become
+thoroughly familiar with them by thinking or reading about them, before
+you attempt to explain them.
+
+Sometimes, again, you will find that the subject you have chosen is not
+good because it is not definite enough. You hardly know where or how to
+begin to explain it, because it suggests no definite ideas. Perhaps, for
+instance, you have decided to write on the automobile and can think of
+nothing to say until you remember that you once saw an automobile race
+about which you can tell several interesting details; or you have seen
+an automobile accident and can write on the topic _A Runaway Electric_.
+If you can speak or write on a topic taken from your own observation,
+your composition will probably be good. You know the facts, you have an
+interest in the subject, and you will very likely say something of
+interest to others. Subjects taken from school life or neighborhood
+happenings, especially such things as you yourself have seen, are
+excellent. Perhaps on your way to school you noticed that several old
+houses are being torn down. You remember that you heard that a candy
+factory is to be erected. At once several suggestions for themes will
+come to you; as, _Why the Factory is Being Erected in this
+Neighborhood_, _How Neighborhoods Change in a Large City_, _The Work the
+Wrecking Company Carries on_. Perhaps your father owns property in the
+neighborhood, and you could write on _How Real Estate Values have
+Changed in this Neighborhood_.
+
+Next to your own experience, the best source from which to draw subjects
+is your reading. This may be divided into (1) books, (2) magazines and
+newspapers. Recall one of the books that you read in the grammar grades,
+perhaps _The Courtship of Miles Standish_. Drawing your material from
+this source, you can write _A Picture of Early Plymouth Days_, or a
+sketch of Miles Standish's character, using the title _Practice What You
+Preach_. But to try to tell the whole story to any one in two or three
+minutes would result in failure, for it would be a subject entirely too
+big to treat in so short a time. All the interesting details would have
+to be omitted, and, if the details are omitted, the story loses its
+vitality.
+
+It is the newspaper or the magazine, however, that offers us the most
+available source of subjects. Practically all that we know of the modern
+world and of the wonderful progress being made in invention and
+discovery, as well as of the accidents and disasters that take place, we
+have learned first from the newspaper and have verified later by the
+articles in magazines. Every issue of a newspaper or of a magazine
+contains suggestions for many subjects. Such magazines as _The World's
+Work_, _System_, _The Outlook_, _The Technical World_, and other
+magazines that deal with technical subjects in a popular way are
+excellent for this work.
+
+A third important source of subjects is the studies that you are now
+pursuing. Every new study affords a new point of view, which should
+suggest many topics for oral and written themes. Sometimes a good
+subject is the comparison of two of your studies by which you try to
+show, perhaps, how the one depends on the other.
+
+The subject, of course, is but the beginning of the composition.
+Developing the subject is fully as important as having a subject to
+develop. The ability to develop a subject clearly is very important in
+the business world. A business man sells his goods either by talking or
+by writing; by the salesman or by the letter and the advertisement.
+Unless the salesman talks in a convincing way, he probably will sell few
+goods. He must know not only what to say, but how to say it.
+
+
+=Exercise 154--The Subject as a Whole=
+
+First, you must see your subject in its entirety, as one thing. Ask
+yourself, "Just what does my title mean?" and if you have not as yet
+selected a title, study your subject from all sides until you can see
+how to narrow it to certain definite dimensions. Now you have set a sort
+of fence around your subject. Nothing outside must enter, but nothing
+inside must escape. The length of the composition you are to write
+usually helps you decide on the limits of your subject. If you are
+writing a book on Africa, you might include all that the title suggests
+to you of exploration, colonization, civilization, and Christianization.
+But if you are writing a very short theme--not over three pages--it is
+evident that the subject must be narrowed. Would _The Transvaal_ be
+good? _The Jungles of Africa?_ _Roosevelt in Africa?_ _African Mission
+Stations?_ _When I think of Africa I think of Stanley?_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Which of the following subjects would be good for short compositions,
+either oral or written? The oral theme should occupy two or three
+minutes, the written perhaps three pages. What is the objection to a one
+word subject?
+
+   1. Manufacturing.                          11. The dead letter office.
+   2. Household uses of electricity.          12. The clearing house.
+   3. The Constitution of the United States.  13. Business.
+   4. Why we celebrate the Fourth of July.    14. Honesty in business.
+   5. The destruction of our forests.         15. Physicians should
+                                                    advertise.
+   6. Europe.                                 16. Paper.
+   7. The westernizing of China.              17. How an electric bell
+                                                    works.
+   8. How railroads build cities.             18. Electrifying the
+                                                    railroads.
+   9. The fire drill at school.               19. How to make candy.
+  10. Education.                              20. Vocational education in
+                                                    Germany.
+
+
+=Exercise 155--The Divisions of the Subject=
+
+After you have selected your subject, decide into what divisions it
+naturally falls. If it is of the proper length, it probably will divide
+itself into two or three divisions. Each of these will constitute
+one-half or one-third of your composition, and within each division
+illustrations, reasons, and explanatory details will appear. Arrange the
+divisions in the order in which they naturally come, according to their
+relative time of happening or according to their relative importance,
+reserving the most important for the last.
+
+Sometimes this sort of division is difficult to make, because a subject
+can frequently be treated from different points of view, the point of
+view deciding the divisions. Sometimes you will find that you have made
+a number of small divisions, in each of which you can say only one or
+two sentences. This will at once suggest that you have not found the
+main parts of the subject, but have made unimportant divisions. Again,
+it may seem that you cannot divide your subject into satisfactory parts.
+In that case, you probably do not know enough about it. Think about it
+again, and, if you find that you really cannot divide it, choose
+another.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Choose one of the following subjects. Is the title definite and clear?
+If it is not, change it so that it will be. For example, _Photography_
+(5) is not a definite title. No one could attempt to explain the entire
+subject of photography in a few minutes. A better title for a theme
+would be one of the following: _How to Develop a Negative_; _How to
+Intensify [_or_ reduce] a Negative_; _Our Camera Club_; _The Photography
+Exhibit at the Art Museum_; _Kinematography_; _Flash Light Pictures
+without Smoke or Odor_; _The Conditions Necessary for a Good Snap Shot
+Picture_; _The Advantages of Using a Developing Machine_; _How My Camera
+Helped Pay for My Vacation_. Can you suggest still others?
+
+After having selected your title, decide into what divisions the subject
+naturally falls. For example, let us take (2) below. _A Ball Game_ is
+not a definite title. Instead, let us choose _Last Saturday's Football
+Game_. As stated above, a subject may be treated from different points
+of view, the point of view deciding the divisions. Thus, in treating
+_Last Saturday's Football Game_, we may divide:
+
+    _a_
+
+    LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME
+
+      I. The first quarter.
+     II. The second quarter.
+    III. The third quarter.
+     IV. The fourth quarter.
+
+    _b_
+
+    LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME
+
+      I. The excitement for a week before the game.
+     II. The tension during the struggle.
+    III. The celebration after the game.
+
+    _c_
+
+    THE TWO DECISIVE PLAYS IN SATURDAY'S GAME
+
+      I. The long forward pass.
+     II. The end run to the five-yard line.
+
+Still other divisions may be made if we consider the subject from the
+point of view of the teams or the players themselves. Can you suggest
+any such divisions?
+
+In the same way choose one of the subjects given below. Change it, if
+necessary. Then write out the topic of each division in as few words as
+possible.
+
+     1. An important electrical device.
+     2. A ball game.
+     3. Getting dinner.
+     4. The aeroplane.
+     5. Photography.
+     6. How styles change.
+     7. The back-to-the-farm movement.
+     8. Why oriental rugs are expensive.
+     9. Wireless telegraphy.
+    10. The business course in this school.
+
+
+=Exercise 156--The Outline=
+
+If your theme consists of more than one division, before you begin to
+speak or write you should prepare a definite working plan or outline. It
+should include enough to suggest the first sentence of each division and
+the more important details within each. The outline will help you in
+speaking or writing to arrange the topics so that they will follow one
+another clearly. If you have an outline, there will be much less danger
+of including details which do not belong to the subject and of omitting
+details which should appear.
+
+In the following very simple outlines notice the use of indentation:
+
+    1
+
+    THE PROBLEM OF KEEPING OUR CITIES CLEAN
+
+      I. The cleaning of streets.
+         (_a_) In summer.
+             (1) The cost of sprinkling.
+         (_b_) In winter.
+             (1) The cost of removing snow.
+     II. The cleaning of alleys.
+         (_a_) The disposal of garbage.
+    III. The smoke nuisance.
+         (_a_) Smoke consumers.
+         (_b_) Smoke inspection.
+
+    2
+
+    PUBLIC GYMNASIUMS
+
+      I. Definition of a public gymnasium.
+         (_a_) Location.
+         (_b_) Equipment.
+         (_c_) Management.
+     II. Benefits to the public.
+         (_a_) Keeps children off the streets.
+             (1) Congested districts.
+         (_b_) Develops them physically.
+         (_c_) Affords them pleasure.
+             (1) Outdoor and indoor games.
+             (2) Bathing at beaches connected with gymnasiums.
+
+One more suggestion is in place here. In writing an outline, be careful
+that you express similar subdivisions of a topic by similar grammatical
+elements. For example, in the first outline above, (_a_) under I is a
+phrase; (_b_) under I should be a similar phrase. It would be
+incorrectly worded _Winter_ or _What the winter problem is_. What is the
+advantage of such similarity?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Using the divisions you made for one of the subjects under Exercise 155,
+develop an outline for a theme.
+
+
+=Exercise 157=
+
+Choose one of the following subjects; restrict it or expand it, if
+necessary; select a proper title; write an outline; and then write or
+deliver your composition, following your outline closely. Notice that
+the shorter your title the more it includes, and therefore the longer
+your composition must be to deal adequately with the subject.
+
+      1. Giving talks before a class develops self-reliance.
+
+      2. Most inventors would not have succeeded without
+      perseverance.
+
+      3. The more training a man has, the better chance he
+      has to succeed.
+
+      4. Most rich men learned to save early.
+
+      5. The value of courtesy in a retail business.
+
+      6. The dangers of football.
+
+      7. The various methods of heating a house.
+
+      8. The sporting page often sells the newspaper.
+
+      9. Educational features of the modern newspaper.
+
+      10. Our national game.
+
+      11. Baseball is a better game than football.
+
+      12. The use of machinery has lowered the cost of
+      manufactured articles.
+
+      13. How to prevent taking colds.
+
+      14. Athletic contests develop courage.
+
+      15. Qualities essential to good salesmanship.
+
+      16. Our debate with ----.
+
+      17. The qualities of a good street car advertisement.
+
+      18. A good cartoon.
+
+      19. Learning to swim.
+
+      20. The trials of washing day.
+
+      21. Birds as money savers.
+
+      22. Birds as destroyers.
+
+      23. Open air as a cure for tuberculosis.
+
+      24. Making a raft.
+
+      25. Every one should open a savings account.
+
+      26. Laziness.
+
+      27. Tennis is better than baseball.
+
+      28. Our respiratory system.
+
+      29. The bad effects of ridicule.
+
+      30. The good effects of ridicule.
+
+
+=Exercise 158=
+
+Recall one of the books that you have read recently. Name two subjects
+that it suggests to you and that you can talk about. Write a careful
+outline for each of them, and be prepared to speak on one.
+
+
+=Exercise 159=
+
+Name a subject taken from one of your studies, history for example. Let
+it be definite enough so that you can tell all the details that you know
+about it in a speech lasting two or three minutes. Use examples and
+illustrations to make the subject interesting and clear. Prepare an
+outline.
+
+
+=Exercise 160=
+
+Reproduce an article that you have read in a current magazine. Be
+careful that you make the material your own before attempting to retell
+it. Do not under any circumstances try to memorize the article.
+Understand fully what it says, make an outline of the facts that you
+wish to reproduce, and then give them as if they were your own ideas. At
+the beginning of your speech tell the name and date of the magazine from
+which you are taking the facts.
+
+
+=Exercise 161=
+
+As has been said, most of us get our ideas of what is taking place in
+the world from the articles that we read in current newspapers and
+magazines. We cannot always form our opinion from what one newspaper on
+one day says of a particular event. We must read what it says on
+successive days and, if possible, consult other newspapers on the same
+subject, for it is well known that not all newspapers are non-partisan.
+If one in the city is known to be so, that is the paper to read for the
+material for this exercise. Then, if we can read what one of the
+magazines says on the same subject, our knowledge will probably be more
+definite and more nearly true.
+
+Let the class be divided into different sections, representing different
+kinds of news; for example, national, local, foreign, and business news.
+Under national news, you can perhaps find articles on national politics,
+legislative measures being discussed at Washington, rumors of war,
+immigration; under local news, anything pertaining to the city or the
+state in which you live; under foreign news, anything of interest to any
+of the other countries of the world; under business news, the prices of
+food products, strikes, panics, and their effect on business conditions.
+These are but suggestions. Such topics change so rapidly that nothing
+more definite can here be given.
+
+When you have been assigned to one of these divisions, prepare a talk on
+a topic that you understand thoroughly. Begin your talk with a clear
+statement of your subject, as explained in Exercise 140; amplify it by
+details or illustrations; and end with a sentence of conclusion,
+forecasting the future of your topic or restating what you have proved.
+
+
+=Exercise 162=
+
+For a week follow the same current event as recorded in the newspaper,
+taking notes as you read. Then choose from all your material only those
+facts that belong strictly to one topic. Write an outline, setting forth
+the facts in logical order. Deliver the speech, following your outline
+closely.
+
+
+=Exercise 163=
+
+Let the class choose four or six members one week in advance, who are to
+prepare a debate on a topic of current interest. Let the other members
+of the class act as judges or volunteer on either side, as the
+instructor may see fit. Such debates should occur as often as possible.
+
+
+=Exercise 164=
+
+About once a month devote a day to the production of a class paper. Let
+the class choose a name. During the first year let the items be
+developed into paragraphs. Longer compositions should be reserved for
+the second year.
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR ARTICLES FOR THE PAPER
+
+    1. A column of interesting business items clipped from leading papers.
+    2. An important news item that would make a good "story."
+    3. Original editorials on one or more of the following:
+       _a._ Needs or improvements in city, school, or home.
+       _b._ Recent city news.
+       _c._ Business news.
+       _d._ State news.
+       _e._ National news.
+       _f._ Foreign news.
+    4. Personal experiences, amusing incidents, or anecdotes, preferably
+    of the business world.
+
+    5. For sale advertisements, or "want ads" that the class would
+    understand.
+
+
+=Exercise 165=
+
+Criticise the following outlines. Each topic is supposed to represent a
+division in thought.
+
+1
+
+THE WHEAT HARVEST
+
+    1. A group of reapers.
+    2. Their costumes.
+    3. The field.
+    4. Starting the harvest.
+    5. Carting the sheaves to the barn.
+    6. The stacks.
+    7. The field after the harvest.
+
+2
+
+THE TONGUE
+
+    1. What it is.
+    2. It is a good thing.
+    3. It instructs.
+    4. Evils done by the tongue.
+    5. Especially slander.
+    6. Conclusion.
+
+3
+
+THE NEWSPAPER STRIKE
+
+    1. The cause.
+       (_a_) Strikers want higher wages.
+       (_b_) Poverty of the families of the strikers.
+       (_c_) Police have to protect newsboys against strikers.
+    2. Disadvantages.
+       (_a_) Newspapers are losing business.
+       (_b_) Newsboys sympathize with strikers.
+    3. Riots.
+       (_a_) Newsboys hurt and newspapers burned.
+       (_b_) Police cannot watch all sections of city.
+    4. Conclusion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+PUNCTUATION
+
+
+WHEN we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression that we put
+into our words and sentences. Some sentences we say all in one breath
+and with not much change in emphasis from one word to the next. We may
+be pretty sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its
+elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect compare the
+sentences given below.
+
+Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word group:
+
+      Steam and electricity are making one commercial
+      community of all nations.
+
+A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone; as,
+
+      Steam and electricity, _which are the greatest of all
+      discoveries_, are making one commercial community of
+      all nations.
+
+In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first. Sometimes
+for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial clause precedes the
+subject. Such inversion is always indicated; as,
+
+      _If the grape crop is large_, the price of grapes is
+      low.
+
+Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence to give clearness
+or force; as,
+
+      If, _on the other hand_, the season is poor, the price
+      of grapes is high.
+
+      What, _then_, determines the price of grapes?
+
+We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate in tone
+those groups of words that are subordinate in idea, and to bring out
+clearly those groups which, for one reason or another, are emphatic. The
+same thing is true in music. We cannot become good musicians until we
+learn phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form
+distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts, we cannot
+indicate the tone in which the words are spoken. We must show in some
+other way which groups of words belong together, which are important,
+and which are subordinate in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks
+have been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak the thoughts
+to ourselves; we hear the divisions between the parts of ideas; and, if
+we understand punctuation, we indicate the divisions.
+
+
+Questions
+
+1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word from the next? In
+ancient writing this was not done.
+
+2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next?
+
+3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain.
+
+4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is _separate_. If two words
+belong together in idea, the two making one idea, allow them to stand
+unseparated. If they give two ideas, separate them by a mark of
+punctuation. What is the difference in thought in the two sentences that
+follow?
+
+    (_a_) She is a pretty, energetic girl.
+    (_b_) She is a pretty energetic girl.
+
+
+=Exercise 166--The Apostrophe (')=
+
+The _apostrophe_ (') is used--
+
+1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See Exercise 82); as,
+
+      The _boy's_ writing is excellent.
+
+2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as,
+
+      _I'll_ attend to the matter.
+
+3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that usually have
+no plural; as,
+
+      Your _3's_ are too much like your _5's_, your _a's_
+      like your _u's_.
+
+      Don't use so many _and's_.
+
+Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following words
+correctly:
+
+    you're    we're     who's     they're
+    your      were      whose     there
+    it's      he's      don't     their
+    its       his       doesn't
+
+Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following:
+
+      1. I've received no reply.
+
+      2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one
+      thousand dollars.
+
+      3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much.
+
+      4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like
+      his 9's.
+
+      5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I
+      haven't.
+
+Point out the mistakes in the following:
+
+      1. For sale, A ladies fur coat.
+
+      2. The boy's have gone skating.
+
+      3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation.
+
+      4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation.
+
+      5. Dot your is and not your us.
+
+      6. Is this book your's or her's?
+
+
+=Exercise 167--Capitals=
+
+_Capitals_ are used for--
+
+1. The first word of every sentence.
+
+2. The first word of every line of poetry.
+
+3. The first word of a quotation (See Exercise 169).
+
+4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as,
+
+      Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote.
+
+5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed separately in an
+itemized list, as in an order for merchandise.
+
+6. The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ (not _oh_).
+
+7. The words _Bible_ and _Scripture_, the books of the Bible, all names
+applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns referring to Him.
+
+8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are considered
+proper nouns; as,
+
+      _a._ Names of the days of the week, holidays, and
+      months of the year, but not names of the seasons.
+
+      _b._ North, South, etc., when they refer to sections
+      of the country, but not when they refer to a direction
+      or a point of the compass.
+
+      _c._ Official titles or titles of honor when they are
+      used in connection with names, but not when they are
+      used without names; as,
+
+    Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt.
+    Nominations are now in order for vice-president.
+
+      _d._ Names of political parties.
+
+      _e._ Names of religious sects.
+
+      _f._ Names of important events or documents; as,
+
+    The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence.
+
+      _g._ The salutation in a letter; as,
+
+    Dear Sir, Gentlemen.
+
+      _h._ Words indicating relationship, when they are used
+      in connection with a proper name, or when used alone
+      as a name, but not when used with a possessive
+      pronoun; as,
+
+    We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock.
+    I expect my mother at four o'clock.
+
+9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition.
+Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are not capitalized; as,
+
+      The Call of the Wild.
+
+10. Such words as _Paragraph_, _Article_, or _Section_, when accompanied
+with a number; as,
+
+      Paragraph 26, Article 3.
+
+11. See Exercise 75.
+
+
+=Exercise 168=
+
+The _period_ (.) is used--
+
+1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as,
+
+      The business is prosperous.
+
+2. To indicate an abbreviation; as,
+
+      The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144
+      Pleasant St., Erie, Pa.
+
+The _interrogation mark_ (?) is used--
+
+To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question; as,
+
+      When did you order the goods?
+
+The _exclamation mark_ (!) is used--
+
+To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that shows strong
+feeling; as,
+
+      Such demands are inhuman!
+
+Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished his thought to
+be understood is the punctuation. The same words may express different
+ideas according to the mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the
+following to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey by each.
+Explain the circumstances under which each might have been spoken.
+
+     1. The price is too high.
+     2. The price is too high!
+     3. The price is too high?
+     4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn.
+     5. Corn! There'll be no corn!
+     6. You didn't tell him that.
+     7. You didn't tell him that!
+     8. You didn't tell him that?
+     9. You are enjoying yourself.
+    10. You are enjoying yourself?
+    11. You are enjoying yourself!
+
+
+=Exercise 169--Quotation Marks (" ")=
+
+1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should be enclosed in
+quotation marks. This is called a _direct quotation_.
+
+      He said, "The business is growing."
+
+Notice that the word _said_ is followed by a comma, and that the
+quotation begins with a capital letter.
+
+2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms part of a
+declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation mark before the
+quotation mark; as,
+
+    Have you been waiting long?
+    She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?"
+
+3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an exclamation mark;
+as,
+
+    Look!
+    He cried, "Look!"
+
+4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted words, the
+punctuation is as follows:
+
+(_a_) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a comma after
+the quotation and begin the words of explanation with a small letter;
+as,
+
+      "The business is growing," he said.
+
+(_b_) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an
+interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small
+letter; as,
+
+      "Have you been waiting long?" she asked.
+
+(_c_) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with an
+exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small
+letter; as,
+
+      "Look!" he cried.
+
+5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the speaker's words,
+the punctuation is as follows:
+
+(_a_) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated by any
+punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows:
+
+    I do not believe that the report is true.
+    "I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true."
+
+Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the words _he said_ do
+not belong to the quoted words.
+
+(_b_) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear between the
+interrupted parts must be used; as,
+
+      (1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require
+      but little care.
+
+      "I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem
+      to require but little care."
+
+      (2) Oh! The flames are higher!
+
+      "Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!"
+
+4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation just as elsewhere.
+When the thought ends, the sentence must end. The different sentences,
+however, must not be divided by quotation marks; as,
+
+      "The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do
+      not see them in the waiting room. I think they did not
+      come."
+
+5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several paragraphs,
+quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of the quotation, at
+the beginning of each succeeding paragraph, and at the end of the
+quotation--not at the end of each paragraph.
+
+6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one within is
+distinguished by single marks; as,
+
+      John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I
+      thought the work could be done more easily, he said,
+      'Thank you for your suggestion.'"
+
+7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words quoted with a
+special significance, such as slang, should be enclosed in quotation
+marks; as,
+
+      The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the
+      "good old way" is fast passing.
+
+8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate is not
+enclosed in quotation marks; as,
+
+      The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote?
+
+
+=Exercise 170=
+
+Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever the sense
+demands division:
+
+      1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown
+
+      2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion
+
+      3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion
+
+      4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I
+      think you can get definite information
+
+      5. How can we enforce the law asked the man
+
+      6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law
+
+      7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law
+
+      8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the
+      law
+
+      9. The question before us is how can we enforce the
+      law
+
+      10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you
+      may go
+
+      11. As I was walking along the river he continued I
+      heard a voice cry help
+
+      12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down
+
+      13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down
+
+      14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is
+      down
+
+      15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear
+      there is no other way to cross
+
+      16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one
+      know another way to cross
+
+      17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know
+      another way to cross
+
+      18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is
+      down
+
+      19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do
+
+      20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the
+      soldiers I heard a farmer shout you fellows better try
+      the bridge lower down
+
+
+=Exercise 171--Indirect Discourse=
+
+In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct quotations,
+or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's words were quoted
+exactly. When the substance of the thought is given in slightly
+different form, we have an indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in
+which no quotation marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a
+subordinate clause depending on a word of _thinking_, _saying_,
+_telling_, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced by
+_that_, and indirect questions by _when_, _where_, _why_, _whether_,
+_if_, _who_, _which_, _what_, and the like. When a sentence is changed
+from direct to indirect discourse, the person and usually the tense of
+the direct quotation are changed; as,
+
+    _Direct_: He said, "I do not believe the report."
+    _Indirect_: He said that he did not believe the report.
+
+    _Direct_: He said, "Germany is over-populated."
+    _Indirect_: He said that Germany is over-populated. (See Exercise 107.)
+
+    _Direct_: She said, "I did my work before I went to school."
+    _Indirect_: She said that she had done her work before she went to
+                  school.
+
+    _Direct_: "I have finished my work," said the girl.
+    _Indirect_: She says that she has finished her work.
+
+    _Direct_: "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked.
+    _Indirect_: I asked why he had not succeeded.
+
+    _Direct_: "When may I go?" she inquired.
+    _Indirect_: She inquired when she might go.
+
+In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations. Do
+not change the paragraphing.
+
+1
+
+THE SEAL'S LESSON
+
+      The baby seal said _that he could not swim_.
+
+      His mother answered _that he could try_.
+
+      The little fellow persisted _that he could never
+      learn_.
+
+      His mother looked at him sternly, and said _that every
+      seal must learn to swim_.
+
+      He replied _that the water was cold and that he liked
+      the sand better_, but because his mother insisted, he
+      slid into the water whimpering.
+
+      After he had gone a short distance, he turned around
+      and called out _that the water was much pleasanter
+      than the sand_.
+
+      His mother said _that she knew that it would be so_.
+      She said _that young people must do as they are told
+      because they have not had enough experience to judge
+      for themselves_.
+
+2
+
+A FAITHFUL SERVANT
+
+      A certain old time king said _that he needed a servant
+      who could be depended upon_. He said he knew _that
+      such a man is difficult to secure, and in the hope of
+      getting the right one, he would hire two_.
+
+      When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and,
+      showing them a large basket, told them _to fill it
+      with water_. He said _that he would return at night to
+      see what they had done_.
+
+      The men were very much in earnest when they began the
+      work, but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of
+      water into the basket, one of them stopped and said
+      _that he did not see any use in doing that because, as
+      soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again, and
+      his time was lost_.
+
+      His companion replied _that the kind of work that
+      their master gave them was no concern of theirs; that
+      they were paid to do the work; and, whether it seemed
+      useful to them or not, they ought to do it_.
+
+      The first speaker said _that the other man could do as
+      he pleased, but, as for him, he did not expect to
+      waste his time on such foolish work_. Throwing his
+      bucket down, he walked off.
+
+      The one that was left continued at the work until
+      about sunset, when he had nearly emptied the well.
+      Looking into the basket, he saw something glittering.
+      Stooping to look more closely, he found in the basket
+      a ring of great value which his bucket had scooped up
+      from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said _that
+      now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured
+      into the basket_.
+
+      Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of
+      his officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew
+      that the man had obeyed him, and he said _that he knew
+      he could trust him, and as a reward for obedience he
+      would make him master over other servants_.
+
+
+=Exercise 172--The Paragraph in Dialogue=
+
+In conversation the words of each speaker, together with the author's
+words of explanation, form one paragraph. Whenever the speaker changes,
+the paragraph changes; as,
+
+      "Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old
+      guardian of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden,
+      "Mimer, let me drink of the waters of wisdom."
+
+      "Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure
+      that you seek and one which many have sought before
+      but who, when they knew the price of it, turned back."
+
+      Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for
+      wisdom willingly."
+
+      "Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your
+      right hand, but your right eye, you must
+      give."--Keary: _The Heroes of Asgard_.
+
+However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says is formed into
+paragraphs according to the divisions into which it falls. (See Chapter
+XIV.)
+
+When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it is punctuated
+as follows:
+
+      This, however, was of use to me, the impression
+      continuing on my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy
+      some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, "Don't give
+      too much for the whistle," and I saved my money.
+
+Paragraph the following:
+
+1
+
+      On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when
+      we came to an extensive belt of woods, through the
+      midst of which ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an
+      appearance particularly muddy and treacherous. In
+      plunged the cart, but midway it stuck fast. Then
+      approached the long team and heavy wagon of our
+      friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice
+      is,--" began the captain, who had been anxiously
+      contemplating the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But
+      Wright, the muleteer, apparently had not as yet
+      decided the point in his own mind. He sat still in his
+      seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling in a low,
+      contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is,"
+      resumed the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any
+      man five pounds that if we try to go through, we shall
+      stick fast." "By the powers, we shall stick fast!"
+      echoed Jack, the captain's brother, shaking his large
+      head with an air of conviction. "Drive on! drive on!"
+      petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain,
+      turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give
+      my advice; and if people won't be reasonable, why,
+      they won't, that's all!"--Parkman: _The Oregon Trail_.
+
+2
+
+      Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door.
+      There was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair,
+      husking corn, was a good-looking young man. Rebecca
+      was a trifle shy at this encounter, but there was
+      nothing to do except explain her presence; so she
+      asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I am the
+      lady of the house at present," said the stranger with
+      a whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you
+      ever heard of the--would you like--er I mean, do you
+      need any soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I
+      do?" he responded unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I
+      didn't mean that; I have some soap to sell; I mean I
+      would like to introduce to you a very remarkable soap,
+      the best now on the market. It is called the--" "Oh! I
+      must know that soap," said the gentleman genially.
+      "Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very
+      purest," corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not
+      a trace." "And yet a child could do the Monday washing
+      with it and use no force?" "A babe," corrected
+      Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh? That child grows younger
+      every year, instead of older--wise child!"--Wiggin:
+      _Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm_.
+
+Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and paragraph:
+
+      When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a
+      day in early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay
+      cool on the grass. The boy said that the flowers
+      seemed brighter and the birds merrier than ever
+      before. When they came to a bend in the river, his
+      uncle said that this was a good place to try. He told
+      the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do
+      and move it on the surface of the water in imitation
+      of the leap of a frog. The boy did as he was told, but
+      he caught no fish. His uncle said that he should try
+      again. Suddenly the bait sank out of sight, and the
+      boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last. As he
+      spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said
+      that he should try again, because fishermen must have
+      patience. In a moment the boy felt something tug at
+      his line, and as he jerked it up, he saw a fine
+      pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable
+      excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to
+      look at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy
+      didn't have it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash
+      in the water, and the boy's hook hung empty. His uncle
+      assured him that there were more fish in the river,
+      but the boy would not be comforted. His uncle smiled
+      shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to brag
+      of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said
+      that he had seen older people doing that in more ways
+      than one, and so making fools of themselves. He said
+      that it was better not to boast of doing a thing until
+      it was done.
+
+
+=Exercise 173--The Comma (,)=
+
+=Rule 1.--The comma is used to separate a direct quotation from the
+words of explanation.=
+
+For illustration see the foregoing exercises.
+
+Write the following from dictation; then compare your version with the
+original:
+
+      Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other
+      occupations are hindered for want of men to do the
+      work. To test this statement thoroughly you need only
+      hunt up a first-class editor, reporter, business
+      manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or artist in any
+      branch of industry and try to hire him. You will find
+      that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious,
+      capable, reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get
+      a day's holiday except by courtesy of his employer, or
+      of his city, or of the great general public. But if
+      you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed,
+      unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters,
+      lawyers, doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.--_Mark
+      Twain._
+
+=Rule 2.--The comma is used to separate the members of a series.=
+
+
+=Exercise 174=
+
+Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary commas:
+
+      Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy
+      he could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence
+      more quickly than any one else in the neighborhood his
+      perseverance in his boyhood helps us to appreciate the
+      firm true steady hand that guided our country through
+      its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly showed his wise
+      brain his great courage and his kindness of heart his
+      character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year
+      it was built up after years of yearning years of
+      striving and years of hard work.
+
+In the above point out the instances where the comma is used--
+
+1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in the same case.
+
+2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying the same
+noun.
+
+3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun.
+
+This kind of succession is called a _series_. Each new member gives a
+new idea, the comma being used to help the reader to separate one from
+the next with ease. Notice that the comma is used between the last two
+members before the co�rdinate conjunction as well as between the other
+members.
+
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:[1]
+
+      You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds
+      now the company supplies power to mines and towns of
+      Colorado Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light
+      and power to Ophir Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns
+      in Colorado in Utah it supplies light to Mescal Eureka
+      Provo Logan and Bingham it also furnishes power for
+      the street railway systems of Salt Lake City
+      Farmington and Ogden.
+
+      The bonds offer such good security good interest and
+      ready convertibility that we expect our allotment to
+      be heavily oversubscribed will you therefore send us
+      your order before Monday
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+3
+
+      Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie
+      forming a perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and
+      wild oats grazed short a herd of horses staring from
+      the slope I myself standing in the middle like a
+      ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse
+      performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully
+      he galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he
+      lifted forelegs to welcome he flung out hind legs to
+      repel he leaped as if springing over bayonets he
+      pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty
+      plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and
+      snuffed about me--just out of reach.
+
+4
+
+      Dear Madam:[4]
+
+      Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's
+      styles for ladies misses and children it contains
+      illustrations of the latest kinds of long coats of
+      skirts in the most fashionable cuts and materials of
+      hats that are new and particularly becoming and of
+      dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are
+      especially sure that you will like our waists they are
+      artistic in design stylish in cut and excellent in
+      workmanship they are selected from the leading fashion
+      centers are the creations of the best costumers and
+      always have individuality twenty years of selling
+      goods by mail have given us experience skill and
+      knowledge that make it certain we can please you.
+
+      The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five
+      dollar order one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten
+      dollar order and two dollars on an order for fifteen
+      dollars or more this offer expires September 30.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+5
+
+      Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower
+      efficiency for the hours worked have done more to
+      raise the cost of living than almost anything else
+      this higher cost of production we see on the farm in
+      the factory in transportation in merchandising and
+      even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of
+      excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and
+      expect not to double the rents that we must pay the
+      cost of building has increased as the demands of
+      laborers increased as their hours of work decreased
+      and as their wages advanced the materials that go into
+      a building the transportation of that material the
+      labor of assembling it and the labor of fashioning it
+      into a building have all advanced in price.
+
+      Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the
+      high cost of living because it has made most of us
+      think that we must have more conveniences more
+      luxuries more clothes and more amusements than our
+      fathers had with a return to the thrift of our fathers
+      with a return to their desire for work we shall no
+      longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there
+      is a real danger to our nation in our extravagance in
+      our indifference to cost in our sweep toward ease and
+      idleness and in our growing antipathy for work.
+
+
+=Exercise 175=
+
+Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five illustrating
+series of phrases; and five illustrating series of clauses.
+
+
+=Exercise 176=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+THE GOVERNMENT'S LAUNDRY
+
+      Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty
+      that one feels the need of gloves in handling it, and
+      the suspicion that it is germ laden might well be
+      verified. It has often been said that money spreads
+      contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be
+      questioned when one remembers that money goes into
+      every kind of home and is handled by many infected
+      persons. The government has long felt that something
+      should be done to lessen this means of spreading
+      disease, and a machine has finally been invented that
+      will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look
+      almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of
+      operating the device is hardly fifty cents for each
+      thousand bills, but it is estimated that it will save
+      the government as much as a million dollars a year.
+
+      2
+
+      LUCK AND LABOR
+
+      Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor
+      with keen eyes and strong will turns something up.
+      Luck lies in bed and wishes the postman would bring
+      him news of a fortune; labor turns out at six o'clock
+      and with busy pen or ringing hammer lays the
+      foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor
+      whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on
+      character.--_Cobden._
+
+The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence. Notice the
+thought expressed in these sentences. There is usually an idea of
+balance or contrast, and the two halves of the sentence express the two
+halves of the idea. The two members are usually distinct enough to
+require a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is omitted, a
+semicolon must separate the two members, as in the second selection
+above.
+
+      =Rule 3.--The comma is used before the co�rdinate
+      conjunction in a compound sentence. If the conjunction
+      is omitted, a semicolon must be used.=
+
+
+=Exercise 177=
+
+Separate the following into compound sentences and punctuate:
+
+      1
+
+      Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but
+      recent experiments in Boston have proved it to be
+      successful in quenching fires in tanks of oil and
+      other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments were
+      conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same
+      principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the
+      floating sawdust forms a blanket that shuts off the
+      air from the flames and the lack of oxygen causes the
+      fire to die out the experiments were tried with both
+      wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to
+      extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet.
+
+2
+
+      Select the kind of business that suits your natural
+      inclination and temperament some men are naturally
+      mechanics others have a strong aversion to machinery
+      because they do not understand it some men are
+      imaginative others are purely practical some prefer
+      active work others like sedentary employment all
+      should select those occupations that suit them best.
+
+3
+
+      Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a
+      new material for sleepers and they have been
+      experimenting for some time past with cocobolo or
+      Japanese oak the wood is so hard that it is almost
+      impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed spikes
+      in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a
+      trifle more than those made from American oak but they
+      are expected to last twenty-five or thirty years the
+      reason for experimenting with foreign woods is that
+      native oak is becoming scarce and it is deemed wise to
+      search in time for a substitute.
+
+4
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come
+      of your decision in regard to the investment you were
+      considering at 475 Second Avenue let us have your
+      order and we shall at once prepare the contract of
+      sale the building is an especially attractive offering
+      at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the
+      return from it unusually large.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 178=
+
+When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase is put at the
+beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis, it is called an _initial_
+clause or participial phrase. A comma separates it from the independent
+clause to help the reader to see where the subordinate idea ends and
+where the main idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation,
+noticing the punctuation of initial elements:
+
+      If a city is to be kept in good condition, every
+      citizen must pay his share of the expense. If the
+      dreadful epidemics are to be exterminated, there must
+      be a good board of health to see that everything is
+      kept sanitary. When the health officers do their work
+      well, the health of the city improves. In order that
+      the decrees of the health department and of the courts
+      may be enforced, there must be a good police
+      department. Besides having these advantages, cities
+      need good streets and good schools. Because all of
+      these good things cost a great deal of money, high
+      taxes must be levied to pay for them.
+
+=Rule 4.--An initial clause or participial phrase must be set off from
+the rest of the sentence by a comma.=
+
+
+=Exercise 179=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+1
+
+      Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than
+      rubbish there now come from it every year millions of
+      dollars in profit. Formerly if it was not hauled away
+      to rot it was usually dumped into a neighboring stream
+      and there it did much harm even if we had the space it
+      would be impossible to explain all the products now
+      made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for
+      cattle may be made from the hulls but the most
+      important products are made from the kernels besides
+      making meal for cattle they are readily converted into
+      crude oil according to the degree of refining that it
+      receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps
+      lard compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the
+      way in which modern manufacturers utilize former waste
+      products the cotton seed is supreme.
+
+2
+
+      When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you
+      know that they come back to you as writing paper
+      because the metal buttons buckles and hooks that are
+      often left on the garments cannot be converted into
+      paper they used to be a source of annoyance to the
+      papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to remove
+      them before the garments went into the pulp vats some
+      were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp
+      they tore holes in the paper and often damaged the
+      rollers in order that such danger may be avoided the
+      pulp is now passed through a series of magnetized
+      rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every bit of
+      metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of
+      iron is collected it is sent to the foundry to return
+      to us in many new forms.
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we
+      found that the furniture which you ordered on the
+      tenth of last month left our factory on the fifteenth
+      if all had gone well you would have received the
+      articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised the
+      delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake
+      on the part of the railroad company although the goods
+      were properly billed to you they were allowed to go on
+      to Columbus if you do not receive them within ten
+      days' time let us hear from you again.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+4
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am
+      sending you particulars of the property which I wish
+      to sell as I told you when I was in your office last
+      week the price at which I am holding the building is
+      $20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the
+      mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to
+      agree to accept present payment for the note that he
+      holds against me unless the buyer agrees to pay the
+      unpaid taxes for last year and the assessments levied
+      for improvements already made I shall not consider a
+      sale.
+
+      After all preliminary arrangements are made if you
+      will prepare a contract of sale and forward it to me I
+      will have the abstract brought down to date and
+      secured by a guaranty policy.
+
+      Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has
+      examined the property and is satisfied to pay the
+      price for it in its present condition I would suggest
+      that you do nothing more toward securing bids for
+      rebuilding the porches.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 180=
+
+Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases.
+
+Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses.
+
+
+=Exercise 181=
+
+The comma is used to separate the month from the year, the city from the
+county or state, the company from the place in which it is operated, or
+the like; as,
+
+      In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle,
+      Washington.
+
+This use of the comma indicates that words have been omitted, the
+sentence above really meaning,
+
+      In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from
+      Seattle in the state of Washington.
+
+The same use is shown in such sentences as,
+
+      Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen
+      dollars a week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten.
+
+=Rule 5.--The comma is used to indicate the omission of words.=
+
+Supply the necessary commas in the following:
+
+      1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1
+      1934.
+
+      2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding
+      $4,000,000 of stock of the par value of one dollar a
+      share.
+
+      3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah.
+
+      4. The transaction was officially conducted between
+      the Power Bond & Share Co. New York and the Pacific
+      Power Co. Tacoma Washington.
+
+      5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us
+      that the center of population of the United States is
+      four and one-quarter miles south of Unionville Monroe
+      County Indiana.
+
+      6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced
+      to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog
+      suggests the plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge;
+      the toadstool the umbrella; the duck the ship; the
+      fungus growth on trees the bracket.
+
+      7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United
+      States in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four
+      cents; in 1840 eighty-two cents; in 1850 $1.87; in
+      1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880 $16.33; in 1890
+      $24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it is
+      still increasing.
+
+      8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910
+      90,000,000.
+
+      9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the
+      United States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central
+      American states from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba
+      52%.
+
+      10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America
+      have shown an increase of 222%; those of the United
+      Kingdom an increase of 115%; and those of the United
+      States an increase of 130%.
+
+Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5.
+
+
+=Exercise 182--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+There are a number of expressions--words, phrases, and clauses--which
+are inserted into the sentence for clearness or emphasis. They add a bit
+of explanation but are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they
+might be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These may be of
+various kinds but are all similar in use. They should be set off by
+commas so that the reader will easily see that they are subordinate to
+the main idea of the sentence.
+
+A. The _appositive_ is a word or a group of words inserted lo explain
+the noun that it follows. (See Exercise 80.)
+
+Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences:
+
+      1. William E. Curtis, _one of the world's ablest
+      newspaper correspondents_, in his will expressed the
+      hope that his grandson would continue his life-work,
+      _a recital of the good that men had done and not of
+      the crimes they had committed_.
+
+      2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly
+      lessened office drudgery.
+
+      3. Wall street, the great center of business life,
+      fixes stock prices.
+
+      4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent
+      middle class of a country, suffer most from the strain
+      of high prices.
+
+      5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to
+      introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business
+      in the winter of 1861 with a very simple equipment,
+      two horse-drawn sleighs.
+
+      6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping
+      melons grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and
+      the Emerald Green varieties.
+
+      7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for
+      this year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise
+      Box," one hundred packages of selected vegetable and
+      flower seeds.
+
+      8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper,
+      produces branching plants about two feet in height.
+
+      9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a
+      native of Norway.
+
+=Rule 6.--The comma is used to separate an appositive from the rest of
+the sentence.=
+
+Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to set off an
+appositive.
+
+
+=Exercise 183--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+Similar in use to appositives are--
+
+B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject from the
+predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the like.
+
+In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately follows the
+subject and the object follows the verb. When, for the purpose of
+explanation, something is inserted between the two, it should be set off
+from the rest of the sentence by commas. Words that are thus inserted
+are called appositive or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated
+in the following:
+
+      In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals,
+      _evidently taking the suggestion from the popular
+      rural delivery service_, have established ice cream
+      routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads at
+      stated times so that, _with no more trouble than is
+      required to answer the postman's whistle_, dwellers on
+      the farms can now secure the hot weather luxury at
+      reasonable prices. The plan, _so far as one can tell
+      from present indications_, gives promise of meeting
+      with great success.
+
+=Rule 7.--Parenthetical expressions should be set off by commas.=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+1
+
+      The politics of the city as well as those of the
+      nation must be kept clean. The most intelligent men of
+      the community not the least intelligent should make
+      our political speeches and be our political leaders.
+      The very opposite we must confess is what we see too
+      often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own
+      ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time
+      to politics. We need not search far to discover that
+      too many of them even if they have the time do not
+      care to give it. At election the most influential
+      business and professional men either through lack of
+      interest or through laziness stay at home instead of
+      going to the polls. The men who are elected in nine
+      cases out of ten are not fit to hold office. The blame
+      belongs every one will agree to those who do not vote.
+
+2
+
+      England as most people know is becoming vastly
+      interested in the production of cotton in the Soudan.
+      This state of affairs for more reasons than one is a
+      matter of interest to the American manufacturer as
+      well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian
+      cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length
+      and strength of fiber is wanted because of the
+      brilliant finish it gives. For the manufacture of fine
+      goods including sateens India linens and mercerized
+      goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been
+      found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the
+      enlargement of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem
+      about a million acres from the desert in Lower Egypt
+      and although not more than half will probably be
+      planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's output
+      about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of
+      Agriculture after having experimented for years has
+      developed and acclimated in California a variety of
+      Egyptian cotton superior several experts say to the
+      real Egyptian. It now rests with the planters any one
+      can see to decide whether American manufacturers will
+      get their fine cotton at home or abroad.--_The Wall
+      Street Journal._
+
+3
+
+      For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy
+      people on both sides of the Atlantic are talking of
+      the perils of a "yellow" invasion. It is true that in
+      the past various invasions have been attended with
+      evil but civilization has passed on into an age when
+      migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen
+      are taking place silently and steadily for the good of
+      all. There is no reason to suppose that the overflow
+      and interflow of nations heretofore synonymous with
+      the progress of humanity should bring to us anything
+      but good. Commerce is to lead the van in the new
+      movement of the nations as it has in the past and the
+      merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to
+      anticipate and guide the statesman.--_The Commercial
+      and Financial Chronicle._
+
+4
+
+      The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class
+      of young business men seems to be that the saving of
+      little things in the course of the day consumes time
+      entirely out of proportion to the value of the things
+      saved but like all general rules it is carried too far
+      by young men who could hardly employ their time to
+      better advantage than in saving good though minor
+      materials that would otherwise be lost. The man who
+      originated the idea probably found it correct for
+      himself but like all principles catering to
+      indifference regarding details the idea is too readily
+      adopted by many young men who can ill afford its
+      practice. No one wishes a man to be parsimonious but
+      he should not allow anything to be wasted which can
+      with a reasonable exercise of effort be saved.
+
+
+=Exercise 184--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+C. _Independent elements_ are words, phrases, or clauses that have no
+direct grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. They
+are really a kind of parenthetical expression, but have less connection
+with the sentence than those given under B.
+
+The following is an argument against the trusts. The italicized
+expressions are independent elements. What different kinds do you
+discover?
+
+      _Gentlemen_, the big problem before us to-day,
+      _therefore_, is the trusts. Shall the people control
+      the trusts, or shall the trusts control the people?
+      _To state the question differently_, shall we all
+      continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we
+      turn our power over into the hands of a few and let
+      their word be law? This centralizing of power, _by the
+      way_, was the evil men tried to remedy by forming
+      republics, and shall we Americans, _do you think_, be
+      willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us
+      of liberty? _The answer being self-evident_, let us
+      proceed. It seems that the little violator of law can
+      be punished; the big violator cannot be, or, _at any
+      rate_, is not punished. The trusts, _most people
+      know_, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason
+      for destroying competition, _evidently_, is to swell
+      profits by charging all that the trade will bear. The
+      trust, _finally_, is not a method of doing business,
+      but a scheme for levying tribute.
+
+=Rule 8.--Independent elements are separated from the rest of the
+sentence by commas.=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+1
+
+                                 NEW YORK, May 12, 19--.
+
+      Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson,
+          5010 Prospect Ave.,
+             Milwaukee, Wis.
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation
+      before you make any new plans however consider the
+      opportunity that we are offering you to see a new and
+      marvelously beautiful world for little more very
+      likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation at the
+      summer hotel to which you usually go.
+
+      The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is
+      new to you comparatively few people unfortunately have
+      yet awakened to its possibilities they do not realize
+      at least not fully that the climate in Jamaica Panama
+      and the Central and South American countries is
+      practically the same throughout the year moreover the
+      transportation rates are much lower than they are in
+      the North and the incidental expenses of travel such
+      as carriage fare and the cost of curios are
+      considerably less rough weather too is almost unknown
+      in the summer.
+
+      Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan
+      you have been considering a week's cruise of the great
+      lakes at an expense certainly of $40 or more and along
+      coasts that you have seen doubtless many times before
+      we offer a number of trips varying in length from
+      twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50 to
+      $130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America
+      thus for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long
+      pass shores much more beautiful visit cities far more
+      strange and return with a new almost magical store of
+      memories.
+
+      You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer
+      these remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is
+      that our ships carry an exceptionally large amount of
+      freight however do not think merely because our ships
+      carry freight that they are not splendidly equipped
+      for passenger travel on the other hand they are so
+      luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted
+      for tropical cruises you are missing an unusual
+      opportunity we assure you if you do not more fully
+      investigate our offer.
+
+                                    Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      We are learning year by year that as a rule financial
+      independence cannot be secured by most men except by
+      saving the savings bank is of course the first place
+      to invest savings because it will receive small sums
+      and pay an interest on them when a man's savings
+      however have reached $1000 for example what shall he
+      do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge
+      probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore
+      to put his money where it will be safe where it will
+      earn a fair rate of interest and if possible where he
+      can on short notice convert it into cash.
+
+3
+
+      A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his
+      savings a woman on the other hand invests because she
+      has received a legacy this may take the form of course
+      of property securities cash or life insurance it is
+      the function of sound investment most people know to
+      surround funds of this nature with strong security the
+      selection of conservative investments it is evident
+      must be made with care those companies naturally that
+      deal in conservative securities are the ones a
+      prospective investor should consult.
+
+4
+
+      Not long ago the editor of a financial journal
+      received a letter of inquiry from a woman she had she
+      said only two thousand dollars if she invested it as
+      some of her friends had advised her to do in a
+      well-known security she could not live on the
+      proceeds she had consequently made a connection with
+      a brokerage house and was making a living by buying
+      and selling speculative stocks her list by the way
+      showed a profit of $500 in four months what she wanted
+      to know of course was how she could make the gain a
+      second time in effect she was told to take her profits
+      and run as fast as she could she will not in all
+      probability take the advice and in a few months
+      possibly weeks she will write again for help in
+      rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have
+      learned at last that the way to keep her money is to
+      save it but she will not by that time in all
+      likelihood have any money to save.
+
+
+=Exercise 185--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+D. The _explanatory relative clause_.
+
+Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause. Like an
+appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the purpose of
+explanation and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+Because of this similarity, it is sometimes called an appositive
+relative clause.
+
+Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish a clause that may
+be omitted from the sentence without destroying the meaning from one
+that may not be omitted. The appositive clause may be omitted. A
+restrictive clause, because it restricts the meaning of the word it
+modifies, may not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of
+clearness, it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive clause, the
+former is called a non-restrictive clause.
+
+Notice the difference between the following:
+
+      1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, _which controls
+      the electric light and power supply of Chicago_, was
+      organized in 1907 by the consolidation of the Chicago
+      Edison Company and the Commonwealth Electric Company.
+
+The sentence makes complete sense without the relative clause.
+
+      2. The concern _that controls the electric light and
+      power supply of Chicago_ is the Commonwealth Edison
+      Company.
+
+The relative clause must be used to understand the sentence.
+
+In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2) it limits or
+restricts the meaning of _the concern_. The non-restrictive clause is
+shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2).
+
+Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses:
+
+      It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000
+      gallons of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000.
+      To supply this amount 120,000 cows are needed, which
+      are owned by 12,000 dairy farms. Health officers
+      conduct a systematic dairy farm inspection, which has
+      for its purpose the exclusion of diseased milk. Farm
+      owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now
+      see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have
+      discovered that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is
+      dangerous except when produced under sanitary
+      conditions, and now dairies are allowed to sell only
+      clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy
+      cow.
+
+Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the following
+sentences decide whether the italicized expressions are restrictive or
+non-restrictive. State whether they are phrases or clauses. Do any of
+the sentences need commas?
+
+      1. The man _wearing the brown coat_ is my brother.
+
+      2. My brother bought a new coat _which is brown_.
+
+      3. The lesson _that I take at nine o'clock_ is
+      English.
+
+      4. In English _which I take at nine o'clock_ we are
+      studying punctuation.
+
+      5. I am going to work in every city _that I visit_.
+
+      6. I am going to work in any city _where I can find
+      employment_.
+
+      7. I am going to work in Denver _where my uncle
+      lives_.
+
+      8. The house _on the hill_ is the oldest in town.
+
+      9. The house _that is the oldest in town_ is used as a
+      museum.
+
+      10. The Franklin Museum _which occupies the oldest
+      house in town_ is a very interesting place.
+
+      11. The town museum is the place _that I like to
+      visit_.
+
+      12. The chimney _that was blown down last night in the
+      storm_ should have been mended long ago.
+
+      13. The old ruined tower _which has long been a
+      picturesque sight in the village_ was blown down last
+      night.
+
+      14. We counted ten chimneys _that were blown down last
+      night_.
+
+      15. The stenography system _that I studied_ is
+      Munson's.
+
+      16. I think she uses Munson's _which she considers a
+      good system of stenography_.
+
+      17. Last year I pursued a course in stenography _which
+      I enjoyed very much_.
+
+      18. The book _that we use in class_ has a brown cover.
+
+      19. The only milk _that is fit to drink_ comes from a
+      clean dairy.
+
+      20. Systematic inspection has been carried on _which
+      has resulted in securing better milk_.
+
+=Rule 9.--A non-restrictive clause should be separated from the rest of
+the sentence by commas.=
+
+
+=Exercise 186=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+      1. We have an enormous crop of cotton the value of
+      which is estimated at one billion dollars.
+
+      2. "The root of the mail order evil is the idea which
+      the retail mail order houses have been able somehow to
+      instill into the minds of the buying public that the
+      local merchants ask too much for their goods."
+
+      3. Mr. Hilton who was sales manager at that time
+      induced the company to adopt this system.
+
+      4. The lecture will be delivered by Mr. Brenton who is
+      the head of the advertising department of Whitlock &
+      Co.
+
+      5. Our dog whose fur was wet by his plunge into the
+      lake came running toward us.
+
+      6. Genevieve who had always been the leader in the
+      games was not present.
+
+      7. A late product of the brain of George Westinghouse
+      who was the inventor of the air brake and numerous
+      electrical devices is an air spring for automobiles.
+      This little article has been patented by Mr.
+      Westinghouse who has the sole ownership. The spring
+      which has already proved popular with automobile
+      owners fits over the end of the regular spring and
+      "makes good roads out of bad ones."
+
+      8. Careful selection of investments upon which the
+      safety of your money depends is often difficult.
+      Careful watching of investments which is fully as
+      essential is much harder. Let us tell you about our
+      Investment Service which does this watching for you
+      and keeps you fully protected.
+
+      9. As a direct result of the conference between the
+      railroad and steamship interests of the South-Atlantic
+      and Gulf cotton ports which was held recently at Hot
+      Springs Va. an organization which will be known as the
+      South Atlantic and Steamship Cotton Inspection Bureau
+      has been created. The bureau will have a chief
+      inspector who will supervise the conduct of its
+      business at all ports and will arrange for the
+      employment of the inspectors. According to the rules
+      and regulations copies of which have been received by
+      the cotton agencies and the export departments of the
+      various New Orleans firms any bale that shows external
+      damage from water mud bad bagging or other causes must
+      be condemned and its condition noted and reported.
+
+      10. How would you like to wear a hat that has been
+      handed down through six generations in each of which
+      it was a treasured possession? The Italian peasants
+      who love finery are proud to do that very thing. Very
+      few of the poorer people who live in Italy own a hat.
+      When you see a beautifully woven Leghorn hat which is
+      also very dirty on the head of a little peasant child
+      you may be pretty sure that she is celebrating her
+      birthday by wearing the family heirloom. These hats
+      which are sometimes willed to a favorite relative and
+      which in some instances go the round of the family are
+      considered almost priceless. It is a frequent sight
+      along the dusty roads outside the little towns to see
+      untidy old women who are sauntering along twisting
+      twine as they go all vanity under the flopping brim of
+      an antiquated hat. This is almost the only souvenir
+      that tourists' money cannot buy.--_The Chicago
+      Tribune._
+
+
+=Exercise 187--Explanatory Expressions=
+
+E. When the subordinate element that comes at or near the close of the
+sentence gives an _additional_ idea, following the more or less complete
+idea in the rest of the sentence, it should be set off by a comma; as,
+
+      A signature clerk will easily recognize any alteration
+      in a signature, _although thousands of checks pass
+      through his hands daily_.
+
+      He gave a statement of the affairs of the company,
+      _explaining that he wished to make a loan_.
+
+=Rule 10.--A terminal adverbial clause or participial phrase giving an
+additional idea should be set off from the rest of the sentence by a
+comma.=
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+      1. Popular-priced goods are the safest for a retail
+      stock however you consider the subject.
+
+      2. A sheriff seldom finds large quantities of
+      popular-priced goods on hand when he comes to take
+      possession of any retail store although he usually
+      finds expensive articles.
+
+      3. They bring higher prices relatively than the
+      heavier things even when they are disposed of under
+      forced sale.
+
+      4. The catalogue houses have little fear for
+      five-and-ten-cent stores because sixty-eight per cent
+      of their business is in big goods such as furniture
+      vehicles sewing-machines clothing and relatively
+      expensive things. They do not wish to increase the
+      sale of popular-priced articles although their
+      catalogue may be full of them because it costs them
+      more to pack one hammer or trowel than the profits can
+      stand.
+
+      5. Steel conditions remain about as they have been for
+      several weeks excepting that the price of rails has
+      been advancing for the last few days.
+
+      6. Steel men are of the opinion that to increase
+      prices too rapidly would spoil a good market because
+      most of the mills are so filled up with orders that
+      they would not be able to take advantage of increased
+      quotations for some time to come.
+
+      7. The steel business for the last three months has
+      been very encouraging as it shows that railroads are
+      dropping their policy of waiting until the last minute
+      to buy. It will probably mean more normal operation of
+      mills instead of spasmodic workings as has been the
+      case for the last few years.
+
+      8. Boraxated soap chips will benefit your tableware
+      and your hands making dishwashing a pleasure instead
+      of a task.
+
+      9. The man who works to the limit of his physical
+      powers is as foolish as the manufacturer who
+      immediately invests all his profits in his business
+      neglecting to have a reserve fund for unexpected
+      demands.
+
+      10. A wide-awake manager tries plan after plan testing
+      and re-testing them until he can apply them to his
+      company's needs.
+
+Write four sentences illustrating Rule 10.
+
+
+=Exercise 188=
+
+Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction
+for each:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      We wish to acknowledge your letter of recent date
+      assuring you that we thank you for the opportunity you
+      have given us of opening a monthly charge account in
+      your name. We shall spare no effort to make every
+      transaction as satisfactory as possible hoping thus to
+      merit a liberal share of your patronage.
+
+      Our bills are rendered on the first of each month
+      being payable between that date and the fifteenth.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Mr. Warner:
+
+      In reply to your inquiry I am sending the following
+      information assuring you that I am glad to be of
+      service to you.
+
+      The Lancaster Company has apparently abandoned its
+      plan of erecting a new building this year difficulties
+      having arisen it is said in their securing a suitable
+      location. About two years ago the firm purchased a
+      site on the corner of Harrison and Second streets but
+      they sold it again last year taking advantage of a
+      decided rise in real estate values. It is understood
+      we believe that the company will build in the near
+      future even now having two or three possible sites
+      under consideration.
+
+    Sincerely yours,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We offer you the benefits and privileges of our
+      Special Charge Account whereby purchases may be paid
+      for in weekly or monthly installments. You will find
+      this a most convenient arrangement because it permits
+      you to have a charge account without the usual
+      hardship of payment at a fixed time. Moreover a
+      Special Charge Account costs you nothing since our
+      prices are the same whether you pay cash or have
+      purchases charged. Please fill out the enclosed
+      application blank mailing it to us to-day.
+
+      You will no doubt enjoy reading the enclosed booklet
+      as it gives much interesting information on fashion
+      tendencies. The illustrations too are unusually
+      attractive although they hardly do justice to the
+      beautiful garments that we sell.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 189=
+
+Study the punctuation in the following selections from _The Wall Street
+Journal_; then write them from dictation:
+
+1
+
+TROUBLE IN INTRODUCING STEEL
+
+      "Strange as it now seems," said one of Carnegie's
+      "young men," now the vice-president of a large and
+      prosperous corporation in New York, "in the early days
+      of the steel industry we had the greatest difficulty
+      in the world in weaning the old manufacturers away
+      from the use of wrought iron, though they admitted the
+      superiority of steel. They would look at it, test it,
+      and agree that it seemed to possess all the desirable
+      qualities claimed for it, but it was more or less
+      untried by time, and they preferred to stick to the
+      old wrought iron, with which they were familiar.
+
+      "I remember one old chap with whom I had wrestled
+      long, but in vain, coming into my office and picking
+      up a long, soft steel rivet, which had been bent
+      double and hammered flat.
+
+      "'How many did you break in making this?' he asked,
+      picking it up and examining it curiously.
+
+      "'That's the first one we hammered over, and, what is
+      more to the point, we can do it with all steel of that
+      type,' I replied.
+
+      "The polite incredulity in his face stirred my
+      professional pride, and I said, 'If I let you go to
+      the mills, pick out a dozen of those rivets just as
+      they come from the rolls, and hammer them with your
+      own hands, will you use that steel hereafter, if it
+      comes up to the test?'
+
+      "He said he would, and the rest was easy, for it is
+      much easier not to break than to break that kind of
+      steel. Before long the old man came back with
+      perspiration dripping from the end of his nose but
+      with the light of conviction shining in his eye. The
+      firm had a new customer."
+
+2
+
+CONSERVATION
+
+      Leslie M. Shaw, former Secretary of the Treasury, was
+      in New York, attending a meeting of a board of which
+      he is a member. Something was said about the
+      present-day discussion of money power, and Shaw said
+      that it reminded him of a speech he had made in
+      Seattle in the campaign of 1896.
+
+      "I was speaking to a filled hall and had almost
+      finished," said Shaw, "when a long-whiskered man arose
+      about the middle of the hall and held up his hand,
+      saying he wanted to ask a question.
+
+      "'Go ahead,' I said.
+
+      "'How, then, Mr. Speaker, do you explain the unequal
+      distribution of wealth?' was his question.
+
+      "When I answered him with, 'In the same way that I
+      explain the unequal distribution of whiskers,' bedlam
+      broke loose.
+
+      "As soon as I could get quiet restored, I said: 'Now
+      don't think I returned the answer I did to make fun of
+      your whiskers. You will observe that I have no
+      whiskers, as I dissipate them by shaving them off.
+      Nature gives me abundance of whiskers, and, if I
+      conserved them as you do, I also should be abundantly
+      supplied. Now, it is the same way with money. The man
+      who conserves his money has more than his share, as
+      with whiskers; while the man who dissipates his money
+      is without his allotment.'"
+
+
+=Exercise 190--The Semicolon (;)=
+
+The semicolon is used between the propositions of a compound sentence
+when no co�rdinate conjunction is used. (See Exercise 176, 2.)
+
+      It is not work that kills men; it is worry.
+It is important not to overdo this use of the semicolon. Do
+not use it unless the two principal clauses of the sentence
+taken together easily form one idea.
+
+Especial care must be taken not to confuse co�rdinate conjunctions and
+conjunctive adverbs. The following are conjunctive adverbs: _then_,
+_therefore_, _consequently_, _moreover_, _however_, _so_, _also_,
+_besides_, _thus_, _still_, _otherwise_, _accordingly_. When they are
+used to join principal clauses, they should be preceded by a co�rdinate
+conjunction or a semicolon; as,
+
+    Fruit was plentiful, and therefore the price was low.
+    Fruit was plentiful; therefore the price was low.
+
+When there is a series of phrases or clauses, each of which is long and
+contains commas within itself, the sentence becomes clearer if the
+members of the series are separated by semicolons instead of by commas;
+as,
+
+      You know how prolific the American mind has been in
+      invention; how much civilization has been advanced by
+      the steamboat, the cotton-gin, the sewing-machine, the
+      reaping-machine, the typewriter, the electric light,
+      the telephone, the phonograph.
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      No man can deny that the lines of endeavor have more
+      and more narrowed and stiffened; no one who knows
+      anything about the development of industry in this
+      country can fail to have observed that the larger
+      kinds of credit are more and more difficult to obtain,
+      unless you obtain them upon the terms of uniting your
+      efforts with those who already control the industries
+      of the country; and nobody can fail to observe that
+      any man who tries to set himself up in competition
+      with any process of manufacture which has been taken
+      under the control of large combinations of capital
+      will presently find himself either squeezed out or
+      obliged to sell and allow himself to be
+      absorbed.--Woodrow Wilson: _The New Freedom._
+
+2
+
+      If the total amount of savings deposited in the
+      savings banks were equally divided among the
+      population of the country, the amount apportioned to
+      each person in 1820 would have been twelve cents; in
+      1830, fifty-four cents; in 1840, eighty-two cents; in
+      1850, $1.87; in 1860, $4.75; in 1870, $14.26; in 1880,
+      $16.33; in 1890, $24.75; in 1900, $31.78; in 1910,
+      $45.05, and it is steadily increasing. Remember the
+      fact that the population had increased from 10,000,000
+      in 1820 to over 90,000,000 in 1910; the "rainy day"
+      money, therefore, assumes gigantic proportions.
+
+3
+
+      In Germany, says _The Scientific American_, wood is
+      too expensive to be burned, and it is made into
+      artificial silk worth two dollars a pound and bristles
+      worth four dollars a pound; into paper, yarn, twine,
+      carpet, canvas, and cloth. Parquet flooring is made
+      from sawdust; the materials may be bought by the pound
+      and then mixed, so that the householder can lay his
+      own hardwood floors according to his individual taste
+      and ingenuity.
+
+4
+
+      The country gentlemen and country clergymen had fully
+      expected that the policy of these ministers would be
+      directly opposed to that which had been almost
+      constantly followed by William; that the landed
+      interest would be favored at the expense of trade;
+      that no addition would be made to the funded debt;
+      that the privileges conceded to Dissenters by the late
+      king would be curtailed, if not withdrawn; that the
+      war with France, if there must be such a war, would,
+      on our part, be almost entirely naval; and that the
+      government would avoid close connections with foreign
+      powers and, above all, with Holland.--_Macaulay._
+
+
+=Exercise 191--The Colon (:)=
+
+The colon is always used to indicate that something of importance
+follows, usually an enumeration or a list of some kind, or a quotation
+of several sentences or paragraphs; as,
+
+      1. Three things are necessary: intelligence,
+      perseverance, and tact.
+
+      2. The buffalo supplies them with almost all the
+      necessities of life: with habitation, food, and
+      clothing; with strings for their bows; with thread,
+      cordage, and trail-ropes for their horses; with
+      coverings for their saddles; and with the means of
+      purchasing all that they desire from traders.
+
+      3. Quoting from the current number of the _----
+      Magazine_, he read: (four paragraphs).
+
+Punctuate:
+
+      1. For the first fifty miles we had companions with us
+      Troche a little trapper and Rouville a nondescript in
+      the employ of the fur company.
+
+      2. About a week previous four men had arrived from
+      beyond the mountains Sublette Reddick and two others.
+
+      3. Reynal was gazing intently he began to speak at
+      last "Many a time when I was with the Indians I have
+      been hunting gold all through the Black Hills there's
+      a plenty of it here you may be certain of that I have
+      dreamed about it fifty times" etc.
+
+      4. Objects familiar from childhood surrounded me crags
+      and rocks a black and sullen brook that gurgled with a
+      hollow voice among the crevices a wood of mossy
+      distorted trees.
+
+
+=Exercise 192=
+
+The colon is used after _thus_, _as follows_, _the following_, or
+similar expressions; as,
+
+      Name the adverbs in the following: He left hurriedly
+      rather early in the morning.
+
+The colon is not used after _namely_, _as_, _that is_, _for example, for
+instance_, and the like. Such expressions are preceded by the semicolon
+and followed by the comma.
+
+Punctuate the following:
+
+      1. The Christmas presents that he wants are the
+      following a toy train a toy automobile a toy circus
+      and a printing press.
+
+      2. Do the exercise thus first lunge to the left second
+      raise the arms forward and third wind the wand.
+
+      3. We are offering for sale three residences of the
+      size that you wish namely 438 Bishop Ave 1614
+      Winchester St and 2015 Logan Square.
+
+      4. The following are the two that we liked best 438
+      Bishop Ave and 2015 Logan Square.
+
+      5. One use of the comma is to set off an appositive
+      for example Mr Kearne the buyer has left the city.
+
+      6. The comma is used to set off an independent adverb
+      as We have not yet decided however when we shall
+      leave.
+
+      7. The plan is this I'll do the work and you pay for
+      the materials.
+
+      8. The officers are as follows Edward Lawrence for
+      President John Kelly for Secretary and Fred Morrison
+      for Treasurer.
+
+
+=Exercise 193--The Dash(--)=
+
+The dash is used to set off parenthetical expressions that have very
+little connection with the rest of the sentence; as,
+
+      In New York the Harlem River tunnel was comparatively
+      a simple one, but the first East River tunnels--the
+      two subway tubes from the Battery to
+      Brooklyn--presented all the difficulties known to
+      subaqueous construction.
+
+      These tunnels extend on under the great Pennsylvania
+      terminal building--another of the same decade's
+      accomplishments--to East Thirty-fourth Street.
+
+The dash is also used to indicate a sudden change or break in the
+thought; as,
+
+      1. When the millennium comes--if it ever does--all of
+      our problems will be solved.
+
+      2. "I believe--" began the lawyer.
+
+      "Believe!" interrupted his client. "I don't want you
+      to believe. I want you to know."
+
+The dash is used before a word that summarizes the preceding part of the
+sentence; as,
+
+      He had robbed himself of the most precious thing a man
+      can have in business--his friends.
+
+After a comma the dash has the effect of lengthening the separation; as,
+
+      One thing the Puritans desired,--freedom to worship
+      God.
+
+
+=Exercise 194--Parenthesis Marks ()=
+
+Parenthesis marks are used to enclose explanatory expressions that are
+not an essential part of the sentence; as,
+
+      The United States Department of Agriculture estimates
+      that the receipts of cattle at the six leading markets
+      (Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, South Omaha, St.
+      Joseph, and Sioux City) from January 1 to August 1 of
+      this year are 15 per cent less than they were in the
+      corresponding period of last year.
+
+_Wrong._--Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or a passage. A
+line should be drawn through a word that is wrong.
+
+Bring to class five sentences that illustrate the correct use of
+parenthesis marks.
+
+
+=Exercise 195--The Hyphen (-)=
+
+The hyphen is used when a word has been divided. It is always used at
+the end of the line and never at the beginning.
+
+When several short words are taken together to form one word, they are
+hyphenated; as,
+
+      a one-hundred-pound bag of coffee
+
+As a rule, when two words taken together are each accented, they must be
+written with the hyphen. When only one is accented, no hyphen is used;
+as,
+
+      follow-up, first-class, self-reliant, railroad,
+      steamship
+
+As a rule, nouns which are compounded of a participle and a noun use the
+hyphen; as,
+
+      talking-machine, driving-wheel
+
+When fractions are written out, the hyphen is used; as,
+
+      one-third, three-fifths
+
+In other numerals expressing a compound number the hyphen is also used;
+as,
+
+      twenty-one, sixty-six
+
+
+=Exercise 196=
+
+Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction
+for each:
+
+1
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      We are glad to tell you that contrary to the fears
+      expressed in your last letter there are no present
+      indications of sudden changes at least no indications
+      of drops in prices. With the exception of two fruits
+      and one vegetable grapes cantaloupes and cauliflower
+      all commodities sold on the wholesale fruit and
+      produce markets here were quoted yesterday at the
+      prices announced last Friday.
+
+      The change in grape prices affected the Red Peru
+      variety in which the supply has almost stopped the
+      price being raised from $1.05 to $1.25 a box. If one
+      may trust the forecast of local merchants the price
+      will probably remain at this higher point until the
+      supply is exhausted. Cantaloupes seem to be a trifle
+      scarce especially the pineapple variety the price of
+      which was raised from $1.10 to $1.30 a crate.
+      Cauliflower was raised to $1.35 a dozen heads the
+      staple price probably for the rest of the season.
+
+      Excepting these items we shall be glad to receive any
+      orders at Friday's quotations.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+
+2
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      Your order of the 20th instant forwarded from our
+      Trenton office came this morning. We regret to say
+      however that we do not carry the Sanito brand of
+      canned goods as we do not consider the grade
+      first-class. If the Monsoon brand which is generally
+      acknowledged to be excellent will serve your purpose
+      we can fill your order at once.
+
+      We are now in a position to supply the trade with Mrs.
+      Keller's coffee of which we have fortunately secured
+      several thousand packages at a very low price. If you
+      wish any at $2.50 per dozen packages less than half
+      the retail price you will notice let us hear from you
+      at once.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We acknowledge your letter of October 5 but we regret
+      that as yet we have no information in regard to the
+      excess charge of $1.02 which you were obliged to pay
+      on the express shipment of one piece 27 yds. of plaid
+      silk chiffon. We have taken up the matter with the
+      mill however and as soon as we receive their report we
+      shall write you again.
+
+      Asking your indulgence meanwhile we are
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] Supply heading and introduction (see page 232).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE CLEAR SENTENCE
+
+
+BUSINESS men like to talk of brevity. They tell you that a talk or a
+letter must be brief. What they really mean is that the talk or the
+letter must be concise; that it must state the business clearly in the
+fewest possible words. Don't omit any essential fact when you write, but
+don't repeat. If you can express an idea in ten words, don't use twenty.
+In a later exercise we shall meet the sentence, _The size of the crops
+is always important, and it is especially so to the farmer, and this is
+because he has to live by the crops._ The writer of that sentence was
+very careless. He had a good idea and thought that, if he kept repeating
+it, he would make it stronger. Just the reverse is true. The sentence
+may be expressed in a very few words: _The size of the crop is vitally
+important to the farmer._
+
+If you wish to secure conciseness of expression, be especially careful
+to avoid joining or completing thoughts by these expressions: _and_,
+_so_, _why_, _that is why_, _this is the reason_, _and everything_.
+
+In this chapter we shall consider some of the larger faults that should
+be avoided in sentences.
+
+
+=Exercise 197--Unity of the Sentence=
+
+Give the definition of a sentence.
+
+How many thoughts may one sentence express?
+
+What is likely to happen when two thoughts are joined by _and_? What,
+then, is the danger in using the compound sentence?
+
+The compound sentence is good to use to express certain ideas,
+especially contrast; as,
+
+      It is not work that kills men; it is worry.
+
+      It is not the revolution that destroys the machinery,
+      but the friction [but it is the friction].
+
+The sentences which most clearly and easily give us one thought are the
+simple and the complex sentences.
+
+Compare the following sentences. Which of them leave _one_ idea in your
+mind?
+
+      The tongue is a sharp-edged tool.
+
+      A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows
+      keener with constant use.
+
+      A sharp tongue is like an edged tool, and it grows
+      keener with constant use.
+
+
+=Exercise 198=
+
+The following is wordy. Rewrite it, condensing as much as possible. Use
+simple and complex sentences rather than compound, expressing in each
+only one thought.
+
+      In the early summer the corn crop frequently seems to
+      be very poor, and so reports begin to circulate that
+      corn will be high in the autumn, but when the autumn
+      really comes, Wall Street, that great center of
+      business life, begins to see that the reports have
+      been greatly exaggerated and that crops really will be
+      very good, and so business begins to pick up. The size
+      of the crop largely settles the volume of the next
+      season's business, because so great a part of the
+      world's business activity is made up of buying and
+      selling the actual potatoes and corn and wheat and
+      cattle or the products made from these, and when the
+      crop is poor there are a great many people concerned,
+      because they will be poor just as the crops are poor,
+      and this applies to the farmer as well as to the
+      dealer.
+
+      The size of the crops is always important, and is
+      especially so to the farmer, and this is because he
+      has to live by the crops. A man may be living in the
+      city and working for a salary and begin to see that
+      his work is not supporting him, and if he is an
+      ambitious man, he will change his occupation. This the
+      farmer cannot do because he has made an enormous
+      investment; in the first place, he has invested in
+      his land, and then in his seed and farm implements,
+      and this investment often means all the available
+      money the farmer has, and often it means a mortgage on
+      his farm. He puts the mortgage on his farm in hope of
+      getting a good crop, and when his hope is not
+      realized, he is in trouble, because he may lose his
+      whole farm if he cannot pay the installments of
+      interest due on his mortgage; but then, on the other
+      hand, if we consider the other side of the question,
+      when the crop is large, the situation is altogether
+      different. Even if the farmer has put a mortgage on
+      his farm, he gets enough money from his produce to pay
+      the debt of that mortgage, and he need not worry how
+      he is to live during the next winter.
+
+      The town merchants depend on a good crop, because, if
+      the farmer has not a good return from his fields, he
+      will have almost no ready money, and so he cannot buy
+      much clothing or household furnishings. In Iowa, for
+      instance, there is a little town in the center of a
+      corn-raising community, and it is here that the
+      farmers congregate to do their buying, and in this
+      town there is quite a large department store, and it
+      is run by a woman. She does most of her buying in the
+      autumn and she prefers to do it personally, and so she
+      likes to make a trip to New York for the purpose, but
+      she never sets out until she knows that the corn crop
+      is good. And the reason for this is that she knows
+      that it will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the
+      trip East, to stay at a good hotel, and to spend the
+      requisite length of time choosing her purchases at the
+      different wholesale houses, and she knows that if
+      there is no corn crop she will sell very few coats and
+      hats and lace curtains, and it will never pay her to
+      run up her expenses into the hundreds of dollars, but
+      she will buy as best she can from the drummers, and
+      buy only a little, and thus the size of the crop
+      determines how much the farmer can buy, and,
+      therefore, how much the wholesale and retail dealers
+      can sell.
+
+
+=Exercise 199--Subordination in the Sentence=
+
+Sentences containing compound predicates may be made more direct in
+thought if one of the verbs is changed to a participle or an infinitive,
+because the predicate will then express only one action; as,
+
+      1. The carpenter _threw_ down his hammer _and walked_
+      out of the shop.
+
+      2. _Throwing_ down his hammer, the carpenter walked
+      out of the shop.
+
+      3. I _went_ downtown _and applied_ for the position.
+
+      4. I went downtown _to apply_ for the position.
+
+Change the following sentences so that one action is denoted by the
+predicate of each:
+
+      1. A teamster drove out of the alley east of the
+      theater and swung his horses directly in front of a
+      Madison street car.
+
+      2. The tongue struck the front of the car and bored a
+      hole in the fuse box.
+
+      3. The fire spread and burned the roof of the car.
+
+      4. The half dozen passengers were badly frightened and
+      got out quickly.
+
+      5. Several people ran and turned in a fire alarm.
+
+      6. In a few minutes the fire engines arrived and began
+      to fight the flames.
+
+      7. Crowds came from all directions and silently
+      watched the flames.
+
+      8. The people poured out of the theater and cheered
+      the firemen.
+
+      9. The half dozen passengers soon recovered and stood
+      on the curbstone in the crowd.
+
+      10. The firemen did their work quickly and departed
+      amid the cheers of the crowd.
+
+
+=Exercise 200--Combination of Short Sentences=
+
+Sometimes short sentences are bad because two or three of them are
+needed to express one complete thought. If that is the case, they should
+be combined, the most important detail being put into the principal
+clause, and the other details into modifiers, as in the preceding
+exercise.
+
+Make use of--
+
+    1. Adjectives.
+    2. Adverbs.
+    3. Participial phrases.
+    4. Infinitives.
+    5. Relative pronouns.
+    6. Subordinate conjunctions.
+
+Below, the first and second sentences together make one thought, which
+is expressed in the third.
+
+    John is a good reporter.
+    That is why he earns a good salary.
+    Because John is a good reporter, he earns a good salary.
+
+Combine the sentences of each group below into a single sentence, either
+simple or complex, omitting as many words as possible but no ideas:
+
+      1. We stayed at home for two reasons: first of all, we
+      thought Baltimore might be unpleasantly warm. Then,
+      the other reason was that we thought we ought to
+      economize.
+
+      2. In China the wedding takes place at the
+      bridegroom's house. This has been decorated with
+      strips of bright red paper, and they have the word
+      "Hsi" on them. This means "Live in happiness."
+
+      3. First in the procession come the standard bearers.
+      They are hired for the occasion. These men have red
+      coats put on over their dirty clothes. The men they
+      hire are usually beggars.
+
+      4. Six years ago I went sailing on Lake George with my
+      father. I was ten years old at that time. Two other
+      men went along with us. The boat that we went in
+      belonged to my father and these men.
+
+      5. The wind was high and it would come in gusts. This
+      made it hard to sail. It shifted the sails so quickly
+      that it would throw the boat over on one side.
+
+      6. Several times the boat leaned over at an angle of
+      forty degrees. This let the water come in on that
+      side. When this happened, we all had to jump to the
+      other side. We did this so that the boat would right
+      itself.
+
+      7. The heart is the most important organ in the body.
+      This is because if the heart stops beating, you cannot
+      live. Besides, all the other organs are connected with
+      it. It is something like the main spring in a watch.
+
+      8. This is a good machine. And since that's the case,
+      I don't see why it is that it doesn't work as it
+      should.
+
+      9. In every business there are many bad debts. Some
+      can be collected and others cannot be. This is because
+      the men who made them were given credit, and they
+      didn't have any money.
+
+      10. The night was dark, and there were no stars. The
+      fishermen stood on the shore, and they gazed at the
+      wild sea. A storm had arisen, and they could not go
+      out in their boats.
+
+
+=Exercise 201=
+
+As in the preceding exercise, rewrite the following, omitting as many
+words as possible, but no ideas. Use shorter, simpler expressions
+wherever possible.
+
+1
+
+      Uncle Sam now has an aerial navy, but it's a small
+      one, and foundations of it were recently laid. This
+      was done when contracts were signed for the delivery
+      of three aeroplanes and they are the first aeroplanes
+      that the United States bought. These aeroplanes are of
+      the latest development. They are all capable of rising
+      from land or water. They are able also to land on
+      water or on the deck of a ship, and they can carry at
+      least one passenger and are equipped with wireless
+      outfits. Two of them are Curtis machines and the third
+      is a Wright, and they ranged in price from $2,700 to
+      $5,500.
+
+2
+
+      The United States produces more steel than any two
+      European countries, and it is continuing to produce
+      more. Moreover, it has the productive capacity to
+      produce more than any other three or four countries
+      put together. This capacity is being still further
+      increased. At the present time, there is one very
+      important steel company. It is very large, and seems
+      to wish to monopolize the entire iron and steel
+      industry. Even at this time it owns half the principal
+      plants that are now producing steel and iron, and
+      controls half the trade of the entire steel and iron
+      industry, and when such a thing happens, it is a
+      matter of international concern.
+
+3
+
+Condense the following into a single sentence, either simple or complex:
+
+      The iron and steel industry is very important, and it
+      includes a great deal. First, the ore has to be mined,
+      and then the work includes everything up to making the
+      finest wire for musical instruments. Or, to put it
+      another way, you can say from smelting the ore to
+      building a battle ship. This is a very interesting
+      occupation and, as said before, very important. There
+      is hardly anything more interesting or important
+      except agriculture.
+
+
+=Exercise 202--Dangling Expressions=
+
+Sometimes a sentence is not clear because it contains a participle which
+does not modify anything in the sentence. A participle is part _verb_
+and part _adjective_. As a verb, it expresses the idea of the verb from
+which it is derived. As an adjective, it must modify a noun or a
+pronoun. The important point is that this noun or pronoun must be
+expressed in the sentence and not lie in the mind of the writer, as it
+does in the following:
+
+      Riding from Saugatuck to Holland last year, the
+      country showed unmistakable signs of lack of rain.
+
+Here the writer means, _We saw that the country_, etc., but he says that
+the country rode from Saugatuck to Holland.
+
+Again, an expression may be used which is really an incomplete clause.
+Do not use such a clause, unless the understood subject is the same as
+the subject expressed in the independent proposition.
+
+    _Wrong_: When almost exhausted, the camp was reached.
+    _Right_: When almost exhausted, we reached the camp.
+
+Recast the following sentences, correcting the dangling expressions:
+
+      1. You should not stop studying your lessons until
+      thoroughly prepared.
+
+      2. In talking to the postman yesterday, he said that
+      his route had been changed.
+
+      3. Owing two months' rent, the foreman laid me off.
+
+      4. Before becoming a physician, the law sets a very
+      severe examination.
+
+      5. Having eaten our luncheon very hastily, the
+      typewriters were soon clicking merrily again.
+
+      6. The difficulty could easily be settled, going about
+      it in the right way.
+
+      7. Although determined to get my money, the task was
+      harder than I had expected.
+
+      8. Having installed an adding machine, our office work
+      could be done in half the time.
+
+      9. On entering the car, the first thing that caught my
+      attention was the sign at the end.
+
+      10. Silk should be washed with warm water and a mild
+      soap, being careful not to rub it.
+
+      11. The house was redecorated, making it clean and
+      homelike.
+
+      12. The book should be carefully studied, reviewing
+      each chapter after it is read.
+
+      13. Going to work this morning, an accident happened.
+
+      14. Having entered college, Mr. Brown watched his
+      son's progress with pride.
+
+      15. Soon after abandoning the boat, it sank.
+
+      16. They say he will be lame, caused by a fall on the
+      ice while skating.
+
+      17. While trying to break the half mile record, his
+      back was injured.
+
+      18. Many people object to football, because in
+      tackling the boys' hearts are weakened.
+
+      19. He did not wish to take up an extra study, thus
+      lessening his chance of being eligible for athletics.
+
+      20. While a child, my father often told me stories of
+      Indian days.
+
+      21. Absorbed all day in superintending his work, in
+      the evening the newspaper brought him political news
+      enough to fill the hours between dinner and bed-time.
+
+      22. Discussing the happenings in the ward with an old
+      crony, his daughter would often sit near him
+      listening.
+
+      23. He is failing in his work, caused by his laziness.
+
+      24. Although a good tonic, I did not gain weight while
+      taking it.
+
+      25. In the new telephone, upon lifting the receiver, a
+      ticking sound is heard.
+
+      26. Leaving the window open when she went to lunch, of
+      course the papers were disarranged on her return.
+
+      27. Dictionaries must be returned to the desk after
+      using.
+
+
+=Exercise 203--Pronouns with Uncertain Antecedents=
+
+Sometimes the meaning of a sentence is not clear because the pronouns
+have uncertain antecedents.
+
+1. Sometimes a pronoun may refer to either of two antecedents; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: He gave his brother John the umbrella and then _he_ left.
+    _Right_: He gave the umbrella to his brother John, who then left.
+
+2. Sometimes the sentence must be entirely recast and a direct quotation
+used before the pronouns can be made clear; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: Tom told his father that _his_ suit case was lost.
+    _Right_: _a._ Tom said, "Father, your suit case is lost."
+             _b._ Tom said, "Father, my suit case is lost."
+
+3. Sometimes the pronoun refers to a word that has not been expressed or
+to an _idea_. In that case, the antecedent must be supplied; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send
+      _it_ in the enclosed envelope.
+    _Right_: If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send
+      _his contribution_ in the enclosed envelope.
+
+    _Wrong_: I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody does _that_ nowadays.
+    _Right_: I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody wears _them_ nowadays.
+
+4. A sentence containing an indefinite _they_ or _it_ is corrected thus:
+
+    _Wrong_: Don't _they_ have street cars where you live?
+    _Right_: Are there _no_ street cars where you live?
+
+Recast the following:
+
+      1. She asked her mother if she could go, and she said
+      she thought she ought to stay at home.
+
+      2. John told James he was sure he did not know the
+      office that he meant.
+
+      3. George told his father his watch had stopped.
+
+      4. The manager asked the clerk to bring his book.
+
+      5. A light touch is important in a typewriter, because
+      it makes it easy to write upon it.
+
+      6. The size of the crops is important to the farmers,
+      because they have to live by them.
+
+      7. They decided to reorganize the company, which is
+      always a difficult task.
+
+      8. They went into the hands of a receiver, which is an
+      indication that the affairs of the company had been
+      poorly managed.
+
+      9. There is a boat on the lake over which there is a
+      pleasant view, in which there is a club for working
+      girls.
+
+      10. He stole some money which brought about an
+      investigation.
+
+      11. She asked her aunt how old she was.
+
+      12. John is famous for telling anecdotes, and he got
+      it by remembering every story he reads.
+
+      13. The sleighing party last night was a success,
+      which is not always the case.
+
+      14. He told a lie, which is a bad thing to do.
+
+      15. They engaged a gardener, which doubled their
+      monthly expenses.
+
+      16. Why don't you get some of that new fur trimming
+      for your blue dress?
+
+      17. They had an accident on the street car this
+      morning.
+
+      18. In the newspaper it said that the lecture would
+      begin at 8:15.
+
+      19. They don't find iron in Illinois, do they?
+
+      20. Do they have the original paintings in our art
+      gallery?
+
+      21. It says "Closed" on that door.
+
+      22. It doesn't mention a bank draft in this book.
+
+      23. They have a great many foreigners in New York
+      City.
+
+      24. John accompanied his brother to the city where he
+      bought a typewriter.
+
+      25. I had expected to take the 9:30 train, but I
+      couldn't do it.
+
+      26. Going up to the horse he put a lump of sugar into
+      his mouth.
+
+      27. In letter writing one should always be exact and
+      arrange them in the customary form.
+
+      28. Those hooks are not rust-proof because the back of
+      my dress is stained with it.
+
+      29. The telephone is a great convenience to all. They
+      are now used in almost every house.
+
+      30. As we came down the road, it sounded like a train,
+      which, as we approached, grew louder and louder.
+
+
+=Exercise 204--Misplaced Modifiers=
+
+Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a modifier does not stand
+close to the word it modifies.
+
+    _Wrong_: I can't _even_ do the first problem.
+    _Right_: I can't do _even_ the first problem.
+
+Change the order of words in the following sentences, placing each
+modifier as closely as possible to the word which it modifies. Some of
+the sentences are incorrect because they contain split infinitives. (See
+Exercise 92.)
+
+      1. I only waited for him about ten minutes.
+
+      2. She stood at the window, trying to close it with a
+      troubled face.
+
+      3. The city is supplied with water from cold springs
+      which flow nearly a hundred million gallons of the
+      purest liquid that ever burst from the earth, daily.
+
+      4. The famous S. F. ice cream is made in this factory
+      containing fifty per cent pure cream.
+
+      5. A man should not be allowed to cast a vote, who
+      cannot read and write.
+
+      6. After taking the medicine for a short time, the
+      appetite is improved, and a desire is created for
+      food, that has not existed before.
+
+      7. In real value, this magazine towers head and
+      shoulders over all others to the woman who is in
+      charge of her home.
+
+      8. There are pages of fashion news and embroidery
+      hints and news articles of the day that will appeal to
+      the husband and father as the others do to the wife
+      and daughter as well as departments for the children.
+
+      9. The number of the sewing machine is 37A with a drop
+      head.
+
+      10. They neither are gentle nor well-mannered.
+
+      11. I only heard about the trouble yesterday.
+
+      12. He left the same station at which, thirty years
+      before, he had arrived very humbly, in his own special
+      car.
+
+      13. He urged his brother to buy a home in his letter.
+
+      14. The lighting system has been developed to a really
+      remarkable degree of perfection for the trains.
+
+      15. The dynamo is so arranged that when the train is
+      standing still or only traveling twenty miles an hour,
+      the lamps are lighted from a storage battery.
+
+      16. The batteries must be large enough during the run
+      to carry the entire lighting load.
+
+      17. Please send me 6 Dining Tables No. 46 that extend
+      to ten feet as soon as possible.
+
+      18. Large trees grow on each side of the house which
+      is a rambling affair shutting out the light.
+
+      19. They decided to give a bonus to the one doing the
+      best work, amounting to fifty dollars.
+
+      20. We had almost got to the corner before we saw the
+      fire.
+
+      21. I don't ever remember having seen so big a fire.
+
+      22. Remember to thoroughly oil the machine.
+
+      23. Do you need to in any way alter the machine?
+
+      24. If we expect to completely fill the order to-day,
+      we need more help.
+
+
+=Exercise 205--Omission of Necessary Words=
+
+Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a word has been omitted that
+is necessary to the sense; as,
+
+_Wrong_: The two officers that they elected are the president and
+secretary.
+
+_Right_: The two officers that they elected are the president and _the_
+secretary.
+
+_Wrong_: His writing is as good or better than yours.
+
+_Right_: His writing is as good _as_ or better than yours.
+
+_Wrong_: The library is where we go to read.
+
+_Right_: The library is _the place_ where we go to read.
+
+State the difference between the following typewriter ribbons:
+
+    1. A red and blue and black ribbon.
+    2. A red and a blue and black ribbon.
+    3. A red and blue and a black ribbon.
+    4. A red and a blue and a black ribbon.
+
+Supply the omitted part in each of the following:
+
+      1. I always have and I'm sure I always shall be
+      considerate of others' feelings.
+
+      2. They have a stenographer and bookkeeper, who are
+      kept busy all day.
+
+      3. I believe he has already or will soon begin the
+      work.
+
+      4. The cushions of the rocker are much softer than the
+      armchair.
+
+      5. The arrangement of your flat is much more
+      convenient than our house.
+
+      6. The number of shelves in your sideboard is just the
+      same as our china closet.
+
+      7. I think the articles you ordered will arrive as
+      soon or sooner than you expect.
+
+      8. She is as tall or taller than you.
+
+      9. When your message arrived, I had already or at
+      least had decided to begin cutting the goods.
+
+      10. It may not be better but it is fully as good as
+      the other article.
+
+      11. I think you cook fully as well if not better than
+      your sister.
+
+      12. His poems hold a place in our hearts second only
+      to the Bible.
+
+      13. Your idea is as good if not better than mine.
+
+      14. We decided to make the change both for the sake of
+      health and economy.
+
+      15. You will find the armchair fully as comfortable,
+      if not more so, than the rocker.
+
+      16. The river is where we had the most fun.
+
+      17. I know you better than Mary.
+
+      18. She went to the park but I didn't care to.
+
+      19. We didn't object to the scheme as much as you.
+
+      20. A conservatory is where there are all kinds of
+      flowers.
+
+
+=Exercise 206--Shift in Construction=
+
+Sometimes the meaning of the sentence is obscure because there has been
+a shift in construction. Do not change subject, person, tense, or any
+grammatical form without a good reason. Remember that _and_ is a
+co�rdinate conjunction. If there is an adjective before _and_, there
+must be an adjective after it. If a clause precedes, a clause must
+follow. In other words, _and_ joins two members of exactly the same
+structure. _And_ may not join one word and a phrase, nor may it join a
+prepositional and a participial phrase. Both members must be alike. In
+the following extract, parallel constructions are used correctly. Be
+able to tell what kinds of elements are used and how they are parallel.
+
+      To eat your cake and keep it too; to wear a gown with
+      the air of originality and distinction, and keep a
+      full purse; to have your house display taste and
+      refinement, and be praised as an economical housewife;
+      to dress your children daintily, and save money for
+      their education--use ABC transfer patterns. By their
+      aid you can make an inexpensive waist look like a
+      French blouse, have table linen of unrivaled elegance,
+      and dress your babies in the most approved style.
+      These patterns cost,--some ten, some fifteen cents.
+      They cover the entire field of dress,--waists, tunics,
+      panels, infants' clothes, underwear, men's apparel,
+      and neckwear; and of household articles,--towels,
+      table-linen, and pillow tops.
+
+Recast the following sentences, correcting the shift of construction in
+each:
+
+      1. In the large department stores every clerk is to
+      report on her way to lunch and coming back.
+
+      2. When one hears a cry of "Fire," your first thought
+      is to run.
+
+      3. He seemed fond of his work and to have skill in
+      doing it quickly.
+
+      4. I decided on taking the trip and to keep my
+      expenses within fifty dollars if possible.
+
+      5. X Y Z Cleaner is good for softening water and other
+      household uses.
+
+      6. Because of the rise in the price of meats and owing
+      to the fact that grocers charge more for butter and
+      eggs, people find it hard to live.
+
+      7. The office is well-heated and with plenty of light.
+
+      8. The crowds began to watch the fire and cheering
+      loudly.
+
+      9. I heard the opera last year and have gone again
+      this year.
+
+      10. It was wonderful to see how fast they worked and
+      their accuracy.
+
+      11. I can't decide whether to take up stenography or
+      if bookkeeping is better.
+
+      12. He taught us the principles of letter writing, and
+      somewhat of advertising was taken up.
+
+      13. Hoping that the work progressed, and unless a
+      landslide occurred, the Americans expected to remove
+      5,000,000 cubic yards each year.
+
+      14. The study of the earth has always been stimulated
+      by two fundamental passions of humanity--a desire for
+      wealth and because of their curiosity.
+
+      15. He insists on our taking the trip and to go
+      without further delay.
+
+      16. In reviewing, it is well to go over each part of
+      the course carefully, and you should make a note of
+      every point which you do not understand, and let each
+      ask those questions which he himself cannot answer.
+
+      17. Mr. Fitzmorris is a man of great technical skill
+      and who has handled the situation capably.
+
+      18. It will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the
+      trip East and spending the requisite length of time
+      choosing her purchases at the different wholesale
+      houses.
+
+      19. He had assumed control of the office, planned the
+      advertising, and the finances were also directed by
+      him.
+
+      20. We have decided to go on the excursion to the
+      Capitol and at the same time visiting Uncle John.
+
+
+=Exercise 207=
+
+What prevents clearness in the following?
+
+      1. The Federal Government began an investigation into
+      fire conditions in Europe in 1907, through our
+      consuls.
+
+      2. It cost $2.39 a year for fire in the United States
+      between 1901 and 1910, for every man, woman, and
+      child, and Germany does not even pay nineteen cents.
+
+      3. The number of our fires is increasing, which is
+      worse.
+
+      4. In ten years our population has increased 73 per
+      cent and 134 per cent is the increase in fires.
+
+      5. Having considered the details, the conclusion is
+      easily drawn that fire is a disgrace.
+
+      6. He only gets to the office at ten o'clock.
+
+      7. Having settled the plan of attack, the rest was
+      simple.
+
+      8. The manager warned him not to make the mistake
+      again and adding that mistakes are costly.
+
+      9. To keep flannels from shrinking, wash in the
+      following way, and you will find it very satisfactory.
+
+      10. To open a fruit jar run a knife under the edge and
+      it comes off easily.
+
+      11. I didn't even finish half the questions.
+
+      12. Electric lights are economical, clean, and give
+      more light than gas.
+
+      13. You should buy your suit now, both for the sake of
+      economy and style.
+
+      14. If in doubt as to the best word, a book of
+      synonyms should be consulted.
+
+      15. The comma fault is where, two principal clauses
+      are run together without a co�rdinate conjunction.
+
+Rewrite the following so that it will be correct, concise, and clear:
+
+      The Europeans were anxious for trade with the East,
+      for they were dependent upon them for spices and
+      luxuries. The three routes were through the
+      Mediterranean Sea, over the Suez Peninsula, down the
+      Red Sea, and across to India. Another was through the
+      Mediterranean and then through Arabia. The other was
+      from the Mediterranean and then through the Black Sea
+      and then by land to India. It became necessary to seek
+      a new route because the Turks held Constantinople, and
+      all vessels had to pass through the Mediterranean, and
+      the Turks held this by pirates. The first explorers
+      were working under the leadership of the King of
+      Portugal, and they solved the problem by going around
+      Africa and then to the Indies, but this was too long,
+      and so explorers tried other ways, and the result was
+      the discovery of America.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE PARAGRAPH
+
+
+The sentences developing each of the divisions of a composition make one
+_paragraph_. A paragraph, therefore, is the treatment of one of the
+natural divisions of a subject. The length depends on the topic to be
+treated. Two cautions may be given:
+
+1. Do not write paragraphs containing only one sentence. Such paragraphs
+do not represent divisions of the subject. They are simply statements
+which have not been expanded as they deserve, or they are sentences that
+should be placed with the preceding or succeeding sentences in order to
+make a good paragraph. Some business men in their letters and
+advertisements use the one-sentence paragraph too frequently to
+concentrate the attention of the reader. A writer divides his
+composition into paragraphs in order to aid the reader to follow the
+thoughts he is presenting. When the reader sees the indentation that
+indicates a new paragraph, he thinks that the writer has said all that
+he intends to say on the topic in hand and now intends to open a new
+topic. It is confusing to find that the new paragraph is simply another
+sentence on the same topic as the preceding paragraph. Notice the jerky
+effect of the following extract from a letter:
+
+      We are sending you a copy of our latest catalogue,
+      which gives illustrations and prices of all our stock.
+
+      The illustrations are all made from actual photographs
+      and are faithful in representing the shoe described.
+
+      Bear Brand Shoes are shipped in special fiber cases,
+      thus lessening freight bills and eliminating the
+      annoyance of shortage claims because they cannot be
+      opened without immediate detection.
+
+      Errors of any kind should be reported without delay.
+
+      Imperfect or damaged goods must be returned for our
+      inspection; otherwise no allowance will be made.
+
+2. Do not go to the other extreme, writing paragraphs of great length.
+Much depends, of course, on the matter to be treated, but, as a rule, in
+a student's theme a paragraph should be not longer than one page. If one
+of the divisions of your subject is necessarily long, subdivide it,
+allowing a paragraph to treat each of the subdivisions.
+
+Whether it is to be long or short, a paragraph must treat but one topic;
+from the first sentence to the last, it should be the development of one
+idea. Moreover, this topic must be revealed to the reader in no
+unmistakable way. Sometimes the subject is so simple that the topic may
+easily be gathered from the details given, but usually it is well to
+have one sentence that in a brief or general way states the topic. This
+is called the _topic sentence_. It may be at or near the beginning; in
+this case the rest of the paragraph defines or illustrates what it
+states. It may, however, be found at almost any point in the paragraph,
+not infrequently acting as a sentence of conclusion, summing up the
+details that have been presented.
+
+A paragraph that begins with a topic sentence sometimes ends with a
+sentence of conclusion. The first sentence states the topic, the
+following sentences explain or illustrate it, and the last sentence
+summarizes or otherwise indicates that the topic has been completed.
+This form has been called the _hammock_ paragraph, because it has a
+solid "post" at each end with a mass of details "swinging" between. It
+is a good form to use in writing paragraphs on given subjects, when each
+paragraph is to stand alone, complete in itself, not forming part of a
+longer composition. The practice of writing such paragraphs induces
+clear, forceful thinking.
+
+
+=Exercise 208=
+
+Study the following paragraphs for--
+
+    1. Topic sentence, if there is one.
+    2. Development of the topic.
+    3. Sentence of conclusion, if there is one.
+
+1
+
+      The problem in many large firms is how to develop
+      office efficiency to the highest possible degree. In
+      this respect the monthly examination scheme has been
+      found a great success. The examination consists of a
+      list of questions about merchandise and business
+      procedure. The questions are given out on the last
+      Saturday of the month, and the answers are returned
+      for criticism on the following Wednesday. The
+      employees are told that they may consult as many
+      authorities as they wish, but each man must write his
+      own paper. A poor percentage in three of these tests
+      usually means dismissal. Thus the inefficient are
+      dropped, and the ambitious who have studied are
+      recognized. The vice-president of one concern that
+      uses this system says that it is a strong reminder to
+      his men that they must make themselves worthy of the
+      organization. Besides maintaining an even standard of
+      efficiency, the plan has resulted in developing a
+      number of valuable executives, whose latent powers
+      were brought out by the rigidness of the tests.
+
+2
+
+      Every month the department head in one big eastern
+      concern, watch in hand, times a large force of typists
+      individually, testing how rapidly they can write a
+      letter of 200 words from their shorthand notes.
+      Rapidity, punctuation, spelling, and neatness are
+      carefully recorded. This plan has had a desirable
+      influence in bringing stenographers up to grade in
+      their daily work, because a good examination mark is
+      reduced one-half by careless daily work, and a poor
+      examination mark correspondingly raised by excellent
+      daily work. When both examination average and daily
+      average are excellent, the stenographer's salary is
+      increased; when both are below good, the stenographer
+      is dismissed. In this way the standard of stenographic
+      work is kept high.
+
+3
+
+      In his effort to succeed many a young business man
+      overlooks the detail of business courtesy. He does not
+      realize the value that a buyer places upon that
+      commodity. The more experienced man, however, knows
+      that courtesy does more to hold a buyer than do
+      bargain sales. In our large cities merchants have
+      incurred great expense to fit up rest rooms where
+      customers may spend an idle hour, write letters on
+      stationery that is provided, and read the latest
+      magazines. In the rural districts, where such luxuries
+      are often impossible, the merchant provides chairs for
+      his customers and a place for stationing their teams.
+      The country merchant, however, can often accomplish
+      his object more quickly than the city dealer by
+      spending an hour gossiping with his customers. He
+      recognizes the fact that buyers are flattered when the
+      proprietor himself takes the time to say a few words
+      to them. He knows just as well as his city competitor
+      does, that if a buyer feels at home in his store,
+      sales are practically guaranteed.
+
+4
+
+      The rural landscape of Norway, on the long easterly
+      slope that leads up to the watershed among the
+      mountains on the western coast, is not unlike that of
+      Vermont or New Hampshire. The railway from Christiania
+      to the Randsfjord carried us through a hilly country
+      of scattered farms and villages. Wood played a
+      prominent part in the scenery. There were dark
+      stretches of forest on the hilltops and in the
+      valleys; rivers filled with floating logs; sawmills
+      beside the waterfalls; wooden farmhouses painted
+      white; and rail-fences around the fields. The people
+      seemed sturdy, prosperous, independent. They had the
+      familiar habit of coming down to the station to see
+      the train arrive and depart. We might have fancied
+      ourselves on a journey through the Connecticut valley
+      if it had not been for the soft sing-song of the
+      Norwegian speech and the uniform politeness of the
+      railway officials.
+
+                          --Van Dyke: _Fisherman's Luck._
+
+5
+
+      The plan of the _Spectator_ must be allowed to be both
+      original and eminently happy. Every valuable essay in
+      the series may be read with pleasure separately; yet
+      the five or six hundred essays form a whole, and a
+      whole which has the interest of a novel. It must be
+      remembered, too, that at that time no novel, giving a
+      lively and powerful picture of the common life and
+      manners of England, had appeared. Richardson was
+      working as a compositor. Fielding was robbing birds'
+      nests. Smollett was not yet born. The narrative,
+      therefore, which connects together the Spectator's
+      essays gave to our ancestors their first taste of an
+      exquisite and untried pleasure. That narrative was,
+      indeed, constructed with no art or labor. The events
+      were such events as occur every day. Sir Roger comes
+      up to town to see Eugenio, as the worthy baronet
+      always calls Prince Eugene, goes with the Spectator on
+      the water to Spring Gardens, walks among the tombs in
+      the Abbey, and is frightened by the Mohawks, but
+      conquers his apprehension so far as to go to the
+      theater when the "Distressed Mother" is acted. The
+      Spectator pays a visit in the summer to Coverley Hall,
+      is charmed with the old house, the old butler, and the
+      old chaplain, eats a jack caught by Will Wimble, rides
+      to the assizes, and hears a point of law discussed by
+      Tom Touchy. At last a letter from the honest butler
+      brings to the club the news that Sir Roger is dead.
+      Will Honeycomb marries and reforms at sixty. The club
+      breaks up, and the Spectator resigns his functions.
+      Such events can hardly be said to form a plot; yet
+      they are related with such truth, such grace, such
+      wit, such humor, such pathos, such knowledge of the
+      human heart, such knowledge of the ways of the world
+      that they charm us on the hundredth perusal. We have
+      not the least doubt that if Addison had written a
+      novel on an extensive plan, it would have been
+      superior to any that we possess. As it is, he is
+      entitled to be considered not only as the greatest of
+      the English essayists, but as the forerunner of the
+      great English novelists.
+
+                            --Macaulay: _Essay on Addison._
+
+
+=Exercise 209=
+
+Prepare a paragraph developing each of the following topic sentences:
+
+      1. The kitchen was a cheerful place. (Tell all the
+      details that will explain the word _cheerful_.)
+
+      2. In the kitchen the preparations for the feast went
+      on merrily. (Give the details that will help one get
+      the picture.)
+
+      3. Examinations are helpful to the student. (In what
+      ways are they helpful? If possible, use examples to
+      illustrate the point.)
+
+      4. Winter is more enjoyable than summer. (Contrast the
+      pleasures of the one with those of the other, showing
+      that those of winter are more enjoyable.)
+
+      5. Riding a motorcycle is apt to make a boy reckless.
+      (Develop by using examples.)
+
+      6. A man must like his work if he is to succeed in it.
+
+      7. Farm lands vary in price.
+
+      8. The farmer feeds the world.
+
+      9. Every department store should have regular fire
+      drills.
+
+      10. Every sale ought to be an advertisement.
+
+
+=Exercise 210=
+
+Paragraph the following so that the paragraphs will represent the
+divisions in thought. If there are any topic sentences, underline them.
+
+1
+
+      I have often noticed that every one has his own
+      individual small economies, careful habits of saving
+      fractions of pennies in some one peculiar direction,
+      any disturbance of which annoys him more than spending
+      shillings or pounds on some real extravagance. An old
+      gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the
+      intelligence of the failure of a Joint Stock Bank, in
+      which some of his money was invested, with a stoical
+      mildness, worried his family all through a long
+      summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of
+      cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless
+      bankbook. Of course, the corresponding pages at the
+      other end came out as well, and this little
+      unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy)
+      chafed him more than all the loss of his money.
+      Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they came in.
+      The only way in which he could reconcile himself to
+      such a waste of his cherished article was by patiently
+      turning inside out all that were sent to him, and so
+      making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by
+      age, I see him casting wistful glances at his
+      daughters when they send a whole inside of a
+      half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines of
+      acceptance to an invitation written on only one of the
+      sides. I am not above owning that I have this human
+      weakness myself. String is my foible. My pockets get
+      full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted
+      together, ready for uses that never come. I am
+      seriously annoyed if any one cuts a string of a parcel
+      instead of patiently and faithfully undoing it fold by
+      fold. How people can bring themselves to use
+      India-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of
+      string, as lightly as they do I cannot imagine. To me
+      an India-rubber band is a precious treasure. I have
+      one which is not new--one that I picked up off the
+      floor nearly five years ago. I have really tried to
+      use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit
+      the extravagance. Small pieces of butter grieve
+      others. They cannot attend to conversation because of
+      the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some
+      people have of invariably taking more butter than they
+      want. Have you ever seen the anxious look (almost
+      mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article? They
+      would feel it a relief if they might bury it out of
+      their sight by popping it into their own mouths and
+      swallowing it down; and they are really made happy if
+      the person on whose plate it lies unused suddenly
+      breaks off a piece of toast (which he does not want at
+      all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is
+      not waste. Now, Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of
+      candles: We had many devices to use as few as
+      possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit
+      knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in
+      the dark or by firelight--and when I asked if I might
+      not ring for candles to finish stitching my
+      wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's holiday."
+      They were usually brought in with tea, but we burnt
+      only one at a time. As we lived in constant
+      preparation for a friend who might come in any evening
+      (but who never did), it required some contrivance to
+      keep our two candles of the same length, ready to be
+      lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The
+      candles took it in turns; and then, whatever we might
+      be talking of or doing, Miss Matty kept her eyes
+      habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and
+      extinguish it and light the other before they had
+      become too uneven in length to be restored to equality
+      in the course of the evening.
+
+                     --Adapted from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_.
+
+2
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      We are sorry to say that we have no more house coats
+      No. SP62 in size 38 at $4.50. As we advertised, SP62
+      is not a regular stock number, but represents a
+      collection of $5, $6, and $7.50 coats remaining after
+      the holiday sales and reduced to insure their being
+      sold before spring. At the opening of the sale there
+      were only a few coats in size 38, and they were sold
+      almost at once. In our catalogue, pages 68 to 71
+      inclusive, you will find descriptions of all our stock
+      house coats. On page 68 you will see No. 450HC, our
+      regular $4.50 coat. If you would like us to send you
+      one of these in size 38, we shall forward it to you at
+      once. However, if you would like a $5, $6, or $7.50
+      coat, you will, no doubt, send us the difference in
+      price on receipt of this letter. Of course, the more
+      expensive garments are made of better materials, but
+      all our coats show the same excellent workmanship. The
+      best way for you to get the exact shade of trimming
+      that you wish is to send us a sample of the goods that
+      you would like to match. We assure you that we shall
+      take all possible care to send you the proper color.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 211=
+
+Paragraphs may be developed in different ways. For example, if you were
+going to write on the process of making a layer cake, you would explain
+in detail the different ingredients in the mixture, the proportion of
+each, and the steps in the process before the product could be sold as a
+layer cake.
+
+By the use of explanatory details develop the following:
+
+     1. Making a kite.
+     2. Making a baseball.
+     3. Making fudge.
+     4. How to play checkers.
+     5. The manufacture of soap (or any article in a grocery).
+     6. The manufacture of a tin can.
+     7. The manufacture of pins.
+     8. Every man must have an ambition.
+     9. Why I intend to enter business.
+    10. The greatest modern invention.
+
+By the use of examples to illustrate your point develop the following:
+
+    1. Electricity is making housework easy and pleasant.
+    2. Many sons of poor parents have won great wealth.
+    3. The wireless apparatus has saved many lives.
+    4. A boy can show that he is a good citizen.
+    5. Young Americans have little respect for authority.
+
+By the use of comparison and contrast develop the following:
+
+    1. Improvements in modern lighting systems.
+    2. Improvements in modern heating systems.
+    3. Improvements in modern means of locomotion.
+    4. Two kinds of work, pleasure, or study.
+    5. Why I intend to have a business of my own.
+    6. The study that I like best.
+
+By explaining cause and effect develop the following:
+
+    1. The advantages of public gymnasiums.
+    2. The success of loose leaf devices.
+    3. The objections to football.
+
+
+=Exercise 212=
+
+Develop the following into paragraphs; in each case be able to show what
+method or methods you have employed:
+
+      1. A man who cannot read and write English should not
+      be allowed to vote.
+
+      2. Postal savings banks inspire the savings habit.
+
+      3. Women--the mothers of children--should vote.
+
+      4. Women should not vote because they do not read the
+      newspaper.
+
+      5. The effect of school slang is bad.
+
+      6. I wish I had seen the coronation of George V. Every
+      fairy story I had ever read would suddenly have become
+      real.
+
+      7. Canada would gain by reciprocity with the United
+      States.
+
+      8. The United States would gain by reciprocity with
+      Canada.
+
+      9. Our forests should be preserved.
+
+      10. The waste of lumber by forest fires results from
+      carelessness.
+
+      11. The waste of lumber in cutting railroad ties is
+      too great.
+
+      12. The rotation of crops enriches the soil.
+
+      13. Apples are more easily gathered than cherries.
+
+      14. Efforts should be made to keep the birds in our
+      city parks.
+
+      15. Every boy should learn a trade.
+
+      16. Peddlers should not be allowed to call their
+      wares.
+
+      17. Great crowds gathered in the city during aviation
+      week (or any celebration).
+
+      18. The electric toaster is good for hurry-up
+      breakfasts.
+
+      19. Ironing with an electric iron is more convenient
+      than with the old-fashioned kind.
+
+      20. The wireless apparatus makes sea voyages safer
+      than before.
+
+      21. A mixed diet is best.
+
+      22. Cats should be exterminated because they spread
+      disease.
+
+      23. The parcel post will decrease the profits of the
+      express companies.
+
+      24. A good book is opened with expectation and closed
+      with profit.
+
+      25. Merchants should charge for delivering purchases.
+
+      26. The object of the Child Welfare Exhibit is to
+      promote the best interests of children.
+
+      27. One of the best enactments of our time is the
+      Child Labor Law.
+
+
+=Exercise 213--Smooth Connection=
+
+We may as well confess at the beginning that smooth connection between
+sentences and paragraphs is a hard thing to learn. Primarily, it depends
+on clear thinking. In Exercise 135 we saw that the idea of one sentence
+must grow out of the idea of the preceding one. It is the same with
+paragraphs. The thought must develop gradually from one to the next.
+Each paragraph, we know, represents a unit within the larger unit of the
+composition; each represents a division of thought. Not infrequently the
+thought of one division differs considerably from the thought of the
+next. The tying together of such units is sometimes hard. It may be done
+in one of the following ways:
+
+1. By repeating at the beginning of the new paragraph or sentence part
+of the preceding paragraph or sentence.
+
+2. By using pronouns to refer to what has gone before.
+
+3. By using connecting links, sometimes called _transition words_
+because they indicate the transition from one division to the next.
+Besides those mentioned in Exercise 135, we may use a numeral
+connection, as, _in the first place_, _in the second place_; or an
+expression much like a numeral, as, _furthermore_, _in the next place_;
+or an expression showing that an adverse idea is to be presented, as,
+_on the other hand_, _however_, _in spite of this_, _nevertheless_. But
+whatever you do, choose the right link, especially if you use such a one
+as _possibly_, _probably_, _perhaps_, _certainly_, _surely_. Use the one
+that expresses your idea exactly. Have none rather than the wrong one.
+
+In the following the first and second paragraphs are connected according
+to (1) above; the second and third are connected according to (3) above.
+
+      There comes to every prosperous man a time when he
+      wishes to know the best way of securing a steady
+      income from his accumulated savings without the burden
+      of responsibility of managing some property in order
+      to gain his income. The merchant may not wish to put
+      back into the business all the earnings he gets from
+      it, and yet he wishes to prepare for his old age. The
+      farmer may wish to give up active work, but he
+      realizes how soon his broad acres may deteriorate
+      through soil-robbery when he rents his property "on
+      shares." With such a problem before him the thoughtful
+      man makes an effort to _learn_ how to act to secure a
+      good _income_ all his life.
+
+      One of the first things he _learns_, if he studies the
+      situation carefully, is that there is a wide
+      difference between an _income_ derived from one's
+      business ability, such as the profit secured from
+      running a store, factory, jobbing house, or farm, and
+      the income which is derived as the result of money
+      "working" by itself. In the first case, a man must of
+      necessity keep up his business responsibilities; in
+      the other, once he has selected a safe investment,
+      practically all he has to do is to collect his income
+      from time to time as it falls due. There is in the
+      latter no depreciation of land, buildings, machinery,
+      or the like; no insurance payments to worry about; no
+      crop failures to consider.
+
+      _It is evident, then_, that if one wishes to put
+      surplus money away--say the proceeds from the sale of
+      a business or a farm--and get a steady income from it
+      without bother or worry, the most important thing to
+      consider is how to go about it to select something
+      which, once purchased, will turn out to be a safe
+      investment.
+
+
+=Exercise 214=
+
+In the following paragraphs taken from Robert Louis Stevenson's _The
+Philosophy of Nomenclature_, point out all the transition words that
+join (1) sentence to sentence, and (2) paragraph to paragraph:
+
+      To begin, then: the influence of our name makes itself
+      felt from the very cradle. As a schoolboy I remember
+      the pride with which I hailed Robin Hood, Robert
+      Bruce, and Robert le Diable as my name-fellows; and
+      the feeling of sore disappointment that fell on my
+      heart when I found a freebooter or a general who did
+      not share with me a single one of my numerous
+      _praenomina_. Look at the delight with which two
+      children find they have the same name. They are
+      friends from that moment forth; they have a bond of
+      union stronger than exchange of nuts and sweetmeats.
+      This feeling, I own, wears off in later life. Our
+      names lose their freshness and interest, become trite
+      and indifferent. But this, dear reader, is merely one
+      of the sad effects of those "shades of the prison
+      house" which come gradually betwixt us and nature with
+      advancing years; it affords no weapon against the
+      philosophy of names.
+
+      In after life, although we fail to trace its working,
+      that name which careless godfathers lightly applied to
+      your unconscious infancy will have been moulding your
+      character and influencing with irresistible power the
+      whole course of your earthly fortunes. But the last
+      name is no whit less important as a condition of
+      success. Family names, we must recollect, are but
+      inherited nicknames; and if the _sobriquet_ were
+      applicable to the ancestor, it is most likely
+      applicable to the descendant also. You would not
+      expect to find Mr. M'Phun acting as a mute or Mr.
+      M'Lumpha excelling as a professor of dancing.
+      Therefore, in what follows, we shall consider names,
+      independent of whether they are first or last. And to
+      begin with, look what a pull _Cromwell_ had over
+      _Pym_--the one name full of a resonant imperialism,
+      the other mean, pettifogging, and unheroic to a
+      degree. Who would expect eloquence from _Pym_--who
+      would read poems by _Pym_--who would bow to the
+      opinions of _Pym_? He might have been a dentist, but
+      he should never have aspired to be a statesman. I can
+      only wonder that he succeeded as he did. Pym and
+      Habakkuk stand first upon the roll of men who have
+      triumphed, by sheer force of genius, over the most
+      unfavorable appellations. But even these have
+      suffered; and, had they been more fitly named, the one
+      might have been Lord Protector and the other have
+      shared the laurels with Isaiah. In this matter we must
+      not forget that all our great poets have borne great
+      names. Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Pope,
+      Wordsworth, Shelley--what a constellation of lordly
+      words! Not a single commonplace name among them--not a
+      Brown, not a Jones, not a Robinson; they are all names
+      that one would stop and look at on a door-plate. Now,
+      imagine if _Pepys_ had tried to clamber somehow into
+      the enclosure of poetry, what a blot would that name
+      have made upon the list! The thing is impossible. In
+      the first place, a certain natural consciousness that
+      men have would have held him down to the level of his
+      name, would have prevented him from rising above the
+      Pepsine standard, and so haply withheld him altogether
+      from attempting verse. Next, the booksellers would
+      refuse to publish, and the world to read them, on the
+      mere evidence of the fatal appellation. And now,
+      before I close this section, I must say one word as to
+      _punnable_ names, names that stand alone, that have a
+      significance and life apart from him that bears them.
+      These are the bitterest of all. One friend of mine
+      goes bowed and humbled through life under the weight
+      of this misfortune; for it is an awful thing when a
+      man's name is a joke, when he cannot be mentioned
+      without exciting merriment, and when even the
+      intimation of his death bids fair to carry laughter
+      into many a home.
+
+      So much for people who are badly named. Now for people
+      who are _too_ well named, who go topheavy from the
+      font, who are baptized into a false position, and who
+      find themselves beginning life eclipsed under the fame
+      of some of the great ones of the past. A man, for
+      instance, called William Shakespeare could never dare
+      to write plays. He is thrown into too humbling an
+      apposition with the author of _Hamlet_. His own name
+      coming after is such an anti-climax. "The plays of
+      William Shakespeare?" says the reader--"O no! The
+      plays of William Shakespeare Cockerill," and he throws
+      the book aside. In wise pursuance of such views, Mr.
+      John Milton Hengler, who not long since delighted us
+      in this favored town, has never attempted to write an
+      epic, but has chosen a new path and has excelled upon
+      the tight-rope. A marked example of triumph over this
+      is the case of Mr. Dante Gabriel Rosetti. On the face
+      of the matter, I should have advised him to imitate
+      the pleasing modesty of the last-named gentleman, and
+      confine his ambition to the sawdust. But Mr. Rosetti
+      has triumphed. He has even dared to translate from his
+      mighty name-father; and the voice of fame supports him
+      in his boldness.
+
+
+=Exercise 215=
+
+Turn back to Exercise 210, 1. How are the different paragraphs that you
+have made connected?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+BUSINESS LETTERS
+
+
+NOT long ago the head of one of the biggest mail order firms in this
+country said: "Business needs the boys and the girls. Do not let them
+think they can be but cogs in the great system of wheels. More to-day
+than at any previous time the world needs men and women who can speak
+and write _themselves_ into English. Four hundred million dollars is
+wasted every year in unprofitable advertising alone, and as much more in
+bad handling of good prospects and loss of customers through inefficient
+letters. We look to the future generation to conserve a part of this
+enormous loss. If a single page advertisement in a single issue costs
+$7500, what you say on that page is important. Look into any current
+magazine, and you will be tremendously impressed with the importance of
+English in this branch alone, not to mention its importance in letter
+writing."
+
+There is no greater power in business to-day than the ability to use
+convincing English in correspondence and in advertising. Any one who can
+write good letters, letters that the reader feels he must answer, has
+success ahead of him, because the market of a good letter is practically
+unrestricted. Wherever a letter can penetrate, it may create desire for
+an article and make sales.
+
+But what is a good letter? Nothing more than a bit of good English. Can
+you write clear, direct, crisp, yet fluent English? Then you can write
+good letters--but not till then.
+
+In modern business the letter has become the advertiser, the salesman,
+the collector, and the adjuster of claims. An advertisement must be
+attractive; it must arouse the interest of the one who sees it. A
+salesman must understand human nature; he must forestall objections by
+showing the customer how he will gain by buying. The collector and the
+adjuster of claims must be courteous and at the same time shrewd. If a
+letter is to meet all of these requirements it cannot be dashed off at a
+moment's notice. It must be thought out in detail and written carefully
+to include all that should be expressed. This means, especially in a
+sales letter:
+
+1. An unusually worded opening that puts the writer's affairs in the
+background and the reader's gain in the foreground. Begin with _you_,
+not _we_. The reader is interested in himself, his own progress, his own
+troubles, and not in the possessions of the writer, except as the writer
+can show that those possessions affect him.
+
+3. A clear, simply worded explanation of the purpose of the letter.
+
+3. Proof of advantages to the reader.
+
+4. Persuasion or inducement to act now.
+
+5. Conclusion, making this action easy.
+
+Above all, if a letter is to be good, it must not be too short. In the
+pursuit of brevity too many pupils in business English make the mistake
+of writing altogether too little to get the reader's attention; and if
+his attention is not aroused, the letter fails. The letter should be
+long enough to suggest interest in the welfare of the reader and
+enthusiasm for the subject under discussion.
+
+Enthusiasm in business involves knowledge both of your project and of
+your customer. You cannot attempt to write a letter of any kind unless
+you know the facts that require it. Perhaps it is a complaint that you
+must try to settle. Without a knowledge of the facts, of the truth or
+the untruth of the claim, how can you write the letter? Sometimes it
+requires both time and study to gather the necessary details, but they
+must be gathered.
+
+When you have your details and begin writing, be sincere. You must be so
+absolutely in earnest that the reader will at once feel and begin to
+share your enthusiasm.
+
+Knowledge of the person to whom you are writing is fully as important as
+knowledge of your subject. You must get his point of view, understand
+his character, and appeal to the qualities that you recognize in it, to
+the desires or ambitions, that it shows. To a certain extent all of us
+are alike. There are certain fundamental interests that we all possess;
+these may safely be appealed to at almost all times. But our employment,
+our habits of life, our ways of thinking make us different. The same
+argument, probably, will not always bring satisfactory replies from a
+manufacturer, a farmer, a judge, a minister or priest, a carpenter, and
+a woman. Some people like to receive a long letter that goes carefully
+into detail; others will not take the time to read such a letter. Each
+customer must be studied. This is so difficult a matter that no one can
+expect to learn it all at once.
+
+Finally, from the first word to the last be courteous. No matter how
+righteous your indignation, be courteous. You cannot afford to lose your
+temper. Courtesy does not imply flattery nor a lack of truth. Your
+letter can be strong and yet polite in tone. Lose your temper, and your
+letter will probably fail. Keep your temper, show thoughtfulness for the
+reader's interest, and your letter will more likely fulfill its purpose.
+
+
+=Exercise 216--The Form of the Letter=
+
+Before we look at some actual letters to judge of their effectiveness,
+we must learn the conventional form of a letter, the parts which many
+years of use have shown to be necessary. There are six parts to a formal
+or business letter:
+
+      1. The heading, which includes the writer's address
+      and the date.
+
+      2. The introduction, which includes the name and the
+      address of the one to whom you are writing.
+
+      3. The salutation; for example, Dear Sir:
+
+      4. The body of the letter, the important part.
+
+      5. The courteous close; for example, Yours truly,
+
+      6. The signature.
+
+Each part ends with a period except the salutation, which ends with a
+colon, and the courteous close, which ends with a comma. The various
+groups of words within the heading and the introduction are separated by
+commas.
+
+Why does the salutation end with a colon?
+
+Why does the courteous close end with a comma?
+
+
+The Arrangement
+
+In the following, notice the spacing. If the heading is short, it is put
+on one line; as,
+
+
+    _Heading_                        Hilliard, Fla., June 30, 1914.
+
+    _Introduction_        Mr. Thomas Barrett,
+                            Boston, Mass.
+
+    _Salutation_          Dear Sir:
+
+    _Body_                     ....................................
+                          .........................................
+                          ......................
+
+    _Courteous close_                        Yours truly,
+    _Signature_                                  Samuel Garth
+
+If the heading is long, arrange it in one of the following ways:
+
+1
+
+                                       334 Lexington Ave., Chicago,
+                                                      May 19, 1915.
+
+    Mr. Thomas Barrett,
+        Boston, Mass.
+    Dear Sir:
+
+2
+
+                                  334 Lexington Ave.,
+                                      Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915.
+
+3
+
+                                               334 Lexington Ave.,
+                                      Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915.
+
+4
+
+                                              334 Lexington Ave.,
+                                                Chicago, Ill.,
+                                                    May 19, 1915.
+
+The superscription on the envelope is arranged and punctuated like the
+introduction in the letter, except that the punctuation may be omitted
+from the end of lines.
+
+There is a growing tendency to "block" the different parts of a letter;
+that is, to begin each item of each part directly below the first, with
+no indentation.
+
+There is also a tendency to use no abbreviations (except for titles like
+_Mr._), the name of the month and of the state and the word _street_,
+_avenue_, or _building_ being spelled out.
+
+      NOTE.--The punctuation as shown in the examples given
+      above is that in more prevalent use. Certain writers,
+      however, advocate the omission from the formal parts
+      of the letter of commas at the end of lines and of
+      periods (except to show abbreviations).
+
+Arrange the following headings, supplying capitals and punctuation
+marks:
+
+      1. 55 water st mobile ala june 16 19--
+
+      2. calmar iowa september 1 19--
+
+      3. 453 marquette building chicago ill jan 5 19--
+
+      4. 123 salem st springfield mass june 23 19--
+
+      5. highland park grand haven mich may 3 19--
+
+      6. 220 broadway new york n y february 15 19--
+
+      7. 78 main street portland oregon december 10 19--
+
+      8. 32 lincoln st kansas city mo oct 2 19--
+
+      9. room 15 1321 pennsylvania ave washington d c sept 2
+      19--
+
+      10. 25 chestnut st philadelphia pa april 14 19--
+
+      11. 212 tribune building new york n y march 2 19--
+
+      12. 98 dorchester ave boston mass feb 12 19--
+
+      13. 24 milk st boston mass June 14 19--
+
+      14. 231 west 39th st new york city march 4 19--
+
+      15. 345 newark ave jersey city n j (supply date)
+
+      16. 44 fifth ave detroit mich sept 1 19--
+
+      17. 102 west 42d st denver colorado (date)
+
+      18. Explain the difference between (16) and (17).
+      Notice that the name of the street in each case is a
+      numeral. Why is it spelled out in (16) and not in
+      (17)?
+
+
+=Exercise 217=
+
+Supplying the name of the firm and the business engaged in, write letter
+heads using the items given in Exercise 216. For example:
+
+
+    BARRETT, BROWN & CO.
+         _Groceries_
+          55 Water Street
+
+                           Decorah, Iowa, -- 19
+
+When may & be used?
+
+What is the advantage of using a letter head?
+
+In making letter heads, imagine you are a printer. Arrange the items so
+that they may show to the best advantage. Let your lines of printing or
+writing be of different lengths. Add any details that you wish, such as
+trade-mark designs or the names of officers.
+
+Arrange and punctuate:
+
+      1. citronelle business mens association citronelle
+      alabama may 2 19-- mr john harvey 19 e monroe st
+      rochester n y dear sir
+
+      2. 173 broadway new york June 10 19-- mr walter thomas
+      191 e main st waltham mass dear sir
+
+      3. 25 broad st maplewood n h messrs hausen & ottman 18
+      la salle station chicago ill gentlemen (supply date)
+
+      4. john randolph & co druggist 14 jefferson st
+      charleston s c jan 8 19-- gerhard mennen & co newark n
+      j gentlemen (letter head)
+
+      5. 43 south 5th ave madison wis aug 8 19-- the white
+      mountain freezer co nashua n h gentlemen
+
+Address an envelope for each of the above, using the following as a
+model.
+
+    +------------------------------------------+
+    |                                          |
+    |                                          |
+    |                                          |
+    |                                          |
+    |           Barrett, Brown & Co.,          |
+    |                     55 Water Street,     |
+    |                         Decorah, Iowa.   |
+    |                                          |
+    +------------------------------------------+
+
+
+=Exercise 218--Cautions=
+
+_The Heading_
+
+Always date your letters.
+
+Give your full address, even if you are certain that the one to whom you
+are writing knows it.
+
+_The Introduction_
+
+The person addressed must always be given a title. If you address one
+man, use _Mr._; if a firm, use _Messrs._; if a woman, _Miss_ or _Mrs._
+If a man has a title like _Professor_ or _Doctor_, it should be used,
+and _Mr._, of course, omitted.
+
+_Hon._ (Honorable) is used for a person who holds, or who has held, a
+public office. It is a very formal title.
+
+_Esq._(Esquire) is a legal form used by some correspondents in
+addressing any man. It is an English usage. It always follows the name,
+and, if it is used, _Mr._ is omitted. In this country _Mr._ is
+preferable.
+
+In writing to a man in his official capacity, the following form is
+correct when there is no street number or when the title is short.
+Notice that _Mr._ is omitted.
+
+    G. N. Fratt, Cashier,
+      First National Bank,
+        Racine, Wis.
+
+The following is correct when the title is long:
+
+    Mr. John Frederick Pierce,
+      Ass't. Engineer of Bridges and Buildings,
+        607 White Building, Seattle, Wash.
+
+Notice that in the last example, the city and the state are put on the
+same line as the street in order to make the three lines of about the
+same length. Four lines might have been used.
+
+_The Salutation_
+
+If you address one man, the salutation is _Dear Sir_; as,
+
+    Mr. John Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+
+    Dear Sir:
+
+If you address a firm, the salutation is _Gentlemen_; as,
+
+    Messrs. Brownleigh & King,
+        Portland, Oregon.
+
+    Gentlemen:
+
+If you address a woman, married or single, the salutation in business
+letters is _Dear Madam_; as,
+
+1.
+
+    Mrs. John Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+
+    Dear Madam:
+
+2.
+
+    Miss Florence Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+
+    Dear Madam:
+
+A more familiar form of salutation is either of the following:
+
+1
+
+    Miss Florence Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+    My dear Miss Pierce:
+
+2
+
+    Miss Florence Pierce,
+        Seattle, Wash.
+    Dear Miss Pierce:
+
+In using _Hon._, the salutation is usually _Sir_.
+
+_The Courteous Close_
+
+The courteous close corresponds in tone to the salutation. If the
+salutation is _Dear Sir_, _Gentlemen_, or _Dear Madam_, the courteous
+close should be one of the following:
+
+    Yours truly,
+    Yours very truly,
+    Very truly yours,
+    Respectfully yours,
+    Yours respectfully,
+    Sincerely yours,
+    Very sincerely yours,
+
+If the salutation is _Sir_, the courteous close should be _Respectfully
+yours_ or _Yours respectfully_.
+
+If the body of the letter and the courteous close do not agree in tone,
+the effect is often ridiculous. Suppose, for instance, that the
+courteous close of (2) under Exercise 220 were _Yours respectfully_.
+What would be the effect?
+
+_The Signature_
+
+If an unmarried woman is signing a business letter, she should avoid
+confusion by prefixing (Miss) to her name.
+
+A married woman should sign her own name, as, _Alice Pierce_; she should
+indicate her title, as _Mrs. John F. Pierce_, either below the other or
+at one side.
+
+No other title should be prefixed to a signature.
+
+If a letter is signed by the name of a firm, the signature of the one
+who dictated the letter is usually added; as,
+
+    Yours very truly,
+        Smith Lumber Co.
+            by ----
+
+This sort of signature gives a letter the "personal touch." Explain.
+
+
+Folding a Letter
+
+Business letter paper is about eight by ten inches. In folding a letter
+sheet, (1) turn the lower edge up to about one-eighth of an inch from
+the top; press the fold firmly, keeping the edges even; (2) turn the
+paper so that the folded edge is at your _left_ hand; (3) fold _from_
+you a little less than one-third the width of the sheet; (4) fold the
+upper edge _down_ toward you so that it projects a trifle beyond the
+folded edge. Without turning it over, pick it up and insert it in the
+envelope, putting in _first_ the edge that was folded last.
+
+Write the address and the salutation for:
+
+      1. A business house in your town.
+
+      2. Mr. John R. Tobin, president of the Detroit State
+      Bank, Detroit, Mich.
+
+      3. Miss Mabel Gunther, Shullsburg, Wis.
+
+      4. Professor C. M. Watson, Harvard College, Cambridge,
+      Mass.
+
+      5. John F. Campbell, Manager Bond Department, First
+      Trust and Savings Bank, Boston, Mass.
+
+      6. Taylor and Critchfield, Chicago, Ill.
+
+      7. Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald, 126 E. Second Street,
+      Washington, Ia.
+
+Write the courteous close and the signature for:
+
+      1. A letter from a business house in your town signed
+      by F. R. Wilson.
+
+      2. A letter from Miss Mabel Gunther (2 above).
+
+      3. A letter from Professor C. M. Watson (4 above).
+
+      4. A letter signed by John F. Campbell (5 above).
+
+      5. A letter from Taylor and Critchfield signed by you
+      yourself.
+
+      6. A letter from Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald (7 above).
+
+
+=Exercise 219--Ordering Goods=
+
+If an order includes a number of separate items, it is usually written
+on a separate sheet of paper. Firms often supply blanks for this
+purpose. If the order is short, it forms part of the letter. In any
+case, each item is placed on a separate line, so that the items may be
+checked as the order is filled. In the following, notice the arrangement
+and the punctuation:
+
+                          Hamilton, Montana, Feb. 16, 1914.
+
+      Messrs. MacBride & Dickens,
+              New York, N. Y.
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      At your earliest convenience please ship me the
+      following via the Northern Express Co. from St. Paul:
+
+    6 doz. A 68 assorted sizes Men's Black Caps @ 1.50  9.00
+    5 doz. D 71 Men's Cotton Handkerchiefs      @  .60  3.00
+    5 doz. X 30 Men's Linen Handkerchiefs       @ 2.00 10.00
+                                                      ------
+                                                      $22.00
+
+      Enclosed find a draft on New York for twenty-two
+      dollars.
+
+                                     Yours truly,
+                                             S. D. Jensen
+
+Write the letters outlined below:
+
+      1. Order fifty copies of the Business Arithmetic that
+      you are using. How shall you pay for them?
+
+      2. Clip from a newspaper an advertisement of
+      groceries. Imagine that you are a housekeeper, and
+      spend ten dollars to the best advantage, ordering
+      several articles.
+
+      3. Bring in an advertisement of household
+      necessities--linens, tinware, etc. Spend five dollars,
+      buying several articles.
+
+      4. Bring in an advertisement of furniture. Write a
+      letter ordering enough to furnish a parlor or a dining
+      room. Have the amount charged to your account.
+
+      5. A magazine offers one of several books as a premium
+      with a year's subscription. Answer the advertisement.
+
+
+=Exercise 220--The Tone of the Letter=
+
+Undue familiarity or an evidence of loss of temper will at once
+frustrate the object of a letter. A dignified letter never shows either.
+Just what constitutes a dignified letter is hard to define but fairly
+easy to feel. This much is certain: it must be simple in structure,
+direct in its wording, and so sincere in feeling that no one will doubt
+its truth. Any extravagance of language, therefore, has no place in a
+dignified letter.
+
+Study the following to see whether they show dignity:
+
+1
+
+                                                     Tuesday, 5 P.M.
+
+      Miss Sarah Howard,
+          Denver, Colorado.
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      I have a great piece of CONFIDENTIAL news for you.
+
+      Take advantage of the remarkable offer our company is
+      making to you, and it will mean thousands of DOLLARS
+      in your pocket. Understand that this offer is not open
+      to every one. You have been especially selected. You
+      are the only one in your town who will hear of this
+      remarkable offer.
+
+2
+
+      Elsworth, Brown & Co.,
+        120 Jefferson Ave., Detroit,
+            Mich.
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      What is the matter with our last order? Have you
+      people gone out of business, or are you asleep? If we
+      don't get that order by the third, you'll never hear
+      from us again.
+
+3
+
+A letter to Mrs. Bixby, written Nov. 21, 1864.
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      I have been shown in the file of the War Department a
+      statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts
+      that you are the mother of five sons who have died
+      gloriously on the field of battle. I feel how weak and
+      fruitless must be any words of mine which should
+      beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming.
+      But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the
+      consolation that may be found in the thanks of the
+      republic they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly
+      Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement,
+      and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved
+      and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours to
+      have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of
+      freedom.
+
+              Yours very sincerely and respectfully,
+                                         Abraham Lincoln
+
+
+=Exercise 221=
+
+In writing the following letters, be definite and courteous:
+
+      1. You have advertised your eight-room, furnace-heated
+      house for sale for $3,500. A letter of inquiry desires
+      particulars. Answer it.
+
+      2. You live on a side street, which for the last week
+      has not been lighted. Write to the editor of the
+      paper, or to a town official, whichever you think
+      would remedy the matter. Be courteous. A letter to an
+      editor is begun: To the Editor of ----.
+
+      3. The cars on which you ride every day are very
+      dirty. Write to the mayor. He is addressed: Hon. ----.
+
+      4. You wish to have a telephone installed. Make
+      application.
+
+      5. Two weeks ago you wrote (4). Still you have no
+      telephone. Write again, stating the substance of (4)
+      and asking the reason for the delay.
+
+      6. Write the telephone company's reply. Be very
+      courteous. What good reason could you give for the
+      delay?
+
+      7. You understand that your Congressman has the
+      privilege of recommending a young man for the entrance
+      examinations of your state university. Write to him,
+      asking that he recommend you. Remember that he is a
+      stranger to you. What should you tell him?
+
+
+=Exercise 222.--Mistaken Ideas in Letter Writing=
+
+It is too bad that, to a number of people, the term _business letter_
+conveys the idea of a colorless, stilted composition full of trite and
+almost meaningless business formulas. No one reads such a letter unless
+he has to, and surely that is not the kind one should practice writing.
+Below are given a few of the expressions that should be avoided.
+
+I. Sometimes a writer tries to impress a reader with the volume of
+business he is doing by showing haste in his correspondence; as, in
+
+1. Omitting the subject; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: In reply to your question will say ----
+    _Right_: In reply to your question I will say ----
+
+2. Omitting articles and prepositions; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: Direct package care Western Canning Co.
+    _Right_: Direct the package in care of the Western Canning Co.
+
+3. Using abbreviations
+
+      _a._ Of the introduction. Write out the introduction
+      in detail, both name and address. Abbreviating this
+      part of the letter is highly discourteous.
+
+      _b._ In the body of the letter; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: The Co. sent a no. of large orders last year.
+
+      _c._ Of the courteous close; as,
+
+    _Wrong_: Yours etc.
+    _Wrong_: Yours resp'y.
+
+4. Using a phrase as a sentence; as,
+
+      _Wrong_: Yours of the 6th at hand and contents noted.
+
+It is much better to refer indirectly to the receipt of a letter; as,
+
+      In the order you sent us on Aug. 5  ----
+
+The same sort of mistake is seen in the all too frequent closing:
+
+    _Wrong_: Hoping that we hear from you soon,
+                                               Yours truly,
+    _Right_: Hoping that we hear from you soon, we are
+                                               Yours truly,
+
+Why use such an expression at all? Avoid _hoping_, _trusting_,
+_awaiting_, or any other artificial closing.
+
+II. Sometimes a writer makes an effort to be extremely courteous, but
+fails because he uses hackneyed wording; as,
+
+      1. _Kindly._--A good word in itself but greatly
+      abused.
+
+      2. _We beg to state._--Never use _beg_ in this sense.
+      You have no right to beg attention; earn it.
+
+      3. _Your favor_, _your esteemed favor_, _your valued
+      favor_.--Say, _Your letter_.
+
+      4. _Will you be so good as to._--Belongs in the class
+      with _beg to state_. Make your requests courteously,
+      but directly.
+
+      5. _Would say._--Avoid this expression.
+
+III. Sometimes in an effort to be clear a writer uses _same_ as a
+pronoun; as,
+
+      _Wrong_: If the books are not satisfactory, return
+      same.
+
+This is one of the worst of the distinctly business blunders. _Same_ is
+never a pronoun. Write to a man as you talk to him and you will not use
+_same_ in this way. (See Exercise 88.)
+
+IV. Sometimes in order to get attention a writer will use a liberal
+sprinkling of dashes and capitals, probably in imitation of advertising
+copy. Better than such artificial means is the attraction of a well
+worded letter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Criticise the following letters, pointing out all the expressions that
+should be improved. Rewrite the letters.
+
+1
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      We beg to acknowledge your esteemed favor of Apr. 6.
+      In regard to shoes received by you in poor shape as
+      per complaint, would say that on receipt of same will
+      try to locate cause of trouble. If due to defect in
+      manufacture, will credit you with value of same.
+
+      Hoping this is satisfactory to you,
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Yours of March 18 at hand. Referring to matter of
+      short weight, I beg to call your attention to C & A
+      car 87324, which you loaded for us March 7 at your
+      Auburn mine, gross weight 121,400 lbs. This car was
+      check weighed at Peoria March 11 on your company's
+      scales and showed gross weight 113,200 lbs. or
+      shortage 8,200 lbs. Having investigated car, I find
+      same was in good order and no indication of leakage,
+      and it would appear to be a case of carelessness at
+      time of loading. Therefore will request you to kindly
+      send me cr. memo, on 8,200 lbs.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 223--The Sales Letter=
+
+The object of the sales letter is to make the reader buy. How can you do
+it? To begin with, get his point of view--that of the user. Then imagine
+that he is present and talk to him on paper. Get his interest with your
+opening sentence. Explain what you have to sell. Show him that he needs
+it. Whet his desire to possess it, and, finally, make it easy and
+imperative for him to order today.
+
+The opening paragraph is all-important. It may make or mar a letter. If
+it is stilted or lacks directness, if it hasn't the personal, natural
+tone that makes the reader feel you are talking to him, or if it is
+stereotyped in its wording, the letter will probably go to the
+waste-basket.
+
+Contrast the two letters that follow. Both were written to accompany a
+catalogue. Notice that the first begins and ends in a stereotyped way;
+has too few details to arouse interest; asks for an order but has no
+inducement to give one now; and, throughout, lacks the personal,
+convincing tone that makes the second a good selling letter. Notice that
+the second begins with _you_, not with _we_, and keeps the same _you_
+attitude to the end.
+
+Turn back to the five essentials of a letter given on page 230. See if
+you can differentiate the five in the second letter.
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      In compliance with your request of recent date we are
+      sending you our latest general catalogue, inasmuch as
+      we do not know which department catalogue you wish. We
+      also have specialized books for jewelry, furniture,
+      hardware, and drygoods. On request we shall be glad to
+      send any one of these also.
+
+      We carry the biggest line of Variety Store Leaders in
+      the country, and our goods are always of the best. We
+      take particular pains to acquaint our customers with
+      the latest thing in the trade, and to give
+      business-getting suggestions. Our Co-operative Bureau
+      cheerfully answers all inquiries.
+
+      Trusting we shall hear from you with an order, we are
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Under separate cover you will receive a copy of our
+      latest general catalogue, published especially for
+      owners of Variety Stores. We are sending you the
+      general catalogue because we do not know whether you
+      are interested in a particular department. However, if
+      your business specializes in any one class of
+      goods--such as jewelry, furniture, hardware, or
+      drygoods--we shall be glad to supply you with the
+      departmental book you need. On the enclosed postal
+      card simply check the one you wish, and mail the card
+      to-day. We shall forward the catalogue at once.
+
+      You may know that we always have on hand between two
+      hundred and two hundred and fifty different Variety
+      Store Leaders, affording you a wide selection of
+      high-class goods of the finest materials, the neatest
+      workmanship, and the latest styles at very low prices.
+      After glancing over the catalogue you will agree with
+      us that in every department of our huge business a
+      dollar has full purchasing power.
+
+      A unique feature of our business, moreover, is the
+      Co-operative Bureau, which you will find a decided
+      help in building up your business. Each week the
+      Bureau sends out a Bulletin, acquainting our customers
+      with important business events in the larger trade
+      centers, with suggestions for new advertising and
+      selling methods, with notices of new stock additions
+      that make especially good leaders, and with advice how
+      best to display them. The Bureau invites
+      correspondence and sends customers, absolutely free
+      of charge, advice on new store arrangements, window
+      decorations, and advertising plans.
+
+      Your first order makes you a co-operating member and
+      entitles you to all the privileges of the Bureau and
+      the services of an institution with wide experience
+      and with a recognized reputation for square-dealing.
+      Fill out the enclosed order blank, mail it to-day, and
+      receive this week's Bulletin by return mail. It
+      contains several splendid suggestions for novel,
+      inexpensive advertising.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+The letter given above is personal and yet dignified. Usually that is
+the best style to use, and the one that we wish to practice writing.
+Sometimes, however, results can best be obtained by using the colloquial
+or even jocular tone illustrated in the following letter sent to a
+retailer in Ottumwa, Iowa:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We sell cheese, a new brand, the finest kind you ever
+      tasted, put up in the most attractive package, to sell
+      at the most attractive price. Called Par Excellence
+      Creme, wrapped in silver foil with a gold label, it
+      sells for fifteen cents and costs you ten. Ever hear a
+      better proposition?
+
+      Better buy now before your rival gets ahead of you.
+      Everybody's calling for it. Why? Because we're
+      advertising everywhere. It has been out only one
+      month, and yet sales have trebled our highest
+      expectations. Half the sales of a new cheese depend on
+      the package and the price; the other half depend on
+      the quality. All three are right in Par Excellence
+      Creme.
+
+      Mr. S. R. King, our Iowa representative, tried to see
+      you last week, but, unfortunately, he was unable to
+      find you in. Now, he carries a full line of our
+      samples, and it's worth the time it takes just to see
+      how good they look, even if you don't care to buy. How
+      about it? Don't you want to see them? Mr. King will be
+      in Ottumwa next Wednesday.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+This style is commonly called "snappy." It has its advantage, but should
+be used only rarely. Above all, if you do use it, avoid the dash. Notice
+how the dash spoils the following:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Have you ever eaten that king of nuts--the budded or
+      grafted paper shell pecan--the nut whose kernel is as
+      nutritious as beef and as sweet and delicious as
+      honey--the nut that is so delightfully palatable and
+      so wholesome, the discriminating epicures of two
+      continents have set their seal of approval on
+      it--creating a demand that literally cannot be
+      supplied--even at prices ranging as high as a dollar a
+      pound.
+
+To use the dash in this way seems to imply that you do not understand
+punctuation or sentence structure. If the paragraph is rewritten,
+removing the dashes and dividing into sentences, we get a much stronger
+appeal. The dash makes for weakness rather than for strength because it
+suggests hysterics.
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Have you ever eaten the king of nuts, the budded or
+      grafted paper shell pecan? The kernel is as nutritious
+      as beef and as sweet as honey. It is so wholesome and
+      so delicious that discriminating epicures of two
+      continents have set their approval on it, creating a
+      demand that literally cannot be supplied, even at
+      prices ranging as high as a dollar a pound.
+
+A very good way to open a sales letter is to get the attention by a bit
+of narration containing direct quotations, as shown in the following:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      "It saves seven per cent."
+
+      So said Mr. John H. Samuels, a manufacturer of
+      Birmingham, Ala.
+
+      He had watched his bookkeepers at their work, and it
+      seemed to him that their main business was turning and
+      flattening the springy pages of the bulgy ledger. Ten
+      seconds were wasted, he said, every time a page was
+      turned--almost every time an entry was made--and
+      hardly more than two minutes were needed to make the
+      entry. That was enough. Each of his twenty men was
+      wasting seven per cent of his time.
+
+      "Try hinged paper," suggested the head bookkeeper.
+
+      Accordingly, Mr. Samuels tried several kinds of hinged
+      paper, only to find that the hinged section tore,
+      broke, or cracked. The time that the clerks now saved
+      in flattening the leaves they wasted in rewriting the
+      pages that had torn out.
+
+      He had no more faith in hinged papers by the time that
+      he saw the advertisement of the Benton hinge. "As
+      strong as the rest of the paper!" he scoffed. "We'll
+      see about this!"
+
+      "Send me a sample," he wrote us. "If your ad tells the
+      truth, you get my order."
+
+      We sent it. He tested it. He pulled it, crumpled it,
+      ruled on it, erased it on both sides, and even creased
+      it. But it did not break.
+
+      Very cautiously and doubtingly he tried the paper in
+      one ledger for one month. He found that the book
+      rolled flat whenever it was opened, that no hinge
+      tore, and that every page could be used from binder to
+      outer edge.
+
+      "It does the work," he told our salesman at the end of
+      the month. "It saves seven per cent. Send me a
+      consignment."
+
+      If you, too, are paying seven per cent of your
+      bookkeepers' salaries for waste motion, let us send
+      you a sample. It will cut down your expenses as it cut
+      down Mr. Samuels'.
+
+      Remember that you put yourself under no obligation to
+      us. You take no risks. Simply promise to use the paper
+      if we send it free.
+
+      Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 224=
+
+Study the following letters and letter openings for good and bad
+qualities:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      People who have not had much of what the world calls
+      "good luck" find it hard to believe an opportunity
+      when it comes--they don't feel sure about it--on the
+      other hand, people who have had many opportunities
+      have a natural confidence that every opening presented
+      is intended for them and they grasp it with an
+      assurance that begets success.
+
+      You may be one of those who have not had many chances
+      to do what you would like to do and therefore not sure
+      that my offer is an opportunity. For that reason let
+      us again go over the points of advantage....
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      I am taking the liberty of writing you again because I
+      fear you do not fully realize the value of the
+      proposition I am offering you. Why, man, it's the
+      opportunity of a life-time!... (extended for three
+      pages.)
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      If we wanted to know just what kind of person you are,
+      do you know where we'd go to find out? We'd ask your
+      old friends and neighbors, who know all about you from
+      close association.
+
+      If you want to find out about us--what we are doing
+      and what improvements we are making in southern
+      Florida--the best place to get this information is
+      from the people of Florida, who know the facts from
+      first-hand observation. The enclosed clipping is an
+      editorial expression--not a paid advertisement--from
+      the Ft. Meyers Press. The editor is under no
+      obligation to us and is merely expressing the opinion
+      of the people here....
+
+4
+
+                                     New York, Right Now.
+
+      A DEAL OF IMPORTANCE
+
+      It affects YOU! It is so important I must forego the
+      pleasure of a personal letter in order to write 5,000
+      people to-day--500 of whom--the wide-awake ones who
+      read this letter through--will be able to coin it into
+      dollars--real money--money you can spend.
+
+      What we now offer you has never before been offered by
+      any body in the world. It is a combination we are
+      fortunate enough, just at this time, to be able to
+      offer you, because of an important deal we have just
+      closed--a deal that may easily spell dollars to you.
+      Read every word of this letter--it may be--possibly
+      is--the only thing to make you a successful and
+      wealthy man....
+
+5
+
+                        R F D 4 Logansport, Ind. 8-26-11.
+
+      Mr. M. H. Smith, etc. Dear Sir:
+
+      I acknowledge getting your telegram over the telephone
+      yesterday, and if I had been in funds would have
+      answered by return telegram, but such is life. I
+      accommodated a friend by loaning him $750, which will
+      probably be paid the last week of never. I thank you
+      for the offer, and when I am in funds will call on you
+      either personally or by letter.
+
+    Very truly yours,
+
+
+=Exercise 225--Opening an Account=
+
+Imagine that you are manager of a wholesale dry goods house. You have
+received an order from P. H. Powley, 23 Water street, Franklin, Mich. As
+you do not know Mr. Powley, write him, stating in as courteous a way as
+possible that, since this is his first order, he must either furnish
+references or send a remittance. Make your letter direct and personal.
+Include some good selling talk.
+
+The exercise above illustrates the method that might be adopted in case
+of a small order. If Mr. Powley had sent a large order, the wholesale
+house would no doubt consult a financial agency to discover his
+financial condition; his _rating_, it is called. If his name were not
+found in the book of the agency, the wholesale house would require Mr.
+Powley to send a correct account of his financial standing; that is, a
+list of his assets and liabilities. If he refused, they would not do
+business with him. Why? The principal financial agencies are Bradstreet
+and Dun. Besides these, there are many mercantile agencies. They give
+any information that is required concerning a business man. All such
+information is confidential.
+
+In connection with this exercise study the letters that follow:
+
+      REQUEST TO OPEN AN ACCOUNT
+
+                             Madison, Wis., Sept. 16, 1915.
+
+      Wilson, Brighton, & Co.,
+         68 Broadway, New York.
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      Until recently I was in the employ of Samuel Stratton
+      & Co. of Milwaukee, but I have now started a business
+      of my own, for which I should like to open an account
+      with your house. As to my business ability and
+      financial standing, I refer you to my late employers,
+      Samuel Stratton & Co. of Milwaukee, and to the Madison
+      State Bank of this city.
+
+      If on investigation you decide to accept me as a
+      customer, will you please send the goods on the
+      enclosed order, deducting your usual discount for
+      cash? Upon receipt of the goods and of the invoice, I
+      shall at once forward a sight draft on the Broadway
+      National Bank of your city.
+
+                          Respectfully yours,
+                                    George R. Scott
+
+REPLY NO. 1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      In seeking information through the usual outside
+      channels for basing credit for you, we find our
+      reports have not been sufficient in detail to permit
+      us to arrange this matter satisfactorily. These
+      reports all speak very highly of you in a personal
+      way, but do not give us the required information
+      financially.
+
+      We assume you want our goods for your Christmas trade.
+      It is imperative, therefore, that we ship immediately.
+      We suggest that on this order you send us a draft, in
+      consideration of which we shall be pleased to allow
+      you a special discount of 4%. Understand that we
+      suggest these terms on this first order only, as we
+      feel confident that we can easily arrange a credit
+      basis for future shipments. We sincerely trust you
+      will take no offense at the above suggestion, as we
+      have made it in your interest.
+
+                                  Yours very truly,
+
+REPLY NO. 2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Thank you for the order you sent us yesterday. Its
+      size confirms the belief we have always held that
+      D---- is a rapidly growing business center, the right
+      place for a retailer to settle and prosper.
+
+      After careful consideration of your letter, however,
+      we have decided to hold back your order for a short
+      time. You cannot regret this more than we do. We do
+      not like to lose your account, and yet, under the
+      circumstances, we feel we cannot send you the order.
+      We hope you can sell the property you mentioned in
+      your letter and thus clear up the balances against
+      you. Then we shall gladly open an account for you.
+
+      We are especially sorry we cannot send the order at
+      once, as you no doubt need your fall stock now. Don't
+      you think it would be the best solution if you would
+      send us your remittance for $250 now, so that we may
+      send the goods? We know what it means to buy in the
+      open market so late in the season. We assure you that
+      on receipt of a remittance the order will go through
+      immediately.
+
+                                           Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 226=
+
+      1. Order from the Grand Rapids Furniture Co., Grand
+      Rapids, Mich., 5 mahogany rockers, 1 Turkish rocker, 2
+      brass beds, 12 dining room chairs, 2 dining room
+      tables. Supply catalogue numbers and give shipping
+      directions.
+
+      2. The Grand Rapids Furniture Co. replies,
+      acknowledging the receipt of the above order (give
+      date) but stating that you did not mention how you
+      would pay for the goods. On receipt of a certified
+      check to cover the amount, or of the names of two
+      reliable references, they will be pleased to send you
+      the order. Make this a good sales letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 227=
+
+      1. You are a florist of Rockford, Ill. Write to S. M.
+      Porter & Son, 155 S. State Street, Chicago, saying
+      that this fall you are opening a new department of
+      Landscape Gardening. Judging by advance orders, you
+      will need approximately 200 shade trees, maples and
+      poplars; 200 fruit trees of various kinds; and several
+      hundred flowering shrubs. You will probably duplicate
+      the order in the spring. Ask for terms, saying that
+      you would like to open an account. Give two
+      references.
+
+      2. S. M. Porter & Son reply, acknowledging your order,
+      and saying that they will be pleased to do business
+      with you on sixty days' credit, terms 50 and 5%. If
+      this is satisfactory, they will add your name to their
+      books. Make it a sales letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 228=
+
+      1. Samuel Radford of Douglas, Mich., wishes to buy a
+      motor boat. He orders of the Modern Steel Boat Co.,
+      manufacturers of high grade motor boats, Detroit,
+      Mich., boat No. 172. page 425, catalogue No. 10. The
+      price as listed is $192. He accepts the offer they
+      made him ---- (date), of ---- (terms) and encloses a
+      certified check for the amount. He gives full shipping
+      directions. (Be sure you can do this.) He asks how
+      cheaply he can obtain cushions for the boat.
+
+      2. The company reply: They have shipped the boat. (Is
+      this sufficiently detailed?) A set of new cushions to
+      fit the boat costs $25. They have a set of secondhand
+      cushions in excellent condition for $15. If Radford
+      desires either of these, he should wire at once at
+      their expense.
+
+      3. Telegraph his decision.
+
+
+=Exercise 229=
+
+      1. Messrs. Lee and Watkins, druggists of Gallon, Ohio,
+      wish to open an account with Pierce, King & Co., 17 S.
+      Albany St., Baltimore, Md., for the purchase of large
+      orders on ninety days' credit. They say they do a very
+      large business as they have the only drug store within
+      a radius of several miles. They give several names as
+      references. Write the letter.
+
+      2. You are a traveling salesman for Pierce, King & Co.
+      They write you at the Union Hotel, Columbus, telling
+      you of the foregoing letter, a copy of which they
+      enclose, and asking you to investigate the standing of
+      Messrs. Lee and Watkins.
+
+      Reply that you visited the drug store in question on a
+      Tuesday (give date), because in your experience the
+      early part of the week is very quiet in the business
+      of small towns. Say that two clerks were kept busy
+      constantly and that several people spoke of the
+      enormous business done on Saturdays and market days.
+      The firm has good credit in the town. You are
+      satisfied that the gentlemen in question are reliable.
+
+      3. Write from Pierce, King & Co. to Messrs. Lee and
+      Watkins, acknowledging the receipt of their letter
+      ---- (date) and expressing pleasure in being able to
+      enter their name on the firm's books. Write as
+      courteous a letter as you can.
+
+      4. Imagine that the salesman's reply (2) had been
+      unfavorable. Write to Messrs. Lee and Watkins,
+      refusing them credit but trying to get their cash
+      business.
+
+
+=Exercise 230--Letters Requesting Payment=
+
+It is better not to make threats in a collection letter except as a last
+resort, and then the threat should be carried out. It is advisable in a
+first letter of the kind to take for granted that a customer is honest
+and that the failure to pay is an oversight. If some inducement for
+further purchases is included in the letter in the form of good selling
+talk, a remittance will probably be sent, and perhaps another order as
+well.
+
+If the customer, however, takes no notice of the first letter, a second,
+making the request for payment more urgent, may follow. The tone of the
+second letter and subsequent letters will depend on the value that you
+put on the customer's trade. Finally, if he ignores all of these
+letters, dally no longer. Say that if payment is not made by a certain
+date, you will draw on him at sight. If he does not honor the draft, put
+the matter in the hands of your attorney.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Study the following letters. Select from them those that you think would
+make a good series:
+
+1
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Ten days ago we mailed you a statement of your
+      account, which was due at that time. As we have heard
+      nothing from you, we have concluded that the letter
+      must have miscarried. We are, therefore, enclosing a
+      duplicate of the former statement. We trust that it
+      will reach you safely and have your prompt attention.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Evidently you, too, are experiencing the increase in
+      business that our customers in general are reporting.
+      In the rush of orders you probably have overlooked the
+      fact that your account with us is three weeks
+      over-due. Your remittances hitherto have been very
+      prompt, and we trust that this reminder will be
+      treated equally promptly.
+
+      By the way, have you found that the Holeless Socks are
+      coming up to our guarantee? From all parts of the
+      country we are getting flattering reports in the form
+      of big orders. We feel that they merit their
+      popularity, and with the extensive advertising
+      campaign that we have inaugurated they are bound to
+      continue in favor.
+
+      We are especially prepared at present to give you an
+      attractive price, enabling you to realize large
+      profits on these socks. If you need more of them, we
+      can make shipment at once.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      In looking over our accounts, we find that your
+      purchases have lately been increasing considerably and
+      that your payments have been few and unimportant.
+      Statements have been sent regularly, we believe, but
+      have probably been overlooked because of the stress of
+      your other affairs. Such things, of course, can happen
+      with any of us, especially when we have many other
+      matters to look after.
+
+      We have always valued your account, and we greatly
+      desire our pleasant relations to continue. As the
+      amount that you owe us is now long over-due, we would
+      appreciate your returning the enclosed bill to be
+      receipted during the next few days.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+4
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      Your attention has twice been called to your account
+      for $----, but for some reason you do not reply to our
+      letters.
+
+      Our terms, as you know, are thirty days, and we cannot
+      allow a longer extension except by special
+      arrangement. We have borne the matter very patiently,
+      realizing that unusual conditions sometimes prevent
+      one's doing as he desires. At the same time, it is
+      entirely out of reason that your account should still
+      be owing at this time. May we not expect your
+      remittance by return mail?
+
+      Should we not hear from you by the 15th, we shall draw
+      on you, and, if you have not remitted in the meantime,
+      please provide for our draft upon its arrival.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+5
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      On March 15 we drew on you for $250. Our draft has
+      been returned to us by the Blank Bank, unpaid.
+
+      Your account is long past due, and, although we are
+      willing to do almost anything to accommodate our
+      customers, we feel that in your case the time for
+      concessions has passed. We desire your check at once
+      for the balance due us.
+
+      You are credited with using considerable money in your
+      business, and it would seem that you should without
+      difficulty be able to take care of amounts such as you
+      owe us. If we do not hear from you by April 1, we
+      shall send a second draft. If you permit this to be
+      returned unpaid, we shall be compelled to take action
+      to force collection. We wish to express the hope,
+      however, that you will not allow this to be done.
+
+    Yours truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 231=
+
+Letter (2) above is written primarily to get a check for the over-due
+account and incidentally to get another order. Suppose that the customer
+sends an order and no money. You do not wish to extend further credit
+until the old balance is paid. Write a tactful letter, saying that you
+will hold back the order until you receive a check to pay the over-due
+account.
+
+
+=Exercise 232=
+
+Write the letters in the following transaction:
+
+      1. J. F. Brookmeyer, Peru, Ind., is a dealer in shoes.
+      He opened an account with you a month ago. He has
+      purchased shoes to the amount of $250. You rendered an
+      account on the first of the month, two weeks ago.
+      Write a letter saying that you do not carry over
+      accounts from month to month, as your small margin of
+      profit makes it impossible for you to carry an
+      irregular account. Make it a courteous sales letter as
+      well as a collection letter.
+
+      2. J. H. Brookmeyer sends a certified check for the
+      full amount, apologizing for the delay.
+
+
+=Exercise 233=
+
+      1. John R. Phillips, 32 New York Building, Seattle,
+      Washington, owes you $470. Write him, saying that you
+      need the money. Give a good reason. Make it a
+      courteous, friendly letter.
+
+      2. Mr. Phillips has not answered (1). Write him again,
+      saying that if you do not get a remittance by ----,
+      you will draw on him at sight.
+
+      3. Your bank notifies you that your draft has been
+      returned unpaid. Write Phillips, asking for an
+      explanation. Say that unless you hear by ----, you
+      will bring suit.
+
+      4. Phillips writes an apologetic letter, giving
+      illness as the reason for his non-payment. He says he
+      was in the hospital and did not receive letters (1)
+      and (2). He encloses fifty dollars and promises to pay
+      at least half the balance next month, the full amount
+      within sixty days. Write his letter.
+
+      5. Accept this offer.
+
+
+=Exercise 234--Answering Complaints=
+
+      1. A mail order house discovered that its files
+      contained the names of 10,000 people who had once been
+      customers but who had not bought anything for the last
+      two or three years. Write a letter in the name of the
+      manager frankly asking why the customer has stopped
+      buying. Advertise the stock.
+
+      2. One correspondent in reply demands a return of $16,
+      which he had paid for a coat that was "not worth a
+      cent." How would you reply to this letter so that the
+      one making the complaint would send in an order? Write
+      the letter.
+
+In connection with this exercise study the following letter:
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      We wish to acknowledge your letter of April 16, in
+      which you say that on April 14 you received a bill for
+      five S & Q Railway bonds, which Mr. Wensley had sold
+      you on the 11th at 100 and interest; that you sent us
+      your check for the amount on the same day; and that on
+      the 16th, two days afterward, you received a letter
+      from us, offering a new block of these bonds at 99 and
+      interest.
+
+      This complication was brought about through a peculiar
+      chain of circumstances, an explanation of which, we
+      feel, is only just both to you and to us. When Mr.
+      Wensley came to the office on Saturday, the 12th, he
+      told us that he had your order for five of these bonds
+      at 100� and interest. The market price was then 100
+      and interest, and we were very glad to give you the
+      benefit of the more favorable price. At that time we
+      had no intimation that more of these bonds were
+      coming on the market. Quite unexpectedly on Monday we
+      received notice from our Boston office that they had
+      in view a new block of the bonds. Even at that time we
+      did not know definitely that we would get them. On
+      Tuesday, again quite unexpectedly, we were instructed
+      by our Boston office that the bonds had been secured
+      and were to be offered immediately at 99 and interest.
+      So suddenly did the entire transaction take place that
+      we were unable to prepare a new circular, and on
+      Tuesday night we merely sent out a letter, telling our
+      customers that we had an additional block of these
+      bonds. In fact, the new circular will not be ready
+      until about noon of to-morrow.
+
+      We realize that you should have been informed of the
+      new price. The bonds, however, came on the market so
+      quickly and in taking care of the details of the
+      offering we were so busy that the matter,
+      unfortunately, was overlooked. We are glad, therefore,
+      to make adjustment of the price now by having our
+      banking department send you our check for $50.
+
+      It is unnecessary for us to say, we presume, that we
+      regret this occurrence and to assure you that had we
+      known of the new bonds on Saturday we would have
+      advised you to hold off your purchase until the
+      offering was ready. We feel that you know us and the
+      policy of our house well enough to be sure that we
+      would not willfully take advantage of you in this way.
+      We trust that the arrangement that we have made
+      satisfactorily straightens out the matter.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+
+=Exercise 235=
+
+1. What is the advantage of the policy shown in the following suggestion
+from _System_?
+
+      The manager of a retail establishment says: "We never
+      refuse to refund money. If a dissatisfied customer
+      returns a purchase, before we ask what the trouble is
+      we refund his money gladly. When he is free to walk
+      out of the store with his money, we try to find the
+      source of the trouble. Generally we can adjust the
+      difficulty and make a sale."
+
+2. State the advantage in the policy of a large clothing concern which
+follows the sale of every suit or overcoat with a letter to the
+customer, asking him whether the purchase is proving satisfactory.
+
+3. Write such a letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 236=
+
+      1. Conrad H. Harwood of 122 Winter Street, Vandalia,
+      Ill., writes to Wilson, Black & Co., manufacturers of
+      shoes, 100 Second Street, Lynn, Mass., asking why they
+      are not sending his order of ---- (the goods ordered)
+      of ---- (date). He is losing sales because of the
+      delay. If the goods are not received before ----,
+      Harwood will cancel the order.
+
+      2. Wilson, Black & Co. acknowledge the receipt of
+      Harwood's letter and say that this is the first notice
+      they have received of such an order. The first letter
+      must have miscarried. They have shipped the goods. Be
+      very courteous.
+
+
+=Exercise 237=
+
+      1. C. F. Gardner, a merchant of 432 Puyallup Ave.,
+      Tacoma, Wash., has received notice from the C.M. &
+      P.S.R.R. freight office that a box of goods has
+      arrived from Messrs. Fiske & Jones, Detroit, Mich.
+      Gardner ordered the goods a month ago. He writes
+      Messrs. Fiske & Jones that he refuses to accept the
+      goods because of the delay. He has bought elsewhere in
+      the meantime.
+
+      2. Fiske & Jones apologize for the delay and explain
+      that it was due to the unreliability of one of their
+      shipping clerks, who has since been discharged. They
+      had known nothing of the matter until Gardner's letter
+      of complaint arrived. They assure him that he will
+      never suffer another such inconvenience.
+
+      3. Fiske & Jones telegraph the C.M. & P.S.R.R. to
+      return the goods at Fiske & Jones's expense. Write the
+      telegram.
+
+
+=Exercise 238--Letters of Application=
+
+A letter of application usually has three parts. In writing such a
+letter, first, tell where you saw the advertisement and apply for the
+position; second, tell your qualifications and give your references;
+third, end the letter appropriately, possibly asking for an interview.
+
+This is a difficult kind of letter to write. Not only should it be neat
+in appearance and clearly written, but it should also be so carefully
+worded that it will show enough of the writer's individuality to
+distinguish it from a form. Be neither hesitant nor bold, but tell your
+qualifications in a simple, straightforward way.
+
+Study the following letters. Are they convincing? Do they show the
+personality of the writers, or are they mere forms?
+
+1
+
+      Gentlemen:
+
+      Your advertisement in to-day's Record for a salesman
+      who knows the tea and coffee business interests me. I
+      should like you to consider my application for the
+      position.
+
+      Since my graduation from the Blank High School, four
+      years ago, I have been employed as salesman for the
+      Economy Wholesale Coffee Co., a firm doing business in
+      this city and its outlying districts. During these
+      four years I have gathered a wide knowledge of the
+      principles of the buying and selling of coffees and
+      teas and of the grades and blends of both, just the
+      training, it seems to me, that you wish to secure.
+
+      You may depend upon my taking an active interest in
+      your business, because I have an intense desire to
+      advance. I myself vouch for my honesty and
+      earnestness, and Mr. Robert Brown of the firm
+      mentioned above has assured me that he will supply you
+      with any information that you may wish as to my
+      character or ability. He endorses my desire to secure
+      a broader opportunity.
+
+      If the position that you have to offer is one in which
+      there is a real future for an energetic, capable man,
+      I should like to have an interview with you.
+
+                                     Yours very respectfully,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      I am answering your advertisement in to-day's Record
+      for a clerk because I wish to get started in the
+      wholesale dry goods business, my idea being to work
+      into the sales department. If the position that you
+      advertise affords such an opportunity, I wish to apply
+      for it.
+
+      I have had a little experience in the retail dry goods
+      business, having worked as clerk for Mr. Amos Jones of
+      this city during the past two summers. What I have
+      seen and learned of the business makes me feel that I
+      have ability as a dry goods salesman. I shall be glad
+      to work hard in a clerical position if only I get a
+      chance to learn and to advance.
+
+      I am eighteen years of age and have just graduated
+      from the Blank High School, where I took the four-year
+      commercial course. This, as you know, includes
+      business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and some business
+      practice. During the last two years I was business
+      manager of the high school paper. This position gave
+      me considerable experience in handling details rapidly
+      and in soliciting advertising. It is this latter
+      experience that makes me feel that I would have
+      success in selling.
+
+      I am confident that I can please you, and I should be
+      grateful if you will grant me an interview. Mr. Amos
+      Jones, 815 E. 47th St., will be glad to give you any
+      information that you may wish as to my work, and if
+      you desire I can furnish other references.
+
+                                        Yours respectfully,
+
+
+=Exercise 239=
+
+Apply for the following positions:
+
+      1. OFFICE MAN--who can handle correspondence and
+      general office work for growing North side
+      manufacturing company. Good opportunity for the right
+      man. State experience and salary expected. Address A.
+      H. Stanton, 17 Elm St.
+
+      2. MAIL ORDER MAN--up-to-date, experienced; must have
+      ability and be capable of handling a large volume of
+      correspondence; must also be a pusher and
+      systematizer. In reply give references, age, and
+      detailed experience. Address X. W. 291 News.
+
+      3. AMBITIOUS YOUNG MEN--who are willing to start at
+      the bottom to learn steel and iron business; must be
+      high school or college graduates, or have equivalent
+      education, and furnish exceptional references; very
+      good opportunity for the future. Address A. F. 361
+      Times.
+
+      4. BRIGHT YOUNG MAN--for office work in large
+      manufacturing plant, Northwest side; must be neat,
+      quick, and accurate at figures. State age, experience,
+      and salary expected. Address J. F. Holtz & Co., 320 W.
+      Exchange St.
+
+      5. OFFICE CLERK--a girl who can write a plain, rapid,
+      legible hand; desirable, permanent position, and
+      excellent chance for advancement. Give age,
+      experience, if any, and where formerly employed.
+      Salary $6.00 to start. Address T. P. 514 Chronicle.
+
+      6. HELP WANTED--salesman having established trade on
+      rubber or leather footwear in Michigan, northern
+      Indiana, northwest Ohio, or eastern Wisconsin. Good
+      chance to become connected with live middle-western
+      jobbing house. Give late experience. Address G724 Boot
+      and Shoe Recorder, Boston, Mass.
+
+
+=Exercise 240--Contract for Painting Iron Work=
+
+      1. James W. Walker & Co., 325 Second St., Pittsburgh,
+      are receiving bids for painting the iron work of the
+      bridge to be constructed over the Cheesequake Creek at
+      Morgan Station, New Brunswick, N. J. The Barnard
+      Emerson Co., of Harrisburg, Pa., write saying they
+      would like to figure on the work. They ask James W.
+      Walker & Co; to send plans and specifications. Write
+      the letter sent by the Barnard Emerson Co.
+
+      2. James W. Walker & Co. reply that they are sending
+      plans and specifications. They say that bids must be
+      in by March 10. Write the letter.
+
+      3. The Barnard Emerson Co. write that page two, line
+      four, of the specifications for the bridge to be
+      constructed (state in detail) reads "and paint all
+      beams underneath two coats of dark green," and page
+      four, line ten, reads "all upright beams above and
+      underneath to be painted two coats of light green
+      between shades three and four." They ask which is
+      correct. Write the letter. Be exact.
+
+      4. James W. Walker & Co. reply that page two, line
+      four, is correct. Explain in detail.
+
+      5. The Barnard Emerson Co. agree to do the work on
+      (repeat exactly what bridge you mean) for three
+      thousand dollars. They guarantee to finish the work by
+      April 30, according to the specifications. They will
+      forfeit fifty dollars for every day after that date
+      until the bridge is finished. Write the proposal or
+      bid.
+
+      6. James W. Walker & Co. write, saying that they
+      accept the bid above and that they enclose duplicate
+      contracts, one of which they have signed and which the
+      Barnard Emerson Co. is to keep. The other the Barnard
+      Emerson Co. is to sign and return to James W. Walker &
+      Co.
+
+
+=Exercise 241--Contract for the Delivery of Property=
+
+      1. The Arlington Coal Company, Old Colony Building,
+      Chicago, Ill., write to the Red Rock Coal Company,
+      Auburn, Ill., saying that they need several cars of
+      egg coal per week throughout the year. They ask if the
+      Red Rock Coal Co. wish to offer some on contract. If
+      so, they must state how the coal is screened, and give
+      their lowest price. Write the letter.
+
+      2. The Red Rock Coal Co. reply that they will offer
+      egg coal for shipment at the rate of two cars per week
+      throughout the year, at $1.15 per net ton, cars f.o.b.
+      mines. If a contract were drawn up for three or more
+      cars per week, they would give the coal for $1.12� per
+      net ton. They say their egg is an excellent steam
+      producing coal and gives general satisfaction. It is
+      shipped from the Red Rock mine via the Chicago & Alton
+      Railroad, freight rate being 82� per ton. Write the
+      letter.
+
+      3. The Arlington Coal Co. write that the Red Rock Coal
+      Co. may send a one year contract drawn in triplicate
+      for three cars of egg coal per week at $1.12� per net
+      ton, cars f.o.b. mines. Of course it is understood
+      that the usual clauses regarding accidents or other
+      unavoidable happenings on either side will be
+      inserted. Write the letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 242--Contract for Construction=
+
+      NEWS ITEM.--Bids will be received until Dec. 12 by the
+      Chairman of the Board of Public Works, North Bend,
+      Washington, for the construction of a solid concrete
+      bridge over the Snoqualmie River at North Bend; double
+      arch, with one pier in the river; span of arch 92
+      feet; width of bridge 50 feet. Plans may be had by
+      addressing the Chairman.
+
+The McClaine Construction Co., of Spokane, Wash., send in a bid for
+$25,000, guaranteeing to use Atlas Portland cement, crushed rock for the
+coarse aggregate, and torpedo sand for the fine aggregate, the concrete
+to be reinforced with the Kahn system of reinforcement as set forth in
+the specifications. The company specify, further, that they shall be
+paid extra for excavation, on the scale of 25� a yard for earth, 75� a
+yard for loose rock and hard pan, and $1.00 a yard for solid rock. Write
+the letter that they send.
+
+
+=Exercise 243--Form Letters=
+
+It frequently happens in business that you receive a number of letters
+requiring practically the same answer. In such cases, the best plan is
+to have one letter that is as good a letter of its kind as you can
+write. Use that as an answer to all those to which it can be made to
+apply. You may have to add a bit of information or change a word here
+and there, but, practically, you are using the same form for all the
+letters. When you have mastered the form, the answering of letters of
+this class will be a simple matter. The letter accompanying a catalogue
+may easily be a form. (See the second letter in Exercise 223.)
+
+The danger, however, is that the use of form letters tends to make work
+mechanical. When letters are different, they must receive different
+replies. A form letter should never be used just because it is easy to
+use when it does not really apply.
+
+Mandel Bros., Chicago, Ill., announce their annual sale of silk
+remnants. Make this a good advertisement that will reach several classes
+of customers. Have in it as one item white wash silk of heavy quality,
+36 inches wide, at 47 cents a yard.
+
+      1. Make out a sales letter for the above.
+
+      2. Several mail orders have been received in excess of
+      the supply. Make out a form letter that could be sent
+      when the money is returned. What is the advantage of a
+      form letter in this case?
+
+
+=Exercise 244--Circular and Follow-up Letters=
+
+There is a class of letters that usually originates in the advertising
+department of a firm. They are not sent out to answer inquiries, but to
+solicit new customers and to keep old ones. Such letters are printed in
+large numbers in imitation of typewriting, and the introduction and the
+salutation are afterward carefully filled in on the typewriter. The
+intention, of course, is to make the recipient feel that he has received
+a personal letter. Firms are generally careful to fill in the signature
+in pen and ink. These are called _circular_ letters. (See the last
+letter in Exercise 223.)
+
+These letters are very important and each year more numerous. Frequently
+a series of them is written, each one expanding one argument in a series
+of arguments. If all the letters are read, one after the other, you have
+a complete list of reasons why you should buy the particular article
+which the letters advertise. These letters are sent out regularly, so
+that the effect of one may not quite wear off before the next arrives.
+It is frequently the case that not until the third or fourth letter is
+sent out does any reply come. Such letters should be definitely planned
+in order to present arguments that are true and attractive. They must be
+simply and clearly written. They are called _follow-up_ letters.
+
+The following series of follow-up letters was intended to be sent to
+women who keep no maids. The series was planned to contain five letters.
+Write two more, using different appeals from those in the letters here
+given.
+
+1
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      Do you remember the fairy tale of Little Two-Eyes?
+
+      A fairy, out of pity for the child's hunger, spread a
+      table before her each day as she was watching the goat
+      in the field, and when her appetite was satisfied all
+      the child had to say was, "Table clear yourself," and
+      the dishes magically disappeared.
+
+      "This is a beautiful way to keep house," was Two-Eyes'
+      verdict, and every woman, thinking of her own distaste
+      of dirty dishes, will agree.
+
+      "How I hate dishwashing!" You have said it hundreds of
+      times--after every meal, probably.
+
+      "I like to cook and bake," you declare. "They are
+      really interesting. There is fun in trying new
+      recipes--but the dishes!"
+
+      You enjoy giving luncheon and dinner parties. It is a
+      delightful way of meeting one's friends. Moreover, you
+      are justly proud of your skill in cooking, and you
+      like to show your beautiful china. But what a damper
+      it is on your spirit of good-fellowship, after the
+      guests are gone, to have to spend an hour or more
+      washing the dishes. Then you would like to say, with
+      the child in the story, "Dishes wash yourselves!"
+      Wouldn't you?
+
+      Well, you may. For thirty days--ninety meals--we will
+      put the Fairy Dishwasher in your home, without
+      charging you a penny.
+
+      The machine is simplicity itself. Wheel the cabinet
+      into your dining room, alongside your serving table,
+      and, as a course is finished, without rising from your
+      place, stack the dishes into the washer. When you have
+      finished the meal, wheel the cabinet into your
+      kitchen, make the connection, and turn the switch. In
+      a few minutes the dishes are washed and dried. Having
+      friends in to dinner is fun when the Fairy washes the
+      dishes.
+
+      Let the Fairy do yours. Simply return this letter to
+      us in the enclosed envelope, making sure that your
+      name and address are correct, and we'll send you the
+      Fairy. Use it three times a day for thirty days. Then
+      if you think you can get along as well without the
+      machine, all that you need to do is to send us a
+      postal card, telling us so. We'll take back the Fairy
+      and ask no questions.
+
+      But send to-day.
+
+    Yours very truly,
+
+2
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      Did you ever envy another woman's smooth, white hands?
+      You looked at hers, and then you looked at yours; you
+      sighed and thought, "It's dishwashing."
+
+      But what can you do? Haven't you tried everything to
+      make dishwashing less drudgery? Haven't you tried
+      patent soaps and tepid water, only to find that the
+      dishes were not clean? Haven't you tried dish mops,
+      scrapers, and rubber gloves, only to find that the mop
+      and the scraper saved but one hand? As for rubber
+      gloves, as likely as not, the first time you used them
+      they were caught on the prong of a fork and were
+      thereafter useless. Yes, you've tried everything;
+      haven't you?
+
+      No, you haven't. You have not tried the only sure help
+      that there is. Stop your drudgery and let the Fairy
+      wash your dishes.
+
+      For thirty days--ninety trials--we will put the Fairy
+      Dishwasher in your home, absolutely free of charge,
+      guaranteed to wash and sterilize your dishes in
+      boiling water, without a touch of your hand.
+
+      Do your manicuring while the Fairy does the dishes.
+
+      Pay no money, but send the enclosed postal card
+      to-day. It will bring the Fairy at once.
+
+    Very truly yours,
+
+3
+
+      Dear Madam:
+
+      An extra hour of leisure every day! What is it worth
+      to you?
+
+      Think what you could do if some one would give you an
+      extra hour of leisure every day. There's the book you
+      would like to read, the call you ought to make, the
+      embroidery you wish you could finish. There are the
+      thousand and one things that a housekeeper continually
+      wishes she could do--but where can she get the time?
+
+      And yet you waste at least an hour each day washing
+      dishes when the Fairy Dishwasher will not only save
+      you the time but rid you of a distasteful task. You
+      pay 16-2/3 cents a day for five months and the Fairy
+      does your dishes every day; you buy yourself an extra
+      hour every day,--you are an hour ahead every day for
+      the rest of your life.
+
+      Is it worth the price?
+
+      Remember that we allow you to use the Fairy for thirty
+      days--ninety meals--before you pay a penny. Then for
+      five months you send us five dollars a month, and we
+      guarantee that you will declare it the best
+      twenty-five dollars that you ever spent.
+
+      Send the enclosed postal card to-day. It will bring
+      the Fairy and a booklet of full directions.
+
+    Very truly yours,
+
+
+=Exercise 245=
+
+You have bought a big tract of land in Alabama. You wish to sell a part
+uncleared, to set out a part in pecan trees, and to devote a part to
+truck farms. Write three letters to the same man, making each one
+stronger than the one before. Keep in mind the five essentials of a good
+letter. (See page 230.)
+
+      1. Offer the uncleared land at a very low price. Offer
+      as many inducements as you can, such as desirability
+      of location, fertility of the soil, and comparison in
+      price with other land in the same neighborhood.
+
+      2. You received no response from (1). Try to sell the
+      section in which you are planting pecan trees. What
+      inducements could you offer that might reach a man who
+      was not affected by (1)?
+
+      3. You received no response from (1) or (2). Try to
+      sell a truck farm. What inducements could you offer
+      that might lead a man to buy a truck farm when he had
+      no interest in either uncleared land or pecan trees?
+
+
+=Exercise 246=
+
+      1. The _Modern Magazine_ offers a set of Mark Twain's
+      complete works absolutely free if you subscribe for
+      one year for the _Modern Magazine_ and the _Household
+      Magazine_ at the regular price of $2 for the _Modern
+      Magazine_ and $1.50 for the _Household Magazine_. This
+      offer expires ---- (date). Write the letter.
+
+      2. You have not responded. The _Modern Magazine_ feels
+      that you could not have understood its offer. These
+      are no cheap books. To prove this, the firm is willing
+      to send you the books to allow you to examine them
+      before you send any money. If you accept them, pay the
+      express agent; if not, return the books at the expense
+      of the _Modern Magazine_. Remember that this offer
+      expires ---- (date).
+
+      3. You have not responded. The magazine extends the
+      time. Give a reason for the extension of the time.
+
+What criticism can you make on (3)?
+
+
+=Exercise 247=
+
+A druggist was obliged to move from his corner store four doors east on
+a side street. He decided to advertise by sending a series of follow-up
+letters embodying the following ideas:
+
+      1. Change of location because ----.
+
+      2. Stick to your druggist because he holds the key to
+      your health.
+
+      3. What is the reason that my trade is staying with
+      me? (Prizes for the best answer.)
+
+      4. The reasons why trade stays with me--what my
+      patrons say.
+
+      5. The pure food question--why we must handle only
+      fresh drugs.
+
+      6. We are registered pharmacists--what this means to
+      you.
+
+      7. Why our sales expense is smaller now than
+      formerly--how you profit.
+
+
+=Exercise 248=
+
+A furniture house selling goods on monthly payments decides to advertise
+by sending a series of follow-up letters, using the following reasons
+why you should buy, one in each letter:
+
+      1. Variety of stock; assurance that they can please,
+      no matter what you wish. Amplify.
+
+      2. Reliability of the firm.
+
+      3. The small profit on which they run their business
+      gives you an excellent opportunity of buying good
+      values at low prices.
+
+      4. Buying on the "easy payment" plan enables you to
+      have the use of your furniture while you are still
+      paying for it.
+
+Why is (4) a poor argument?
+
+
+=Exercise 249=
+
+Write a series of letters to sell an electric washing machine, using the
+following items:
+
+      1. The machine is ball bearing; therefore very easy to
+      work. You can sit down while you do your week's
+      washing. The only work required is hanging the clothes
+      out of doors.
+
+      2. It saves laundry bills.
+
+      3. Summary of (1) and (2). The investment required is
+      not large. Special plans for payment.
+
+      4. The machine is durable.
+
+      5. Summary of the above. The following figures show
+      that during the time that has elapsed since (1) was
+      received the machine might have been paid for out of
+      the money spent for laundry bills.
+
+
+
+
+PART III--BUSINESS PRACTICE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+MANUFACTURE
+
+
+THE following chapters will furnish exercises in composition, both oral
+and written, based upon the various phases of business. They are
+intended to show the application of the principles underlying
+manufacturing, buying, and selling. Of course, we cannot expect to go
+into great detail in any one of the divisions. That must be reserved for
+future study, perhaps reserved until the time that you enter a
+particular business. We must remember that our first consideration is
+the study of English, the problem of clear-cut expression. Underlying
+clear-cut expression is clear-cut thinking. It cannot be repeated too
+often that without a definite thought there can be no definite wording
+of the thought. To say, "I know, but I don't know how to tell it," shows
+a lazy brain. Learn to exercise your thinking powers so that you can
+force them to stay upon a subject until you have thought it out
+carefully and can express it. All of the oral exercises in the following
+chapters require careful preparation. This does not mean that they
+should be written out before the recitation, but it does mean that they
+must be carefully thought out. The preparation need not take a
+particular form. The main thing is that you know exactly the points that
+you wish to make before you begin to speak. If the exercise calls for a
+paragraph, have clearly in mind the plan by which you expect to expand
+your thought. Perhaps you expect to begin with, or to lead up to, a
+topic sentence. Remember that this may be done in several ways. Choose
+whichever plan seems best. If the exercise does not call for a
+particular form, such as a paragraph or a debate, you are left free to
+develop your thought in the way that you think fits your subject best
+and to the length which you think it demands.
+
+There are many different kinds of businesses. We shall not attempt to
+consider any except the most common and fundamental. Some, like farming
+or mining, consist in bringing forth certain products from the ground.
+Such products are called raw materials, of which an example is wheat.
+Some raw materials are sold and used unchanged, but most of them go
+through the process of manufacture in order to be directly usable. The
+miller is an example of a manufacturer, because from wheat he makes
+flour. In this chapter we shall study the principles underlying
+manufacture.
+
+The exercises do not by any means exhaust the subject. Each one is to be
+considered as a nucleus about which others are to be grouped. If you
+live in a manufacturing district, other subjects will easily suggest
+themselves. If you have studied Industrial History or Commercial
+Geography, you probably have in mind a number of topics for discussion.
+If you know but little about raw materials, read some of the books
+suggested in Exercise 257. At all events let your work be definite.
+Whatever statements you make be able to substantiate by an illustration
+of something that you have seen or heard or read.
+
+
+=Exercise 250--Manufacture=
+
+Almost all the things we eat, wear, and use every day are manufactured
+articles. Each one of them requires its own particular process in the
+making, involving the necessity in most cases of complex and expensive
+machinery, of expert workmen, and of still more expert management. Take,
+for example, the shoes we wear, in the manufacture of which an amazing
+number of complicated machines and of expert workmen is necessary.
+According to the United States Department of Labor, men's rough shoes go
+through eighty-four distinct processes performed by skilled workmen and
+automatic machines. No less amazing is the amount of work turned out by
+these machines. It has been estimated that the McKay machine, which
+attaches the soles to the uppers, sews up in about one hour and a half
+one hundred pairs, an amount which it would take ninety-eight hours, or
+about eleven whole working days, to sew by hand.
+
+Each manufacturing business has peculiarities, machinery, methods, and
+even a language of its own; sometimes men must spend years in the study
+of the technicalities of certain manufacturing businesses before they
+become expert in them. It is evident that we cannot take up any one of
+them here except in so far as the principles of one apply to all, and
+these can be set down only very briefly.
+
+The first essential to successful manufacturing is correct buying. In
+fact, in some businesses this is so essential that the buyer gets a
+larger salary than the manager himself. We can see the reason for this
+when we consider that a good buyer must understand not only the
+materials that he buys, but also the manufacturing processes, so that,
+knowing the process through which the raw materials will go in his
+particular business, he will buy those materials that will make the most
+profitable manufactured articles.
+
+The next essential, and in most cases the most important one from the
+manufacturing standpoint, is a management capable of producing the best
+product at the least cost. The managers decide what shall be produced
+and how; they hire the workmen and decide what each shall do; they
+decide what shall be done by hand and what by machinery; and they choose
+the machines. Sometimes they go even so far as to determine exactly the
+method in which each task shall be done, and whenever they see that it
+would be advantageous to install a machine, they do so. Pursuing this
+policy, a Chicago yeast concern not long ago put in three machines for
+wrapping the small yeast cakes, eliminating the services of 140 girls
+and cutting the cost of wrapping to three-fifths of what it had been. In
+the steel business the early success of Andrew Carnegie and the famous
+Bill Jones was largely due to the fact that on several occasions they
+did not hesitate to break up half a million dollars' worth of machinery
+and replace it with newer and more efficient kinds.
+
+The third essential to manufacturing success is aggressive marketing of
+the product. From the standpoint of money success this is probably the
+most important consideration; so important is it, in fact, that it will
+be more fully discussed in the chapter following.
+
+
+=Exercise 251--Manufactured Articles=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. Define the word _industry_. When is a business
+      called an industry? (Consult an unabridged
+      dictionary.)
+
+      2. _a._ Name several raw materials.
+
+      _b._ Name some industries whose business it is to
+      produce raw materials.
+
+      3. Name some companies or industries whose business it
+      is, or whose principal function it is, to manufacture
+      from raw materials.
+
+      4. Name some companies or groups of companies that
+      make articles more useful by transporting them to
+      places where they are needed.
+
+      5. Name some wholesale houses. In what does their
+      business consist?
+
+      6. Name several kinds of retail businesses. In what
+      does their business consist?
+
+      7. Name some companies that manufacture only one
+      article.
+
+      8. Name some companies that manufacture more than one
+      article, but all of the same class. This is the
+      largest group.
+
+      9. Name some companies that manufacture several
+      different kinds of articles.
+
+      10. Name some companies which, in manufacturing one
+      product, make a secondary or by-product.
+
+      11. Name a number of by-products and what they are
+      by-products of.
+
+_Oral or Written_
+
+In each of the following emphasize the labor involved, not the machinery
+used; prepare outlines:
+
+      1. Select any manufactured article that you have seen
+      on a grocer's shelves, and trace it through (2), (3),
+      (4), (5), and (6) above, from the raw material until
+      the product is in the housekeeper's hands. If possible
+      make your information exact by visiting a factory in
+      which the article is made. The information contained
+      in advertisements of well-known articles may help you.
+
+      2. Trace the labor that is necessary to put a loaf of
+      bread on the table.
+
+      3. Trace the changes that the mineral undergoes to be
+      suitable for the making of edged tools, such as knives
+      or axes.
+
+      4. Trace the changes that cotton must undergo before
+      it is suitable for wearing as a dress or a pair of
+      stockings.
+
+      5. Trace the changes that wool undergoes before it can
+      be worn as a sweater or a winter coat.
+
+      6. Trace the changes that the skins of animals undergo
+      before they can be worn as a muff.
+
+      7. Trace the changes that silk undergoes before it can
+      be worn as a neck-tie.
+
+      8. Trace the changes that hemp undergoes before it can
+      be used as a rope.
+
+      9. Trace the changes that hides undergo before they
+      can be worn as shoes.
+
+      10. Trace wood from the tree to a piece of fine
+      furniture or to the case of a musical instrument.
+
+      11. Trace the steps in the process of making maple
+      sugar.
+
+      12. Trace the steps in making a piece of glazed
+      pottery.
+
+      13. Trace clay to bricks.
+
+      14. Trace flax to a tablecloth.
+
+      15. Trace the steps necessary to make a five dollar
+      gold piece.
+
+
+=Exercise 252=
+
+Subjects for Themes, Oral or Written
+
+The following are suggestions for theme subjects on manufacture. Develop
+one or more as the teacher directs.
+
+     1. Household uses for asbestos.
+     2. Making turpentine from wood.
+     3. A convenient electrical device.
+     4. The advantages of the fireless cooker.
+     5. The advantages of concrete as a building material.
+     6. The way to make a plaster cast.
+     7. How iron castings are made.
+     8. Artificial flowers from feathers, paper, or cloth.
+     9. How a suction sweeper works.
+    10. The safety match.
+    11. The uses of wood pulp.
+    12. Patent roofing.
+    13. The manufacture of plate glass.
+    14. Utilizing cotton seed.
+    15. The advantages and the disadvantages of using baking powder.
+
+
+=Exercise 253=
+
+Suggestions for Debates
+
+      1. The average young man has a better chance to
+      succeed in business than in a profession.
+
+      2. A manufacturing business offers a better
+      opportunity for a young man at the present time than a
+      mercantile business.
+
+      3. Manufacturing industries would suffer if
+      immigration were restricted.
+
+      4. The labor union should be abolished.
+
+      5. The labor union has no right to restrict the number
+      of apprentices.
+
+      6. The profit-sharing plan produces greater efficiency
+      in the working-force.
+
+
+=Exercise 254=
+
+Imagine that you are Stanley M. Benner, 171 South St., Buffalo, N. Y.,
+proprietor of a factory making men's shirts and collars.
+
+      1. Write an order to The American Printing Mill, 1038
+      Canal St., Passaic, N. J., for several bolts each of
+      percale, madras, corded madras, and silk striped
+      madras. Use catalogue numbers.
+
+      2. Write another order to The Trescott Silk Mill, 976
+      River St., Paterson, N. J., for several bolts each of
+      No. 62, No. 14, and No. 20 shirting silks, No. 62
+      being a striped silk and the others figured. Be
+      definite in ordering the colors that you wish.
+
+      3. You have received an order from Spencer & Mitchell,
+      1925 Pearl St., Albany, N. Y. Write a letter, thanking
+      them for the order and explaining when and how the
+      goods will be sent.
+
+      4. You have received an order from William F. Atwood,
+      590 Jackson St., Wilmington, Del., for a certain style
+      of collar on which there has been a run. Write a
+      letter, explaining that it will take about three weeks
+      to fill the orders that you now have for this collar
+      and that you therefore cannot send Mr. Atwood's goods
+      before the end of the month.
+
+      5. The goods have arrived from The Trescott Silk Mill.
+      You find, however, that two bolts of No. 14 are badly
+      soiled. Write a letter, saying that you are returning
+      the bolts and asking to have the matter adjusted.
+
+      6. A. W. Trescott, President of The Trescott Silk
+      Mill, replies, expressing regret that the goods were
+      soiled and saying that two clean bolts of No. 14 are
+      being sent at once. Write his letter.
+
+      7. You have on hand about 50 gross men's striped
+      madras collars, for which there is no longer a call.
+      Write to Markham Bros., wholesale jobbers, 1765
+      Greenwich St., New York City, asking what price they
+      will offer for the lot.
+
+      8. Accept their offer of $1.50 a gross for the
+      collars.
+
+      9. A customer sends a cash order for goods at last
+      year's prices, 10% below present prices. Write a
+      politic reply.
+
+      10. Owing to the mildness of the winter, you fear that
+      you will not sell your stock of men's flannel shirts.
+      Write a circular letter, offering the shirts in lots
+      of 25 dozen each, assorted sizes and colors, at a 35%
+      reduction in price. Address one letter to. Frederick
+      H. Howard, a dealer at 775 Cedar St., Harrisburg, Pa.
+
+      11. A teamsters' strike has delayed your shipments.
+      You have received so many complaints of the
+      non-arrival of goods that you decide to prepare a form
+      letter that will answer all the complaints. Address
+      one letter to William A. Spaulding, 2937 Waterman St.,
+      Providence, R. I.
+
+      12. Miss Sarah MacComb has a small dry goods store in
+      Norwich, Conn. She has owed you $125 for six months.
+      You have been lenient with Miss MacComb because you
+      know that she has had difficulty in meeting her bills.
+      However, you feel that she should pay at least a part
+      of her indebtedness to you. Write a courteous letter,
+      longer and more persuasive than if it were to go to a
+      man, demanding payment but retaining the customer's
+      good will. This is a difficult letter to write.
+      Prepare it carefully.
+
+
+=Exercise 255=
+
+      1. You have been manager of the Forsyth Furniture Co.,
+      Grand Rapids, Mich. You have financial backing for
+      $25,000 and are looking for a location for a factory
+      of your own. Write the same letter to the Secretary of
+      the Chamber of Commerce of Great Falls, Mont.;
+      Memphis, Tenn.; Houston, Texas; Indianapolis, Ind. Ask
+      the Secretary to tell you the prospects for such a
+      factory in his city, and what inducements the city
+      will offer you. (By writing to different cities, the
+      teacher can obtain their booklets and their special
+      offers to manufacturers.)
+
+      2. Investigate the conditions in one of the cities
+      mentioned above and reproduce the letter that the
+      Secretary wrote.
+
+      3. Of the four cities, Great Falls appeals to you as
+      the best location for your factory. Write again,
+      asking the Secretary especially about the water power
+      facilities offered and the rates charged for
+      electrical power.
+
+      4. He replies that Great Falls has the most extensive
+      power in the United States, the hydro-electric power
+      being ready for delivery in any quantity at
+      exceptionally low rates. He tells of the many
+      factories that are already located in Great Falls
+      because of its water power facilities.
+
+      5. Great Falls is your choice. After your factory is
+      built and your machinery installed, write to the
+      Secretary of the Sand Point Lumber Co., Sand Point,
+      Idaho, asking him to submit figures for a contract for
+      supplying all your fir lumber. Tell him you think you
+      will use about a million board feet a year.
+
+      6. The Secretary replies, offering you a contract on
+      the following terms: For all amounts under 250,000
+      feet a year, a rate of 12 cents a foot; under 500,000,
+      11 cents; over 500,000, 10 cents. All goods are to be
+      billed at the highest rate and rebates made at the end
+      of the year, terms of payment being 90 days, 5% for 30
+      days.
+
+      7. Write to the Central American Supply Co.,
+      Tehuantepec, Mexico, ordering 50,000 feet No. 1
+      Mahogany Veneer. Have it charged to your account,
+      which you have previously opened.
+
+      8. Write to Gregory Bros., wholesale dry goods
+      merchants, 12141 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.,
+      ordering 15 bolts No. 7 Green Denim; 10 bolts No. 09
+      Green Panne Velvet; 50 yds. No. 216 Tapestry; 50 yds.
+      No. 16 Tapestry; 100 bolts Green and 100 bolts Brown
+      No. 5 Guimpe. Instruct them to ship the goods at once
+      and draw on you at sight through the First National
+      Bank of Great Falls. (See page 344.)
+
+      9. Write to the Excelsior Varnish Co., Merchants'
+      National Bank Building, St. Paul, Minn., ordering
+      articles such as varnish, stains, oils, enamels, and
+      finishing wax.
+
+      10. Write an order to a St. Louis firm for leather.
+
+      11. Write an order to a Spokane firm for springs.
+
+      12. Find out where a Great Falls merchant would buy
+      oak and birch, and write an order for each.
+
+      13. Write to the Hanover National Bank of New York
+      City (because you happen to know the cashier of that
+      bank), explaining that you are having a very decided
+      increase in your business and that, in order to take
+      care of the demand, you require a loan of $10,000.
+      Explain further that the rates are too high in Great
+      Falls for you to take a loan there. Say that you are
+      enclosing a statement of your assets and liabilities.
+
+      14. A dealer in Portland, Ore., writes, complaining
+      that he has not yet received the goods that he ordered
+      ten days ago. Write an appropriate reply.
+
+      15. You receive an order, one item of which is 3 doz.
+      oil mops, which you do not carry. Reply that you have
+      referred the matter to ---- a firm which you can
+      recommend highly.
+
+
+=Exercise 256=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+Principles involved in manufacture:
+
+1. The location of a factory.
+
+    _a._ Where necessary raw materials can be obtained easily and cheaply.
+    _b._ Where land is not expensive.
+    _c._ Where the coal or water supply will make power inexpensive.
+    _d._ Where transportation facilities are good.
+
+2. The advantages of using machinery in manufacture.
+
+    _a._ Relative amount of work turned out.
+    _b._ Relative cost of work turned out.
+    _c._ Relative cleanliness of work turned out.
+    _d._ Relative uniformity of work turned out.
+
+3. The number of working hours.
+
+      Some factories have made the experiment of reducing
+      the number of working hours from ten to eight without
+      reducing the wages of the workers. They have found
+      that the quantity of work turned out is increased and
+      the quality improved. Can you explain why?
+
+4. The advantages of the profit-sharing plan, both for employer and for
+employee.
+
+      This is a plan by which a certain per cent of the
+      profits of the business is divided annually among the
+      employees. (See a very interesting article in _System_
+      for March, 1911, or read _Profit-sharing between
+      Employer and Employee_ by N. P. Gilman.)
+
+5. Specialized labor.
+
+      There was a time when a man made all the parts of a
+      pair of shoes. Why in modern factories does he make
+      only one part? Which system tends to make shoes of
+      uniform workmanship? Is uniformity a good quality in
+      manufacture? This principle applies to any kind of
+      factory.
+
+6. Special products.
+
+      Suppose that you manufactured a large number of styles
+      of millinery, or novelty, footwear. Would you expect
+      your profits on these to be larger or smaller than on
+      your staple styles? Give reasons and illustrations.
+
+7. Why is there a struggle between labor and capital?
+
+8. What is the cause of strikes?
+
+9. Are strikes a good thing for manufacture?
+
+10. A visit to a shoe factory (or any other factory).
+
+
+=Exercise 257=
+
+Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks
+
+If you have access to a public library, you can probably obtain some of
+the following books. They are all simple and interesting, and any of
+them will suggest several topics for talks.
+
+      ALLEN, N. B., Industrial Studies.
+
+      BAKER, R. S., Boys' Books of Inventions.
+
+      BARNARD, CHARLES, Tools and Machines.
+
+      CARPENTER, F. G., How the World is Fed; How the World
+      is Clothed; How the World is Housed; Geographical
+      Readers.
+
+      CHAMBERLAIN, J. F., How We are Fed; How We are
+      Clothed.
+
+      CHASE, A. and CLOW, E., Stories of Industries (two
+      volumes).
+
+      COCHRANE, C. H., The Wonders of Modern Mechanism.
+
+      COCHRANE, ROBERT, Romance of Industry and Invention.
+
+      DOUBLEDAY, RUSSELL, Stories of Invention.
+
+      FORMAN, S. E., Useful Inventions.
+
+      GIBSON, C. R., The Romance of Modern Manufacture.
+
+      LANE, M. A. L., Industries of To-day.
+
+      LITTLE CHRONICLE CO., Industries of a Great City.
+
+      MOWRY, W. A. and MOWRY, A. M., Inventions and
+      Inventors.
+
+      PARTON, J., Captains of Industry (two series).
+
+      ROCHELEAU, W. F., Products of the Soil; Minerals;
+      Manufactures.
+
+      TOWLE, G. M., Heroes and Martyrs of Invention.
+
+      WILLIAMS, A., How it is Made.
+
+
+=Exercise 258=
+
+Study the punctuation of the following; then write from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      It is stated that practical experience with gas
+      mantles made of artificial silk--that is, silk made
+      from wood pulp--has proved them to be far superior to
+      those made of cotton, especially where the mantles are
+      exposed to excessive vibration. Several German towns
+      are said to be obtaining exceptionally good results
+      from these new mantles used in conjunction with
+      pressure gas, and it is asserted that the mantles are
+      in good condition after being used for seven or eight
+      weeks. Artificial silk, according to reports, has also
+      been used experimentally by several manufacturers of
+      incandescent gas mantles in the United Kingdom. The
+      reports are all very encouraging, except that there
+      seems to be one difficulty that is purely
+      mechanical--the knitting of the artificial silk. The
+      knots and other imperfections in the yarn cause a
+      considerable amount of waste. However, the
+      knitting-machine makers are experimenting to overcome
+      it.--_Daily Consular and Trade Report._
+
+2
+
+      As the production of wool in this country, although
+      approximating 320,000,000 pounds a year, does not
+      begin to meet the demands for the raw material, there
+      is a yearly importation of from 156,000,000 to over
+      300,000,000 pounds. When each new census reveals the
+      fact that there are fewer sheep of shearing age in the
+      country than there were ten years before, the question
+      of wool production becomes one of still greater
+      importance. A solution may be found in a Peruvian
+      product. A variety of cotton grows in Peru whose long,
+      rough, crinkly fiber mixes so readily with wool that
+      manufacturers use it in connection with wool in
+      manufacturing "all wool" goods. It grows on a small
+      tree that yields two or three crops a year for seven
+      or eight years. The area, however, in which it is
+      being successfully cultivated in Peru is so limited
+      that the annual output is only about 16,000,000
+      pounds, of which the United States takes approximately
+      5,500,000 pounds. As the region in which it thrives is
+      practically rainless, perhaps a way may be found to
+      persuade the rough Peruvian to make a home for itself
+      in the hot and arid regions of our Southwest. It would
+      be a triumph of agriculture, certainly, to raise
+      vegetable wool in regions not fitted for real
+      sheep.--_The Wall Street Journal._
+
+3
+
+THE CASTING OF METALS
+
+      As is well known, some metals are unsuitable for
+      casting, while others, like iron, can readily be cast
+      into any desired shape. The property of casting well,
+      it is said, depends upon whether the metal contracts
+      or expands in solidifying from the liquid form. Iron,
+      like water, expands in solidifying, and hence the
+      solid metal may be seen floating in the liquid iron
+      about it. The expansion causes it to fill the die into
+      which it is poured, and so it can be cast easily. Gold
+      and silver contract in cooling, and are, therefore,
+      not suitable for casting.--_Harper's Weekly._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+DISTRIBUTION
+
+
+CORRECT buying and the most efficient methods of manufacture play a
+large part in the successful carrying on of a business, but the most
+important consideration is the successful marketing or distributing of
+the product after it has been manufactured or bought. Very few products
+are so superior in quality that they sell themselves purely on merit.
+Competition in business to-day is so keen that, in order to find a
+market for his product, a merchant must create a demand for it. Thus at
+its very foundation, distribution is merely a process of creating a
+demand and then filling that demand. For instance, the retail merchant
+is concerned with bringing the customers to his store rather than to his
+competitor's across the street. The wholesale merchant is concerned with
+having the retailers handle his goods rather than those of another firm.
+The mail order merchant is concerned with getting the farmer's business
+before some other dealer gets it. The salesman is concerned with writing
+the order before a rival from another house writes it.
+
+In the first place, the merchant must handle those things that his
+customers consider necessary or desirable. Overcoats cannot be sold in
+August, ashsifters on the equator, nor electric fans in Iceland.
+Different peoples, different times, and different conditions create
+different demands, and it is the merchant's business to study those
+demands and to fill them. In the second place, he must leave no stone
+unturned in endeavoring to make his product more desirable than that of
+his competitors. This may mean extensive advertising campaigns,
+expensive displays, outlay for costly catalogues and booklets, the
+expenditure of money for inducements to bring customers, or the hiring
+of expert salesmen. In fact, thousands of plans are carried out every
+year in this endeavor to increase trade.
+
+The getting of new and additional business, however, is only one of the
+important considerations that the merchant must always have in mind. He
+must also keep what business he already has by maintaining the standard
+of his goods and by giving his customers satisfactory service. One of
+the first essentials in this question of service is promptness and
+exactness of delivery. In this the merchant must depend very largely on
+the transportation companies, and therefore a brief study of these
+facilities will be especially in place at this point.
+
+
+Transportation
+
+Transportation is an essential item in the problem of distribution. If
+you wished to drink a cup of coffee and found that none could be had
+except in Brazil, you would begin to realize how much the steamship
+company and the railroad company have done in transporting and hauling
+it where you might buy it. The same is true of our oranges from
+California and Florida, our apples from Washington and Oregon, and our
+grain from the Middle States. In fact, in the case of many products the
+most important item is not growing them, but bringing them to market,
+since the transportation charges are often much greater than the actual
+cost of producing. Thousands of barrels of apples rot on the ground
+every year because their quality does not warrant the high
+transportation charges, the lack of transportation rendering them
+useless. In a smaller measure, the delivery wagons in our cities and
+towns are essential to us because they save us the trouble of carrying
+our purchases about. Thus, the element of transportation enters into our
+lives every day, saving us inconvenience, bringing to us necessities
+that we demand and luxuries that we like, and, at the same time,
+increasing the price of commodities.
+
+Common carriers, as transportation companies are called, are of two
+general classes:
+
+    1. Those operating on water--the steamship companies.
+    2. Those operating on land--the railroad companies.
+
+THE STEAMSHIP COMPANY
+
+Steamship companies operate three general kinds of lines: (1) lines
+consisting of the largest and fastest steamers which carry only
+passengers, mail, and valuable parcels; (2) lines using slower steamers
+which carry both passengers and freight; and (3) lines employing
+vessels--steamers, sailing vessels, and barges--which carry only
+freight. The cost of hauling cargoes by water is in every case less per
+mile than that of carrying the same quantity of goods on land. It costs,
+for example, over four times as much to carry a bushel of wheat from
+Chicago to New York by rail as it does to carry it across the Atlantic.
+It is for this very reason that the traffic on our navigable rivers, the
+Ohio and the Mississippi, and on the Great Lakes is so heavy. Whenever a
+cargo can be shipped as well by water as by rail and there is no hurry
+for delivery, it is shipped by water. However, because so much of our
+freight must be rushed from place to place, the railroads get the bulk
+of the inland traffic.
+
+THE RAILROAD COMPANY
+
+The services of the railroad company embrace the hauling of freight, the
+carrying of passengers, and the transporting of express and of mail. The
+hauling of freight is the most important item in the railroad business,
+about three-quarters of the total income being derived from this source.
+Each year over one billion tons of freight are turned over by shippers
+to the railroads, who use almost two and one-half million freight cars
+to carry it. About one-half of this tonnage is minerals, mainly ore and
+coal; about one-seventh consists of manufactured articles; and
+one-twelfth of agricultural products. Commodities are grouped into from
+ten to fourteen classes, on each one of which the freight rate is
+different from that of the others. By freight rate is meant the cost of
+shipping a certain unit, usually 100 pounds or a ton, from one place to
+another; it is dependent on the distance. There are certain bulky
+commodities like coal, livestock, lumber, grain, and cement, which are
+almost always handled in carload lots. They are not included in the
+freight classification, but have a special ex-class freight rate.
+Freight rates depend also on whether the goods are shipped by slow or
+_local_ freight or by fast or _through_ freight.
+
+There are a hundred different kinds of papers used in carrying on the
+railroad freight business. Only four of the most important will be
+considered here. When a shipper turns over his goods to the railroad
+company at its freight depot, he gets from the agent a _receipt for
+freight_, which is merely a receipt for the goods he has turned over. In
+the ordinary course of business these receipts are exchanged at the
+company's office for a _bill of lading_ in triplicate. The original and
+one copy are given to the shipper. The second copy is kept by the
+railroad. This bill of lading may be of two kinds, _straight_ or
+_order_. If a straight bill of lading is given, the original is sent to
+the person to whom the goods are shipped, who is called the _consignee_,
+who on the presentation of the bill of lading is entitled to the goods
+after paying the charges. An order bill of lading is much like a check,
+in that it can be assigned to another person. Like the straight bill it
+states the name of the consignee or the person for whom the goods are
+intended and his address, but the consignee cannot get possession of the
+goods until he has paid for them. To collect payment, the shipper
+attaches to the order bill of lading a draft for the amount of the
+goods and the freight, and through his bank and the bank of the
+consignee the amount is collected. The consignee then gets possession of
+the order bill of lading, which entitles him to possession of the goods.
+This is more fully explained on page 344. The railroad's most important
+paper is the _way bill_, which shows the conductor or the agent of the
+company just what articles are included in the shipment, so that it can
+be checked when unloaded. When the goods arrive at their destination,
+the consignee is notified and is sent a _freight bill_ showing the
+freight charges. When he presents his bill of lading and pays the
+charges, the _freight bill_ is receipted and the goods are his.
+
+In quoting prices on goods, manufacturers and distributors usually
+designate whether they will pay the freight or whether it is to be paid
+by the consignee. In the latter case the price is quoted f. o. b. at the
+place from which the goods are shipped, which means freight on board at
+that point. That is to say, if a distributor located at Detroit quotes
+his automobiles f. o. b. Detroit, he means that he will see that the
+goods get into the railroad company's hands at Detroit, but that the
+consignee pays the freight from Detroit to the destination. The latter
+is the common practice in shipping.
+
+In the following exercises we shall treat the subject of distribution
+under four heads:
+
+      I. The Retail Merchant.
+     II. The Wholesale Merchant.
+    III. The Mail Order Merchant.
+     IV. The Salesman.
+
+
+
+
+I.--THE RETAIL MERCHANT
+
+
+=Exercise 259=
+
+_Oral_
+
+You are opening a grocery store. Remember that your object is to sell
+the largest possible amount of goods. Develop each of the following
+suggestions:
+
+      1. What kind of location would you desire?
+
+      2. How would you have the front of your store painted?
+      Would you try to make it stand out from the rest?
+
+      3. Do you think it would pay you to have the interior
+      newly and brightly redecorated? To put in the best and
+      brightest lights?
+
+      4. What quality of stock would you select? The same
+      for all neighborhoods? Give your reasons. Would
+      advertised brands bring you more trade?
+
+      5. Do you think window display would pay? Would you
+      recommend freak or ordinary displays? Price-marked or
+      non-price-marked? Give your reasons.
+
+      6. Does the delivery wagon pay? Would it be advisable
+      to buy a new wagon and a good horse? What other
+      considerations would enter?
+
+      7. Would you sometimes cut the price of some necessity
+      to draw people? Give reasons for your answer.
+
+      8. Is it a good thing to have a general cut-price-sale
+      to bring customers to your store? Even if you lose
+      money by it?
+
+      9. Would you give credit? Would the class of people
+      you served come into consideration?
+
+      10. Is the use of trading stamps and premiums good
+      policy?
+
+      11. Why do you often find a meat market in connection
+      with a grocery?
+
+      12. There are two kinds of retail meat markets: (1)
+      the one that sells goods which can be retailed at a
+      low price, and (2) the one that sells superior goods
+      at a higher price. Which policy would you follow and
+      why?
+
+      13. Could a retailer combine the two spoken of in
+      (12)? Consider cost, space, satisfaction of the
+      customer.
+
+      14. Would you advertise by means of handbills? By
+      circular letters?
+
+      15. What would you do if another grocery opened across
+      the street from yours?
+
+
+=Exercise 260=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. You have bought Burton & Sanders' grocery at Fort
+      Wayne, Indiana. Send out a circular letter advertising
+      the new White Front Grocery and telling what the
+      policy of the new management will be. Explain that the
+      opening sale will begin next Monday and that a
+      special feature of the sale will, be twenty pounds of
+      granulated sugar for eighty cents with a two dollar
+      order.
+
+      2. At the same time have an article appear in a local
+      newspaper, telling that Burton & Sanders have sold
+      their store to you and that you are making extensive
+      improvements, especially in sanitary means of handling
+      provisions. In addition, let the article give an
+      account of your business career in another town. Would
+      such an article be of value to you? Write it.
+
+      3. Write to Peabody, Harper & Co., Rush Street Bridge,
+      Chicago, Ill., saying that you would like to open an
+      account with them. Give as references a bank in your
+      town and one in Logansport, where you used to live.
+      Ask Peabody, Harper & Co. what terms they can offer
+      you.
+
+      4. You have decided to advertise in a local paper.
+      Write to the advertising manager, asking him for
+      yearly rates for a half-column every evening and a
+      quarter-page every Friday.
+
+      5. Find out what are the advertising rates of a paper
+      in your town and answer (4).
+
+      6. Reproduce a letter that a woman living in town
+      sends, ordering two dollars' worth of groceries and
+      requesting that you send, in addition, the twenty
+      pounds of sugar you advertise in (1). She encloses a
+      check for $2.80.
+
+      7. You are in receipt of a letter from Peabody, Harper
+      & Co., answering your inquiry in (3) and offering you
+      sixty days' credit and 2% discount for payment within
+      ten days. Write the letter.
+
+      8. Send an order to Peabody, Harper & Co. for $200
+      worth of groceries. Among the items let there be 6
+      cases of canned tomatoes, first quality, at $1.75 a
+      case. Ask them to send the goods by the Pennsylvania
+      R. R.
+
+      9. Your business is increasing and you need another
+      clerk, (a) Write an advertisement for one. _(b_) Apply
+      for the position.
+
+      10. Write a short circular advertising an inexpensive
+      novelty that a grocer might sell. These circulars are
+      to be wrapped with purchases.
+
+      11. Peabody, Harper & Co. write, confirming your order
+      in (8) and enclosing a straight bill of lading.
+
+      12. When the goods arrive, you find no tomatoes among
+      them. Write a complaint to the wholesale house.
+
+      13. Peabody, Harper & Co. reply to your letter in
+      (12), apologizing for the mistake, explaining how it
+      occurred (supply an explanation), and telling you that
+      they have sent one case by express at their expense.
+      The rest will follow by freight.
+
+      14. The tomatoes sent by freight do not arrive. Write
+      to the grocery company, asking the latter to send out
+      a "tracer"; that is, to request the railroad company
+      to trace the goods on its lines.
+
+      15. The grocery company telephones the railroad
+      company, requesting the latter to trace the goods and
+      to report. The grocery company also writes a letter
+      confirming its request. Write the letter.
+
+      16. (_a_) The railroad company reports that by mistake
+      the goods were carried through to Lima, but that they
+      are being returned to Fort Wayne. (_b_) The grocery
+      company informs you of the developments and hopes that
+      the delay has caused you no great inconvenience. Write
+      both letters.
+
+
+=Exercise 261=
+
+      1. You wish to get a partner to open a meat market in
+      connection with your grocery. Write to a friend in
+      Lafayette, Ind., who you think will be interested,
+      proposing the plan. Tell him of the opportunities, as
+      you see them, of business in Fort Wayne and the
+      surrounding country. Tell him that with $4,000
+      additional capital you and he could set up a much
+      larger establishment, invest in a motor wagon, and
+      thus secure the trade of the outlying districts.
+
+      2. Your friend replies that the proposal appeals
+      strongly to him, but that he has only $2,000 in cash.
+      However, he holds a mortgage for $2,000 on ---- (state
+      the location of the house) in Lafayette, and, if he
+      can sell the mortgage, he will be glad to avail
+      himself of the offer.
+
+      3. After the partnership is formed, your partner
+      writes to Orr & Locket, 14 W. Randolph St., Chicago,
+      Ill., ordering the following to be shipped by
+      Pennsylvania R.R.: 1 Refrigerator No. 361; 2 Meat
+      Blocks No. 3; 1 Scale No. M. 30; 1/6 doz. Saws No. 33
+      (16 in.); 1/6 doz. Saws No. 33 (22 in.); 1/4 doz.
+      Knives No. 955; 1/4 doz. Knives No. 490; 1/6 doz.
+      Steels No. 82; 1/6 doz. Cleavers No. 09; 1/4 doz.
+      Block Scrapers. He explains that he is the same man
+      who formerly had a meat market in Lafayette.
+
+      4. Orr & Locket acknowledge the receipt of the order,
+      enclose the invoice, and offer him 5% discount for
+      payment within 30 days. Write the letter.
+
+      5. A Detroit manufacturer sends you f.o.b. prices on
+      his motor wagons. Investigate the prices and write the
+      letter.
+
+      6. Order one of them. (Remember the f.o.b. item.)
+
+      7. He writes confirming your order, saying that the
+      car is now in the shipper's hands and that his bank
+      has sent the order bill of lading with draft attached
+      to the First National Bank of your city. Write the
+      letter. (See page 344.)
+
+      8. At the same time the shipper's bank sends a letter
+      to the First National Bank of your city enclosing the
+      order bill of lading with draft drawn on you for
+      collection. A copy of this letter is also mailed to
+      you. Write it.
+
+      9. You telephone your bank to draw on your account for
+      the amount of the draft and to send you the bill of
+      lading. You confirm this understanding by a letter.
+      Write it.
+
+      10. Your bank writes, confirming the telephone
+      conversation and enclosing the bill of lading and a
+      receipt for the correct amount. You present your bill
+      of lading, pay the freight charges, and get your motor
+      wagon. Write the letter the bank sends.
+
+      11. The automobile manufacturer has meanwhile received
+      through his bank a credit for the amount you paid for
+      the car and writes acknowledging its receipt. Write
+      the letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 262=
+
+Choose four or six members of the class, one-half of whom are to argue
+in favor of the policy indicated in the plan outlined below and one-half
+of whom are to argue against it.
+
+A certain grocer opened a store with the determination of doing a
+strictly cash business, and of making no deliveries unless the purchaser
+paid for the delivery. This was his plan as suggested by _System_:
+
+      1. To those who would carry their own purchases he
+      sold everything for cash much lower than any other
+      grocer in town sold it.
+
+      2. If the customer bought very bulky goods, or if he
+      did not wish to be his own delivery man, the grocer
+      charged him for delivery a certain percentage of the
+      total of his cash purchases. Yet the customer bought
+      more cheaply than he could buy in any other grocery in
+      town.
+
+      3. Those who wished to pay once a month instead of at
+      every visit he advised to deposit a certain sum of
+      money with him as banker and to buy against that,
+      paying cash prices and receiving 3% interest on the
+      amount left on deposit.
+
+
+II.--THE WHOLESALE MERCHANT
+
+
+=Exercise 263=
+
+_Oral_
+
+Each of the following should be developed into a paragraph:
+
+      1. You are a manufacturer and wholesale distributor
+      with a factory on the outskirts of a town; would you
+      have a warehouse in the center of the town? Give
+      reasons for your answer.
+
+      2. What would be the advantage of having your
+      warehouse near the railroad freight depots? Near the
+      docks?
+
+      3. What would be the advantage of being located in a
+      large city with many railroads and with water
+      transportation facilities--Chicago, for example?
+
+      4. Speed gets orders. With this in view, what would
+      you recommend with respect to the equipment for
+      handling? What would you suggest about the number of
+      people through whose hands the order would have to go
+      before being shipped?
+
+      5. If you were looking for big trade in a big city,
+      what kind of stock would you carry? Musical
+      instruments? Clothing?
+
+      6. Would it be a good plan to make a specialty of
+      certain brands for leaders and to quote a special
+      price on them?
+
+      7. If you were just starting a wholesale hardware or
+      grocery business, state which you think would be the
+      better policy: (1) to concentrate on one kind of goods
+      in one territory and to take on other kinds and
+      territories later, or (2) to work all kinds of goods
+      as widely as possible from the very beginning. Explain
+      fully.
+
+      8. Would you bear part of the expense of retailers'
+      advertising, especially of window displays, provided
+      they handled your goods?
+
+      9. Would it be good business for the salesmen of the
+      firm to suggest selling methods to retailers and to
+      plan window displays for them? Give your reasons.
+
+      10. Do you think it would increase sales to offer a
+      money prize to the retailer selling the largest amount
+      of a certain kind of your goods, the sale of which you
+      wished materially to increase?
+
+      11. Tell which you think would be the better policy:
+      (1) to undersell your competitors for a time and then,
+      when you had the trade, to raise your prices, or (2)
+      to set one price and maintain it from the beginning.
+      Give your reasons.
+
+      12. If you were getting out a new brand of carpenters'
+      tools, where would you advertise? Would you conduct an
+      extensive national campaign?
+
+      13. If you were bringing out a new soap or washing
+      powder, where would you advertise? Would you conduct
+      an extensive national advertising campaign? What would
+      your answer be if you were introducing a new brand of
+      crackers?
+
+      14. Would bringing out novelties from time to time
+      help the sale of your staple articles? Explain.
+
+      15. Do you think it would pay to send circulars to the
+      housewives of a certain locality to get the local
+      grocers' trade? After you had the local grocers'
+      trade?
+
+
+=Exercise 264=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. You are Thos. H. Peabody of Peabody, Harper & Co.'s
+      wholesale grocery. Prepare a circular letter,
+      announcing your removal to a new building. The letter
+      will be printed in imitation of typewriting and the
+      introduction filled in later on the typewriter.
+      Remember you are seeking patronage. Address one letter
+      to Walter T. Barth, 350 E. Water St., Milwaukee, Wis.
+
+      2. Write an advertisement to appear in the January
+      number of _The Grocer and Country Merchant_, a
+      grocers' trade journal. It will announce your change
+      of location.
+
+      3. You receive an order from a retailer in which he
+      asks for a certain brand of coffee that you do not
+      carry. Write a letter telling him you do not handle
+      that brand and offering him another. Make the letter
+      as courteous as possible.
+
+      4. Write an advertisement for (1) a bookkeeper; (2) a
+      stenographer.
+
+      5. Answer (1) or (2) above.
+
+      6. Write an advertisement for a traveling salesman.
+
+      7. Answer (6) telling why you think you could sell
+      groceries although you have had no experience.
+
+      8. Write a circular letter to send to the trade
+      setting forth the merits of a new brand of canned
+      fruit. Say that you are offering the brand at a very
+      attractive price in the expectation that retailers
+      will make it a leader. Write to Mr. Barth (1).
+
+      9. You have made a contract with the manufacturers of
+      the canned fruit mentioned in (8), by which you secure
+      the exclusive sale but take the responsibility of
+      advertising. Write to an advertising agency, saying
+      that you are considering a three months' advertising
+      campaign. Explain that you do not wish the expense to
+      exceed five thousand dollars.
+
+      10. The advertising agency replies that, as five
+      thousand dollars is a comparatively small sum for a
+      campaign, it would suggest that the advertising be
+      confined to one class: street car, billboard,
+      newspaper, or magazine. Write the letter.
+
+      11. Notify the agency of your choice, giving your
+      reasons.
+
+      12. Write a series of three letters to send to
+      housewives, advertising the canned fruit, with the
+      purpose of having them ask for this brand at their
+      grocers': (1) Telling the name of the canned fruit,
+      its excellence, its price, and where it may be bought;
+      (2) Asking if the housewife has as yet bought any, and
+      if she has not, telling her she can get a sample at
+      her grocer's on presentation of this letter; (3)
+      Asking how she liked the fruit and quoting a letter of
+      recommendation received from Mrs. A., who lives in the
+      neighborhood. Urge her to buy, but not too abruptly. A
+      letter to a woman should be fairly long. (See page
+      265.)
+
+
+=Exercise 265=
+
+      1. For two months you have been without a credit man.
+      You wish to be very careful in your choice because of
+      the importance of the position. J. B. Wright of 439
+      Russell Ave., Indianapolis, is a personal friend of
+      yours. He has heard that you need a credit man and he
+      recommends Joseph Haddon, who worked for him three
+      years in that capacity until a year ago when he went
+      to Colorado because of the ill-health of his wife.
+      Meanwhile, Mr. Wright's son has been acting as his
+      credit man. Mrs. Haddon has now recovered, and her
+      husband is anxious to get another position. Reproduce
+      Mr. Wright's letter.
+
+      2. Write the letter Mr. Wright sends Mr. Haddon in
+      Colorado, suggesting that the latter apply for the
+      position.
+
+      3. At the same time Joseph Haddon writes, applying for
+      the position. Write the letter of application.
+
+      4. Write Mr. Haddon's letter thanking Mr. Wright for
+      his interest. Remember that the two men know each
+      other.
+
+      5. Joseph Haddon, whom you have engaged, is proving to
+      be a very alert credit man. He has made a study of
+      your credit files and has discovered that you have a
+      great many accounts of long standing that ought to be
+      collected. He prepares a courteous letter to send to
+      the debtors, telling them that he has just been made
+      credit man and that he personally would like to get
+      into closer touch with their particular situation to
+      find out how soon he might expect a remittance from
+      them, so that he could plan the future of his
+      department. Write the letter. (See page 254.)
+
+      6. A number of retailers remit the amount that they
+      owe. Some explain their situation in detail, but a
+      great many do not respond to (5). Write another
+      letter, still courteous, but more emphatic than (5),
+      to those who did not respond. (See page 255.)
+
+      7. Still a number do not respond. Write a third
+      letter, saying that you will place the matter in the
+      hands of your attorney unless you receive a remittance
+      within ten days.
+
+      8. Mr. Haddon discovers that there are about a hundred
+      retailers who used to be customers, but who have
+      bought nothing for about two years. He reports this to
+      the sales manager, Mr. James Woodworth, who writes a
+      letter to the retailers to induce them to send another
+      order, using the canned fruit spoken of in (8) of
+      Exercise 264 as a means of interesting them.
+
+      9. Nathaniel Sears, a dealer in general merchandise at
+      Joplin, Mo., writes to you asking for an open account.
+      He says that he did a $10,000 business last year and
+      that, apparently, sales this year will be larger. He
+      gives no references. You refer the matter to Mr.
+      Haddon, who looks up Mr. Sears in Bradstreet and then
+      writes to one of your salesmen at St. Louis, asking
+      him to investigate the financial standing of Mr.
+      Sears. Write to the salesman.
+
+      10. After three days the salesman reports that Mr.
+      Sears seems to be doing a good business, but he thinks
+      the dealer is living beyond his means. He owes two
+      wholesale houses $500 and $850 respectively; his
+      property in Joplin is heavily mortgaged, and yet he is
+      making extensive improvements on his residence; his
+      son and his daughter are at expensive boarding
+      schools. Write the letter. Be exact in your
+      information.
+
+      11. As Mr. Woodworth, write Mr. Sears a courteous
+      letter, refusing him credit but attempting to secure
+      his cash business.
+
+      12. Charles Freeman, 141 Park Place, Newark, Ohio,
+      writes in answer to (5) saying that he is unable to
+      pay his account of $500. After the harvest his
+      outstanding bills will be paid by the farmers, and
+      then he can remit. He says he is willing to give his
+      90 day note for the amount he owes.
+
+      13. Mr. Haddon writes, accepting the note.
+
+
+III.--THE MAIL ORDER MERCHANT
+
+
+=Exercise 266=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. Suppose you were starting a mail order business.
+      Would it make any difference in possible profits if
+      your center of operations were in a large or a small
+      city? Give your reasons.
+
+      2. Would you try to be near good transportation?
+
+      3. What kind of stock would you advertise principally:
+      bulky articles or those easily handled? expensive
+      goods or those of more moderate price?
+
+      4. Your catalogue is your salesman. What would this
+      statement suggest about the cost of running your
+      business as compared with that of Peabody, Harper &
+      Co., who employ five salesmen?
+
+      5. How would you bring special attention to your
+      leaders in your catalogue?
+
+      6. Why is it advisable not to give your catalogue away
+      free, but to charge a nominal sum for it?
+
+      7. Would you sell as cheaply as you could or would you
+      try to sell for as high a price as possible even if
+      you sold less?
+
+      8. Is it profitable for a mail order merchant to sell
+      one spool of thread or one pocket-knife? Consider the
+      handling and the packing.
+
+      9. Why can the mail order merchant sell more cheaply
+      than the country dealer?
+
+    10. _a._ How is the parcel post favorable to the mail order dealer?
+        _b._ Why did the country merchant object so strenuously to the
+              passage of the parcel post law?
+
+      11. Some distributors who handle only one kind of
+      article sometimes pay the freight. Would this plan be
+      advisable for a mail order house to adopt?
+
+      12. Since the purchaser pays the freight, is it
+      advisable for him to buy a large or a small order at
+      one time?
+
+
+=Exercise 267=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. A customer who wishes to buy some furniture
+      complains that he can purchase what he wishes from
+      another firm that will pay the freight. Write a letter
+      meeting his objection.
+
+      2. You have just added a new clothing department and
+      have published a special clothing catalogue, which you
+      will be glad to send to your customers free of charge.
+      Write a letter telling of the new department and
+      drawing special attention to your three-piece serge
+      suit for $15. Enclose a sample of the cloth.
+
+      3. Write, especially to farmers, saying that with the
+      facilities now offered by the parcel post you are able
+      to supply their wants quickly; as, for example, for a
+      broken part of a piece of farm machinery. Write a
+      fairly long letter in a friendly tone.
+
+      4. In the fall write a letter, addressing the farmers'
+      wives, saying that, as winter is at hand, it would be
+      well for them to put in a supply of groceries when
+      prices are reasonable. Enclose a folder giving some
+      attractive bargains. Write the folder.
+
+      5. Write a letter, saying that you have just put up a
+      new building. Invite your customer to come to see it.
+      Explain that every afternoon from 2 to 4 o'clock there
+      will be a band concert in your large visitors' hall.
+
+
+=Exercise 268=
+
+1. Let one pupil be chosen to dictate to the class each of the letters
+outlined below. He is to use no notes. The class will represent
+stenographers.
+
+2. Discuss and improve the letters that have been dictated.
+
+      1. Borroughs & Brown, a mail order firm at N. 11th and
+      Callowhill Streets, Philadelphia, send you their
+      catalogue and an advertising letter. Write the letter.
+
+      2. Write, stating that in their catalogue No. 6, page
+      673, Borroughs & Brown list a washing machine such as
+      you wish, called the "Pride Swing" washing machine,
+      No. 4-A-459. The measurements as listed are: depth 13
+      inches, diameter 21 inches. The price is $5.25. This
+      is too small for your purpose. Ask if they can supply
+      you with the same style 30 inches in diameter. Ask the
+      price.
+
+      3. Borroughs & Brown write that they have no such
+      machine in stock, but, since there have been many
+      requests lately for a larger machine, they have
+      decided to consult the factory, and if it is
+      advisable, they will reproduce the "Pride Swing"
+      machine in larger size. (Letter head.)
+
+      4. Borroughs & Brown, Dept. 18, House Furnishings,
+      write to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., Saginaw, Mich.,
+      stating that they have had several orders for a larger
+      "Pride Swing" washing machine which the Wiggins
+      Company manufacture. Burroughs & Brown ask concerning
+      a 30-inch machine. Write the letter.
+
+      5. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. telegraph Borroughs &
+      Brown that before they can state a price on a 30-inch
+      "Pride Swing" machine, they must make samples,
+      calculating cost of materials and workmanship. Write
+      the telegram. Confirm by letter. Write the letter.
+
+      6. Borroughs & Brown write you, giving the information
+      contained in (5) above.
+
+      7. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. write Borroughs & Brown,
+      stating that after several experiments they find that
+      the coil springs by which the "Pride Swing" machine is
+      operated are too weak for the larger sized tub. The
+      manufacture of suitable springs will cause some delay
+      in their final report.
+
+      8. Ten days later. Telegram. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg.
+      Co. to Borroughs & Brown, stating that they have now
+      perfected a "Pride Swing Special" machine; width 30
+      inches, depth 18 inches; price $8, with a discount of
+      50%.
+
+      9. Borroughs & Brown write you that they have
+      perfected a "Pride Swing Special" washing machine, No.
+      4-B-459, 30 inches in diameter, 18 inches in depth,
+      price $7. Add a courteous close.
+
+      10. Order five machines. Give full shipping
+      directions. Say that you will pay according to the
+      offer made on page 25, catalogue No. 6; viz., $20 upon
+      receipt of the goods and $5 per month until they are
+      paid for. Give two references.
+
+      11. Borroughs & Brown telegraph the W. F. Wiggins Mfg.
+      Co. ordering 100 machines, five of which are to be
+      sent directly to you. Write, confirming the telegram.
+
+      12. Two weeks later than letter (10) write again,
+      explaining that you have not received the machines you
+      ordered. Ask the reason for the delay.
+
+      13. Two weeks later than (11) write a telegram from
+      Borroughs & Brown to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co.,
+      asking why the machines have not been sent.
+
+      14. Send a telegram from the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. to
+      Borroughs & Brown, saying that, owing to a teamsters'
+      and shipping clerks' strike, they have not been able
+      to fill any of their orders for the last two weeks.
+      The machines have been sent. (State how and when.)
+      Write a letter, confirming the telegram.
+
+      15. Borroughs & Brown write to inform you that the
+      strike was the cause of the delay in the shipment of
+      the machines you ordered ----. The machines were
+      shipped ----. Add a courteous close.
+
+
+=Exercise 269=
+
+Conduct a transaction of your own, using the above as a model, except in
+the method of payment.
+
+
+IV.--THE SALESMAN
+
+Salesmanship is a branch of distribution about which many volumes have
+been written. We cannot consider it minutely from the personal view of
+the salesman, but can only touch upon it from the point of view of
+distribution. The salesman is merely a force in distribution like
+correspondence, circulars, and advertising. But the salesman has the
+advantage over these in that he is able to bring his personality to bear
+in the problem of getting business. It is by means of his personality
+that the salesman gets the attention and confidence of the customer,--a
+thing which is extremely hard to do in a letter, a circular, or an
+advertisement. Securing a buyer's confidence is very important, because
+no suspicious customer has ever yet bought anything.
+
+In addition to a pleasing personality a good salesman must have a wide
+and thorough knowledge of his wares. If he does not know his goods, the
+sale drags; whereas, if he knows everything good there is to be known
+about them, his enthusiasm instills enthusiasm into the customer.
+
+After bringing his knowledge and his enthusiasm into play, he must next
+call on his perseverance and his tact; perseverance to keep at the
+customer until he gets the order, and tact to know in each case just how
+to go about getting the order and just when to stop. Many salesmen talk
+too much; many more do not talk enough.
+
+
+=Exercise 270=
+
+_Oral_
+
+In talking on any of the following subjects be sure you know just what
+you are going to say before you begin, and then say it clearly and
+convincingly. Don't say too much and don't say too little. Just exactly
+how much you should say no one can tell you. You must watch your
+audience. If they look puzzled, give more details; if they look bored,
+try shorter, more concise sentences, or bring your talk to a close.
+After you have explained all your points, sum them up briefly at the
+end. Remember that your talk must, first, attract attention; second,
+hold the interest; and third, create enthusiasm and desire to buy.
+
+To supplement what facts you get from observation, study advertisements
+and catalogues to get material for (9) to (20) below:
+
+      1. Get up a talk to persuade a freshman or a group of
+      freshmen to subscribe to the school paper.
+
+      2. To persuade girls to contribute to a fund to be
+      used to buy suits for the football team.
+
+      3. To induce particularly uninterested freshmen to buy
+      tickets for a school activity; for example, a debate.
+
+      4. As a real estate agent induce a classmate to
+      establish a home in your neighborhood.
+
+      5. Try to sell the manager of the baseball team a new
+      line of athletic goods.
+
+      6. Try to sell a set of Dickens' (or any other
+      author's) works to a boy who is not fond of reading.
+      You must enjoy the books that you recommend.
+
+      7. Try to sell the class or the teacher a new kind of
+      loose leaf note book for science or English work.
+
+      8. As an agent for the publishers try to sell this
+      text book to your English class or to your English
+      teacher.
+
+      9. You are trying to sell an automobile to a farmer.
+      By means of concrete examples develop the following
+      items into a talk:
+
+    _a._ The business opportunities to be gained.
+    _b._ The social opportunities to be gained.
+
+
+      10. Get up a talk to sell a runabout to a physician
+      who has a small practice. Suppose that he owns a horse
+      and a buggy. Be tactful.
+
+      11. You are a salesman for an automobile house and are
+      trying to sell a gasoline car to a man who is partial
+      to an electric car. Meet the objections to the
+      gasoline car and put forward its advantages.
+
+      12. You are trying to sell an electric runabout to a
+      woman. Develop the following into a talk:
+
+    _a._ Ease of operation.
+    _b._ Noiselessness and comfort.
+    _c._ Elegant appearance.
+
+      13. You are trying to sell the manager of a local
+      express company a motor truck. Gather all the data you
+      can and present it in a talk on why he should replace
+      his horses and wagons with motor trucks. Be as
+      specific as possible.
+
+      14. Get up a talk showing why a man with considerable
+      means should trade his two year old car as part
+      payment for the latest model.
+
+      15. Get up a talk to sell a phonograph.
+
+      16. To sell an electric washing machine.
+
+      17. To sell a piano.
+
+      18. To sell a vacuum cleaner.
+
+      19. To sell a subscription to a magazine.
+
+      20. To obtain an order for groceries or teas and
+      coffees. The offer of premiums might add to the
+      effectiveness of your talk.
+
+
+=Exercise 271=
+
+The following paragraph was adapted from William C. Freeman's
+_Advertising Talks_.
+
+      George Washington's Cherry Tree Story has served a
+      good purpose through all of these years. "I cannot
+      tell a lie" is a phrase that has been used in every
+      schoolroom in America to impress upon young minds the
+      importance of truth telling. The phrase is also
+      serving its purpose outside the schoolroom. In all
+      professions and in all kinds of business, men know
+      that in order to make good they must tell the truth.
+      There never was, in all the history of the country, a
+      greater movement than now toward universal truth
+      telling. There is not even that winking at "white"
+      lies that used to prevail. The man who does not make a
+      direct statement, who does not earn a reputation for
+      being honest, has no chance of succeeding. Time was
+      when the trickster was regarded as shrewd and was
+      accepted in the community as being right both socially
+      and commercially. To-day the man who has money without
+      a reputation for integrity is a bankrupt, as far as
+      real friends and public opinion are concerned. The
+      expression "I cannot tell a lie" has been changed
+      to-day to "I will not tell a lie even if the lie seems
+      more expedient than the blunt truth." So George
+      Washington's Cherry Tree Story is as good to-day as it
+      ever was.
+
+Prepare paragraphs on the following suggestions, expanding each by
+examples:
+
+     1. As a salesman, be honest with your customers.
+     2. Cultivate tact.
+     3. Cultivate a conscience.
+     4. Learn to avoid friction.
+     5. Acknowledge your mistakes.
+     6. Don't criticise.
+     7. Don't procrastinate.
+     8. Don't boast.
+     9. Don't buy your clothes on time.
+    10. Don't borrow from fellow clerks.
+    11. Don't think your employer can't see whether you are working.
+    12. Don't sell a merchant a larger order than he can move.
+    13. Study the duties of the man ahead of you.
+    14. New ideas count with your employer.
+    15. He can who thinks he can.
+
+
+=Exercise 272=
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. A request has come in from your territory for your
+      automobile catalogue. Write a letter to accompany the
+      catalogue, inviting the inspection of your cars. Make
+      it as personal as possible.
+
+      2. You have just been talking with a prospective
+      buyer. Drive home some of the strong points of your
+      car in a letter exploiting strength, reliability, and
+      speed. Use the following as a basis of your letter:
+      The Up-to-the-minute car breaks the record from New
+      York to San Francisco, making the trip in ten days,
+      fifteen hours, and thirteen seconds.
+
+      3. You have just shown your motor truck to a business
+      man. Strengthen the impression you made on him by
+      writing him a letter summing up the important
+      advantages of the motor truck. Use the following
+      extract from a letter:
+
+      "It has not missed a single trip since I have had it,
+      and it takes the place of three wagons and twelve
+      horses. My route from Waltham is so long that a pair
+      of horses going over it one day has to be laid off the
+      next."
+
+      "This truck makes three trips each day. I have had it
+      on the road nearly four months and have covered over
+      four thousand (4,000) miles with no expense for
+      repairs."
+
+      4. A prospective customer has lost interest. Try to
+      arouse him once more by telling him of a particularly
+      good sale recently made, or of a new model just
+      received, or of a new device lately perfected. Your
+      object is to get him to inspect your cars again.
+
+      5. Write a letter to a wealthy man who bought one of
+      your cars two years ago, offering him half of what he
+      paid for the car in exchange for a new model. Make him
+      see that it would be to his advantage to accept the
+      offer.
+
+      6. Write an advertisement to appear in a local
+      newspaper asking for an automobile salesman.
+
+      7. Answer the advertisement, telling why you think you
+      could sell cars, although you have had no experience.
+
+      8. Write a letter to a friend telling him you have
+      been offered the agency for the Up-to-the-minute car.
+      Ask him to be your partner, and try to show him why
+      you will succeed. He will be expected to bear half the
+      office expenses, and he will get half the commissions.
+
+
+=Exercise 273--Suggestions for Debates=
+
+      1. The mail order house ruins the trade of the country
+      merchant.
+
+      2. The giving of free samples does not attract
+      desirable purchasers.
+
+      3. The use of trading stamps should be abolished.
+
+      4. The motor wagon is more advantageous for the
+      average grocer than the horse and wagon.
+
+      5. All manufactured food products should be sold in
+      sanitary, sealed packages.
+
+
+=Exercise 274=
+
+_Oral or Written_
+
+Prepare paragraphs on the following:
+
+      1. A merchant must know his neighborhood before he
+      buys his stock.
+
+      2. Selling by weight rather than by measure benefits
+      dealer and consumer.
+
+      3. Giving short weights does not prove profitable.
+
+      4. The price of a certain kind of goods, or of an
+      article, that is going out of style should be reduced
+      to move it quickly.
+
+      5. If merchants did not deliver purchases, goods would
+      be cheaper.
+
+      6. Hard work and patience spell the merchant's
+      success.
+
+      7. The middle man gets the bulk of the profit.
+
+      8. The telegraph is a great aid to the business man.
+
+      9. There is a difference between day and night
+      telegraphic rates.
+
+      10. Money may be sent by telegraph.
+
+      11. The night letter is very useful to the merchant.
+
+      12. The parcel post is a great help to the farmer.
+
+      13. The parcel post tends to increase the business of
+      the mail order firms.
+
+      14. The object of an automobile exhibit is to sell
+      cars.
+
+      15. The five-and-ten-cent stores have succeeded
+      because ----.
+
+
+=Exercise 275=
+
+Prepare paragraphs on the following:
+
+     1. The importance of transportation facilities to the farmer.
+     2. The importance of transportation facilities to the manufacturer.
+     3. The steamship in international trade.
+     4. Transportation before the days of the railroad.
+     5. The influence of the railroad in the advance of civilization.
+     6. Electrifying the railroads.
+     7. Speed, the cause of railroad accidents.
+     8. The observation car.
+     9. The care of food in the refrigerator car.
+    10. The work of the railroad repair-shop.
+    11. The advantage of railroad transportation over water transportation.
+    12. The advantage of water transportation over railroad transportation.
+    13. Why the larger railroads in our country run east and west.
+    14. The advantages of the pay-as-you-enter car.
+    15. The importance of the interurban electric railroads in country
+             trade.
+    16. The disadvantages of the elevated system in large cities.
+    17. Congestion in the business district of a large city.
+    18. The underground system as a solution for congested traffic.
+    19. The work of a transfer company.
+    20. The motor truck decreases the business of the express companies.
+    21. The automobile decreases railroad suburban business.
+
+
+=Exercise 276=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+      1. The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission.
+
+      2. How railroads control other railroads.
+
+      3. Railroad earnings.
+
+      4. Different kinds of railroad traffic.
+
+      5. The relation between the express companies and the
+      railroads.
+
+      6. Railroad rates and rebates.
+
+      7. Government ownership of railroads.
+
+      8. The influence of the Panama canal in the growth of
+      business in the southern states.
+
+      9. The influence of the canal in the growth of
+      business in the central West.
+
+      10. The influence of the canal in the growth of
+      business in South America.
+
+      11. The deep water way.
+
+      12. The parcel post zones.
+
+
+=Exercise 277=
+
+=Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks=
+
+      BOLTON, S. K., Successful Women.
+
+      CHAMBERLAIN, J. F., How We Travel.
+
+      DRYSDALE, W., Helps for Ambitious Boys; Helps for
+      Ambitious Girls.
+
+      FOWLER, N. C., Practical Salesmanship; Starting in
+      Life.
+
+      HALE, E. E., What Career?
+
+      HIGINBOTHAM, H. N., The Making of a Merchant.
+
+      LASELLE, M. A. and WILEY, K. E., Vocations for Girls.
+
+      LUNDGREN, CHARLES, The New Salesmanship.
+
+      LYDE, L. W., Man and his Markets.
+
+      MALLON, I. A. S., The Business Girl.
+
+      MANSON, G. J., Ready for Business.
+
+      MARSDEN, O. S., The Secret of Achievement; The Young
+      Man Entering Business.
+
+      MITTEN, G. E., The Book of the Railway.
+
+      MOODY, W. D., Men Who Sell Things.
+
+      REED, _et al._, Careers for the Coming Men.
+
+      ROCHELEAU, W. F., Transportation.
+
+      ROLLINS, F. W., What can a Young Man do?
+
+      STOCKWELL, H. G., Essential Elements of Business
+      Character.
+
+      STODDARD, W. O., Men of Business.
+
+      THE VOCATION BUREAU, Boston, Vocations for Boys.
+      (Pamphlets on _The Grocer_, _The Machinist_, _The
+      Architect_, _etc._)
+
+      WHITE, S. J., Business Openings for Girls.
+
+
+=Exercise 278=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      Transportation is a great business as well as
+      manufacturing or farming. History tells us that very
+      early people did not have a settled home, but, when
+      the grass began to give out in one part of the
+      country, several members of the community, perhaps
+      whole tribes, took their belongings on their backs and
+      sought for a new place to settle. It is reasonable to
+      suppose that they wished to keep up some sort of
+      intercourse with their friends. At once difficulties
+      arose, since hostile tribes lived between them and
+      their old home. It was a brave man, indeed, who
+      ventured to encounter the dangers of the trip between
+      the settlements. Such a set of men arose in the
+      peddlers, who set out alone or in caravans with
+      articles of produce or manufacture and braved the
+      dangers even of a desert to exchange what they carried
+      for the produce of the old home. This is the earliest
+      form of transportation. Compare this simple form with
+      the modern railroad, steamship, and express service.
+
+2
+
+CAPTURING THE LATIN AMERICAN TRADE
+
+      No empty iteration of the Monroe doctrine, no
+      reservation of canal privileges, will capture the
+      trade of Latin America. This will be accomplished only
+      by efforts to produce and to sell those countries the
+      kind of goods that they want; measured, labeled, and
+      packed their way; offered in the language that they
+      understand; and, moreover, sold at attractive prices.
+      Our consuls abroad report that in all these essentials
+      American dealers are deficient and that British,
+      French, and German manufacturers fill the South
+      American markets.
+
+      To these rivals must be added another, for, in spite
+      of old South American prejudices against Spain and
+      Spanish goods, the Spaniards are quietly regaining
+      their footing in those republics of whose trade a
+      century ago the home country enjoyed the monopoly. Her
+      advantages, we know, are a common language and
+      familiarity with the ways of life and the tastes of
+      the buyers. Spain produces just the kind of wine,
+      olive oil, and canned goods that South America wants;
+      she turns out the kind of paper, the patterns of
+      cotton goods, the styles of tools and implements, the
+      clothing, shoes, and weapons used in Latin America;
+      and the result is that she gets the trade. One-sixth,
+      at least, of her entire exports goes to her former
+      possessions.
+
+3
+
+      South Africa has been successfully operating an
+      agricultural parcel post. By its instrumentality gold,
+      diamonds, minerals, wool, feathers, saddlery, boots
+      and shoes, confectionery, fruit, plants, seed, butter
+      and eggs suitably packed, and other farm products are
+      transported, and the producer and consumer have been
+      brought together. From the report of the Department of
+      Posts and Telegraphs we learn that the scheme has
+      worked well, is a recognized and popular feature of
+      the postal system, and is entirely feasible. The
+      sparse settlements and widely scattered population
+      have not operated to bar its success, as was feared at
+      the time of its introduction.
+
+4
+
+      The duty of applying the remedy for wrecks rests,
+      primarily, with the railroad managers. And what is the
+      remedy, and how is it to be applied? It would seem
+      that there can be but one answer: there must be stern
+      discipline for taking risks. There must be thorough
+      instruction as to what risks are and how to avoid
+      them, just such instruction as the "safety first"
+      movement is leading up to, but extended to every man
+      in every department of every road. In addition, the
+      promise that no engineman will be censured for losing
+      or not making up time or for not running fast when it
+      is not considered safe to do so must be changed to the
+      positive, unequivocal statement that there will be a
+      substantial penalty for every case of running fast
+      when it is not safe to do so.--_Railway Age Gazette._
+
+5
+
+      More and more attention, each year, is being given by
+      the railroad managers to the locating of new kinds of
+      industry along their lines. The roads in the West and
+      the South nearly all have efficient industrial
+      departments, land departments, or immigration
+      departments. Their men seek out new industries, meet
+      the steamers to tempt immigrants into their region,
+      arrange for the purchase or rental of lands, and get
+      together reports of the soil, the products, and the
+      advantages of any desired location. Perhaps the
+      greatest effort, however, is bent upon the location of
+      new factories along the route. In one year one
+      southern railroad induced more than seven hundred men
+      to establish industries along its lines, after the
+      railroads had made complete and painstaking
+      investigation of all the conditions that would
+      confront the prospective manufacturers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+ADVERTISING
+
+
+ADVERTISING is one of the most vital forces in the problem of
+distribution. Every advertisement is a salesman and is written and sent
+out with the idea of doing the work of one. It may bring in actual
+orders or it may merely do "missionary work"; that is, it may introduce
+a certain article or product and educate the people to see its
+advantages so that when next they desire that particular sort of
+article, they will order the one that they have seen advertised.
+
+Many an article that has had practically no sale has by means of an
+effective advertising campaign been brought to a point of wide
+distribution and ready sale. How many safety razors would the
+manufacturers sell if they had never advertised their product? Very few.
+But when day after day, everywhere a man looks--in street cars,
+newspapers, magazines, and on billboards--he sees staring at him a
+reason why he should use a safety razor, he soon comes to feel that he
+needs one. It is just the same as though the country were covered with
+salesmen who were constantly after every one to get him to see the
+advantage of the safety razor. The advertised articles may in themselves
+be no better than the unadvertised brands, but advertising has created a
+demand for the one over the other. The secret of selling success is
+creating a demand.
+
+The importance of advertising is demonstrated by an experience which the
+city of Chicago had on Wednesday, March 2, 1911. On the afternoon
+before, a dispute arose between two newspapers and their printers,
+ending in a temporary strike of the printers. As a result, all papers
+published on March 2 contained only four pages each, in contrast to the
+usual twenty-four, because they contained not a single advertisement.
+Fortunately, the strike lasted only one day, as the local printers were
+at once reprimanded by the International Typographical Union. But the
+losses that newspapers and retail business men suffered on this one day
+convinced them of the power of advertising. Street cars, downtown
+streets, and department stores were almost empty. To be sure, billboards
+still proclaimed their wares, but, as soon as newspaper advertising
+ceased, the great mass of shopping stopped.
+
+
+=Exercise 279=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. What are some of the advertising methods used in a
+      retail business?
+
+      2. What are some of the advertising methods used in a
+      wholesale business? Where are the advertisements
+      published?
+
+      3. What is the principal advertising medium of the
+      mail order house? Explain why it is effective.
+
+      4. What is classified advertising? Why are newspapers
+      anxious to increase it? Name several reasons.
+
+      5. What is "display" advertising as distinguished from
+      classified? What is the principal medium of this kind
+      of advertising?
+
+      6. Give several instances of advertising by means of
+      the distribution of "novelties," such as calendars. Is
+      such advertising effective?
+
+      7. Is the distribution of samples good advertising? Be
+      specific in your answer.
+
+      8. Is it a good thing to have a trade-mark? Name some
+      trade-marks that you think are good advertising.
+
+      9. Is a bargain table good advertising? What is its
+      advantage in a retail store?
+
+      10. What class of advertising is done in the
+      classified columns of a newspaper?
+
+      11. What class of articles and products is advertised
+      in the street cars and trains? Expensive or
+      inexpensive? Things you use every day or not?
+
+      12. Are articles advertised by billboards usually
+      widely advertised articles or not?
+
+      13. What kind of articles would you advertise in:
+
+    1. The newspaper rather than the magazine?
+    2. The magazine rather than the newspaper?
+    3. The street car rather than on the billboard?
+    4. The trade papers rather than the newspapers?
+
+      14. Suppose you were bringing out a new soap and you
+      could use only one of the following mediums: (1)
+      newspapers; (2) local and trade magazines; (3) street
+      cars; (4) billboards and posters. Which would you
+      choose and why? Would your answer be the same if you
+      had real estate to sell? A new machine? If you were
+      producing a new play?
+
+      15. NEWS ITEM.--The University of Wisconsin has issued
+      a bulletin, stating that of all the money spent for
+      food, shelter, and clothing 90% is spent by women.
+      Would the following be good advertising for a
+      magazine: "The women of the country read this paper"?
+      Give reasons for your answer.
+
+      16. Do handbills suggest cheapness to you?
+
+
+=Exercise 280=
+
+_Oral_
+
+Discuss the value of each of the following as forms of advertising:
+
+    1. Location.
+    2. Furnishings of the office or the store.
+    3. Letter headings.
+    4. Window displays.
+    5. Electric (or other) signs.
+    6. Moving electric signs.
+    7. Colors (especially reds, greens, and yellows) as against
+            black and white.
+    8. White lettering on a black background.
+
+
+=Exercise 281=
+
+Fundamentally, the same principles apply to the advertisement as apply
+to the sales letter (See page 230). First of all, you must look at your
+goods from the standpoint of the user; see his gain in buying rather
+than your profit in selling. Your products, then, will probably fall
+into one of the following general classes:
+
+      1. Something entirely new for which you must create a
+      demand by showing its advantage to the buyer, arousing
+      his sense of need and, consequently, his desire to
+      possess.
+
+      2. Something new but filling a long-felt need--"Just
+      what you've been looking for"--the value of which will
+      appeal to the buyer almost as soon as the product is
+      explained. Comparison with the article that now
+      imperfectly fills the want suggests itself.
+
+      3. A new brand of an old staple, like crackers, of
+      which the superiority must be dwelt upon to induce
+      buyers to ask for it. Even after the article is
+      selling well, continuous advertising is necessary to
+      keep the name before the public.
+
+A paying advertisement appeals to a large class of people or, better
+still, to several classes. For a moment let us analyze a few of the
+appeals to which almost every one responds; let us consider the reasons
+back of our purchases. Why do we buy one article and not another? We buy
+it first, perhaps, because we need it or think we need it; second,
+because we think it will taste good or be comfortable or good-looking or
+because it will afford us amusement; third, because we think it is
+better, though possibly more expensive, than any other brand on the
+market, and our pride or our desire to emulate responds to it; fourth,
+because we think it is good for our health or our safety; and, fifth,
+because we shall save money or make money thereby. Summing up, we may
+say that the motives to which appeals may safely be made are:
+
+    1. Need, conscious or unconscious (usefulness, quality, or durability).
+    2. Comfort, amusement, or appetite.
+    3. Pride, desire to emulate, or vanity.
+    4. Safety (of health or personal possessions).
+    5. Economy or gain.
+
+Clip from magazines and bring to class good advertisements that appeal
+to the motives named above. Try to find those advertisements that make
+an appeal to only one motive in one advertisement.
+
+
+=Exercise 282=
+
+The following catch phrases have been taken from advertisements in
+various places. Tell (1) whether their appeal is general; (2) whether
+they induce one to buy; and (3) if they do, which of the motives given
+above have been used by the advertiser. Frequently more than one motive
+is used in one advertisement.
+
+      1. For a delicatessen store: Good things to eat.
+
+      2. For a chewing gum: The taste lasts.
+
+      3. For a motor washer: Two cents a week pays your
+      washing bill.
+
+      4. For a refrigerator: Are you poisoning your family?
+
+      5. For a summer drink: It's wet.
+
+      6. For stockings: Wear like 60, look like 50, cost but
+      25.
+
+      7. For a shaving soap: Comfort for your face, economy
+      for your purse.
+
+      8. For a liniment: Don't rub--it penetrates.
+
+      9. For a hair tonic: What does your mirror say?
+
+      10. For a clothing store: Exclusive styles for
+      exclusive women.
+
+      11. For an inexpensive scouring powder: Why pour money
+      down the sink?
+
+      12. For canned goods: When company comes.
+
+      13. For a varnish: Water won't hurt it.
+
+      14. For bread: The human hand never touches it.
+
+      15. For a fountain pen: It can't leak.
+
+
+=Exercise 283=
+
+Bring to class two advertisements containing catch phrases that you
+think are good. To which of the motives given above does each appeal?
+
+
+=Exercise 284=
+
+Bring in two advertisements of articles that have suggestive names. What
+is the value of a suggestive name?
+
+
+=Exercise 285--Good and Bad Headlines=
+
+A good headline has the following qualities:
+
+First, it should be short. Professor Walter Dill Scott determined by
+experiments that the average person can ordinarily attend to only about
+four visual objects at the same time--four letters, four words, four
+simple pictures, or four geometrical figures. As the headline of an
+advertisement is intended to be taken in at one glance, it should,
+therefore, be not longer than four words--preferably less, provided the
+interest of the phrase is the same. Short words, too, can be taken in
+more readily than long words.
+
+Second, the best headline is a command. People instinctively obey a
+command, unless it is so worded that they rebel against the manner of
+expression.
+
+Third, a good headline is suggestive. It touches upon the things that
+the reader is thinking about. It shows that the article that is offered
+for sale has a close connection with the interests that absorb the
+reader's mind. It is a direct answer to his thoughts, feelings, hopes,
+or worries.
+
+The following headlines were taken from the advertisements in one issue
+of a magazine. Judge of their effectiveness, using the three principles
+given above as a basis for your decision:
+
+     1. Get That Job!
+     2. Foot Comfort.
+     3. Ventilate, but Don't Catch Cold!
+     4. A New Filing Cabinet.
+     5. Are You Open to Conviction?
+     6. Low Priced Envelope Sealer.
+     7. Shave for 1c Without Stropping.
+     8. What a Wonderful Trip!
+     9. Save 30% on Your Furniture.
+    10. You Have a Right to Independence.
+    11. Just Out!
+    12. Get the Dust Out of Your Home--It's Dangerous.
+    13. The Easiest Riding Car in the World.
+    14. Our Seeds Grow.
+    15. That Raise! (Sub-heading in smaller type: What Would a Raise in
+            Salary Mean to You?)
+
+
+=Exercise 286=
+
+Some advertisers choose headlines merely for the purpose of attracting
+attention, forgetting that the headline should suggest what the
+following illustration and text explain. A few years ago a well-known
+automobile company ran an advertisement with the headline _$1000 Worth
+of Folly_. The headline was followed by a picture of the automobile. The
+advertisement was intended to convey the idea that, as this car might be
+bought for $3000, any one paying $4000 for an automobile was foolishly
+squandering $1000. As a matter of fact, the only suggestion that the
+reader got from the advertisement was that any one who paid $1000 for
+the illustrated car would be a fool.
+
+      1. Bring to class an advertisement in which the
+      headline has no connection with the rest of the
+      advertisement, being used merely to catch the
+      attention.
+
+      2. Find an advertisement in which the headline
+      suggests the opposite of what the advertisement is
+      intended to convey.
+
+      3. How might either advertisement be improved?
+
+
+=Exercise 287=
+
+Still-life advertisements are not interesting. The picture of a furnace,
+or a typewriter, or a house attracts less attention than the same
+objects with human beings represented moving in the picture.
+
+Bring to class two advertisements of the same kind of article, in one of
+which a still-life illustration is used and in the other of which human
+beings are used to center the attention upon the article that is offered
+for sale.
+
+
+=Exercise 288=
+
+Bring to class (1) an advertisement that is not good because it contains
+too much--lacks a center upon which the attention naturally focuses; and
+(2) an advertisement that is good because it has a definitely defined
+center of attraction.
+
+
+=Exercise 289=
+
+Bring to class an advertisement in which the principle of balance is
+used to advantage, two illustrations, one on each side of the text,
+being used to convey one impression.
+
+
+=Exercise 290=
+
+In writing the following, try to embody the principles that have been
+brought out in previous exercises:
+
+      1. An entertainment is to be given in the school hall.
+      Write an advertisement to appear in the school paper.
+
+      2. Write an announcement of the same entertainment--to
+      be posted on the bulletin board.
+
+      3. Write an advertisement for a debate.
+
+      4. For a football, baseball, or basket-ball game.
+
+      5. For an inter-class contest.
+
+      6. You have permission to secure advertisements to be
+      printed in the program of the entertainment spoken of
+      above. Suppose that you are to write the copy for the
+      different advertisements. Use one-eighth, one-quarter,
+      one-half, or one page, as you wish.
+
+      Advertise a grocery.
+
+      7. A meat market.
+
+      8. A dry goods store.
+
+      9. A candy store.
+
+      10. A bakery.
+
+      11. A bank.
+
+      12. A tailor's shop.
+
+      13. A photographer's studio.
+
+      14. A barber shop.
+
+      15. A drug store.
+
+
+=Exercise 291=
+
+      1. Write a handbill announcing a 20% discount sale to
+      run three days in your dry goods store.
+
+      2. Describe a chair, table, or other article of
+      furniture in your own home. The description is to form
+      part of an advertisement to appear in a mail order
+      catalogue.
+
+      3. You are advertising a new brand of coffee in the
+      street car. Write the card. Would you use an
+      illustration? If so, of what kind?
+
+      4. As in (3) advertise a new brand of pork and beans.
+
+      5. As in (3) advertise a shoe sale.
+
+      6. Advertise a well-known brand of soap in a magazine.
+      Use your own idea. Would you use an illustration?
+
+      7. How would you advertise an automobile which has
+      proved its merits? Remember, your object is to keep
+      the name before the public. How would you advertise a
+      new make of automobile? How much space would you use
+      in either case? Write both advertisements.
+
+      8. A half-page advertisement by the Hudson Cereal
+      Company, 110 Hudson St., New York, of their
+      Nervo-Cereal Coffee contains the item: "Can you thread
+      a needle, holding the thread one inch from the end? If
+      you cannot, you are nervous. Is coffee to blame?"
+      Exploit the aroma and flavor of the cereal coffee.
+
+      9. The Central Packing Company is running a series of
+      advertisements of their Premium Extract of Beef. This
+      one is to appear just before Thanksgiving. Entitle it
+      "Four Delicious Dishes for the Thanksgiving Dinner,"
+      and then in as attractive a form as possible give four
+      recipes, making a point of the necessity of using
+      Premium Extract for the right flavor. At the end sum
+      up the merits of Premium Extract and mention the
+      silver premiums given with the certificates under the
+      metal caps.
+
+      10. The Bay City Mill Co., Bay City, Mich., sells fine
+      finished lumber suitable for making furniture at home.
+      Prepare an advertisement to show how simple it is to
+      make tables and chairs at home with their plans and
+      their specially cut lumber. Illustrate by giving the
+      plans and working directions for making a useful
+      table, showing how easy it is with their specially cut
+      lumber. Set an attractive price on the lumber
+      necessary to make this table. Sum up by exploiting a
+      book of plans, which may be had for the asking.
+
+
+=Exercise 292=
+
+The following paragraph is taken from Professor Scott's _Theory of
+Advertising_. What is the subject of the paragraph? Is there a topic
+sentence? By what plan is the paragraph developed?
+
+      Many of those who use illustrations for their
+      advertisements follow the philosophy of the Irish boy
+      who said that he liked to stub his toe because it felt
+      so good when it stopped hurting. Many of us are unable
+      to see how the boy had made any gain after it was all
+      over, but he was satisfied, and that was sufficient.
+      The philosophic disciples of the Irish boy are found
+      in advertisers who have certain things to dispose of
+      which will not do certain harmful things. First they
+      choose an illustration which will make you believe
+      that what they have to sell is just what you do not
+      want, and then in the text they try to overcome this
+      false impression and to show you that what they have
+      to offer is not so bad after all. Most of us are
+      unable to see how the advertiser has gained, even if
+      he has succeeded in giving us logical proof that his
+      goods are not so bad as we were at first led to think.
+      We are not logically inclined, and we take the
+      illustration and the text, and we combine the two. The
+      best that the text can do is to destroy the evil
+      effect of the illustration. Of course, when we read in
+      the text that the illustration does not correctly
+      represent the goods, we ought to discard the
+      illustration entirely and think only of the text, but,
+      unfortunately, we are not constructed in that way. The
+      impression made by the illustration and that made by
+      the text fuse and form a whole which is the result
+      formed by these two elements.
+
+Write paragraphs on each of the following:
+
+      1. Advertising is essential in modern business.
+
+      2. Advertising helps the housewife economize.
+
+      3. The study of advertisements saves the shopper's
+      time and strength.
+
+      4. Advertised goods cost more than the unadvertised
+      brands. (Give the reasons.)
+
+      5. Trade-marked and advertised goods have increased
+      the cost of living.
+
+      6. Increased advertising causes the styles to change
+      quickly.
+
+      7. Every advertisement must catch and hold the
+      attention. Some accomplish this object by causing a
+      laugh. (Describe one such.)
+
+      8. Some advertisements hold the attention because they
+      appeal to our love of the mysterious. One such is ----
+      (describe it).
+
+      9. Some advertisements succeed because of their clever
+      color scheme. One such is ----.
+
+      10. Every successful advertisement contains a
+      convincing argument.
+
+      11. Mouth to mouth advertising is the best and the
+      cheapest.
+
+      12. Advertised goods are better because they have to
+      be.
+
+      13. The consumer pays for all the advertising.
+
+      14. The cost of advertising is paid by the competitors
+      who do not advertise.
+
+      15. Advertising tends to create uniform prices.
+
+      16. The advertising expert is a student of men.
+
+
+=Exercise 293=
+
+Give your opinion as to the effectiveness of the following
+advertisements:
+
+1
+
+      A department store that was anxious to increase its
+      trade on Mondays and Wednesdays included the following
+      coupons in its circular advertisement one week:
+
+    THIS COUPON AND 19c               THIS COUPON AND 50c
+    Monday only                       Wednesday only
+    good for                          good for
+    _6 Spools J. & P. Coats'_    _Misses' or Children's_
+    _Best 6 Cord Machine_        _White Canvas Pumps_
+    _Thread_                     2 strap model, heavy or light soles,
+    Regular 30c value                 trimmed with dainty bow on
+                                      vamp. All sizes up to 2.
+                                      $1.50 value
+
+2
+
+$10,000 IN CASH TO CHARITY
+
+      We ask our customers to decide by their votes the 250
+      institutions that shall receive this amount. Each ten
+      cents' worth purchased entitles the purchaser to one
+      vote.
+
+3
+
+      The following appeared in the center of a page
+      otherwise blank. On the opposite page appeared the
+      advertisement of a well-known article.
+
+      The announcement on the following page is so important
+      that we have decided to leave this page blank.
+
+4
+
+      The following was part of a circular:
+
+      Following our annual custom we will again this year
+      give away absolutely free a beautiful silk flag to
+      every customer making a purchase of $1 or over,
+      Tuesday and Wednesday, July 2 and 3.
+
+5
+
+      The following appeared in a newspaper:
+
+      A WORD OF APPRECIATION
+
+      We have now been in our new location somewhat over a
+      month. Our business has been all that we expected; in
+      some departments, indeed, there is an increase,
+      notably in the neckwear, ready-to-wear clothes, hats,
+      and tailoring departments.
+
+      Naturally, we had an abundance of faith in our new
+      location; nevertheless, we must confess that there
+      were times when we had anxious moments. We discovered,
+      however, that our moving was at the "psychological
+      moment"; we soon learned that in the minds of the
+      people there was but one thought--success for Michigan
+      Avenue.
+
+      We have always felt that there was a closer bond of
+      sympathy between our customers and us than is usually
+      the case between buyer and seller. The unusual
+      interest taken in our new store and in our success has
+      more than confirmed us in this impression. Our
+      experience during the last forty days has really made
+      life worth living.
+
+      The minds of hundreds of our customers have reverted
+      to the beginning of our business in our old Dearborn
+      Street store, twenty years ago, and they have made
+      comparisons between that and the wonderful
+      establishment we now possess; they have done it in a
+      way that would almost suggest that it was their
+      business that they were talking of rather than ours.
+      It made us feel that, although we have made our
+      mistakes, nevertheless we must have served the public
+      well, and we insert this article in the hope that a
+      few of our well-wishers may read it and understand
+      that we appreciate and are grateful.
+
+
+=Exercise 294=
+
+Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks
+
+    BALMER, EDWIN, The Science of Advertising.
+    BELLAMY, FRANCIS (ed), Effective Magazine Advertising.
+    BRIDGEWATER, HOWARD, Advertising, or The Art of Making Known.
+    CALKINS, E. E. and HOLDEN, R., Modern Advertising.
+    CHERINGTON, PAUL T., Advertising as a Business Force.
+    DELAND, L. F., Imagination in Business.
+    DE WEESE, TRUMAN A., Advertising (The Business Man's Library, Vol.
+         vii).
+    EDGAR, ALBERT E., How to Advertise a Retail Store.
+    FOWLER, N. C., Building Business.
+    SCOTT, W. D., The Theory of Advertising.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE
+
+
+Lands, buildings, and houses are called real property or real estate,
+and the business pertaining to them, the real estate business. Every one
+of us has more or less to do with this business. If we do not own
+property, we pay _rent_. Rent is the money paid for the use of a piece
+of land, or a building, or part of a building, and is usually paid at
+certain stated intervals of time--monthly, for example. The owner of the
+building is called the _landlord_; the one who rents, the _tenant_.
+Sometimes there is no condition as to how long a tenant shall remain in
+one place and pay rent, but, as a rule, the landlord requires the tenant
+to sign a _lease_. This is a contract between the landlord and the
+tenant, stating that in consideration of the landlord's furnishing the
+tenant a place in which to live with certain conveniences--such as heat,
+hot water, and other services--the tenant agrees to pay rent for a
+certain length of time, usually a year or more. If the tenant moves out
+before his lease expires and refuses to pay the rent, he breaks the
+contract and, as is usually the case when a contract is broken, a
+lawsuit may follow. In large cities where land is in some places very
+valuable, owners may not care to sell the property on which others wish
+to build, but lease it to the builders for a certain term of years,
+usually ninety-nine years.
+
+Suppose you no longer wish to pay rent, but to own the house in which
+you live. If you buy a piece of property from John Smith and pay him
+your money for it, you wish to be assured that after a few months John
+Smith will not come to you and claim the property as his. To protect
+you John Smith gives you a _deed_ to the property. A deed is a contract
+between the buyer and the seller of the property. It states that, in
+consideration of the buyer's paying a certain stipulated sum of money,
+the seller releases and conveys the property to the buyer. This deed
+shows that you now own the property. At the same time you should receive
+a _clear title_ to the property; that is, you wish to be sure that no
+one else has a claim on the property. If John Smith guarantees that the
+title is clear, he gives you a _warranty deed_ for the property, in
+which he will "warrant and defend the same against all lawful claims
+whatsoever." If, however, he simply turns over the property to you as it
+stands, he gives you a _quitclaim deed_, in which he relinquishes or
+quits all his interest in it. If you have no debts on the property, you
+own it in _fee simple_.
+
+Very often in buying property, the purchaser pays only a part of the
+purchase price himself, paying for the balance by borrowing the
+necessary amount from a third party. For example, if the house you
+bought from John Smith cost $6,000 and you had only $4,000, you would be
+forced to borrow the other $2,000 to pay John Smith. You would then go
+to your bank or to some person who had money to invest and would borrow
+the required amount, and to guarantee that you would pay the money back,
+you would give a _mortgage_ on the property. A mortgage is a contract
+which states that, in consideration of one party's giving the second
+party a certain sum of money, the second party agrees to pay interest on
+that money at a stipulated rate, and at the end of a certain length of
+time agrees to pay the money back; and that, in case the second party
+does not pay back the amount at the end of the time, the first party is
+empowered to take possession of the property, to sell it, and to get the
+amount due him. This last procedure is called _foreclosing the
+mortgage_. It is a common practice to mortgage property; almost all the
+property in a city is mortgaged.
+
+Some men and firms make a special business of transferring property,
+buying and selling it for others, making leases, and collecting rents.
+They are called real estate agents, and for their services get a
+_commission_, which is a certain percentage of the purchase or the
+selling price and a certain percentage of the amount of rent collected.
+This percentage varies according to whether the amount of money involved
+is large or small, the percentage being larger when small sums of money
+are involved than when large sums are involved.
+
+
+=Exercise 295=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. What is a lease?
+
+      2. Explain why owners of valuable property lease it.
+
+      3. What is a deed? Explain the two kinds.
+
+      4. What is meant by a clear title?
+
+      5. What is meant by fee simple?
+
+      6. Why is it important to be careful about the title?
+
+      7. What is a mortgage?
+
+      8. Explain why property is often mortgaged. Does the
+      mortgage benefit the owner? Explain.
+
+      9. What is meant by foreclosing?
+
+      10. What is an agent? How is he usually paid?
+
+      11. Why do people employ real estate agents to take
+      care of renting? To sell their property?
+
+      12. Why is property near a railroad valuable? For
+      what?
+
+      13. Why is a corner lot worth more than an inside lot?
+
+      14. Why is property on a car line more valuable than
+      on a side street?
+
+      15. What effect would the building of a new street car
+      line have on the value of adjacent property? Why?
+
+
+=Exercise 296=
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. Suppose that you are a landlord and that in your
+      lease no mention is made of giving your tenants
+      janitor service, but you yourself take care of the
+      furnace. Other landlords in the block supply janitor
+      service. After one of your tenants has moved in, he
+      demands that the back porch be scrubbed once a week
+      and the garbage emptied daily. What would you do?
+      Consider the points for and against.
+
+      2. Suppose some boys playing ball on the street break
+      a plate glass window in the store you own. Would you
+      expect your tenant to pay for repairs?
+
+_Written_
+
+      3. Write to Francis L. Russell, a real estate agent,
+      asking his terms for collecting the rent of ---- (tell
+      the location of the house, the number of the tenants,
+      and the rent you receive).
+
+      4. As if you were Francis L. Russell write a reply,
+      saying that you will undertake the collection for a
+      commission of 5%.
+
+      5. Imagine you are a tenant in the same building. The
+      kitchen sink cannot be used in your flat because of a
+      stoppage in the plumbing. You have told the agent
+      once. Write him (see 3) again, stating that unless he
+      sends a plumber you will not pay your next month's
+      rent. (Is there any reason for writing this, rather
+      than telephoning it?)
+
+      6. The plumber has submitted a bill of $5.98 for the
+      repairs suggested in (5). The agent writes to the
+      landlord, enclosing a check for the rent that he has
+      collected, less the amount of the plumber's bill and
+      his commission.
+
+      7. You are a lawyer. Write to the landlord, informing
+      him that the mortgage which your client holds against
+      the landlord's property expires in thirty days. Ask
+      the landlord whether he expects to pay the money or
+      whether he wishes a renewal of the loan for three
+      years. Your client is willing to give such a renewal.
+
+      8. The landlord replies that he is enclosing $100 to
+      pay the interest due on the mortgage and that he
+      desires a renewal of the loan. If the lawyer will
+      prepare the papers, he will come to sign them at the
+      specified time. Write the letter.
+
+      9. You are an insurance agent. Write to the landlord
+      that the fire insurance on his property expires in
+      sixty days. Ask him to allow you to write a new
+      policy. Inform him that the rate now will be 3-3/4%
+      instead of if 1-3/4% as it was formerly, because a
+      garage has been erected one door north of his
+      property. (Why should the rate be higher?)
+
+      10. One of the tenants has paid no rent for two
+      months. You decide that he never will be able to pay.
+      As landlord you make out and deliver to him a _Five
+      days' notice of removal_. At the same time, you write
+      a letter to your lawyer, explaining the state of
+      affairs and asking him to take charge of enforcing the
+      notice. (This means that if the tenant does not move,
+      the case must come up in court. If it is decided in
+      the landlord's favor, the tenant must move. If he
+      refuses, the lawyer engages a constable to eject him.)
+      Write the letter.
+
+      11. Francis L. Russell writes three short
+      advertisements, offering for sale (1) a large 12 room
+      residence, mortgage $6,000, price $15,000; (2) a 3
+      apartment building, clear, price $16,000; (3) a large
+      12 apartment building, mortgage $25,000, price
+      $41,000, terms to suit. Where would you advertise?
+      Write the advertisements.
+
+      12. You get inquiries about all of the above. Write
+      answers describing the buildings more fully, and make
+      appointments with the writers to inspect the property.
+
+      13. A man is interested in the 12 flat building, but
+      he has only $10,000. Offer him the property for
+      $40,000 on these terms: $10,000 down, a first mortgage
+      for $20,000 to run 10 years at 5%, and a second
+      mortgage for $10,000 to run 5 years at 5�%, $2,000 to
+      be paid each year with interest. Make it as attractive
+      as possible. Tell him you will arrange for the
+      mortgages.
+
+      14. (_a_) Write to your bank, the First National, and
+      explain that, although the first mortgage on the 12
+      flat building for $25,000 still has 3 years to run,
+      you would like to arrange for a 10 year mortgage for
+      $20,000, if your prospective buyer takes the property.
+      (_b_) Write to George R. Scott, who owns the building,
+      offering him the second mortgage. Explain that
+      although it is a second mortgage the fact that $2,000
+      of the principal is paid each year makes it
+      attractive. (How would the owner benefit if the buyer
+      failed to make his payments after 2 years?) Sign
+      yourself Francis L. Russell.
+
+      15. You have put through the deal. Write to the new
+      owner, offering to take care of the renting for a
+      commission equal to 2�% of the amount collected.
+
+
+=Exercise 297--Farm Lands=
+
+1. You own a large tract of land in the South, West, or Southwest.
+Choose your own locality. Prepare a pamphlet setting forth the
+advantages of this particular spot in a series of paragraphs: (1)
+scenery, (2) climate and healthfulness, (3) crops, (4) profits from the
+crops, (5) price of labor, (6) chances for pleasure, e.g., hunting,
+fishing, etc., (7) transportation facilities, (8) price of the land. Use
+a firm name and address.
+
+2. Arrange and punctuate:
+
+      Nov. 1, 19-- [For the introduction supply the same
+      firm name used in (1)]. Gentlemen I have just returned
+      from an extended trip through (the district spoken of
+      above) with reference to the forty acres I purchased
+      from you I desire to say that I am convinced that it
+      will prove a paying investment I am so pleased that I
+      shall certainly try to induce several of my friends to
+      purchase near my site while on the property I
+      carefully inspected the farm worked by Mr S R Jackson
+      I must say what he is accomplishing the immense crop
+      of vegetables and fruit he is marketing amazed me no
+      doubt what he is doing I may do for I made sure by
+      careful examination that the soil on my land is
+      exactly like his you may depend upon it that within
+      the next two months I shall move my family upon the
+      land for I am eager to develop it sincerely yours F W
+      Farrell
+
+What advantage would there be in including such a letter as (2) in the
+booklet spoken of in (1)?
+
+3. To prove the possibilities of the land spoken of in (1), you intend
+to start a model farm. Advertise for a farmer. Your plan is to give him
+60 acres to develop for himself, in return for which he shall
+demonstrate the possibilities of the land.
+
+4. Write a letter applying for the position. You must have farming
+experience, some money, a knowledge of crops, and a good deal of
+enthusiasm.
+
+5. Write an advertisement of your land for a big newspaper. Exploit its
+most striking features, especially the price. Study such advertisements
+before you write yours.
+
+6. Reproduce a letter you received in answer to (5), asking for more
+information concerning the lands.
+
+7. Write the reply to (6). Say you are enclosing the booklet spoken of
+in (1); tell of the model farm being established (3); and induce the
+inquirer to become a purchaser.
+
+8. Prepare a series of three follow-up letters to be sent out to
+prospective purchasers who write as in (6) but who do not answer your
+letter in (7). Make each letter set forth one of the following
+advantages of buying a piece of your land: (1) The profits from the
+crops are large; (2) The conditions are ideal--mention climate, water,
+neighbors, transportation; (3) It is a good investment, since the land
+will certainly rise in value--tell of other land in the neighborhood
+that has risen in value within the last year. Arrange the letters in the
+order that you think will be most effective.
+
+
+=Exercise 298=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+      1. The cause of changes in city real estate values.
+
+      2. The price of downtown property in your town.
+
+      3. The rise in property values in the last few years.
+
+      4. The causes of the rise.
+
+      5. Stove heated or steam heated property--which is the
+      better income producer?
+
+      6. The Mortgage.--(_a_) Why people mortgage their
+      property; (_b_) Why people loan money on mortgages.
+
+      7. The increase in the total value of farm lands
+      during the last ten years.
+
+      8. The decrease in the value of farm lands in the
+      East.
+
+      9. The reasons for the growth of the West.
+
+      10. Will the South be a new West?
+
+      11. The reclamation of swamp lands.
+
+      12. The success of irrigation.
+
+
+=Exercise 299--Insurance=
+
+An exposition of the subject of insurance is hardly in place here,
+especially as every one, to a certain extent at least, is acquainted
+with the fundamental reasons why insurance is purchased. The questions
+below should be used as a rudimentary review that will prepare for the
+letters that follow.
+
+_Oral_
+
+      1. What is the object of insurance?
+
+      2. What is meant by a policy?
+
+      3. By the premium?
+
+      4. By the beneficiary?
+
+      5. By life insurance?
+
+      6. By fire insurance?
+
+      7. By accident insurance?
+
+      8. By marine insurance?
+
+      9. What is the difference between a straight life and
+      a 20 year endowment policy?
+
+      10. Between the above and a 20 year pay policy?
+
+      11. Between the above and a term policy?
+
+      12. Why is it that the mortgagee, and not the owner,
+      holds the fire insurance policy? Why must the amount
+      of insurance equal or exceed the amount of the
+      mortgage?
+
+_Written_
+
+      1. You are an insurance agent. A man came to your
+      office to-day to inquire about a life insurance
+      policy. Write him a letter, repeating what you told
+      him, advocating his taking out a straight life policy.
+
+      2. A new building has just been erected in your
+      neighborhood. Write to the owner, soliciting him to
+      let you write the fire insurance policy.
+
+      3. Write to a man who rides downtown on the train
+      every day. Convince him that he needs to take out an
+      accident insurance policy. Point out that the premium
+      is only $25 a year. If the man is injured he will
+      receive $25 weekly; if he is killed by accident, his
+      beneficiary will receive $5,000; if he is killed on a
+      train or in an elevator, $10,000.
+
+      4. Write to one of your clients, informing him that
+      the premium on his life insurance policy falls due in
+      ten days.
+
+      5. Write to another of your clients, informing him
+      that the insurance on his property runs out in ten
+      days. Inform him that, if he wishes the policy
+      renewed, he should let you know at once and remit the
+      premium.
+
+      6. From the client mentioned in (5) you receive a
+      letter in which he explains that the paint store which
+      formerly adjoined his property has been replaced by a
+      grocery. He would like a new policy at a lower rate.
+      Reproduce the letter. A paint store is insured at the
+      highest, or hazard, rate. The rate on property
+      adjoining a paint store would also be very high.
+
+      7. You investigate the matter and find that the facts
+      are as stated in (6). Write your client, offering him
+      a rate of 1�% and enclosing a bill for $45.
+
+      8. He replies that, since the risk of fire is now so
+      much less, he wishes to take only $2,000 worth of
+      insurance. He asks you to write such a policy, and he
+      encloses his check for $30. Write the letter.
+
+      9. A man writes to you, saying that he wishes to take
+      out an endowment policy for his fifteen year old
+      daughter, who has already been examined. He wishes to
+      give the insurance to her as a birthday present. He
+      encloses a check for the premium and asks you to send
+      the contract to her on her birthday (Name the date).
+      Write the father's letter.
+
+      10. Write a letter to accompany the birthday present.
+      Remember you do not know the daughter.
+
+
+=Exercise 300=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+MUST REFORM OUR FARMING
+
+      The average yield of wheat in the United States for
+      the five years ending in 1910 was eight-tenths of a
+      bushel per acre more than in the five years ending in
+      1905, but it was less than four-tenths of a bushel
+      more than for the ten ending in 1900. The average corn
+      product for the ten years ending in 1910 was a little
+      less than for the ten years ending in 1875.
+      Thirty-five years had not advanced us a step. European
+      countries--Great Britain, France, Germany--with
+      inferior soils and less favorable climate produce
+      crops practically double our own. In our studies of
+      conservation we find no waste comparable, either in
+      magnitude or importance, to this. The farm will fail,
+      and the foundations of our prosperity be undermined,
+      unless agriculture is reformed. The percentage of our
+      people actively engaged in farming had fallen from
+      47.36 in 1870 to an estimated 32 in 1910. Every man on
+      the farm to-day must produce food for two mouths
+      against one forty years ago.
+
+      --_J. J. Hill._
+
+2
+
+THE FARMING SPECIALS
+
+      One of the latest and most successful activities of
+      the railroads is the practice of carrying knowledge of
+      the best farming methods to the farmers by means of
+      special trains equipped like agricultural colleges.
+      These trains, bearing experts and all the equipment
+      for exhibiting the new methods of agriculture, bring
+      the knowledge to the farmers free, and the railroads
+      are glad to give it, for every bit of knowledge comes
+      back to them in a hundred fold profit in freight. In
+      the summer eager audiences all over the country listen
+      to the preaching of better methods and larger crops.
+      Dozens of special trains travel through the
+      agricultural regions disseminating information. The
+      "Breakfast Bacon Special" has been run to encourage
+      Iowa farmers to raise more hogs to take advantage of
+      the high price of bacon. The Cotton Belt Route
+      southwest of St. Louis runs the "Squealer Special" to
+      prove to the Arkansas and Panhandle farmers the
+      money-making advantages of blooded hogs over the
+      razor-back variety. Down the Mississippi Valley the
+      Illinois Central sends the "Boll Weevil Special" to
+      conduct a campaign against that pest. The Harriman
+      lines have six trains operating in California every
+      year. In one year they visited more than seventy-five
+      thousand people. Better farming specials run in
+      practically every state south of the Ohio and Potomac
+      and west of the Mississippi. The New York Central also
+      has two trains in operation in New York.--_The
+      Business Almanac._
+
+3
+
+      A large proportion of farmers give little or no
+      attention to the selection of seed; yet it has been
+      demonstrated that a careful selection would add
+      hundreds of millions of dollars to the total value of
+      the crops. If, for example, a variety of wheat were
+      developed capable of producing one more kernel to the
+      head, it would mean an addition, so Burbank says, of
+      15,000,000 bushels to our average wheat crop. It is
+      possible, however, to do even more than this. At the
+      Minnesota station a variety, selected for ten years
+      according to a definite principle, yielded twenty-five
+      per cent more than the parent variety. Applied to our
+      average crop, that increase would amount to
+      185,000,000 bushels, worth about $140,000,000. As for
+      corn, it has been officially stated that our average
+      yield could easily be doubled. After exhaustive
+      experiments the Department of Agriculture says that by
+      merely testing individual ears of seed corn and
+      rejecting those of low vitality an average yield of
+      nearly fourteen per cent could be secured, adding
+      about $200,000,000 to the value of the crop. Does
+      scientific seed selection seem worth while?--_The Wall
+      Street Journal._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+BANKING
+
+
+IMAGINE that you are a druggist in a small town. Suppose that a woman
+comes in to buy two ounces of camphor and in exchange gives you three
+eggs. In a few moments, perhaps, a man enters to buy a safety razor and
+brings with him wheat enough to pay the bill. Another, again, wishes to
+trade a turkey for a fountain pen. You can readily see the inconvenience
+to which you would be put in such exchange of actual commodities; yet
+this was the method used in primitive times, a method called _barter_.
+
+To overcome the inconvenience of barter, as civilization advanced, it
+became necessary to establish a common medium of exchange, which could
+be accepted for anything one had to sell and with which one could buy
+anything he wished. This is what we call _money_. To meet the
+requirements, money must not be bulky, must be durable, and must not
+readily change in value. In civilized countries gold and silver are the
+bases of exchange.
+
+But gold and silver are heavy and inconvenient to carry about in large,
+or for that matter in small, quantities, and for convenience the
+following kinds of paper money have been established:
+
+1. _Gold Certificates_ are issued with the government's guarantee that
+there is gold deposited in the Treasury equal to the amount of the face
+of the bill. At any time the one holding such a bill may demand of the
+Treasury that he receive gold for it.
+
+2. _Silver Certificates_ are similar to gold certificates, except that
+silver is deposited in the Treasury instead of gold.
+
+3. _United States Treasury Notes_ are promissory notes of the government
+to pay the sum indicated. They are not payable on demand.
+
+4. _National Bank Notes_ are promissory notes issued by the national
+banks and are payable on demand of the bearer. Before a national bank
+may issue such notes, it must own United States government bonds of at
+least the amount for which it issues notes. These bonds are held by the
+Treasurer of the United States as security that the bank will pay its
+notes. According to the Owen Glass Bill, passed in December of 1913,
+national bank notes may at the option of the banks be gradually
+withdrawn from circulation.
+
+Credit
+
+_Credit_ is a promise to pay at some future time for a thing which you
+receive now. Its use is probably as old as the practice of exchange and
+quite as important. The simplest and most extensive form of credit is
+"book" credit, such as you get at the grocer's or butcher's or at the
+department store. To explain a little more complex kind of credit:
+Suppose you owe Smith one hundred dollars. At the same time Smith owes
+Jones one hundred dollars. Because you owe Smith, he may give Jones an
+order to collect the money from you. With this order Jones may pay his
+lawyer, let us say. Perhaps the lawyer has bought a bill of goods from
+you. He pays you with the same order. You destroy the "note," and thus
+four actual transactions have been taken care of without the use of any
+money. The business institution which deals especially with credits is
+the bank.
+
+Banks
+
+A bank which fulfills every banking function must have these three
+departments: (1) the commercial department, (2) the savings department,
+(3) the trust department. Some institutions specialize in one department
+more than in either of the others, and thus, taking the name from their
+principal function, banks are known as follows: (i) commercial banks or
+banks of deposit, (2) savings banks, (3) trust companies.
+
+Banks of Deposit
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Banks of deposit or commercial banks are business men's banks. Their two
+principal functions are (1) receiving money for safe-keeping on deposit,
+and (2) loaning money to business men at interest. The deposit function
+is based on confidence and credit. The business man takes his money to
+the bank not only because it is convenient for him to do so, but also
+because he has confidence that the money will be more carefully
+protected than if he kept it in his own possession. In depositing his
+money in the bank, the business man uses a _deposit slip_ such as the
+one illustrated here. The teller puts down the amount in the _bank book_
+of the depositor, who is credited with that amount on the bank's books.
+He is entitled to draw just that much actual cash or that much credit in
+the form of _checks_. (See page 339.) Most firms do not deposit a sum of
+money and then promptly draw it out again in the form of checks to pay
+current liabilities, but maintain a fairly steady balance in the bank.
+On large average monthly balances most banks allow interest, varying
+from one per cent on balances of one thousand dollars to three per cent
+on balances of ten thousand dollars or more.
+
+Discount
+
+Because a large bank has many depositors, the aggregate of all the
+balances makes a considerable sum of money. Bankers have learned by
+experience just what proportion of their deposits they can depend on to
+remain steadily on deposit as a balance, and thus they know what
+proportion of their deposits it is safe to use for the purpose of
+_discount_. The simplest case of the discount function is the discount
+of a promissory note. In the note shown in the illustration after ninety
+days John H. Blodgett will receive from Lucius Thomas five hundred
+dollars with interest. But perhaps Blodgett cannot wait ninety days for
+his money. In this case, he takes the note to his banker, who will pay
+him the five hundred dollars less a certain percentage or discount,
+which is the bank's profit on the transaction. The bank then collects
+the note when it becomes due.
+
+[Illustration: PROMISSORY NOTE]
+
+Collateral
+
+Instead of cashing a note held by one of its customers, the bank may
+itself loan money at interest for a short period of thirty, sixty, or
+ninety days, taking the note of the business man to whom the money is
+loaned. In most cases, however, unless the bank knows the business man
+well, a certain amount of _collateral_ is demanded as an assurance that
+the borrower will pay the loan when it becomes due. The amount of
+collateral deposited with the bank is usually 10% to 25% in excess of
+the amount loaned, and it may take the form of stocks or bonds;
+mortgages on real estate; liens on stock, fixtures, or personal
+property; or warehouse receipts. When the amount borrowed is paid, the
+collateral is returned; if it is not paid within a reasonable time, the
+collateral is sold, and the amount loaned, with interest to date, is
+taken from the proceeds.
+
+There are, of course, other functions of banks of deposit practised
+quite generally by all banks, and these will be explained later. The
+functions just described, however, distinguish banks of deposit in a
+general way from the other two classes.
+
+Savings Banks
+
+A savings bank accepts from its depositors small amounts of money which
+are not subject to withdrawal by check, but on which it pays a low rate
+of interest. As a general rule, an account may be opened with one
+dollar; and when the initial deposit is made, the depositor is furnished
+with a pass book, similar to the bank book, in which further deposits,
+interest credits, and withdrawals are recorded. Interest is compounded
+every four or six months, and money must, as a general rule, remain on
+deposit until an interest payment date before the depositor receives any
+interest on it. The usual rate of interest is three per cent, although
+four is often paid. Frequently, before banks allow deposits to be
+withdrawn, they demand a certain number of days' notice, usually thirty.
+It is well to investigate the conditions under which the depositor
+places his money in the safe-keeping of the bank, because the withdrawal
+requirements are often stringent. Because of the stability of this
+class of deposit, banks are always anxious to increase their savings
+accounts, as a large proportion of the funds may be used for loans.
+
+A form of the savings bank established in the United States in 1911 is
+the postal savings bank, in which the post-office is made the depository
+for savings. The post-office in the town deposits its funds in the local
+national or state bank, which, as security for safe-keeping, must
+deposit with the Treasurer of the United States bonds at least equal in
+value to the amount of savings deposited in the bank. Postal savings
+banks are practically absolutely safe, because, if the bank which takes
+care of the funds should fail, the bonds may be sold, so that the savers
+will receive their money. From deposits made in the postal savings bank,
+the return to the depositor is only two per cent, whereas the return
+from deposits made in the bank's own savings department is three, three
+and a half, and sometimes four per cent.
+
+Trust Companies
+
+_The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund_
+
+      A miner named Richards was killed in an accident in an
+      Alaska mine. Among his possessions were found a number
+      of letters and a baby stocking containing a little
+      gold dust. The letters told that Richards had a little
+      six-year-old daughter, who was now left destitute. The
+      rough miners made up a fund of $2,500 in gold dust,
+      depositing it with the United States Commissioner of
+      the Territory of Alaska, to be held by him until the
+      proper disposition of it could be made. A committee
+      was appointed, who agreed that one hundred dollars a
+      year for ten years should be used to give the child a
+      common school education, and then five hundred dollars
+      each year to give her a college education. A legal
+      guardian was appointed, and the Kansas City Trust
+      Company asked to act as co-guardian to invest the
+      money and make the required remittances. The funds
+      were first deposited by the commissioner in a bank in
+      Portland, which sent them to the Kansas City Trust
+      Company. Correspondence was of course carried on at
+      the same time, the Kansas City Trust Company agreeing
+      to accept the trust without remuneration. They have
+      invested the money in five per cent bonds, thus
+      increasing the fund yearly.
+
+This is called a _trust_ because the money is entrusted for safe-keeping
+and investment to the bank, which is called the _trustee_. A bank may
+also become the trustee for property left at the death of a person, both
+when there is a will and when there is none. When there is no will and
+the bank takes charge of the affairs of the deceased, the bank is called
+the _administrator_; when there is a will, the _executor_. Another
+important function of the trust company is acting as _receiver_ for a
+company which has failed; that is, adjusting the company's affairs in
+the way fairest both to the stockholders and to the company's creditors.
+The trust company often acts, also, as _agent_ for its clients'
+property, performing the same duties as a real estate agent.
+
+Form of Remittance
+
+Banks as a class are distinguished one from the other according as they
+specialize in one or more of the functions described above. However,
+there are certain services that all banks perform and certain facilities
+that they all offer in connection with the payment of money from one
+person to another. These concern the forms of remittance.
+
+If you have studied business arithmetic or bookkeeping, you very likely
+know the definite forms that are used. At all events, you know that
+currency should never go through the mails. The following is a brief
+review of the more important forms that may be used. Study the
+illustrations carefully, noticing particularly the similarity of form in
+all. Uniformity in such matters is desirable because it saves time as
+well as misunderstandings. The forms we shall consider are:
+
+    1. The check
+        _a._ Personal
+        _b._ Certified
+    2. The money order
+        _a._ Express
+        _b._ Postal
+    3. The bank draft
+    4. The time draft
+    5. The sight draft
+
+_Check._--A check is a written order on a bank, signed by a depositor,
+directing the bank to pay a certain person a certain sum of money. When
+the bank pays the order, it deducts the amount from the depositor's
+account. The one who signs the check is called the _drawer_ or maker;
+the person to whom or to whose order a check is made payable is called
+the _payee_; the bank on which a check is drawn is called the _drawee_.
+
+[Illustration: CHECK AND STUB]
+
+Of course, before you could write a check for one hundred dollars, you
+must have deposited at least one hundred dollars in the bank on which
+the check is drawn. The bank supplies you with a check book, consisting
+of blank checks, each attached to a stub. When you write a check, you
+put the same information on the stub to be kept for reference. Then you
+tear off the check through the perforated line, using it to pay for
+whatever you may have purchased.
+
+_Certified Check._--Suppose, however, that you are writing this check to
+pay a debt to a stranger who lives in another city. He may hesitate to
+accept it as money. That he may have no cause to doubt your ability to
+pay the check, you take it to your bank to have the cashier investigate
+your account. If he finds that you have sufficient funds, he writes or
+stamps _Accepted_ or _Certified_ on the check and signs his name. At the
+same time the amount of the check is deducted from your account. Such a
+check is accepted without question when the holder is properly
+identified.
+
+_Endorsement._--If A gives you his check for twenty-five dollars, you
+could not receive the money until you had endorsed the check; that is,
+put your name on the back, which is, in effect, giving a receipt for the
+money. You may do this in various ways. You may endorse:
+
+      1. In blank; that is, merely write your name across
+      the back.
+
+      2. In full, by saying, "Pay to the order of ----" and
+      signing your name.
+
+      3. By restricting the payment to a particular person;
+      as, "Pay to ----" This check cannot now be cashed by
+      anyone except the one named in the endorsement.
+
+[Illustration: EXPRESS MONEY ORDER]
+
+_Express Money Order._--An express money order is much like a check,
+except that it is drawn on an express company instead of on a bank and
+reads, for example: Continental Express Company agrees to transmit and
+pay to the order of ---- (the one to whom you are sending the money)
+---- (the amount). The order is signed by the treasurer of the company
+and countersigned by the agent who sells it. You can buy such an order
+at any express office. It may be endorsed like a check.
+
+[Illustration: POSTAL MONEY ORDER]
+
+_Postal Money Order._--The other form of money order, the postal, is an
+agreement signed by the postmaster of one city that the postmaster of
+another city will pay the amount of money named in the order to the
+person named in the order.
+
+_Bank Draft._--A bank draft is very much like a check, except that
+instead of two individuals dealing with each other two banks conduct the
+transaction, their places of business being in different cities or
+villages. A bank draft is sometimes called a bank check, because in the
+case of both a draft and a check one party draws upon another with whom
+the first has funds deposited. As a general rule, banks and business
+houses require that remittances be sent to them by drafts drawn on New
+York or Chicago banks, as there is a charge called _exchange_ made in
+the collection of checks drawn on local banks.
+
+In the draft that follows, the State Bank of Utah, of which Henry T.
+McEwan is Assistant Cashier, makes out the draft. The bank which is
+ordered to pay the money is the National Park Bank of New York. The
+money is to be paid to Henry L. Fowler. The State Bank of Utah is called
+the drawer; the National Park Bank of New York, on whom the draft is
+drawn, is the drawee; Henry L. Fowler is the payee.
+
+[Illustration: BANK DRAFT]
+
+[Illustration: ENDORSEMENT]
+
+The payment indicated above was probably made without actually sending
+the money from Salt Lake City to New York. It was done in this way:
+
+Henry L. Fowler of Salt Lake City owes one hundred dollars to a man
+living in an Eastern city, let us say Charles Emery of Rochester, N. Y.
+Mr. Fowler goes to the State Bank of Utah in Salt Lake City and "buys a
+draft on New York," made payable to himself. The bank makes out the
+above, charging Mr. Fowler one hundred dollars plus a fraction of one
+per cent for its trouble. Mr. Fowler endorses it in full to Mr. Emery of
+Rochester and sends the draft to the latter. He has the draft made
+payable to himself so that the endorsement will constitute a full
+record of the transaction. Mr. Emery takes the draft to his own bank in
+Rochester, endorses it in blank, and receives the one hundred dollars.
+Thus Mr. Fowler has paid out the money and Mr. Emery has received it.
+
+The way the banks conduct the transaction is as follows: There are
+certain big money centers in the country; e.g., New York, Chicago, St.
+Louis, San Francisco. Important banks in other places have money on
+deposit in at least one bank in each of these centers. The banks which
+thus deal with one another are called _correspondents_. The National
+Park Bank is the correspondent of the State Bank of Utah. When Mr. Emery
+cashes the draft at his Rochester bank, the latter sends it to its New
+York correspondent, and at the same time charges the correspondent one
+hundred dollars. The correspondent presents the draft to the National
+Park Bank, which pays the money and charges the same amount to the State
+Bank of Utah. Explain how this settles the transaction.
+
+_Time Draft._--A time draft is much like a bank draft, in that two banks
+conduct the principal part of the transaction for two individuals, but
+no money is actually paid at the time the draft is drawn. The details of
+a transaction of this kind are explained on the following page.
+
+[Illustration: TIME DRAFT]
+
+Horace Prang of 1008 Elm Street, Columbus, Ohio, owes Loetzer & Co. five
+hundred dollars, due August 27, 1915. Loetzer & Co. make out the draft
+above and deposit it in the Bank of Buffalo. The latter sends the draft
+to its correspondent in Columbus, which presents the draft to Horace
+Prang. If he is willing to pay the note when it falls due, he writes
+across the face of it, "_Accepted_" adds the date, and signs his name.
+It is now returned to the Bank of Buffalo. The Bank of Buffalo will then
+discount the draft for Loetzer & Co.
+
+_Sight Draft._--A sight draft is much like a time draft, except that the
+amount is paid by the person on whom it is drawn as soon as it is
+presented, instead of after a stipulated length of time.
+
+[Illustration: SIGHT DRAFT]
+
+Suppose the Empire Elevator Co. of Buffalo has sold $420 worth of grain
+to the Smith Milling Co. of Springfield, Mass. When the grain is loaded
+on the cars, the railroad company gives the Empire Elevator Co. a bill
+of lading. Now, the Smith Milling Co. must possess this bill of lading
+before it can take the grain from the cars at Springfield. The Empire
+Elevator Co. deposits the bill of lading with the above draft in the
+Marine National Bank of Buffalo. This bank sends both to its
+correspondent in Springfield. The Springfield bank presents the draft to
+the Smith Milling Co., who may take the grain from the cars on payment
+of the draft. In case of non-payment, both draft and bill of lading are
+returned to the Marine National Bank of Buffalo, and the Empire Elevator
+Co. must make arrangements for the return or the disposal of the grain.
+
+
+=Exercise 301=
+
+      1. F. R. Thompson, sales manager of the New York Trust
+      and Savings Bank, sends a circular letter to a number
+      of banks, saying that he is enclosing a booklet that
+      describes a number of bonds suitable for the security
+      of postal savings deposits, the legality of which has
+      been carefully investigated. In his letter he mentions
+      especially Omaha, Nebraska, School 4�% bonds, price to
+      net 4.40%; Seattle, Washington, Harbor 5% bonds, price
+      to net 4�%; and Hoquiam, Washington, Bridge 5�% bonds,
+      price to net 5%. Reproduce the letter, addressing it
+      to W. W. Fallows, Cashier of the Mercantile National
+      Bank of Pueblo, Colorado.
+
+      2. Mr. Fallows answers, saying that his knowledge of
+      the postal savings law is vague and that he would be
+      glad if Mr. Thompson would give him definite
+      information on the subject.
+
+      3. Mr. Thompson replies that he is enclosing a copy of
+      the postal savings law. He assures Mr. Fallows that he
+      can serve the latter both in buying the proper
+      securities and in depositing them with the Treasurer
+      of the United States. Application for such deposits
+      must be made by the bank itself. Mr. Thompson will
+      gladly inform him if Mr. Fallows does not know the
+      steps to be taken or the report to be submitted.
+
+      4. Punctuate, using a letterhead:
+
+      Mercantile Trust Company New York City Dec 2 19--
+      manager the bank of Scotland 3c bishop E C London
+      England dear sir we are sending you herewith advice of
+      the issuance of our circular letter of credit No. 262
+      in favor of Miss Helen Jackson for 300 pounds sterling
+      Miss Jackson is at present in Paris France and the
+      letter of credit has been forwarded to Messrs Thomas
+      Cooke and Son 1 Place de l'Opera Paris we have
+      requested Messrs Thomas Cooke and Son to forward to
+      you two specimens of Miss Jacksons signature which we
+      have signed and forwarded to Messrs Thomas Cooke and
+      Son for that purpose so that you may have these
+      signatures before any drafts against the letter of
+      credit are presented to you yours very truly James R
+      Hudson treasurer.
+
+      What is a letter of credit? How did Miss Jackson get
+      it?
+
+      The Bank of Scotland is the correspondent of the
+      Mercantile Trust Company. Explain.
+
+      Why should the New York bank forward Miss Jackson's
+      signature?
+
+      5. Write the letter that the Mercantile Trust Company
+      sends to Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son.
+
+      6. Write the letter that Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son
+      send to the Bank of Scotland.
+
+      7. W. T. Randall, cashier of the Milwaukee Trust and
+      Savings Bank, Milwaukee, Wis., writes a letter, the
+      purpose of which is to secure savings accounts. A club
+      of 500 members is to be formed. Each member is to buy
+      a share by paying one dollar and to pay one dollar per
+      week per share, the amount to draw interest at 3%.
+      After forty-eight weeks he gets credit for fifty
+      dollars per share, thus securing over 5% interest on
+      his money. Make the offer attractive.
+
+      8. Some time ago a bank in your city discounted a note
+      held by George Carpenter, signed by Martin Kugerman.
+      The note falls due in ten days. As cashier write to
+      Mr. Kugerman, telling him that you hold the note and
+      that you hope he will be able to remit on the day of
+      maturity.
+
+      9. Your bank loaned Clarence Wentworth $500 for ninety
+      days, taking as security $700 worth of collateral. The
+      note falls due in a week. Write to Mr. Wentworth,
+      reminding him that the note falls due and asking him
+      whether he wishes to pay it off or whether he wishes
+      it extended.
+
+      10. John Elsworth, who has an account with you,
+      writes, saying that by registered mail he is sending
+      you certificates of 20 shares Union Pacific common
+      stock, 50 shares National Biscuit Co. preferred stock,
+      5 (bonds) American Telephone and Telegraph convertible
+      4�'s, 3 (bonds) New York and East River Gas Co. first
+      mortgage 5's. He asks you to take care of them and
+      collect dividends and interest when they are due,
+      crediting them to his account.
+
+      11. Your correspondent, the First National Bank of
+      Janesville, Wis., writes, asking you to forward by
+      registered mail $5,000 in currency.
+
+
+=Exercise 302=
+
+      1. Mr. Henry Carroll of Wausau, Wis., writes to Mr.
+      Randall (Exercise 301, 7), asking him to buy 10 shares
+      of C. & N. W. R. R. preferred stock at 134 or better.
+      When they are bought, he adds, they can be sent through
+      any bank in Wausau.
+
+      2. Mr. Randall replies by sending the 10 shares of
+      stock to the bank's correspondent in Wausau, the First
+      National Bank, telling the latter to deliver them to
+      Mr. Henry Carroll on payment of the enclosed draft for
+      $1340 with exchange. Write the letter.
+
+      3. A dressmaker in South Bend, Ind., has applied to
+      Marshall Field & Co., Retail, State and Washington
+      Streets, Chicago, for a charge account. The department
+      store makes inquiries concerning her at her bank, the
+      Commercial and Savings Bank of South Bend. Write the
+      letter.
+
+      4. The bank replies that she has maintained a small
+      but steady balance, that she has never overdrawn her
+      account, and that in their opinion her credit would be
+      good up to $100 monthly. Write the letter.
+
+      5. Theodore Buchanan of St. Louis sends Philip Newborg
+      of your city a check for $100 with which he pays a
+      debt to Charles Springer of Minneapolis. Springer
+      endorses it and deposits it in the Security National
+      Bank. The check is returned marked N.S.F., and the
+      Security National Bank notifies Springer of the
+      situation and of the fact that his account has been
+      charged with $104, the amount of the draft plus
+      expenses.
+
+      6. One of the depositors of the Milwaukee Trust and
+      Savings Bank brings to the Cashier a note which is
+      about due, and asks the bank to collect it. The maker
+      of the note is William T. Adams of Seattle. The
+      Cashier writes to the bank's correspondent in Seattle,
+      the Scandinavian American Bank, asking the latter to
+      collect. Write the letter. (See Exercise 301, 7.)
+
+      7. The Scandinavian American bank writes to William T.
+      Adams, telling him that it holds a note signed by him,
+      due ----, and asking him to make prompt payment. Write
+      the letter.
+
+      8. Mr. Adams pays the note. The Seattle Bank notifies
+      the Milwaukee Bank, enclosing a draft for the amount.
+      Write the letter.
+
+      9. See Exercise 301, 10. As John Elsworth's banker
+      send the coupons for the American Telephone and
+      Telegraph bonds to your correspondent in New York, the
+      National City Bank, because the interest is payable in
+      New York. Ask the bank to make the collection. Write
+      the letter.
+
+      10. The National City Bank makes the collection and
+      informs you by means of a printed form that it has
+      credited you with the amount, $112.50. The form is
+      just like a letter except that it is already printed
+      with blanks left for the name and the address and for
+      itemizing the coupons collected. Write such a form.
+
+      11. One of your depositors has overdrawn his account.
+      Notify him of the fact. Do this courteously so that
+      the depositor may have no reason to withdraw his
+      account.
+
+      12. In your city there is a real estate dealer who
+      often has large sums of money idle for a short time
+      because, when he sells one piece of property, he does
+      not always have another immediately in view. He is not
+      a depositor in your bank. Write to him, inducing him
+      to take out a Certificate of Deposit at such times and
+      telling him that the advantages of such a certificate
+      are that he will get 3% interest on the money
+      deposited and that he may draw out the money at any
+      time.
+
+      13. One of your depositors has written to you, asking
+      for a loan of $5,000 for nine months. Write to him,
+      saying that it is not your practice to make time loans
+      for definite periods longer than six months, as it is
+      not a good plan thus to tie up your deposits. Explain
+      that as most of a bank's deposits are payable on
+      demand, you would suggest his taking out a demand loan
+      for $5,000, payable on the demand of the bank. Under
+      ordinary business conditions such a loan might easily
+      run for nine months.
+
+      14. R. F. Marsden, President of the Truesdale Cotton
+      Mill, Birmingham, Ala., has written to you, asking
+      whether he can secure a loan next fall on the cotton
+      in the mill as collateral. Reply that you feel certain
+      that satisfactory arrangements could be made if the
+      cotton were stored in an accredited warehouse, so that
+      you could accept the warehouse receipt as collateral.
+
+
+=Exercise 303=
+
+Punctuate and paragraph the following letter, which explains one
+function of a trust company:
+
+      Dear sir as you are one of our clients you are
+      familiar with the reputation of this bank for sound
+      banking and conservative investments you may not
+      however be aware that we have a fully equipped trust
+      department prepared to act in any of the numerous
+      capacities in which the services of trust companies
+      have proved of special value at this time we wish to
+      call your particular attention to the service which
+      this department is prepared to render as trustee under
+      agreement it is natural that one who has accumulated
+      property should desire to superintend or direct its
+      disposition formerly this was done by will now however
+      as the complex laws of the various states frequently
+      necessitate the payment of double or triple
+      inheritance taxes it is becoming a more and more
+      common practice for a man during his lifetime to
+      administer his own estate so to speak this may be
+      accomplished through the establishment of a trust with
+      respect to either a part or all of one's property it
+      can be accomplished not only with absolute safety to
+      the donor but with entire secrecy as well the terms of
+      the trust being regarded as absolutely confidential
+      furthermore the donor has the satisfaction of
+      disposing of his property during his lifetime in
+      accordance with his desires the life of a trust
+      company unlike that of any individual is of perpetual
+      duration death does not interfere with its management
+      of the trust estate its financial responsibility and
+      the safeguards thrown around trust estates by the
+      state laws insure the safety of a trust fund if you
+      are interested in this subject let us discuss it with
+      you either in person or by correspondence when this
+      bank is named in a trust capacity no charge is made
+      for service or advice in connection with the drafting
+      of the trust instruments yours truly
+
+Before writing the following, re-read The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund,
+page 337.
+
+      1. Suppose that you were a newspaper correspondent in
+      Alaska at the time Richards was killed. For your home
+      paper write an account of the finding of the baby
+      stocking. In what ways would this account differ from
+      a magazine article on the same subject?
+
+      2. As if you were the United States Commissioner of
+      the Territory of Alaska, write to a Portland bank
+      saying that you are sending the $2,500 to them, and
+      asking them to put the funds in the care of a reliable
+      trust company.
+
+      3. The Portland bank writes to the Kansas City Trust
+      Company, asking if the latter will accept the trust.
+      Write the letter.
+
+      4. The Kansas City Trust Company replies that it will
+      accept the trust without remuneration. Write the
+      letter.
+
+      5. The Portland bank informs the United States
+      Commissioner of the Territory of Alaska of the
+      disposition of the funds. Write the letter.
+
+
+=Exercise 304=
+
+=Topics for Investigation and Discussion=
+
+     1. The panic of 1907 and some of its lessons.
+     2. Future banking reform.
+     3. Government supervision of banks.
+     4. Unscrupulous banking companies.
+     5. Clearing house certificates.
+     6. Postal savings banks.
+     7. The work of the clearing house.
+     8. The need of banks in a community.
+     9. The development of real estate firms into banks.
+    10. The Owen Glass Currency Bill.
+
+
+=Exercise 305=
+
+Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks
+
+    CROCKER, U. H., The Cause of Hard Times.
+    FONDA, ARTHUR J., Honest Money.
+    GIBBS, H. C., A Bimetallic Primer.
+    MCADAMS, GRAHAM, An Alphabet in Finance.
+    NEWCOMB, SIMON, The A B C of Finance.
+    NORTON, S. F., Ten Men of Money Island, or The Primer of Finance.
+    REEVES, JOHN, The Rothschilds: The Financial Rulers of Nations.
+    WHITE, HORACE, Money and Banking.
+
+
+=Exercise 306=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      THE DAILY ROUTINE OF THE CLEARING HOUSE
+
+      Each bank sends two clerks to the Clearing House: a
+      delivering clerk and a settling clerk. There are three
+      rows of seats running through the clearing room
+      lengthwise, one in the center and one on each side
+      parallel with it. The settling clerks occupy these
+      seats and each one has a sufficient amount of desk
+      room in front of him to do his work on, his space
+      being separated from his neighbors' by a wire screen.
+      The delivery clerks, with their packages of checks in
+      separate envelopes, stand in the open space in front
+      of the settling clerks. At two minutes before 10
+      o'clock the manager, whose station is an elevated open
+      space at the extreme end of the room, strikes a bell.
+
+      The movement has all the precision of a military
+      drill. When the second bell sounds, at exactly 10
+      o'clock, each delivery clerk takes one step forward,
+      hands the proper package to the settling clerk of the
+      bank next to him, drops the accompanying ticket
+      showing the amount into an aperture like a letter box,
+      and places before the settling clerk his schedule, on
+      which the latter places his initials. Thus the
+      procession moves uninterruptedly until each delivery
+      clerk has presented to each settling clerk the proper
+      package and ticket. Usually this part of the operation
+      is completed in ten minutes. Meanwhile the proof
+      clerk, who occupies a desk near the manager, has
+      entered the claims of each bank under the head "Bank
+      Cr." on a broad sheet of paper.
+
+      Inasmuch as the amount of each bank's claim against
+      the Clearing House (entered under the head "Banks
+      Cr.") is the sum of all the tickets which its delivery
+      clerk has pushed into the letter boxes of the other
+      banks, it follows that all the tickets of all the
+      banks should equal all the entries under that head.
+      The next step in the operation is for each settling
+      clerk to arrange the amounts of all the tickets in his
+      letter box in a column, add it up, and send the amount
+      to the proof clerk, who transcribes and arranges it
+      according to the bank's number under the head "Banks
+      Dr.," so that the debit of Bank A shall be on the same
+      line with its credit.
+
+      Then the difference between the two will show how much
+      the bank owes the Clearing House or how much the
+      Clearing House owes the bank. The time occupied by the
+      settling clerks in arranging their tickets and adding
+      up the columns is about half an hour. As fast as these
+      footings are completed, they are sent to the proof
+      clerk, who puts them in the debit column opposite the
+      credits of the banks, respectively. When all are
+      completed, if no error has been made, the footings of
+      the credit and debit columns must be exactly equal and
+      the footings of the two other columns, which show the
+      differences, must be exactly equal. Then these
+      differences are read off slowly and in a distinct tone
+      by the manager, so that each settling clerk can write
+      down the sum that his bank has to pay or to receive.
+      As time is money at the Clearing House, a fine is
+      exacted for every error and every delay in making
+      footings, for every disobedience of the orders of the
+      manager, or for every instance of disorderly
+      conduct.--Horace White: _Money and Banking_.
+
+2
+
+      The Treasury, in connection with its money washing,
+      has asked national banks to exercise more care in
+      sending in money for redemption. Banks frequently put
+      into the same bundle, good notes, bad notes, and notes
+      of different denominations. When they are mixed in
+      this way, it requires a good deal of work to separate
+      the money. The Treasury thinks that the banks could do
+      this work, so that, when the money reaches Washington,
+      it could easily be separated by packages instead of
+      each package having to be separated first. The
+      Assistant Secretary says he believes that, when he
+      gets the subject worked out in detail, new washed
+      money will be returned to the bank in any denomination
+      desired on the same day that it is received; that
+      money unfit for laundering will be destroyed and new
+      money issued. This expeditious handling of money sent
+      in for redemption cannot, however, be attained, he
+      admits, without the co-operation of the banks. In a
+      short time, he believes, all banks will see that it is
+      to their benefit to do this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE CORPORATION
+
+
+THE study that we have thus far made of the various kinds of businesses
+would be incomplete did we not briefly outline the different types of
+organization by which modern business is conducted. This will naturally
+lead us to a discussion of stocks and bonds, which are of great
+importance in every big business and of interest to individuals as means
+of investment. However, as the subjects are probably outside the
+experience of most students, we shall treat them as simply as possible,
+letting the chapter stand rather for the information it contains than
+for its application to the study of English expression.
+
+Business to-day is carried on in three different ways; viz., by
+individuals, by partnerships, and by corporations. The grocer, the
+butcher, the baker, or any one man who carries on a business is an
+example of the first. If, however, the grocer and the butcher, or the
+grocer and the baker, combine their businesses for the good of both,
+they form a partnership. When the amount of capital necessary for
+carrying on the business becomes so large that the money of many people
+is needed, a _corporation_ is formed. The amount of money which any one
+individual invests in the company is represented by a certain number of
+shares of the _capital stock_ of the company, entitling him to his
+portion of the dividends, or interest on the money he has invested.
+These shares of the capital stock are transferable and can be bought and
+sold like an automobile or a house. Since there is no time limit as to
+how long a corporation may do business, a change in the ownership of
+part of the stock, or the death of a stockholder, is not accompanied by
+the same result as in a partnership, where the death of one of the
+partners sometimes breaks up the business. Furthermore, in a partnership
+each one of the partners is personally liable for any debts made by any
+of the partners in behalf of the business, whereas the personal
+possessions of a stockholder in a corporation cannot be held as security
+for any debts incurred by the corporation. These are two of the more
+important advantages of corporate organization over partnership.
+
+
+The Finances of a Corporation
+
+It has been estimated that if one were to count money, dollar by dollar,
+one dollar every second for eight hours six days a week, it would take
+him six weeks to count one million dollars, and over one hundred years
+to count a billion dollars. This may help us to appreciate the sums of
+money spoken of in the following: In 1914 the market value of the
+Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago was over $83,000,000. The
+valuation placed on the properties of the Chicago Railways Company in
+1914 exceeded $79,000,000. The Union Pacific Railroad Company had
+invested in its properties in 1914 approximately $500,000,000. The
+capital obligations of the United States Steel Corporation in 1914 were
+over $1,500,000,000. There are hundreds of such organizations in our
+country, the investments in which run to and beyond $50,000,000 each. It
+must be plain that, except in a very few cases, these vast amounts of
+money do not represent the investment of one, or of a few, but of many
+persons. In uniting their capital, these persons decrease the cost of
+making or distributing the product and so increase their profits.
+
+
+Stocks
+
+When a large company of this kind is organized, a certain amount of
+money is agreed upon to be the capital of the company, and it is
+divided into small portions, ordinarily $100 each, called _shares_. The
+total of the shares is called the _authorized capital stock_. These
+shares are sold, the purchasers of the shares being called
+_shareholders_, or _stockholders,_ of the company. The number of shares
+a person holds determines what part of the profits he is entitled to.
+For example, if a company is organized for 1000 shares of $100 each, or
+a capital stock of $100,000, and you owned 100 shares, you would be
+entitled to one-tenth of the divided profits of the company. Such
+profits of the company, divided proportionately among the stockholders,
+constitute the _dividends_.
+
+Often the capital stock is of two kinds, _preferred_ and _common_, as in
+the case of the Union Pacific R. R., which has $200,000,000 of
+authorized preferred stock and $296,178,700 of authorized common stock.
+As the names signify, preferred stock is ordinarily better than common
+stock, the dividends on preferred stock being paid before any dividends
+are paid on common stock and usually at a stated rate of interest; as,
+4, 5, or 6 per cent. In the case of the Union Pacific, this rate is 4
+per cent. If the company earns only enough profits to pay the dividends
+on the preferred stock, the common gets no dividends. On the other hand,
+if the profits are enormous, the common occasionally gets more than the
+preferred.
+
+
+Par and Market Value
+
+The _par value_ of a stock is the face value of one share of stock,
+indicated on the face of the certificate. This may be $10 or $50 or
+$100, whatever the amount agreed upon for one share when the company is
+organized. The amount most commonly used as par is $100. The _market
+value_ of the stock, however, need not be this amount, but may be
+greater or less, dependent on how successful the company is and what
+rate of dividends it pays. If a company's standing is very good and the
+dividends are high (over 6 per cent), the stock will probably sell on
+the market above par. If the company's finances are in a doubtful
+condition and there are evidences that the company will pay small
+dividends, if any at all, the market price of the stock will fall below
+par. For example, in January, 1914, Union Pacific R. R. common stock
+sold for about $158 per share, because the finances of the company were
+in good condition and the company had paid 10 per cent dividends
+steadily each year since July 1, 1907. If, however, any occasion should
+arise to make the public doubt the payment of future dividends at the
+same rate, the stock would probably decline. To go to the other extreme,
+in the same month Wabash R. R. common stock sold as low as $8� per
+share, although the par is $100. This was because for some years the
+company had paid no dividends and was then in the hands of receivers. To
+take a middle case in the same month and year, Erie R. R. first
+preferred stock sold at about $45 per share, notwithstanding the fact
+that since 1907 no dividends had been paid. The reason for this
+seemingly high price was that the company had for some time been
+reconstructing its property, had gradually increased its business, had
+earned a $9,000,000 surplus in 1913, and had a good outlook to a
+dividend in the near future.
+
+These are not the only influences that affect the price of stocks. The
+old factor of supply and demand has a great influence on price. If, for
+example, a financier decides to buy a large "block" of some stock, the
+market will almost immediately be affected, and that stock will go up.
+One example will suffice. In 1901 E. H. Harriman set out to buy
+$155,000,000 worth of Northern Pacific stock in the open market to gain
+control of the Northern Pacific railroad. Of course, the market felt the
+demand, and the price of the stock rose from a little above par until it
+touched $1,000 a share before it started back to normal. When Mr.
+Harriman unloaded that same stock in 1906, because he failed to gain
+control, the market went down so considerably that he lost $10,000,000
+and almost caused a panic.
+
+Often the stocks of a company sell below par because the stock is
+watered; that is, the company has issued more stock than there is value
+invested in the property. Many of our railroads, for example, were built
+on borrowed money--that is, from the proceeds of the sale of bonds--and,
+to make the bonds sell more readily, stocks were given away with them.
+This, of course, increased the capitalization greatly without increasing
+the value. The temptation in forming new companies, especially in mining
+schemes and wildcat ventures, is to water the stock heavily by voting a
+large block of stock gratis to the organizers. Before one invests in any
+of these companies, he should thoroughly investigate them. Sometimes
+companies water their stocks when their dividends have become very large
+and they wish to bring the rate down to that commonly paid. The Wells
+Fargo Express Company did this in 1910, presenting their stockholders
+with $16,000,000 worth of new stock without any new investment in the
+property.
+
+
+Bonds
+
+Suppose that A owns a house with a store in it, and in the store he
+carries on a grocery business. Suppose that by enlarging his store and
+putting in a bigger stock of goods he can make more money. The
+improvements will cost $1,000, but he hasn't the money. He goes to B to
+ask B to lend him $1,000 for five years, offering B the house as
+security. B gives A the $1,000 and in return gets a certain amount of
+interest each year and A's mortgage note against the property. This
+means that, if at the end of five years A cannot pay the $1,000, B has
+the right to sell A's house and collect the money due him.
+
+When a corporation borrows money to extend its properties, plants, or
+rights, the transaction is really the same, although the form is
+somewhat different. Just as all the capital stock of a corporation is
+divided into shares owned by a number of people, so, when the
+corporation borrows money, the amount borrowed is divided into smaller
+parts of $500 or $1,000 each, called _bonds_, which the corporation
+sells through its bankers to people who have idle money to invest. Twice
+each year, as stated in the bond, the corporation pays interest on the
+borrowed money at the rate, probably, of 4, 4�, 5, or 6 per cent. After
+a definite number of years, as stated in the bond, the corporation is
+obliged to pay back the amount of money that it borrowed. This is called
+_redeeming_ the bonds. To show that it intends to pay back the amount
+borrowed at the end of the time stated, or redeem the bonds when they
+become due, the corporation puts a mortgage on its real estate,
+buildings, machinery, and equipment. When the bonds become due--or
+_mature_, as it is called--if the corporation does not pay back the
+amount borrowed, the holders of the bonds may take possession of the
+company's real estate, buildings, machinery, and equipment on which the
+company has placed the mortgage and may sell them to recover the money
+they have loaned. Thus, while the stockholders of a corporation have no
+assurance that they will ever get their money back or will ever get any
+interest on it, the holders of carefully selected bonds are reasonably
+sure of getting a certain amount of interest each year and of getting
+their money back when the bonds mature. Shares of stock represent the
+investment made by the stockholders who own the company, whereas bonds
+represent the investment of those who loan money to the company. We can
+readily see, then, that the stockholders take the greater risk. For this
+reason it is expected that stocks should yield a higher profit than
+bonds, and this is usually the case.
+
+The greater portion of the bonds that are issued by corporations run for
+long periods--twenty, forty, fifty, and even one hundred years. At
+times when money rates are high, corporations that need funds are
+reluctant to pay a high rate for so many years, and so they issue _short
+time bonds_ to run from two to five years, in the hope that at the end
+of the time money rates will be lower and more favorable to their
+issuing long time bonds. Many companies, especially industrial
+corporations and railroads, have issued obligations to pay, _notes_
+running from six months to five years. They are not usually secured by a
+mortgage on the property but are merely the company's promise to pay,
+the interest and the principal taking precedence over the dividends on
+the preferred and the common stocks.
+
+
+Corporate Organization
+
+Before a corporation can carry on its business, it must obtain a charter
+from one of the states of the United States, whose laws it must obey.
+The laws of some states are more lenient than those of others, allowing
+the corporations more privileges. New Jersey is thus lenient;
+consequently we find many large corporations--such as the United States
+Steel Corporation, the American Sugar Refining Company, and
+others--organized under the laws of New Jersey. After the charter is
+granted and the stock bought by the stockholders, the latter have a
+meeting, at which they elect a small number of men to be _directors_,
+who, as the name signifies, conduct the business of the company for the
+stockholders. They choose a president, one or more vice-presidents, a
+treasurer, a secretary, and any other officers necessary to carry on the
+business under the control of the directors. The term of office of the
+directors is usually so fixed that the term of a part of them expires
+each year, so that each year the stockholders have an annual meeting at
+which they elect new directors or re-elect the old ones whose term has
+expired.
+
+
+The Railroad
+
+Corporations divide themselves into three large groups; viz., railroad
+companies, public utility corporations, and industrial corporations. Of
+these, the group composed of the largest and most powerful corporations
+is the railroad group.
+
+Railroads have two general sources of income, the larger being the
+revenue received from operating trains, both freight and passenger; and
+the smaller being the return from investments in other companies, from
+real estate, and from the rental of lines, terminals, stations, and cars
+to other railroads. To carry on the second or smaller part of its
+business, the company needs an organization much like any other
+business, but to conduct the first part it requires a special
+organization. This divides itself into four departments, usually with a
+vice-president at the head of each: (1) the traffic department, (2) the
+operating department, (3) the finance and accounting department, and (4)
+the legal department.
+
+It is the duty of the traffic department to get the business for the
+company and adjust all traffic claims. In short, it does everything to
+increase the business and the earnings. This department naturally
+divides into the freight traffic and passenger traffic departments, with
+a superintendent or manager at the head of each.
+
+After the traffic department has solicited the business for the company,
+it is the duty of the operating department to render the services
+required by the traffic department. The work is done by four large
+divisions: (1) the engineering or construction department, whose duty it
+is to build the roads over which the company may operate; (2) the
+maintenance-of-way department, whose duty it is to see that the roadbed
+and rails are kept in good order and repair; (3) the equipment
+department, whose duty it is to see that the company is supplied with
+proper locomotives and cars and to see that such equipment is kept in
+repair; and (4) the transportation department, which has to do with the
+operating of the trains.
+
+The financial policy of a railroad is usually in charge of one of the
+vice-presidents, who must be a man of experience in financial matters
+and who acts with the approval of the directors. The accounting
+department is more important than may appear at first sight. Railroads
+are now under the supervision and regulation of the government, and one
+of the rights that the government has is to examine the books of the
+company at any time and to require all companies to submit a monthly
+report to the government.
+
+The legal department of a railroad is especially important for two
+reasons: (1) In performing its services, the company has business
+dealings with a large number of persons, and in the adjustment of claims
+against the railroad, expert legal advice is constantly necessary. (2)
+The railroad, as stated above, is under the regulation and control of
+the state and the national governments, and the enforcement of this
+regulation makes the railroad a party to numerous proceedings in the
+courts and before the Interstate Commerce Commission. The large
+railroads operate in from ten to twenty states. It can thus easily be
+seen that the legal department has a great deal more to do than if the
+railroad operated under but one political power.
+
+
+Public Utility Corporations
+
+Public utility corporations supply services without which the people of
+to-day could not very well live. They are those supplying water, light,
+heat, power, telephones, local transportation, gas, etc. They may
+properly be called public necessity corporations. The nature of these
+businesses practically gives them a monopoly in their locality; this is
+the reason that they have grown so enormously during the last thirty
+years. The Commonwealth Edison Company, which supplies a large part of
+Chicago with light and power, began in 1887 with a capital of $500,000
+and in 1914 its capital obligations had a market value of over
+$83,000,000. The American Telephone and Telegraph Company began in 1885
+with $12,000,000 of capital stock and in 1914 had practically
+$340,000,000. The other public service corporations have kept pace,
+according to the growth of the locality they serve. In the depression of
+1907 this class of corporation kept steadily increasing the volume of
+its business when all others went back a step. Since these corporations
+are dependent on the local community for their business, if the
+community grows the company must grow, and usually faster than the
+community. For this reason the stocks and bonds of these companies are
+usually a good investment.
+
+It is a common practice for municipalities to demand a share of the
+profits of the company, by way of a fixed sum, a certain percentage of
+the gross profits, or a share of the net profits. For example the city
+of Chicago receives, from the Commonwealth Edison Company each year 3
+per cent of its gross receipts from the sale of current and 10 per cent
+of its gross receipts from the rental of conduit space, amounting in
+1913 to more than $300,000, quite a considerable sum. The Chicago
+Railways Company and the Chicago City Railway Company, the two large
+street car companies of Chicago, after deductions for expenses and
+charges and 5 per cent on the amount invested are made from the gross
+income, pay to the city 55 per cent of the surplus earnings, keeping for
+themselves 45 per cent. Whenever these companies pay part of their
+earnings to the municipality, they are really under municipal
+supervision, and their books and accounts are open to examination by
+the city at any time. These companies are called quasi-municipal
+corporations.
+
+
+Industrial Corporations
+
+As the name indicates, industrial corporations are those that carry on
+our industries. They are by far the largest class of corporations and
+have among their number some very powerful companies, whose assets run
+up toward the billions. This class of corporations has not had the
+gradual, steady growth of the public utility corporations, but in the
+case of the most successful, the growth has been amazing. The Standard
+Oil Company for many years prior to its dissolution had paid dividends
+on its capital stock of about $100,000,000 at the rate of 40 per cent a
+year. The Steel Corporation is said to have produced a thousand
+millionaires and is still producing them. This class of corporations has
+not been so closely under the supervision of the federal and municipal
+authorities as the railroads and public utility corporations, and their
+financing has been carried on in a looser fashion than that of the other
+two classes. For this reason the securities of these corporations are
+not generally regarded as highly as those of the other two. However, the
+federal government has taken and is taking steps to regulate these
+corporations, and this will tend to bring them eventually to the
+standards of the railroad and public utility corporations.
+
+
+=Exercise 307=
+
+_Oral_
+
+Explain carefully:
+
+      1. What is a corporation?
+
+      2. What is a share of stock?
+
+      3. What is a bond? a security?
+
+      4. Explain the difference between par and market
+      values.
+
+      5. Why do stocks and bonds vary in value?
+
+      6. What is the difference between preferred and common
+      stock?
+
+      7. What are dividends?
+
+      8. What is meant by watered stock?
+
+      9. What are the advantages of a corporation over a
+      partnership?
+
+      10. The following was copied from a morning paper.
+      Explain it.
+
+      "The Canadian Westinghouse Company, Ltd., declared its
+      regular quarterly dividend of 1�% and an extra
+      dividend of 1% on its stock, both payable Jan. 10."
+
+      11. Explain the following bond quotations:
+
+      MUNICIPAL BONDS
+
+    _Security_                    _Maturity_      _Yield per cent about_
+
+    Albany, Ga., 5's              Nov. 1, 1941          4.75
+    King Co., Wash., 4�'s         Nov. 1, 1931          4.50
+
+      RAILROAD BONDS
+
+    Atchison, Topeka, & Santa F�,
+       general mortgage, 4's           Oct. 1, 1995          4.20
+    Louisville and Nashville, unified
+       mortgage, 4's                   Feb. 1, 1946          4.35
+
+      PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATION BONDS
+
+    New York Telephone Co., 4's     Nov. 1, 1939          4.75
+    Chicago Railways, first
+      mortgage, 5's                 Feb. 1, 1927          4.99
+
+      12. Why are the bonds of successful public utility
+      corporations a good investment?
+
+      13. Which company do you think would grow faster, a
+      light and power company or a gas company? What effect
+      would the growth or the failure to grow have on the
+      price of the stocks of each?
+
+      14. Should a street car company pay part of its
+      earnings to the city?
+
+      15. If the population of a city doubled, what effect
+      would there be on the price of public utility stocks?
+
+
+=Exercise 308=
+
+Topics for Investigation and Discussion
+
+      1. Harnessing our streams to secure electric power.
+
+      2. The growth of the Interurban.
+
+      3. In your own town:
+
+      _a._ Have gas rates increased or decreased? Can you
+      explain the change?
+
+      _b._ Have electric light rates increased or decreased?
+      Can you explain the change?
+
+4. Street railway, electric light, and gas company franchises.
+
+5. The earnings of the street car company in your city.
+
+6. Municipal ownership of public utility corporations.
+
+7. The effect of mergers and consolidations of big corporations.
+
+8. The effect of a trust on competition.
+
+9. Trusts and prices.
+
+10. Government suits against trusts.
+
+11. The tariff and the steel industry, the wool industry, and the sugar
+industry.
+
+12. Railroad rate increases.
+
+
+=Exercise 309=
+
+Write the following from dictation:
+
+1
+
+      In New London, Connecticut, stands the oldest grist
+      mill in the country. It is a picturesque building,
+      having a water wheel like the one that it originally
+      used when New London was first settled. The town was
+      in the center of an agricultural community, and a mill
+      to grind corn was a need that soon manifested itself
+      to the settlers. Accordingly, in 1650 at a town
+      meeting, six men were chosen to build a mill. John
+      Winthrop and his heirs were granted the right to carry
+      on the grist mill as long as they maintained the
+      building placed in their charge. This is one of the
+      first monopolies recorded in New England history.
+
+2
+
+      The same standards by which a farming or a
+      manufacturing investment may be judged are not
+      applicable to a mining investment. A farmer may earn
+      eight per cent on his capital, and with care his
+      investment may increase in value. A manufacturer may
+      earn eight per cent on his investment, and, if he
+      keeps up his machinery, his business may be as
+      valuable ten years, or even twenty years, hence; but a
+      mine, after each dividend is paid, is that much nearer
+      its end. Now, it is well known among mining men that
+      the average life of a gold or silver mine is under,
+      rather than over, ten years. There are exceptions to
+      this rule, of course, but, granting that the life of a
+      certain gold or silver mine is to be ten years, then,
+      in order to pay back both principal and interest,
+      dividends of at least sixteen per cent should be
+      distributed. Copper mining, of which the statistics
+      have been most accurately kept in New York and Boston,
+      offers many inducements to the investor; but too much
+      care cannot be taken in the matter of selection, for
+      copper stocks, in not a few instances, have been
+      boosted out of all reason. As with gold and silver
+      mines, so it is with copper mines. They have so much
+      ore to begin with, and after each dividend are that
+      much nearer to the day when they will close down. For
+      such mines, provided they have a good lease of life,
+      eight per cent or even ten per cent may be regarded as
+      only moderate returns. These are merely samples of
+      some general principles to be followed.--_Roger W.
+      Babson._
+
+3
+
+      Dear Sir:
+
+      At the close of a year which has presented many
+      perplexing problems, not only to investors and dealers
+      in bonds, but also to borrowing municipalities and
+      corporations, there are several factors in the
+      situation which in our opinion offer strong
+      encouragement to every one in any way interested in
+      bond investments.
+
+      Of special significance is the marked change in
+      sentiment which has recently taken place. There is
+      every indication that this country enters the new year
+      with an unusually substantial feeling of confidence.
+      While a notable increase in the demand for bonds would
+      undoubtedly bring out a large amount of new financing,
+      on the other hand, there has been an accumulation of
+      funds during the period of depressed markets, and it
+      is generally understood that investment dealers are
+      carrying comparatively small amounts of bonds.
+
+      January has an almost unbroken record of higher
+      average bond prices than the average prices in
+      December. It is not our intention to predict an
+      advance this January, although there are
+      unquestionably many reasons for anticipating at least
+      a moderate improvement; but, viewing the question in
+      its broader aspects, we find many convincing arguments
+      in favor of the purchase of bonds at this time. It is
+      recognized that the decline in prices has been due to
+      a variety of causes, which, except in a few individual
+      cases, are not the result of any depreciation in real
+      values. Basic conditions are admittedly sound. We,
+      accordingly, not only recommend the judicious purchase
+      of bonds for the investment of surplus funds, but also
+      suggest consideration of the advisability in some
+      cases of converting short time securities into long
+      time bonds.
+
+      What conditions could be more favorable from the
+      standpoint of the purchaser of bonds than an extremely
+      low level of prices; a wide-spread belief that
+      fundamental conditions are sound; a general feeling of
+      confidence that the problems which have tended to
+      disturb business during the past year have been, or
+      are being, solved; and a conviction that we are
+      entering upon a period of probable ease in money
+      rates?
+
+    Very truly yours,
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES
+
+  _A_, Italian, 9.
+
+  Abbreviation, objectionable, of the introduction of a letter, 242;
+    of the courteous close, 242.
+
+  Abbreviations, of states, 26-27;
+    of commercial terms, 27-28;
+    of titles in letters, 235;
+    objectionable in the body of the letter, 242.
+
+  _Able_ and _ible_, 33.
+
+  Absolute use of the nominative case, 65.
+
+  Abstract noun, defined, 57.
+
+  Accent, indication of, 17;
+    words changing meaning with change of, 17.
+
+  _Accept_ and _except_, 102.
+
+  Account, opening an, 250;
+    letters for opening an, 250 ff.
+
+  Accounting department of a railroad, work of the, 360-361.
+
+  Active voice of verbs, defined, 84;
+    conjugation of, 88 ff.
+
+  _Ad_, prefix, 32.
+
+  Adjective, the, defined, 49;
+    and the adverb, 75 ff.;
+    following verbs of the senses, 75;
+    clause, 54;
+    comparison of, 78.
+
+  Adjective endings, peculiar, 33 ff.
+
+  Adjective modifiers, 49.
+
+  Adjective pronouns, use of, 61.
+
+  Adjectives and adverbs, confused, 51;
+    incorrectly used, 81-82;
+    _real_ and _very_, 81;
+    _most_ and _almost_, 81.
+
+  Adjectives, punctuation of series of, 171 ff.
+
+  Adjectives to be distinguished, 80-81;
+    _fewer_ and _less_, 80;
+    _almost_ and _most_, 81.
+
+  Adverb modifiers, 49.
+
+  Adverb, the, defined, 49;
+    and the adjective, 75 ff.
+
+  Adverbial, clause, 54;
+    modifier, case of, 66.
+
+  Adverbs, conjunctive, 45;
+    and adjectives confused, 51;
+    and prepositions confused, 52;
+    ideas denoted by, 75;
+    modifying different parts of speech, 75;
+    correct position of, 77;
+    absolute use of, 79;
+    incorrectly used, 81-82.
+
+  Advertised articles, classes of, 311.
+
+  Advertisements, motives appealed to in, 311;
+    catch phrases used in, 312;
+    suggestive names used in, 313;
+    good and bad headlines for, 313;
+    of still-life, 314;
+    without a definite center, 315;
+    illustrating the principle of balance, 315;
+    exercises to write, 315 ff.;
+    paragraph topics dealing with, 317 ff.;
+    some examples of, 318 ff.
+
+  Advertising, 308 ff.;
+    importance of, 308;
+    different forms of, 309-310;
+    fundamentals of, 310-311;
+    outline for debate on, 141 ff.;
+    bibliography for, 320.
+
+  _Affect_ and _effect_, 102-103.
+
+  Affirmative of debate on advertising, 141 ff.
+
+  _After_, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  Agent, 134, 299-300;
+    commission of, 323.
+
+  Agreement, grammatical, 71-72, 85 ff.
+
+  Amusement, motive appealed to in advertising, 311.
+
+  Analysis, word, 29 ff.
+
+  _Ance_ and _ence_, 34.
+
+  _And_, in compound sentence, 45, 173 ff.;
+   in series, punctuation with, 171 ff.;
+   used in joining parallel expressions, 211 ff.;
+   for _to_, 119;
+   excessive use of, 127-128.
+
+  Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes, 29 ff.
+
+  Answering complaints, letters to be used in, 257 ff.
+
+  _Ant_ and _ent_, 33.
+
+  Antecedents, uncertain, 207 ff.
+
+  Apostrophe, the, used to form the possessive case, 67, 69, 159;
+    used to indicate the omission of letters, 160;
+    to show plural of letters and figures, 160.
+
+  Appeals made in advertisements, 311-312.
+
+  Application, letters of, 259 ff.
+
+  Appositives, case of, 65, 66;
+    punctuation with, 179-180.
+
+  Article, incorrect omission of in business letters, 242.
+
+  _As_, case following, 121;
+    a conjunction, 124;
+    followed by an understood verb, 124;
+    punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _As_--_as_, used in expressions stating equality, 125.
+
+  _As follows_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _Atlas_, story of the derivation of, 5.
+
+  Authorized capital stock, 355.
+
+
+  Baby blunder, 44.
+
+  Balance, principle of, used in advertisements, 315.
+
+  Bank draft, 341-343.
+
+  Banking:
+    inconvenience of barter, 332;
+    kinds of paper money, 332-333;
+    credit, 333;
+    discount, 335;
+    collateral, 335;
+    promissory note, 336;
+    forms of remittance, 338 ff.;
+    letters pertaining to, 345 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion, 349-350;
+    bibliography for, 350;
+    dictation exercises on, 350 ff.
+
+  Banks, departments of, 333;
+    of deposit, 334 ff.;
+    savings, 334, 336 ff.;
+    trust companies, 334, 337 ff.
+
+  _Be_, conjugation, indicative, 104;
+    subjunctive, 112;
+    used to form progressive tenses, 88 ff., 105;
+    used to form passive voice, 105 ff.
+
+  _Before_, used as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  _Beg to state_, 243.
+
+  Bibliography, on manufacture, 280;
+    on distribution, 304-305;
+    on advertising, 320;
+    on banking, 350.
+
+  _Bill of lading_, 285;
+    _straight_ or _order,_ 285.
+
+  Blunder, baby, 44.
+
+  Body of the letter, 232.
+
+  Bonds, 357 ff.;
+    redemption of, 358;
+    maturity of, 358;
+    long period, 358;
+    short time, 358.
+
+  Breve, 9.
+
+  Brevity in business letters, mistaken for conciseness, 199.
+
+  Business letters, 229 ff.;
+    essentials of, 230;
+    the form of, 231;
+    the arrangement of, 232;
+    cautions in writing, 235 ff.;
+    directions for folding, 238;
+    to order goods, 239;
+    the tone of, 240;
+    mistaken ideas in writing, 241 ff.;
+    to make sales, 244;
+    to accompany a catalogue, 245 ff.;
+    to open an account, 250;
+    to make collections, 253 ff.;
+    to answer complaints, 257 ff.;
+    applying for positions, 259 ff.;
+    form, 264;
+    circular and follow-up, 264 ff.
+
+  Business news, to suggest topics for talks, 155.
+
+  Business thinking, importance of, 2.
+
+
+  _c_ and _g_, pronunciation of, 24.
+
+  _Can_ and _may_, 102.
+
+  Capital stock, explained, 353;
+    preferred, 355;
+    common, 355;
+    par and market values of, 355 ff.
+
+  Capitals, use of, 160 ff.
+
+  Caret, the, 9.
+
+  Carriers, common, 284.
+
+  Case, defined, 64;
+    nominative, 64 ff.;
+    objective, 64, 66;
+    possessive, 64, 67;
+    exercise in, 70 ff.;
+    following prepositions, 66, 119.
+
+  Cause and effect, paragraphs developed by, 223.
+
+  Caution, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Cautions in writing business letters, 235 ff.
+
+  _Cede_, _ceed_, _sede_, 34.
+
+  Certificate, the gold, 332;
+    the silver, 332.
+
+  Certified check, the, 339-340.
+
+  Check, the, 338 ff.;
+    personal, 339;
+    certified, 339-340.
+
+  Choosing subjects, suggestions for, 146 ff.
+
+  _Cion_, _sion_, _tion_, 34.
+
+  _Cious_, _tious_, 33.
+
+  Circular letters, 264 ff.
+
+  Class paper, suggestions for a, 156.
+
+  Classes of advertisements, 311.
+
+  Clause, the, defined, 42;
+    principal, 42;
+    subordinate, 42;
+    incorrectly used as a sentence, 45;
+    introductory words for, 54;
+    adjective, 54;
+    adverb, 54;
+    noun, 54;
+    modifiers, 54;
+    introduced by _than_ or _as_, 121;
+    initial, punctuation of, 176;
+    restrictive and non-restrictive, 59-60;
+    punctuation of relative, 185 ff.;
+    coming at the end of the sentence, punctuation of, 188-189;
+    incomplete, 205-206;
+    misplaced, 209 ff.
+
+  Clauses, punctuation of series of, 171 ff.
+
+  Clear title to property, explained, 322.
+
+  Clearing house, daily routine of, 350-351.
+
+  Clearness of the sentence, mistakes that prevent:
+    dangling expressions, 205 ff.;
+    pronouns with uncertain antecedents, 207 ff.;
+    misplaced modifiers, 209-210;
+    omission of necessary words, 210-211;
+    shift of construction, 211 ff.
+
+  Close, courteous, of business letters, 232, 237.
+
+  Coherence between sentences, 127-128; 224 ff.;
+    between paragraphs, 224 ff.
+
+  Collateral, 335-336.
+
+  Collection letters, 253 ff.
+
+  Collective noun, defined, 57.
+
+  Colon, use of the, 194.
+
+  Colonization, 307.
+
+  Combination of short sentences to secure unity, 202 ff.
+
+  Comfort, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Comma fault, the, 44 ff.
+
+  Comma, use of the, in direct quotations, 163 ff.;
+    in series, 171 ff.;
+    in compound sentences, 45, 173 ff.;
+    to set off initial clauses or participial phrases, 175 ff.;
+    to separate the month from the year, etc., 178;
+    to indicate the omission of words, 178;
+    to set off appositives, 179 ff.;
+    to set off parenthetical expressions, 180 ff.;
+    to set off independent elements, 182 ff.;
+    to set off non-restrictive clauses, 185 ff.;
+    to set off modifiers coming at the end of the sentence, 188 ff.
+
+  Command used in good headlines of advertisements, 313.
+
+  Commercial department of a bank, 333.
+
+  Commercial terms, abbreviations of, 27-28.
+
+  Commission, agent's, 323.
+
+  Common carriers, 284.
+
+  Common noun, defined, 57.
+
+  Common stock, 355.
+
+  Companies, kinds of, 273.
+
+  Company, the steamship, 284;
+    the railroad, 284 ff.
+    (See _Corporation_, 353 ff.)
+
+  Comparative degree, of adjectives, 78;
+    of adverbs, 79.
+
+  Comparison and contrast, paragraphs developed by, 223.
+
+  Comparison, of adjectives, 78;
+    of adverbs, 79;
+    negative, 125.
+
+  Complaint, letters answering, 257 ff.
+
+  Complement, subjective, 65.
+
+  Complex sentence, defined, 42.
+
+  Composition, oral and written, 127 ff.
+
+  Compound nouns, plural of, 20.
+
+  Compound relatives, 59.
+
+  Compound sentence, defined, 42;
+    punctuation of, 45, 173 ff.
+
+  _Con_, prefix, 32.
+
+  Conciseness of expression, 199.
+
+  Condensation to secure clearness, 200.
+
+  Conjugation, of _write_, active voice, 88 ff.;
+    of _be_, 104 ff.;
+    of _follow_, passive voice, 105 ff.
+
+  Conjunction, and the preposition, 116 ff.
+
+  Conjunctions.
+    Co�rdinate, 45;
+      punctuation with, 45, 173 ff.;
+      distinguished from conjunctive adverbs, 45.
+    Subordinate, list of, 54;
+      _than_ and _as_, 121.
+    Correlative, 122.
+
+  Conjunctive adverbs, 45;
+    distinguished from co�rdinate conjunctions, 45;
+    punctuation with, 45.
+
+  Connection, smooth, 127-128, 224 ff.;
+    methods of securing, 224 ff.
+
+  Conservation, 191-192.
+
+  Consignee, 285.
+
+  Consonant, final, doubling of, 22;
+    silent, words containing, 11.
+
+  Construction, letters dealing with contract for, 263;
+    shift of, 211.
+
+  Contract, letters dealing with, for painting iron-work, 262;
+    for the delivery of property, 263;
+    for construction, 263.
+
+  Contraction, apostrophe used with, 160.
+
+  Co�rdinate conjunctions, 45;
+    punctuation with, 45, 173 ff.
+
+  Co�rdinate expressions, 122 ff.
+
+  Copulative verbs, defined, 83.
+
+  Corporate organization, 359.
+
+  Corporation, the, 353 ff.;
+    finances of, 354;
+    capital stock of, 354 ff.;
+    dividends of, 355;
+    stockholders of, 355;
+    bonds of, 357 ff.;
+    organization of, 359;
+    directors of, 359;
+    railroad, 360-361;
+    public utility, 361-362;
+    industrial, 363;
+    topics for investigation and discussion on, 365;
+    dictation exercises on, 365 ff.
+
+  Correlatives, defined, 122;
+    correct position of with co�rdinate expressions, 122-123;
+    _either--or_ and _neither--nor_, 123.
+
+  Cost of living, paragraph on, 173.
+
+  Cotton seed, paragraph on, 176.
+
+  Cotton in the Soudan, paragraph, 181.
+
+  _Could_ and _might_, 102.
+
+  Courteous close, in business letters, 232, 237.
+
+  Courtesy in business letters, 231, 240.
+
+  Credit, 333.
+
+  Credit letters, 250 ff.
+
+  Currency, bill, 333;
+    legislation, 333, 349.
+
+  Current events, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+
+  Dangling expressions, 205 ff.
+
+  Dash, use of, 195 ff.;
+    too free use of in business letters, 243, 247.
+
+  Dead letter sale, 190.
+
+  Debate, outline for a, 141 ff.;
+    subjects for, 139 ff., 144;
+    on manufacture, suggestions for, 275;
+    on distribution, 290, 302.
+
+  Debating, 137 ff.;
+    proposition for, 137;
+    six rules for, 137 ff.;
+    false conclusions in, 138;
+    irrelevant matter in, 138.
+
+  Declarative sentence, defined, 41.
+
+  Declension of pronouns, personal, 58;
+    relative, 59;
+    interrogative, 60.
+
+  Deed, 322.
+
+  Degrees of comparison, 78-79.
+
+  Demonstrative pronouns, 60.
+
+  Departments, of banks, 333;
+    of railroads, 360.
+
+  Deposit, banks of, 334;
+    slip, 334.
+
+  Details, explanatory, necessary to secure interest, 147;
+    paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Development of paragraphs, methods of, 222-223.
+
+  _dg_, words containing, 25.
+
+  Diacritical marks, 8, 10.
+
+  Diaeresis, 9.
+
+  Dialogue, paragraphing in, 168 ff.
+
+  Dictation exercises, for series, 171;
+    for compound sentences, 173-174;
+    for initial clauses or participial phrases, 176;
+    for parenthetical expressions, 180-181;
+    for independent elements, 182-183;
+    for non-restrictive relative clauses, 186;
+    for the semicolon, 193-194;
+    on manufacture, 280-281;
+    on distribution, 305 ff.;
+    on real estate, 329 ff.;
+    on banking, 350 ff.;
+    on corporations, 365 ff.
+
+  Direct discourse, 163 ff.;
+    use of comma in, 170.
+
+  Directors of corporations, 359.
+
+  Discount, 335.
+
+  Discourse, direct, 163 ff.;
+    indirect, 166 ff.
+
+  Discussion and investigation topics, on manufacture, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 304;
+    on real estate, 327;
+    on banking, 349-350;
+    on the corporation, 365.
+
+  Dishwasher, letters to sell a, 265 ff.
+
+  Distribution.
+    Transportation an essential element, 283 ff.;
+    the steamship company, 284;
+    the railroad company, 284 ff.;
+    the retail merchant, 286 ff.;
+    the wholesale merchant, 291 ff.;
+    the mail order merchant, 295 ff.;
+    the salesman, 298 ff.;
+    suggestions for debates, 302;
+    subjects for paragraphs, 303 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion, 304;
+    bibliography, 304 ff.;
+    dictation exercises, 305 ff.
+
+  Dividends, 355.
+
+  Dividing a subject into its natural divisions, 149 ff.
+
+  Dot, 9.
+
+  Double relative, 59.
+
+  Doubling final consonants, rule for, 22.
+
+  Draft, bank, 341 ff.;
+    time, 343-344;
+    sight, 344-345.
+
+  Dropping of final _e_, 22, 25.
+
+  Druggist, outline of advertising letters sent by, 268-269.
+
+  Durability, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+
+  _E_, final, retained, 25.
+
+  _Each_, _every_, 62, 86 (3)
+
+  Economy, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  _Effect_ and _affect_, 102.
+
+  Efficiency, office, 217;
+    stenographic, 217.
+
+  _ei_ or _ie_, 24.
+
+  _Either--or_, 123.
+
+  Electric washing machine, outline of letters to sell, 269.
+
+  Elements, independent, case of, 65;
+    punctuation of, 182.
+
+  Emphatic pronouns, 59.
+
+  Emulation, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  _ence_ and _ance_, 34.
+
+  Endings, peculiar adjective, 33;
+    peculiar noun and verb, 34.
+
+  Endorsing a check, methods of, 340.
+
+  English, oral, 1, 127 ff.;
+    written, 1.
+    (See _Punctuation_, _The Clear Sentence_, _Business Letters_.)
+
+  _ent_, 33.
+
+  Enthusiasm in business, 230.
+
+  _eous_, 33.
+
+  Essentials, of a sales letter, 230;
+    in manufacture, 272-273;
+    of an advertisement, 310-311.
+
+  _Every_, number of, 86.
+
+  Examples and illustrations, paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Examples of advertisements, 318 ff.
+
+  _Except_, a preposition, 124;
+    incorrectly used as a conjunction, 124.
+
+  _Except_ and _accept_, 102.
+
+  Exclamation mark, use of, 162.
+
+  Exclamatory sentence, defined, 41.
+
+  Explanatory details, paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Explanatory expressions, punctuation of, 179 ff.
+    Appositives, 179;
+    parenthetical expressions, 180;
+    independent elements, 182;
+    explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of, 185;
+    subordinate elements coming at the end of the sentence, 188.
+
+  Exports in cattle, paragraph on, 76.
+
+  Express money order, 340-341.
+
+  Expression, conciseness of, 199;
+    variety of, 111.
+
+
+  _f_, and _fe_, plurals of nouns ending in, 19.
+
+  False conclusions in debating, 137-138.
+
+  Farm lands, 325 ff.;
+    outline of letters to sell, 267-268;
+    letters pertaining to, 325 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion on, 327;
+    dictation exercises on, 329 ff.
+
+  Farm reform, 329.
+
+  Farming specials, 330.
+
+  _Favor, your esteemed_, and similar expressions, to avoid, 243.
+
+  Fee simple, 322.
+
+  _Fewer_ and _less_, 80.
+
+  Figures, plural of, 20, 160.
+
+  Final consonant, rule for doubling, 22.
+
+  Final _e_, dropped, 22, 25;
+    retained, 25-26.
+
+  Finance department of a railroad, 360-361.
+
+  Finances of a corporation, 354.
+
+  _Fly_, _flow_, _flee_, 101.
+
+  Folding a letter, directions for, 238.
+
+  _Follow_, conjugation of in the passive voice, 105 ff.;
+    synopsis of, passive, 106.
+
+  _Following, the_, punctuation after, 195.
+
+  Follow-up letter, the, 264 ff.
+
+  _For_, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  Foreclosing a mortgage, 322.
+
+  Foreign plurals, 21.
+
+  Foreign news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+  _For example_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _For instance_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Form letter, the, 264.
+
+  Form of the business letter, 231.
+
+  Formation, of participles, 21 ff.;
+    of possessive case, 67;
+    of infinitives, 110.
+
+  Freight bill, 286.
+
+  Freight, receipt for, 285.
+
+  Furniture, outline of letters to sell, 269.
+
+  Future tense, 88 ff.;
+    progressive, 89;
+    perfect, 90.
+
+
+  _G_, pronunciation of, 24.
+
+  Gas mantles, paragraph on, 280-281.
+
+  Gold certificates, 332.
+
+  Good and bad headlines in advertisements, 313-314.
+
+  Government's Laundry, the, 173-174.
+
+  Greek roots, 30.
+
+
+  _Had ought_, 103.
+
+  "Hammock" paragraph, 216.
+
+  _Have_ and _of_, 119.
+
+  Heading of the business letter, 232, 235.
+
+  Headlines of advertisements, good and bad, 313-314.
+
+  Health, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  _Herculean_, 5.
+
+  Homonyms, 14-15.
+
+  How to advance, paragraph on, 177.
+
+  _Hoping_ and similar expressions, to avoid, 242-243.
+
+  Hyphen, use of, 196.
+
+
+  _Ible_, 33.
+
+  Ideas, mistaken, in letter writing, 241 ff.
+
+  _ie_ or _ei_, 24.
+
+  Illustrations and examples, paragraphs developed by, 222.
+
+  Imperative sentence, defined, 41.
+
+  _In_, prefix, 33.
+
+  Income of railroads, 360.
+
+  Incorrectly used, nouns and pronouns, 73-74;
+    adjectives and adverbs, 81-82;
+    verbs, 114-115;
+    prepositions, 118-119.
+
+  Indefinite _it_ or _they_, 207 ff.
+
+  Indefinite pronouns, 61;
+    used as adjectives, 61.
+
+  Independent elements, case of, 65;
+    punctuation of, 182.
+
+  Indicative mode, defined, 112;
+    of _be,_ 112.
+
+  Indirect discourse, 166 ff.
+
+  Indirect object, 66.
+
+  Industrial corporations, 363.
+
+  Industry, 273.
+
+  Infinitive, defined, 109;
+    tenses and voices of, 110;
+    split, 77, 209.
+
+  Initial clause or participial phrase, punctuation of, 176.
+
+  Insurance, 327 ff.;
+    letters pertaining to, 328 ff.
+
+  Insurance and real estate, 321 ff.
+
+  Interesting words, 1 ff.
+
+  Interjection, 49;
+    _O_, 161.
+
+  Interrogation mark, use of, 162;
+    position of with quotation marks, 163 ff.
+
+  Interrogative pronouns, declined, 60.
+
+  Interrogative sentence, 41.
+
+  Intransitive verb, 83.
+
+  Introduction of the letter, 232, 235-236.
+
+  Investigation and discussion, topics for, on manufacture, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 304;
+    on real estate, 327;
+    on banking, 349-350;
+    on the corporation, 365.
+
+  Investments, mining, 365-366.
+
+  Investors, 184, 185.
+
+  _ious_, 33.
+
+  Irregular plurals of nouns, 19.
+
+  Irregular verbs, principal parts of, 95 ff.
+
+  _ise_, _ize_, _yze_, 34.
+
+  _It_ used indefinitely, 207 ff.
+
+  _Italic_, derivation of, 3.
+
+  Italian _a_, 9.
+
+  _Its_ and _it's_, 160 ff.
+
+
+  _k_, insertion of, 25.
+
+  _Kindly_, abuse of, 243.
+
+
+  Labor, 274.
+
+  Local news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+  Land business, the, 325 ff.
+
+  Latin-American trade, the, 306.
+
+  Latin prefixes and suffixes, 31.
+
+  _Lay_ and _lie_, 100-101.
+
+  _Learn_ and _teach_, 101.
+
+  Lease, 321.
+
+  _Least_, used in the superlative degree, 78.
+
+  Legal department of a railroad, 360-361.
+
+  Length of good headlines in advertisements, 313.
+
+  _Less_ and _fewer_, 80.
+
+  Letter beginnings, 240, 247, 248-249.
+
+  Letter, to investors, 47;
+    to accompany a style book, 172;
+    to sell a trip on the water, 183-184;
+    to sell a house coat, 221-222;
+    ordering goods, 239;
+    from A. Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby, 240-241;
+    to accompany a catalogue, 245 ff.;
+    to sell cheese, 246;
+    to sell hinged paper, 247-248;
+    to open an account, 250-251;
+    credit, 251-252;
+    requesting payment, 254 ff.;
+    answering a complaint, 257-258;
+    of application, 260-261;
+    follow-up, 265 ff.;
+    from a bank, soliciting a trust (to be punctuated), 348-349;
+    market, 366.
+
+  Letters, plurals of, 20.
+
+  Letters, business, in the manufacturing business, 276 ff.;
+    in the retail business, 287 ff.;
+    in the wholesale business, 292 ff.;
+    in the mail order business, 295 ff.;
+    to help the salesman, 301;
+    pertaining to banking, 345 ff.
+    (See _Business letters_, _Letter_.)
+
+  _Lie_ and _lay_, 100-101.
+
+  _Like_, followed by the objective case, 124.
+
+  _Loose_ and _lose_, 103.
+
+  _Lose_ and _loose_, 103.
+
+  Luck and labor, paragraph on, 174.
+
+
+  Macron, the, 9.
+
+  Magazine advertising, 311 ff.
+
+  Mail order business, the, 295 ff..
+
+  Manufacture, 270 ff.;
+    essentials in, 272-273;
+    subjects for themes on, 275;
+    suggestions for debates on, 275;
+    letters in, 276 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussions on, 278 ff.;
+    bibliography for, 280;
+    dictation exercises in, 280 ff.
+
+  Market letter, 366.
+
+  Market value, 355 ff.
+
+  Marks, diacritical, 7;
+    question, 162;
+    quotation, 163 ff.
+
+  Materials, raw, 274.
+
+  Maturity of bonds, 358, 364.
+
+  _May_ and _can_, 102.
+
+  Merchant, the retail, 286 ff.;
+    the wholesale, 291 ff.;
+    the mail order, 295 ff.
+
+  Methods of endorsing a check, 340.
+
+  _Might_ and _could_, 102.
+
+  Mining investment, principles of, 365.
+
+  Misplaced modifiers, 209-210.
+
+  Mispronounced, words commonly, 13, 17.
+
+  Mistaken ideas in letter writing, 241 ff.
+
+  Mode, defined, 112;
+    indicative and subjunctive of _be_, 112;
+    subjunctive denoting possibility, 113.
+
+  Model letters. (See _Letter_.)
+
+  Modern business done by letter, 229 ff.
+
+  Modifiers, adjective and adverb, word, 49;
+    phrase, 52 ff.;
+    clause, 54-55;
+    used to secure unity, 202;
+    misplaced, 209-210.
+
+  Money, 332;
+    kinds of paper, 332 ff.;
+    its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Money order, express, 340-341;
+    postal, 341.
+
+  Monosyllables ending in silent _e_, 9.
+
+  Month from year, comma used to separate, 178.
+
+  _More_ or _less_, used in the comparative degree, 78.
+
+  Mortgage, 322, 357 ff.;
+    foreclosing a, 322.
+
+  _Most_ or _least_, used in the superlative degree, 78.
+
+  Motives to which advertisements appeal, 311.
+
+
+  _Namely_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Names, suggestive, in advertising, 313.
+
+  National bank notes, 333.
+
+  National news, to suggest subjects for talks, 155.
+
+  Necessary words, omission of, 210-211.
+
+  Need, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Negative comparison, 125.
+
+  Negative, outline for a debate on advertising, 143 ff.
+
+  _Neither--nor_, 123.
+
+  News, to suggest topics for talks, 155.
+
+  Nominative absolute, 65.
+
+  Nominative case, 64 ff.;
+    as subject, 64;
+    as subjective complement (predicate nominative), 65;
+    as appositive, 65;
+    independent, 65;
+    absolute, 65.
+
+  _Nor_, 123.
+
+  Notes, 359;
+    promissory, 336.
+
+  Noun, defined, 49;
+    clause, 54;
+    and the pronoun, 57 ff.;
+    common, 57;
+    proper, 57;
+    collective, 57;
+    abstract, 57;
+    verbal, 57;
+    modified by _every_ and similar words, 86;
+    collective, number of, 86.
+
+  Nouns, rules for plurals of, regular, 18;
+    ending in _y_, 19;
+    ending in _o_, 19;
+    ending in _f_ and _fe_, 19;
+    irregular, 19-20;
+    compound, 20;
+    foreign, 21;
+    possessive case of, 67;
+    incorrectly used, 73-74;
+    joined by _or_, 86;
+    punctuation of series of, 171 ff.
+
+  Number of verb, 86.
+
+
+  _O_, capitalization of, 161.
+
+  _o_, plural of nouns ending in, 19.
+
+  Object, of a preposition, 55, 66;
+    of a transitive verb, 66;
+    indirect, 66;
+    second, 66.
+
+  Objective case, 64, 66;
+    as direct object of a transitive verb, 66;
+    as object of a preposition, 66, 119;
+    as indirect object, 66;
+    as second object, 66;
+    as appositive, 66;
+    as adverbial modifier, 66;
+    following _like_, 124.
+
+  Observation, subjects taken from, 146 ff.
+
+  Obsolete words, 3.
+
+  _Of_ and _have_, 119.
+
+  _Of_ phrase substituted for the possessive case, 67.
+
+  _Oh_, 161.
+
+  Omission, of letters, 160;
+    of necessary words, 210 ff.;
+    of subject in business letters, 242.
+
+  Opening an account, letters for, 240 ff.
+
+  Operating department of a railroad, 360.
+
+  Oral English, exercises in, 127 ff.
+
+  Oral expression, 127 ff.;
+    variety of, 111.
+
+  Oral reproduction, from magazines, 147;
+    from newspapers, 154 ff.
+
+  Oral exercises, in general, 127 ff.;
+    on manufacture, 273 ff.;
+    in the retail trade, 286;
+    in the wholesale trade, 290 ff.;
+    in the mail order business, 295;
+    in connection with the salesman, 299 ff.
+
+  Order bill of lading, 285.
+
+  Ordering goods, letter for, 239.
+
+  Order, express money, 340-341;
+    postal money, 341.
+
+  Organization, corporate, 359;
+    of a railroad, 360.
+
+  Outline, for a debate, 141 ff.;
+    how to make an, 151 ff.
+
+
+  Paper money, kinds of, 332 ff.
+
+  Paragraph, the, 215 ff.;
+    in dialogue, 168 ff.;
+    proper length of, 215-216;
+    topic sentence in, 216 ff.;
+    "hammock," 216;
+    how developed, 222-223.
+
+  Paragraphs on, Sacramento City, 48;
+    exports in cattle, 76;
+    cost of living, 173;
+    the government's laundry, 173-174;
+    luck and labor, 174;
+    sawdust, 174-175;
+    a new kind of wood, 175;
+    hogs as mortgage lifters, 175;
+    cotton seed, 176;
+    making paper, 176-177;
+    how to advance, 177;
+    bubonic plague, 177;
+    politics of a city, 181;
+    cotton in the Soudan, 181;
+    the "yellow" invasion, 182;
+    saving, 182, 184, 193;
+    investors, 184, 185;
+    Chicago's milk supply, 186;
+    the dead letter sale, 190;
+    industries, controlled, 193;
+    the secret blotter, 197;
+    a mummy's doll, 198;
+    office efficiency, 217;
+    stenographic efficiency, 217;
+    business courtesy, 218;
+    the rural landscape of Norway, 218;
+    the _Spectator_, 218-219;
+    income, 225;
+    gas mantles, 280-281;
+    production of wool, 281;
+    casting metals, 281;
+    transportation, 305;
+    the Latin-American trade, 306;
+    the parcel post in Africa, 306;
+    the remedy for wrecks, 306-307;
+    colonization, 307;
+    farm reform, 329;
+    farming specials, 330;
+    selection of seed, 330-331;
+    the clearing house, 350-351;
+    washed money, 351-352;
+    an early monopoly, 365;
+    mining investments, 365-366.
+
+  Paragraphs, subjects for. See _Subjects_.
+
+  Parenthesis marks, use of, 196;
+    wrongly used to cancel expressions, 196.
+
+  Parenthetical expressions, punctuation of, 180 ff.
+
+  Participle, defined, 109;
+    tenses and voices of, 109;
+    the dangling, 205-206.
+
+  Participles, formation of, 21;
+    of verbs in _y_, 23.
+
+  Participial phrases, punctuation of, 176 ff.;
+    188 ff.
+
+  Parts of speech:
+    The noun and the pronoun, 49, 57 ff.;
+    the adjective and the adverb, 49, 75, ff.;
+    the verb, 49, 83 ff.;
+    the preposition and the conjunction, 49, 116 ff.;
+    the interjection, 49.
+
+  Parts, principal, of irregular verbs, 95 ff.
+
+  Par value, 355.
+
+  Passive voice, defined, 84;
+    conjugation of _follow_, in the, 105 ff.;
+    synopsis of _follow_ in the, 106.
+
+  Past tense, 88;
+    progressive form of, 89;
+    emphatic form of, 89;
+    perfect, 90.
+
+  Payment, letters requesting, 253 ff.
+
+  Perfect tenses, 89 ff.
+
+  Period, use of, 162.
+
+  Personal pronouns declined, 58.
+
+  Personality essential in a salesman, 298.
+
+  Persons of the pronouns, 58.
+
+  Phrase modifiers, 52 ff.
+
+  Phrases, prepositional, 52 ff.;
+    adverbial, 52-53;
+    adjective, 52-53;
+    classification of, 110;
+    punctuation of series of, 171 ff.;
+    initial participial, punctuation of, 176;
+    incorrectly used as a sentence, 45, 242.
+
+  Plurals, of nouns, 18 ff.;
+    of letters and figures, 20, 160;
+    of foreign nouns, 21.
+
+  Positive degree, 78, 79.
+
+  Possessive case, 64, 67;
+    rules for forming, 67;
+    separate possession, in the, 67;
+    with verbal nouns, 67 ff.;
+    _of_ phrase substituted for, 67;
+    use of the apostrophe in the, 159.
+
+  Possibility, use of the subjunctive mode to show, 113 ff.
+
+  Postal money order, 341.
+
+  Predicate, of the sentence, 41;
+    nominative, 65.
+
+  Preferred stock, 355.
+
+  Prefix, usually constituting a syllable, 16;
+    Anglo-Saxon, 29;
+    Latin, 31;
+    _ad_, _con_, and _in_, 32-33.
+
+  Present tense, 88;
+    progressive, 88;
+    emphatic, 88;
+    perfect, 89.
+
+  Preposition, defined, 49;
+    phrase introduced by, 52;
+    followed by the objective case, 66, 119;
+    and the conjunction, 116 ff.;
+    the wrong, 119;
+    necessary, 119.
+
+  Prepositional phrases, 52-53.
+
+  Prepositions, and adverbs confused, 52;
+    list of, 53;
+    used with certain verbs, 116-117;
+    incorrectly used, 118-119.
+
+  Pride, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Principal clauses, 42.
+
+  Principal parts of irregular verbs, 95 ff.
+
+  Progressive tenses, 88 ff.; 105.
+
+  Promissory note, 335.
+
+  Pronominal adjectives, 60.
+
+  Pronoun, defined, 49;
+    and the noun, 57 ff.;
+    incorrect use of _same_ as a pronoun, 72-73.
+
+  Pronouns, 58 ff.;
+    personal, declined, 58;
+    emphatic, 59;
+    reflexive, 59;
+    list of relative, 54;
+    declension of relative, 59;
+    compound relative, 59;
+    double relative, 59;
+    restrictive relative, 59 ff.;
+    interrogative declined, 60;
+    demonstrative, 60;
+    indefinite, 61;
+    adjective, 61;
+    possessive in form, not in use, 59 (note);
+    incorrectly used, 73 ff.;
+    joined by _or_, 86.
+
+  Pronunciation, 7 ff.;
+    slurring syllables in, 7;
+    of _c_ and _g_, 24.
+
+  Proper noun, defined, 57;
+    capitalization of, 57, 161.
+
+  Proposition for debate, 137.
+
+  Public utility corporations, 361 ff.
+
+  Punctuation, 158 ff.;
+    apostrophe, 159 ff.;
+    capitals, 160 ff.;
+    period, 162;
+    interrogation mark, 162;
+    exclamation mark, 162;
+    quotation marks, 163 ff.;
+    comma, 170 ff.;
+    semicolon, 192 ff.;
+    colon, 194 ff.;
+    dash, 195 ff.;
+    parenthesis marks, 196;
+    hyphen, 196 ff.;
+    of series, 170 ff.;
+    of compound sentences, 45, 173 ff.;
+    of initial clause or participial phrase, 175 ff.;
+    of explanatory expressions, 179 ff.;
+    after _as follows_, etc., 195;
+    after _namely_, etc., 195.
+
+
+  Quality, its appeal in advertising, 311-312.
+
+  Questions for discussion on, manufacture, 273-274;
+    the retail merchant, 286-287;
+    the wholesale merchant, 291-292;
+    the mail order merchant, 295;
+    advertising, 309-310;
+    real estate, 323;
+    the corporation, 363-364.
+
+  Quitclaim deed, 322.
+
+  Quotation marks, use of, 163 ff.
+
+  Quotations, use of comma in, 170 ff.
+
+
+  Railroad, the, 360;
+    sources of income of, 360;
+    organization of, 360;
+    departments of, 360 ff.
+
+  Railroad company, the, 284, 360.
+
+  _Raise_ and _rise_, 101.
+
+  Raw materials, 274.
+
+  Reading, subjects taken from, 147 ff.
+
+  _Real_ and _very_, 81.
+
+  Real estate and insurance, 321.
+
+  Real estate business, 321 ff.
+    Rent, 321;
+    lease, 321;
+    warranty deed, 322;
+    quitclaim deed, 322;
+    clear title, 322;
+    fee simple, 322;
+    mortgage, 322;
+    foreclosing a mortgage, 322;
+    agent and commission, 323;
+    letters in, 324 ff.;
+    topics for investigation and discussion, 327.
+
+  Receipt for freight, 285.
+
+  Redemption of bonds, 358.
+
+  Reflexive pronouns, 59.
+
+  Reform, farm, 329.
+
+  Relative pronouns, list of, 54, 59;
+    declined, 59;
+    double, 59;
+    restrictive, 59 ff.;
+    compound, 59.
+
+  Relative value of different forms of advertising, 310.
+
+  Remedy for wrecks, 306-307.
+
+  Remittance, forms of, 338 ff.
+    Check, 339;
+    certified check, 339 ff.;
+    endorsement, methods of, 340;
+    express money order, 340;
+    postal money order, 341;
+    bank draft, 341 ff.;
+    time draft, 343 ff.;
+    sight draft, 344 ff.
+
+  Rent, 321.
+
+  Reproduction, oral, from magazines, 147 ff.;
+    from newspapers, 154 ff.
+
+  Requesting payment, letters, 253 ff.
+
+  Restricting the subject, 150.
+
+  Restrictive relative pronouns, 59 ff.
+
+  Retail merchant, the, 286 ff.
+
+  Richards' baby stocking fund, 337.
+
+  _Rise_ and _raise_, 101.
+
+  Roots, Greek, 30.
+
+  Rules.
+    For spelling:
+      regular plurals in _s_ and _es_, 18;
+      changing final _y_ to _i_, 19;
+      nouns in _o_, 19;
+      nouns in _f_ and _fe_, 19;
+      plural by change of vowel, 19;
+      by adding _en_, 19;
+      no change for the plural, 20;
+      two plurals, 20;
+      compound nouns, 20;
+      plurals of letters and figures, 20;
+      foreign plurals, 21;
+      doubling final consonant, 21-22;
+      retaining _y_ before _ing_, 23;
+      _ie_ or _ei_, 24;
+      soft _c_ and _g_, 24;
+      dropping final silent _e_, 25;
+      retaining final _e_, 25-26.
+    For punctuation:
+      the apostrophe, to show the possessive case of nouns, 159;
+      to show omission of letters, 160;
+      to show plurals of letters, figures, and words not
+          regularly nouns, 160;
+      capitals, 160 ff.;
+      the period, 162;
+      the interrogation mark, 162;
+      the exclamation mark, 162;
+      quotation marks, 163 ff.;
+      comma in direct quotations, 170;
+      comma in series, 171 ff.;
+      comma in compound sentence, 173 ff.;
+      comma after initial clause or participial phrase, 175 ff.;
+      comma to separate month from year, etc., 178;
+      comma to show omission of words, 178;
+      comma to set off appositive, 179 ff.;
+      comma to set off parenthetical expressions, 180 ff.;
+      comma to set off independent elements, 182 ff.;
+      comma to set off non-restrictive relative clause, 185 ff.;
+      comma to set off subordinate element at the end of the
+              sentence, 188 ff.;
+      the semicolon, 192 ff.;
+      the colon, 194 ff.;
+      the dash, 195 ff.;
+      parenthesis marks, 196;
+      the hyphen, 196.
+
+
+  _S 1_, comma fault, 44.
+
+  _S 2_, use of phrase or clause as sentence, 45.
+
+  Sacramento City, paragraph on, 48.
+
+  _Salary_, 3.
+
+  Sales letter, the, 244 ff.
+
+  Salesman, the, 298 ff.;
+    letters to help the, 301-302.
+
+  Salutation, the, of business letters, 232, 236-237.
+
+  _Same_, not a pronoun, 72-73;
+    distinctly business blunder, 243.
+
+  Saving, paragraphs on, 182, 184, 193.
+
+  Savings banks, 334, 336; postal, 337.
+
+  Savings department of bank, 332.
+
+  _Saw_ and _seen_, 99-100.
+
+  Sawdust, paragraph on, 174.
+
+  Second object, 66.
+
+  Secretary's report, the, 115 (note).
+
+  _Sede_, _cede_, _ceed_, 34.
+
+  Selection of seed, 330-331.
+
+  Semicolon, uses of, 45, 174, 192 ff.
+
+  Sentence, the, and its elements, 41 ff.;
+    subject of, 41;
+    simple, 42;
+    complex, 42;
+    compound, 42;
+    compound, punctuation of, 45, 174;
+    predicate of, 41;
+    declarative, defined, 41;
+    interrogative, defined, 41;
+    imperative, defined, 41;
+    exclamatory, defined, 41;
+    simple, defined, 42;
+    compound, defined, 42;
+    complex, defined, 42;
+    errors, 44.
+
+  Separation, the keynote of punctuation, 159.
+
+  Series, punctuation of, 171 ff.
+
+  _Set_, and _sit_, 101.
+
+  _Shall_ and _will_, 89, 92.
+
+  Shareholders, 355.
+
+  Shares, of capital stock, 355.
+
+  Shift in construction, 211 ff.
+
+  Short sentences, combination of, 202 ff.
+
+  _Should_ and _would_, 93-94.
+
+  Sight draft, 344-345.
+
+  Signature, the, in business letters, 232, 237-238.
+
+  Silent consonant, words containing, 11.
+
+  Silent vowels, 11.
+
+  Silver certificates, 332.
+
+  Simple sentence, defined, 42.
+
+  _Since_, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  _sion_, _tion_, _cion_, 34.
+
+  _Sit_ and _set_, 101.
+
+  Slang, 129.
+
+  Slurring of syllables, 7.
+
+  Smooth connection, 127-128, 224;
+    methods of securing, 224.
+
+  Snappy style, in letter writing, 246.
+
+  _So--as_, in negative comparisons, 125.
+
+  _So_ habit, to avoid the, 111, 128.
+
+  Soudan, cotton in the, 181.
+
+  South Africa, parcel post in, 306.
+
+  Specials, railroad farming, 330.
+
+  _Spectator, The_, paragraph from Macaulay, 218-219.
+
+  Speech, parts of, 48 ff.
+
+  Speech, plan in making, 131 ff.;
+    outline for, 151 ff.
+
+  Spelling, rules, 18 ff.;
+    500 words for, 36 ff.
+
+  Split infinitive, 77, 209.
+
+  States, abbreviation of names of, 26-27.
+
+  Steamship company, the, 284.
+
+  Steel, trouble in introducing, 191.
+
+  Stenographic efficiency, 217.
+
+  Still-life advertisements, 314.
+
+  Stock, capital, common and preferred, 353, 355;
+    authorized capital, 355.
+
+  Stockholders, 355.
+
+  Stocks, of a corporation, 354 ff.
+
+  Straight bill of lading, 285.
+
+  Style, in letter writing, 244 ff.
+
+  Subject, as a whole, 148;
+    divisions of, 149 ff.;
+    making outline of, 151 ff.;
+    restricting the, 150, 153;
+    of the sentence, 41, 65;
+    simple, 55;
+    complete, 55;
+    of subordinate clause, 55;
+    compound, number of, 86;
+    incorrect omission of, in business letters, 242.
+
+  Subjective complement, 65.
+
+  Subjects, how to choose, 146 ff.;
+    for debates, 141, 144, 275, 290, 302;
+    for compositions on manufacture, 274, 275, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 299, 301, 303, 304;
+    on advertising, 317, 318;
+    suggested by personal experience, 147;
+    suggested by reading, 147, 154.
+
+  Subjunctive mode, defined, 112;
+    of _be_, 112;
+    used to denote possibility, 113.
+
+  Subordinate clauses, adjective, adverb, noun, 54;
+    subject of, 55.
+
+  Subordinate conjunctions, list of, 54.
+
+  Subordination, in the sentence, 201 ff.
+
+  Subscription, outline of letters to sell, 268.
+
+  Success, elements of, 135.
+
+  Successful men and women, 136.
+
+  Suffix, usually constituting a syllable, 16;
+    Anglo-Saxon, 29;
+    adjective, 30;
+    verb, 31;
+    noun, 31;
+   _able_ and _ible_, 33;
+   _ant_ and _ent_, 33.
+
+  Suggestions for debates, 139 ff., 144;
+    on manufacture, 275;
+    on distribution, 290, 302.
+
+  Suggestive names in advertisements, 313;
+    headlines, 313-314.
+
+  Superlative degree, of adjectives, 78;
+    of adverbs, 79.
+
+  Superlatives, to be avoided, 129.
+
+  Syllabication, 15.
+
+  Syllables, slurred, 7;
+    division of words into, 15 ff.
+
+  Synopsis of _write_, active voice, 91.
+
+
+  _Teach_ and _learn_, 101.
+
+  Technical words, 4.
+
+  Tense, defined, 88;
+    of participle, 109;
+    of infinitive, 110.
+
+  Tenses, distinguished, 88 ff.
+    (See _Present tense_, _Past tense_, _Perfect tenses_.)
+
+  _Than_ and _as_, case following, 121.
+
+  _That_, restrictive relative, 59 ff.
+
+  _That is_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  _The following_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Themes, oral, 127 ff.
+    (See _Oral themes_.)
+
+  _There_, _their_, 126.
+
+  Thinking, business, 2.
+
+  _Thus_, punctuation with, 195.
+
+  Tilde, 9.
+
+  Time draft, 343-344.
+
+  _Tion_, _sion_, _cion_, 34.
+
+  _Tious_, troublesome ending, 33.
+
+  Title, clear, to property, 322.
+
+  Titles, 150;
+    of officials and of honor, 161;
+    of books and plays, 162.
+
+  _To_, _too_, _two_, distinguished, 125-126.
+
+  Tone, of the letter, 240.
+
+  Topic sentence, in the paragraph, 216 ff.
+
+  Topics for investigation and discussion, on manufacture, 278-279;
+    on distribution, 304;
+    on real estate, 327;
+    on banking, 349-350;
+    on the corporation, 365.
+
+  Trade, Latin-American, 306.
+
+  Traffic department of railroad, 359.
+
+  Transitive verb, followed by objective case, 66;
+    defined, 83.
+
+  Transportation, 283.
+
+  Troublesome verbs, 100 ff.;
+    _lie_ and _lay_, 100 ff.;
+    _sit_, _set_, 101;
+    _fly_, _flow_, _flee_, 101;
+    _rise_, _raise_, 101;
+    _teach_, _learn_, 101;
+    _may_, _can_, 102;
+    _might_, _could_, 102;
+    _accept_, _except_, 102;
+    _affect_, _effect_, 102 ff.;
+    _lose_, _loose_, 103.
+
+  Trust companies, 334, 337.
+
+  Trust department of a bank, 332.
+
+
+  Uncertain antecedents, pronouns with, 207 ff.
+
+  United States treasury notes, 333.
+
+  Unity, in the sentence, 199;
+    in the paragraph, 216.
+
+  Unless, a conjunction, 124.
+
+  Until, as preposition and conjunction, 55.
+
+  Usefulness, its appeal in advertising, 311.
+
+  Utility corporations, public, 36 ff.
+
+
+  Value, par of stock, 355 ff.;
+    market, 355 ff.
+
+  Vanity, its appeal in advertising, 311.
+
+  Variety of expression, 111.
+
+  Verb, the, 83 ff.;
+    defined, 49;
+    transitive, 66, 83;
+    intransitive, 83;
+    copulative, 83;
+    active voice of, 84;
+    passive voice of, 84;
+    number of, 85;
+    person of, 85;
+    singular with certain words, 85 ff.;
+    plural with certain subjects, 86;
+    tense of, 88 ff.;
+    _shall_ and _will_, 92;
+    _should_ and _would_, 93;
+    conjugation of _be_, 104 ff.;
+    _be_ used to make progressive tenses, 105;
+    _be_ used to make passive voice, 105 ff.;
+    the participle, 109;
+    the infinitive, 110;
+    mode, 112 ff.;
+    conjugation of _write_, active voice, 88 ff.;
+    _follow_, passive voice, 105 ff.;
+    synopsis of _write_, active voice, 91;
+    synopsis of _follow_, passive voice, 106.
+
+  Verbal noun, defined, 57;
+    possessive case with, 67 ff.
+
+  Verbs, incorrectly used, 114;
+    participles of verbs in _y_, 23;
+    taking two objects, 66;
+    taking indirect and direct objects, 66;
+    principal parts of irregular, 95 ff.;
+    troublesome, 100 ff.;
+    _lie_, _lay_, distinguished, 100;
+    _sit_ and _set_, distinguished, 101;
+    _fly_, _flow_, _flee_, distinguished, 101;
+    _rise_ and _raise_, distinguished, 101;
+    _teach_ and _learn_, distinguished, 101;
+    _may_ and _can_, distinguished, 102;
+    _might_ and _could_, distinguished, 102;
+    _accept_ and _except_, distinguished, 102;
+    _affect_ and _effect_, distinguished, 102;
+    _lose_ and _loose_, distinguished, 103;
+    _had ought_, incorrectly used, 103;
+    certain prepositions used with, 116 ff.
+
+  _Very_ and _real_, distinguished, 81
+
+  Voice, active and passive, defined, 84;
+    of the participle, 109;
+    of the infinitive, 110.
+
+  Vowels, pronunciation of, 9;
+    length of, in monosyllables ending in _e_, 9;
+    words containing silent, 11.
+
+
+  Warranty deed, 322.
+
+  Washed money, 351-352.
+
+  Washing machine, letters to sell, outline, 269.
+
+  Watered stock, 357.
+
+  Way-bill, railroad, 286.
+
+  _Were_, _where_, distinguished, 126.
+
+  _What_, double relative, 59.
+
+  _Who_, and _which_, used restrictively, 60.
+
+  _Who_ and _whom_, 70 ff.
+
+  _Whoever_ and _whomever_, 71.
+
+  Wholesale merchant, the, 291 ff.
+
+  _Why_, childish use of, 128.
+
+  _Will_ and _shall_, 89, 92 ff.
+
+  _Will you be so good as to_, 243.
+
+  Wish, subjunctive to express, 113.
+
+  _Without_, a preposition, 124;
+    incorrectly used as conjunction, 124.
+
+  Word analysis, 29 ff.
+
+  Words, interesting, 1 ff.;
+    obsolete, 3;
+    technical, 4;
+    similarly pronounced 14, 15;
+    frequently mispronounced, 13, 17;
+    containing _dg_, 25;
+    ending in silent _e_, retain or drop _e_, 25;
+    analysis of, 32;
+    easily confused, list of, 35 ff.;
+    500 for spelling, 36 ff.;
+    used as different parts of speech, 51;
+    omission of, punctuation to show, 178.
+
+  Wordiness, 130 ff, 200-201.
+
+  _Would_ and _should_, 93 ff.
+
+  _Would say_, to be avoided, 243.
+
+  _Write_, conjugation of, active voice, 88 ff.;
+    synopsis of, passive voice, 91.
+
+  Writing advertisements, exercises in, 315-316.
+
+  Written composition, 1, 127 ff.
+
+  Written expression, 1, 127 ff.
+
+
+  _Y_, nouns ending in, plural of, 19.
+
+  "Yellow" invasion, paragraph on the, 182.
+
+  _You_ attitude, the, in letter writing, 244.
+
+  _Yze_, _ize_, _ise_, 34.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Text uses both "to-day" and "today."
+
+Obvious punctuation errors were corrected.
+
+Pages 116-117, entry for "confide" was originally placed after
+"correspond." It was relocated to be in the correct alphabetical order.
+
+Pages 171-172, the examples were placed out of order. The section
+beginning "reporter, business manager" to the end of the paragraph was
+originally located after a space following the Abraham Lincoln
+paragraph. The first part of the Abraham Lincoln paragraph originally
+ended with "nor a year it". The rest of that paragraph was originally
+located at the top of the next page. These paragraphs have been adjusted
+to read correctly. Copies of the original pages may be seen in the
+transcriber's notes for the HTML version of this text.
+
+Page 245, "foward" changed to "forward" (We shall forward)
+
+Page 337, "committe" changed to "committee" (A committee was appointed)
+
+Page 359, "natually" changed to "naturally" (will naturally lead us)
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH***
+
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Business English, by Rose Buhlig</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Business English</p>
+<p>       A Practice Book</p>
+<p>Author: Rose Buhlig</p>
+<p>Release Date: November 18, 2011  [eBook #38046]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUSINESS ENGLISH***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by<br />
+    Suzanne Lybarger, Brian Janes, Emmy,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>BUSINESS ENGLISH</h1>
+
+<h2>A PRACTICE BOOK</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>BY<br />
+
+<span class='author'>ROSE BUHLIG</span><br />
+
+<span class='small'>TILDEN HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO</span><br />
+
+
+<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />
+D. C. HEATH &amp; CO., PUBLISHERS<br />
+<span class='small'>BOSTON   &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  NEW YORK &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;    CHICAGO</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='copyright'>
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1914,<br />
+By D. C. Heath &amp; Co.</span><br />
+2FI<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> author of this book and the writer of this preface have
+never met. Their respective fields of labor are a thousand miles
+apart. Yet such is the force of ideas that many of their thoughts
+and sympathies are common.</p>
+
+<p>Business English! The very name is an anomaly. From a
+literary point of view there is no such thing. English is English
+whether it be used to express the creations of our imagination,
+our aesthetic appreciations, or our daily wants. There is
+no magical combination of words, phrases, and sentences that is
+peculiar and distinctive to business transactions. Business English
+as used in these pages means effective communication, both
+oral and written. The author's aim throughout has been to
+teach the art of using words in such a way as to make people
+think and act. To do this she has applied the principles of literary
+composition to the highly complex and ever increasing
+problems of our business life. She realizes that business is vital,
+and that the problems of commerce are not to be met and
+handled with dead forms and stereotyped expressions of legal
+blanks.</p>
+
+<p>To use our language effectively it is necessary to have an
+understanding of its elements. Thus the author has very wisely
+devoted much space to word-study and English grammar. This
+is a field commonly neglected in books on the subject. The
+people engaged in business are, on the whole, woefully weak in
+the grammar of our language. It is believed that the treatment
+herein will be a great aid in correcting this deficiency. If we
+have ideas, we must express them in words, and our words
+should be so chosen and arranged as not to offend, but to please
+and interest. This result can be secured by a systematic study
+of Part I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Part II deals with oral and written composition. Here the
+author has arranged her subjects in such a way as to give the
+whole a cumulative effect. The method throughout is inductive,
+and sufficient examples are always given to warrant the
+conclusions drawn. Most textbooks on Business English neglect
+the subject of oral English. This book regards the spoken word
+as important as the written word.</p>
+
+<p>If there be any one feature in this textbook more to be commended
+than another, it is the exposition in Part III. The
+situations arising in many different kinds of business are here
+analyzed. The author believes that the way to become a good
+business correspondent is, first, to learn what the situation
+demands and, second, to practice meeting the demands. We
+must know before we write. Given a knowledge of the subject,
+we must have much practice in expressing ourselves in such a
+way as to make our composition effective. The author meets
+this need by supplying many and varied exercises for practice.
+These exercises are live, practical, and up-to-date. The problems
+to be solved are real, not imaginary. Thus the power to
+be gained in meeting these situations and solving these problems
+will prove a real asset to those who contemplate a business
+career. It is confidently hoped that both teachers and pupils
+will find in this work material which will help them to prepare
+themselves to meet the many problems and demands of our
+growing commercial needs.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span class="smcap">Daniel B. Duncan</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<span class="smcap">Columbia University</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>January, 1914.</i></span><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Part I&mdash;Word Study and Grammar</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><span class="smcap"><span class='small'>Chapter</span></span>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><span class="smcap"><span class='small'>Page</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Interesting Words</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Pronunciation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Spelling Rules</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Word Analysis</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Sentence and its Elements</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VI&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Noun and the Pronoun</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VII&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Adjective and the Adverb</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VIII&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Verb</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IX&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Preposition and the Conjunction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Part II&mdash;Composition: Oral and Written</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>X&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Oral English</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XI&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Choosing Subjects</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XII&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Punctuation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIII&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Clear Sentence</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIV&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Paragraph</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XV&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Business Letters</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Part III&mdash;Composition: Business Practice</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVI&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Manufacture</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVII&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Distribution</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVIII&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Advertising</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIX&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Real Estate and Insurance</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XX&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Banking</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXI&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Corporation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>BUSINESS ENGLISH</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>PART I&mdash;WORD STUDY AND GRAMMAR</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>INTERESTING WORDS</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Business</span> English is the expression of our commercial life
+in English. It is not synonymous with letter writing. To
+be sure, business letters are important, but they form only a
+part of one of the two large divisions into which the subject
+naturally falls.</p>
+
+<p>First, there is <i>oral expression</i>, important because so many
+of our business transactions are conducted personally.
+Thousands of salesmen daily move from place to place over
+the entire country, earning their salaries by talking convincingly
+of the goods that they have to sell. A still greater
+number of clerks, salesmen, managers, and officials orally
+transact business in our shops, stores, offices, and banks.
+Complaints are adjusted; difficulties are disentangled; and
+affairs of magnitude are consummated in personal interviews,
+the matter under discussion often being thought too
+important to be entrusted to correspondence. In every
+business oral English is essential.</p>
+
+<p>Second, there is <i>written expression</i>. This takes account of
+the writing of advertisements, circulars, booklets, and prospectuses,
+as well as of letters. And in the preparation of
+these oral English is fundamental. It precedes and practically
+includes the written expression. For example, we
+say colloquially that a good advertisement "talks." We
+mean that the writer has so fully realized the buyer's point
+of view that the words of the advertisement seem to speak
+directly to the reader, arousing his interest or perhaps answering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+his objection. Oral English is fundamental, too, in the
+writing of letters, for most letters are dictated and not written.
+The correspondent dictates them to his stenographer or
+to a recording machine in the same tone, probably, that he
+would use if the customer were sitting before him.</p>
+
+<p>But in taking this point of view, we should not minimize
+the importance of written business English. In a way, it is
+more difficult to write well than it is to talk well. In talking
+we are not troubled with the problems of correct spelling,
+proper punctuation, and good paragraphing. We may even
+repeat somewhat, if only we are persuasive. But in writing
+we are confronted with the necessity of putting the best
+thoughts into the clearest, most concise language, at the
+same time obeying all the rules of spelling, punctuation, and
+grammar. The business man must be sure of these details
+in order to know that his letters and advertising matter are
+correct. The stenographer, especially, must be thoroughly
+familiar with them, so that she may correctly transcribe
+what has been dictated.</p>
+
+<p>Business English is much the same as any other English.
+It consists in expression by means of words, sentences, and
+paragraphs. Moreover, they are much the same kind of
+words, sentences, and paragraphs that appear in any book
+that is written in what is commonly called the literary style.
+In a business letter the words are largely those of every day
+use, and but few are technical. It is the manner in which
+the words are put together, the idea back of the sentence,
+that makes the only difference.</p>
+
+<p>We shall begin the study of business English with a study
+of words, for in all expression, whether oral or written, a
+knowledge of words, of their meaning and suggestive power,
+is fundamental. On the choice of words depends not only
+the correctness but also the effectiveness of expression&mdash;the
+courtesy of a letter, the appeal of an advertisement, the persuasiveness
+of a salesman's talk. A mastery of words cannot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+be gained at once. Every time one speaks, he must consider
+what words will best convey his idea. In this chapter
+only the barest beginning of such study can be made. The
+exercises show the value of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The study of words is interesting because words themselves
+are interesting. Sometimes the interest consists in the
+story of the derivation. As an example, consider the word
+<i>italic</i>. Many words in this book are written in italic to draw
+attention to them. Literally the word means "relating to
+Italy or its people." It is now applied to a kind of type in
+which the letters slope toward the right. The type was
+called italic because it was dedicated to the states of Italy
+by the inventor, Manutius, about the year 1500. An unabridged
+dictionary will tell all about the word.</p>
+
+<p>The word <i>salary</i> tells a curious story. It is derived from
+a Latin word, <i>salarium</i>, meaning "salt money." It was the
+name of the money that was given to the Roman soldiers
+for salt, which was a part of their pay. Finally, instead of
+signifying only the salt money, it came to mean the total
+pay.</p>
+
+<p>Practically all of this information a good dictionary
+gives. In other words, a dictionary is a story book containing
+not one, but hundreds of thousands of stories.
+Whenever possible it tells what language a word came from,
+how it got its different meanings, and how those meanings
+have changed in the course of time. For it is natural that
+words should change just as styles change, names of
+ancient things being lost and names for new things being
+made. As the objects themselves have gone out of use,
+their names have also gone. When a word has gone entirely
+out of use, it is marked <i>obsolete</i> in the dictionary.
+On the other hand, new inventions must be named. Thus
+new words are constantly being added to the language and
+the dictionary because they are needed.</p>
+
+<p>There is a large class of words that we shall not have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+time to consider. They are called <i>technical</i>. Every profession,
+business, or trade has its distinctive words. The
+technical words that a printer would use are entirely different
+from those which a dentist, a bookkeeper, or a lawyer
+would use. You will learn the technical terms of your
+business most thoroughly after you enter it and see the use
+for such terms.</p>
+
+<p>None of the words, therefore, that you will be asked to
+search out in the dictionary are, strictly speaking, technical.
+It is evident that it will do you no good to search out the
+words in the dictionary, unless you learn them&mdash;unless you
+use them correctly in speaking and writing. There is pleasure
+in thus employing new material, as everybody knows. Use
+your eyes and ears. When you hear a new word, or read one,
+focus the mind upon it for a moment until you can retain
+a mental picture of its spelling and of its pronunciation.
+Then as soon as possible look it up in the dictionary to fix its
+spelling, pronunciation, and definition. Do this regularly,
+and you will have reason to be proud of your vocabulary.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent way to increase the number of words that
+you know is to read the right kind of books. The careful
+study of the words used in the speeches and addresses of
+noted men is good practice. The conditions that called
+forth the speech were probably important, and the speech
+itself interesting, or it would not be preserved. When
+a man has an interesting or important message to give, he
+usually gives it in clear, exact, simple language. Therefore
+the vocabulary that he uses is worth copying. As
+for stories, there is a kind that furnishes a wealth of material
+that modern authors are constantly using or referring
+to, and this is found in stories of the Bible, stories of Greek
+and Northern gods and goddesses, stories of the <i>Iliad</i>, the
+<i>Odyssey</i>, the <i>&AElig;neid</i>, stories of chivalry&mdash;all old stories.
+Every one should know them well, because they are the
+basis of many allusions in which a single word oftentimes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+suggests a whole story. The meaning of the word <i>herculean</i>,
+for instance, is missed if you do not know the
+story of Hercules and know that he was famous for
+his strength.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 1</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Atlas</i> is an interesting word. Originally it was the name of
+a Greek god, who carried the world on his shoulders. Then
+it is supposed that in the sixteenth century the famous
+geographer Mercator prefixed his collection of maps with
+the picture of Atlas supporting the world. Thus a collection
+of maps in a volume came to be called an <i>atlas</i>. Consult
+an unabridged dictionary for the origin of each of the
+following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>rival&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>fortune&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>cereal&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>boycott</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dollar&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>finance&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>china&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>derrick</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bankrupt&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>milliner&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>java&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mercury</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cash&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pullman&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>cashmere&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>colossal</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>mint&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>grocer&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>macadam&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>turbine</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 2</b></div>
+
+<p>The days of the week and the months of the year are
+interesting in their derivation. Monday, for example,
+represents the day sacred to the Moon as a deity. Explain
+the origin of each of the following:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>Sunday&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Saturday&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>May&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>October</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tuesday&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>January&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>June&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>November</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wednesday&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>February&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>July&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>December</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Thursday&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>March&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>August</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Friday&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>April&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>September</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 3</b></div>
+
+<p>Look up the derivation of the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exericise 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>cancel&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>bead&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ambition&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>hospital</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pecuniary&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>paper&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>influence&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pavilion</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cheat&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>book&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>virtue&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mackintosh</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>speculation&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>bayonet&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>peevish&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>chapel</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pha&euml;ton&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>tawdry&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>disaster&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>omnibus</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 4</b></div>
+
+<p>Explain the origin of each of the following:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 4">
+<tr><td align='left'>curfew&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>tulip&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>turquoise&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>good-bye</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pompadour&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>aster&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>amethyst&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>dismal</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hyacinth&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>dunce&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>tantalize&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>titanic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dandelion&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>humor&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>umbrella&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>volcano</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dahlia&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>villain&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sandwich&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>tangle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>begonia&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>echo&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>lunatic&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>babble</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 5</b></div>
+
+<p>Name the image that each of the following suggests to
+you:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 5">
+<tr><td align='left'>howl&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sputter&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>rasping&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>munch</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>skim&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>prance&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>clatter&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>trickle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>squeal&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>click&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>wheeze&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>shuffle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>moan&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>thud&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>trudge&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>bulge</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>squeak&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>patter&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>chuckle&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>gobble</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>squawk&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>spatter&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>toddling&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>swish</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 6</b></div>
+
+<p>Bring to class a list of words which, because they are the
+names of modern inventions, have come into the language
+in modern time.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 7</b></div>
+
+<p>How many words can you name which might be called the
+technical terms of school life, words which always carry with
+them a suggestion of the school room? Bring in a list of
+twenty such words.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 8</b></div>
+
+<p>How many words can you name which are used only in
+the business world? Bring in a list of twenty such words.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 9</b></div>
+
+<p>How many words can you name which apply particularly
+to money and the payment or non-payment of
+money? Bring in a list of twenty or more such words.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>PRONUNCIATION</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> are judged by our speech. If we clip syllables, run
+words together, or pronounce them incorrectly, we shall
+merit the criticism of being careless or even ignorant. Yet
+clear enunciation and correct pronunciation are sometimes
+difficult. We learn most words by hearing others say them,
+and, if we do not hear the true values given to the different
+syllables, we shall find it hard to distinguish the correct
+from the incorrect forms. Children whose parents speak a
+foreign language usually have to watch their speech with
+especial care; Germans, for example, find difficulty in saying
+<i>th</i> and Irish people in saying <i>oi</i> as in <i>oil</i>. The exercises in
+this chapter are given for the purpose of correcting such
+habits. The words in the exercises should be pronounced
+repeatedly, until the correct forms are instinctive.</p>
+
+<p>Train the ear to hear the difference between sounds, as
+in <i>just</i> and in <i>jest</i>. Don't slide over the final consonant in
+such words as <i>going</i> and <i>reading</i>. Watch words containing
+<i>wh</i>. The dictionary tells us that <i>where</i> was originally written
+<i>hwar</i>, the <i>h</i> coming before the <i>w;</i> and we still pronounce it
+so, although we write the <i>w</i> before the <i>h</i>. The word <i>whether</i>
+is of the same kind. The dictionary tells us that it was first
+spelled <i>hweder</i>. Such words should be carefully noted and
+their pronunciation practiced.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is the habit of slurring syllables. We may
+understand what is meant by the expression "C'm' on" or
+"Waja say?", but most of us would prefer not to be included
+in the class of people who use either. Correct speech
+cannot be mastered without an effort.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the following exercises watch every vowel and every
+consonant so that you may give each one its full value.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 10&mdash;Diacritical Marks</b></div>
+
+<p>Although an <i>a</i> is always written <i>a</i>, it is not always given
+the same quality or length of sound. When we discover a
+new word, it is important that we know exactly the quality
+to give each of the vowels in it. For this purpose <i>diacritical
+marks</i> have been invented. They are illustrated in the
+following list from Webster's <i>International Dictionary</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class='tnote'><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> Due to the constraints of HTML,
+a letter with a tack above such as
+<img src="images/a_with_tack.png" width="26" height="37" alt="a with tack above" title="" />
+cannot be displayed. For this reason [+x] has been used to denote
+a letter with a tack above it.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Pronunciation key">
+<tr><td align='right'>&#257;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>as&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>in&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&#257;te, f&#257;te, l&#257;b&acute;or</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>[+a]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>sen&acute;[+a]te, del&acute;ic[+a]te, [+a]e&acute;rial</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&acirc;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>c&acirc;re, sh&acirc;re, p&acirc;r&acute;ent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#259;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#259;m, &#259;dd, r&#259;n&acute;dom</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&auml;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&auml;rm, f&auml;r, f&auml;&acute;ther</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#551;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#551;sk, gr&#551;ss, p&#551;ss, d&#551;nce</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>a&#800;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fi&acute;na&#800;l, in&acute;fa&#800;nt, guid&acute;&#257;nce</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>a&#804;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>a&#804;ll, a&#804;we, swa&#804;rm, ta&#804;lk</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#275;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#275;ve, m&#275;te, ser&#275;ne&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>[+e]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+e]vent&acute;, d[+e]pend&acute;, soci&acute;[+e]ty</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#277;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#277;nd, m&#277;t, &#277;xcuse&acute;, &#277;fface&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>e&#771;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fe&#771;rn, he&#771;r, e&#771;r&acute;mine, ev&acute;e&#771;r</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><i>e</i></td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>re&acute;c<i>e</i>nt, de&acute;c<i>e</i>ncy, pru&acute;d<i>e</i>nce</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#299;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#299;ce, t&#299;me, s&#299;ght, insp&#299;re&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>[+i]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+i]dea&acute;, tr[+i]bu&acute;nal, b[+i]ol&acute;ogy</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#301;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#301;ll, p&#301;n, p&#301;t&acute;y, adm&#301;t&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#333;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#333;ld, n&#333;te, &#333;&acute;ver, pr&#333;pose&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>[+o]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+o]bey&acute;, t[+o]bac&acute;co, sor&acute;r[+o]w</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&ocirc;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&ocirc;rb, l&ocirc;rd, &ocirc;r&acute;der, abh&ocirc;r&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#335;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#335;dd, n&#335;t, t&#335;r&acute;rid, &#335;ccur&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#363;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#363;se, p&#363;re, d&#363;&acute;ty, ass&#363;me&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>[+u]</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>[+u]nite&acute;, ac&acute;t[+u]ate, ed[+u]ca&acute;tion</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>u&#804;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>ru&#804;de, ru&#804;&acute;mor, intru&#804;de&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>u&#803;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fu&#803;ll, pu&#803;t, fu&#803;lfill&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&#365;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&#365;p, t&#365;b, st&#365;d&acute;y</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&ucirc;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>&ucirc;rn, f&ucirc;r, conc&ucirc;r&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>y&#774;</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>pit&acute;y&#774;, in&acute;jury&#774;, divin&acute;ity&#774;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>o&#862;o</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fo&#862;ol, fo&#862;od, mo&#862;on</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>o&#861;o</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>fo&#861;ot, wo&#861;ol, bo&#861;ok</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>ou</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>out, thou, devour&acute;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>oi</td><td align='center'>"</td><td align='left'>"</td><td align='left'>oil, noi&acute;sy, avoid&acute;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span><br /></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Pronunciation names">
+<tr><td align='left'>&#257; is called long <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>macron</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&#259; is called short <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>breve</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&acirc; is called caret <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>caret</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&auml; is called Italian <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>diaeresis</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&#551; is called short Italian <i>a</i>, and is marked with the <i>dot</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>e&#771; is called tilde <i>e</i>, and is marked with the <i>tilde</i> or <i>wave</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 11&mdash;Vowels</b></div>
+
+<p>Of the twenty-six letters in the alphabet, how many are
+vowels? Name them. What are the other letters called?</p>
+
+<p>Compare the <i>&#259;</i> in <i>hat</i> and the <i>&#257;</i> in <i>hate</i>. Which has
+more nearly the sound of <i>a</i> in the alphabet? This is
+called the natural or long sound of the vowel. The other
+is called the short sound.</p>
+
+<p>Drop the <i>e</i> from <i>hate</i>. Explain the result.</p>
+
+<p>Name other monosyllables ending in <i>e</i> and containing the
+long <i>a</i> sound.</p>
+
+<p>Explain the difference in pronunciation between <i>Pete</i>,
+<i>pet</i>, <i>ripe</i>, <i>rip</i>, <i>hope</i>, <i>hop</i>, <i>cube</i>, <i>cub</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Find other monosyllables ending in <i>e</i> and containing a
+long vowel that becomes short if the <i>e</i> is dropped.</p>
+
+<p><b>Monosyllables ending in silent <i>e</i> usually contain a long
+vowel sound, which becomes short when the final <i>e</i> is
+dropped.</b></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 12</b></div>
+
+<p>Pronounce carefully the following words containing the
+short Italian <i>a:</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Italian short a words">
+<tr><td align='left'>adv&#551;nce</td><td align='left'>cl&#551;ss</td><td align='left'>l&#551;nce</td><td align='left'>pl&#551;ster</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>adv&#551;ntage&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>contr&#551;st&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>l&#551;st</td><td align='left'>p&#551;stor</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&#551;fter</td><td align='left'>ench&#551;nt</td><td align='left'>m&#551;sk</td><td align='left'>pr&#551;nce</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>b&#551;sket</td><td align='left'>Fr&#551;nce</td><td align='left'>m&#551;ster</td><td align='left'>r&#551;fter</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>br&#551;nch</td><td align='left'>gl&#551;nce</td><td align='left'>m&#551;stiff&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>sh&#551;ft</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>br&#551;ss</td><td align='left'>gl&#551;ss</td><td align='left'>p&#551;ss</td><td align='left'>surp&#551;ss</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ch&#551;ff</td><td align='left'>gr&#551;ss</td><td align='left'>p&#551;st</td><td align='left'>t&#551;sk</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 13</b></div>
+
+<p>Pronounce the following carefully, noting each <i>a</i> that is
+marked:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 13">
+<tr><td align='left'>h&auml;lf</td><td align='left'>ide&#551;</td><td align='left'>c&auml;lm</td><td align='left'>aud&#257;cious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>p&#551;th</td><td align='left'>c&#551;n't</td><td align='left'>&#257;pricot</td><td align='left'>&#551;gh&#551;st</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&#551;sk</td><td align='left'>c&#259;tch</td><td align='left'>m&#551;dr&#259;s&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&#259;lgebr&#551;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>f&auml;ther&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>v[+a]c&#257;tion&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&#259;gile</td><td align='left'>forb&#259;de</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>d&#551;nce</td><td align='left'>extr&#551;</td><td align='left'>c&#551;st</td><td align='left'>tr&#551;nce</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>l&#551;ss</td><td align='left'>c&#551;sket</td><td align='left'>gr&#551;nt</td><td align='left'>&#257;vi&#257;tion</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 14</b></div>
+
+<p>Pronounce the vowel <i>o</i> in the following very carefully.
+Don't give the sound <i>feller</i> or <i>fella</i> when you mean <i>fellow</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 14">
+<tr><td align='left'>fellow</td><td align='left'>swallow</td><td align='left'>theory</td><td align='left'>borrow</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>potato</td><td align='left'>follow</td><td align='left'>position</td><td align='left'>heroism</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>window</td><td align='left'>original</td><td align='left'>factory</td><td align='left'>donkey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pillow</td><td align='left'>evaporate&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ivory</td><td align='left'>memory</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>chocolate&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mosquito</td><td align='left'>licorice&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>oriental</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 15</b></div>
+
+<p>The vowel <i>u</i> needs particular attention. When it is long,
+it is sounded naturally, as it is in the alphabet. Do not
+say <i>redooce</i> for <i>reduce</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 15">
+<tr><td align='left'>reduce</td><td align='left'>picture</td><td align='left'>educate</td><td align='left'>figure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>produce</td><td align='left'>stupid</td><td align='left'>judicial</td><td align='left'>duty</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>conducive</td><td align='left'>student</td><td align='left'>calculate</td><td align='left'>accumulate</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>endure</td><td align='left'>genuine</td><td align='left'>curiosity</td><td align='left'>Tuesday</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>duration</td><td align='left'>induce</td><td align='left'>regular</td><td align='left'>particular</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>singular</td><td align='left'>avenue</td><td align='left'>tune</td><td align='left'>institute</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>nutriment&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>constitution&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>culinary</td><td align='left'>January</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>revenue</td><td align='left'>introduce</td><td align='left'>opportunity&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>manufacture</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 16</b></div>
+
+<p>Using diacritical marks indicate the value of the vowels
+in the following. Try marking them without first consulting
+a dictionary. After you have marked them, compare
+your markings with those used in a dictionary.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 16">
+<tr><td align='left'>pupil</td><td align='left'>different&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>diacritical&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>gigantic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>alphabet&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>several</td><td align='left'>radiating</td><td align='left'>gymnasium</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>natural</td><td align='left'>letter</td><td align='left'>Wyoming</td><td align='left'>system</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>result</td><td align='left'>eraser</td><td align='left'>typical</td><td align='left'>merchant</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 17</b></div>
+
+<p>Pronounce carefully, noting that in each word at least
+one consonant is silent, and sometimes a vowel as well.
+Draw an oblique line through the silent letter or letters in
+each.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 17">
+<tr><td align='left'>through</td><td align='left'>chasten</td><td align='left'>sword</td><td align='left'>island</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>although&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>often</td><td align='left'>fasten</td><td align='left'>daughter</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wrong</td><td align='left'>soften</td><td align='left'>calf</td><td align='left'>might</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>yacht</td><td align='left'>subtle</td><td align='left'>hasten</td><td align='left'>bouquet</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>gnaw</td><td align='left'>almond</td><td align='left'>naughty</td><td align='left'>honest</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>psalm</td><td align='left'>glisten</td><td align='left'>thumb</td><td align='left'>palm</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whistle</td><td align='left'>salve</td><td align='left'>should</td><td align='left'>knack</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>salmon</td><td align='left'>chestnut&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>knowledge&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>castle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>answer</td><td align='left'>folks</td><td align='left'>listen</td><td align='left'>thigh</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>knot</td><td align='left'>right</td><td align='left'>debt</td><td align='left'>honor</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 18</b></div>
+
+<p>Pronounce the following, paying particular attention to
+the vowels. Distinguish between the meanings of the words
+in each group.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>accept</td><td align='left'>bile</td><td align='left'>least</td><td align='left'>prevision</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>except</td><td align='left'>boil</td><td align='left'>lest</td><td align='left'>provision</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>affect</td><td align='left'>carol</td><td align='left'>eleven</td><td align='left'>poor</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>effect</td><td align='left'>coral</td><td align='left'>leaven</td><td align='left'>pure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>addition&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>descent&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>neither</td><td align='left'>radish</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>edition</td><td align='left'>dissent</td><td align='left'>nether</td><td align='left'>reddish</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>assay</td><td align='left'>emerge</td><td align='left'>pasture&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sentry</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>essay</td><td align='left'>immerge&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pastor</td><td align='left'>century</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>baron</td><td align='left'>Francis</td><td align='left'>pillar</td><td align='left'>sit</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>barren</td><td align='left'>Frances</td><td align='left'>pillow</td><td align='left'>set</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>been</td><td align='left'>jest</td><td align='left'>point</td><td align='left'>wrench</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bean</td><td align='left'>just</td><td align='left'>pint</td><td align='left'>rinse</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>gist</td></tr>
+</table></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 19</b></div>
+
+<p>Enunciate the consonant sounds carefully in the following.
+Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each
+group.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 19">
+<tr><td align='left'>acts</td><td align='left'>close</td><td align='left'>treaties</td><td align='left'>rows</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ax</td><td align='left'>clothes</td><td align='left'>treatise</td><td align='left'>rouse</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>advice&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>crossed&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>princes</td><td align='left'>rues</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>advise</td><td align='left'>across</td><td align='left'>princess&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ruse</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>alms</td><td align='left'>formerly</td><td align='left'>prince</td><td align='left'>either</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>elms</td><td align='left'>formally&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>prints</td><td align='left'>ether</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bodice</td><td align='left'>grays</td><td align='left'>price</td><td align='left'>running</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bodies</td><td align='left'>grace</td><td align='left'>prize</td><td align='left'>ruin</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cease</td><td align='left'>lose</td><td align='left'>recent</td><td align='left'>walking</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>seize</td><td align='left'>loose</td><td align='left'>resent</td><td align='left'>walk in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>chance</td><td align='left'>plaintive</td><td align='left'>sects</td><td align='left'>weather</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>chants</td><td align='left'>plaintiff&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sex</td><td align='left'>whether</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>does</td><td align='left'>pair</td><td align='left'>news</td><td align='left'>worst</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dose</td><td align='left'>payer</td><td align='left'>noose</td><td align='left'>worsted (yarn)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>doze</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 20</b></div>
+
+<p>Pronounce the following, making sure that each syllable is
+correct. Guard against slurring the words in the last column.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 20">
+<tr><td align='left'>been</td><td align='left'>such</td><td align='left'>barrel</td><td align='left'>Did you?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>gone</td><td align='left'>put</td><td align='left'>faucet</td><td align='left'>Don't you?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>suburb</td><td align='left'>Go on.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>tiny</td><td align='left'>hearth</td><td align='left'>Our education</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>aunt</td><td align='left'>and</td><td align='left'>nothing&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You are</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>far</td><td align='left'>poem</td><td align='left'>office</td><td align='left'>You're not</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>our</td><td align='left'>catch</td><td align='left'>peril</td><td align='left'>We're coming</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>kept</td><td align='left'>toward</td><td align='left'>forbade</td><td align='left'>They're coming</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>says</td><td align='left'>donkey</td><td align='left'>spirit</td><td align='left'>What did you say?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>rid</td><td align='left'>again</td><td align='left'>semi</td><td align='left'>Where are you going?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>since</td><td align='left'>against&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>scared</td><td align='left'>Where have you been?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sleek&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>honest</td><td align='left'>saucy</td><td align='left'>I want to go.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>creek</td><td align='left'>savage</td><td align='left'>turnip</td><td align='left'>I'm going to go.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>where&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>swept</td><td align='left'>roof</td><td align='left'>To-morrow morning</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>boil</td><td align='left'>velvet</td><td align='left'>proof</td><td align='left'>Next month</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hoist</td><td align='left'>direct</td><td align='left'>hydrant</td><td align='left'>Last Saturday</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 21</b></div>
+
+<p>Enunciate carefully:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 21">
+<tr><td align='left'>salary</td><td align='left'>gentleman</td><td align='left'>supple</td><td align='left'>gymnasium</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>because</td><td align='left'>library</td><td align='left'>subtle</td><td align='left'>perspiration</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ideal</td><td align='left'>wrestle</td><td align='left'>italic</td><td align='left'>clapboards</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>suite</td><td align='left'>vessel</td><td align='left'>insect</td><td align='left'>cupboard</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>thirty</td><td align='left'>friendship</td><td align='left'>orchid</td><td align='left'>archangel</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tomato</td><td align='left'>judgment</td><td align='left'>hovel</td><td align='left'>candelabra</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>grimy</td><td align='left'>cowardice</td><td align='left'>several</td><td align='left'>extraordinary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>patron</td><td align='left'>miserable</td><td align='left'>pumpkin</td><td align='left'>civilization</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>omelet</td><td align='left'>guarantee</td><td align='left'>accurate</td><td align='left'>horseshoe</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hundred</td><td align='left'>gelatine</td><td align='left'>guardian</td><td align='left'>laboratory</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>coupon</td><td align='left'>glycerine</td><td align='left'>delinquent&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>tenacious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>awkward</td><td align='left'>paraffine</td><td align='left'>secretary</td><td align='left'>measure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hurrah</td><td align='left'>portrait</td><td align='left'>audacious</td><td align='left'>February</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pigeon</td><td align='left'>mercantile&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>conquer</td><td align='left'>cellar</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>history&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>juvenile</td><td align='left'>conquest</td><td align='left'>perfect</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>diamond</td><td align='left'>thousand</td><td align='left'>congress</td><td align='left'>grandmother</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>asylum</td><td align='left'>overalls</td><td align='left'>licorice</td><td align='left'>generally</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 22</b></div>
+
+<p>Be especially careful of the sounds <i>th</i> and <i>wh</i>. Add no
+syllable to a word and omit none. Consult a dictionary
+for any word below about which you are not certain:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 22">
+<tr><td align='left'>when</td><td align='left'>length</td><td align='left'>diphthong</td><td align='left'>generally</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>where</td><td align='left'>strength</td><td align='left'>diphtheria&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>forget</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>while</td><td align='left'>height</td><td align='left'>anesthetic</td><td align='left'>recognize</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wharf</td><td align='left'>width</td><td align='left'>betrothal</td><td align='left'>hungry</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>depth</td><td align='left'>theory</td><td align='left'>geography</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wheel</td><td align='left'>there</td><td align='left'>theme</td><td align='left'>instead</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wheeze</td><td align='left'>them</td><td align='left'>arithmetic</td><td align='left'>isolated</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>why</td><td align='left'>eleventh&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>bathe</td><td align='left'>writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whiff</td><td align='left'>twelfth</td><td align='left'>lathe</td><td align='left'>kettle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whence</td><td align='left'>thought</td><td align='left'>believe</td><td align='left'>language</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whet</td><td align='left'>throat</td><td align='left'>bronchitis</td><td align='left'>leisure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>what</td><td align='left'>wreaths</td><td align='left'>government&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>volume</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whale</td><td align='left'>paths</td><td align='left'>courteous</td><td align='left'>column</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wheat</td><td align='left'>months</td><td align='left'>different</td><td align='left'>always</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wheedle</td><td align='left'>mouths</td><td align='left'>engine</td><td align='left'>once</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>whelp</td><td align='left'>myths</td><td align='left'>English</td><td align='left'>twice</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whimper</td><td align='left'>breadths</td><td align='left'>surprise</td><td align='left'>arctic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whip</td><td align='left'>moths</td><td align='left'>deaf</td><td align='left'>Italian</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whit</td><td align='left'>bath</td><td align='left'>children</td><td align='left'>picture</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>whither&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>earth</td><td align='left'>cruel</td><td align='left'>often</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 23&mdash;Homonyms</b></div>
+
+<p>A homonym is a word having the same sound as another
+but differing from it in meaning. Use each of the following
+in a sentence to show its meaning.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="exercise 23">
+<tr><td align='left'>aloud</td><td align='left'>draft</td><td align='left'>fowl</td><td align='left'>principal</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>allowed</td><td align='left'>draught</td><td align='left'>foul</td><td align='left'>principle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ascent</td><td align='left'>faint</td><td align='left'>gate</td><td align='left'>peal</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>assent</td><td align='left'>feint</td><td align='left'>gait</td><td align='left'>peel</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>aught</td><td align='left'>canvas</td><td align='left'>great</td><td align='left'>quire</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ought</td><td align='left'>canvass</td><td align='left'>grate</td><td align='left'>choir</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bad</td><td align='left'>cereal</td><td align='left'>hew</td><td align='left'>seen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bade</td><td align='left'>serial</td><td align='left'>hue</td><td align='left'>scene</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bale</td><td align='left'>cession</td><td align='left'>kernel</td><td align='left'>soul</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bail</td><td align='left'>session</td><td align='left'>colonel&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sole</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>berry</td><td align='left'>cite</td><td align='left'>leased</td><td align='left'>strait</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bury</td><td align='left'>site</td><td align='left'>least</td><td align='left'>straight</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>boy</td><td align='left'>coarse</td><td align='left'>lesser</td><td align='left'>stair</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>buoy</td><td align='left'>course</td><td align='left'>lessor</td><td align='left'>stare</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>compliment&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mite</td><td align='left'>sweet</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>buy</td><td align='left'>complement</td><td align='left'>might</td><td align='left'>suite</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>council&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>feign</td><td align='left'>miner</td><td align='left'>there</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>counsel</td><td align='left'>fain</td><td align='left'>minor</td><td align='left'>their</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>current</td><td align='left'>flour</td><td align='left'>need</td><td align='left'>wood</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>currant</td><td align='left'>flower</td><td align='left'>knead</td><td align='left'>would</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 24</b></div>
+
+<p>Do the same with the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 24">
+<tr><td align='left'>aisle</td><td align='left'>clause</td><td align='left'>kill</td><td align='left'>sail</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>isle</td><td align='left'>claws</td><td align='left'>kiln</td><td align='left'>sale</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>awl</td><td align='left'>climb</td><td align='left'>key</td><td align='left'>ring</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>all</td><td align='left'>clime</td><td align='left'>quay</td><td align='left'>wring</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>base</td><td align='left'>draught&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>lie</td><td align='left'>serge</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bass</td><td align='left'>draft</td><td align='left'>lye</td><td align='left'>surge</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>blew</td><td align='left'>dew</td><td align='left'>medal</td><td align='left'>sole</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>blue</td><td align='left'>due</td><td align='left'>meddle</td><td align='left'>soul</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bough</td><td align='left'>done</td><td align='left'>peer</td><td align='left'>shone</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bow</td><td align='left'>dun</td><td align='left'>pier</td><td align='left'>shown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bread</td><td align='left'>dual</td><td align='left'>pore</td><td align='left'>steel</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bred</td><td align='left'>duel</td><td align='left'>pour</td><td align='left'>steal</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bear</td><td align='left'>flue</td><td align='left'>profit</td><td align='left'>stationary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bare</td><td align='left'>flew</td><td align='left'>prophet&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>stationery</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bridal</td><td align='left'>freeze</td><td align='left'>quarts</td><td align='left'>wade</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bridle</td><td align='left'>frieze&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>quartz</td><td align='left'>weighed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>capital&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>guilt</td><td align='left'>rest</td><td align='left'>wave</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>capitol</td><td align='left'>gilt</td><td align='left'>wrest</td><td align='left'>waive</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ceiling</td><td align='left'>heard</td><td align='left'>root</td><td align='left'>wrap</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sealing</td><td align='left'>herd</td><td align='left'>route</td><td align='left'>rap</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 25&mdash;Syllabication</b></div>
+
+<p>What is a syllable?</p>
+
+<p>Choose a word and notice that every vowel sound in it
+makes a syllable. Therefore, you never have two vowels
+in one syllable unless the two are pronounced as one sound.</p>
+
+<p>In pronouncing notice carefully to which syllable a consonant
+belongs; as in <i>dif-fer-ent</i>, <i>beau-ti-fy</i>, <i>dai-sy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Divide the following words into syllables. If you cannot
+decide with which syllable a consonant belongs, consult a
+dictionary.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Frist list exercise 25">
+<tr><td align='left'>paper</td><td align='left'>grocer</td><td align='left'>rotate</td><td align='left'>mystery</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tomato</td><td align='left'>erect</td><td align='left'>repeat</td><td align='left'>regular</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>vinegar&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>polish&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>general&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>arithmetic</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>If a syllable, especially an accented syllable, ends in a
+vowel, what is usually the length of the vowel?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If the syllable ends in a consonant, what is usually the
+length of the vowel of the syllable?</p>
+
+<p>When a consonant is doubled, the division is usually made
+between the two letters; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="part two exercise 25">
+<tr><td align='left'>blot-ter</td><td align='left'>skip-ping&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>remit-tance</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>neces-sary&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>throt-tle</td><td align='left'>span-ning</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>As a rule, a prefix constitutes one syllable; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table three exercise 25">
+<tr><td align='left'>pro-long</td><td align='left'>pre-fer</td><td align='left'>con-stant</td><td align='left'>de-fect</td><td align='left'>ad-mit</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>re-ceive&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>se-lect&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>dis-trust&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>e-merge&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>im-merse</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>As a rule, a suffix constitutes one syllable; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table four exercise 25">
+<tr><td align='left'>labor-er</td><td align='left'>soft-ly</td><td align='left'>beauti-fy</td><td align='left'>selec-tion</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>mole-cule&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>revolution-ist&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>percent-age&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>fanat-ic</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>When two or more letters together give one sound, they
+must not be divided; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table five exercise 25">
+<tr><td align='left'>math-ematics&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ex-change&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>paragraph-ing&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>abolish-ing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bow-ing</td><td align='left'>toil-ing</td><td align='left'>nation-al</td><td align='left'>gra-cious</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Can a word of one syllable be divided?</p>
+
+<p>Do not divide a syllable of one letter from the rest of the
+word. The division <i>ever-y</i> is wrong.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 26</b></div>
+
+<p>Divide the following words into syllables, using the suggestions
+given in the preceding exercise:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 26">
+<tr><td align='left'>accountant</td><td align='left'>dissatisfaction&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>manufacturer</td><td align='left'>reference</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>advertisement</td><td align='left'>economy</td><td align='left'>material</td><td align='left'>repeatedly</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>anecdote</td><td align='left'>employment</td><td align='left'>mechanical</td><td align='left'>salesman</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>annually</td><td align='left'>energetic</td><td align='left'>neighborhood&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>security</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>application</td><td align='left'>environment</td><td align='left'>occupation</td><td align='left'>separate</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>automobile</td><td align='left'>especially</td><td align='left'>opportunity</td><td align='left'>signature</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>beginning</td><td align='left'>establishment</td><td align='left'>organized</td><td align='left'>specification</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>collection</td><td align='left'>expenditure</td><td align='left'>permanent</td><td align='left'>stenography</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>comparison</td><td align='left'>factory</td><td align='left'>preparation</td><td align='left'>suburban</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>competent</td><td align='left'>furniture</td><td align='left'>president</td><td align='left'>superintend</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>confirmation</td><td align='left'>illustration</td><td align='left'>quotation</td><td align='left'>systematic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>consequence</td><td align='left'>impression</td><td align='left'>realize</td><td align='left'>telephone</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>correspondence&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>improvement</td><td align='left'>receptacle</td><td align='left'>treasurer</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>counterfeit</td><td align='left'>judgment</td><td align='left'>recognition</td><td align='left'>unanimous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>customer</td><td align='left'>machinist</td><td align='left'>recommend</td><td align='left'>unusual</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 27&mdash;Accent</b></div>
+
+<p>What is accent?</p>
+
+<p>Divide into syllables, indicate the accent, and pronounce
+the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 27">
+<tr><td align='left'>expand</td><td align='left'>volume</td><td align='left'>defect</td><td align='left'>interesting</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>mischievous&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>usually</td><td align='left'>incomparable&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>theatre</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>exquisite</td><td align='left'>tedious</td><td align='left'>hospitable</td><td align='left'>generally</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>column</td><td align='left'>inquiry&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>impious</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In the following words the meaning changes with the
+accent. Use each word in a sentence to show its meaning.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 27 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>ob&acute;ject</td><td align='left'>subject</td><td align='left'>contrast&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>desert</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ob-ject&acute;</td><td align='left'>insult</td><td align='left'>protest</td><td align='left'>extract</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tor&acute;ment</td><td align='left'>essay</td><td align='left'>conflict</td><td align='left'>compact</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tor-ment&acute;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>transfer&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>compound</td><td align='left'>survey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'>minute (notice the vowel change)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'>refuse (notice the consonant change)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Bring to class a list of words that you have heard mispronounced
+in your classes. Be sure that you can pronounce
+them correctly.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 28</b></div>
+
+<p>The following words are frequently mispronounced. Divide
+them into syllables, mark the accent, and pronounce
+carefully.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 28">
+<tr><td align='left'>municipal</td><td align='left'>exquisite&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>champion</td><td align='left'>accurately</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>interesting&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>gondola</td><td align='left'>inquiry</td><td align='left'>Genoa</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>influence</td><td align='left'>finance</td><td align='left'>inexplicable&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>alias</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>illustrate</td><td align='left'>deficit</td><td align='left'>despicable</td><td align='left'>expert</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>inventory</td><td align='left'>pretense</td><td align='left'>mischievous</td><td align='left'>impious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>alternate</td><td align='left'>dirigible</td><td align='left'>perfume</td><td align='left'>detail</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>SPELLING RULES</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 29&mdash;Plurals of Nouns</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 29">
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>dress, dresses</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>chair, chairs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>splash, splashes</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>wave, waves</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>business, businesses</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>book, books</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>church, churches</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pencil, pencils</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>fox, foxes</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>paper, papers</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The usual way of forming the plural of English nouns is
+illustrated by the words in column (<i>b</i>) above. What is it?</p>
+
+<p>If you add <i>s</i> to the singular form <i>dress</i>, could you distinguish
+the pronunciation of the plural from the pronunciation
+of the singular? Does this suggest a reason for adding <i>es</i>
+to form the plural?</p>
+
+<p>How many syllables must you use to pronounce the
+plural of fox? Does this suggest another reason for adding
+<i>es</i> to form the plural?</p>
+
+<p>Every word that ends in a sibilant or hissing sound (<i>ch</i>,
+<i>s</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>ss</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>z</i>) forms its plural like <i>fox</i>. Give several illustrations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rule 1.&mdash;Nouns regularly form the plural by adding <i>s</i>,
+but those ending in a sibilant must add<i>es</i>.</b></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 30</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 30">
+<tr><td align='left'>(<i>a</i>)&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>lady, ladies</td><td align='left'>(<i>b</i>)&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>valley, valleys</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ally, allies</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>alley, alleys</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>soliloquy, soliloquies&nbsp;  &nbsp;  </td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>journey, journeys</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Name five words belonging to group (<i>a</i>) above. Does a
+vowel or a consonant precede the <i>y</i> in each case?</p>
+
+<p>Name other words belonging to the group (<i>b</i>) above. Does
+a vowel or a consonant precede the <i>y</i> in each case?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="Rule_2" id="Rule_2"></a>Rule 2.&mdash;Nouns ending in <i>y</i> preceded by a consonant
+(and nouns ending in <i>quy</i>) form the plural by changing <i>y</i>
+to <i>i</i> and adding <i>es</i>.</b></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 31&mdash;Words ending in o</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'>(<i>a</i>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>potato, potatoes</td><td align='left'>hero, heroes</td><td align='left'>mulatto, mulattoes</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tomato, tomatoes&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>buffalo, buffaloes&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>cargo, cargoes</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>negro, negroes</td><td align='left'>echo, echoes</td><td align='left'>motto, mottoes</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'>(<i>b</i>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>solo, solos</td><td align='left'>piano, pianos</td><td align='left'>memento, mementos</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>halo, halos</td><td align='left'>lasso, lassos</td><td align='left'>canto, cantos</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>zero, zeros</td><td align='left'>quarto, quartos&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>soprano, sopranos</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>stilletto, stillettos&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The older English words ending in <i>o</i> form the plural by
+adding <i>es</i>, as in potatoes; those more recently taken into
+the language form the plural by adding <i>s</i>, as in quartos.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 32&mdash;Nouns in f and fe</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>leaf, leaves</td><td align='left'>calf, calves</td><td align='left'>wife, wives</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>loaf, loaves&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sheaf, sheaves&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>shelf, shelves</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>half, halves</td><td align='left'>wolf, wolves</td><td align='left'>elf, elves</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>life, lives</td><td align='left'>beef, beeves</td><td align='left'>wharf, wharves (or wharfs)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>self, selves&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>knife, knives</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>With the exception of the words given above, nouns ending
+in an <i>f</i> sound form the plural in the regular way; as,</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>hoof, hoofs</td><td align='left'>scarf, scarfs&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>beliefs, beliefs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>chief, chiefs&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>reef, reefs</td><td align='left'>grief, griefs</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 33&mdash;Irregular Plurals</b></div>
+
+<p>Some nouns form their plural by a change of vowel; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 4">
+<tr><td align='left'>man</td><td align='left'>men</td><td align='left'>foot</td><td align='left'>feet</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>woman&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>women&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>tooth&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>teeth</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>goose</td><td align='left'>geese&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mouse&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mice</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>A few words retain the old time plural <i>en;</i> as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 5">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'>brother&nbsp; &nbsp; brethren</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>child&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>children&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ox&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>oxen</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A few words are the same in both singular and plural; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+sheep, trout, deer<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Some nouns have two plurals which differ in meaning; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 31 part 6">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </i></td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>brother&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>brothers</td><td align='left'>brethren</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>penny</td><td align='left'>pennies&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pence</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pea</td><td align='left'>peas</td><td align='left'>pease</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>die</td><td align='left'>dies</td><td align='left'>dice</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Consult a dictionary for the difference in meaning between
+the two plurals of each word.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 34&mdash;Compound Nouns</b><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 34 part 1">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>brother-in-law</td><td align='left'>brothers-in-law</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>father-in-law</td><td align='left'>fathers-in-law</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>court-martial</td><td align='left'>courts-martial</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>commander-in-chief&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>commanders-in-chief</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>man-of-war</td><td align='left'>men-of-war</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>major general</td><td align='left'>major generals</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>goose quill</td><td align='left'>goose quills</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bill of fare</td><td align='left'>bills of fare</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>spoonful</td><td align='left'>spoonfuls</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cupful</td><td align='left'>cupfuls</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 3.&mdash;Compound nouns usually add the sign of the
+plural to the fundamental part of the word.</b></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;In <i>spoonfuls</i> the thought is of one spoon many times full.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Plural of Letters and Figures</b></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 4.&mdash;Letters and figures form the plural by adding
+the apostrophe (') and <i>s;</i> as,</b></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 34 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>a&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>a's&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'>3's</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>w</td><td align='left'>w's</td><td align='left'>5&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>5's</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The same rule applies to the plural of words which ordinarily
+have no plural; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+Don't use so many <i>and's</i> and <i>if's</i>.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 35&mdash;Foreign Plurals</b></div>
+
+<p>Some nouns derived from foreign languages retain their
+original plural. The following are in common use.</p>
+
+<p>Consult a dictionary for their pronunciation and definition.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 35 part 1">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>crisis</td><td align='left'>crises</td><td align='left'>stratum</td><td align='left'>strata</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>thesis</td><td align='left'>theses</td><td align='left'>radius</td><td align='left'>radii</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hypothesis&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>hypotheses&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>parenthesis&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>parentheses</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>focus</td><td align='left'>foci</td><td align='left'>synopsis</td><td align='left'>synopses</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>datum</td><td align='left'>data</td><td align='left'>basis</td><td align='left'>bases</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>alumnus</td><td align='left'>alumni</td><td align='left'>automaton</td><td align='left'>automata</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>alumna</td><td align='left'>alumnae</td><td align='left'>analysis</td><td align='left'>analyses</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>oasis</td><td align='left'>oases</td><td align='left'>nucleus</td><td align='left'>nuclei</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>axis</td><td align='left'>axes</td><td align='left'>phenomenon&nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>phenomena</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>genus</td><td align='left'>genera</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Some words admit of two plurals, one the foreign plural,
+and one the regular English plural; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 35 part 2">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Singular</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>beau</td><td align='left'>beaux</td><td align='left'>beaus</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>formula&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>formulae</td><td align='left'>formulas</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>vertex</td><td align='left'>vertices</td><td align='left'>vertexes</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>index</td><td align='left'>indices</td><td align='left'>indexes</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cherub</td><td align='left'>cherubim&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>cherubs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>seraph</td><td align='left'>seraphim</td><td align='left'>seraphs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bandit</td><td align='left'>banditti</td><td align='left'>bandits</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Consult a dictionary to see whether there is any difference
+of meaning between the two plurals of these words.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 36&mdash;The Formation of Participles</b></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br /></p>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Rap</i>, <i>rapping</i>, <i>rapped</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>Reap</i>, <i>reaping</i>, <i>reaped</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>Rap</i> is a monosyllable ending in a single consonant preceded
+by a single vowel. The final consonant in such words
+is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>reap</i> the final consonant is not doubled because it is
+preceded by two vowels.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Make the participles of the following verbs:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>chat</td><td align='left'>lap</td><td align='left'>suit</td><td align='left'>step</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cheat&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>leap</td><td align='left'>sit</td><td align='left'>steep</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>rot</td><td align='left'>train&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sop</td><td align='left'>trot</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>root</td><td align='left'>trim</td><td align='left'>soap&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>treat</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br /></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Trap</i>, <i>trapping</i>, <i>trapped</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>Track</i>, <i>tracking</i>, <i>tracked</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Why is the final consonant in <i>trap</i> doubled before <i>ing</i> or
+<i>ed</i> is added?</p>
+
+<p>The final consonant in <i>track</i> is not doubled because <i>track</i>
+ends with two consonants.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<br /></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 4">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Pin</i>, <i>pinning</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>Pine</i>, <i>pining</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>Pine</i> drops the silent <i>e</i> because the tendency in English
+is to drop endings that are not needed for pronunciation
+before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.</p>
+
+<p>Form the participles of the following verbs:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 36 part 6">
+<tr><td align='left'>knot&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>rob</td><td align='left'>flop</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>note</td><td align='left'>robe</td><td align='left'>elope&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>deal</td><td align='left'>swim</td><td align='left'>quit</td><td align='left'>(<i>u</i> is not here a vowel)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>clap</td><td align='left'>strike&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>crawl</td><td align='left'>(<i>w</i> is here a vowel)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>stop</td><td align='left'>oil</td><td align='left'>wax</td><td align='left'>(<i>x</i> equals <i>cks</i>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>peal</td><td align='left'>rush</td><td align='left'>bow</td><td align='left'>(<i>w</i> is here a vowel)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 37</b></div>
+
+<p>Exercise 36 applies also to words of more than one syllable
+accented on the last syllable, if they retain the accent on
+the same syllable after the suffix is added. Thus we have</p>
+
+<p><b>Rule 5.&mdash;Monosyllables or words accented on the last
+syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single
+vowel, double the final consonant before adding a suffix
+beginning with a vowel.</b></p>
+
+<p>Form participles from the following words that are accented
+on the last syllable:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>prefer</td><td align='left'>intervene&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>escape</td><td align='left'>expel</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>refer</td><td align='left'>reveal</td><td align='left'>acquire</td><td align='left'>contain</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>occur</td><td align='left'>repeal</td><td align='left'>secure</td><td align='left'>forbid</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>permit</td><td align='left'>pursue</td><td align='left'>conceal&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>incur</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>interfere&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>erase</td><td align='left'>arrange</td><td align='left'>forget</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>retain</td><td align='left'>control</td><td align='left'>acquit</td><td align='left'>repel</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Form participles from the following words not accented
+on the last syllable:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>benefit&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>travel</td><td align='left'>marvel</td><td align='left'>shelter</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>revel</td><td align='left'>answer&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>exhibit&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>render</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>quarrel</td><td align='left'>profit</td><td align='left'>shovel</td><td align='left'>limit</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Words in which the accent changes do not double the final
+consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>confer&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>conference&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>infer</td><td align='left'>inference</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>refer</td><td align='left'>reference</td><td align='left'>prefer&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>preferable</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Explain why the final consonant is <i>not</i> doubled in each of
+the following words:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 37 part 4">
+<tr><td align='left'>neglect&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>neglecting</td><td align='left'>lean</td><td align='left'>leaning</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>prefer</td><td align='left'>preference&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>select</td><td align='left'>selecting</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>creep</td><td align='left'>creeping</td><td align='left'>receipt&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>receipting</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wonder</td><td align='left'>wondering</td><td align='left'>answer</td><td align='left'>answering</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 38</b></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 6.&mdash;In forming the present participle of verbs ending
+in <i>y</i>, retain the <i>y</i> before adding <i>ing;</i> as,</b></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 38 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>study</td><td align='left'>studying</td><td align='left'>obey</td><td align='left'>obeying</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>carry&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>carrying&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>convey&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>conveying</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pity</td><td align='left'>pitying</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In forming the perfect participle, if in the present tense the
+<i>y</i> is preceded by a consonant, the <i>y</i> is changed to <i>i</i> and <i>ed</i>
+added; if the <i>y</i> is preceded by a vowel, the <i>y</i> is retained; as,</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 38 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>study&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>studied&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>carry&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>carried&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pity&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pitied</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<div class='unindent'><br />but</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 38 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>obey&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>obeyed&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>convey&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>conveyed</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>Compare with <a href="#Rule_2">Rule 2</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 39</b></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 7.&mdash;In words containing a long <i>e</i> sound spelled
+either <i>ie</i> or <i>ei</i>, <i>ei</i> follows <i>c;</i> <i>ie</i> follows one of the other consonants;
+as,</b></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 39">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>ei</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>ie</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>deceive</td><td align='left'>relieve</td><td align='left'>siege</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>perceive</td><td align='left'>believe&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>yield</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>receive</td><td align='left'>belief</td><td align='left'>grief</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>conceive&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>chief</td><td align='left'>field</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>conceit</td><td align='left'>priest</td><td align='left'>piece</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>receipt</td><td align='left'>niece</td><td align='left'>wield</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>reprieve</td><td align='left'>lien</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><i>Exceptions.</i>&mdash;Either, neither, weird, seize, leisure.</p>
+
+<p>The following couplet may help in remembering when to
+write <i>ie</i> and when to write <i>ei:</i></p>
+
+<div class='poem'>
+When the letter <i>c</i> you spy,<br />
+Put the <i>e</i> before the <i>i</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 40&mdash;The Pronunciation of <i>c</i> and <i>g</i></b></div>
+
+<p>The letter <i>c</i> is pronounced sometimes like <i>s</i> and sometimes
+like <i>k</i>.</p>
+
+<p>What sound does <i>c</i> have before <i>a?</i> Illustrate.</p>
+
+<p>Before <i>e?</i> Illustrate.</p>
+
+<p>Before <i>i?</i> Illustrate.</p>
+
+<p>Before <i>o?</i> Illustrate.</p>
+
+<p>Before <i>u?</i> Illustrate.</p>
+
+<p>Before <i>y?</i> Illustrate.</p>
+
+<p>If <i>c</i> is pronounced like <i>k</i>, it is called hard and is marked <i>[\c]</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If <i>c</i> is pronounced like <i>s</i>, it is called soft and is marked <i>&ccedil;</i>. The
+mark used to indicate the soft <i>c</i> is called the <i>cedilla</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Make a statement telling when <i>c</i> is hard and when it is
+soft.</p>
+
+<p>What sound does <i>g</i> have before each of the vowels, as
+in <i>game</i>, <i>gone</i>, <i>gymnasium</i>, <i>Gunther</i>, <i>gentle?</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Rule 8.&mdash;<i>C</i> and <i>g</i> usually are soft before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>y</i>.</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 41</b></div>
+
+<p>Words ending in silent <i>e</i>, according to Rule 5, drop the
+<i>e</i> before a suffix beginning with a vowel. Exceptions occur
+when the <i>e</i> is needed to preserve the soft sound of <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>.
+Tell why <i>e</i> is dropped in <i>encouraging</i> and retained in
+<i>courageous</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In words containing <i>dg</i>, as in <i>judge</i> and <i>lodge</i>, the <i>d</i> gives
+the <i>g</i> the soft sound, and there is no need to retain the <i>e</i>
+before adding a suffix, as in <i>judgment</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rule 9.&mdash;Words ending in silent <i>e</i> usually drop the <i>e</i>
+before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, unless the
+<i>e</i> is needed to preserve the pronunciation; as after soft <i>c</i>
+and <i>g</i>, when the suffix begins with <i>a</i> or <i>o</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>Tell why the <i>e</i> is retained before the suffix in the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 41 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>noticeable&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>damageable&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pronounceable&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>outrageous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>courageous&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>peaceable</td><td align='left'>serviceable</td><td align='left'>manageable</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Tell why the <i>e</i> is dropped before adding the suffix in the
+following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 40 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>managing</td><td align='left'>curable</td><td align='left'>erasure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>besieging&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>admirable</td><td align='left'>realization</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>receiving</td><td align='left'>obliging</td><td align='left'>precedence</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>perseverance&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The fact that <i>c</i> has two different sounds causes a slight
+peculiarity in words ending in <i>c</i>. Final <i>c</i> has the sound of
+<i>k</i>. When words end in <i>c</i>, the letter <i>k</i> is usually added before
+a suffix beginning with either <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, or <i>y</i>, to show that <i>c</i> is not
+pronounced like <i>s;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+frolic&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;         frolicked&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;      frolicking<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>If the <i>k</i> is not added, the <i>c</i> changes its pronunciation; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+public&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;                          publicity<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 42</b></div>
+
+<p>It follows by inference from Rule 9 that words ending in
+silent <i>e</i> retain the <i>e</i> before a suffix beginning with a consonant;
+as,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 42">
+<tr><td align='left'>move</td><td align='left'>movement</td><td align='left'>disgrace&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>disgraceful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>defense</td><td align='left'>defenseless&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>fate</td><td align='left'>fateful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>arrange&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>arrangement</td><td align='left'>fierce</td><td align='left'>fiercely</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>noise</td><td align='left'>noiseless</td><td align='left'>manage</td><td align='left'>management</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>severe</td><td align='left'>severely</td><td align='left'>rude</td><td align='left'>rudeness</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>Exceptions.</i>&mdash;Truly, duly, wisdom, awful, wholly.</p>
+
+<p>Bring to class a list of twenty words that retain the final
+<i>e</i> before a suffix beginning with a consonant.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 43</b></div>
+
+<p>What spelling rule does each of the following words
+illustrate?</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 43">
+<tr><td align='left'>advantageous&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>gigantic&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>boxes</td><td align='left'>admittance</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>mimicking</td><td align='left'>piece</td><td align='left'>libraries&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>occurrence</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>arrangement</td><td align='left'>receipt</td><td align='left'>keys</td><td align='left'>acquittal</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 44&mdash;Abbreviations</b></div>
+
+<p>Write abbreviations for the months of the year. Are
+there any that should not be abbreviated?</p>
+
+<p>The abbreviations for the states and territories are:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 44">
+<tr><td align='left'>Alabama, Ala.</td><td align='left'>Maryland, Md.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arizona, Ariz.</td><td align='left'>Massachusetts, Mass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arkansas, Ark.</td><td align='left'>Michigan, Mich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>California, Cal.</td><td align='left'>Minnesota, Minn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Colorado, Colo.</td><td align='left'>Mississippi, Miss.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Connecticut, Conn.</td><td align='left'>Missouri, Mo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Delaware, Del.</td><td align='left'>Montana, Mont.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>District of Columbia, D.C.&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Nebraska, Nebr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Florida, Fla.</td><td align='left'>Nevada, Nev.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Georgia, Ga.</td><td align='left'>New Hampshire, N.H.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Idaho, Idaho</td><td align='left'>New Mexico, N. Mex.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Illinois, Ill.</td><td align='left'>New York, N.Y.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Indiana, Ind.</td><td align='left'>New Jersey, N.J.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Iowa, Ia.</td><td align='left'>North Carolina, N.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kansas, Kans.</td><td align='left'>North Dakota, N. Dak.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Kentucky, Ky.</td><td align='left'>Ohio, O.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Louisiana, La.</td><td align='left'>Oklahoma, Okla.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>Maine, Me.</td><td align='left'>Oregon, Ore.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pennsylvania, Pa.</td><td align='left'>Utah, Utah</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Philippine Islands, P.I.&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Vermont, Vt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Porto Rico, P.R.</td><td align='left'>Virginia, Va.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>South Carolina, S.C.</td><td align='left'>Washington, Wash.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>South Dakota, S.D.</td><td align='left'>Wisconsin, Wis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tennessee, Tenn.</td><td align='left'>West Virginia, W. Va.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Texas, Tex.</td><td align='left'>Wyoming, Wyo.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;It is much better to write the full name rather than the
+abbreviation whenever the former would make the address clearer,
+especially as regards similar abbreviations, such as Cal. and Colo.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 45&mdash;Abbreviations of Commercial Terms</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 45">
+<tr><td align='left'>A 1, first class</td><td align='left'>doz., dozen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>@, at</td><td align='left'>E. &amp; O.E., errors and omissions excepted</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>acct., account</td><td align='left'>ea., each</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>adv., advertisement&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>e.g., for example</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>agt., agent</td><td align='left'>etc., and so forth</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>a.m., forenoon</td><td align='left'>exch., exchange</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>amt., amount</td><td align='left'>ft., foot</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>app., appendix</td><td align='left'>f.o.b., free on board</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>atty., attorney</td><td align='left'>gal., gallon</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>av., average</td><td align='left'>i.e., that is</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>avoir., avoirdupois</td><td align='left'>imp., imported</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bal., balance</td><td align='left'>in., inches</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bbl., barrel</td><td align='left'>inst., this month (instant)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>B/L, bill of lading</td><td align='left'>Jr., junior</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bldg., building</td><td align='left'>kg., keg</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>B/S, bill of sale</td><td align='left'>lb., pound</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bu., bushel</td><td align='left'>ltd., limited</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>C.B., cash book</td><td align='left'>mdse., merchandise</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>C., hundred</td><td align='left'>mem., memorandum</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>coll., collection, collector&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mo., month</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Co., company</td><td align='left'>M.S. (MSS)., manuscript</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>C.O.D., cash on delivery</td><td align='left'>mtg., mortgage</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cr., creditor</td><td align='left'>N.B., take notice</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cwt., hundredweight</td><td align='left'>no., number</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>D., five hundred</td><td align='left'>O.K., all right</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dept., department</td><td align='left'>per, by</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>disc., discount</td><td align='left'>p.m., afternoon</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>do., ditto</td><td align='left'>%, per cent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>dr., debtor, debit</td><td align='left'>St., street</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pkg., package</td><td align='left'>str., steamer</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pp., pages</td><td align='left'>ult., last month</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pr., pair</td><td align='left'>U.S.M., United States Mail</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pc., piece</td><td align='left'>viz., namely</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pk., peck</td><td align='left'>vol., volume</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>prox., next month</td><td align='left'>W/B, way bill</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pt., pint</td><td align='left'>wt., weight</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sr., senior</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>WORD ANALYSIS</div>
+
+
+<p>To learn English words thoroughly we must spend some
+thought on the way in which they are made up, on the language
+from which they have been derived, and on the changes
+in meaning made by adding prefixes and suffixes. Three
+important influences in building the English have been the
+Anglo-Saxon, the Greek, and the Latin languages. The
+simplest words in the language are Anglo-Saxon. The following
+exercises illustrate how words have been multiplied
+by Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 46</b></div>
+
+<p>Name as many words as you can that make use of each
+of the following prefixes. Give only such as are recognizable
+English words without the prefix.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 46">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>a</i>&mdash;aboard</td><td align='left'><i>mis</i>&mdash;misjudge</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>be</i>&mdash;becalm</td><td align='left'><i>un</i>&mdash;unknown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>fore</i>&mdash;foretell&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>up</i>&mdash;uproot</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Give the meaning of each of the prefixes used above.</p>
+
+<p>What part of speech does each prefix make?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 47</b></div>
+
+<p>Using the following Teutonic suffixes, form English words.
+Be careful that the root taken alone is an English word.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 47">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>dom</i>&mdash;kingdom</td><td align='left'><i>ness</i>&mdash;goodness</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>hood</i>&mdash;manhood&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>ship</i>&mdash;friendship</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>What does each suffix mean?</p>
+
+<p>What part of speech does it make?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 48</b></div>
+
+<p>As above, form words using the following suffixes:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 48">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>en</i>&mdash;darken</td><td align='left'><i>ful</i>&mdash;fearful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>en</i>&mdash;golden</td><td align='left'><i>ly</i>&mdash;smoothly</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>ish</i>&mdash;sweetish</td><td align='left'><i>like</i>&mdash;childlike</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>less</i>&mdash;fearless&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>some</i>&mdash;lonesome</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Define each suffix.</p>
+
+<p>What part of speech does it make?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 49&mdash;Greek Roots</b></div>
+
+<p>Below is given a list of common Greek roots with the
+English meaning of each. Form words using one or more of
+the roots for each word, and define the words you make.
+For instance, give the meaning of <i>telephone</i>, <i>telegraph</i>, and
+<i>monarch</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 49">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Greek</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>English</i></td><td align='left'><i>Greek</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; <i>English</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>phon</i>&mdash;hear</td><td align='left'><i>chron</i>&mdash;time</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>tele</i>&mdash;far</td><td align='left'><i>cycl</i>&mdash;circle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>graph</i>&mdash;write</td><td align='left'><i>geo</i>&mdash;earth</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>scop</i>&mdash;see</td><td align='left'><i>polit</i>&mdash;government</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>micro</i>&mdash;small</td><td align='left'><i>cra</i>&mdash;rule</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>mono</i>&mdash;one</td><td align='left'><i>demo</i>&mdash;people</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>arch</i>&mdash;chief</td><td align='left'><i>hydro</i>&mdash;water</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>metr</i>&mdash;measure</td><td align='left'><i>poly</i>&mdash;many</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>baro</i>&mdash;pressure, weight&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>pluto</i>&mdash;riches</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>How many names of modern inventions have you made?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 50</b></div>
+
+<p>What words belonging to your vocabulary end in the
+following suffixes? Choose only such as have an English
+word for the root.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Adjective Suffixes</b></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>able</i>, <i>ible</i>&mdash;able to be, fit to be</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>Readable</i>, fit to be read.</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>al</i>, <i>eal</i>, <i>ial</i>&mdash;relating to, having to do with</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ant</i>, <i>ent</i>&mdash;being, inclined to</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. <i>ate</i>&mdash;having the quality of, inclined to</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. <i>ic</i>&mdash;like, relating to</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. <i>ive</i>&mdash;relating to, of the nature of, belonging to</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. <i>ory</i>, <i>ary</i>&mdash;relating to</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. <i>ous</i>&mdash;full of, abounding in</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Verb Suffixes</b></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>ate</i>&mdash;to make</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>fy</i>, <i>ify</i>&mdash;to make</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ise</i>, <i>ize</i>&mdash;to make</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Noun Suffixes</b></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>age</i>&mdash;condition, act, collection of</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>ance</i>, <i>ancy</i>, <i>ence</i>, <i>ency</i>&mdash;state of being</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ary</i>, <i>ory</i>&mdash;one who, place where, that which</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. <i>ant</i>, <i>ent</i>&mdash;one who</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. <i>ist</i>, <i>ite</i>&mdash;one who</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. <i>ion</i>, <i>sion</i>, <i>tion</i>&mdash;act of, state of being</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. <i>ity</i>, <i>ty</i>&mdash;quality of being</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. <i>ment</i>&mdash;that which, act or state of being</span><br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. <i>or</i>, <i>er</i>, <i>ar</i>&mdash;one who</span><br />
+
+10. <i>try</i>&mdash;state of<br />
+
+11. <i>tude</i>, <i>itude</i>&mdash;condition of being<br />
+
+12. <i>ure</i>&mdash;condition of being, that which<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 51</b></div>
+
+<p>The following is a list of the more commonly used Latin
+prefixes:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 51">
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. <i>a</i>, <i>ab</i>&mdash;away from</span></td><td align='left'>16. <i>intro</i>&mdash;toward the inside</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. <i>ad</i>&mdash;toward</span></td><td align='left'>17. <i>mono</i>&mdash;one</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. <i>ante</i>&mdash;before</span></td><td align='left'>18. <i>non</i>&mdash;not</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. <i>anti</i>&mdash;against</span></td><td align='left'>19. <i>ob</i>&mdash;in the way of, against</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. <i>bi</i>&mdash;two, twice</span></td><td align='left'>20. <i>per</i>&mdash;through</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. <i>circum</i>&mdash;around</span></td><td align='left'>21. <i>pre</i>&mdash;before</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. <i>con</i>&mdash;together with, against&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</span></td><td align='left'>22. <i>post</i>&mdash;after</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. <i>contra</i>&mdash;against</span></td><td align='left'>23. <i>pro</i>&mdash;before</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. <i>de</i>&mdash;from, apart from, down from&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</span></td><td align='left'>24. <i>re</i>&mdash;again, back</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10. <i>dis</i>&mdash;apart, not</td><td align='left'>25. <i>semi</i>&mdash;half, partly</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>11. <i>dia</i>&mdash;through</td><td align='left'>26. <i>se</i>&mdash;away from</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>12. <i>ex</i>&mdash;out of</td><td align='left'>27. <i>sub</i>&mdash;under, below</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>13. <i>in</i>, <i>en</i>&mdash;into</td><td align='left'>28. <i>super</i>&mdash;above, more than</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>en</i>&mdash;to cause to be</span></td><td align='left'>29. <i>trans</i>&mdash;across</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>14. <i>in</i>, <i>un</i>&mdash;not</td><td align='left'>30. <i>uni</i>&mdash;one</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>15. <i>inter</i>&mdash;between</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 52</b></div>
+
+<p>Analyze the following words, telling prefix, root, suffix,
+part of speech, and meaning:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 52">
+<tr><td align='left'>business</td><td align='left'>package</td><td align='left'>truthfulness</td><td align='left'>unsuccessful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>useless</td><td align='left'>anteroom</td><td align='left'>workmanlike</td><td align='left'>agreement</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>prefix</td><td align='left'>monotone</td><td align='left'>nervousness</td><td align='left'>uniformity</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>beautify</td><td align='left'>breakage</td><td align='left'>disrespectful&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>misguidance</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>semicircle&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>pleasant</td><td align='left'>perfection</td><td align='left'>crystallize</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>kingship</td><td align='left'>sameness&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>progressive</td><td align='left'>precaution</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>incase</td><td align='left'>subway</td><td align='left'>undeniable</td><td align='left'>imaginary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>enrich</td><td align='left'>disown</td><td align='left'>displeasure</td><td align='left'>supernatural</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pianist</td><td align='left'>readmit</td><td align='left'>endurance</td><td align='left'>melodious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bicycle</td><td align='left'>adjuster&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>reaction</td><td align='left'>interlineal</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 53</b></div>
+
+<p>When the prefixes <i>ad</i>, <i>con</i>, and <i>in</i> are used to form English
+words, the final consonant of each is often changed to the
+initial consonant of the root to which it is joined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ad</i> assumes the forms <i>ab</i>, <i>ac</i>, <i>af</i>, <i>ag</i>, <i>al</i>, <i>an</i>, <i>ap</i>, <i>ar</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>at</i>,
+assimilating the <i>d</i> with the first letter of the word to which
+it is prefixed; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 53 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>ab-breviate&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>al-literation&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ar-rest</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ac-cept</td><td align='left'>al-lot</td><td align='left'>as-sign</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ac-cumulate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>an-nex</td><td align='left'>as-sist</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>af-fect</td><td align='left'>an-nounce</td><td align='left'>at-tract</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>af-flict</td><td align='left'>ap-position</td><td align='left'>at-tribute</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ag-gregate</td><td align='left'>ap-prove</td><td align='left'>at-tune</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>Con</i> assumes the forms <i>col</i>, <i>cor</i>, <i>com</i>, by assimilation; it
+takes the form <i>com</i> before <i>p;</i> and it drops the <i>n</i> before a
+vowel; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 53 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>col-lateral&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>com-mercial&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>com-pose</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>col-lect</td><td align='left'>cor-relate</td><td align='left'>co-operate</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>com-mission&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>cor-respond</td><td align='left'>co-ordinate</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>In</i> assumes the forms <i>il</i>, <i>im</i>, <i>ir</i>, by assimilation and takes
+the form of <i>im</i> before <i>p</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 53 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>il-lusion&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>im-migrate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ir-ruption&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>im-port</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 54&mdash;Peculiar Adjective Endings</b></div>
+
+<p>The suffixes <i>able</i> and <i>ible</i> are sometimes troublesome
+because it is difficult to know which ending to write. As
+a rule, if the new word was made from another English word,
+the ending is <i>able</i>, as <i>blamable</i>. The words ending in <i>ible</i>
+are derived from the Latin, and, as a rule, the ending cannot
+easily be separated from the root and still leave the latter
+an English word. Examples are:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>divisible&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>intelligible&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>digestible&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>audible</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>visible</td><td align='left'>permissible</td><td align='left'>flexible</td><td align='left'>incredible</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>possible</td><td align='left'>terrible</td><td align='left'>horrible</td><td align='left'>indelible</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The suffixes <i>ant</i> and <i>ent</i> must also be carefully noted. No
+rule can be given for using one rather than the other. Whenever
+in doubt, consult a dictionary. Note the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 2">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>ant</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>ent</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>important</td><td align='left'>independent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pleasant</td><td align='left'>convalescent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>triumphant&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>competent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>luxuriant</td><td align='left'>convenient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>stagnant</td><td align='left'>confident</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The endings <i>eous</i> and <i>ious</i>, where <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> are often confused,
+are illustrated in the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 3">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>eous</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>ious</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hideous</td><td align='left'>delirious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>miscellaneous&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>impious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>courteous</td><td align='left'>studious</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The endings <i>cious</i> and <i>tious</i> are shown in the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 Part 4">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>cious</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>tious</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>conscious</td><td align='left'>fictitious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>precious</td><td align='left'>superstitious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>delicious</td><td align='left'>cautious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>gracious</td><td align='left'>ambitious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>suspicious&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>nutritious</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The endings <i>gious</i> and <i>geous</i> are illustrated in the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 54 part 5">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>gious</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>geous</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>religious&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>courageous</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 55&mdash;Peculiar Noun and Verb Endings</b></div>
+
+<p>Nouns in <i>ance</i> and <i>ence:</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 1">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>ance</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>ence</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>acceptance</td><td align='left'>intelligence</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>appearance</td><td align='left'>reference</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>annoyance</td><td align='left'>patience</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>acquaintance&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>negligence</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>remittance</td><td align='left'>diligence</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ignorance</td><td align='left'>residence</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Nouns in <i>sion</i>, <i>cion</i>, and <i>tion:</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 2">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>sion</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>cion</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>tion</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>exclusion&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>coercion</td><td align='left'>acquisition</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>aversion</td><td align='left'>suspicion&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>precaution</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Verbs in <i>ise</i>, <i>yze</i>, and <i>ize:</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 3">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>ise</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>yze</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>ize</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>advise</td><td align='left'>analyze</td><td align='left'>baptize</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>supervise&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>paralyze&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>recognize</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Verbs in <i>ceed</i>, <i>sede</i>, and <i>cede:</i></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 55 part 4">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>ceed</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>sede</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>cede</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>exceed</td><td align='left'>supersede&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>concede</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>proceed&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>intercede</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>succeed</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>precede</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 56</b></div>
+
+<p>What other words can you form from the following?
+Explain what prefixes or suffixes you use in each case and
+what part of speech you form.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 56">
+<tr><td align='left'>success</td><td align='left'>consider</td><td align='left'>real</td><td align='left'>change</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>please</td><td align='left'>doubt</td><td align='left'>publish</td><td align='left'>attend</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>occur</td><td align='left'>apply</td><td align='left'>regular</td><td align='left'>satisfy</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>emphasize&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>industry</td><td align='left'>operate</td><td align='left'>assess</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>second</td><td align='left'>busy</td><td align='left'>practice&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>resist</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>expense</td><td align='left'>distribute&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>organ</td><td align='left'>define</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>depend</td><td align='left'>locate</td><td align='left'>work</td><td align='left'>sense</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>attract</td><td align='left'>install</td><td align='left'>desire</td><td align='left'>preside</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>effect</td><td align='left'>vital</td><td align='left'>count</td><td align='left'>sign</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 57</b></div>
+
+<p>There are many words the meanings of which are easily
+confused. The spelling and the definitions of such must be
+mastered. Analysis in this exercise and in the one following
+does not require separation into prefix, root, and suffix, but it
+necessitates a careful study of the words, first, to note the
+difference in spelling; second, to consult a dictionary, if
+necessary, for the difference in meaning.</p>
+
+<p>Define each word clearly.</p>
+
+<p>Use each in a sentence to illustrate its meaning.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 57">
+<tr><td align='left'>accept&mdash;except</td><td align='left'>common&mdash;mutual</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>add&mdash;annex</td><td align='left'>complementary&mdash;complimentary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>advice&mdash;advise</td><td align='left'>continual&mdash;continuous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>affect&mdash;effect</td><td align='left'>contraction&mdash;abbreviation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>after&mdash;afterward</td><td align='left'>contradiction&mdash;denial</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ascend&mdash;assent</td><td align='left'>currant&mdash;current</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>assure&mdash;promise</td><td align='left'>defective&mdash;deficient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>attain&mdash;obtain</td><td align='left'>deprecate&mdash;depreciate</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>benefit&mdash;advantage</td><td align='left'>effective&mdash;efficient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>brief&mdash;concise</td><td align='left'>eligible&mdash;illegible</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>center&mdash;middle</td><td align='left'>eminent&mdash;prominent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>claim&mdash;maintain</td><td align='left'>expect&mdash;hope</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>combine&mdash;combination&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>intelligent&mdash;intelligible</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 58</b></div>
+
+<p>As above, define each word carefully and use it in a sentence
+to illustrate its meaning.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 58">
+<tr><td align='left'>healthful&mdash;healthy</td><td align='left'>proficient&mdash;efficient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>inventory&mdash;invoice</td><td align='left'>proscribe&mdash;prescribe</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>invite&mdash;invitation</td><td align='left'>purpose&mdash;propose</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>last&mdash;latest</td><td align='left'>quiet&mdash;quite</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>later&mdash;latter</td><td align='left'>recommend&mdash;recommendation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>liable&mdash;likely&mdash;apt</td><td align='left'>refer&mdash;allude</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>loose&mdash;lose</td><td align='left'>repair&mdash;fix</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>need&mdash;want</td><td align='left'>requirement&mdash;requisite&mdash;requisition</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>perspective&mdash;prospective&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>respectfully&mdash;respectively</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>positive&mdash;definite</td><td align='left'>scarcely&mdash;hardly</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>practicable&mdash;practical</td><td align='left'>stationary&mdash;stationery</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>precede&mdash;proceed</td><td align='left'>therefore&mdash;accordingly</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>principal&mdash;principle&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>500 SPELLING WORDS</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 1</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>business&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>losing</td><td align='left'>surprising&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>height</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>receive</td><td align='left'>loosely</td><td align='left'>Saturday</td><td align='left'>depth</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>believe</td><td align='left'>across</td><td align='left'>Wednesday</td><td align='left'>eighth</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wholly</td><td align='left'>whether</td><td align='left'>excellent</td><td align='left'>daily</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>obliged</td><td align='left'>describe</td><td align='left'>exercise</td><td align='left'>earnest</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 2</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>attached</td><td align='left'>decision</td><td align='left'>probable</td><td align='left'>seize</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>attacked</td><td align='left'>buying</td><td align='left'>usable</td><td align='left'>siege</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>gentlemen</td><td align='left'>studying&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>salable</td><td align='left'>friend</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>although</td><td align='left'>relying</td><td align='left'>desirable&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Messrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>thoroughly&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>occasion</td><td align='left'>honorable</td><td align='left'>nickel</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 3</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>disappoint</td><td align='left'>knew</td><td align='left'>acquittal</td><td align='left'>stopped</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>disappear</td><td align='left'>design</td><td align='left'>occurrence&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>referred</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>disapprove&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>forty</td><td align='left'>compelling</td><td align='left'>planned</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>disagree</td><td align='left'>fourth</td><td align='left'>beginning</td><td align='left'>swimming</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>anxious</td><td align='left'>purpose&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>permitted</td><td align='left'>submitted</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 4</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 4">
+<tr><td align='left'>all right&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>persuade</td><td align='left'>Norwegian</td><td align='left'>variety</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>already</td><td align='left'>pursued</td><td align='left'>possession</td><td align='left'>prairie</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tongue</td><td align='left'>prepared</td><td align='left'>accumulate</td><td align='left'>neighbor</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>separate</td><td align='left'>repaired</td><td align='left'>dissatisfy&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>soldier</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>crystal</td><td align='left'>necessary&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>dissolve</td><td align='left'>shoulder</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 5</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 5">
+<tr><td align='left'>their</td><td align='left'>awkward</td><td align='left'>opportunity&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>scheme</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>advise</td><td align='left'>mucilage</td><td align='left'>development</td><td align='left'>schedule</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>advice</td><td align='left'>familiar</td><td align='left'>statistics</td><td align='left'>accurately</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>laboratory&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>peculiar&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>accidental</td><td align='left'>efficient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>until</td><td align='left'>similar</td><td align='left'>competent</td><td align='left'>Spaniard</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 6</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 6">
+<tr><td align='left'>policy</td><td align='left'>patient</td><td align='left'>merchandise&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>conscious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>rough</td><td align='left'>ancient</td><td align='left'>mercantile</td><td align='left'>precious</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>disease</td><td align='left'>partial</td><td align='left'>scarcity</td><td align='left'>suspicion</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>balance</td><td align='left'>facial</td><td align='left'>indebted</td><td align='left'>physician</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>decease&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ambitious&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>estimate</td><td align='left'>caution</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 7</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 7">
+<tr><td align='left'>ascend</td><td align='left'>noticeable</td><td align='left'>vengeance&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>emergency</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>assent</td><td align='left'>serviceable</td><td align='left'>address</td><td align='left'>compliance</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>minute</td><td align='left'>manageable</td><td align='left'>salary</td><td align='left'>reference</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>conceal</td><td align='left'>exchangeable&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>currency</td><td align='left'>apparel</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>immense&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>advantageous</td><td align='left'>withhold</td><td align='left'>typical</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 8</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 8">
+<tr><td align='left'>edition</td><td align='left'>especially</td><td align='left'>appreciate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>imitate</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>addition</td><td align='left'>pamphlet</td><td align='left'>essential</td><td align='left'>initial</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>identify</td><td align='left'>illustrate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>eligible</td><td align='left'>official</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>illegal</td><td align='left'>February</td><td align='left'>legible</td><td align='left'>curtain</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>nuisance&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>punctual</td><td align='left'>illegible</td><td align='left'>adjacent</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 9</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 9">
+<tr><td align='left'>later</td><td align='left'>crystallize&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>lieutenant</td><td align='left'>lenient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>latter</td><td align='left'>neutralize</td><td align='left'>anthracite</td><td align='left'>naphtha</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>weighed</td><td align='left'>conceit</td><td align='left'>bituminous</td><td align='left'>liquid</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>destroy</td><td align='left'>catarrh</td><td align='left'>rheumatism</td><td align='left'>gauge</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>indelible&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>colonel</td><td align='left'>influential&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sieve</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 10</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 10">
+<tr><td align='left'>duly</td><td align='left'>interfered</td><td align='left'>analyze</td><td align='left'>attorneys</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>durable</td><td align='left'>transferred&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>analysis</td><td align='left'>specialty</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>mutual</td><td align='left'>reconcile</td><td align='left'>paralyze&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sympathy</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bargain</td><td align='left'>accidental</td><td align='left'>banana</td><td align='left'>campaign</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>misspell&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>irregular</td><td align='left'>molasses</td><td align='left'>mattress</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 11</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 11">
+<tr><td align='left'>ached</td><td align='left'>designate</td><td align='left'>vicinity</td><td align='left'>recognize</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>social</td><td align='left'>available</td><td align='left'>guardian</td><td align='left'>technical</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>forfeit</td><td align='left'>adequately</td><td align='left'>celebrate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>hygiene</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>opposite&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>subordinate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>porcelain</td><td align='left'>angel</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>parallel</td><td align='left'>sufficient</td><td align='left'>poultice</td><td align='left'>angle</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 12</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 12">
+<tr><td align='left'>society</td><td align='left'>associate</td><td align='left'>rumored</td><td align='left'>remittance</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sirloin</td><td align='left'>definitely</td><td align='left'>courtesy</td><td align='left'>remuneration</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>laborer</td><td align='left'>spherical</td><td align='left'>obstinacy&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>restaurant</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>visitor</td><td align='left'>commercial</td><td align='left'>financial</td><td align='left'>government</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>souvenir&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>permissible&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sapphire</td><td align='left'>acquaintance</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 13</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 13">
+<tr><td align='left'>quite</td><td align='left'>appropriate</td><td align='left'>convenient</td><td align='left'>knowledge</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>least</td><td align='left'>distinguish&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>exaggerate</td><td align='left'>principal, <i>a</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>written&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>mysterious</td><td align='left'>confidential&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>stationary, <i>a</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>among</td><td align='left'>appearance</td><td align='left'>endeavoring</td><td align='left'>judgment</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>psalm</td><td align='left'>conference</td><td align='left'>immediately</td><td align='left'>implement</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 14</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 14">
+<tr><td align='left'>assure</td><td align='left'>greatly</td><td align='left'>embarrassment&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>auxiliary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>expect</td><td align='left'>grateful</td><td align='left'>organization</td><td align='left'>conciliate</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>prompt</td><td align='left'>deserve</td><td align='left'>advertisement&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>principle, <i>n</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>eliminate</td><td align='left'>bureau</td><td align='left'>assessment</td><td align='left'>stationery, <i>n</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>illuminate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>deficient&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>accommodate</td><td align='left'>parenthesis</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 15</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 15">
+<tr><td align='left'>coupon</td><td align='left'>indispensable&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>measure</td><td align='left'>proprietor</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>length</td><td align='left'>innumerable</td><td align='left'>condemn</td><td align='left'>transient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>vehicle</td><td align='left'>investigate</td><td align='left'>security&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>persistent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>customer</td><td align='left'>incandescent</td><td align='left'>liniment</td><td align='left'>signature</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>costumer&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>effervescent</td><td align='left'>mosquito</td><td align='left'>mischievous</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 16</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 16">
+<tr><td align='left'>canal</td><td align='left'>company's</td><td align='left'>repetition</td><td align='left'>sulphur</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>channel&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>real estate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>abbreviated&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>benefited</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>liquid</td><td align='left'>equivalent</td><td align='left'>unabridged</td><td align='left'>unanimous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>recent</td><td align='left'>assignment</td><td align='left'>assurance</td><td align='left'>itemize</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>trough</td><td align='left'>extravagant</td><td align='left'>pneumatic</td><td align='left'>calcimine</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 17</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 17">
+<tr><td align='left'>precede</td><td align='left'>freight</td><td align='left'>authority</td><td align='left'>leisure</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>proceed</td><td align='left'>achieve</td><td align='left'>mortgage</td><td align='left'>neuralgia</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>procession&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>between</td><td align='left'>specimen</td><td align='left'>dyspepsia</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>precision</td><td align='left'>imagine&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>solicitor</td><td align='left'>substantial</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>extinguish&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>autumn</td><td align='left'>co&ouml;perates&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>passenger</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 18</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 18">
+<tr><td align='left'>merely</td><td align='left'>mechanical</td><td align='left'>preliminary</td><td align='left'>omitted</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cashier</td><td align='left'>permanent</td><td align='left'>miscellaneous&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>omission</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>urgent</td><td align='left'>prominent</td><td align='left'>subscription</td><td align='left'>committee</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hesitate</td><td align='left'>precaution&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>incredible</td><td align='left'>commission</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>anchored&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>interval</td><td align='left'>anticipation</td><td align='left'>precisely</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 19</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 19">
+<tr><td align='left'>specify</td><td align='left'>preparation</td><td align='left'>athletics</td><td align='left'>deceit</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>equity</td><td align='left'>coincidence</td><td align='left'>excursion</td><td align='left'>receipt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>accrue</td><td align='left'>irresolute</td><td align='left'>suggestion&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>obstacle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>concrete&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>vaccination&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>courageous</td><td align='left'>promissory</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>summary</td><td align='left'>glycerine</td><td align='left'>concession</td><td align='left'>compulsory</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 20</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 20">
+<tr><td align='left'>deficit</td><td align='left'>sceptical</td><td align='left'>anniversary&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>rhythm</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>mansion</td><td align='left'>conscience</td><td align='left'>presumption</td><td align='left'>rhubarb</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>mention</td><td align='left'>interruption</td><td align='left'>guaranteed</td><td align='left'>fatigue</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>reckoned&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>approximately&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>prejudice</td><td align='left'>synopsis</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>license</td><td align='left'>avoirdupois</td><td align='left'>privilege</td><td align='left'>emphatic</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 21</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 21">
+<tr><td align='left'>scholar</td><td align='left'>Elkhart</td><td align='left'>industrious</td><td align='left'>collision</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>scissors</td><td align='left'>Memphis</td><td align='left'>hideous</td><td align='left'>delusion</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>career</td><td align='left'>Niagara</td><td align='left'>artificial</td><td align='left'>oxygen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sincere</td><td align='left'>Raleigh&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>cantaloupe</td><td align='left'>martyr</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>chiffonier&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Oregon</td><td align='left'>unscrupulous&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>apology</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 22</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 22">
+<tr><td align='left'>receipt</td><td align='left'>Cincinnati</td><td align='left'>sovereign</td><td align='left'>chemical</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>welfare</td><td align='left'>Des Moines&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>committee</td><td align='left'>frontier</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>feigned&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Decatur</td><td align='left'>ingredients&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>fulfilled</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>chord</td><td align='left'>Dubuque</td><td align='left'>counterfeit</td><td align='left'>facsimile</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>scythe</td><td align='left'>Alleghany</td><td align='left'>responsible</td><td align='left'>identical</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 23</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="23">
+<tr><td align='left'>exceed</td><td align='left'>Paducah</td><td align='left'>foreign</td><td align='left'>Cheyenne</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>succeed</td><td align='left'>Eau Claire&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>solemnity</td><td align='left'>metallic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>secede</td><td align='left'>Peoria</td><td align='left'>assassinate&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>nauseated</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>immigrant&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Savannah</td><td align='left'>pneumonia</td><td align='left'>invariably</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>emigrant</td><td align='left'>Manila</td><td align='left'>diphtheria</td><td align='left'>injurious</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 24</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 24">
+<tr><td align='left'>adoption</td><td align='left'>Minneapolis</td><td align='left'>fraudulent</td><td align='left'>mahogany</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>scientific</td><td align='left'>Indianapolis&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>negligence</td><td align='left'>corduroy</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>guidance</td><td align='left'>Syracuse</td><td align='left'>diligence</td><td align='left'>Schenectady</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>syllable</td><td align='left'>Milwaukee</td><td align='left'>ridiculous</td><td align='left'>duplicate</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fort Wayne&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Valparaiso</td><td align='left'>comparative&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>re&euml;nforce</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lesson 25</b></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 25">
+<tr><td align='left'>Duluth</td><td align='left'>Massachusetts</td><td align='left'>preferable&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>periodical</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Missouri</td><td align='left'>Connecticut</td><td align='left'>preferred</td><td align='left'>insertion</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wisconsin&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>enthusiastic</td><td align='left'>publicity</td><td align='left'>excursion</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>luxurious&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>acknowledgment&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>prevailing</td><td align='left'>plateau</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>twelfth</td><td align='left'>professional</td><td align='left'>damageable</td><td align='left'>tragedy</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS</div>
+
+
+<p>In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they
+are used singly. We studied their pronunciation and the
+way in which they were formed to express a definite meaning.
+In this chapter we shall begin a review of grammar,
+a study of words not according to their pronunciation or
+their definition, but according to their use as they are
+arranged with other words to express complete ideas. The
+simplest group into which words are thus arranged is the
+sentence, consisting of two important parts, the subject
+and the predicate. The subject is the part about which
+something is told, and the predicate is the part that tells
+about the subject; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="subject and predicate">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Subject</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>Predicate</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The sun&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>shines brightly</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>There are several different kinds of sentences, named
+according to the meaning which they express. They are
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+The <i>declarative</i> sentence states a fact.<br />
+The <i>interrogative</i> sentence asks a question.<br />
+The <i>imperative</i> sentence commands or entreats.<br />
+The <i>exclamatory</i> sentence expresses deep feeling.<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div>
+
+<div>
+<i>Declarative:</i> John closed the door.<br />
+<i>Interrogative:</i> Did John close the door?<br />
+<i>Imperative:</i> Close the door.<br />
+<i>Exclamatory:</i> What a noise the door made!<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure
+or form. If a sentence has one subject and one predicate,
+it is a <i>simple</i> sentence. If it is made up of two independent
+parts, it is a <i>compound</i> sentence. If it has one independent
+part and one or more dependent parts, each of which contains
+a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is
+<i>complex</i>. The independent part of the sentence is called a
+<i>principal clause</i>, and the dependent part is called a <i>subordinate
+clause</i>. A <i>phrase</i> is also a dependent part of a
+sentence, but it differs from a subordinate clause in that
+it contains no subject or predicate. Both phrases and
+subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns,
+adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions:</p>
+
+<p>A <i>simple</i> sentence contains one principal clause.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>compound</i> sentence contains two or more principal
+clauses.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>complex</i> sentence contains one principal clause and one
+or more subordinate clauses.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>phrase</i> is a group of related words used as a part of
+speech. (See <a href="#Exercise_68">Exercises 68</a> and <a href="#Exercise_69">69</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>A <i>clause</i> is a group of words containing a subject and a
+predicate. A subordinate clause is used as a part of speech.
+It usually has an introductory word to distinguish it from
+a principal clause. (See <a href="#Exercise_71">Exercise 71</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><i>Simple sentence:</i> To-day most of the world's big questions are
+business questions.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><i>Complex sentence:</i> The view <i>that</i> business is only humdrum routine
+and sordid money-making needs revising, <i>since</i>
+most of the world's big questions are business questions.</div>
+
+<div class='hang1'><i>Compound sentence:</i> Many people still belittle business, calling
+it humdrum routine and sordid money-making, <i>but</i>
+this view needs revising.</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='hang1'><i>Phrase:</i>   &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;    (<i>a</i>) <i>of</i> the world's big questions.<br />
+(<i>b</i>) <i>calling</i> it humdrum routine and sordid
+money-making.<br />
+</div>
+<div class='hang1'><i>Subordinate clause:</i> (<i>a</i>) <i>that</i> business is only humdrum routine and
+sordid money-making.<br />
+(<i>b</i>) <i>since</i> most of the world's big questions are
+business questions.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 59</b></div>
+
+<p>Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences:
+<i>a.</i> Declarative, <i>b.</i> Interrogative, <i>c.</i> Imperative, <i>d.</i> Exclamatory.</p>
+
+<p>Examine each of the sentences below and tell</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> Whether it is simple, complex, or compound.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Its subject and its predicate.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Your subscription expires with this issue.</p>
+
+<p>2. This special offer will continue until the tenth of November.</p>
+
+<p>3. The last shipment of castings that you made to us is decidedly
+unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>4. Your imitation typewritten letters have greatly assisted
+us in the sale of our property, and we thank you for calling our
+attention to them.</p>
+
+<p>5. The advertised poster was sent to you to-day in a special
+tube.</p>
+
+<p>6. Without doubt you will be interested in the booklet which
+we enclose.</p>
+
+<p>7. The machine which is standing there has just been repaired.</p>
+
+<p>8. The wheel that holds the type may be changed in an instant
+by the operator.</p>
+
+<p>9. Whenever he wishes, the operator may write in different
+sizes of type on the same sheet of paper.</p>
+
+<p>10. Many of our styles have been copied exactly from the best
+designs that have recently been displayed in the Parisian exhibits.</p>
+
+<p>11. Why are the department stores acquiring motor wagons?</p>
+
+<p>12. One reason is the economy of the motor wagon.</p>
+
+<p>13. Economy does not entirely explain the keenness which
+department stores are displaying in acquiring motor wagons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>14. In such establishments the quick delivery of merchandise
+is a necessity.</p>
+
+<p>15. The best means of transportation must be employed, or a
+loss of trade will follow.</p>
+
+<p>16. Any one can cite examples that prove that faults in delivery
+cause a loss of trade.</p>
+
+<p>17. Machine service develops fewer errors than horse service
+(develops).</p>
+
+<p>18. The area which department stores serve is being greatly
+increased from year to year, and not even the establishment of
+the parcel post has avoided the necessity for sending package
+merchandise too far distant for conveyance by horses.</p>
+
+<p>19. Electric machines usually make the house-to-house package
+deliveries, and gasoline trucks, besides hauling furniture,
+transfer large loads from the store or warehouse to the distributing
+stations.</p>
+
+<p>20. In one store each transfer truck is loaded twice daily with
+fifty trunks containing parcels.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 60&mdash;Sentence Errors</b></div>
+
+<p><b>S. 1.</b> <span class="smcap">The Baby Blunder.</span>&mdash;In writing, one of the
+most elementary forms of correctness is shown in the proper
+division into sentences. The ability instinctively to end a
+sentence at the right place is called the "sentence sense."
+Students who do not possess it or who have not learned
+the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and
+phrases frequently make the mistake of setting off too
+much or too little for one sentence. For example, they run
+two sentences together as one; as,</p>
+
+<p><i>Wrong:</i> Motor wagons are economical, department stores of
+all large cities are acquiring them.</p>
+
+<p>The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the
+sentence error&mdash;one of the worst possible mistakes in
+writing. It is sometimes called the <i>comma fault</i> or the
+<i>baby blunder</i>. For brevity we shall call it <i>S 1</i> (sentence error
+number one). <i>Motor wagons are economical</i> is a principal
+clause. <i>Department stores of all large cities are acquiring them</i>
+is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not stand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct,
+divide into two sentences; as,</p>
+
+<p><i>Right:</i> Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of
+all large cities are acquiring them.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is
+closely connected. In that case they may be put into the
+same sentence, provided they are properly connected or
+separated. Use a comma <i>plus</i> a co&ouml;rdinate conjunction (as
+<i>and</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>but</i>) to connect them, or a semicolon (;) to separate
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs <i>so</i>, <i>then</i>,
+<i>therefore</i>, <i>thus</i>, <i>also</i>, <i>still</i>, <i>otherwise</i>, <i>however</i>, <i>hence</i>, <i>consequently</i>,
+<i>moreover</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>. When they are used to join
+the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is
+not sufficient punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon
+or a comma and a co&ouml;rdinate conjunction must be
+used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wrong:</i> He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to
+lose his trade.</p>
+
+<p><i>Right:</i> He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to
+lose his trade.</p>
+
+<p><i>Right:</i> He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry
+to lose his trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>S. 2.</b>&mdash;The first form of the sentence error (<i>S 1</i>) is made
+by using too much for one sentence. The second form (<i>S 2</i>)
+is made by using too little. It consists in writing a subordinate
+clause or a phrase as a sentence; as,</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Wrong:</i> I told her I would attend to the matter at my
+earliest convenience. <i>Probably on my way from work in the evening.</i></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Wrong:</i> His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. <i>Which
+he decided to do.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 61</b></div>
+
+<p>Each sentence should express one complete thought.
+Some of the following are really two sentences (<i>S 1</i>), and
+some are only parts of sentences (<i>S 2</i>). Correct each, naming
+the mistake.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You will find the booklet interesting it is also instructive.</p>
+
+<p>2. Up to last January he was a salesman for Colgate &amp; Co.
+since then he has opened a business of his own.</p>
+
+<p>3. I didn't know you had come, when did you arrive?</p>
+
+<p>4. Did any one take the newspaper, I left it here only a
+moment ago.</p>
+
+<p>5. I shall take my vacation in September have you had yours?</p>
+
+<p>6. I must go now good-bye I'll see you on Saturday.</p>
+
+<p>7. The opening sentence held the man's attention, he read
+it again and again.</p>
+
+<p>8. I'll have to run to catch the train, otherwise I shall be
+late for work.</p>
+
+<p>9. The advertisement is attractive, still it has not paid well.</p>
+
+<p>10. We wished to reduce office drudgery therefore we installed
+adding and addressing machines.</p>
+
+<p>11. These problems all require a knowledge of square root for
+example, take the fourth.</p>
+
+<p>12. Do you expect to come home for Christmas or shall you
+stay in New York I don't remember now which you said.</p>
+
+<p>13. First I read a statement that recommended the bonds then
+I read an article that condemned them without question the result
+was that I didn't know what to do.</p>
+
+<p>14. One-half of the statements are here, the others are in the
+safe.</p>
+
+<p>15. If your name is not correct on this envelope, please notify
+us we wish to insure your receiving our bulletin regularly.</p>
+
+<p>16. The supply of fruit was greater than the demand, that is
+why fruit was cheap.</p>
+
+<p>17. Flies are dangerous. Especially in a sick room from which
+they carry germs to others.</p>
+
+<p>18. In the country the trees were loaded with fruit, their
+branches had to be propped so that they would not break.</p>
+
+<p>19. When he was twenty-three years of age, Richard T. Crane,
+the late millionaire head of the immense Crane Manufacturing
+Company, came to Chicago, he started a brass foundry, which
+grew into the present giant establishment.</p>
+
+<p>20. We spent last summer in the Bitter Root Valley we camped
+within view of Willoughby Falls.</p>
+
+<p>21. I want to congratulate you on your appointment I heard
+of it only yesterday.</p>
+
+<p>22. It surely was not I whom you saw I wonder who it could
+have been.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>23. Not one of us has a salary of three thousand dollars so we
+do not worry over the income tax.</p>
+
+<p>24. Please send me the booklet you offered in the Business
+Magazine, I'd also like particulars of your advertised discount
+sale of typewriters.</p>
+
+<p>25. Sooner or later shingles are sure to warp and curl, thus
+they pull out the nails and allow the rain to beat in, furthermore,
+shaded shingles soon rot and allow the water to soak through.</p>
+
+<p>26. This sealing and stamping machine is endorsed by business
+men in all our large cities nevertheless it is not expensive.</p>
+
+<p>27. If you wish to prove the excellence of our paper, just tear
+off a corner of this sheet then tear off a corner of your present
+letterhead with a magnifying glass examine both torn edges.</p>
+
+<p>28. The superior paper will show long, linen fibers the poorer,
+on the other hand, will have short, woody fibers.</p>
+
+<p>29. When a German army is on the march, it stops every
+twenty minutes for a rest. Experiments having shown that a
+soldier can cover more ground when he is given this period of
+relaxation.</p>
+
+<p>30. Two thousand convicts will be released according to a
+plan worked out by the governor; five hundred will be given their
+freedom at once, and, if the plan is a success one thousand five
+hundred others will be released. One-half their wages of fifty
+cents a day to go to their families and one-half to the penitentiary
+fund. If they leave the state or commit any crime while they
+are on parole, to serve the balance of their term and an extension
+of time. They will be put to work on roads and bridges the counties
+need several thousand such laborers but cannot pay union
+prices.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 62</b></div>
+
+<p>Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences:</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>There is no safer way to invest money than in a good first
+mortgage on city real estate by a good mortgage we mean one that
+is properly drawn and with such security as absolutely insures
+the holder against loss we have made a specialty of first mortgage
+loans, and we offer investors the benefit of our wide experience
+in such matters we investigate properties frequently and keep
+investors informed on their investment we look after all details<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+and collections without extra charge you will find it to your
+interest to consult us.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Stick to your legitimate business do not go out into outside
+operations few men have brains enough for more than one business
+to dabble in stocks, to put a few thousand dollars into a mine,
+a few more into a manufactory, and a few more into an invention
+is enough to ruin any man be content with fair returns do not
+become greedy do not think that men are happy in proportion
+as they are rich and therefore do not aim too high be content with
+moderate wealth make friends a time will come when all the money
+in the world will not be worth to you as much as one staunch
+friend.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Sacramento City is a great commercial center its wholesale
+and jobbing business extends hundreds of miles to the north,
+south, west, and east it is fast becoming a substantial manufacturing
+center large six and eight story buildings are rapidly taking
+the place of the old two story structures a new city hall has
+just been completed which cost $150,000 and a new court house
+$1,000,000 the city has recently issued bonds amounting to
+$800,000 for new schools scarcely a week passes without recording
+some new enterprise all the main highways are macadamized
+so that automobile travel is possible every day of the year and
+the farmer can haul his produce to market at a minimum cost
+market conditions are good and any class of produce finds ready
+sale at remunerative prices.&mdash;(From an advertisement.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing
+exercise:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="instructions">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. According to meaning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. According to form.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 63&mdash;Parts of Speech</b></div>
+
+<p>There are eight different kinds of words called parts of
+speech, which are used to make sentences. They are as
+follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Names of words">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i> The <i>horse</i> is brown.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i> <i>He</i> is the best horse of all.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Verb:</i> He <i>galloped</i> to town.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjective:</i> The <i>brown</i> horse is my favorite.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Adverb:</i> He runs <i>swiftly</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Preposition:</i> We shall ride <i>to</i> town.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Conjunction:</i> The night is clear <i>and</i> cold.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Interjection:</i> <i>Oh!</i> My horse stumbled.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Thus a <i>noun</i> names something. A word that stands for
+a noun is a <i>pronoun</i>. Sometimes a different part of speech
+is used like a noun, and for the time being it becomes a noun.
+The <i>verb</i> is a very important part of speech, since without it
+there can be no sentence. The verb makes an assertion,
+asks a question, or gives a command. <i>Adjectives</i> are words
+that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go
+with or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. <i>Prepositions</i>
+and <i>conjunctions</i> connect. Prepositions join their
+objects to other words in the sentence; conjunctions join
+words, phrases, or clauses. An <i>interjection</i>, such as the
+exclamation <i>oh</i>, is used without having grammatical relation
+to any other word in the sentence. A preposition always
+takes an object, the preposition and its object making a
+<i>phrase</i>. Grouping this information, we have:</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='8'><span class="smcap">Parts of Speech</span></td><td align='left' rowspan='8'><img src="images/bracket.png" width="18" height="300" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'><i>Nouns</i> are names of persons and things.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronouns</i> are substitutes for nouns.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Verbs</i> make assertions, ask questions, or give commands.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjectives</i> modify nouns and pronouns.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Adverbs</i> modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. <br />They usually answer the questions <i>how?</i> <i>when?</i> <i>where?</i> <i>why?</i> <i>to what degree?</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Prepositions</i> join object nouns or pronouns to other words in the sentence.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Conjunctions</i> join words, phrases, and clauses.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Interjections</i> are independent words used as exclamations.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>A word is not always the same part of speech. We may
+say, "Did you <i>starch</i> the clothes?" in which case <i>starch</i> is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+a verb. A grocer may say, "The <i>starch</i> in these packages is
+always clean." In this sentence <i>starch</i> is a noun. The
+part of speech depends entirely on the way the word is used.</p>
+
+<p>In the following, name the part of speech of each word in
+italic. Judge by the way the word is used in the sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&nbsp;1. The desks have <i>green</i> pads.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;2. <i>Green</i> is a restful color.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;3. In the valley is a <i>mill</i>, which grinds <i>flour</i>. It is a <i>flour</i>
+mill.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;4. I saw him <i>stretch</i> out his hand.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;5. The <i>stretch</i> of <i>waste</i> land amazed him.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;6. Europeans say that Americans <i>waste</i> more than they use.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;7. One of our great problems is how to lessen <i>waste</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;8. After the stormy <i>night</i>, the <i>day</i> dawned bright and clear.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;9. He has been working <i>night</i> and <i>day</i>.</p>
+
+<p>10. The old man went <i>home</i> sad and weary.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Home</i> is the best place in the world.</p>
+
+<p>12. We must <i>fine</i> you for such an offense.</p>
+
+<p>13. Your <i>fine</i> is five dollars.</p>
+
+<p>14. We use <i>fine</i> sand in our concrete.</p>
+
+<p>15. I can talk <i>better</i> than I can write.</p>
+
+<p>16. John wrote the <i>better</i> circular.</p>
+
+<p>17. Talking will not <i>better</i> the matter.</p>
+
+<p>18. Young people should learn to respect their <i>betters</i>.</p>
+
+<p>19. Suddenly there was a <i>pause</i> in the music.</p>
+
+<p>20. Did you see those men <i>pause?</i></p>
+
+<p>21. He was our guide for he knew the <i>ins</i> and <i>outs</i> of the
+place.</p>
+
+<p>22. Have you ever been <i>in</i> the house?</p>
+
+<p>23. Where are you going&mdash;<i>in</i> or <i>out?</i></p>
+
+<p>24. <i>Good</i> apples are expensive.</p>
+
+<p>25. The <i>good</i> of the people is our first consideration.</p>
+
+<p>26. I shall not go <i>if</i> it rains.</p>
+
+<p>27. What is the use of saying <i>if?</i></p>
+
+<p>28. I <i>like</i> to see her just <i>like</i> this, for in <i>like</i> mood I do not
+know her <i>like</i>.</p>
+
+<p>29. <i>Little</i> drops of water make the mighty ocean.</p>
+
+<p>30. I can do <i>little</i> of the work until the typewriter is repaired.</p>
+
+<p>31. Do not <i>belittle</i> your work.</p>
+
+<p>32. She studies too <i>little</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 64</b></div>
+
+<p>Each of the following may be used as different parts of
+speech. Write sentences illustrating as many uses as possible
+for each word.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 64">
+<tr><td align='left'>sound&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>paper&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>dress&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>ring</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>light</td><td align='left'>shoe</td><td align='left'>box</td><td align='left'>dawn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ride</td><td align='left'>long</td><td align='left'>ink</td><td align='left'>curb</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>iron</td><td align='left'>warm</td><td align='left'>walk</td><td align='left'>use</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hear</td><td align='left'>cold</td><td align='left'>rule</td><td align='left'>cement</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 65</b></div>
+
+<p>Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which
+are adverbs. Remember that an adjective goes with a noun
+or pronoun; an adverb with another adverb, an adjective, or
+a verb, and usually answers the question <i>how?</i> <i>when?</i> <i>where?</i>
+<i>why?</i> <i>how much?</i> or <i>how long?</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&nbsp;1. You are walking too <i>fast</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;2. Send perishable articles by <i>fast</i> freight.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;3. He has been a <i>well</i> man since he has stopped working
+indoors.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;4. He writes very <i>well</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;5. The fire is <i>bright</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;6. It burns <i>brightly</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;7. That is a <i>very poor</i> reason.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;8. The berries look <i>good</i>, but they taste <i>sour</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;9. They are not <i>good</i> berries.</p>
+
+<p>10. The sun shone <i>brilliant</i> above us. (Compare with <i>brilliantly</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>11. The bookkeeper looks <i>angry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. He looked at us <i>angrily</i>.</p>
+
+<p>13. The flowers are <i>sweet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>14. They smell <i>sweet</i>. (May we say, <i>The flowers smell sweetly?</i>)</p>
+
+<p>15. Act <i>frankly</i>, speak <i>gently</i>.</p>
+
+<p>16. Let your actions be <i>frank</i>, your speech <i>gentle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>17. Laborers complain that they have to work <i>too hard</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 66</b></div>
+
+<p>Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each
+case use both parts of speech in sentences.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 66">
+<tr><td align='left'>cold</td><td align='left'>sure</td><td align='left'>polite</td><td align='left'>courteous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>smooth&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>exact</td><td align='left'>precise&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>easy</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bitter</td><td align='left'>bad</td><td align='left'>extreme</td><td align='left'>nice</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>loud</td><td align='left'>general&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>honest</td><td align='left'>glad</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 67</b></div>
+
+<p>Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which
+are adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase.
+It must be followed by an object.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. He is the best man <i>in</i> the office.</p>
+
+<p>2. John was leaving as I came <i>in</i> this evening.</p>
+
+<p>3. He did not have his coat <i>on</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. It was hanging <i>over</i> his arm.</p>
+
+<p>5. He stood <i>on</i> the top step several minutes, wondering whether
+he should wear the coat.</p>
+
+<p>6. The handle fell <i>off</i> as I took the cup <i>off</i> the shelf.</p>
+
+<p>7. The aeroplane flies <i>over</i> the city.</p>
+
+<p>8. I am going <i>over</i> to the factory.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write sentences using <i>above</i>, <i>across</i>, <i>down</i>, <i>up</i>, <i>underneath</i>
+both as adverbs and as prepositions.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_68" id="Exercise_68"></a>Exercise 68&mdash;Prepositional Phrases</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Adjective:</i> The opinions <i>of some people</i> must be taken with
+caution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adverb:</i> We shall return <i>within a year</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Noun:</i> <i>From New York to San Francisco</i> is a long trip.</p></div>
+
+<p>What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below?
+Remember that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb
+modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The waves are rolling in, white <i>with foam</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. A million dollars was invested <i>in the business</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. I will abide <i>on thy right side</i> and keep the bridge <i>with thee</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>In summer</i> milk soon turns sour.</p>
+
+<p>5. I have come <i>for help</i>.</p>
+
+<p>6. The people <i>on the bridge</i> cheered <i>for hours</i>.</p>
+
+<p>7. He threw up his hat <i>for joy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>On the table before them</i> stood a deer roasted whole.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>9. We shall stay here <i>until spring</i>.</p>
+
+<p>10. We came <i>in sight of the king's palace</i>.</p>
+
+<p>11. We drove <i>to the factory</i> today <i>with the superintendent</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. He works <i>from sunrise to sunset</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_69" id="Exercise_69"></a>Exercise 69</b></div>
+
+<p>The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common.
+A list of prepositions follows. They should be learned.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 69">
+<tr><td align='left'>about</td><td align='left'>before</td><td align='left'>except</td><td align='left'>toward</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>above</td><td align='left'>behind</td><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>under</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>aboard</td><td align='left'>below</td><td align='left'>from</td><td align='left'>underneath</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>across</td><td align='left'>beneath</td><td align='left'>in</td><td align='left'>until</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>after</td><td align='left'>beside</td><td align='left'>into</td><td align='left'>up</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>against</td><td align='left'>between</td><td align='left'>of</td><td align='left'>upon</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>along</td><td align='left'>betwixt</td><td align='left'>on</td><td align='left'>with</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>amid</td><td align='left'>beyond</td><td align='left'>over</td><td align='left'>within</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>amidst</td><td align='left'>but (except)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>past</td><td align='left'>without</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>among</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>through</td><td align='left'>to the extent of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>around</td><td align='left'>concerning</td><td align='left'>throughout&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>from under</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>athwart&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>down</td><td align='left'>till</td><td align='left'>according to</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>during</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>except for</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Write three sentences containing prepositional <i>adjective</i>
+phrases.</p>
+
+<p>Prepositional <i>adverbial</i> phrases may express the following
+ideas:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Time, telling <i>when</i> something happened.<br />
+
+Place, telling <i>where</i> something happened.<br />
+
+Manner, telling <i>how</i> something happened.<br />
+
+Means, telling <i>how</i> something happened.<br />
+
+Cause or purpose, telling <i>why</i> something happened.<br />
+
+Degree, telling <i>how long</i> something lasted; <i>how far</i> it went;
+<i>how much</i> it cost, etc.<br />
+
+Agent, telling <i>by whom</i> it was done.<br />
+
+Accompaniment, telling <i>with whom</i> it was done.</div>
+
+<p>Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 69 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. when</td><td align='left'>6. how far</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. where</td><td align='left'>7. how much</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. why</td><td align='left'>8. by whom</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. in what way&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>9. with whom</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. how long</td><td align='left'>10. by what means</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 70</b></div>
+
+<p>Name all the prepositional phrases in <a href="#Exercise_179">Exercise 179</a>, explaining
+whether they are adjective or adverbial.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_71" id="Exercise_71"></a>Exercise 71&mdash;The Clause</b></div>
+
+<p>A <i>subordinate clause</i>, like a phrase, is a group of words used
+as a part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause
+must have a subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'><p>1. By <i>relative pronouns:</i><br /></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'>who, whose, whom, which, what, that</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'><p>2. By <i>subordinate conjunctions:</i><br /></p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 70">
+<tr><td align='left'>when</td><td align='left'>because</td><td align='left'>than</td><td align='left'>unless</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>where</td><td align='left'>since</td><td align='left'>provided</td><td align='left'>till</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>while</td><td align='left'>if</td><td align='left'>whereas</td><td align='left'>until</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>as</td><td align='left'>as soon as</td><td align='left'>wherever&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>before</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>as if</td><td align='left'>as long as</td><td align='left'>whether</td><td align='left'>after</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>though</td><td align='left'>in order that&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>why</td><td align='left'>for</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>although&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>lest</td><td align='left'>that</td><td align='left'>whenever</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective">
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3'><span class="smcap">Adjective</span>:&nbsp; </td><td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>&nbsp; A lamp that <i>smokes</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-r.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='3'>&nbsp; is a torture to a student.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; A <i>smoking</i> lamp</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adverb">
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='4'><span class="smcap">Adverb</span>:&nbsp;</td><td align='left' rowspan='4'><img src="images/bracket3-l.png" width="8" height="75" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>&nbsp;<i>When she was good</i>&nbsp; </td><td align='left' rowspan='4'><img src="images/bracket3-r.png" width="8" height="75" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'>she was very, very good.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Sometimes</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>When she was bad</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'>she was horrid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Sometimes</i></span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite
+idea?</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><span class="smcap">Noun</span>: I know&nbsp; </td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'><i>where he lives</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>the house</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three
+illustrating adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun
+clauses.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 72</b></div>
+
+<p>Name all the clauses in <a href="#Exercise_179">Exercises 179</a>, <a href="#Exercise_185">185</a>, and <a href="#Exercise_186">186</a>.
+Explain the use of each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 73</b></div>
+
+<p>Write sentences using each of the following words to
+introduce a phrase, and to introduce a clause.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 73">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. after</td><td align='left'>3. for</td><td align='left'>5. until</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. before&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>4. since&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by
+an <i>object</i> to form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed
+by a <i>subject</i> to form a clause.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustration</i></div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 73">
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'>I have not seen him <i>since</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>&nbsp; <i>Christmas</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Object.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp; <i>he</i> went away.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Subject.</span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 74</b></div>
+
+<p>Name the complete subject in the following. Then name
+the simple subject, explaining by what elements&mdash;words,
+phrases, or clauses&mdash;it is modified.</p>
+
+<p>Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple
+predicate, explaining by what elements the verb is modified.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Modern business cannot be carried on by old-fashioned
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>2. When a man engages in business, he buys or sells.</p>
+
+<p>3. The great routes of trade have changed from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>4. Your order will be filled within a few days.</p>
+
+<p>5. Both blanks were properly filled out at the time.</p>
+
+<p>6. Means of travel have developed from the slowly moving
+caravan to the palatial railway coach.</p>
+
+<p>7. Commerce originated when one human being demanded
+something which had to be supplied by some one else.</p>
+
+<p>8. The latest American and European styles will be displayed
+in our new millinery department, which will be formally opened
+on the first of March.</p>
+
+<p>9. The prosperity of nations rests very largely on the six
+inches of soil between the surface and the subsoil of the territory.</p>
+
+<p>10. One of the greatest losses to the Ohio farm lands in the
+floods of 1913 came about because the water took off the top<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+soil from the hillside and valleys and carried the vegetable material
+with it.</p>
+
+<p>11. The conserving of the top soil is one of the greatest problems
+in national prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>12. We trust that shipment about September 8 will be satisfactory
+to you, as it is the best that we can do under the circumstances.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">For</span> the plural of nouns see <a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The classes to which nouns belong are distinguished as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>A <i>common</i> noun is the name given to an object to denote
+the class to which it belongs; as, <i>book</i>, <i>man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>proper</i> noun is the name given to a particular object to
+distinguish it from others of the same class; as, <i>Mary</i>, <i>Republicans</i>,
+<i>England</i>. Proper nouns should always be capitalized.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>collective</i> noun is a name which in the singular denotes
+a collection. It is usually plural in idea but singular in use;
+as, <i>congregation</i>, <i>crowd</i>.</p>
+
+<p>An <i>abstract</i> noun is the name denoting a quality of an
+object; as, <i>power</i>, <i>purity</i>, <i>strength</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>verbal</i> noun is the name of an action. As its name
+suggests, it is made from a verb; as, <i>Sweeping</i> is good
+exercise.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_75" id="Exercise_75"></a>Exercise 75</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following sentences supply necessary capital letters.
+Explain why the same word in one expression needs a capital
+and in another does not.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I have just taken out an endowment policy in the northwestern
+mutual life insurance company.</p>
+
+<p>2. There are many mutual life insurance companies in the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>3. His refusing the terms was practically a declaration of
+independence.</p>
+
+<p>4. On the fourth of July we celebrate the signing of the declaration
+of independence, the first step in the revolutionary war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. Mexico has had many revolutionary wars.</p>
+
+<p>6. And king Arthur said, "The king who fights his people
+fights himself."</p>
+
+<p>7. When does the bank close?</p>
+
+<p>8. I have an account with the first national bank.</p>
+
+<p>9. This is the first national bank that was ever established in
+this country.</p></div>
+
+<p>Explain to which class each noun in the foregoing sentences
+belongs. Be particularly careful to distinguish between
+common and proper nouns.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 76&mdash;Pronouns</b></div>
+
+<p>The different classes of pronouns are distinguished as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>The <i>personal</i> pronoun is used in place of the name of a
+person or thing. The pronoun of the <i>first</i> person indicates
+the speaker, the pronoun of the <i>second</i> person indicates the
+person spoken to, and the pronoun of the <i>third</i> person indicates
+the person spoken of. They are declined as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 1">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><i>First person</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>Singular</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>I</td><td align='left'>we</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>my, mine</td><td align='left'>our, ours</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>me</td><td align='left'>us</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><i>Second person</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>you (thou)</td><td align='left'>you (ye)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>your, yours (thy, thine)&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>your, yours</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>you (thee)</td><td align='left'>you</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In modern usage <i>you</i> is used for both the singular and the
+plural, but the verb that goes with <i>you</i> is always plural.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 2">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'><i>Third person</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Singular</i></td><td align='center'><i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>Masc.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Fem.</i></td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Neut.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>he</td><td align='left'>she</td><td align='left'>it</td><td align='left'>they</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>his</td><td align='left'>her, hers&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>its&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>their, theirs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>him&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>her</td><td align='left'>it</td><td align='left'>them</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The forms <i>mine</i>, <i>thine</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>hers</i>, <i>ours</i>, <i>theirs</i>, and sometimes
+<i>his</i> are possessive case in form, but nominative or objective case
+in use. That pencil is <i>mine</i> really means, That pencil is <i>my</i> pencil.
+<i>Mine</i> is used as a substitute for a possessive pronoun and the noun it
+modifies.</p></div>
+
+<p>The personal pronouns compounded with <i>self</i> are of two
+kinds:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Emphatic</i> pronouns; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+The buyer <i>himself</i> told me.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Reflexive</i> pronouns, referring back to the subject and
+at the same time being in the objective case; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+John slipped and hurt <i>himself</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>relative</i> pronoun is so called because it relates or refers
+to another word, called its antecedent, to which it joins the
+clause that it introduces. The relative pronouns are <i>who</i>,
+<i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>that;</i> and the compound relatives are <i>whoever</i>,
+<i>whosoever</i>, <i>whichever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, <i>whatsoever</i>.</p>
+
+<p>They are declined as follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><i>Singular and Plural</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>who</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>whoever</td><td align='left'>whosoever</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>whose&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>of which&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>whosever&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>whosesoever</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>whom</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>whomever</td><td align='left'>whomsoever</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>That</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>whichever</i>, <i>whichsoever</i>, <i>whatever</i>, and <i>whatsoever</i>
+are not declined. They have the same form in the
+nominative and objective cases, and are not used in the
+possessive case.</p>
+
+<p><i>What</i> is peculiar in that it never has an antecedent
+expressed, but itself stands for both antecedent and relative.
+It is called the <i>double relative</i>. Compare the following:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 4">
+<tr><td align='left'>I did not hear <i>the words that</i> he said.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I did not hear <i>that which</i> he said.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I did not hear <i>what</i> he said.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>That</i> is called the restrictive relative, because it limits or
+restricts its antecedent to the meaning expressed in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+clause introduced by <i>that</i>. A restrictive clause is one, therefore,
+that is needed to make the meaning of the sentence
+clear. Compare the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Non-restrictive:</i> John Brown, <i>who</i> has no disease, needs no
+physician.</p>
+
+<p><i>Restrictive:</i> He <i>that</i> hath no disease needs no physician.</p></div>
+
+<p>Notice that a restrictive, or necessary, clause is not separated
+from the rest of the sentence by commas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Who</i> and <i>which</i> are sometimes used with restrictive force;
+as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Those <i>who</i> have finished their work may leave. (Not everybody.)</p>
+
+<p>2. Have you read the book <i>which</i> he recommended? (He recommended
+but one.)</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Interrogative</i> pronouns are used in asking questions. They
+are <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>. <i>Who</i> refers to persons; <i>which</i> refers
+to persons or things, and is used to distinguish one object
+from another; <i>what</i> refers to things. They are declined as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<i>Singular and Plural</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 5">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Nom.</i></td><td align='left'>who</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>what</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Poss.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>whose&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(of which)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(of what)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Obj.</i></td><td align='left'>whom</td><td align='left'>which</td><td align='left'>what</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The interrogative pronouns <i>which</i> and <i>what</i> are frequently
+used as adjectives. In this case they are called <i>pronominal
+adjectives</i>. Compare:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 76 part 5">
+<tr><td align='left'>Pronoun: <i>Which</i> of these hats do you prefer?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Adjective: <i>Which</i> hat do you prefer?</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The <i>demonstrative</i> pronouns are <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> with their
+plurals <i>these</i> and <i>those</i>. They are always used to point out,
+or demonstrate, the noun to which they refer. <i>This</i> and
+<i>these</i> are used for objects near at hand, or recently named;
+<i>that</i> and <i>those</i> are used for objects far away, or not recently
+named.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The demonstrative pronouns are frequently used as adjectives;
+as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 76 part 6">
+<tr><td align='left'>Pronoun: <i>That</i> is my book.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Adjective: <i>That</i> book is mine.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>Indefinite</i> pronouns refer to objects or persons, but do not
+define or limit them. The indefinite pronouns are <i>each</i>,
+<i>every</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>none</i>, <i>other</i>, <i>another</i>, <i>few</i>, <i>all</i>, <i>many</i>,
+<i>several</i>, <i>some</i>, <i>each other</i>, <i>one another</i>, and the compounds
+<i>any one</i>, <i>some one</i>, <i>every one</i>, <i>something</i>, <i>nothing</i>. Indefinite
+pronouns are frequently used as adjectives. <i>Each</i>, <i>every</i>,
+<i>either</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>another</i>, <i>any one</i>, <i>some one</i>, <i>every one</i>, whether they
+are used as pronouns or as adjectives, are singular in number.
+If another pronoun is used to refer to one of them, it must
+be in the singular number.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 77&mdash;Classes of Pronouns</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following sentences, explain which pronouns represent
+the person speaking, which represent the person spoken
+to, and which represent the person spoken of. Tell which
+pronouns ask questions; which are used as adjectives;
+which are used to connect subordinate clauses to the word
+for which they stand. If the antecedent is expressed, point
+it out.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Who is talking?</p>
+
+<p>2. The man who is speaking is the head of the credit department.</p>
+
+<p>3. If you are going, get ready.</p>
+
+<p>4. Which is the better piece of cloth?</p>
+
+<p>5. This is the better piece of cloth.</p>
+
+<p>6. The one who wishes to succeed must exercise great care in his work.</p>
+
+<p>7. He that would succeed must work.</p>
+
+<p>8. Many men fail because of laziness.</p>
+
+<p>9. What did you say?</p>
+
+<p>10. Can you guess whom I saw?</p>
+
+<p>11. He himself told us.</p>
+
+<p>12. A cousin of ours is coming to town.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>13. The man whose life is above criticism need fear no one.</p>
+
+<p>14. Whoever lives the truth need fear no criticism.</p>
+
+<p>15. I wish you would remove those files.</p>
+
+<p>16. Ink that is thick makes illegible writing.</p>
+
+<p>17. What paper should I destroy?</p>
+
+<p>18. I cannot understand what any one is saying.</p>
+
+<p>19. This is not my umbrella. It is yours.</p>
+
+<p>20. No friend of his would talk in that way.</p>
+
+<p>21. This is no book of theirs; it belongs to us.</p>
+
+<p>22. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it.</p>
+
+<p>23. I shall ask whomever I see.</p>
+
+<p>24. Each of us has his work assigned.</p>
+
+<p>25. Every boy has his work assigned.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 78</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following sentences <i>he</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>they</i>, <i>their</i>, <i>them</i>, <i>it</i>, or
+<i>its</i> should be inserted. Give the reason for your choice.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. No man is allowed to leave &mdash;&mdash; desk untidy.</p>
+
+<p>2. Every one must put &mdash;&mdash; tools away before leaving the
+shop.</p>
+
+<p>3. Every office worker is required to be in &mdash;&mdash; place at
+eight-thirty every morning.</p>
+
+<p>4. In my business a person must learn to make up &mdash;&mdash; mind
+quickly.</p>
+
+<p>5. It was cold this morning. Every one wore &mdash;&mdash; wraps.</p>
+
+<p>6. Every clerk must do &mdash;&mdash; own work.</p>
+
+<p>7. If an employee has ideas for the improvement of the business,
+&mdash;&mdash; is requested to report &mdash;&mdash; suggestions to the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>8. The superintendent is anxious to have every workman
+feel that &mdash;&mdash; (has, have) a definite place in the organization,
+and that if &mdash;&mdash; (does not, don't) do &mdash;&mdash; work, the business
+will suffer.</p>
+
+<p>9. No goods will be accepted unless &mdash;&mdash; (are, is) in good
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>10. Every newspaper is anxious to increase &mdash;&mdash; classified
+advertising.</p>
+
+<p>11. No one cares to see &mdash;&mdash; friends frown.</p>
+
+<p>12. Every one must agree that &mdash;&mdash; (has, have) &mdash;&mdash; faults.</p>
+
+<p>13. Not one of the banks had &mdash;&mdash; deposits decreased.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>14. Will any one let me take &mdash;&mdash; umbrella?</p>
+
+<p>15. Every one says that &mdash;&mdash; had a delightful evening.</p>
+
+<p>16. Who was it said I had &mdash;&mdash; book?</p>
+
+<p>17. Does each state pay over a part of &mdash;&mdash; taxes to the federal
+government?</p>
+
+<p>18. Every one will find in the current publications a wealth
+of information applicable to &mdash;&mdash; specific needs, much of which
+&mdash;&mdash; will wish to file for easy reference, no matter in what department
+of the world's work &mdash;&mdash; interest centers.</p>
+
+<p>19. If any one could tell beforehand when &mdash;&mdash; opportunities
+would arrive, &mdash;&mdash; might be ready to grasp each as &mdash;&mdash; came.</p>
+
+<p>20. If every one here would follow the directions that &mdash;&mdash;
+(has, have) received, &mdash;&mdash; would make fewer mistakes in shipments.</p>
+
+<p>21. Any one who wishes may give &mdash;&mdash; opinion.</p>
+
+<p>22. No one need expect to leave before &mdash;&mdash; work is finished.</p>
+
+<p>23. Every one in the office took &mdash;&mdash; vacation early this year
+except me.</p>
+
+<p>24. Each of the twenty banks sent &mdash;&mdash; representative to the
+meeting.</p>
+
+<p>25. On applying for a position, each man is given a blank
+that &mdash;&mdash; must fill out carefully, making &mdash;&mdash; answers as definite
+as possible.</p></div>
+
+<p>Some of the following are right, and some are wrong.
+Correct those that are wrong, explaining why they are
+wrong.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Neither one of them know what they are expected to do.</p>
+
+<p>2. Applicant after applicant handed in their names.</p>
+
+<p>3. If any one has a complaint to make, he should report it
+in writing to the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>4. Have either of the stenographers finished their letters?</p>
+
+<p>5. I wish everybody would do their own work and let me do
+mine.</p>
+
+<p>6. Each man did his work faithfully.</p>
+
+<p>7. Has neither the carpenter nor the plumber yet brought
+his tools?</p>
+
+<p>8. Every one of the clerks must hand their report to the head
+bookkeeper before five o'clock.</p>
+
+<p>9. One of them must have neglected to hand in his report.</p>
+
+<p>10. Man after man yesterday promised me that they'd be on
+hand to work this morning, and not one of them showed themselves.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 79</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following exercise, tell which of the italicized pronouns
+introduce restrictive, and which introduce non-restrictive
+clauses:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. This is the best bargain <i>that</i> we have ever offered.</p>
+
+<p>2. This is Mr. Burton, <i>whose</i> work I recommended to you.</p>
+
+<p>3. The city <i>that</i> I enjoyed most was Quebec.</p>
+
+<p>4. I enjoyed walking on the old wall <i>that</i> still surrounds the
+town.</p>
+
+<p>5. The club to <i>which</i> I belong will hold a meeting next week.</p>
+
+<p>6. The club <i>that</i> I belong to will hold a meeting next Monday.</p>
+
+<p>7. All those <i>whose</i> daily work showed an improvement were
+given an increase in salary.</p>
+
+<p>8. The horse <i>that</i> ran away belonged to my partner.</p>
+
+<p>9. The greatest man is he <i>who</i> feels himself the least.</p>
+
+<p>10. An old story tells us that when Caesar, <i>who</i> was a great
+Roman emperor, returned from a conquest <i>which</i> has ever since
+been famous, he brought back to Rome a formula <i>that</i> has revolutionized
+the world. It was a formula for making soap, and was
+considered one of the greatest treasures <i>that</i> was captured during
+the campaign. Caesar immediately saw the value <i>that</i> it would
+have in the eyes of the world, and he forced the soap-makers to
+reveal their secret.</p>
+
+<p>11. The garrison is a handful of invalid soldiers, <i>whose</i> principal
+duty is to guard some of the outer towers.</p>
+
+<p>12. This is the gentleman <i>whom</i> we met in Boston.</p>
+
+<p>13. Mr. Carter, <i>who</i> was a member of our Boston firm, will
+take charge of our city sales.</p>
+
+<p>14. We honestly believe that our latest Style Book, <i>which</i>
+goes with this letter, offers you more for every dollar <i>that</i> you
+spend than you can get elsewhere.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_80" id="Exercise_80"></a>Exercise 80&mdash;Case</b></div>
+
+<p>Case is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which
+denotes its relation to other words in the sentence. There
+are three cases: the <i>nominative</i>, the <i>objective</i>, and the <i>possessive</i>.
+Although nouns are used in all three cases, no change
+of form occurs except in the possessive case.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>nominative</i> case is used in the following ways:</p>
+
+<p>1. The principal use of the nominative case is as <i>subject</i>
+of the sentence; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exerise 80 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>The <i>business</i> is prosperous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i>&nbsp; </td><td align='left'><i>It</i> has been established for five years.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>2. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used to complete the
+meaning of such verbs as <i>be</i>, <i>become</i>, <i>seem</i>, <i>appear</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>feel</i>.
+Such a noun is in the nominative case, and is called a <i>predicate
+nominative</i>, or a <i>subjective complement;</i> as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 80 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i></td><td align='left'>Mr. Brown is the <i>manager</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>He seems a <i>gentleman</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i>&nbsp;&nbsp; </td><td align='left'>I think it is <i>she</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>3. A noun in <i>apposition</i> with another noun in the nominative
+case is also in the nominative case; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Excercise 80 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>Mr. Brown, <i>the manager</i>, is very capable.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The man to whom you should apply is Mr. Brown, <i>the manager</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>4. Sometimes a noun or a pronoun is used in direct address
+or in an exclamation, without having any grammatical
+relation to the rest of the sentence. It is then said to be
+<i>nominative independent;</i> as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 80 part 4">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Mr. Brown</i>, a gentleman wishes to speak to you.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A <i>strike!</i> Why are they declaring a strike?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>You!</i> I thought you were in South America.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>5. Sometimes a noun or pronoun is used with a participle
+to express an adverbial relation. Such a noun is in the
+nominative case, and is called <i>nominative absolute</i>, because
+it has no grammatical relation to any other part of the
+sentence; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Mr. Brown</i> having gone, we told the gentleman to see Mr.
+Jones.</p>
+
+<p><i>He</i> being the guide, we asked no questions.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is much better to use a clause to express such an idea; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>As Mr. Brown had gone, we told the gentleman to see Mr.
+Jones.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a
+pronoun in each of the following uses of the nominative case:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Subject.<br />
+2. Predicate Nominative.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Write a sentence containing a noun used</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. In direct address.<br />
+2. In exclamation.<br />
+3. In apposition with another noun in the nominative case.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 81&mdash;The Objective Case</b></div>
+
+<p>A noun or a pronoun may be used in the objective case
+in the following ways:</p>
+
+<p>1. Direct object of a transitive verb; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+I have a good <i>position</i>.<br />
+Do you know <i>him?</i><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>2. Object of a preposition; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+I have just returned from the <i>library.</i><br />
+Bring the book to <i>me</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Indirect object of such verbs as <i>ask</i>, <i>give</i>, <i>teach</i>, showing
+the person for whom or to whom the action is done; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+She brought <i>her mother</i> some flowers.<br />
+I gave <i>her</i> singing lessons.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>4. A noun as <i>second object</i> after verbs of <i>making</i>, <i>choosing</i>,
+<i>calling</i>, <i>electing;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+They chose John <i>secretary</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>5. A noun in <i>apposition</i> with another objective; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+Send your report to the secretary, <i>John Wilson</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>6. Adverbial modifier; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+We are going <i>home</i>.
+</div>
+
+<p>Write a sentence containing a noun and one containing a
+pronoun in each of the following uses of the objective case:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+1. Direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
+2. Indirect object.<br />
+3. Object of a preposition.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Write a sentence containing a noun used as</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+1. Adverbial objective.<br />
+2. Second object.<br />
+3. Appositive of another noun in the objective case.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_82" id="Exercise_82"></a>Exercise 82&mdash;The Possessive Case</b></div>
+
+<p>To form the possessive case of nouns add an <i>apostrophe</i>
+and <i>s</i> to all singular nouns, and to all plural nouns that do
+not end in <i>s;</i> if a plural <i>noun</i> ends in <i>s</i> add only an apostrophe;
+as, <i>child's</i>, <i>children's</i>, <i>boys'</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Exception.</i>&mdash;When, in long words, the additional <i>s</i> in the
+singular would cause a disagreeable sound, some writers use
+only the apostrophe; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+We awaited the <i>princess's</i> decision.<br />
+We awaited the <i>princess'</i> decision.</div></div>
+
+<p>It is often better in such cases to use a phrase; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+We awaited the decision <i>of the princess</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus, an <i>of</i> phrase may be used instead of the possessive
+case. In speaking of an inanimate object one should use it
+instead of the apostrophe and <i>s;</i> as, <i>the top of the mountain</i>.
+However, we use such expressions as <i>last year's prices</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When, as in the name of a firm, two or more nouns are
+taken together with the idea of common possession, the sign
+of the possessive is added to the last noun only. If separate
+possession is implied, the sign of the possessive is added to
+each noun; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+Have you seen <i>Wilson &amp; King's</i> new building?<br />
+This is <i>Mary and Helen's</i> room.<br />
+Is this <i>Mary's or Helen's</i> coat?<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case before a verbal
+noun; as,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+I prefer to have <i>John's</i> studying done before dinner.<br />
+I prefer to have <i>his</i> studying done before dinner.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Write sentences expressing relation between the words
+in the following pairs. Use one of them in the possessive
+case or use an <i>of</i> phrase, whichever seems better.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 82">
+<tr><td align='left'>the manager, desk&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>city, harbor</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>desk, top drawer</td><td align='left'>proprietor, private office</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>book, cover</td><td align='left'>typewriter, keys</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>city, mayor</td><td align='left'>ledger, first page</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Bring to class five incorrect possessive phrases taken from
+advertisements. Explain and correct the mistakes.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 83</b></div>
+
+<p>Which of the italicized words would you use? Why?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Have you heard of <i>Mr. Bennett</i>, <i>Mr. Bennett's</i> being
+appointed chairman of the meeting?</p>
+
+<p>2. It will probably delay <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> coming here.</p>
+
+<p>3. I don't understand <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> refusing to accept the position.</p>
+
+<p>4. We have heard a great deal of <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> making a success
+of photography.</p>
+
+<p>5. The man's industry has resulted in <i>him</i>, <i>his</i> gaining fame.</p>
+
+<p>6. Will you sign this permit for <i>us</i>, <i>our</i> visiting the factory?</p>
+
+<p>7. What do you say to <i>us</i>, <i>our</i> making some candy?</p>
+
+<p>8. I am very sorry that <i>me</i>, <i>my</i> interrupting you yesterday
+delayed your work.</p>
+
+<p>9. The machine is in excellent condition. There is no reason
+for <i>it</i>, <i>its</i> needing any repair.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Everybody</i>, <i>everybody's</i> being on time is absolutely necessary.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 84</b></div>
+
+<p>Each of the following sentences is incorrect because the
+sign of the possessive case has been omitted. Insert the
+apostrophe or the apostrophe and <i>s</i>, wherever either is
+needed.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. There is a new boys school in our town.</p>
+
+<p>2. James brother John is our new bookkeeper.</p>
+
+<p>3. For entrance to this course three years work in mathematics
+and one years work in German are required.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. This new building will be occupied by J. M. Hopkins mail
+order department.</p>
+
+<p>5. The superintendents inspection was thorough.</p>
+
+<p>6. The trouble will be in John agreeing to the proposition.</p>
+
+<p>7. All applications for help should be made to the Womens
+Committees.</p>
+
+<p>8. The employees rest rooms are on the sunny side of the
+building.</p>
+
+<p>9. Our fifteen years experience in selling bonds has convinced
+us that investments paying a low rate of interest are the safest.</p>
+
+<p>10. In to-days mail I received a very large order from Graham
+&amp; Moore's successors.</p>
+
+<p>11. Jones Brothers new store is on the corner of Madison
+Street.</p>
+
+<p>12. Last month sales show an increase of two thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>13. Everybodys business is nobodys business.</p>
+
+<p>14. It is when to-morrows burden is added to the burden of
+to-day that the weight is more than a man can bear.</p>
+
+<p>15. The present governor was the peoples choice.</p>
+
+<p>16. I prefer Tennysons poems to Longfellows.</p>
+
+<p>17. I have read both Longfellow and Tennysons poems.</p>
+
+<p>18. I bought the book at Barlow and Companys new store.</p>
+
+<p>19. We are going to insist on Mary taking a long vacation
+this year.</p>
+
+<p>20. I have had the pleasure of staying at both your friends
+houses.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 85&mdash;The Apostrophe</b></div>
+
+<p>Some of the following sentences are right, and some are
+wrong. Correct those that are wrong, explaining why
+they are wrong.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The man who's coming this way is Mr. Burton.</p>
+
+<p>2. Whose coat is that?</p>
+
+<p>3. The man who's place you are taking has been with this
+firm for twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>4. The next one whose to give a report is the treasurer.</p>
+
+<p>5. The next one whose report we must hear is the treasurer.</p>
+
+<p>6. Don't you think it's too early to start?</p>
+
+<p>7. He is a ladies tailor.</p>
+
+<p>8. Remember your to let us know at once who's elected.</p>
+
+<p>9. Its too late now to change its wording.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>10. Mr. Jones' house is being repaired.</p>
+
+<p>11. The Joneses' house is being repaired.</p>
+
+<p>12. There coming as fast as their horse will bring them.</p>
+
+<p>13. I think you're typewriter needs cleaning.</p>
+
+<p>14. Your coming too, are'nt you?</p>
+
+<p>15. Every business has it's problems.</p>
+
+<p>16. The Bon Ton has a big sale in mens' and womens' coat's.</p>
+
+<p>17. Why, it's March! No wonder their having a sale.</p>
+
+<p>18. We shall give you a special discount if you will send your
+dealer's name.</p>
+
+<p>19. Most of the dealer's advertise very little.</p>
+
+<p>20. It's just a year ago since we received your last order.</p>
+
+<p>21. Its not willingness we lack; it's time.</p>
+
+<p>22. If you use our safety device, you may leave you're window
+open with security, and you will arise refreshed, ready for a big
+days work.</p>
+
+<p>23. Lets take our vacation when they take their's.</p>
+
+<p>24. I think we shall have to take our's in August. Two of us
+must stay during July, for the work will not do it's self, you know.</p>
+
+<p>25. In any explanation it should be the writers purpose to so
+describe his good's that the reader will desire them. A good
+salesman never shows a necktie in a box. He takes it out and
+with a deft twist forms it's length into a four-in-hand over his
+finger. The customer then sees not only the scarf, it's color and
+its weave, but he sees it in it's relation to himself, as it will look
+when it's tied.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 86</b></div>
+
+<p>Supply <i>who</i> or <i>whom:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. &mdash;&mdash; did you take me for?</p>
+
+<p>2. The shipping clerk, &mdash;&mdash; I consider responsible for the
+mistake, must go.</p>
+
+<p>3. The shipping clerk, &mdash;&mdash; I feel certain is responsible for
+the mistake, must go.</p>
+
+<p>4. &mdash;&mdash; is it?</p>
+
+<p>5. &mdash;&mdash; shall I say called?</p>
+
+<p>6. &mdash;&mdash; do you wish to see?</p>
+
+<p>7. &mdash;&mdash; did you say was elected?</p>
+
+<p>8. He is the one &mdash;&mdash; every one thought should be elected.</p>
+
+<p>9. Choose the one &mdash;&mdash; you think will give the best service.</p>
+
+<p>10. Choose the one &mdash;&mdash; you think you can trust.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>11. She asked me &mdash;&mdash; did it.</p>
+
+<p>12. &mdash;&mdash; do you think is the best salesman in the firm?</p>
+
+<p>13. &mdash;&mdash; do you regard as the best salesman in the firm?</p>
+
+<p>14. &mdash;&mdash; was that &mdash;&mdash; you were talking to?</p>
+
+<p>15. He is the one &mdash;&mdash; I was speaking about.</p>
+
+<p>16. &mdash;&mdash; do we play next week?</p>
+
+<p>17. He is a workman &mdash;&mdash; can be trusted.</p>
+
+<p>18. He is a workman upon &mdash;&mdash; you can depend.</p>
+
+<p>19. This letter comes from Robert, &mdash;&mdash; we all know very well.</p>
+
+<p>20. This letter comes from Robert, &mdash;&mdash; we all know writes
+good letters.</p>
+
+<p>21. &mdash;&mdash; do you consider to be most capable? [The subject
+of the infinitive <i>to be</i> must be in the objective case.]</p>
+
+<p>22. This booklet was written by the man &mdash;&mdash; Mr. Bardon
+considers [to be] the best correspondent in our office.</p>
+
+<p>23. He is the one &mdash;&mdash; every one believes to be worthy of the
+highest honors.</p>
+
+<p>24. The critic &mdash;&mdash; every one thought gave the most truthful
+account of the performance is a man of great culture.</p></div>
+
+<p>Supply <i>whoever</i> or <i>whomever:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Give the book to &mdash;&mdash; needs it.</p>
+
+<p>2. Give it to &mdash;&mdash; you think best.</p>
+
+<p>3. &mdash;&mdash; I send can be trusted.</p>
+
+<p>4. Send me &mdash;&mdash; is there.</p>
+
+<p>5. Send me &mdash;&mdash; you find there.</p>
+
+<p>6. &mdash;&mdash; reaches the line first will receive the cup.</p>
+
+<p>7. The cup will be given to &mdash;&mdash; reaches the lines first.</p>
+
+<p>8. In the country lane he spoke to &mdash;&mdash; he met.</p>
+
+<p>9. &mdash;&mdash; you choose may compete for the prize.</p>
+
+<p>10. &mdash;&mdash; you bring is welcome.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 87</b></div>
+
+<p>Read the following sentences, using one of the forms in
+italic. Be able to give a reason for your choice.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>He</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> are going camping next summer.</p>
+
+<p>2. It is a question that refers to you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. It is a question between you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. I am sure that it was <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. I am sure that we saw you and <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. <i>We</i>&mdash;<i>us</i> boys are going camping.</p>
+
+<p>7. Will you go camping with <i>we</i>&mdash;<i>us</i> boys?</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>They</i>&mdash;<i>them</i> and their cousins are going camping.</p>
+
+<p>9. We bought a large piece of ground so that my brother
+and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> could have a garden.</p>
+
+<p>10. It was bought for <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>11. Is that <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> entering the gate? Yes, that is <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Who</i>&mdash;<i>whom</i> should I meet at the station but old Mr.
+McGregor, <i>who</i>&mdash;<i>whom</i> I had not seen for several years.</p>
+
+<p>13. If I were <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>, I should start at once.</p>
+
+<p>14. There is no need of <i>him</i>&mdash;<i>his</i> staying any longer.</p>
+
+<p>15. He does not work so rapidly as <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>16. Mary and <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i> work in the same office.</p>
+
+<p>17. There is no danger of <i>me</i>&mdash;<i>my</i> failing.</p>
+
+<p>18. Please let <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> do the work together.</p>
+
+<p>19. There is no use of <i>us</i>&mdash;<i>our</i> trying any more.</p>
+
+<p>20. <i>Us</i>&mdash;<i>our</i> giving up now will spoil everything.</p>
+
+<p>21. My mother objected to <i>me</i>&mdash;<i>my</i> going.</p>
+
+<p>22. Why did you insist upon <i>us</i>&mdash;<i>our</i> coming to-day?</p>
+
+<p>23. I hardly think it is <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> <i>who</i>&mdash;<i>whom</i> is to blame.</p>
+
+<p>24. I should like to be <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>.</p>
+
+<p>25. <i>They</i>&mdash;<i>them</i> that do wrong shall be punished.</p>
+
+<p>26. <i>They</i>&mdash;<i>them</i> that do wrong I shall punish.</p>
+
+<p>27. <i>He</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> that is your friend you can call upon in your
+hour of need.</p>
+
+<p>28. <i>He</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> that is your friend will respond to your call.</p>
+
+<p>29. The manager praised both the bookkeepers and <i>we</i>&mdash;<i>us</i>
+girls.</p>
+
+<p>30. Was it you who called? Yes, it was <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>31. It surely was not <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> whom you saw.</p>
+
+<p>32. He reproved us both but <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> more than <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>.</p>
+
+<p>33. Are you sure it's <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> whom he appointed?</p>
+
+<p>34. If it's really <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> who was appointed, I'm sure I should
+have been notified.</p>
+
+<p>35. I'm sure it can't be <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_88" id="Exercise_88"></a>Exercise 88&mdash;<i>Same</i> as a Pronoun</b></div>
+
+<p>One of the worst constructions found in business letters
+of today is the use of <i>same</i> as a pronoun. The word may
+be an adjective or a noun but never a pronoun.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Wrong:</i> Will you please fill out the enclosed blank and return
+<i>same</i> as soon as possible?</p>
+
+<p><i>Right:</i> Will you please fill out the enclosed blank and return
+<i>it</i> as soon as possible?</p></div>
+
+<p>In each of the following sentences substitute a noun or
+a pronoun for <i>same:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Will you not send us a check by Friday so that we may
+use same for our pay roll on Saturday?</p>
+
+<p>2. Do you wish to bid for our cinder output this year? We
+have a sample car that we shall be glad to have you inspect if you
+think you will have any use for same.</p>
+
+<p>3. We have no use for the material this year, but we thank
+you for giving us an opportunity to bid for same.</p>
+
+<p>4. If you are dissatisfied with the machine, return same at
+our expense.</p>
+
+<p>5. You state that you sent us an order on June 10, but we
+cannot find any trace of same.</p>
+
+<p>6. We are in the market for two dozen Standard clothes
+wringers, and we should be glad to receive your lowest price on
+same.</p>
+
+<p>7. We have given you credit for this amount and desire to
+thank you for your promptness in sending same.</p>
+
+<p>8. We have your letter of November 6 and thank you for same.</p>
+
+<p>9. If you think you can use this type of machine, we shall
+be glad to send you same on ten days' trial.</p>
+
+<p>10. We have decided to use your machine if you will give us a
+satisfactory guarantee as to strength, efficiency, and freedom from
+leaks. As soon as possible let us hear from you in regard to same.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 89&mdash;Nouns and Pronouns Incorrectly Used</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i></td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. We saw <i>lots</i> of curious things.</td><td align='left'>We saw <i>a number</i> of curious things.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Do you know that <i>party?</i></td><td align='left'>Do you know that <i>man?</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. I stayed at home the <i>balance</i> of the day.</td><td align='left'>I stayed at home the <i>rest</i> of the day.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. What <i>business</i> have you to go?</td><td align='left'>What <i>right</i> have you to go?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. The dress will be done in a <i>couple</i> of days.</td><td align='left'>The dress will be done in a <i>few</i> days.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. I'll walk a <i>piece</i> with you.</td><td align='left'>I'll walk a <i>short distance</i> with you.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. Did you get a <i>raise</i> in pay?</td><td align='left'>Did you get an <i>increase</i> in pay?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8. I'll send you a <i>postal</i>.</td><td align='left'>I'll send you a <i>postal card</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9. Christmas is still a long <i>ways</i> off.</td><td align='left'>Christmas is still a long <i>way</i> off.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10. What <i>line</i> of business are you in now?</td><td align='left'>What <i>kind</i> of business are you in now?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>11. If you expect to open a grocery, let me give you a little advice <i>along that line</i>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>If you expect to open a grocery, let me give you a little advice <i>on the subject</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>12. Have you anything new in the neckwear <i>line?</i></td><td align='left'>Have you any new neckwear?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>13. I have a <i>date</i> with the dentist.</td><td align='left'>I have an <i>appointment</i> with the dentist.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>14. Have you a <i>date</i> for this evening?</td><td align='left'>Have you an <i>engagement</i> for this evening?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>15. He always does his work in good <i>shape</i>.</td><td align='left'>He always does his work <i>well</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>16. That is a good <i>write-up</i> on the tariff.</td><td align='left'>That is a good <i>article</i> on the tariff.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>17. <i>Yourself</i> and friends are invited.</td><td align='left'><i>You</i> and your friends are invited.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>18. Don't <i>they</i> have street cars in your town?</td><td align='left'>Are there no street cars in your town?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>19. <i>It</i> said in this morning's paper that the traffic men would strike.</td><td align='left'>This morning's paper said that the traffic men would strike.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20. The book <i>what</i> he advised is not fiction.</td><td align='left'>The book <i>that</i> he advised is not fiction.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> a rule, adverbs present more difficulty than do adjectives.
+Careless pupils frequently use an adjective when an
+adverb is necessary; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective, adverb part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Wrong:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>He solved the problem very <i>quick</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Right:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>He solved the problem very <i>quickly</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Wrong:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>This is <i>real</i> good candy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Right:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>This is <i>really</i> (or <i>very</i>) good candy.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Until the habit of correct usage is formed, every sentence
+must be watched. When a word modifies a verb, an adjective,
+or an adverb, another adverb must be used, and an
+adjective may not correctly be substituted. As a rule,
+adverbs express the following ideas:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective, Adverb">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Time:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' colspan='2'>We arrived <i>early</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Place:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' colspan='2'>We have been <i>here</i> since January.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Manner:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' colspan='2'>He walked <i>steadily</i> onward.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Cause:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' colspan='2'><i>Why</i> did you refuse the offer?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Degree:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' colspan='2'>I am <i>very much</i> surprised.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Number:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' colspan='2'>I did it <i>once</i> not <i>twice</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Assertion:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-r.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'>I do <i>not</i> agree.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Denial:</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Adverb modifying a verb: See how <i>slowly</i> the man walks!</p>
+
+<p>Adverb modifying an adjective: The weather has been <i>extremely</i>
+warm.</p>
+
+<p>Adverb modifying an adverb: He dictates <i>very</i> rapidly.</p></div>
+
+<p>It must be remembered, however, that verbs of the
+senses&mdash;<i>taste</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>look</i>, <i>smell</i>, <i>sound</i>, and the like&mdash;are
+sometimes almost equal in meaning to the verb <i>be</i>. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+that case, they are followed by adjectives and not by
+adverbs; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adjective, adverb continued">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjective:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>He looked <i>angry</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Adverb:</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>He looked <i>angrily</i> at us.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 90</b></div>
+
+<p>Name the adjectives in the following selection, explaining
+with what noun each belongs.</p>
+
+<p>Name the adverbs, explaining what part of speech each
+modifies.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Since 1904 the number of live cattle exported from this country
+has been steadily growing smaller. Exports of dressed beef
+have also shrunk to such insignificant proportions that the United
+States is no longer an important factor in the foreign markets
+for beef. Often has it been said that the competition of cheap
+Argentine beef has deprived us of foreign markets. It would
+be more nearly true to say that foreigners buy the inferior article
+only because we cannot supply them with all they want of the best
+grade. Take, for instance, the Englishman's willingness to pay
+considerably more for American corn-fed beef than for Argentine.</p>
+
+<p>The raising of cattle is important, also, from the standpoint
+of the leather business. Obviously, with a 21 per cent increase
+in population in each decade, many more shoes are necessary.
+Automobile and other industries are making constantly increasing
+demands for leather. Shoes cannot become cheaper in the
+face of increased demand and diminished supply. Too much
+depends upon the cattle industry for us to allow it to wane.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 91</b></div>
+
+<p>Which of the italicized words should you use in the following,
+and why?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Why do you walk so <i>slow</i>&mdash;<i>slowly?</i></p>
+
+<p>2. Speak <i>louder</i>&mdash;<i>more loudly</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. I cannot explain why he spoke so <i>gentle</i>&mdash;<i>gently</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. The automobile was going very <i>swift</i>&mdash;<i>swiftly</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. The well has been dug very <i>deep</i>&mdash;<i>deeply</i>.</p>
+
+<p>6. He is not <i>near</i>&mdash;<i>nearly</i> so tall as you are.</p>
+
+<p>7. Are you cutting that <i>even</i>&mdash;<i>evenly?</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>8. She does pen and ink sketches <i>beautiful</i>&mdash;<i>beautifully</i>.</p>
+
+<p>9. Why can't I grow <i>quicker</i>&mdash;<i>more quickly?</i></p>
+
+<p>10. I feel <i>bad</i>&mdash;<i>badly</i> this morning.</p>
+
+<p>11. Can you do all I have asked? <i>Easy</i>&mdash;<i>easily</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. She does her work <i>good</i>&mdash;<i>well</i>.</p>
+
+<p>13. She does her work <i>fine</i>&mdash;<i>finely</i>.</p>
+
+<p>14. I am <i>real</i>&mdash;<i>very much</i> surprised to see you.</p>
+
+<p>15. He became <i>real</i>&mdash;<i>very</i> angry.</p>
+
+<p>16. I'm afraid it's not <i>near</i>&mdash;<i>nearly</i> big enough.</p>
+
+<p>17. She works twice as <i>quick</i>&mdash;<i>quickly</i> as you do.</p>
+
+<p>18. He <i>sure</i>&mdash;<i>surely</i> is a good speaker. He seems <i>sure</i>&mdash;<i>surely</i>
+of himself.</p>
+
+<p>19. Are you going? <i>Sure</i>&mdash;<i>surely?</i></p>
+
+<p>20. He says he is <i>near</i>&mdash;<i>nearly</i> starved.</p>
+
+<p>21. He worked <i>steady</i>&mdash;<i>steadily</i> all morning. The others did
+not work <i>near</i>&mdash;<i>nearly</i> so hard.</p>
+
+<p>22. I am speaking as <i>serious</i>&mdash;<i>seriously</i> as I can.</p>
+
+<p>23. The orange tastes <i>bitter</i>&mdash;<i>bitterly</i>.</p>
+
+<p>24. Don't you think he has been acting <i>queer</i>&mdash;<i>queerly?</i></p>
+
+<p>25. The coat is finished <i>nice</i>&mdash;<i>nicely</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_92" id="Exercise_92"></a>Exercise 92</b></div>
+
+<p>Explain the proper position of the italicized adverbs in
+the following sentences. Remember that an adverb must
+stand as closely as possible to the word that it modifies, but
+remember also that an infinitive, although made up of two
+parts, is <i>one</i> word and should not be split by an adverb.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I <i>merely</i> want the Milwaukee list of customers.</p>
+
+<p>2. You <i>almost</i> write like her.</p>
+
+<p>3. Your writing is like hers <i>almost</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. I can <i>not</i> find one of the papers I had on the desk.</p>
+
+<p>5. He told me to <i>carefully</i> add the figures in the column.</p>
+
+<p>6. I expect to <i>quickly</i> finish my dictation.</p>
+
+<p>7. I don't <i>even</i> understand the first problem in the lesson.</p>
+
+<p>8. Don't say you don't <i>ever</i> expect to go to school again.</p>
+
+<p>9. All the statements are <i>not</i> on my desk.</p>
+
+<p>10. He promised to <i>quickly</i> settle the matter.</p>
+
+<p>11. I wish you to <i>clearly</i> understand the situation.</p>
+
+<p>12. I <i>only</i> have two more items to enter.</p>
+
+<p>13. I <i>only</i> expect to take a short vacation this year.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+<p>14. He <i>only</i> spoke of two causes of the loss in trade.</p>
+
+<p>15. I <i>only</i> decided to take the Western instead of the Eastern
+trip at the last moment.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 93&mdash;Comparison</b></div>
+
+<p>Adjectives are compared so as to express different degrees
+of quality. There are three degrees of comparison, the <i>positive</i>,
+the <i>comparative</i>, and the <i>superlative</i>. When the object
+modified or described by the adjective is not compared with
+another, the first or <i>positive</i> degree is used. When two
+objects are compared, the second or <i>comparative</i> degree is
+used to denote more or less of the quality expressed by the
+adjective. When several objects are compared, the <i>superlative</i>
+degree of the adjective is used to express the highest
+or the lowest possible degree of the adjective.</p>
+
+<p>The usual method of comparing an adjective is to add
+<i>er</i> to the positive to form the comparative, and <i>est</i> to form
+the superlative. Frequently, however, especially for an
+adjective of two or more syllables, the comparative is formed
+by prefixing <i>more</i> or <i>less</i> to the positive, and the superlative
+by prefixing <i>most</i> or <i>least</i>. Besides the adjectives in
+these two classes there are some which do not follow any
+regular method and must, therefore, be watched a little
+more closely.</p>
+
+<p>The following table illustrates the different methods of
+comparison:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 93 part 1">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Positive</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>Comparative</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>Superlative</i>&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bright</td><td align='left'>brighter</td><td align='left'>brightest</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dangerous</td><td align='left'>more dangerous&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>most dangerous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>beautiful&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>more beautiful</td><td align='left'>most beautiful</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>good</td><td align='left'>better</td><td align='left'>best</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bad</td><td align='left'>worse</td><td align='left'>worst</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ill</td><td align='left'>worse</td><td align='left'>worst</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Be careful to avoid using a double sign for the comparative
+degree; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> This writing is <i>more neater</i> than yours.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Some adverbs are also compared; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Adverbs compared">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Positive</i></td><td align='left'><i>Comparative</i></td><td align='center'><i>Superlative</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>well</td><td align='left'>better</td><td align='left'>best</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>quickly&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>more quickly&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>most quickly</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Some adjectives and adverbs cannot be compared because
+the positive degree in itself expresses a complete or <i>absolute</i>
+meaning; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Absolute adverbs and adjectives">
+<tr><td align='left'>absolute,-ly&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>eternal</td><td align='left'>perfect</td><td align='left'>sufficient</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>circular</td><td align='left'>extreme</td><td align='left'>perpendicular&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>supreme</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>continual</td><td align='left'>faultless</td><td align='left'>perpetual</td><td align='left'>unanimous</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dead</td><td align='left'>full</td><td align='left'>right</td><td align='left'>unique</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>decisive</td><td align='left'>impossible&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>round</td><td align='left'>universal</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>empty</td><td align='left'>incurable</td><td align='left'>square</td><td align='left'>white</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Compare those of the following adjectives that may be
+compared. Explain why some do not admit of comparison.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="compared or not">
+<tr><td align='left'>great</td><td align='left'>spotless&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>expensive</td><td align='left'>wise</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tall</td><td align='left'>dear</td><td align='left'>parallel</td><td align='left'>high</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>desirable&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>east</td><td align='left'>old</td><td align='left'>new</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>honorable</td><td align='left'>early</td><td align='left'>exclusive&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>blank</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 94</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following exercise, select the correct one of the two
+italicized forms. Remember that the comparative degree is
+used in comparing two objects, the superlative in comparing
+three or more.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I had three pens. I have lost the <i>better</i>&mdash;<i>best</i> one.</p>
+
+<p>2. I have two clerks. John is the <i>older</i>&mdash;<i>oldest</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. Of the two colors, I think the tan is the <i>more</i>&mdash;<i>most</i>
+becoming to you.</p>
+
+<p>4. You are the <i>taller</i>&mdash;<i>tallest</i> of all the boys.</p>
+
+<p>5. Of two professions, choose the <i>more</i>&mdash;<i>most</i> honorable.</p>
+
+<p>6. He is the <i>faster</i>&mdash;<i>fastest</i> workman in the shop.</p>
+
+<p>7. Which of your hands is the <i>cleaner</i>&mdash;<i>cleanest?</i></p>
+
+<p>8. Which do you like <i>better</i>&mdash;<i>best</i>, skating or sleighing?</p>
+
+<p>9. Which of your eyes has the <i>better</i>&mdash;<i>best</i> vision?</p>
+
+<p>10. Of all the shops, she likes Leslie's <i>better</i>&mdash;<i>best</i>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+<p>11. Which is <i>more</i>&mdash;<i>most</i> durable, serge or broadcloth?</p>
+
+<p>12. Which tree lives <i>longer</i>&mdash;<i>longest</i>, the poplar or the elm?</p>
+
+<p>13. Which is the <i>best</i>&mdash;<i>better</i> policy, honesty or dishonesty?</p>
+
+<p>14. He is the <i>wittier</i>&mdash;<i>wittiest</i> one in the class.</p>
+
+<p>15. He is the <i>wittier</i>&mdash;<i>wittiest</i> boy in the class. There is only
+one boy in the class besides him.</p>
+
+<p>16. Of our twenty salesmen, he is considered <i>better</i>&mdash;<i>best</i>
+because he is <i>quicker</i>&mdash;<i>quickest</i> witted than any other.</p>
+
+<p>17. You should not mention the two men in one breath. The
+<i>former</i>&mdash;<i>first</i> is famous and the <i>latter</i>&mdash;<i>last</i> infamous.</p>
+
+<p>18. Which of you two do you think deserves <i>more</i>&mdash;<i>most</i>
+praise?</p>
+
+<p>19. Which of you two deserves <i>less</i>&mdash;<i>least</i> praise?</p>
+
+<p>20. Which of you two can run the <i>faster</i>&mdash;<i>fastest?</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 95</b></div>
+
+<p>Remember that the double negative is wrong; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> I haven't no paper.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> I have no paper.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Correct any of the following sentences that contain this
+mistake:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. None of them didn't come.</p>
+
+<p>2. I couldn't do the problem neither.</p>
+
+<p>3. This paper isn't very good, I don't think.</p>
+
+<p>4. Couldn't you find no better pen?</p>
+
+<p>5. I didn't choose none of them.</p>
+
+<p>6. I don't see nothing to complain of.</p>
+
+<p>7. He couldn't hardly see across the street.</p>
+
+<p>8. We didn't find the paper nowhere.</p>
+
+<p>9. They can't scarcely believe the report.</p>
+
+<p>10. She couldn't stay with us only a few minutes.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 96&mdash;Fewer, Less</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Fewer</i> refers to a smaller number by counting, <i>less</i> refers
+to a smaller quantity by measuring. Insert the correct word:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are making &mdash;&mdash; mistakes each day.</p>
+
+<p>2. I am having &mdash;&mdash; difficulty in writing shorthand.</p>
+
+<p>3. There are &mdash;&mdash; houses on this street than I had thought.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. The farther inland we went the &mdash;&mdash; signs of habitation we
+saw.</p>
+
+<p>5. Each year there is &mdash;&mdash; opportunity for an uneducated man
+to rise.</p>
+
+<p>6. Each year there are &mdash;&mdash; opportunities for the uneducated
+man to rise.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Most, Almost</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Most</i> refers to quantity or number; <i>almost</i> means <i>not
+quite</i>. Insert the correct word:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>7. &mdash;&mdash; people enjoy their work.</p>
+
+<p>8. I have &mdash;&mdash; finished the course in stenography.</p>
+
+<p>9. &mdash;&mdash; European cities are beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>10. &mdash;&mdash; all European cities are beautiful.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Real, Very</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Real</i> is an adjective meaning <i>actual;</i> <i>very</i> is an adverb
+of degree. Insert the correct word:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>11. I'm &mdash;&mdash; glad to see you.</p>
+
+<p>12. Is your comb &mdash;&mdash; amber?</p>
+
+<p>13. The men of the Titanic were &mdash;&mdash; heroes.</p>
+
+<p>14. He is a &mdash;&mdash; good soloist.</p>
+
+<p>15. She is &mdash;&mdash; entertaining in conversation; it was a &mdash;&mdash;
+pleasure to meet her.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 97&mdash;Adjectives and Adverbs Incorrectly Used</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i></td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 1. I don't like <i>those</i> kind of pens.</td><td align='left'>I don't like <i>that</i> kind of pens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 2. What sort of <i>a</i> course are you taking?</td><td align='left'>What sort of course are you taking?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 3. His statements made me <i>mad</i>.</td><td align='left'>His statements made me <i>angry</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 4. Yours <i>respectively</i>.</td><td align='left'>Yours <i>respectfully</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Consult a dictionary for the correct use of <i>respectively</i>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 5. Do you want <i>in?</i></td><td align='left'>Do you want <i>to come in?</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 6. Go <i>some place</i> with me.</td><td align='left'>Go <i>somewhere</i> with me.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 7. My father is <i>some</i> better.</td><td align='left'>My father is <i>somewhat</i> better.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 8. He comes <i>every once in a while</i>.</td><td align='left'>He comes <i>occasionally</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'> 9. Did you recognize the girl who drove <i>past?</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>Did you recognize the girl who drove <i>by?</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10. The two are <i>both</i> alike.</td><td align='left'>The two are alike.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>11. He is <i>liable</i> to come any minute.</td><td align='left'>He is <i>likely</i> to come at any minute.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>12. That ring has a <i>funny</i> design.</td><td align='left'>That ring has an <i>odd</i> design.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>13. I'd <i>sooner</i> stay at home.</td><td align='left'>I'd <i>rather</i> stay at home.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>14. Are you <i>most</i> ready?</td><td align='left'>Are you <i>almost</i> ready?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>15. I'm <i>kind of</i> sleepy.</td><td align='left'>I'm <i>rather</i> sleepy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>16. What <i>size</i> hat do you wear?</td><td align='left'>What <i>sized</i> hat do you wear?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>17. <i>This here</i> book is the one I wish.</td><td align='left'><i>This</i> book is the one I wish.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>18. He spoke <i>angry like</i>.</td><td align='left'>He spoke <i>angrily</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>19. His ideas are <i>no</i> good.</td><td align='left'>His ideas are <i>worthless</i> (or <i>not good</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20. He <i>seldom ever</i> makes a mistake.</td><td align='left'>He <i>seldom</i> (<i>hardly ever</i>) makes a mistake.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>21. I didn't work <i>any</i> last night.</td><td align='left'>I didn't work <i>at all</i> last night.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>22. I walked <i>this</i> far yesterday.</td><td align='left'>I walked <i>as far as this</i> yesterday.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>23. I want to see you <i>badly</i>.</td><td align='left'>I want to see you <i>very much</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>24. He sells insurance <i>on the side</i>.</td><td align='left'><i>In addition to his other business</i> he sells insurance.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>25. Don't talk <i>out loud</i>.</td><td align='left'>Don't talk <i>aloud</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>26. She is <i>very</i> disappointed.</td><td align='left'>She is <i>very much</i> disappointed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Before a perfect participle <i>too</i> or <i>very</i> may not be used without the addition of the adverb <i>much</i>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>27. She is a <i>cute</i> (or <i>cunning</i>) child.</td><td align='left'>She is a <i>pretty</i> child.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Look up the words <i>cute</i> and <i>cunning</i> in a dictionary)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>28. He was lying face <i>down</i> on the grass.</td><td align='left'>He was lying face <i>downward</i> on the grass.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE VERB</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Verbs</span> may be <i>transitive</i> or <i>intransitive</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A verb is transitive when it needs an object to complete
+its meaning; that is, when the action passes over (Latin,
+<i>transire</i>, to pass over) from the subject or doer to the object
+or receiver; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+He <i>hit</i> the ball.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>A verb is intransitive when it needs no object to complete
+its meaning; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+The crowd <i>cheered</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Some intransitive verbs require a predicate noun or pronoun
+in the nominative case, or an adjective, to complete
+their meaning. They are the verbs <i>be</i>, <i>become</i>, <i>appear</i>,
+<i>seem</i>, <i>feel</i>, <i>taste</i>, <i>look</i>, <i>smell;</i> as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Instransitive verbs">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Adjective:</i> The berries taste <i>sour</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Noun:</i> John is my <i>brother</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Pronoun:</i> It is <i>I</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Such verbs are sometimes called <i>copulatives</i>.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 98</b></div>
+
+<p>Tell whether each verb in the following sentences is transitive
+or intransitive and whether it is followed by a noun
+or a pronoun in the nominative or the objective case or by a
+complementary adjective.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Primitive people have left traces of very early commercial
+relations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+</p>
+<p>2. Explorers visited the Ohio valley and found articles of
+remote manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>3. Checks and drafts are great conveniences to the business
+man.</p>
+
+<p>4. The United States Supreme Court made a decision that
+labor unions are punishable under trust penalties.</p>
+
+<p>5. A labor union is different from a trust.</p>
+
+<p>6. This is the opinion of the labor leader.</p>
+
+<p>7. What is your opinion?</p>
+
+<p>8. The total value of merchandise sent to Latin-America from
+the United States exceeds that supplied by any other single
+country.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write three sentences illustrating transitive verbs.</p>
+
+<p>Write three sentences illustrating intransitive verbs.</p>
+
+<p>Write three sentences illustrating copulative verbs.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 99&mdash;Voice</b></div>
+
+<p>Voice is that property of the verb that shows whether the
+subject acts or is acted upon. If the subject acts, the verb
+is in the <i>active voice</i>. If the subject is acted upon, the verb
+is in the <i>passive voice</i>. Every sentence containing a transitive verb must have the following parts:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 99">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Agent</i>(doer)</td><td align='center'><i>Action</i></td><td align='center'><i>Receiver</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The runaway horse</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; injured&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>John.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>When the sentence is in the order shown above, the subject
+is the agent, and the verb expresses the action of the
+agent. When the sentence is written in this order, the
+verb is said to be in the <i>active voice</i>.</p>
+
+<p>However, without changing the meaning of the sentence,
+we may change the order of the ideas; thus,</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 99 part 2">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Receiver</i></td><td align='center'><i>Action</i></td><td align='center'><i>Agent</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>John</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; was injured&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='left'>by the runaway horse.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>The receiver of the action has become the subject, and the
+agent has become part of the predicate, being expressed in
+the phrase <i>by the runaway horse</i>. When the sentence is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+expressed in this order, the subject receiving or "suffering"
+the action, the verb is said to be in the <i>passive voice</i>. Only
+transitive verbs, therefore, may be changed to the passive
+voice.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;There are certain intransitive verbs that sometimes have
+a preposition so closely connected with them that the two are treated
+almost like a transitive verb, and may be made passive; as,</p></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Active:</i> The audience laughed <i>at</i> the speaker.<br />
+<i>Passive:</i> The speaker was laughed <i>at</i> by the audience.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Write five sentences in the active voice.</p>
+
+<p>Change them to the passive voice.</p>
+
+<p>In the sentences that you have written, is the active form
+of the verb or the passive form better? Which is more direct
+in its wording? Which, then, is the better form to use
+regularly?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 100&mdash;Number and Person</b></div>
+
+<p>The number of the verb is decided by the number of the
+subject. If the subject is a singular noun, or a pronoun that
+stands for a singular noun, it requires a singular verb; if
+the subject is plural, it requires a plural verb. As a rule,
+there is no difference between the singular and the plural
+forms of the verb except in the form for the third person
+singular; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 100 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>I say</td><td align='left'>We say</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You say&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You say</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He says</td><td align='left'>They say</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>But as the third person of the verb is the one most often
+used, it must be carefully noted.</p>
+
+<p>The following subjects of verbs are singular and require
+a singular verb to accompany them:</p>
+
+<p>1. A collective noun that denotes a group of objects
+acting as one thing; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+The crowd <i>is</i> scattering.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. A group of words which, like a collective noun, is
+plural in form but singular in meaning; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+Thirty dollars <i>is</i> what I paid for the ring.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>3. A singular noun modified by <i>every</i>, <i>each</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>no</i>,
+<i>many a;</i> or the pronouns <i>each</i>, <i>everybody</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>neither</i>,
+and <i>none</i> when it means <i>not one;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+Each of us <i>has</i> his lesson.<br />
+Many an opportunity <i>has</i> been wasted.<br />
+Everybody <i>is</i> here now.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>4. Singular<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> nouns or pronouns joined by <i>or</i>, <i>either&mdash;or</i>,
+<i>neither&mdash;nor;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+Either John or his father <i>is</i> coming.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>5. Two nouns joined by <i>and</i>, denoting one person or
+thing; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+The bookkeeper and stenographer <i>is</i> an expert.<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;If two persons are meant, the article should be repeated
+before the second noun.</p></div>
+
+<p>The following subjects of verbs are plural and require
+plural verbs:</p>
+
+<p>1. A collective noun denoting plurality; that is,
+referring to the individuals that compose the group; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+The class <i>are</i> all studious.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>2. A compound subject joined by <i>and</i>, when the
+objects joined are different; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+The door and the window <i>are</i> both open.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>3. The pronoun <i>you</i>, though it may denote only one
+person; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Right:</i> You <i>were</i> right.<br />
+<i>Wrong:</i> You <i>was</i> right.<br />
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 101</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following sentences, decide which of the italicized
+forms is correct. Give the reason for your choice.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Two dollars <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> too much for you to pay.</p>
+
+<p>2. Bread and butter <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> what I prefer to eat.</p>
+
+<p>3. Bread and butter <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> both sold here.</p>
+
+<p>4. His opinion and mine <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> different.</p>
+
+<p>5. The majority of the class <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> present.</p>
+
+<p>6. The class <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> dismissed.</p>
+
+<p>7. The congregation <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> asked to remain a few minutes
+after the close of the service.</p>
+
+<p>8. The community <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> rapidly changing.</p>
+
+<p>9. A few of the books <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> given to me.</p>
+
+<p>10. There <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> forty people present.</p>
+
+<p>11. The secretary and treasurer <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> asked to read
+<i>his</i>&mdash;<i>their</i> report.</p>
+
+<p>12. One-third of the office <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> late this morning because
+the cars were not running.</p>
+
+<p>13. He <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> understand what I mean.</p>
+
+<p>14. If the quality and the price <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> right, buy.</p>
+
+<p>15. There <i>come</i>&mdash;<i>comes</i> a crowd of people.</p>
+
+<p>16. The library with its thousands of books <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> destroyed
+by fire.</p>
+
+<p>17. There <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> seem to be much difference between
+the two.</p>
+
+<p>18. The whole system of filing and indexing <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> wrong.</p>
+
+<p>19. Safety as well as success <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> at stake.</p>
+
+<p>20. The state of public affairs <i>calls</i>&mdash;<i>call</i> for quick action.</p>
+
+<p>21. Many a man <i>has</i>&mdash;<i>have</i> neglected golden opportunities.</p>
+
+<p>22. Many men <i>has</i>&mdash;<i>have</i> neglected golden opportunities.</p>
+
+<p>23. The committee <i>has</i>&mdash;<i>have</i> given <i>its</i>&mdash;<i>their</i> report.</p>
+
+<p>24. Our team <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> beaten.</p>
+
+<p>25. One of us surely <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> mistaken.</p>
+
+<p>26. Every one <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> happy when Tom was elected
+president.</p>
+
+<p>27. Tom and James <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> going skating.</p>
+
+<p>28. Tom with his brother James <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> going skating.</p>
+
+<p>29. The only thing I have not prepared for dinner <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i>
+the potatoes.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+<p>30. Fifty feet of sidewalk <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> laid to-day.</p>
+
+<p>31. None of the boys <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> studying stenography.</p>
+
+<p>32. Neither Tom nor his brother <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> studying stenography.</p>
+
+<p>33. Both Tom and his brother <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> stenographers.</p>
+
+<p>34. Every one <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>are</i> interested in the cost of living.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the last sentence above substitute one of the following
+for <i>every one</i>, using the correct form of the verb with each:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">each of us; everybody; all of us; several people; both of
+the men; neither of the men; neither Mary nor John;
+Mary and John; our club; our class; the nation; not only
+Europe but America; Europe as well as America; the
+nation as well as several of the larger cities</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_102" id="Exercise_102"></a>Exercise 102&mdash;Tense</b></div>
+
+<p>The tense of the verb indicates the time of the action.
+There are three primary tenses, indicating action in the
+<i>present</i>, the <i>past</i>, and the <i>future</i>. Each of these tenses has
+also a <i>perfect</i> tense, which, represents the action as being
+perfect or complete in the present, the past, and the future.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>present</i> tense is the simplest form. It denotes that
+the action takes place now; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>I write</td><td align='left'>We write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You write&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He writes</td><td align='left'>They write</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />To be more exact, we may indicate that the action is continuing
+in the present time, and then we say,<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>I am writing</td><td align='left'>We are writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You are writing&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You are writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He is writing</td><td align='left'>They are writing</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />This is called the <i>present progressive</i> tense.</div>
+
+<p>It may be that you wish to be emphatic, and you say,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>I do write</td><td align='left'>We do write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You do write</td><td align='left'>You do write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He does write&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>They do write</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />This is called the <i>emphatic present</i> tense.</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>past</i> tense indicates that the action took place in past
+time; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 4">
+<tr><td align='left'>I wrote</td><td align='left'>We wrote</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You wrote&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You wrote</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He wrote</td><td align='left'>They wrote</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />or, the <i>past progressive;</i> as,<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 5">
+<tr><td align='left'>I was writing</td><td align='left'>We were writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You were writing&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You were writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He was writing</td><td align='left'>They were writing</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />or, the <i>past emphatic;</i> as,<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 6">
+<tr><td align='left'>I did write</td><td align='left'>We did write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You did write&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You did write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He did write</td><td align='left'>They did write</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The emphatic form is used only in the present and the
+past tenses.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The <i>future</i> tense denotes that the action will take place
+at some future time. It is formed by using <i>shall</i> or <i>will</i>
+with the simplest form of the verb; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 7">
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall write</td><td align='left'>We shall write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will write&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You will write</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will write</td><td align='left'>They will write</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is not common. It is<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 8">
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall be writing</td><td align='left'>We shall be writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will be writing&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You will be writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will be writing</td><td align='left'>They will be writing</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The three perfect tenses are formed by using the verb
+<i>have</i> with the perfect participle of the verb.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>present perfect</i> tense denotes that the action is complete
+at the present time. It is formed by the present tense
+of <i>have</i> and the perfect participle of the verb; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 9">
+<tr><td align='left'>I have written</td><td align='left'>We have written</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You have written&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You have written</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He has written</td><td align='left'>They have written</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is,<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 10">
+<tr><td align='left'>I have been writing</td><td align='left'>We have been writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You have been writing&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You have been writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He has been writing</td><td align='left'>They have been writing</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The <i>past perfect</i> denotes that the action was completed
+in past time. It is formed by using the past tense of <i>have</i>
+and the perfect participle of the verb; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 11">
+<tr><td align='left'>I had written</td><td align='left'>We had written</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You had written&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You had written</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He had written</td><td align='left'>They had written</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is,<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 12">
+<tr><td align='left'>I had been writing</td><td align='left'>We had been writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You had been writing&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You had been writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He had been writing</td><td align='left'>They had been writing</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The <i>future perfect</i> tense denotes that the action will be
+completed at some future time. It is formed by the future
+of <i>have</i> and the perfect participle of the verb; as,</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 13">
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall have written</td><td align='left'>We shall have written</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will have written&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You will have written</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will have written</td><td align='left'>They will have written</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />The progressive form is rarely used. It is<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 102 part 14">
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been writing</td><td align='left'>We shall have been writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will have been writing&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You will have been writing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will have been writing</td><td align='left'>They will have been writing</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Giving all forms singular and plural, first, second, and
+third persons of each tense constitutes the <i>conjugation</i> of a
+verb. Giving one person in each tense constitutes the
+<i>synopsis</i> of the conjugation.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a synopsis of all the tenses of the
+active voice in the first person singular number of the verb
+<i>write<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>:</i></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Active Voice</span><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Tense">
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='14'><span class="smcap">Tense</span></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan='14'><img src="images/long_bracket_l.png" width="10" height="400" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan='8'><i>Primary</i></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan='8'><img src="images/med_bracket_l.png" width="8" height="200" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan='3'><i>Present</i></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l2.png" width="10" height="80" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td>
+<td align='left'>I write (simple form)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>I am writing (progressive form)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I do write (emphatic form)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3'><i>Past</i></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l2.png" width="10" height="80" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td>
+<td align='left'>I wrote (simple)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>I was writing (progressive)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I did write (emphatic)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Future</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>I shall write (simple)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall be writing (progressive)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='6'><i>Perfect<br />or<br />Secondary</i>&nbsp;</td><td align='left' rowspan='6'><img src="images/med_bracket_l.png" width="8" height="200" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Present Perfect</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>I have written (simple)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I have been writing (progressive)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Past Perfect</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'>I had written (simple)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I had been writing (progressive)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Future Perfect</i></td>
+<td align='left' rowspan='2'><img src="images/bracket2-l.png" width="10" height="50" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td>
+<td align='left'>I shall have written (simple)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been writing (progressive)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 103</b></div>
+
+<p>Conjugate the following in the active voice:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Simple past tense of <i>walk</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. Present progressive tense of <i>walk</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. Present perfect of <i>drive</i>. (See <a href="#Exercise_108">Exercise 108</a> for the principal
+parts.)</p>
+
+<p>4. Present perfect progressive of <i>drive</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. Future progressive of <i>ride</i>.</p>
+
+<p>6. Past of <i>ride</i>.</p>
+
+<p>7. Present progressive of <i>ride</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. Past emphatic of <i>ride</i>.</p>
+
+<p>9. Past perfect of <i>ride</i>.</p>
+
+<p>10. Present perfect progressive of <i>ride</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Give a synopsis of the progressive tenses of <i>begin</i>, using
+<i>he</i> as the subject.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 104&mdash;Shall and Will</b></div>
+
+<p>The auxiliary verbs used to form the future tenses are
+<i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>. The two must be carefully distinguished
+because they denote different ideas, according to the person
+with which they are used. The rule is, to express simple
+future time, use <i>shall</i> in the first person, <i>will</i> in the second
+and third persons.</p>
+
+<p>The future tense of the verb <i>walk</i> is conjugated as follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 104 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall walk</td><td align='left'>We shall walk</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will walk&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You will walk</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will walk</td><td align='left'>They will walk</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>This is the form to use when you expect the action to
+take place naturally.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, instead of letting things take their
+natural course as they do in the simple future, you may
+force them to take place. You may, for example, be determined
+to walk, or determined to make some one else walk.
+In that case the use is reversed; as,</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 104 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'>I will walk</td><td align='left'>We will walk</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You shall walk&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You shall walk</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He shall walk</td><td align='left'>They shall walk</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>This form is used whenever the speaker has authority to
+bring about the action indicated by the verb.</p>
+
+<p>In questions of the first person always use <i>shall</i>. In
+questions of the second and third persons use the same
+form that you expect in the answer; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center"><i>Shall</i> you be at home to-morrow? I <i>shall</i>.</div>
+
+<p>In the following sentences insert <i>shall</i> or <i>will</i>, giving the
+reason for your choice:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I &mdash;&mdash; finish the work by three o'clock, I think.</p>
+
+<p>2. To-morrow he &mdash;&mdash; feel sorry for this; I vow it.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+<p>3. I am sorry, but I &mdash;&mdash; not be able to finish the work before
+next week.</p>
+
+<p>4. &mdash;&mdash; you finish your business course in February or in
+June? I &mdash;&mdash; finish in June, I think.</p>
+
+<p>5. &mdash;&mdash; he finish in February? No, he &mdash;&mdash; finish in June.</p>
+
+<p>6. The foreman declares he &mdash;&mdash; not have another chance.</p>
+
+<p>7. He &mdash;&mdash; see his mistake when it is too late.</p>
+
+<p>8. They &mdash;&mdash; surely be at the station to meet me.</p>
+
+<p>9. I'm afraid you &mdash;&mdash; be kicked if you go near that horse.</p>
+
+<p>10. If he doesn't take the examination, he &mdash;&mdash; fail.</p>
+
+<p>11. I am determined that I &mdash;&mdash; win.</p>
+
+<p>12. I &mdash;&mdash; sail probably on the fifteenth.</p>
+
+<p>13. He &mdash;&mdash; be twenty-one to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>14. I &mdash;&mdash; go in spite of him.</p>
+
+<p>15. &mdash;&mdash; you go by train, do you think?</p>
+
+<p>16. I &mdash;&mdash; be greatly obliged if you &mdash;&mdash; send the book at once.</p>
+
+<p>17. I promise you John &mdash;&mdash; know his lesson to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>18. &mdash;&mdash; you be at home this evening?</p>
+
+<p>19. &mdash;&mdash; the train be on time?</p>
+
+<p>20. &mdash;&mdash; the store be open this evening?</p></div>
+
+<p>Conjugate the future and future perfect tenses of the
+following verbs:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 104 part 3">
+<tr><td align='left'>drive&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>see</td><td align='left'>go</td><td align='left'>run&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sweep</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ride</td><td align='left'>choose&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>sing&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>eat</td><td align='left'>sell</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 105&mdash;Should and Would</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Should</i> and <i>would</i> are the past tenses of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>
+and, in general, express the same ideas as do <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>,
+except that <i>should</i> sometimes means <i>ought;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">You <i>should</i> not speak in that way.</div>
+
+<p><i>Would</i>, also, sometimes indicates an action that occurs
+frequently; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">She <i>would</i> often sit at the window all the morning.</div>
+
+<p>The use of <i>should</i> and <i>would</i> in indirect statements and
+questions is sometimes puzzling. First of all, decide whether
+<i>shall</i> or <i>will</i> would be used in the direct form of the sentence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+If the direct form uses <i>shall</i>, use <i>should</i> in the indirect; if
+the direct uses <i>will</i>, use <i>would</i> in the indirect; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p><i>Direct:</i> The market <i>will</i> improve.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indirect:</i> He said that the market <i>would</i> improve.</p></div>
+
+<p>In conditional clauses (<i>if</i>), use <i>should</i> for all persons.</p>
+
+<p>Insert <i>should</i> or <i>would</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. If I knew his address, I &mdash;&mdash; send him a telegram.</p>
+
+<p>2. He promised that he &mdash;&mdash; not make the mistake again.
+(The direct form would read, I will not &mdash;&mdash; )</p>
+
+<p>3. I promised that I &mdash;&mdash; not make the mistake again.</p>
+
+<p>4. You promised that you &mdash;&mdash; not make the mistake again.</p>
+
+<p>5. Do you think that I &mdash;&mdash; go?</p>
+
+<p>6. I &mdash;&mdash; if I were you.</p>
+
+<p>7. I &mdash;&mdash; think he &mdash;&mdash; know better than to apply for that
+position.</p>
+
+<p>8. John said that, no matter what we thought, he &mdash;&mdash; not go.</p>
+
+<p>9. If you &mdash;&mdash; decide to accept the offer, let me know at
+once.</p>
+
+<p>10. I am sorry he did that. He &mdash;&mdash; not, of course.</p>
+
+<p>11. If I &mdash;&mdash; see him, I'd let him know.</p>
+
+<p>12. If he &mdash;&mdash; come during my absence, ask him to wait.</p>
+
+<p>13. I &mdash;&mdash; think you would be more careful.</p>
+
+<p>14. Let me know if you &mdash;&mdash; not be able to come.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 106</b></div>
+
+<p>Change the italicized verbs to past tense, future, present
+perfect, past perfect, future perfect. Wherever necessary,
+add sufficient to make the meaning of the tense clear; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Present:</i> The manager <i>is now</i> in his office.</p>
+
+<p><i>Past:</i> The manager <i>was</i> in his office <i>a few minutes ago</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Future:</i> The manager <i>will be</i> in his office <i>to-morrow at ten o'clock</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Present Perfect:</i> The manager <i>has been</i> in his office <i>all the morning</i>.
+(It is still morning.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Past Perfect:</i> The manager <i>had been</i> in his office <i>only a few
+moments when the president arrived</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Future Perfect:</i> <i>In about five minutes</i> the manager <i>will have been</i>
+in the president's office <i>exactly three hours</i>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+<p>1. The cashier <i>opens</i> the safe in the morning.</p>
+
+<p>2. The mechanic <i>earns</i> good wages.</p>
+
+<p>3. The buyer <i>leaves</i> to-night.</p>
+
+<p>4. The bookkeeper <i>makes</i> out the statements.</p>
+
+<p>5. The correspondent <i>writes</i> the booklets.</p>
+
+<p>6. The advertising manager <i>approves</i> the copy.</p>
+
+<p>7. The adding machine <i>is broken</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. The chief clerk <i>attends</i> to the incoming mail.</p>
+
+<p>9. The superintendent <i>visits</i> the factory every day.</p>
+
+<p>10. The salesman <i>is selling</i> five thousand dollars' worth of goods
+a week.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_107" id="Exercise_107"></a>Exercise 107</b></div>
+
+<p>The present tense is used to indicate general truths&mdash;things
+true in past time and still true. Omit the incorrect
+form in the following sentences:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What did you say <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>was</i> the meaning of the term <i>bona
+fide?</i></p>
+
+<p>2. What <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>is</i> the name of that book that you enjoyed
+so much?</p>
+
+<p>3. Didn't you know that the lion <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>was</i> called the king of
+beasts?</p>
+
+<p>4. They told me that the legal rate of interest at present <i>is</i>-<i>was</i>
+six per cent.</p>
+
+<p>5. Have you ever heard him try to prove that black <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>was</i>
+white?</p>
+
+<p>6. What <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>was</i> the name of the banker who lectured to
+us yesterday?</p>
+
+<p>7. I never could remember what the important products of
+my county <i>are</i>&mdash;<i>were</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. The advocate of Equal Suffrage argued that mothers
+<i>need</i>&mdash;<i>needed</i> the ballot to protect their children.</p>
+
+<p>9. She said that a democracy <i>is</i>&mdash;<i>was</i> a government of the
+people, by the people, and for the people, and that women <i>are</i>-<i>were</i>
+people as well as men.</p>
+
+<p>10. The speaker asserted that this country <i>needs</i>&mdash;<i>needed</i> a
+tariff to protect home industries.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_108" id="Exercise_108"></a>Exercise 108&mdash;Principal Parts</b></div>
+
+<p>No one can be certain of using the correct form of a verb
+unless he knows the principal parts. Some verbs are regular;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+that is, they form their past tense and their perfect participle
+by adding <i>ed</i> to the present tense; as,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 108 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>walk&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>walked&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>walked</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Some verbs, however, are very irregular, having a different
+form for each of the principal parts. A list of such verbs
+follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 108 part 2">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>arise</td><td align='left'>arose</td><td align='left'>arisen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>awake</td><td align='left'>awoke or awaked&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>awaked</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>be</td><td align='left'>was</td><td align='left'>been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bear (carry)&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>bore</td><td align='left'>borne</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>beat</td><td align='left'>beat</td><td align='left'>beaten</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>become</td><td align='left'>became</td><td align='left'>become</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>begin</td><td align='left'>began</td><td align='left'>begun</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bid</td><td align='left'>bade</td><td align='left'>bidden</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bite</td><td align='left'>bit</td><td align='left'>bitten</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>blow</td><td align='left'>blew</td><td align='left'>blown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>break</td><td align='left'>broke</td><td align='left'>broken</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>choose</td><td align='left'>chose</td><td align='left'>chosen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>come</td><td align='left'>came</td><td align='left'>come</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>do</td><td align='left'>did</td><td align='left'>done</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>draw</td><td align='left'>drew</td><td align='left'>drawn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>drink</td><td align='left'>drank</td><td align='left'>drunk</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>drive</td><td align='left'>drove</td><td align='left'>driven</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>eat</td><td align='left'>ate</td><td align='left'>eaten</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>fall</td><td align='left'>fell</td><td align='left'>fallen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>fly</td><td align='left'>flew</td><td align='left'>flown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>forbid</td><td align='left'>forbade</td><td align='left'>forbidden</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>forsake</td><td align='left'>forsook</td><td align='left'>forsaken</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>freeze</td><td align='left'>froze</td><td align='left'>frozen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>give</td><td align='left'>gave</td><td align='left'>given</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>go</td><td align='left'>went</td><td align='left'>gone</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>grow</td><td align='left'>grew</td><td align='left'>grown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hide</td><td align='left'>hid</td><td align='left'>hidden</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>know</td><td align='left'>knew</td><td align='left'>known</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>lie (to rest)&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>lay</td><td align='left'>lain</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ride</td><td align='left'>rode</td><td align='left'>ridden</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>ring</td><td align='left'>rang</td><td align='left'>rung<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>rise</td><td align='left'>rose</td><td align='left'>risen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>run</td><td align='left'>ran</td><td align='left'>run</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>see</td><td align='left'>saw</td><td align='left'>seen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>shake</td><td align='left'>shook</td><td align='left'>shaken</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>show</td><td align='left'>showed</td><td align='left'>shown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>shrink</td><td align='left'>shrank</td><td align='left'>shrunk</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sing</td><td align='left'>sang</td><td align='left'>sung</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>slay</td><td align='left'>slew</td><td align='left'>slain</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>slide</td><td align='left'>slid</td><td align='left'>slidden</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sow</td><td align='left'>sowed</td><td align='left'>sown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>speak</td><td align='left'>spoke</td><td align='left'>spoken</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>spring</td><td align='left'>sprang</td><td align='left'>sprung</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>steal</td><td align='left'>stole</td><td align='left'>stolen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>strive</td><td align='left'>strove</td><td align='left'>striven</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>swear</td><td align='left'>swore</td><td align='left'>sworn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>swell</td><td align='left'>swelled</td><td align='left'>swelled, swollen</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>swim</td><td align='left'>swam</td><td align='left'>swum</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>take</td><td align='left'>took</td><td align='left'>taken</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>tear</td><td align='left'>tore</td><td align='left'>torn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>throw</td><td align='left'>threw</td><td align='left'>thrown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wear</td><td align='left'>wore</td><td align='left'>worn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>weave</td><td align='left'>wove</td><td align='left'>woven</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>write</td><td align='left'>wrote</td><td align='left'>written</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 109</b></div>
+
+<p>Some verbs, though irregularly formed, have the past
+tense and perfect participle alike. A list of such verbs
+follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 109 part 1">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bend</td><td align='left'>bent</td><td align='left'>bent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>behold</td><td align='left'>beheld</td><td align='left'>beheld</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>beseech&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>besought</td><td align='left'>besought</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bind</td><td align='left'>bound</td><td align='left'>bound</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bleed</td><td align='left'>bled</td><td align='left'>bled</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bless</td><td align='left'>blessed, blest</td><td align='left'>blessed, blest</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bring</td><td align='left'>brought</td><td align='left'>brought</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>build</td><td align='left'>built</td><td align='left'>built</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>burn</td><td align='left'>burned, burnt</td><td align='left'>burned, burnt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>buy</td><td align='left'>bought</td><td align='left'>bought</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>catch</td><td align='left'>caught</td><td align='left'>caught</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cling</td><td align='left'>clung</td><td align='left'>clung</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>clothe</td><td align='left'>clothed, clad</td><td align='left'>clothed, clad</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>creep</td><td align='left'>crept</td><td align='left'>crept</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>deal</td><td align='left'>dealt</td><td align='left'>dealt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dig</td><td align='left'>dug</td><td align='left'>dug</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dream</td><td align='left'>dreamed, dreamt&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>dreamed, dreamt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dwell</td><td align='left'>dwelt</td><td align='left'>dwelt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>flee</td><td align='left'>fled</td><td align='left'>fled</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>grind</td><td align='left'>ground</td><td align='left'>ground</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hang</td><td align='left'>hung, hanged</td><td align='left'>hung, hanged</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>have</td><td align='left'>had</td><td align='left'>had</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hear</td><td align='left'>heard</td><td align='left'>heard</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hold</td><td align='left'>held</td><td align='left'>held</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>kneel</td><td align='left'>knelt</td><td align='left'>knelt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>lay</td><td align='left'>laid</td><td align='left'>laid</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>lead</td><td align='left'>led</td><td align='left'>led</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>leap</td><td align='left'>leapt</td><td align='left'>leapt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>lend</td><td align='left'>lent</td><td align='left'>lent</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>pay</td><td align='left'>paid</td><td align='left'>paid</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>say</td><td align='left'>said</td><td align='left'>said</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>shine</td><td align='left'>shone</td><td align='left'>shone</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sit</td><td align='left'>sat</td><td align='left'>sat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sleep</td><td align='left'>slept</td><td align='left'>slept</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sling</td><td align='left'>slung</td><td align='left'>slung</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>speed</td><td align='left'>sped</td><td align='left'>sped</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>spin</td><td align='left'>spun</td><td align='left'>spun</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>stand</td><td align='left'>stood</td><td align='left'>stood</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sting</td><td align='left'>stung</td><td align='left'>stung</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>strike</td><td align='left'>struck</td><td align='left'>struck</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>string</td><td align='left'>strung</td><td align='left'>strung</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sweep</td><td align='left'>swept</td><td align='left'>swept</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>swing</td><td align='left'>swung</td><td align='left'>swung</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>teach</td><td align='left'>taught</td><td align='left'>taught</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>think</td><td align='left'>thought&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>thought</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>weep</td><td align='left'>wept</td><td align='left'>wept</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>win</td><td align='left'>won</td><td align='left'>won</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wind</td><td align='left'>wound</td><td align='left'>wound</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wring</td><td align='left'>wrung</td><td align='left'>wrung</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 110</b></div>
+
+<p>Some verbs have all three forms alike. A list of such
+follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 110">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Present</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'><i>Perfect Participle</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>bet</td><td align='left'>bet</td><td align='left'>bet</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>burst</td><td align='left'>burst</td><td align='left'>burst</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cast</td><td align='left'>cast</td><td align='left'>cast</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cost</td><td align='left'>cost</td><td align='left'>cost</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>cut</td><td align='left'>cut</td><td align='left'>cut</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hit</td><td align='left'>hit</td><td align='left'>hit</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>hurt</td><td align='left'>hurt</td><td align='left'>hurt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>knit</td><td align='left'>knit</td><td align='left'>knit</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>let</td><td align='left'>let</td><td align='left'>let</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>put</td><td align='left'>put</td><td align='left'>put</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>rid</td><td align='left'>rid</td><td align='left'>rid</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>set</td><td align='left'>set</td><td align='left'>set</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>shed</td><td align='left'>shed</td><td align='left'>shed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>spread</td><td align='left'>spread&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>spread</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>sweat</td><td align='left'>sweat</td><td align='left'>sweat</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>wet</td><td align='left'>wet</td><td align='left'>wet</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 111</b></div>
+
+<p>Choose the correct form of the italicized words below, and
+give the reason for your choice.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. If it <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> fit you, we shall alter it.</p>
+
+<p>2. I <i>knew</i>&mdash;<i>knowed</i> I was right.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Aren't</i>&mdash;<i>ain't</i> you glad we came?</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Ain't</i>&mdash;<i>isn't</i> he well?</p>
+
+<p>5. We <i>done</i>&mdash;<i>did</i> the right thing.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Let</i>&mdash;<i>leave</i> the book on the table.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Let</i>&mdash;<i>leave</i> me do as I planned.</p>
+
+<p>8. Mary has <i>broke</i>&mdash;<i>broken</i> her arm.</p>
+
+<p>9. My mother has <i>gone</i>&mdash;<i>went</i> to Boston.</p>
+
+<p>10. Where <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> you yesterday?</p>
+
+<p>11. When the dinner bell <i>rang</i>&mdash;<i>rung</i>, we all <i>come</i>&mdash;<i>came</i>
+running in.</p>
+
+<p>12. He <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> know what you said.</p>
+
+<p>13. To what hospital have they <i>taken</i>&mdash;<i>took</i> him?</p>
+
+<p>14. I <i>saw</i>&mdash;<i>seen</i> him a few minutes ago.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
+<p>15. I <i>saw</i>&mdash;<i>seen</i> him yesterday.</p>
+
+<p>16. I should <i>have</i>&mdash;<i>of</i> brought my book.</p>
+
+<p>17. My winter coat is <i>wore</i>&mdash;<i>worn</i> out.</p>
+
+<p>18. Have you ever <i>rode</i>&mdash;<i>ridden</i> in an aeroplane?</p>
+
+<p>19. I have <i>shown</i>&mdash;<i>showed</i> you all the styles I have.</p>
+
+<p>20. <i>Don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> it seem odd that he <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> come?</p>
+
+<p>21. She <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> remember you.</p>
+
+<p>22. We <i>began</i>&mdash;<i>begun</i> the work yesterday.</p>
+
+<p>23. I'm afraid my foot is <i>froze</i>&mdash;<i>frozen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>24. We <i>ran</i>&mdash;<i>run</i> all the way.</p>
+
+<p>25. I've <i>shook</i>&mdash;<i>shaken</i> him three times, but he <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i>
+awake.</p>
+
+<p>26. The bell <i>rang</i>&mdash;<i>rung</i> just before you entered.</p>
+
+<p>27. She <i>sang</i>&mdash;<i>sung</i> very well.</p>
+
+<p>28. He <i>swam</i>&mdash;<i>swum</i> all yesterday morning.</p>
+
+<p>29. Why <i>don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> some one tell John that his coat is
+<i>tore</i>&mdash;<i>torn?</i></p>
+
+<p>30. <i>Don't</i>&mdash;<i>doesn't</i> mother know that the vase is <i>broke</i>&mdash;<i>broken?</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 112&mdash;Troublesome Verbs</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Lie, Lay</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Lie</i> is intransitive; <i>lay</i> is transitive. <i>Lie</i> signifies <i>to rest;</i>
+<i>lay</i>, <i>to place</i>. Insert the correct form in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. He told me to &mdash;&mdash; the book on the table. It &mdash;&mdash; there
+now.</p>
+
+<p>2. I &mdash;&mdash; all day waiting for help to arrive.</p>
+
+<p>3. Where did you &mdash;&mdash; the purse?</p>
+
+<p>4. I &mdash;&mdash; it on your desk.</p>
+
+<p>5. I have &mdash;&mdash; the letters on your desk.</p>
+
+<p>6. They told me to &mdash;&mdash; down. I &mdash;&mdash; down for about two
+hours.</p>
+
+<p>7. As I wished to bleach the clothes, I &mdash;&mdash; them on the grass.</p>
+
+<p>8. &mdash;&mdash; the bundle down and listen to me.</p>
+
+<p>9. You will probably find your cap &mdash;&mdash;ing where it has &mdash;&mdash;
+since you dropped it.</p>
+
+<p>10. They let the field &mdash;&mdash; fallow.</p>
+
+<p>11. How long has it &mdash;&mdash; fallow?</p>
+
+<p>12. Yesterday he &mdash;&mdash; on the grass almost all day.</p>
+
+<p>13. The hunter &mdash;&mdash; still and watched.</p>
+
+<p>14. He &mdash;&mdash; his gun beside him and waited.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p>
+<p>15. It will &mdash;&mdash; undisturbed till morning.</p>
+
+<p>16. &mdash;&mdash; down awhile before dinner.</p>
+
+<p>17. I don't know how long he has &mdash;&mdash; here.</p>
+
+<p>18. He let his tools &mdash;&mdash; in the rain.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 113&mdash;Troublesome Verbs</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Sit, Set</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Sit</i> is intransitive and signifies <i>to rest</i>. <i>Set</i> is transitive
+and means <i>to place</i>. Insert the correct form:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I have &mdash;&mdash; the ferns in the rain.</p>
+
+<p>2. &mdash;&mdash; down for a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p>3. She drew up a chair and &mdash;&mdash; down, while we were &mdash;&mdash;ting
+down the probable expenses of the new house.</p>
+
+<p>4. Why don't you &mdash;&mdash; us a good example?</p>
+
+<p>5. &mdash;&mdash;ting the table is not strenuous enough for one who
+has been &mdash;&mdash;ting all day.</p>
+
+<p>6. The hen is &mdash;&mdash;ting on her eggs.</p>
+
+<p>7. The man is &mdash;&mdash;ting out trees.</p>
+
+<p>8. &mdash;&mdash; still; I'll go.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Fly, Flow, Flee</b></div>
+
+<p>Remember that birds <i>fly;</i> rivers <i>flow;</i> hunted creatures
+<i>flee</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>9. Still the river &mdash;&mdash; on its accustomed course.</p>
+
+<p>10. Every autumn the birds &mdash;&mdash; south.</p>
+
+<p>11. The birds have not yet &mdash;&mdash; away.</p>
+
+<p>12. The deer &mdash;&mdash; before the dogs.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Rise, Raise</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Rise</i> is intransitive; <i>raise</i> is transitive.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>13. I have been trying all morning to &mdash;&mdash; this window.</p>
+
+<p>14. I set the bread to &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>15. He will surely &mdash;&mdash; in his profession.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Teach, Learn</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>16. Will you &mdash;&mdash; me how to play tennis?</p>
+
+<p>17. I thought you had &mdash;&mdash; how to play tennis.</p>
+
+<p>18. I &mdash;&mdash; (past tense) her the new system of filing.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>May, Can</b></div>
+
+<p><i>May</i> signifies permission; <i>can</i> denotes possibility.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>19. &mdash;&mdash; I use your book?</p>
+
+<p>20. &mdash;&mdash; you write shorthand?</p>
+
+<p>21. &mdash;&mdash; I go with you?</p>
+
+<p>22. My mother says that I &mdash;&mdash; go with you.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Might, Could</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Might</i> is the past tense of <i>may</i>, and <i>could</i> is the past
+tense of <i>can</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>23. He said that I &mdash;&mdash; go.</p>
+
+<p>24. He &mdash;&mdash; do the work if he wished.</p>
+
+<p>25. Did you say I &mdash;&mdash; use your typewriter?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 114&mdash;Accept, Except</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Accept</i> means <i>to receive</i>. <i>Except</i> as a verb means <i>to exclude;</i>
+as a preposition it means <i>with the exception of</i>. Insert
+the correct form in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Did you &mdash;&mdash; the position? Yes, no one applied for it &mdash;&mdash; me.</p>
+
+<p>2. I have no other reason for not &mdash;&mdash;ing your invitation &mdash;&mdash; that
+I shall not be in the city.</p>
+
+<p>3. &mdash;&mdash; Mary all &mdash;&mdash;ed the invitation.</p>
+
+<p>4. He would not &mdash;&mdash; the money &mdash;&mdash; on one condition.</p>
+
+<p>5. Why do you &mdash;&mdash; him from the general offer that you are
+making?</p>
+
+<p>6. I agree with you &mdash;&mdash; on one point.</p>
+
+<p>7. He &mdash;&mdash;ed the rebuke in silence.</p>
+
+<p>8. We were forced to &mdash;&mdash; their conditions.</p>
+
+<p>9. He said he would not &mdash;&mdash; the money &mdash;&mdash; that he knew
+he could return it.</p>
+
+<p>10. You have answered everything &mdash;&mdash; what I asked you.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 115&mdash;Affect, Effect</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Affect</i> means <i>to influence</i>. It is always a verb. <i>Effect</i> as
+a verb means <i>to bring to pass;</i> as a noun it means <i>result</i>.
+Insert the correct form in the following sentences:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. His opinion does not &mdash;&mdash; the case.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. How does war &mdash;&mdash; trade?</p>
+
+<p>3. His walking has had a good &mdash;&mdash; upon his health.</p>
+
+<p>4. The ruling did not &mdash;&mdash; the wholesale dealers, but it had
+a big &mdash;&mdash; upon us.</p>
+
+<p>5. What &mdash;&mdash; did the loss have upon him?</p>
+
+<p>6. The failure of the bank &mdash;&mdash;ed the small depositors but
+had no &mdash;&mdash; upon the big business men.</p>
+
+<p>7. The &mdash;&mdash; of the law has been startling because of the
+number of people &mdash;&mdash;ed by it.</p>
+
+<p>8. They &mdash;&mdash;ed the consolidation, but thereby produced a
+bad &mdash;&mdash; upon the price of their stock.</p>
+
+<p>9. The accident seriously &mdash;&mdash;ed his nervous system. In
+fact, the &mdash;&mdash; of the fall is only gradually disappearing.</p>
+
+<p>10. Did the celebrated physician really &mdash;&mdash; a cure?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 116&mdash;Lose, Loose</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Lose</i> is a verb, while <i>loose</i> is usually an adjective. The two
+should be carefully distinguished. Insert the correct form:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I have a note book with &mdash;&mdash; leaves.</p>
+
+<p>2. Aren't you afraid you will &mdash;&mdash; some of the &mdash;&mdash; leaves of
+that book?</p>
+
+<p>3. Be careful that you don't &mdash;&mdash; that &mdash;&mdash; bolt.</p>
+
+<p>4. Do you remember that you had warned me that I'd &mdash;&mdash; the
+&mdash;&mdash; button on my coat? I did &mdash;&mdash; it not five minutes
+afterward.</p>
+
+<p>5. One of the hinges of the door has become &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>6. Do not &mdash;&mdash; the &mdash;&mdash; change in that pocket.</p>
+
+<p>7. He will &mdash;&mdash; the parcel as the cord is &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>8. Did you &mdash;&mdash; the &mdash;&mdash; leaf journal?</p>
+
+<p>9. She may &mdash;&mdash; the money, as the clasp of her purse is &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>10. I keep my &mdash;&mdash; journal paper together by a rubber band
+so that there will be no chance of &mdash;&mdash;ing it.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 117&mdash;Had ought</b></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'><br />
+<i>Wrong:</i> We had ought to go.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> We ought to go.<br />
+<i>Wrong:</i> We had ought to have gone.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> We ought to have gone.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Correct the following sentences:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I had ought to have studied harder.</p>
+
+<p>2. You ought to do it, hadn't you?</p>
+
+<p>3. Hadn't you ought to have gone?</p>
+
+<p>4. Yes, I had ought to have gone yesterday.</p>
+
+<p>5. Do you think I had ought to have accepted?</p>
+
+<p>6. He had ought to come to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>7. The tickets had ought to have come from the printer's
+yesterday.</p>
+
+<p>8. We had not ought to stay out so late.</p>
+
+<p>9. You had ought to wear your coat.</p>
+
+<p>10. He had ought to have become naturalized.</p>
+
+<p>11. You had ought to have washed the dishes before you went
+out.</p>
+
+<p>12. You had ought to take an umbrella.</p>
+
+<p>13. You had ought to have heard what she said.</p>
+
+<p>14. We hadn't ought to disagree.</p>
+
+<p>15. You ought to have invested, hadn't you?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 118</b></div>
+
+<p>Conjugation of the verb <i>be</i> in the</p>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Indicative Mode</span><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 118 part 1">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Singular</i></td><td align='left'><i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I am</td><td align='left'>We are</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You are</td><td align='left'>You are</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He is</td><td align='left'>They are</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I was</td><td align='left'>We were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You were</td><td align='left'>You were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He was</td><td align='left'>They were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall be</td><td align='left'>We shall be</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will be</td><td align='left'>You will be</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will be</td><td align='left'>They will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Perfect Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I have been</td><td align='left'>We have been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You have been</td><td align='left'>You have been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He has been</td><td align='left'>They have been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Perfect Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I had been</td><td align='left'>We had been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You had been</td><td align='left'>You had been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He had been</td><td align='left'>They had been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Perfect Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been</td><td align='left'>We shall have been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will have been&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You will have been</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will have been</td><td align='left'>They will have been</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The verb <i>be</i> is used to form the progressive tenses of the
+active voice (See <a href="#Exercise_102">Exercise 102</a>) and the simple tenses of
+the passive voice; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 118 part 2">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Singular</i></td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Plural</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I am followed</td><td align='left'>We are followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You are followed</td><td align='left'>You are followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He is followed</td><td align='left'>They are followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I was followed</td><td align='left'>We were followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You were followed</td><td align='left'>You were followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He was followed</td><td align='left'>They were followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall be followed</td><td align='left'>We shall be followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will be followed</td><td align='left'>You will be followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will be followed</td><td align='left'>They will be followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present Perfect Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I have been followed</td><td align='left'>We have been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You have been followed&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You have been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He has been followed</td><td align='left'>They have been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past Perfect Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I had been followed</td><td align='left'>We had been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You had been followed</td><td align='left'>You had been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He had been followed</td><td align='left'>They had been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Future Perfect Tense</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I shall have been followed</td><td align='left'>We shall have been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You will have been followed&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You will have been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He will have been followed</td><td align='left'>They will have been followed</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>If we add the progressive form wherever it may be used,
+we have the following synopsis of the indicative mood:</p>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="More on tenses">
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='11'><span class='smcap'>Tenses</span></td><td align='left' rowspan='11'><img src="images/bracket_106a.png" width="10" height="230" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='7'><i>Primary</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='7'><img src="images/bracket_106b.png" width="10" height="145" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Present</i></td><td align='left'>I am followed (simple)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I am being followed (progressive)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2'><i>Past</i></td><td align='left'>I was followed (simple)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I was being followed (progressive)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Future</i></td><td align='left'>I shall be followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3'><i>Perfect</i></td><td align='left' rowspan='3'><img src="images/bracket2-l2.png" width="10" height="80" alt="Bracket" title="" /></td><td align='left'><i>Present Perfect</i></td><td align='left'>I have been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Past Perfect</i></td><td align='left'>I had been followed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Future Perfect</i></td><td align='left'>I shall have been followed</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 119</b></div>
+
+<p>Conjugate the following in the passive voice:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Simple present of <i>pay</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. Progressive past of <i>pay</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. Present perfect of <i>throw</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. Future of <i>praise</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. Past perfect of <i>forget</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. Progressive present of <i>choose</i>.</p>
+
+<p>7. Past progressive of <i>choose</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. Future of <i>choose</i>.</p>
+
+<p>9. Future perfect of <i>choose.</i></p>
+
+<p>10. Past perfect of <i>choose</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 120</b></div>
+
+<p>Supply the verb forms indicated. Use the active unless
+the passive is definitely called for.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The vegetables (present perfect of <i>lie</i>) in water all the
+morning.</p>
+
+<p>2. Rumors (past progressive passive of <i>spread</i>) far and wide
+that Germany would fight England.</p>
+
+<p>3. I thought the gingham (past perfect passive of <i>shrink</i>)
+before the dress (past passive of <i>made</i>).</p>
+
+<p>4. I am afraid my ear (present progressive of <i>freeze</i>).</p>
+
+<p>5. Is it true that your ring (present perfect passive of <i>steal</i>)?</p>
+
+<p>6. A sudden storm (past of <i>arise</i>) yesterday afternoon, and a
+little boy (past passive of <i>drown</i>) in the river where he and several
+of his companions (past perfect progressive of <i>swim</i>) since noon.</p>
+
+<p>7. I (present perfect of <i>speak</i>) of the matter to no one.</p>
+
+<p>8. I suppose that it (present perfect passive of <i>break</i>).</p>
+
+<p>9. I must (present perfect of <i>show</i>) him twenty different styles,
+but he (past of <i>choose</i>) none of them, for as soon as I (past of <i>show</i>)
+him one, he (past of <i>shake</i>) his head.</p>
+
+<p>10. She (past progressive of <i>wring</i>) out the clothes when the
+door bell (past of <i>ring</i>).</p>
+
+<p>11. I am afraid my purse (present passive of <i>lose</i>).</p>
+
+<p>12. The knight (past of <i>say</i>) that he (past perfect of <i>decide</i>)
+(infinitive of <i>follow</i>) the quest.</p>
+
+<p>13. I thought I (past perfect of <i>bring</i>) you the morning paper.</p>
+
+<p>14. He (past of <i>swim</i>) the river twice yesterday.</p>
+
+<p>15. There he stood (present participle of <i>ring</i>) the dinner bell.</p>
+
+<p>16. His coat (present perfect passive of <i>wet</i>) through more
+than once.</p>
+
+<p>17. The trip (past of <i>cost</i>) him a hundred dollars.</p>
+
+<p>18. I (past of <i>see</i>) the superintendent yesterday, but he said
+that there (present of <i>be</i>) no vacancies at present.</p>
+
+<p>19. They (past of <i>lay</i>) the clippings on the desk, and then they
+(past of <i>sit</i>) down.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>20. As he (past of <i>speak</i>), he (past progressive of <i>shake</i>) from
+head to foot.</p>
+
+<p>21. The clouds (past of <i>lie</i>) low on the horizon.</p>
+
+<p>22. The building in which I work (present perfect passive of
+<i>burn</i>).</p>
+
+<p>23. Your employer (present perfect <i>deal</i>) fairly with you.</p>
+
+<p>24. I (present perfect of <i>have</i>) the same position for three
+years.</p>
+
+<p>25. I (future of <i>lend</i>) him no money.</p>
+
+<p>26. The floor (past passive of <i>lay</i>) by an expert workman.</p>
+
+<p>27. The beads (past passive of <i>string</i>) on a waxed thread.</p>
+
+<p>28. He (present perfect of <i>throw</i>) the whole office into confusion.</p>
+
+<p>29. Before he came forward, he (past of <i>set</i>) the child down.</p>
+
+<p>30. After the storm, leaves and twigs (past progressive of <i>lie</i>)
+thick upon the roads.</p>
+
+<p>31. He (past of <i>drive</i>) to town yesterday. He (future of <i>go</i>)
+again to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>32. The dictionary (present progressive of <i>lie</i>) on the table
+where you (past of <i>lay</i>) it.</p>
+
+<p>33. The dog (past of <i>lay</i>) the bone down, and then he (past of
+<i>lie</i>) down.</p>
+
+<p>34. He (past of <i>set</i>) the chair by the window and then (past of
+<i>sit</i>) down.</p>
+
+<p>35. I think we (future of <i>see</i>) him as we pass, for he usually
+(present of <i>lie</i>) on a couch by the window.</p>
+
+<p>36. The snow (past perfect progressive of <i>fall</i>) for several
+hours and now (past of <i>lie</i>) deep on every path.</p>
+
+<p>37. Everything (present perfect passive of <i>lay</i>) in readiness.</p>
+
+<p>38. (Present participle of <i>lie</i>) in the hammock, he soon fell
+asleep.</p>
+
+<p>39. I saw the man (present participle of <i>lie</i>) on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>40. After he (past perfect of <i>lie</i>) there a few minutes, he suddenly
+(past of <i>sit</i>) up.</p>
+
+<p>41. The biplane, which (past perfect progressive of <i>lie</i>) in the
+hangar since it (past perfect passive of <i>raise</i>) from the water in
+which it (past perfect of <i>lie</i>) for two weeks, (past of <i>rise</i>) up over
+the city.</p>
+
+<p>42. Large crowds (past progressive of <i>sit</i>) on the fields, (present
+participle of <i>wait</i>) for the aeroplane (infinitive of rise).</p>
+
+<p>43. Many people (past perfect of <i>set</i>) tents on the field during
+the night and now (past progressive of <i>get</i>) a good view of the flight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>44. All eyes (past progressive of <i>turn</i>) toward the aeroplane,
+which (past progressive of <i>rise</i>) steadily.</p>
+
+<p>45. The biplane (past of <i>rise</i>) until it (past perfect of <i>rise</i>) about
+five hundred feet above the tallest building; then it (past passive
+of <i>raise</i>) about fifty feet more to get it out of an air current that
+(past progressive of <i>raise</i>) one end of it.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 121&mdash;Infinitives and Participles</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Infinitives</i> are verb forms that are used as nouns, as adjectives,
+or as adverbs. <i>Participles</i> are verb forms that are
+used as adjectives. Thus at the same time each acts as two
+parts of speech. As verbs both have the meaning of the
+verbs from which they are made; both have tense and voice;
+both may be modified by adverbial expressions; and, if they
+are made from transitive verbs, both may take objects.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>The Participle</b></div>
+
+<p>The tenses and voices of the participle are as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Participle">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Active Voice</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Simple</i></td><td align='left'><i>Progressive</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>selling</td><td align='center'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>having sold</td><td align='left'>having been selling</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>being sold</td><td align='center'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>having been sold&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The participle frequently introduces a phrase. Usually
+the phrase is used like an adjective; occasionally it is used
+like a noun (sometimes called the <i>gerund</i> phrase).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p><i>Adjective:</i> <i>Seeing your perplexity</i>, I'll offer a suggestion.
+(Notice the punctuation.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Noun</i>(Gerund): <i>Playing tennis</i> is good exercise.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><b>The Infinitive</b></div>
+
+<p>The infinitive is distinguished by the word <i>to</i>, either
+expressed or understood. The tenses and voices of the
+infinitive are as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Infinitive">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Active Voice</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Simple</i></td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Progressive</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>to sell</td><td align='left'>to be selling</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>to have sold</td><td align='left'>to have been selling</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Passive Voice</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>to be sold</td><td align='center'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Perfect</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>to have been sold&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The infinitive is often used to introduce a phrase; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Noun:</i> <i>To get to the top of the hill</i> was a difficult matter.<br />
+<i>Adverb:</i> I went <i>to buy the sugar</i>.<br />
+<i>Adjective:</i> It's a drawing <i>to be proud of</i>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Grouping all the facts that we have thus far learned about
+phrases, and expressing them in diagram form, we have the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>Phrases may be classified:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="phrases">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>According to Form</i></td><td align='left'><i>According to Use</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Prepositional</td><td align='left'>Adverbial</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Participial (Gerund)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Adjective</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Infinitive</td><td align='left'>Noun</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The prepositional and infinitive phrases may have all three
+uses; the participial phrase has two&mdash;adjective and noun
+(gerund).</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Variety of Expression</b><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></div>
+
+<p>Phrases are important because, like clauses, they help us
+to vary the form of our sentences. They help us, above all,
+to avoid the childish <i>so</i> habit. Thus, instead of <i>They wished
+to make the ice smooth so they flooded the pond</i>, we may use,
+for example:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Subordinate clause:</i> Because (as, since) they wished to make the
+ice smooth, they flooded the pond.</p>
+
+<p><i>Participial phrase:</i> Wishing to make the ice smooth, they
+flooded the pond.</p>
+
+<p><i>Infinitive phrase:</i> To make the ice smooth, they flooded the pond.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gerund phrase:</i> Flooding the pond made the ice smooth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prepositional phrase modifying noun subject:</i> The flooding of
+the pond made the ice smooth.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Recast each of the following sentences in at least two of
+the ways shown above:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. They wished to finish the work so they stayed till six
+o'clock.</p>
+
+<p>2. John hoped to arrive before the others so he started early.</p>
+
+<p>3. He saw that the cars were not running so he walked so he
+would be on time.</p>
+
+<p>4. They needed some gasoline so they had to stop at a garage.</p>
+
+<p>5. He wished to make a tool chest so he bought some lumber.</p>
+
+<p>6. They saw that he liked to read so they gave him several
+books.</p>
+
+<p>7. She wished to make a good appearance at the party so she
+bought a new dress.</p>
+
+<p>8. He was in a hurry so he walked fast.</p>
+
+<p>9. We were afraid that we'd be late so we ran.</p>
+
+<p>10. The campers thought they'd like a fire so they gathered a
+quantity of dry leaves and wood.</p>
+
+<p>11. I was very tired when I reached home so I couldn't go to
+the lecture.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>12. The work was difficult so it took three hours to finish it.</p>
+
+<p>13. The clock needed repairing so he took it to a jeweler's.</p>
+
+<p>14. The coat did not fit so she sent it back.</p>
+
+<p>15. She didn't know where to take the train so she asked a
+policeman.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 122&mdash;Mode</b></div>
+
+<p>Mode is the form of the verb that indicates the manner of
+expressing the thought. The <i>modes</i>, or <i>moods</i>, that every
+one should be able to distinguish are the <i>indicative</i> and the
+<i>subjunctive</i>. If the verb indicates a fact, we say it is in the
+indicative mode; if it expresses a supposition, a doubt, a
+statement contrary to fact, or a wish, we say it is in the
+subjunctive mode.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="subjunctive mode">
+<tr><td align='left'>You <i>are</i> good.</td><td align='left'>(A fact&mdash;indicative.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I wish I <i>were</i> good.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>(Contrary to fact, a wish&mdash;subjunctive.)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In form the indicative and the subjunctive differ in the
+present and the past tenses of the verb <i>to be</i>, as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 122 part 2">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'><b>Indicative of <i>be</i></b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I am</td><td align='left'>We are</td><td align='left'>I was</td><td align='left'>We were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>You are&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You are</td><td align='left'>You were&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>You were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He is</td><td align='left'>They are&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>He was</td><td align='left'>They were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='4'><b>Subjunctive of <i>be</i></b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Present</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Past</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>If I be</td><td align='left'>If we be</td><td align='left'>If I were</td><td align='left'>If we were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>If you be&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>If you be</td><td align='left'>If you were&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>If you were</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>If he be</td><td align='left'>If they be&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>If he were</td><td align='left'>If they were</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Other verbs in the subjunctive mode do not end in <i>s</i> in
+the third person singular number, but use the same form
+as the other persons in the singular number; as, <i>if he go</i>, <i>if
+she walk</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>If</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>, or <i>lest</i> usually introduce the subjunctive
+form.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In modern English, the use of the subjunctive is becoming
+rare except in the past and past perfect tenses in statements
+contrary to fact, and in wishes, which are really
+statements contrary to fact; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. If I were a king (but I'm not), I'd see that my laws were
+obeyed.</p>
+
+<p>2. I wish I were a king! (but I'm not).</p>
+
+<p>3. If I had been careful, my work would be good. (I was not
+careful.)</p>
+
+<p>4. I wish I had been careful! (I was not.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Notice that the verb is in the past or in the past perfect
+tense.</p>
+
+<p>There are some careful writers who still use the present
+subjunctive to show a <i>possibility;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Lest he start too late, remind him again that he must meet the
+4:15 train.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the following sentences, which form is better? May
+any of the sentences use either form?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I wish I <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> rich.</p>
+
+<p>2. If I <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> you, I should go at once.</p>
+
+<p>3. If his work <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> exact, he would have no trouble in
+holding a position.</p>
+
+<p>4. If it <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> true, why didn't you say so?</p>
+
+<p>5. If he <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> a millionaire, he could not have been
+more lavish.</p>
+
+<p>6. If such a thing <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> possible, our government would
+be no government.</p>
+
+<p>7. If the election <i>was</i>&mdash;<i>were</i> postponed, we should have been
+informed.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 123</b></div>
+
+<p>Insert <i>was</i> or <i>were</i> in each of the following sentences, in
+each case giving a reason for your choice. Remember that
+the indicative <i>was</i> is used to denote a statement of fact
+in the past time, and the subjunctive <i>were</i> (singular and
+plural) is used to denote a possibility, something that is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+supposed to be true, or a statement entirely contrary to
+fact, as in a wish.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I wish I &mdash;&mdash; going with you.</p>
+
+<p>2. As he &mdash;&mdash; not well, he could not go.</p>
+
+<p>3. If he &mdash;&mdash; well, he could go.</p>
+
+<p>4. If he &mdash;&mdash; attentive in class, he would not fail.</p>
+
+<p>5. They treated me as if I &mdash;&mdash; one of the family.</p>
+
+<p>6. When I &mdash;&mdash; in the South I visited New Orleans.</p>
+
+<p>7. Suppose she &mdash;&mdash; your guest, how would you entertain her?</p>
+
+<p>8. He would appear very tall &mdash;&mdash; it not for the breadth of
+his shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>9. We decided that if it &mdash;&mdash; still raining by seven o'clock,
+we should not go.</p>
+
+<p>10. If our strawberries &mdash;&mdash; ripe, I'd give you some.</p>
+
+<p>11. If the package &mdash;&mdash; left yesterday, as you say, it must
+have been while I &mdash;&mdash; not at home.</p>
+
+<p>12. If he &mdash;&mdash; late yesterday, he must start earlier to-day.</p>
+
+<p>13. If every man &mdash;&mdash; honest, business life would be very
+pleasant.</p>
+
+<p>14. I saw that he &mdash;&mdash; not interested.</p>
+
+<p>15. If he &mdash;&mdash; not interested, he surely looked as if he &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>16. &mdash;&mdash; I certain that the bonds &mdash;&mdash; safe, I should invest in
+them.</p>
+
+<p>17. As the tablecloth &mdash;&mdash; stained, we laid it on the grass to
+bleach it.</p>
+
+<p>18. If that stained tablecloth &mdash;&mdash; mine, I'd try bleaching it.</p>
+
+<p>19. If I &mdash;&mdash; as interested in farming as you are, I'd buy a
+farm.</p>
+
+<p>20. If her work &mdash;&mdash; best, why didn't she get the higher salary?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 124&mdash;Verbs Incorrectly Used</b></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 124">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. <i>Let</i> the book on the table.</td><td align='left'><i>Leave</i> the book on the table.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. <i>Leave</i> me go with you.</td><td align='left'><i>Let</i> me go with you.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Don't <i>blame it on</i> me.</td><td align='left'>Don't <i>accuse</i> me.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Do you <i>carry</i> stationery?</td><td align='left'>Do you <i>sell</i> stationery?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. The child <i>aggravates</i> me.</td><td align='left'>The child <i>irritates</i> me.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. Please <i>except</i> my invitation.</td><td align='left'>Please <i>accept</i> my invitation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. Where have you <i>located?</i></td><td align='left'>Where have you <i>settled?</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(<i>Locate</i> is a transitive verb.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8. I <i>expect</i> you are very busy.</td><td align='left'>I <i>suppose</i> you are very busy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9. I <i>disremember</i> seeing him.</td><td align='left'>I <i>don't remember</i> seeing him.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10. Do you <i>mind</i> where you saw it?</td><td align='left'>Do you <i>remember</i> where you saw it?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>11. Where are you <i>stopping?</i></td><td align='left'>Where are you <i>staying?</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>12. Did you <i>extend an invitation</i> to him?</td><td align='left'>Did you <i>invite</i> him?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>13. This clock needs <i>fixing</i>.</td><td align='left'>This clock needs <i>repairing</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>14. I should <i>admire</i> to go.</td><td align='left'>I should <i>like</i> to go.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>15. I'd <i>love</i> to go.</td><td align='left'>I'd <i>like</i> to go.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>16. He didn't <i>show up</i> on time.</td><td align='left'>He didn't <i>appear</i> on time.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>17. I <i>had</i> a strange thing <i>happen</i> to me yesterday.</td><td align='left'>A strange thing <i>happened</i> to me yesterday.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>18. I didn't <i>get to go</i>.</td><td align='left'>I <i>was unable to go</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>19. <i>Loan</i> me your pencil.</td><td align='left'><i>Lend</i> me your pencil.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(<i>May I borrow your pencil?</i> is correct. <i>Loan</i> is a noun.)<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20. I <i>can't seem</i> to understand that problem.</td><td align='left'>I <i>seem unable</i> to understand that problem.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>21. I don't <i>take any stock</i> in such schemes.</td><td align='left'>I <i>have no confidence</i> in such schemes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>22. How do you <i>size up</i> the situation?</td><td align='left'>What <i>do you think</i> of the situation?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>23. I <i>beg to state</i>.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</td><td align='left'>Omit.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(This expression has been so overdone in business letters<br />that it should be avoided)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>24. He <i>dove</i> off the pier.</td><td align='left'>He <i>dived</i> off the pier.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>25. He <i>claims</i> that he was deceived.</td><td align='left'>He <i>asserts</i> (maintains) that he was deceived.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>26. <i>Can</i> I take your pencil?</td><td align='left'><i>May</i> I take your pencil?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>27. We expect to <i>get up</i> a club.</td><td align='left'>We expect to <i>organize</i> a club.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>28. Did you notice how that show window was <i>got up?</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Did you notice how that show window was <i>decorated?</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>29. It is <i>going on</i> ten o'clock.</td><td align='left'>It is <i>almost</i> ten o'clock.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>30. He said <i>to go</i> at once.</td><td align='left'>He said <i>that we should go</i> at once.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The secretary's daily report will be found an excellent
+means of securing variety of expression in pupils' writing. A different
+pupil is elected each Monday to act as the secretary of the class for
+the ensuing week, his duty being to report each day the doings of the
+class on the preceding day. The conditions are that not more than
+one <i>and</i> be used in each report and not more than one sentence begin
+with the subject.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Prepositions</b></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is important in the study of prepositions to observe
+that there are certain words that are followed by certain
+prepositions. To change the preposition is to convey a
+different meaning from the one that the speaker intended,
+or to convey no meaning at all. A partial list of such words
+with their appropriate prepositions follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Prepositions">
+<tr><td align='left'>accompanied</td><td align='left'>with&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>anything having no life</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>accompanied</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>anything having life</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>acquit</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>accuse</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>adapted</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>adapted</td><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>a course, because of one's nature</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>adapted</td><td align='left'>from</td><td align='left'>an author</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>agree</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>a plan or proposition</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>agree</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>agree</td><td align='left'>upon</td><td align='left'>something that must be decided</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>angry</td><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>angry</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>compare</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>to bring out similar qualities</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>compare</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>without analyzing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>comply</td><td align='left'>with</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>confer</td><td align='left'>on</td><td align='left'>meaning to give to</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>confer</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>meaning to talk to</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>confide</td><td align='left'>in</td><td align='left'>meaning to put faith in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>confide</td><td align='left'>to</td><td align='left'>meaning to commit to one's keeping</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>conform</td><td align='left'>to</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>correspond</td><td align='left'>to, with</td><td align='left'>a thing, denoting similarity</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>correspond</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>meaning to write to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>different</td><td align='left'>from</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dependent</td><td align='left'>on</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>dependent</td><td align='left'>for</td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>independent</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>disappointed&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>employed</td><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>a certain place or salary</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>employed</td><td align='left'>in</td><td align='left'>a certain kind of business</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>employed</td><td align='left'>by</td><td align='left'>a certain person or company</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>enter</td><td align='left'>upon</td><td align='left'>duties</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>enter</td><td align='left'>at</td><td align='left'>a door</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>followed</td><td align='left'>by</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>influence</td><td align='left'>over, upon</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>expect</td><td align='left'>of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>participate&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>profit</td><td align='left'>by</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>remonstrate</td><td align='left'>against&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>a thing</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>remonstrate</td><td align='left'>with</td><td align='left'>a person</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 125</b></div>
+
+<p>Insert the correct preposition in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I shall comply &mdash;&mdash; your request.</p>
+
+<p>2. The chairman came upon the platform accompanied &mdash;&mdash; the
+speaker.</p>
+
+<p>3. He took a walk accompanied &mdash;&mdash; his dog.</p>
+
+<p>4. The lecture will be accompanied &mdash;&mdash; stereopticon views.</p>
+
+<p>5. Strikes are usually accompanied &mdash;&mdash; riots.</p>
+
+<p>6. The years of prosperity were followed &mdash;&mdash; years of famine.</p>
+
+<p>7. He was accused &mdash;&mdash; theft, but was acquitted &mdash;&mdash; the
+accusation.</p>
+
+<p>8. She is well adapted &mdash;&mdash; the position that is open.</p>
+
+<p>9. An electric iron is especially adapted &mdash;&mdash; summer use.</p>
+
+<p>10. The selection was adapted &mdash;&mdash; Irving.</p>
+
+<p>11. This cloth is well adapted &mdash;&mdash; summer clothing because
+it is very light in weight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>12. I agree &mdash;&mdash; you that the plan is impracticable.</p>
+
+<p>13. Let us agree now &mdash;&mdash; a place to spend our summer vacation.</p>
+
+<p>14. That is not a proposition &mdash;&mdash; which I shall agree.</p>
+
+<p>15. It is silly to be angry &mdash;&mdash; an inanimate object.</p>
+
+<p>16. Don't be angry &mdash;&mdash; a person because he tells you your
+faults.</p>
+
+<p>17. His report corresponds in all respects &mdash;- yours.</p>
+
+<p>18. Mr. Giles suggested that you would be glad to have us
+correspond &mdash;&mdash; you concerning our new bond issues.</p>
+
+<p>19. I shall confer &mdash;&mdash; my lawyer.</p>
+
+<p>20. The public has conferred a great honor &mdash;&mdash; him.</p>
+
+<p>21. One should always profit &mdash;&mdash; his experiences.</p>
+
+<p>22. The new device is entirely different &mdash;&mdash; the old.</p>
+
+<p>23. I am employed &mdash;&mdash; a fairly large salary &mdash;&mdash; a business
+that is growing daily.</p>
+
+<p>24. All employees must conform &mdash;&mdash; the rules.</p>
+
+<p>25. I am confiding &mdash;&mdash; you because I know that I can trust
+you.</p>
+
+<p>26. She confided her child &mdash;&mdash; the care of her brother.</p>
+
+<p>27. She is dependent &mdash;&mdash; her brother &mdash;&mdash; support.</p>
+
+<p>28. You can have an influence for good &mdash;&mdash; him.</p>
+
+<p>29. I have remonstrated &mdash;&mdash; the change several times.</p>
+
+<p>30. Perhaps he will change his plans if we remonstrate &mdash;&mdash; him
+at once.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 126&mdash;Prepositions Incorrectly Used</b></div>
+
+<p>Each of the incorrect sentences given below contains an
+unnecessary preposition. When the meaning of "Where
+are you going?" is entirely clear, there is nothing gained
+by saying "Where are you going <i>to?</i>" Omit such superfluous
+prepositions.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Wrong use of prepositions">
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Wrong</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='center'><i>Right</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. I took it off <i>of</i> the shelf.</td><td align='left'>I took it off the shelf.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. I shall accept <i>of</i> your hospitality.</td><td align='left'>I shall accept your hospitality.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Where are you <i>at?</i></td><td align='left'>Where are you?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Where are you going <i>to?</i></td><td align='left'>Where are you going?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. It is a building <i>of from</i> twenty to thirty stories in height.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>It is a building twenty to thirty stories in height.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. Look out <i>of</i> the window.</td><td align='left'>Look out the window.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. John copies <i>after</i> his father in everything.</td><td align='left'>John copies his father in everything.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8. I am wondering <i>about</i> what I should do.</td><td align='left'>I am wondering what I should do.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9. I shall consult <i>with</i> my lawyer.</td><td align='left'>I shall consult my lawyer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10. He sat opposite <i>to</i> me.</td><td align='left'>He sat opposite me.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>11. I shall leave later <i>on</i>.</td><td align='left'>I shall leave later.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b><i>and</i> for <i>to</i></b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>12. I shall try <i>and</i> go.</td><td align='left'>I shall try <i>to</i> go.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b><i>of</i> for <i>have</i></b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>13. I might <i>of</i> gone.</td><td align='left'>I might <i>have</i> gone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b>The wrong preposition</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>14. He fell <i>in</i> the water.</td><td align='left'>He fell <i>into</i> the water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>15. She died <i>with</i> diphtheria.</td><td align='left'>She died <i>of</i> diphtheria.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>16. Divide the work <i>between</i> the four of us.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Divide the work <i>among</i> the four of us.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(<i>Between</i> may be used in speaking of only two persons or things)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>17. It will be done <i>inside</i> of an hour.</td><td align='left'>It will be done <i>within</i> an hour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>18. Are you angry <i>at</i> me?</td><td align='left'>Are you angry <i>with</i> me?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><b>Preposition must be used</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>19. It's no use to try.</td><td align='left'>It's <i>of</i> no use to try.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20. My sister stayed home.</td><td align='left'>My sister stayed <i>at</i> home.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>21. Why do you act that way?</td><td align='left'>Why do you act <i>in</i> that way?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>22. We left the third of June.</td><td align='left'>We left <i>on</i> the third of June.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 127</b></div>
+
+<p>The object of a preposition is always in the objective case.
+Some people have great difficulty in recognizing that in such
+expressions as <i>for you and me</i>, the pronoun <i>me</i> is as much
+the object of the preposition <i>for</i> as the pronoun <i>you</i>. Both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+words must be in the objective case. It is incorrect to say
+<i>for you and I</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the following sentences omit the incorrect italicized
+form:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The invitation is for father and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. Every one has finished his work except <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. It's a question that you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> must decide; it refers
+to you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> alone.</p>
+
+<p>4. Girls like you and <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i> should have a good influence
+over the others.</p>
+
+<p>5. All but you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> have left.</p>
+
+<p>6. He did it for you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>7. No one objected but <i>they</i>&mdash;<i>them</i> and <i>we</i>&mdash;<i>us</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. She sat opposite you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>9. They were sitting near you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>10. We expect you to return with mother and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>11. He wanted my brother and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> to go into business
+with his brother and <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. Neither <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i> nor her sister have I seen for several
+months.</p>
+
+<p>13. My companion and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> took up the trail of the bear
+at once. For some distance it led <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> over
+the soft, yielding carpet of moss and pine needles, and the footprints
+were quite easily made out.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>He</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> had, of course, to keep a sharp lookout
+ahead and around for the grizzly.</p>
+
+<p>15. All are going on the excursion except <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>He</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i> went fishing.</p>
+
+<p>17. The rule applies to <i>we</i>&mdash;<i>us</i> all&mdash;the manager, <i>they</i>&mdash;<i>them</i>
+who keep books, you, and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>18. She beckoned to my companion and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>19. The letter was to be read by the president or <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>20. He did it for the sake of my father and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>21. We study Shakespeare with her sister and <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>.</p>
+
+<p>22. <i>She</i>&mdash;<i>her</i> and her sister went to the lecture with my sister
+and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>23. They sent for <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>, not you and <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>24. The program was arranged by the president and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>25. They found that his father and <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> had already left.</p>
+
+<p>26. Mother is going to buy a birthday present to-day for <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>
+and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>27. The play is interesting not only to you older people but to
+<i>we</i>&mdash;<i>us</i> younger ones also.</p>
+
+<p>28. They expected the work to be done by <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i> and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p>
+
+<p>29. The dispute between his neighbor and <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> over their
+lot line was settled by the surveyors this morning.</p>
+
+<p>30. He wants to speak to you and <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 128&mdash;Than, as</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Than</i> and <i>as</i> are not prepositions but conjunctions. They
+are used to introduce subordinate clauses. Usually the
+clause is incomplete, but the omitted part is easily understood
+from the preceding clause and must be supplied
+to show the case of the noun or the pronoun that is
+expressed; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Right:</i> She is as tall as I [am].<br />
+<i>Right:</i> She is taller than he [is].<br />
+<i>Right:</i> I should invite you rather than her [than I should invite her].<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Use the correct one of the italicized pronouns in the following
+sentences:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I'll agree that he is richer than <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>, but riches are not
+everything.</p>
+
+<p>2. I shall send her rather than <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. No one felt sorrier than <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. No one knows more about an automobile than <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. You are more capable of doing the work than <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>6. We were nearer the goal than you or <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>7. You finished the work almost as quickly as <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. She writes fully as well as <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>9. The manager said he would rather send me than <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p>
+
+<p>10. I secured a position sooner than <i>she</i>&mdash;<i>her</i>.</p>
+
+<p>11. It seems to me that they ought to go rather than <i>we</i>&mdash;<i>us</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. I am surprised that you arrived sooner than <i>they</i>&mdash;<i>them</i>.</p>
+
+<p>13. They should have elected him rather than <i>I</i>&mdash;<i>me</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>14. I am not so well-fitted as <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i> to hold the position.</p>
+
+<p>15. You are more popular than <i>he</i>&mdash;<i>him</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 129&mdash;Correlatives</b></div>
+
+<p>There are certain conjunctions, called <i>correlatives</i>, that
+are used in pairs. They are</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 128 correlatives">
+<tr><td align='left'>both&mdash;and</td><td align='left'>as&mdash;as, so&mdash;as</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>either&mdash;or</td><td align='left'>not only&mdash;but also</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>neither&mdash;nor&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>whether&mdash;or</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>so&mdash;that</td><td align='left'>such&mdash;as</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Illustrations</i></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Lesson 128 illustrations">
+<tr><td align='left'>Both&mdash;and</td><td align='left'>He has both skill and energy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Either&mdash;or</td><td align='left'>I shall leave either Monday or Tuesday.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Neither&mdash;nor</td><td align='left'>I can neither sing nor play.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>So&mdash;that</td><td align='left'>It rained so hard that we stayed at home.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>As&mdash;as</td><td align='left'>We shall come as early as we can.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>So&mdash;as</td><td align='left'>She is not so tall as you are.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'>(Used in negative expressions.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Not only&mdash;but also&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>We saw not only Mr. Brown but his wife also.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Whether&mdash;or</td><td align='left'>Whether I return to work or stay at home depends on my mother's health.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Such&mdash;as</td><td align='left'>We shall buy only such goods as we think we can sell.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Be very careful not to use the correlative <i>so as</i> incorrectly for <i>so that</i>.
+<i>So as</i> is used in negative expressions of comparison; <i>so that</i> is used
+to express result.</p></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> We went early <i>so as</i> we could get good seats.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> We went early <i>so that</i> we could get good seats.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>In the illustrations given above, notice that the correlatives
+always join two similar or <i>co&ouml;rdinate</i> expressions. It is
+important that they be placed each immediately before one
+of the two co&ouml;rdinate expressions.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> I <i>neither</i> can sing nor play.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> I can <i>neither</i> sing nor play.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Recast the following sentences, placing the correlative
+conjunctions before co&ouml;rdinate expressions:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Either you ordered it late or not at all.</p>
+
+<p>2. He said he neither had money nor time.</p>
+
+<p>3. We not only bought the books you wished but the games
+also.</p>
+
+<p>4. We like the place in which we live both on account of its
+quietness and its pleasant surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>5. I shall either go to Quebec or Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>6. Either he must spray his trees or expect no fruit.</p>
+
+<p>7. I neither like the appearance of the shop nor the attitude
+of the clerks.</p>
+
+<p>8. They did it both for the sake of your brother and you.</p>
+
+<p>9. This sample not only is much darker but heavier also.</p>
+
+<p>10. They are barred who neither can read nor write.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 130&mdash;Either&mdash;or, Neither&mdash;nor</b></div>
+
+<p>These conjunctions are correctly used in speaking of two
+things only. Care must be taken to use <i>or</i> with <i>either</i> and
+<i>nor</i> with <i>neither</i>. In comparing three or more things use
+<i>any of them</i>, <i>none of them</i>, or <i>no</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the following sentences use only the correct italicized
+forms:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Neither effort <i>nor</i>&mdash;<i>or</i> money was spared in the undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>2. I have considered planting maple, oak, and elm trees,
+but <i>neither</i>&mdash;<i>none</i> of them seems to grow well in this climate.</p>
+
+<p>3. We do not believe in <i>either</i> enduring oppression <i>nor</i>&mdash;<i>or</i>
+killing the oppressor. We believe in arbitration.</p>
+
+<p>4. He has <i>no</i>&mdash;<i>neither</i> time, patience, <i>nor</i>&mdash;<i>or</i> energy.</p>
+
+<p>5. If you ask me which of the three I prefer, I'll be frank
+and tell you I like <i>neither</i>&mdash;<i>none</i> of them.</p>
+
+<p>6. Three courses will be given in the subject this year; you
+may take <i>either</i>&mdash;<i>any</i> one of them.</p>
+
+<p>7. I had already passed three branch roads, but <i>neither</i>&mdash;<i>none</i>
+of them had looked familiar to me.</p>
+
+<p>8. I hardly think he accepted <i>any</i>&mdash;<i>either</i> of the two offers
+he received.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>9. Neither the doctor <i>or</i>&mdash;<i>nor</i> his wife was at home.</p>
+
+<p>10. Both the books look shop-worn. I'll take <i>neither</i>&mdash;<i>none</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 131&mdash;Except, Without, Unless</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Except</i> and <i>without</i> are prepositions, and are used, therefore,
+to introduce phrases; <i>unless</i> is a conjunction, and is
+used to introduce a clause.</p>
+
+<p>In the following sentences insert the correct form, giving
+a reason for your choice:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. &mdash;&mdash; you leave at once, you will miss your train.</p>
+
+<p>2. I cannot learn to swim, &mdash;&mdash; some one teaches me.</p>
+
+<p>3. I cannot learn to swim &mdash;&mdash; a teacher.</p>
+
+<p>4. No one could do the work &mdash;&mdash; me.</p>
+
+<p>5. John expects to learn &mdash;&mdash; studying.</p>
+
+<p>6. John will discover that he cannot win promotion &mdash;&mdash; he
+works hard.</p>
+
+<p>7. No one can learn how to spell &mdash;&mdash; first learning how to
+observe.</p>
+
+<p>8. No one will learn to spell &mdash;&mdash; he learns to observe.</p>
+
+<p>9. No one will succeed &mdash;&mdash; he has energy and patience.</p>
+
+<p>10. No one will succeed &mdash;&mdash; energy and patience.</p>
+
+<p>11. You cannot succeed in any way &mdash;&mdash; by seizing each opportunity
+as it comes.</p>
+
+<p>12. It is impossible to grow beautiful flowers &mdash;&mdash; the soil is
+good.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 132&mdash;Like, as</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Like</i> is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.
+<i>As</i> is a conjunction and introduces a clause, and is therefore
+followed by a verb. <i>Like</i> is not a conjunction and therefore
+may not be substituted for <i>as</i> or <i>as if</i>.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> I wish I could play <i>like</i> you can.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> I wish I could play <i>as</i> you can.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Insert the correct word in the following sentences:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The picture looks just &mdash;&mdash; you.</p>
+
+<p>2. I haven't a voice &mdash;&mdash; my brother's.</p>
+
+<p>3. I cannot sing &mdash;&mdash; my brother can.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. He walks just &mdash;&mdash; you do.</p>
+
+<p>5. I hope you will all enjoy the trip &mdash;&mdash; I did.</p>
+
+<p>6. For pleasure and exercise I think there is no game &mdash;&mdash;
+tennis.</p>
+
+<p>7. He said that the town looked just &mdash;&mdash; it had when he was
+a boy.</p>
+
+<p>8. I cut the paper just &mdash;&mdash; you said I should.</p>
+
+<p>9. He talks &mdash;&mdash; his father.</p>
+
+<p>10. He has the same sort of drawl &mdash;&mdash; his father [has].</p>
+
+<p>11. She was there &mdash;&mdash; you said she would be.</p>
+
+<p>12. They worked &mdash;&mdash; beavers.</p>
+
+<p>13. He looked &mdash;&mdash; a tramp.</p>
+
+<p>14. To give the stitch the proper twist throw the thread over
+the needle &mdash;&mdash; I do.</p>
+
+<p>15. He walks &mdash;&mdash; he were lame.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 133&mdash;As&mdash;as, So&mdash;as</b></div>
+
+<p>Use <i>as</i>&mdash;<i>as</i> in stating equality; use <i>so</i>&mdash;<i>as</i> in negative
+comparisons.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You will find the new clerks fully &mdash;&mdash; courteous as were
+the old.</p>
+
+<p>2. You will not find the new clerks &mdash;&mdash; courteous as were the
+old.</p>
+
+<p>3. Elms do not grow &mdash;&mdash; well in this climate as do poplars.</p>
+
+<p>4. We did not carry &mdash;&mdash; much advertising this year as we
+did last year, and we find that our receipts are smaller.</p>
+
+<p>5. Under our system of individual instruction a student may
+advance &mdash;&mdash; rapidly as his ability permits.</p>
+
+<p>6. You are not &mdash;&mdash; tall as your sister.</p>
+
+<p>7. I do not seem to learn languages &mdash;&mdash; easily as mathematics.</p>
+
+<p>8. This house is not &mdash;&mdash; large as the other.</p>
+
+<p>9. He is &mdash;&mdash; active as he was twenty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>10. He is not &mdash;&mdash; active as he was twenty years ago.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 134&mdash;Miscellaneous Blunders</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>To, Too, Two</b></div>
+
+<p><i>To</i> is a preposition; <i>too</i> is an adverb, and means <i>excessively</i>
+or <i>also;</i> <i>two</i> is a numeral adjective. Insert the correct
+form in each of the following sentences:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The &mdash;&mdash; sisters discovered that it was &mdash;&mdash; late for the
+4:15 train.</p>
+
+<p>2. It is &mdash;&mdash; dark in that corner; come &mdash;&mdash; the light.</p>
+
+<p>3. He spends &mdash;&mdash; much time in dreaming, &mdash;&mdash; little in
+working.</p>
+
+<p>4. He would have done better if he had not given &mdash;&mdash; little
+heed &mdash;&mdash; the advice of his &mdash;&mdash; older brothers.</p>
+
+<p>5. &mdash;&mdash; more hours were passed in the all &mdash;&mdash; weary task of
+waiting.</p>
+
+<p>6. It was &mdash;&mdash; cold &mdash;&mdash; stay out more than &mdash;&mdash; hours.</p>
+
+<p>7. You may go &mdash;&mdash;, but don't stay &mdash;&mdash; long.</p>
+
+<p>8. &mdash;&mdash; stay there for &mdash;&mdash; weeks would be &mdash;&mdash; tiresome.</p>
+
+<p>9. The doctor said that the &mdash;&mdash; men were &mdash;&mdash; sick &mdash;&mdash; go
+home alone, and I thought so &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>10. About &mdash;&mdash; hours ago I met Mary who said that she was
+going &mdash;&mdash; the country &mdash;&mdash;.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>There, Their</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>11. &mdash;&mdash; are seven brothers in &mdash;&mdash; family.</p>
+
+<p>12. &mdash;&mdash; books are &mdash;&mdash; on the table.</p>
+
+<p>13. &mdash;&mdash; is no doubt that &mdash;&mdash; knowledge of mathematics is
+greater than &mdash;&mdash; knowledge of English.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Were, Where</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>14. &mdash;&mdash; have you been?</p>
+
+<p>15. &mdash;&mdash; you ever on a farm &mdash;&mdash; alfalfa is grown?</p>
+
+<p>16. &mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; you when the report was read?</p>
+
+<p>17. I was just &mdash;&mdash; you &mdash;&mdash;.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Of, Have</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>18. You should &mdash;&mdash; read more distinctly.</p>
+
+<p>19. I could &mdash;&mdash; done the work if I had had more &mdash;&mdash; the
+necessary tools.</p>
+
+<p>20. If I had tried harder, I might &mdash;&mdash; done the work better.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PART II&mdash;COMPOSITION: ORAL AND
+WRITTEN</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>ORAL ENGLISH</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_135" id="Exercise_135"></a>Exercise 135</b></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Retell</span> a story that you know or one that the instructor
+has read to you. See if you can tell the whole story in fairly
+long sentences without using a single <i>and</i>. You will be
+allowed to use three <i>and's</i>. As soon as you say the third,
+you must take your seat. Let the class keep count.</p>
+
+<p>The story may be an anecdote, a fable, or any other short
+incident that can easily be told in one or two minutes. You
+probably have read many such or have heard your father and
+your mother tell them. A joke that can be told in two or
+three sentences will not be long enough.</p>
+
+<p>The excessive use of <i>and</i> spoils the telling of many stories.
+It is a mistake to think that the gap between the end of
+one sentence and the beginning of the next appears as great
+to the listener as it does to us as we are deliberating what
+to say next. To avoid the gap we bridge the two sentences
+with <i>and</i>. Its use in this way is hardly ever necessary if we
+think out a sentence to the end before we begin to speak it.
+When we have finished the thought, we should finish the
+sentence without trying to bind it artificially to the next
+one. The sentences will be bound together if the thought
+of one grows out of the thought of the preceding one.</p>
+
+<p>If the unfolding of the idea does not seem sufficient to tie
+the parts, there are better expressions to use than <i>and</i>.
+There are short expressions like <i>in this way</i>, <i>likewise</i>, <i>moreover</i>,
+<i>thus</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>besides</i>, <i>as might be expected</i>, and <i>too</i>. Another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+way to avoid <i>and</i> is to change the form of the sentence:
+(1) better than the form, "I opened the window <i>and saw</i>,"
+is, "<i>Opening</i> the window, I saw;" (2) better than "I am
+going to the store <i>and buy</i> some sugar," is, "I am going to
+the store <i>to buy</i> some sugar;" (3) better than "There was
+a boy <i>and his name</i> was John," is, "There was a boy <i>whose</i>
+name was John;" (4) better than "I reached home <i>and
+found</i> that my cousin had arrived," is, "<i>When</i> I reached
+home, I found that my cousin had arrived." In place of
+<i>and</i>, therefore, we may use (1) participles, (2) infinitives,
+(3) relative pronouns, and (4) subordinate conjunctions.</p>
+
+<p>Above all, avoid <i>and everything</i>, as in, "I washed the
+dishes and swept the floor and everything." To try thus to
+complete an idea that is already complete shows childishness.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 136</b></div>
+
+<p>Very likely in telling the story as suggested above you
+found yourself frequently using the word <i>so</i> to connect two
+sentences. Perhaps, too, you used <i>why</i> to begin sentences.</p>
+
+<p>Now tell one of your own experiences, being careful not
+to use <i>and</i>, <i>so</i>, or <i>why</i>. Introduce as much conversation as
+possible. What, if any, is the advantage of telling a story
+in the first person? Why is it good to introduce conversation?</p>
+
+<p>In your conversation make use of several of the following
+words:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 136">
+<tr><td align='left'>replied</td><td align='left'>whispered</td><td align='left'>spoke</td><td align='left'>inquired</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>answered</td><td align='left'>agreed</td><td align='left'>cried</td><td align='left'>explained</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>asked</td><td align='left'>exclaimed</td><td align='left'>shouted</td><td align='left'>remarked</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>questioned</td><td align='left'>repeated</td><td align='left'>continued&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>suggested</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>promised</td><td align='left'>maintained &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>objected</td><td align='left'>rejoined</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>interrupted &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>quoted</td><td align='left'>returned</td><td align='left'>added</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 137</b></div>
+
+<p>Far too many boys and girls pay but little regard to
+the matter of choosing the word that will give the exact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+meaning that they wish to convey. In order to lend force
+to their words they have formed the habit of speaking
+in superlatives; like the girl who said, "We had a perfectly
+grand time, but I'm so beastly tired now that I'm
+nearly dead," and yet she showed no evidence of suffering.</p>
+
+<p>Isn't it a pity that our beautiful English language should
+be so degraded in common usage that it loses all its force
+and meaning? Instead of convincing people that she really
+was tired, the girl quoted above made herself ridiculous by
+her exaggeration. Yet isn't the quotation a fair example of
+the speech of many boys and girls? Surely everything
+about us is not either grand or beastly. The habit thus
+formed is difficult to break, but it must be broken if we wish
+to speak our language correctly.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Make a list of the slang phrases that you have acquired.
+For each one substitute a good English expression.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The reason we must watch our oral English closely is that
+it is in our conversation that our habits of speech are formed.
+The expressions we use then we unconsciously employ when
+we are writing or talking to the class. If we are accustomed
+to use considerable slang when we speak, we shall have
+difficulty in eliminating it from our writing or in finding a
+good word to express the idea for which we usually use slang.
+As a rule, slang and extravagant expressions of all kinds are
+used to serve such a variety of meanings that the use of them
+tends to limit the vocabulary to these expressions. Consider
+slang something undesirable and stop using it.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 138</b></div>
+
+<p>Look up the words in each of the following groups. You
+will notice that there is a resemblance of meaning between
+all the words of each group, but that there is also a shade of
+difference in meaning that distinguishes each word from its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+companions. Discover that shade of difference. Use each
+word in a sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Lovely, beautiful, pretty, handsome.</p>
+
+<p>2. Awful, terrible, horrible, dreadful, fearful.</p>
+
+<p>3. Nice, pleasant, delightful, dainty, fine, agreeable.</p>
+
+<p>4. Grand, imposing, splendid, impressive.</p>
+
+<p>5. Love, like, adore, admire, revere.</p>
+
+<p>6. Smart, clever, bright, quick-witted.</p>
+
+<p>7. Fierce, ferocious, wild.</p>
+
+<p>8. Guess, think, suppose, imagine.</p>
+
+<p>9. Hate, dislike, despise, abhor, detest.</p>
+
+<p>10. Scholar, student, pupil.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 139</b></div>
+
+<p>Carelessness in speaking frequently results in wordiness,
+since the speaker in an effort to be clear or forceful repeats
+the idea two or three times. Such speech is tiresome. In
+each of the following sentences there are too many words to
+express the idea. See how many you can omit and yet preserve
+the meaning. Sometimes the sentence needs revision.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I haven't got any time.</p>
+
+<p>2. Where does he live at?</p>
+
+<p>3. Don't stand up; there's a chair.</p>
+
+<p>4. The woman she had an accident.</p>
+
+<p>5. You had ought to take more exercise.</p>
+
+<p>6. I was just going to go.</p>
+
+<p>7. I excuse you because you are a new beginner.</p>
+
+<p>8. I can finish the work in three days' time.</p>
+
+<p>9. The offices are both alike in all respects.</p>
+
+<p>10. He engaged the both of us.</p>
+
+<p>11. We applied to Mr. Abbot, he being the manager.</p>
+
+<p>12. My mind often reverts back to the time when I began in
+business.</p>
+
+<p>13. That high building that is going up on Twelfth Street is
+going to be twenty stories high when it is finished.</p>
+
+<p>14. From his appearance he looked to be in very poor circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>15. He is afraid of the results that will ensue if he follows the
+course that he has planned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>16. The present state of affairs that is now confronting the
+public has become what it now is because the citizens are not
+public spirited.</p>
+
+<p>17. The reason why I was not at work yesterday was because
+I was not feeling as well as I might.</p>
+
+<p>18. I shall never forget the terrible sights that I saw the time
+that I witnessed the street car collision.</p>
+
+<p>19. I have been debating in my mind whether I ought to accept
+the offer.</p>
+
+<p>20. He was a mere little child when he first began to work
+in the mine.</p>
+
+<p>21. Mix together both the butter and the sugar, and rub the
+two of them to a cream.</p>
+
+<p>22. The two pieces of cloth are just exactly the same in every
+way.</p>
+
+<p>23. You will find this chair equally as comfortable as the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>24. He said that when he started in his business that he had
+almost no capital at all.</p>
+
+<p>25. It was the office of Morgan &amp; Son where I got my
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>26. China is undergoing a vast change at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>27. At about the age of fourteen years he left his home town.</p>
+
+<p>28. They did it gladly and willingly.</p>
+
+<p>29. He always shows great deference and respect when he
+speaks to those who are in authority.</p>
+
+<p>30. He is the proprietor and owner of the News.</p>
+
+<p>31. You can easily get the training that will make you a competent
+and efficient high-salaried trained man.</p>
+
+<p>32. For sale, a large, commodious house, arranged with every
+convenience to make it comfortable.</p>
+
+<p>33. We are making all the necessary improvements that are
+needed.</p>
+
+<p>34. I went to high school to take up stenography.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_140" id="Exercise_140"></a>Exercise 140&mdash;Making a Speech</b></div>
+
+<p>One of the most profitable exercises to cultivate clear
+thinking and consequent clear expression is the making of
+speeches, usually spoken of as oral themes. In this exercise
+a pupil stands before the class to talk upon a subject<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+about which he has thought, but upon which he has written
+nothing. He has two objects in view. First, he must
+choose those facts that will make his subject clear and interesting
+to his audience. Second, he must deliver them well;
+that is, he must stand in a good position before the class,
+use good grammar, no slang, and enunciate so that every
+one in the room can understand him. If his speech is to be
+longer than one paragraph, he should have an outline prepared,
+in which each division is clearly indicated, as well
+as the important details within each division.</p>
+
+<p>In making a speech, the best way is to start with a clear
+statement of the subject. Suppose you take (9) below.
+You might begin, "I am going to talk of a street car transfer.
+First, I shall tell you how it looks; and second, how it is
+used. Then first, a street car transfer&mdash;(describe it fully).
+In the second place, it is used&mdash;(give details)." After you
+have explained fully, to show that you have said all you
+intend to say, finish with a sentence of conclusion. <i>Therefore</i>,
+<i>consequently</i>, <i>for these reasons</i>, <i>thus we may see</i>, are
+instances of words which may be used to begin a sentence
+of conclusion.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Use each of the following questions as the subject for a
+speech. Answer each question clearly and completely. Use
+illustrations to show exactly what you mean.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What does it mean to be a hero?</p>
+
+<p>2. What does it mean to be successful?</p>
+
+<p>3. What does it mean to be unfortunate?</p>
+
+<p>4. What does it mean to be generous?</p>
+
+<p>5. What does it mean to be lenient?</p>
+
+<p>6. What does it mean to be mercenary?</p>
+
+<p>7. What does it mean to be diffident?</p>
+
+<p>8. What does it mean to be penurious?</p>
+
+<p>9. What is a street car transfer? How does it look and how
+is it used?</p>
+
+<p>10. What occupation do you wish to follow, and why? What
+preparations are you making?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>11. Why do we have a smoke ordinance?</p>
+
+<p>12. Why must buildings have fire escapes?</p>
+
+<p>13. Why do the farmers of Kansas insure their barns against
+cyclones?</p>
+
+<p>14. What is fire insurance?</p>
+
+<p>15. Why is ventilation important?</p>
+
+<p>16. Why do so many immigrants come to this country?</p>
+
+<p>17. Why do cities grow?</p>
+
+<p>18. Why was the steam engine an important invention?</p>
+
+<p>19. Why was the telephone an important invention?</p>
+
+<p>20. What is the principle of vaccination?</p>
+
+<p>21. What is the principle of anti-toxin?</p>
+
+<p>22. Of what good is the trade union to the laborer?</p>
+
+<p>23. Why does the employer object to the union?</p>
+
+<p>24. What is a monopoly?</p>
+
+<p>25. What is meant by a corner in wheat?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 141</b></div>
+
+<p>In your neighborhood you have frequently noticed a lawn
+and a garden that are very poorly kept, the garden needing
+weeding and the lawn both weeding and mowing. Imagine
+that you go to the owner to make him a proposition. You
+know the man slightly, and you have heard that he has a
+quick temper. Know exactly what work you will offer to
+do and how often you will do it. Be careful of your first
+sentences. Let them be especially courteous, so that you
+may not offend the gentleman by suggesting that he does
+not take care of his property. Tell him frankly that you
+would like to earn some money.</p>
+
+<p>In this exercise the class will represent the owner. Moreover,
+they will watch carefully so that they may point out
+to the speaker wherein his speech was not quite courteous
+or not quite clear.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 142</b></div>
+
+<p>From one of the newspapers cut an advertisement of a
+position for which you think you can apply. Bring the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+advertisement with you and convince the class that you
+are fitted for the position.</p>
+
+<p>In this exercise you must be exact. Choose an advertisement
+for a kind of work about which you know something.
+If you have ever had any experience that would fit you for
+the position, do not fail to tell of it, since experience counts
+for much in the employer's estimate of an applicant.</p>
+
+<p>Let the class judge whether the speaker has been convincing
+and whether he has shown the properly courteous
+attitude toward an employer. Let them ask themselves
+such questions as: Is he alert in his manner? Does he make
+one feel that he is capable? Does he stand and talk as if
+he has confidence in himself? Is he too meek? Does he
+seem over-confident? Let each be able to offer suggestions
+for improvement.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 143</b></div>
+
+<p>Imagine that you are an agent. Choose an article that is
+especially useful to housekeepers. Try to sell it to the class,
+or choose an individual member to whom you wish to sell
+it. Bring a sample with you for the purpose of demonstrating
+its usefulness.</p>
+
+<p>As in the preceding exercise the speaker must strive to
+be convincing. He must know all there is to be known about
+the article that he is demonstrating. If it is at all possible,
+he should have used it in order that he may explain exactly
+how it is operated and why it is better than a similar article
+that the housekeeper probably is at present using.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 144</b></div>
+
+<p>You wish to start a business and need a certain amount of
+money. Try to convince the instructor or a selected pupil
+that you need it.</p>
+
+<p>Be sure that you are able to tell definitely the kind of business
+for which you wish the money, where you will start the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+business, why you think that this particular location is good,
+when you will be able to return the money, and what security
+you can give.</p>
+
+<p>Don't make the mistake of choosing something too big
+for a boy or a girl to carry through. Perhaps the following
+will be suggestive:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A newspaper stand.</p>
+
+<p>2. A miniature truck farm in the empty lot next door.</p>
+
+<p>3. A pop corn wagon.</p>
+
+<p>4. A fruit cart or stand.</p>
+
+<p>5. A shoe shining stand.</p>
+
+<p>6. Raising ferns or flowers for sale.</p>
+
+<p>7. Buying vegetables from a farmer and selling them to housewives.</p>
+
+<p>8. Printing business cards and blotters on a small press.</p>
+
+<p>9. Making place cards.</p>
+
+<p>10. Making valentines.</p>
+
+<p>11. Painting holiday postal cards or fancy cards for Christmas,
+Easter, Thanksgiving, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>12. Printing on postal cards pretty scenes that you have
+photographed perhaps in your town or at a summer resort.</p>
+
+<p>13. Making and selling cakes, doughnuts, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>14. Selling crocheted or embroidered articles.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 145&mdash;Elements of Success</b></div>
+
+<p>Prepare a short speech on each of the following. Wherever
+possible make your statements clear and forceful by
+using illustrations or examples.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Cheerfulness helps to bring success.</p>
+
+<p>2. The habit of neatness is an asset.</p>
+
+<p>3. The habit of punctuality is a necessity.</p>
+
+<p>4. He was not promoted because he watched the clock.</p>
+
+<p>5. He was not promoted because his excuse was always, "I
+forgot."</p>
+
+<p>6. He was not promoted because he learned nothing from his
+mistakes.</p>
+
+<p>7. He was not promoted because he was always grumbling.</p>
+
+<p>8. He was not promoted because he was content to be a
+second-rate man.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>9. He was not promoted because he ruined his ability by
+half-doing things.</p>
+
+<p>10. He was not promoted because he did not learn to act on
+his own judgment.</p>
+
+<p>11. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.</p>
+
+<p>12. Experience is an expensive teacher.</p>
+
+<p>13. Be not simply good&mdash;be good for something.</p>
+
+<p>14. Not failure, but low aim, is crime.</p>
+
+<p>15. To be successful one must have confidence in himself.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 146</b></div>
+
+<p>As in the preceding exercise prepare a speech on each of
+the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A dishonest person cannot succeed.</p>
+
+<p>2. There is no excuse for discouragement.</p>
+
+<p>3. You may secure a position through another's influence,
+but you keep it through your own merit.</p>
+
+<p>4. There is always room at the top.</p>
+
+<p>5. There is no such thing as luck.</p>
+
+<p>6. The proper attitude toward an employer is one of deference.</p>
+
+<p>7. A business woman should dress simply.</p>
+
+<p>8. Perseverance is the key to success.</p>
+
+<p>9. To accomplish much one must work systematically.</p>
+
+<p>10. It is possible to cultivate a good memory.</p>
+
+<p>11. The ability to converse is a business asset.</p>
+
+<p>12. The habit of exaggeration is dangerous.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 147&mdash;Successful Men and Women</b></div>
+
+<p>How can one measure the success of men or women?
+Is it by the money they make? the land they acquire? the
+fame they win? the good they do? By what means have
+they won success? Was it through favorable circumstances?
+strength of character? favoritism? physical strength? mental
+energy? daring? doing what they thought was right in spite
+of opposition? or simply doing nothing and waiting for
+success to come?</p>
+
+<p>Study the life and character of one or more of the following.
+Have they gained what you consider success? What qualities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+of character do you recognize in them? Would you care to
+be like any of them?</p>
+
+<p>Make a list of the habits that you recognize in their life
+and in the way they worked.</p>
+
+<p>Make a list of the characteristics of the ones that you study.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 147">
+<tr><td align='left'>Florence Nightingale</td><td align='left'>Frances Willard</td><td align='left'>Bismarck</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>David Maydole</td><td align='left'>Ella Flagg Young</td><td align='left'>Gladstone</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>R. L. Stevenson</td><td align='left'>Helen Gould Shepard&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Marshall Field</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Booker T. Washington&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Jane Addams</td><td align='left'>Carnegie</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Captain Scott</td><td align='left'>Napoleon</td><td align='left'>J. Pierpont Morgan</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mary Antin</td><td align='left'>Franklin</td><td align='left'>Edison</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Daniel Boone</td><td align='left'>Lincoln</td><td align='left'>Roosevelt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mary Lyon</td><td align='left'>Nathan Hale</td><td align='left'>Goethals</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 148&mdash;Debating</b></div>
+
+<p>A very great asset in business is the ability to see the
+truth or the falsity of a statement, and to advance proofs
+for or against it. This ability we shall try to acquire through
+the practice of debating; that is, through the making of
+speeches in which students take opposite sides of the same
+subject, trying by the presentation of facts and illustrations
+to prove that the side which they represent is the correct
+one. The statement that is thus argued is called a <i>proposition</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Debating is excellent practice because it teaches not only
+clear-cut reasoning, but also forceful expression. If a debater
+fails to make any of his several arguments convincing,
+if he introduces irrelevant matter, or, though he has prepared
+strong proofs, if he expresses them in incorrect English,
+the result will be poor. In working out a debate, therefore,
+observe the following carefully:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<p>1. Know your subject thoroughly. If you have insufficient
+knowledge, you cannot be convincing.</p>
+
+<p>2. Understand your point of view exactly and explain it
+clearly. If you and your opponent have different ideas of
+the word <i>trust</i>, for example, you can never argue on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+subject that concerns the trusts. Define your position first
+of all.</p>
+
+<p>3. After you have gathered your facts, study them as a
+whole. What three arguments, let us say, stand out clearly
+in your mind as being irrefutable because of the strong
+proofs you have to back them? These are the ones that you
+should use; the rest will probably be of little value. Plan
+to give the weakest of the three first, so that your argument
+will gain force as you advance.</p>
+
+<p>4. Work out the details of each argument. A mere statement
+of each is not enough. It must be supported by many
+facts and illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>5. Prepare an outline. It will show you whether your
+arguments follow each other clearly, whether you have so
+arranged them as to secure climax. (See <a href="#Exercise_152">Exercise 152</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. In talking, follow the plan explained in <a href="#Exercise_140">Exercise 140</a>,
+being especially careful in conclusion to summarize the
+proofs that you have presented.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The conclusions that you reach in your arguments must
+be based upon statements that are true. In the following,
+some of the statements are false, and therefore the conclusions
+based upon them are false. Point out wherein
+the falsity consists. In others of the following, irrelevant
+matter has been introduced. Point it out, explaining why
+it is irrelevant.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. We shall forget a great many facts that we learn at school.
+Therefore it is useless to learn them.</p>
+
+<p>2. Oil should be used instead of water in sprinkling our
+streets, because oil does not evaporate so quickly as water, and
+so does not allow the dust to rise. Moreover, as the street must
+be cleaned before the oil is laid, there is less dust to rise. When
+the oil lies on the streets, it is very sticky, and clings to everyone's
+shoes. In this way it is tracked into the houses and stores,
+making everything dirty. Therefore I think the streets should
+be oiled instead of being watered.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Half of the keys would not work on the typewriter that I
+used yesterday. This machine will work no better, as it is made
+by the same company.</p>
+
+<p>4. Last year September was very warm, and the winter was
+extreme. This year September has been very warm, and therefore
+the winter will be extreme.</p>
+
+<p>5. My cousin never went to high school, and when he went
+to work he earned eight dollars a week. I have gone to high
+school for one year. Therefore I shall receive more than eight
+dollars a week when I go to work.</p>
+
+<p>6. When you are working, your employer will never ask you
+the definition of a noun. Therefore it is unnecessary to know
+any grammar.</p>
+
+<p>7. Every one should be punctual in doing his work. If he is
+punctual, he will be promoted and earn a larger salary. Money
+is a very important item in this world, but it is not everything.
+A person must be satisfied with his work so that he can do it
+cheerfully; otherwise he will not succeed. Therefore I think
+every one ought to be on time.</p>
+
+<p>8. The day is either sunny or it is not sunny. To-day is not
+sunny; therefore it is sunny.</p>
+
+<p>9. It always rains when I wear new shoes. I am wearing new
+shoes; therefore it will rain to-day.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 149</b></div>
+
+<p>Find three reasons for each of the following propositions.
+State them concisely, reserving the strongest for the last.</p>
+
+<p>As above, find three reasons against each of the following.</p>
+
+<p>Expand one of the reasons that you advanced for one of
+the propositions given below. Using your statement as
+the opening sentence, develop it into a paragraph by explanations
+and illustrations.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The high school should have the same session as the
+grades.</p>
+
+<p>2. The high school session should begin at eight o'clock and
+close at one, with no recess for luncheon.</p>
+
+<p>3. Final examinations shall be abolished.</p>
+
+<p>4. Every high school should teach manual training.</p>
+
+<p>5. Every high school should offer business courses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. Every high school pupil should receive a business training.</p>
+
+<p>7. Stenography (or bookkeeping) is a more important study
+than wood-working.</p>
+
+<p>8. If a pupil fails in the first semester of a subject, he should
+be allowed to try the second without repeating the first.</p>
+
+<p>9. A pupil should not be expected to learn a lesson that he
+does not enjoy.</p>
+
+<p>10. Moving picture shows do more harm than good.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 150</b></div>
+
+<p>Let three or four pupils write upon the blackboard three
+arguments in support of the same one of the following propositions.
+Then let the class choose from all the arguments
+given those three or four that they think are best, giving in
+each case reasons for their choice.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way let them work out the negative of the
+same proposition.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Every city should have a public park in the business
+district.</p>
+
+<p>2. The large department stores should be abolished and
+smaller stores, selling only one kind of commodity, established.</p>
+
+<p>3. The mail order house should be abolished.</p>
+
+<p>4. It is bad business policy to conduct cut-price sales.</p>
+
+<p>5. The newspapers are the greatest educators of the time.</p>
+
+<p>6. Billboard advertisements destroy the beauty of a city.</p>
+
+<p>7. Women should be allowed to vote.</p>
+
+<p>8. Labor unions are a benefit to the public.</p>
+
+<p>9. All government should be conducted on the civil service
+plan.</p>
+
+<p>10. Underselling a competitor ruins trade.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 151</b></div>
+
+<p>One or two weeks in advance let the class choose three
+members for each side of one of the following propositions.
+On the day of the debate let the rest of the class act as judges
+to decide which side has presented the most convincing arguments
+in the best English.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. It is better to be a farm hand than a factory employee.</p>
+
+<p>2. Every girl should prepare herself to earn her own living.</p>
+
+<p>3. Trusts should be regulated, not abolished.</p>
+
+<p>4. Strikes should be considered illegal.</p>
+
+<p>5. Advertising has increased the cost of living. (See <a href="#Exercise_152">Exercise
+152</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. Communism would lower the cost of living.</p>
+
+<p>7. The business of a city should not be centralized.</p>
+
+<p>8. Labor troubles are brought about because the poor ape the
+rich.</p>
+
+<p>9. Contentment is better than wealth.</p>
+
+<p>10. Tariff increases the cost of living.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_152" id="Exercise_152"></a>Exercise 152&mdash;Outline for a Debate</b></div>
+
+<p>Choose two or four members of the class to develop each
+side of the following debate. Wherever possible, definite
+figures should be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Resolved</i>, <span class="smcap">That Advertising has Increased the Cost of
+Living</span>.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><i>Affirmative</i></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. Modern advertising is world-wide in extent.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) Practically all classes of articles are now extensively advertised.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) Food stuffs; e.g., breakfast foods.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Clothing; e.g., men's suits.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(3) Luxuries; e.g., automobiles.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(4) Investments; e.g., real estate.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>b</i>) Every possible medium is used.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) Newspapers.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Magazines.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(3) Billboards and street cars.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(4) Circulars and booklets.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. An enormous amount of money is spent in advertising.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) The use of advertising agencies is growing more widespread.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) One agency has made the statement that it has nine men whose salaries amount to $227,000 annually.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>b</i>) More and more companies are engaging advertising managers.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) They draw large salaries.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">(<i>x</i>) In many cases, $10,000 annually.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>c</i>) Advertising rates are very high; for example,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) The rate for a certain magazine is $1000 a page per issue.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Metropolitan newspapers charge as high a rate as $500 a page per issue.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>d</i>) Many advertisers use each issue of a number of mediums, making the cost run to an enormous total; for example,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) <i>Cream of Wheat</i> is advertised in every issue of almost every magazine.</span><br />
+III. The consumer pays for the advertising.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) The price that the consumer pays for an article must cover the cost of production and the expense of distribution, leaving</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">fair margins of profit, since</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) The manufacturer will no longer produce if his profit ceases.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) He is not willing to take the cost of advertising from his profit in manufacturing.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(3) The dealer will not take the advertising cost from his own profit.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">IV. Advertising increases prices.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>a</i>) The cost of manufacture and the expense of distribution have been steadily lowered, and yet prices of articles have steadily</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">advanced; therefore</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) The rise is not due to the cost of manufacture.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) Nor to the expense of distribution.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>b</i>) Competition necessitates an increased amount of advertising.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) If one firm begins to advertise, its competitors, for self-protection, must follow suit.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>c</i>) Competitive advertising raises expenses above the point where there is a fair profit at the old price.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(1) For a given kind of goods there is usually a certain volume of business, which grows with population.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">(2) If all the firms competing in those goods increase their expenses by advertising, they must raise prices to make the same</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">profit as previously.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<i>d</i>) Advertised articles cost more than the unadvertised.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Bulk rolled oats vs. package rolled oats.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Bulk pickles and relishes vs. advertised brands.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Bulk macaroni vs. package goods.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Negative</i></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. The present increased advertising is the result of normal growth.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Multiplied manufactures necessarily multiply advertisements.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Every day new products are being put on the market.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) No product has the chance of a sale until it is known.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) In the present scope of community life the advertisement is the most convenient means of acquainting consumers with</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">new products.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Any unusual increase in advertising has a reasonable explanation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Automobile advertising has increased as the automobile has replaced the wagon and carriage, because of</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) Greater convenience.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>y</i>) Lower operating cost.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Prepared breakfast food advertising has increased as these foods have replaced cooked foods, because of</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) Greater convenience.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. Increased advertising is done on the scale of old prices.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Merchants dare not raise prices to make the consumer pay for the advertising, since</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) They must compete with manufacturers who do not advertise and who have no overhead advertising expense.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) The most widely advertised articles are the inexpensive necessary accessories.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Food products.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Soaps and soap powders.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Toilet articles.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) They have not advanced in price.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Quaker Oats.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Ivory Soap; Sapolio.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Mennen's Talcum Powder.</span><br />
+III. Widespread advertising works to the advantage, not the disadvantage, of the consumer.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) It gives new opportunities</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) To compare values.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) To buy to the best advantage; for example,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) In advertised bargain sales.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) It reduces the cost of production and the selling expense, thu tending to lower the price.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) By increasing sales, it reduces the cost per article.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) Maximum purchasing power means minimum cost to the manufacturer.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) In taking the place of salesmen, it reduces expenses, thus lowering the price; for example,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6.5em;">(<i>x</i>) In mail order firms.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(3) Therefore the advertising expense is unimportant in influencing a higher price.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">IV. The most marked price advances have been in the unadvertised necessaries of life.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) In breadstuffs.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Less in quantity for higher prices than formerly.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) In meats and poultry.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) An advance of from 25 per cent to 100 per cent and more.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) In butter and eggs.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) An advance similar to that shown in meats and poultry.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 153&mdash;Additional Subjects for Debates</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The wages of women should be the same as those of men in
+the same occupation.</p>
+
+<p>2. The government should grant old age pensions.</p>
+
+<p>3. Employers should be liable for the life and health of employees.</p>
+
+<p>4. The boycott is a legitimate method of obtaining employees'
+demands.</p>
+
+<p>5. National expositions do not benefit the cities in which
+they are held.</p>
+
+<p>6. Railroad combination lowers rates.</p>
+
+<p>7. Piece-work should be prohibited by law.</p>
+
+<p>8. National party lines should be discarded in municipal
+elections.</p>
+
+<p>9. City governments should be allowed to decide their problems
+without intervention of the state legislature.</p>
+
+<p>10. Municipal offices should be appointive and not elective.</p>
+
+<p>11. The commission form of government is best for large cities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>12. Immigration is the cause of municipal evils.</p>
+
+<p>13. A personal property tax cannot be levied with fairness.</p>
+
+<p>14. The United States should not further extend its colonial
+dependencies.</p>
+
+<p>15. The President should be elected by a direct vote of the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>16. Ex-presidents of the United States should become life
+members of the Senate.</p>
+
+<p>17. The President and the Vice-President should be prohibited
+from taking part in political campaigns.</p>
+
+<p>18. The United States should subsidize a merchant marine.</p>
+
+<p>19. Foreign-built ships, owned by Americans, should be granted
+the privilege of American register.</p>
+
+<p>20. The governors of states should not have the power to pardon.</p>
+
+<p>21. A three-fourths vote of a jury should be sufficient to render
+a verdict in criminal cases.</p>
+
+<p>22. The coast defenses of the United States should be increased.</p>
+
+<p>23. The farmer is to blame for the high prices.</p>
+
+<p>24. The results of Arctic explorations have not justified the cost.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>CHOOSING SUBJECTS</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chapter X</a> definite subjects were assigned for talks.
+Getting a subject for yourself sometimes seems difficult;
+you are likely to think that there is no topic upon which
+you can say more than a few sentences. Isn't it true that
+when you are talking to your friends you seldom are at a
+loss for something to say? Of course, what your companion
+says often suggests an idea on which you give your opinion.
+You speak about things that interest you, and the words
+come fairly easily. Why not apply the same principle to
+more formal composition, whether oral or written? Unless
+a subject interests you, do not use it. But be careful that
+you do not reject it as uninteresting until you have thought
+about it carefully, considering it from all sides. Often one
+subject will suggest another akin to it, but more interesting
+to you because you know more about it. For this reason
+choose very simple subjects, and become thoroughly familiar
+with them by thinking or reading about them, before you
+attempt to explain them.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, again, you will find that the subject you have
+chosen is not good because it is not definite enough. You
+hardly know where or how to begin to explain it, because
+it suggests no definite ideas. Perhaps, for instance, you
+have decided to write on the automobile and can think
+of nothing to say until you remember that you once
+saw an automobile race about which you can tell several
+interesting details; or you have seen an automobile accident
+and can write on the topic <i>A Runaway Electric</i>. If<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+you can speak or write on a topic taken from your own
+observation, your composition will probably be good. You
+know the facts, you have an interest in the subject, and you
+will very likely say something of interest to others. Subjects
+taken from school life or neighborhood happenings,
+especially such things as you yourself have seen, are
+excellent. Perhaps on your way to school you noticed that
+several old houses are being torn down. You remember
+that you heard that a candy factory is to be erected. At
+once several suggestions for themes will come to you; as,
+<i>Why the Factory is Being Erected in this Neighborhood</i>, <i>How
+Neighborhoods Change in a Large City</i>, <i>The Work the Wrecking
+Company Carries on</i>. Perhaps your father owns property
+in the neighborhood, and you could write on <i>How Real
+Estate Values have Changed in this Neighborhood</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Next to your own experience, the best source from which
+to draw subjects is your reading. This may be divided into
+(1) books, (2) magazines and newspapers. Recall one of
+the books that you read in the grammar grades, perhaps
+<i>The Courtship of Miles Standish</i>. Drawing your material
+from this source, you can write <i>A Picture of Early Plymouth
+Days</i>, or a sketch of Miles Standish's character, using the
+title <i>Practice What You Preach</i>. But to try to tell the whole
+story to any one in two or three minutes would result in
+failure, for it would be a subject entirely too big to treat
+in so short a time. All the interesting details would have
+to be omitted, and, if the details are omitted, the story loses
+its vitality.</p>
+
+<p>It is the newspaper or the magazine, however, that offers
+us the most available source of subjects. Practically all
+that we know of the modern world and of the wonderful
+progress being made in invention and discovery, as well as
+of the accidents and disasters that take place, we have
+learned first from the newspaper and have verified later
+by the articles in magazines. Every issue of a newspaper or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+of a magazine contains suggestions for many subjects. Such
+magazines as <i>The World's Work</i>, <i>System</i>, <i>The Outlook</i>, <i>The
+Technical World</i>, and other magazines that deal with technical
+subjects in a popular way are excellent for this work.</p>
+
+<p>A third important source of subjects is the studies that
+you are now pursuing. Every new study affords a new
+point of view, which should suggest many topics for oral
+and written themes. Sometimes a good subject is the comparison
+of two of your studies by which you try to show,
+perhaps, how the one depends on the other.</p>
+
+<p>The subject, of course, is but the beginning of the composition.
+Developing the subject is fully as important as
+having a subject to develop. The ability to develop a subject
+clearly is very important in the business world. A
+business man sells his goods either by talking or by writing;
+by the salesman or by the letter and the advertisement.
+Unless the salesman talks in a convincing way, he probably
+will sell few goods. He must know not only what to say,
+but how to say it.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 154&mdash;The Subject as a Whole</b></div>
+
+<p>First, you must see your subject in its entirety, as one
+thing. Ask yourself, "Just what does my title mean?"
+and if you have not as yet selected a title, study your subject
+from all sides until you can see how to narrow it to
+certain definite dimensions. Now you have set a sort of
+fence around your subject. Nothing outside must enter,
+but nothing inside must escape. The length of the composition
+you are to write usually helps you decide on the
+limits of your subject. If you are writing a book on Africa,
+you might include all that the title suggests to you of exploration,
+colonization, civilization, and Christianization. But
+if you are writing a very short theme&mdash;not over three
+pages&mdash;it is evident that the subject must be narrowed.
+Would <i>The Transvaal</i> be good? <i>The Jungles of Africa?</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+<i>Roosevelt in Africa?</i> <i>African Mission Stations?</i> <i>When I
+think of Africa I think of Stanley?</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Which of the following subjects would be good for short
+compositions, either oral or written? The oral theme should
+occupy two or three minutes, the written perhaps three
+pages. What is the objection to a one word subject?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 154">
+<tr><td align='left'>1. Manufacturing.</td><td align='left'>11. The dead letter office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Household uses of electricity.</td><td align='left'>12. The clearing house.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. The Constitution of the United States.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>13. Business.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Why we celebrate the Fourth of July.</td><td align='left'>14. Honesty in business.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. The destruction of our forests.</td><td align='left'>15. Physicians should advertise.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. Europe.</td><td align='left'>16. Paper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. The westernizing of China.</td><td align='left'>17. How an electric bell works.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8. How railroads build cities.</td><td align='left'>18. Electrifying the railroads.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>9. The fire drill at school.</td><td align='left'>19. How to make candy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>10. Education.</td><td align='left'>20. Vocational education in Germany.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_155" id="Exercise_155"></a>Exercise 155&mdash;The Divisions of the Subject</b></div>
+
+<p>After you have selected your subject, decide into what
+divisions it naturally falls. If it is of the proper length, it
+probably will divide itself into two or three divisions. Each
+of these will constitute one-half or one-third of your composition,
+and within each division illustrations, reasons, and
+explanatory details will appear. Arrange the divisions in
+the order in which they naturally come, according to their
+relative time of happening or according to their relative
+importance, reserving the most important for the last.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes this sort of division is difficult to make, because
+a subject can frequently be treated from different points of
+view, the point of view deciding the divisions. Sometimes
+you will find that you have made a number of small divisions,
+in each of which you can say only one or two sentences.
+This will at once suggest that you have not found the main
+parts of the subject, but have made unimportant divisions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+Again, it may seem that you cannot divide your subject
+into satisfactory parts. In that case, you probably do not
+know enough about it. Think about it again, and, if you
+find that you really cannot divide it, choose another.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Choose one of the following subjects. Is the title definite
+and clear? If it is not, change it so that it will be. For
+example, <i>Photography</i> (5) is not a definite title. No one
+could attempt to explain the entire subject of photography
+in a few minutes. A better title for a theme would be one
+of the following: <i>How to Develop a Negative;</i> <i>How to Intensify
+[</i>or<i> reduce] a Negative;</i> <i>Our Camera Club;</i> <i>The Photography
+Exhibit at the Art Museum;</i> <i>Kinematography;</i> <i>Flash
+Light Pictures without Smoke or Odor;</i> <i>The Conditions Necessary
+for a Good Snap Shot Picture;</i> <i>The Advantages of Using
+a Developing Machine;</i> <i>How My Camera Helped Pay for
+My Vacation</i>. Can you suggest still others?</p>
+
+<p>After having selected your title, decide into what divisions
+the subject naturally falls. For example, let us take (2)
+below. <i>A Ball Game</i> is not a definite title. Instead, let us
+choose <i>Last Saturday's Football Game</i>. As stated above, a
+subject may be treated from different points of view, the
+point of view deciding the divisions. Thus, in treating
+<i>Last Saturday's Football Game</i>, we may divide:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><i>a</i><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Last Saturday's Football Game</span><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="section a">
+<tr><td align='right'>I.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The first quarter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The second quarter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The third quarter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The fourth quarter.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<i>b</i><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Last Saturday's Football Game</span><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="section b">
+<tr><td align='right'>I.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The excitement for a week before the game.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The tension during the struggle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The celebration after the game.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<div class='center'>
+<i>c</i><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Two Decisive Plays in Saturday's Game</span><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="section c">
+<tr><td align='left'>I.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The long forward pass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>II.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The end run to the five-yard line.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Still other divisions may be made if we consider the subject
+from the point of view of the teams or the players themselves.
+Can you suggest any such divisions?</p>
+
+<p>In the same way choose one of the subjects given below.
+Change it, if necessary. Then write out the topic of each
+division in as few words as possible.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. An important electrical device.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. A ball game.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Getting dinner.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. The aeroplane.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Photography.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. How styles change.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. The back-to-the-farm movement.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Why oriental rugs are expensive.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Wireless telegraphy.</span><br />
+10. The business course in this school.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 156&mdash;The Outline</b></div>
+
+<p>If your theme consists of more than one division, before
+you begin to speak or write you should prepare a definite
+working plan or outline. It should include enough to
+suggest the first sentence of each division and the more
+important details within each. The outline will help you
+in speaking or writing to arrange the topics so that they
+will follow one another clearly. If you have an outline,
+there will be much less danger of including details which
+do not belong to the subject and of omitting details which
+should appear.</p>
+
+<p>In the following very simple outlines notice the use of
+indentation:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+1<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Problem of Keeping our Cities Clean</span><br />
+</div><div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. The cleaning of streets.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) In summer.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) The cost of sprinkling.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) In winter.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) The cost of removing snow.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. The cleaning of alleys.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) The disposal of garbage.</span><br />
+III. The smoke nuisance.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Smoke consumers.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Smoke inspection.</span><br />
+</div><div class='center'><br />
+2<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Public Gymnasiums</span><br />
+</div><div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I. Definition of a public gymnasium.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Location.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Equipment.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) Management.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II. Benefits to the public.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Keeps children off the streets.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Congested districts.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Develops them physically.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">(<i>c</i>) Affords them pleasure.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(1) Outdoor and indoor games.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">(2) Bathing at beaches connected with gymnasiums.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>One more suggestion is in place here. In writing an
+outline, be careful that you express similar subdivisions of
+a topic by similar grammatical elements. For example, in
+the first outline above, (<i>a</i>) under I is a phrase; (<i>b</i>) under I
+should be a similar phrase. It would be incorrectly worded
+<i>Winter</i> or <i>What the winter problem is</i>. What is the advantage
+of such similarity?</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Using the divisions you made for one of the subjects under
+<a href="#Exercise_155">Exercise 155</a>, develop an outline for a theme.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 157</b></div>
+
+<p>Choose one of the following subjects; restrict it or expand
+it, if necessary; select a proper title; write an outline; and
+then write or deliver your composition, following your outline
+closely. Notice that the shorter your title the more it
+includes, and therefore the longer your composition must be
+to deal adequately with the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Giving talks before a class develops self-reliance.</p>
+
+<p>2. Most inventors would not have succeeded without perseverance.</p>
+
+<p>3. The more training a man has, the better chance he has to
+succeed.</p>
+
+<p>4. Most rich men learned to save early.</p>
+
+<p>5. The value of courtesy in a retail business.</p>
+
+<p>6. The dangers of football.</p>
+
+<p>7. The various methods of heating a house.</p>
+
+<p>8. The sporting page often sells the newspaper.</p>
+
+<p>9. Educational features of the modern newspaper.</p>
+
+<p>10. Our national game.</p>
+
+<p>11. Baseball is a better game than football.</p>
+
+<p>12. The use of machinery has lowered the cost of manufactured
+articles.</p>
+
+<p>13. How to prevent taking colds.</p>
+
+<p>14. Athletic contests develop courage.</p>
+
+<p>15. Qualities essential to good salesmanship.</p>
+
+<p>16. Our debate with &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>17. The qualities of a good street car advertisement.</p>
+
+<p>18. A good cartoon.</p>
+
+<p>19. Learning to swim.</p>
+
+<p>20. The trials of washing day.</p>
+
+<p>21. Birds as money savers.</p>
+
+<p>22. Birds as destroyers.</p>
+
+<p>23. Open air as a cure for tuberculosis.</p>
+
+<p>24. Making a raft.</p>
+
+<p>25. Every one should open a savings account.</p>
+
+<p>26. Laziness.</p>
+
+<p>27. Tennis is better than baseball.</p>
+
+<p>28. Our respiratory system.</p>
+
+<p>29. The bad effects of ridicule.</p>
+
+<p>30. The good effects of ridicule.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 158</b></div>
+
+<p>Recall one of the books that you have read recently.
+Name two subjects that it suggests to you and that you
+can talk about. Write a careful outline for each of them,
+and be prepared to speak on one.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 159</b></div>
+
+<p>Name a subject taken from one of your studies, history
+for example. Let it be definite enough so that you can tell
+all the details that you know about it in a speech lasting
+two or three minutes. Use examples and illustrations to
+make the subject interesting and clear. Prepare an outline.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 160</b></div>
+
+<p>Reproduce an article that you have read in a current
+magazine. Be careful that you make the material your
+own before attempting to retell it. Do not under any
+circumstances try to memorize the article. Understand
+fully what it says, make an outline of the facts that you
+wish to reproduce, and then give them as if they were your
+own ideas. At the beginning of your speech tell the name
+and date of the magazine from which you are taking the
+facts.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 161</b></div>
+
+<p>As has been said, most of us get our ideas of what is
+taking place in the world from the articles that we read in
+current newspapers and magazines. We cannot always form
+our opinion from what one newspaper on one day says of a
+particular event. We must read what it says on successive
+days and, if possible, consult other newspapers on the same
+subject, for it is well known that not all newspapers are
+non-partisan. If one in the city is known to be so, that is
+the paper to read for the material for this exercise. Then,
+if we can read what one of the magazines says on the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+subject, our knowledge will probably be more definite and
+more nearly true.</p>
+
+<p>Let the class be divided into different sections, representing
+different kinds of news; for example, national,
+local, foreign, and business news. Under national news,
+you can perhaps find articles on national politics, legislative
+measures being discussed at Washington, rumors of
+war, immigration; under local news, anything pertaining
+to the city or the state in which you live; under foreign
+news, anything of interest to any of the other countries of
+the world; under business news, the prices of food products,
+strikes, panics, and their effect on business conditions.
+These are but suggestions. Such topics change so rapidly
+that nothing more definite can here be given.</p>
+
+<p>When you have been assigned to one of these divisions,
+prepare a talk on a topic that you understand thoroughly.
+Begin your talk with a clear statement of your subject, as
+explained in <a href="#Exercise_140">Exercise 140</a>; amplify it by details or illustrations;
+and end with a sentence of conclusion, forecasting
+the future of your topic or restating what you have proved.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 162</b></div>
+
+<p>For a week follow the same current event as recorded in
+the newspaper, taking notes as you read. Then choose
+from all your material only those facts that belong strictly
+to one topic. Write an outline, setting forth the facts in
+logical order. Deliver the speech, following your outline
+closely.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 163</b></div>
+
+<p>Let the class choose four or six members one week in
+advance, who are to prepare a debate on a topic of current
+interest. Let the other members of the class act as judges
+or volunteer on either side, as the instructor may see fit.
+Such debates should occur as often as possible.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 164</b></div>
+
+<p>About once a month devote a day to the production of a
+class paper. Let the class choose a name. During the
+first year let the items be developed into paragraphs. Longer
+compositions should be reserved for the second year.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Suggestions for Articles for the Paper</span></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. A column of interesting business items clipped from leading papers.<br />
+2. An important news item that would make a good "story."<br />
+3. Original editorials on one or more of the following:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>a.</i> Needs or improvements in city, school, or home.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>b.</i> Recent city news.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>c.</i> Business news.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>d.</i> State news.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>e.</i> National news.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;"><i>f.</i> Foreign news.</span><br />
+4. Personal experiences, amusing incidents, or anecdotes, preferably
+of the business world.<br />
+
+5. For sale advertisements, or "want ads" that the class would understand.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 165</b></div>
+
+<p>Criticise the following outlines. Each topic is supposed
+to represent a division in thought.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Outlines">
+<tr><td align='center'>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">The Wheat Harvest</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. A group of reapers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Their costumes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. The field.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Starting the harvest.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. Carting the sheaves to the barn.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. The stacks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>7. The field after the harvest.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><br />2<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">The Tongue</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. What it is.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. It is a good thing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. It instructs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Evils done by the tongue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5. Especially slander.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>6. Conclusion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><br />3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><span class="smcap">The Newspaper Strike</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>1. The cause.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Strikers want higher wages.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Poverty of the families of the strikers.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>c</i>) Police have to protect newsboys against strikers.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Disadvantages.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Newspapers are losing business.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Newsboys sympathize with strikers.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Riots.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>a</i>) Newsboys hurt and newspapers burned.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">(<i>b</i>) Police cannot watch all sections of city.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Conclusion.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>PUNCTUATION</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">When</span> we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression
+that we put into our words and sentences. Some sentences
+we say all in one breath and with not much change in
+emphasis from one word to the next. We may be pretty
+sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its
+elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect
+compare the sentences given below.</p>
+
+<p>Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word
+group:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Steam and electricity are making one commercial community
+of all nations.</p></div>
+
+<p>A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone;
+as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Steam and electricity, <i>which are the greatest of all discoveries</i>,
+are making one commercial community of all nations.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first.
+Sometimes for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial
+clause precedes the subject. Such inversion is always
+indicated; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>If the grape crop is large</i>, the price of grapes is low.</p></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence
+to give clearness or force; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If, <i>on the other hand</i>, the season is poor, the price of grapes is
+high.</p>
+
+<p>What, <i>then</i>, determines the price of grapes?</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate
+in tone those groups of words that are subordinate in
+idea, and to bring out clearly those groups which, for one
+reason or another, are emphatic. The same thing is true
+in music. We cannot become good musicians until we learn
+phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form
+distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts,
+we cannot indicate the tone in which the words are spoken.
+We must show in some other way which groups of words
+belong together, which are important, and which are subordinate
+in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks have
+been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak
+the thoughts to ourselves; we hear the divisions between
+the parts of ideas; and, if we understand punctuation, we
+indicate the divisions.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Questions</b></div>
+
+<p>1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word
+from the next? In ancient writing this was not done.</p>
+
+<p>2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next?</p>
+
+<p>3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain.</p>
+
+<p>4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is <i>separate</i>.
+If two words belong together in idea, the two making one
+idea, allow them to stand unseparated. If they give two
+ideas, separate them by a mark of punctuation. What is
+the difference in thought in the two sentences that follow?</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+(<i>a</i>) She is a pretty, energetic girl.<br />
+(<i>b</i>) She is a pretty energetic girl.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 166&mdash;The Apostrophe (')</b></div>
+
+<p>The <i>apostrophe</i> (') is used&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See <a href="#Exercise_82">Exercise 82</a>);
+as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The <i>boy's</i> writing is excellent.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>I'll</i> attend to the matter.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that
+usually have no plural; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Your <i>3's</i> are too much like your <i>5's</i>, your <i>a's</i> like your <i>u's</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Don't use so many <i>and's</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following
+words correctly:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exercise 166">
+<tr><td align='left'>you're&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>we're&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>who's</td><td align='left'>they're</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>your</td><td align='left'>were</td><td align='left'>whose</td><td align='left'>there</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>it's</td><td align='left'>he's</td><td align='left'>don't</td><td align='left'>their</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>its</td><td align='left'>his</td><td align='left'>doesn't&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I've received no reply.</p>
+
+<p>2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one thousand
+dollars.</p>
+
+<p>3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much.</p>
+
+<p>4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like his 9's.</p>
+
+<p>5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I haven't.</p></div>
+
+<p>Point out the mistakes in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For sale, A ladies fur coat.</p>
+
+<p>2. The boy's have gone skating.</p>
+
+<p>3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation.</p>
+
+<p>4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation.</p>
+
+<p>5. Dot your is and not your us.</p>
+
+<p>6. Is this book your's or her's?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 167&mdash;Capitals</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Capitals</i> are used for&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The first word of every sentence.</p>
+
+<p>2. The first word of every line of poetry.</p>
+
+<p>3. The first word of a quotation (See <a href="#Exercise_169">Exercise 169</a>).</p>
+
+<p>4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed
+separately in an itemized list, as in an order for
+merchandise.</p>
+
+<p>6. The pronoun <i>I</i> and the interjection <i>O</i> (not <i>oh</i>).</p>
+
+<p>7. The words <i>Bible</i> and <i>Scripture</i>, the books of the Bible,
+all names applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns
+referring to Him.</p>
+
+<p>8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are
+considered proper nouns; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Names of the days of the week, holidays, and months
+of the year, but not names of the seasons.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> North, South, etc., when they refer to sections of
+the country, but not when they refer to a direction
+or a point of the compass.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Official titles or titles of honor when they are used
+in connection with names, but not when they are
+used without names; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt.<br />
+Nominations are now in order for vice-president.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> Names of political parties.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> Names of religious sects.</p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> Names of important events or documents; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><i>g.</i> The salutation in a letter; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+Dear Sir, Gentlemen.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><i>h.</i> Words indicating relationship, when they are used
+in connection with a proper name, or when used
+alone as a name, but not when used with a possessive
+pronoun; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock.<br />
+I expect my mother at four o'clock.<br />
+</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition.
+Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are
+not capitalized; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>The Call of the Wild.</div>
+
+<p>10. Such words as <i>Paragraph</i>, <i>Article</i>, or <i>Section</i>, when
+accompanied with a number; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">Paragraph 26, Article 3.</div>
+
+<p>11. See <a href="#Exercise_75">Exercise 75</a>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 168</b></div>
+
+<p>The <i>period</i> (.) is used&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">The business is prosperous.</div>
+
+<p>2. To indicate an abbreviation; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144 Pleasant
+St., Erie, Pa.</div>
+
+<p>The <i>interrogation mark</i> (?) is used&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question;
+as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">When did you order the goods?</div>
+
+<p>The <i>exclamation mark</i> (!) is used&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that
+shows strong feeling; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">Such demands are inhuman!</div>
+
+<p>Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished
+his thought to be understood is the punctuation. The
+same words may express different ideas according to the
+mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the following
+to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey
+by each. Explain the circumstances under which each might
+have been spoken.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. The price is too high.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. The price is too high!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. The price is too high?</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Corn! There'll be no corn!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. You didn't tell him that.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. You didn't tell him that!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. You didn't tell him that?</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. You are enjoying yourself.</span><br />
+10. You are enjoying yourself?<br />
+11. You are enjoying yourself!<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_169" id="Exercise_169"></a>Exercise 169&mdash;Quotation Marks (" ")</b></div>
+
+<p>1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should
+be enclosed in quotation marks. This is called a <i>direct
+quotation</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="center">He said, "The business is growing."</div>
+
+<p>Notice that the word <i>said</i> is followed by a comma, and that
+the quotation begins with a capital letter.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms
+part of a declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation
+mark before the quotation mark; as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+Have you been waiting long?<br />
+She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?"<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an
+exclamation mark; as,</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Exclamation mark examples">
+<tr><td align='left'>Look!</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>He cried, "Look!"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted
+words, the punctuation is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a
+comma after the quotation and begin the words of explanation
+with a small letter; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">"The business is growing," he said.</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an
+interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with
+a small letter; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">"Have you been waiting long?" she asked.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with
+an exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation
+with a small letter; as,</p>
+
+<div class="center">"Look!" he cried.</div>
+
+<p>5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the
+speaker's words, the punctuation is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated
+by any punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Section 5">
+<tr><td align='left'>I do not believe that the report is true.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>"I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true."</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class='unindent'>Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the
+words <i>he said</i> do not belong to the quoted words.</div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear
+between the interrupted parts must be used; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require but little care.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem to require but little
+care."</span></p>
+
+<p>(2) Oh! The flames are higher!</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!"</span></p></div>
+
+<p>4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation
+just as elsewhere. When the thought ends, the sentence
+must end. The different sentences, however, must not be
+divided by quotation marks; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do not
+see them in the waiting room. I think they did not come."</p></div>
+
+<p>5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several
+paragraphs, quotation marks should be placed at the beginning
+of the quotation, at the beginning of each succeeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+paragraph, and at the end of the quotation&mdash;not at the end
+of each paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one
+within is distinguished by single marks; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I thought
+the work could be done more easily, he said, 'Thank you for your
+suggestion.'"</p></div>
+
+<p>7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words
+quoted with a special significance, such as slang, should be
+enclosed in quotation marks; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the "good old
+way" is fast passing.</p></div>
+
+<p>8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate
+is not enclosed in quotation marks; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 170</b></div>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever
+the sense demands division:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown</p>
+
+<p>2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion</p>
+
+<p>3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion</p>
+
+<p>4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I think
+you can get definite information</p>
+
+<p>5. How can we enforce the law asked the man</p>
+
+<p>6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law</p>
+
+<p>7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law</p>
+
+<p>8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the law</p>
+
+<p>9. The question before us is how can we enforce the law</p>
+
+<p>10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you may
+go</p>
+
+<p>11. As I was walking along the river he continued I heard a
+voice cry help</p>
+
+<p>12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down</p>
+
+<p>13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down</p>
+
+<p>14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear there is no
+other way to cross</p>
+
+<p>16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one know
+another way to cross</p>
+
+<p>17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know another
+way to cross</p>
+
+<p>18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is down</p>
+
+<p>19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do</p>
+
+<p>20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the soldiers I heard
+a farmer shout you fellows better try the bridge lower down</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 171&mdash;Indirect Discourse</b></div>
+
+<p>In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct
+quotations, or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's
+words were quoted exactly. When the substance of the
+thought is given in slightly different form, we have an
+indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in which no quotation
+marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a
+subordinate clause depending on a word of <i>thinking</i>, <i>saying</i>,
+<i>telling</i>, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced
+by <i>that</i>, and indirect questions by <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>why</i>,
+<i>whether</i>, <i>if</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i>, and the like. When a sentence
+is changed from direct to indirect discourse, the person and
+usually the tense of the direct quotation are changed; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<i>Direct:</i> He said, "I do not believe the report."<br />
+<i>Indirect:</i> He said that he did not believe the report.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Direct:</i> He said, "Germany is over-populated."<br />
+<i>Indirect:</i> He said that Germany is over-populated. (See <a href="#Exercise_107">Exercise 107</a>.)<br />
+<br />
+<i>Direct:</i> She said, "I did my work before I went to school."<br />
+<i>Indirect:</i> She said that she had done her work before she went to school.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Direct:</i> "I have finished my work," said the girl.<br />
+<i>Indirect:</i> She says that she has finished her work.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Direct:</i> "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span><i>Indirect:</i> I asked why he had not succeeded.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Direct:</i> "When may I go?" she inquired.<br />
+<i>Indirect:</i> She inquired when she might go.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations.
+Do not change the paragraphing.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Seal's Lesson</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The baby seal said <i>that he could not swim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His mother answered <i>that he could try</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The little fellow persisted <i>that he could never learn</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His mother looked at him sternly, and said <i>that every seal
+must learn to swim</i>.</p>
+
+<p>He replied <i>that the water was cold and that he liked the sand
+better</i>, but because his mother insisted, he slid into the water
+whimpering.</p>
+
+<p>After he had gone a short distance, he turned around and called
+out <i>that the water was much pleasanter than the sand</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His mother said <i>that she knew that it would be so</i>. She said
+<i>that young people must do as they are told because they have not
+had enough experience to judge for themselves</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">A Faithful Servant</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A certain old time king said <i>that he needed a servant who could
+be depended upon</i>. He said he knew <i>that such a man is difficult to
+secure, and in the hope of getting the right one, he would hire two</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and, showing
+them a large basket, told them <i>to fill it with water</i>. He said
+<i>that he would return at night to see what they had done</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The men were very much in earnest when they began the work,
+but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of water into the basket,
+one of them stopped and said <i>that he did not see any use in doing
+that because, as soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again,
+and his time was lost</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His companion replied <i>that the kind of work that their master
+gave them was no concern of theirs; that they were paid to do the
+work; and, whether it seemed useful to them or not, they ought to
+do it</i>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
+<p>The first speaker said <i>that the other man could do as he pleased,
+but, as for him, he did not expect to waste his time on such foolish
+work</i>. Throwing his bucket down, he walked off.</p>
+
+<p>The one that was left continued at the work until about sunset,
+when he had nearly emptied the well. Looking into the basket,
+he saw something glittering. Stooping to look more closely, he
+found in the basket a ring of great value which his bucket had
+scooped up from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said
+<i>that now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured into
+the basket</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of his
+officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew that the man
+had obeyed him, and he said <i>that he knew he could trust him,
+and as a reward for obedience he would make him master over other
+servants</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 172&mdash;The Paragraph in Dialogue</b></div>
+
+<p>In conversation the words of each speaker, together with
+the author's words of explanation, form one paragraph.
+Whenever the speaker changes, the paragraph changes; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old guardian
+of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden, "Mimer, let me
+drink of the waters of wisdom."</p>
+
+<p>"Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure that
+you seek and one which many have sought before but who,
+when they knew the price of it, turned back."</p>
+
+<p>Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for wisdom
+willingly."</p>
+
+<p>"Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your right
+hand, but your right eye, you must give."&mdash;Keary: <i>The Heroes
+of Asgard</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says
+is formed into paragraphs according to the divisions into
+which it falls. (See <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">Chapter XIV</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it
+is punctuated as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This, however, was of use to me, the impression continuing on
+my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+thing, I said to myself, "Don't give too much for the whistle,"
+and I saved my money.</p></div>
+
+<p>Paragraph the following:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when we
+came to an extensive belt of woods, through the midst of which
+ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an appearance particularly
+muddy and treacherous. In plunged the cart, but midway it
+stuck fast. Then approached the long team and heavy wagon
+of our friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice
+is,&mdash;" began the captain, who had been anxiously contemplating
+the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But Wright, the
+muleteer, apparently had not as yet decided the point in his own
+mind. He sat still in his seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling
+in a low, contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is," resumed
+the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any man five
+pounds that if we try to go through, we shall stick fast." "By
+the powers, we shall stick fast!" echoed Jack, the captain's brother,
+shaking his large head with an air of conviction. "Drive on!
+drive on!" petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain,
+turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give my advice;
+and if people won't be reasonable, why, they won't, that's all!"&mdash;Parkman:
+<i>The Oregon Trail</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door. There
+was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair, husking corn, was
+a good-looking young man. Rebecca was a trifle shy at this
+encounter, but there was nothing to do except explain her
+presence; so she asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I
+am the lady of the house at present," said the stranger with a
+whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you ever
+heard of the&mdash;would you like&mdash;er I mean, do you need any
+soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I do?" he responded
+unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I didn't mean that; I have
+some soap to sell; I mean I would like to introduce to you a very
+remarkable soap, the best now on the market. It is called the&mdash;"
+"Oh! I must know that soap," said the gentleman genially.
+"Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very purest,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not a trace." "And
+yet a child could do the Monday washing with it and use no
+force?" "A babe," corrected Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh?
+That child grows younger every year, instead of older&mdash;wise
+child!"&mdash;Wiggin: <i>Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and
+paragraph:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a day in
+early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay cool on the
+grass. The boy said that the flowers seemed brighter and the
+birds merrier than ever before. When they came to a bend in
+the river, his uncle said that this was a good place to try. He
+told the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do and
+move it on the surface of the water in imitation of the leap of a
+frog. The boy did as he was told, but he caught no fish. His
+uncle said that he should try again. Suddenly the bait sank out
+of sight, and the boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last.
+As he spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said that
+he should try again, because fishermen must have patience. In
+a moment the boy felt something tug at his line, and as he jerked
+it up, he saw a fine pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable
+excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to look
+at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy didn't have
+it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash in the water, and the
+boy's hook hung empty. His uncle assured him that there were
+more fish in the river, but the boy would not be comforted. His
+uncle smiled shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to
+brag of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said that
+he had seen older people doing that in more ways than one, and
+so making fools of themselves. He said that it was better not to
+boast of doing a thing until it was done.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 173&mdash;The Comma (,)</b></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 1.&mdash;The comma is used to separate a direct quotation
+from the words of explanation.</b></p>
+
+<p>For illustration see the foregoing exercises.</p>
+
+<p>Write the following from dictation; then compare your
+version with the original:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other occupations
+are hindered for want of men to do the work. To test this
+statement thoroughly you need only hunt up a first-class editor,
+reporter, business manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or
+artist in any branch of industry and try to hire him. You will
+find that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious, capable,
+reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get a day's holiday
+except by courtesy of his employer, or of his city, or of the great
+general public. But if you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed,
+unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters, lawyers,
+doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.&mdash;<i>Mark Twain.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 2.&mdash;The comma is used to separate the members of
+a series.</b></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 174</b></div>
+
+<p>Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary
+commas:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy he
+could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence more quickly
+than any one else in the neighborhood his perseverance in his
+boyhood helps us to appreciate the firm true steady hand that
+guided our country through its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly
+showed his wise brain his great courage and his kindness of heart
+his character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year it
+was built up after years of yearning years of striving and years
+of hard work.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the above point out the instances where the comma
+is used&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in
+the same case.</p>
+
+<p>2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying
+the same noun.</p>
+
+<p>3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun.</p>
+
+<p>This kind of succession is called a <i>series</i>. Each new member
+gives a new idea, the comma being used to help the
+reader to separate one from the next with ease. Notice that
+the comma is used between the last two members before
+the co&ouml;rdinate conjunction as well as between the other
+members.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+
+<p>You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds now
+the company supplies power to mines and towns of Colorado
+Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light and power to Ophir
+Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns in Colorado in Utah it
+supplies light to Mescal Eureka Provo Logan and Bingham it
+also furnishes power for the street railway systems of Salt Lake
+City Farmington and Ogden.</p>
+
+<p>The bonds offer such good security good interest and ready
+convertibility that we expect our allotment to be heavily oversubscribed
+will you therefore send us your order before Monday</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie forming a
+perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and wild oats grazed short
+a herd of horses staring from the slope I myself standing in the
+middle like a ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse
+performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully he
+galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he lifted forelegs
+to welcome he flung out hind legs to repel he leaped as if springing
+over bayonets he pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty
+plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and snuffed about
+me&mdash;just out of reach.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'>4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+
+<p>Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's styles for
+ladies misses and children it contains illustrations of the latest
+kinds of long coats of skirts in the most fashionable cuts and
+materials of hats that are new and particularly becoming and of
+dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are especially sure
+that you will like our waists they are artistic in design stylish
+in cut and excellent in workmanship they are selected from the
+leading fashion centers are the creations of the best costumers and
+always have individuality twenty years of selling goods by mail
+have given us experience skill and knowledge that make it certain
+we can please you.</p>
+
+<p>The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five dollar order
+one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten dollar order and two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+dollars on an order for fifteen dollars or more this offer expires
+September 30.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />5</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower efficiency
+for the hours worked have done more to raise the cost of living
+than almost anything else this higher cost of production we
+see on the farm in the factory in transportation in merchandising
+and even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of
+excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and expect not
+to double the rents that we must pay the cost of building has
+increased as the demands of laborers increased as their hours of
+work decreased and as their wages advanced the materials that go
+into a building the transportation of that material the labor of
+assembling it and the labor of fashioning it into a building have
+all advanced in price.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the high cost
+of living because it has made most of us think that we must
+have more conveniences more luxuries more clothes and more
+amusements than our fathers had with a return to the thrift
+of our fathers with a return to their desire for work we shall
+no longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there is a real
+danger to our nation in our extravagance in our indifference to
+cost in our sweep toward ease and idleness and in our growing
+antipathy for work.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 175</b></div>
+
+<p>Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five
+illustrating series of phrases; and five illustrating series of
+clauses.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_176" id="Exercise_176"></a>Exercise 176</b></div>
+
+<p>Write the following from dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Government's Laundry</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty that one
+feels the need of gloves in handling it, and the suspicion that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+is germ laden might well be verified. It has often been said that
+money spreads contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be
+questioned when one remembers that money goes into every kind
+of home and is handled by many infected persons. The government
+has long felt that something should be done to lessen this
+means of spreading disease, and a machine has finally been invented
+that will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look
+almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of operating the
+device is hardly fifty cents for each thousand bills, but it is estimated
+that it will save the government as much as a million
+dollars a year.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Luck and Labor</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor with
+keen eyes and strong will turns something up. Luck lies in bed
+and wishes the postman would bring him news of a fortune;
+labor turns out at six o'clock and with busy pen or ringing hammer
+lays the foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor
+whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on character.&mdash;<i>Cobden.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence.
+Notice the thought expressed in these sentences.
+There is usually an idea of balance or contrast, and the two
+halves of the sentence express the two halves of the idea.
+The two members are usually distinct enough to require
+a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is
+omitted, a semicolon must separate the two members, as in
+the second selection above.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Rule 3.&mdash;The comma is used before the co&ouml;rdinate conjunction
+in a compound sentence. If the conjunction is
+omitted, a semicolon must be used.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 177</b></div>
+
+<p>Separate the following into compound sentences and
+punctuate:</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />1</div>
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<p>Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but recent experiments
+in Boston have proved it to be successful in quenching fires<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+in tanks of oil and other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments
+were conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same
+principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the floating sawdust
+forms a blanket that shuts off the air from the flames and the
+lack of oxygen causes the fire to die out the experiments were tried
+with both wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to
+extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Select the kind of business that suits your natural inclination
+and temperament some men are naturally mechanics others have
+a strong aversion to machinery because they do not understand
+it some men are imaginative others are purely practical some
+prefer active work others like sedentary employment all should
+select those occupations that suit them best.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a new
+material for sleepers and they have been experimenting for some
+time past with cocobolo or Japanese oak the wood is so hard
+that it is almost impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed
+spikes in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a trifle more
+than those made from American oak but they are expected to
+last twenty-five or thirty years the reason for experimenting with
+foreign woods is that native oak is becoming scarce and it is
+deemed wise to search in time for a substitute.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come of your
+decision in regard to the investment you were considering at
+475 Second Avenue let us have your order and we shall at once
+prepare the contract of sale the building is an especially attractive
+offering at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the
+return from it unusually large.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 178</b></div>
+
+<p>When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase
+is put at the beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+it is called an <i>initial</i> clause or participial phrase. A comma
+separates it from the independent clause to help the reader
+to see where the subordinate idea ends and where the main
+idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation, noticing
+the punctuation of initial elements:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If a city is to be kept in good condition, every citizen must
+pay his share of the expense. If the dreadful epidemics are to
+be exterminated, there must be a good board of health to see
+that everything is kept sanitary. When the health officers do
+their work well, the health of the city improves. In order that
+the decrees of the health department and of the courts may be
+enforced, there must be a good police department. Besides
+having these advantages, cities need good streets and good schools.
+Because all of these good things cost a great deal of money, high
+taxes must be levied to pay for them.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 4.&mdash;An initial clause or participial phrase must be
+set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.</b></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_179" id="Exercise_179"></a>Exercise 179</b></div>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following:</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than rubbish
+there now come from it every year millions of dollars in profit.
+Formerly if it was not hauled away to rot it was usually dumped
+into a neighboring stream and there it did much harm even if
+we had the space it would be impossible to explain all the products
+now made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for cattle
+may be made from the hulls but the most important products
+are made from the kernels besides making meal for cattle they are
+readily converted into crude oil according to the degree of refining
+that it receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps lard
+compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the way in which
+modern manufacturers utilize former waste products the cotton
+seed is supreme.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you know
+that they come back to you as writing paper because the metal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+buttons buckles and hooks that are often left on the garments
+cannot be converted into paper they used to be a source of
+annoyance to the papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to
+remove them before the garments went into the pulp vats some
+were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp they tore
+holes in the paper and often damaged the rollers in order that
+such danger may be avoided the pulp is now passed through a
+series of magnetized rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every
+bit of metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of iron
+is collected it is sent to the foundry to return to us in many new
+forms.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we found that
+the furniture which you ordered on the tenth of last month left
+our factory on the fifteenth if all had gone well you would have
+received the articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised
+the delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake on the part
+of the railroad company although the goods were properly billed
+to you they were allowed to go on to Columbus if you do not
+receive them within ten days' time let us hear from you again.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am sending
+you particulars of the property which I wish to sell as I told you
+when I was in your office last week the price at which I am holding
+the building is $20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the
+mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to agree to
+accept present payment for the note that he holds against me unless
+the buyer agrees to pay the unpaid taxes for last year and the
+assessments levied for improvements already made I shall not
+consider a sale.</p>
+
+<p>After all preliminary arrangements are made if you will prepare
+a contract of sale and forward it to me I will have the abstract
+brought down to date and secured by a guaranty policy.</p>
+
+<p>Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has examined
+the property and is satisfied to pay the price for it in its present
+condition I would suggest that you do nothing more toward
+securing bids for rebuilding the porches.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 180</b></div>
+
+<p>Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases.</p>
+
+<p>Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 181</b></div>
+
+<p>The comma is used to separate the month from the year,
+the city from the county or state, the company from the
+place in which it is operated, or the like; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle, Washington.</p></div>
+
+<p>This use of the comma indicates that words have been
+omitted, the sentence above really meaning,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from Seattle in
+the state of Washington.</p></div>
+
+<p>The same use is shown in such sentences as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen dollars a
+week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 5.&mdash;The comma is used to indicate the omission of
+words.</b></p>
+
+<p>Supply the necessary commas in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1 1934.</p>
+
+<p>2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding $4,000,000
+of stock of the par value of one dollar a share.</p>
+
+<p>3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah.</p>
+
+<p>4. The transaction was officially conducted between the
+Power Bond &amp; Share Co. New York and the Pacific Power Co.
+Tacoma Washington.</p>
+
+<p>5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us that
+the center of population of the United States is four and one-quarter
+miles south of Unionville Monroe County Indiana.</p>
+
+<p>6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced
+to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog suggests the
+plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge; the toadstool the umbrella;
+the duck the ship; the fungus growth on trees the bracket.</p>
+
+<p>7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United States<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four cents; in 1840 eighty-two
+cents; in 1850 $1.87; in 1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880
+$16.33; in 1890 $24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it
+is still increasing.</p>
+
+<p>8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910
+90,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the United
+States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central American states
+from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba 52%.</p>
+
+<p>10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America have
+shown an increase of 222%; those of the United Kingdom an
+increase of 115%; and those of the United States an increase
+of 130%.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 182&mdash;Explanatory Expressions</b></div>
+
+<p>There are a number of expressions&mdash;words, phrases,
+and clauses&mdash;which are inserted into the sentence for
+clearness or emphasis. They add a bit of explanation but
+are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they might
+be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These
+may be of various kinds but are all similar in use. They
+should be set off by commas so that the reader will
+easily see that they are subordinate to the main idea of the
+sentence.</p>
+
+<p>A. The <i>appositive</i> is a word or a group of words inserted
+lo explain the noun that it follows. (See <a href="#Exercise_80">Exercise 80</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. William E. Curtis, <i>one of the world's ablest newspaper correspondents</i>,
+in his will expressed the hope that his grandson would
+continue his life-work, <i>a recital of the good that men had done and
+not of the crimes they had committed</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly lessened
+office drudgery.</p>
+
+<p>3. Wall street, the great center of business life, fixes stock
+prices.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent middle
+class of a country, suffer most from the strain of high prices.</p>
+
+<p>5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to
+introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business in the winter
+of 1861 with a very simple equipment, two horse-drawn sleighs.</p>
+
+<p>6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping melons
+grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and the Emerald
+Green varieties.</p>
+
+<p>7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for this
+year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise Box," one hundred
+packages of selected vegetable and flower seeds.</p>
+
+<p>8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper, produces
+branching plants about two feet in height.</p>
+
+<p>9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a native of
+Norway.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 6.&mdash;The comma is used to separate an appositive
+from the rest of the sentence.</b></p>
+
+<p>Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to
+set off an appositive.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 183&mdash;Explanatory Expressions</b></div>
+
+<p>Similar in use to appositives are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject
+from the predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the
+like.</p>
+
+<p>In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately
+follows the subject and the object follows the verb. When,
+for the purpose of explanation, something is inserted between
+the two, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence
+by commas. Words that are thus inserted are called appositive
+or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated in
+the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals, <i>evidently taking
+the suggestion from the popular rural delivery service</i>, have established
+ice cream routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads
+at stated times so that, <i>with no more trouble than is required to
+answer the postman's whistle</i>, dwellers on the farms can now secure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+the hot weather luxury at reasonable prices. The plan, <i>so far as
+one can tell from present indications</i>, gives promise of meeting
+with great success.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 7.&mdash;Parenthetical expressions should be set off by
+commas.</b></p>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The politics of the city as well as those of the nation must be
+kept clean. The most intelligent men of the community not the
+least intelligent should make our political speeches and be our
+political leaders. The very opposite we must confess is what we
+see too often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own
+ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time to politics.
+We need not search far to discover that too many of them even
+if they have the time do not care to give it. At election the most
+influential business and professional men either through lack of
+interest or through laziness stay at home instead of going to the
+polls. The men who are elected in nine cases out of ten are not
+fit to hold office. The blame belongs every one will agree to those
+who do not vote.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>England as most people know is becoming vastly interested
+in the production of cotton in the Soudan. This state of affairs
+for more reasons than one is a matter of interest to the American
+manufacturer as well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian
+cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length and
+strength of fiber is wanted because of the brilliant finish it gives.
+For the manufacture of fine goods including sateens India linens
+and mercerized goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been
+found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the enlargement
+of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem about a million
+acres from the desert in Lower Egypt and although not more than
+half will probably be planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's
+output about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of Agriculture
+after having experimented for years has developed and
+acclimated in California a variety of Egyptian cotton superior
+several experts say to the real Egyptian. It now rests with the
+planters any one can see to decide whether American manufacturers
+will get their fine cotton at home or abroad.&mdash;<i>The Wall
+Street Journal.</i></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy people on
+both sides of the Atlantic are talking of the perils of a "yellow"
+invasion. It is true that in the past various invasions have been
+attended with evil but civilization has passed on into an age
+when migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen are
+taking place silently and steadily for the good of all. There is
+no reason to suppose that the overflow and interflow of nations
+heretofore synonymous with the progress of humanity should
+bring to us anything but good. Commerce is to lead the van in
+the new movement of the nations as it has in the past and the
+merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to anticipate and
+guide the statesman.&mdash;<i>The Commercial and Financial Chronicle.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class of young
+business men seems to be that the saving of little things in the
+course of the day consumes time entirely out of proportion to the
+value of the things saved but like all general rules it is carried too
+far by young men who could hardly employ their time to better
+advantage than in saving good though minor materials that
+would otherwise be lost. The man who originated the idea probably
+found it correct for himself but like all principles catering
+to indifference regarding details the idea is too readily adopted
+by many young men who can ill afford its practice. No one
+wishes a man to be parsimonious but he should not allow anything
+to be wasted which can with a reasonable exercise of effort be
+saved.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 184&mdash;Explanatory Expressions</b></div>
+
+<p>C. <i>Independent elements</i> are words, phrases, or clauses that
+have no direct grammatical relation with any other word
+in the sentence. They are really a kind of parenthetical
+expression, but have less connection with the sentence than
+those given under B.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an argument against the trusts. The
+italicized expressions are independent elements. What different
+kinds do you discover?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Gentlemen</i>, the big problem before us to-day, <i>therefore</i>, is the
+trusts. Shall the people control the trusts, or shall the trusts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+control the people? <i>To state the question differently</i>, shall we all
+continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we turn our
+power over into the hands of a few and let their word be law?
+This centralizing of power, <i>by the way</i>, was the evil men tried to
+remedy by forming republics, and shall we Americans, <i>do you
+think</i>, be willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us of
+liberty? <i>The answer being self-evident</i>, let us proceed. It seems
+that the little violator of law can be punished; the big violator
+cannot be, or, <i>at any rate</i>, is not punished. The trusts, <i>most people
+know</i>, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason for
+destroying competition, <i>evidently</i>, is to swell profits by charging
+all that the trade will bear. The trust, <i>finally</i>, is not a method
+of doing business, but a scheme for levying tribute.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 8.&mdash;Independent elements are separated from the
+rest of the sentence by commas.</b></p>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<div class='right'>
+<span class="smcap">New York</span>, May 12, 19&mdash;.<br /></div>
+Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">5010 Prospect Ave.,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Milwaukee, Wis.</span><br />
+
+Dear Sir:<br />
+
+
+<p>You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation before
+you make any new plans however consider the opportunity that
+we are offering you to see a new and marvelously beautiful world
+for little more very likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation
+at the summer hotel to which you usually go.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is new to
+you comparatively few people unfortunately have yet awakened
+to its possibilities they do not realize at least not fully that the
+climate in Jamaica Panama and the Central and South American
+countries is practically the same throughout the year moreover
+the transportation rates are much lower than they are in the
+North and the incidental expenses of travel such as carriage fare
+and the cost of curios are considerably less rough weather too is
+almost unknown in the summer.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan you have
+been considering a week's cruise of the great lakes at an expense
+certainly of $40 or more and along coasts that you have seen
+doubtless many times before we offer a number of trips varying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+in length from twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50
+to $130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America thus
+for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long pass shores much
+more beautiful visit cities far more strange and return with a
+new almost magical store of memories.</p>
+
+<p>You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer these
+remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is that our ships
+carry an exceptionally large amount of freight however do not
+think merely because our ships carry freight that they are not
+splendidly equipped for passenger travel on the other hand they
+are so luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted for
+tropical cruises you are missing an unusual opportunity we assure
+you if you do not more fully investigate our offer.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We are learning year by year that as a rule financial independence
+cannot be secured by most men except by saving the
+savings bank is of course the first place to invest savings because
+it will receive small sums and pay an interest on them when a
+man's savings however have reached $1000 for example what
+shall he do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge
+probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore
+to put his money where it will be safe where it will earn a fair
+rate of interest and if possible where he can on short notice
+convert it into cash.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his savings
+a woman on the other hand invests because she has received a
+legacy this may take the form of course of property securities
+cash or life insurance it is the function of sound investment
+most people know to surround funds of this nature with strong
+security the selection of conservative investments it is evident
+must be made with care those companies naturally that deal
+in conservative securities are the ones a prospective investor
+should consult.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Not long ago the editor of a financial journal received a letter
+of inquiry from a woman she had she said only two thousand
+dollars if she invested it as some of her friends had advised her
+to do in a well-known security she could not live on the proceeds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+she had consequently made a connection with a brokerage house
+and was making a living by buying and selling speculative stocks
+her list by the way showed a profit of $500 in four months what
+she wanted to know of course was how she could make the gain
+a second time in effect she was told to take her profits and run
+as fast as she could she will not in all probability take the
+advice and in a few months possibly weeks she will write again
+for help in rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have
+learned at last that the way to keep her money is to save it but
+she will not by that time in all likelihood have any money to save.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_185" id="Exercise_185"></a>Exercise 185&mdash;Explanatory Expressions</b></div>
+
+<p>D. The <i>explanatory relative clause</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause.
+Like an appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the
+purpose of explanation and is separated from the rest of the
+sentence by commas. Because of this similarity, it is sometimes
+called an appositive relative clause.</p>
+
+<p>Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish
+a clause that may be omitted from the sentence without
+destroying the meaning from one that may not be omitted.
+The appositive clause may be omitted. A restrictive clause,
+because it restricts the meaning of the word it modifies, may
+not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of clearness,
+it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive
+clause, the former is called a non-restrictive clause.</p>
+
+<p>Notice the difference between the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, <i>which controls the
+electric light and power supply of Chicago</i>, was organized in 1907
+by the consolidation of the Chicago Edison Company and the
+Commonwealth Electric Company.</p></div>
+
+<p>The sentence makes complete sense without the relative
+clause.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>2. The concern <i>that controls the electric light and power supply
+of Chicago</i> is the Commonwealth Edison Company.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The relative clause must be used to understand the
+sentence.</p>
+
+<p>In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2)
+it limits or restricts the meaning of <i>the concern</i>. The non-restrictive
+clause is shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2).</p>
+
+<p>Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000 gallons
+of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000. To supply this
+amount 120,000 cows are needed, which are owned by 12,000
+dairy farms. Health officers conduct a systematic dairy farm
+inspection, which has for its purpose the exclusion of diseased
+milk. Farm owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now
+see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have discovered
+that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is dangerous except when
+produced under sanitary conditions, and now dairies are allowed
+to sell only clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy
+cow.</p></div>
+
+<p>Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the
+following sentences decide whether the italicized expressions
+are restrictive or non-restrictive. State whether they
+are phrases or clauses. Do any of the sentences need
+commas?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The man <i>wearing the brown coat</i> is my brother.</p>
+
+<p>2. My brother bought a new coat <i>which is brown</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. The lesson <i>that I take at nine o'clock</i> is English.</p>
+
+<p>4. In English <i>which I take at nine o'clock</i> we are studying
+punctuation.</p>
+
+<p>5. I am going to work in every city <i>that I visit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>6. I am going to work in any city <i>where I can find employment</i>.</p>
+
+<p>7. I am going to work in Denver <i>where my uncle lives</i>.</p>
+
+<p>8. The house <i>on the hill</i> is the oldest in town.</p>
+
+<p>9. The house <i>that is the oldest in town</i> is used as a museum.</p>
+
+<p>10. The Franklin Museum <i>which occupies the oldest house in
+town</i> is a very interesting place.</p>
+
+<p>11. The town museum is the place <i>that I like to visit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>12. The chimney <i>that was blown down last night in the storm</i>
+should have been mended long ago.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>13. The old ruined tower <i>which has long been a picturesque
+sight in the village</i> was blown down last night.</p>
+
+<p>14. We counted ten chimneys <i>that were blown down last night</i>.</p>
+
+<p>15. The stenography system <i>that I studied</i> is Munson's.</p>
+
+<p>16. I think she uses Munson's <i>which she considers a good system
+of stenography</i>.</p>
+
+<p>17. Last year I pursued a course in stenography <i>which I enjoyed
+very much</i>.</p>
+
+<p>18. The book <i>that we use in class</i> has a brown cover.</p>
+
+<p>19. The only milk <i>that is fit to drink</i> comes from a clean dairy.</p>
+
+<p>20. Systematic inspection has been carried on <i>which has
+resulted in securing better milk</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Rule 9.&mdash;A non-restrictive clause should be separated
+from the rest of the sentence by commas.</b></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_186" id="Exercise_186"></a>Exercise 186</b></div>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. We have an enormous crop of cotton the value of which is
+estimated at one billion dollars.</p>
+
+<p>2. "The root of the mail order evil is the idea which the
+retail mail order houses have been able somehow to instill into
+the minds of the buying public that the local merchants ask too
+much for their goods."</p>
+
+<p>3. Mr. Hilton who was sales manager at that time induced
+the company to adopt this system.</p>
+
+<p>4. The lecture will be delivered by Mr. Brenton who is the
+head of the advertising department of Whitlock &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>5. Our dog whose fur was wet by his plunge into the lake
+came running toward us.</p>
+
+<p>6. Genevieve who had always been the leader in the games
+was not present.</p>
+
+<p>7. A late product of the brain of George Westinghouse who
+was the inventor of the air brake and numerous electrical devices
+is an air spring for automobiles. This little article has been
+patented by Mr. Westinghouse who has the sole ownership. The
+spring which has already proved popular with automobile owners
+fits over the end of the regular spring and "makes good roads
+out of bad ones."</p>
+
+<p>8. Careful selection of investments upon which the safety
+of your money depends is often difficult. Careful watching of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+investments which is fully as essential is much harder. Let us
+tell you about our Investment Service which does this watching
+for you and keeps you fully protected.</p>
+
+<p>9. As a direct result of the conference between the railroad
+and steamship interests of the South-Atlantic and Gulf cotton
+ports which was held recently at Hot Springs Va. an organization
+which will be known as the South Atlantic and Steamship
+Cotton Inspection Bureau has been created. The bureau will
+have a chief inspector who will supervise the conduct of its business
+at all ports and will arrange for the employment of the inspectors.
+According to the rules and regulations copies of which
+have been received by the cotton agencies and the export departments
+of the various New Orleans firms any bale that shows
+external damage from water mud bad bagging or other causes
+must be condemned and its condition noted and reported.</p>
+
+<p>10. How would you like to wear a hat that has been handed
+down through six generations in each of which it was a treasured
+possession? The Italian peasants who love finery are proud to
+do that very thing. Very few of the poorer people who live in
+Italy own a hat. When you see a beautifully woven Leghorn hat
+which is also very dirty on the head of a little peasant child you
+may be pretty sure that she is celebrating her birthday by wearing
+the family heirloom. These hats which are sometimes willed
+to a favorite relative and which in some instances go the round
+of the family are considered almost priceless. It is a frequent
+sight along the dusty roads outside the little towns to see untidy
+old women who are sauntering along twisting twine as they go
+all vanity under the flopping brim of an antiquated hat. This is
+almost the only souvenir that tourists' money cannot buy.&mdash;<i>The
+Chicago Tribune.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 187&mdash;Explanatory Expressions</b></div>
+
+<p>E. When the subordinate element that comes at or near
+the close of the sentence gives an <i>additional</i> idea, following
+the more or less complete idea in the rest of the sentence,
+it should be set off by a comma; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A signature clerk will easily recognize any alteration in a signature,
+<i>although thousands of checks pass through his hands daily</i>.</p>
+
+<p>He gave a statement of the affairs of the company, <i>explaining
+that he wished to make a loan</i>.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Rule 10.&mdash;A terminal adverbial clause or participial
+phrase giving an additional idea should be set off from the
+rest of the sentence by a comma.</b></p>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Popular-priced goods are the safest for a retail stock however
+you consider the subject.</p>
+
+<p>2. A sheriff seldom finds large quantities of popular-priced
+goods on hand when he comes to take possession of any retail
+store although he usually finds expensive articles.</p>
+
+<p>3. They bring higher prices relatively than the heavier things
+even when they are disposed of under forced sale.</p>
+
+<p>4. The catalogue houses have little fear for five-and-ten-cent
+stores because sixty-eight per cent of their business is in big
+goods such as furniture vehicles sewing-machines clothing and
+relatively expensive things. They do not wish to increase the
+sale of popular-priced articles although their catalogue may be
+full of them because it costs them more to pack one hammer or
+trowel than the profits can stand.</p>
+
+<p>5. Steel conditions remain about as they have been for several
+weeks excepting that the price of rails has been advancing for
+the last few days.</p>
+
+<p>6. Steel men are of the opinion that to increase prices too
+rapidly would spoil a good market because most of the mills are
+so filled up with orders that they would not be able to take
+advantage of increased quotations for some time to come.</p>
+
+<p>7. The steel business for the last three months has been very
+encouraging as it shows that railroads are dropping their policy
+of waiting until the last minute to buy. It will probably mean
+more normal operation of mills instead of spasmodic workings as
+has been the case for the last few years.</p>
+
+<p>8. Boraxated soap chips will benefit your tableware and your
+hands making dishwashing a pleasure instead of a task.</p>
+
+<p>9. The man who works to the limit of his physical powers is
+as foolish as the manufacturer who immediately invests all his
+profits in his business neglecting to have a reserve fund for unexpected
+demands.</p>
+
+<p>10. A wide-awake manager tries plan after plan testing and
+re-testing them until he can apply them to his company's needs.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write four sentences illustrating Rule 10.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 188</b></div>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and
+an introduction for each:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:
+
+<p>We wish to acknowledge your letter of recent date assuring
+you that we thank you for the opportunity you have given us
+of opening a monthly charge account in your name. We shall
+spare no effort to make every transaction as satisfactory as
+possible hoping thus to merit a liberal share of your patronage.</p>
+
+<p>Our bills are rendered on the first of each month being payable
+between that date and the fifteenth.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Mr. Warner:
+
+<p>In reply to your inquiry I am sending the following information
+assuring you that I am glad to be of service to you.</p>
+
+<p>The Lancaster Company has apparently abandoned its plan
+of erecting a new building this year difficulties having arisen it
+is said in their securing a suitable location. About two years ago
+the firm purchased a site on the corner of Harrison and Second
+streets but they sold it again last year taking advantage of a
+decided rise in real estate values. It is understood we believe that
+the company will build in the near future even now having two
+or three possible sites under consideration.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Sincerely yours,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>We offer you the benefits and privileges of our Special Charge
+Account whereby purchases may be paid for in weekly or monthly
+installments. You will find this a most convenient arrangement
+because it permits you to have a charge account without the
+usual hardship of payment at a fixed time. Moreover a Special
+Charge Account costs you nothing since our prices are the same
+whether you pay cash or have purchases charged. Please fill out
+the enclosed application blank mailing it to us to-day.</p>
+
+<p>You will no doubt enjoy reading the enclosed booklet as it
+gives much interesting information on fashion tendencies. The
+illustrations too are unusually attractive although they hardly
+do justice to the beautiful garments that we sell.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 189</b></div>
+
+<p>Study the punctuation in the following selections from
+<i>The Wall Street Journal;</i> then write them from dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Trouble in Introducing Steel</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Strange as it now seems," said one of Carnegie's "young
+men," now the vice-president of a large and prosperous corporation
+in New York, "in the early days of the steel industry we had
+the greatest difficulty in the world in weaning the old manufacturers
+away from the use of wrought iron, though they admitted
+the superiority of steel. They would look at it, test it,
+and agree that it seemed to possess all the desirable qualities
+claimed for it, but it was more or less untried by time, and they
+preferred to stick to the old wrought iron, with which they were
+familiar.</p>
+
+<p>"I remember one old chap with whom I had wrestled long,
+but in vain, coming into my office and picking up a long, soft
+steel rivet, which had been bent double and hammered flat.</p>
+
+<p>"'How many did you break in making this?' he asked, picking
+it up and examining it curiously.</p>
+
+<p>"'That's the first one we hammered over, and, what is more
+to the point, we can do it with all steel of that type,' I replied.</p>
+
+<p>"The polite incredulity in his face stirred my professional
+pride, and I said, 'If I let you go to the mills, pick out a dozen of
+those rivets just as they come from the rolls, and hammer them
+with your own hands, will you use that steel hereafter, if it comes
+up to the test?'</p>
+
+<p>"He said he would, and the rest was easy, for it is much easier
+not to break than to break that kind of steel. Before long the
+old man came back with perspiration dripping from the end of
+his nose but with the light of conviction shining in his eye. The
+firm had a new customer."</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Conservation</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Leslie M. Shaw, former Secretary of the Treasury, was in New
+York, attending a meeting of a board of which he is a member.
+Something was said about the present-day discussion of money<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+power, and Shaw said that it reminded him of a speech he had
+made in Seattle in the campaign of 1896.</p>
+
+<p>"I was speaking to a filled hall and had almost finished," said
+Shaw, "when a long-whiskered man arose about the middle of
+the hall and held up his hand, saying he wanted to ask a question.</p>
+
+<p>"'Go ahead,' I said.</p>
+
+<p>"'How, then, Mr. Speaker, do you explain the unequal distribution
+of wealth?' was his question.</p>
+
+<p>"When I answered him with, 'In the same way that I explain
+the unequal distribution of whiskers,' bedlam broke loose.</p>
+
+<p>"As soon as I could get quiet restored, I said: 'Now don't
+think I returned the answer I did to make fun of your whiskers.
+You will observe that I have no whiskers, as I dissipate them by
+shaving them off. Nature gives me abundance of whiskers, and,
+if I conserved them as you do, I also should be abundantly supplied.
+Now, it is the same way with money. The man who
+conserves his money has more than his share, as with whiskers;
+while the man who dissipates his money is without his allotment.'"</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 190&mdash;The Semicolon (;)</b></div>
+
+<p>The semicolon is used between the propositions of a compound
+sentence when no co&ouml;rdinate conjunction is used.
+(See <a href="#Exercise_176">Exercise 176</a>, 2.)</p>
+
+<div class="center">It is not work that kills men; it is worry.</div>
+<div class='unindent'>It is important not to overdo this use of the semicolon.
+Do not use it unless the two principal clauses of the
+sentence taken together easily form one idea.</div>
+
+<p>Especial care must be taken not to confuse co&ouml;rdinate
+conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs. The following are
+conjunctive adverbs: <i>then</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>consequently</i>, <i>moreover</i>,
+<i>however</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>also</i>, <i>besides</i>, <i>thus</i>, <i>still</i>, <i>otherwise</i>, <i>accordingly</i>.
+When they are used to join principal clauses, they should
+be preceded by a co&ouml;rdinate conjunction or a semicolon; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+Fruit was plentiful, and therefore the price was low.<br />
+Fruit was plentiful; therefore the price was low.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>When there is a series of phrases or clauses, each of which
+is long and contains commas within itself, the sentence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+becomes clearer if the members of the series are separated
+by semicolons instead of by commas; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>You know how prolific the American mind has been in invention;
+how much civilization has been advanced by the steamboat,
+the cotton-gin, the sewing-machine, the reaping-machine,
+the typewriter, the electric light, the telephone, the phonograph.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write the following from dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>No man can deny that the lines of endeavor have more and
+more narrowed and stiffened; no one who knows anything about
+the development of industry in this country can fail to have
+observed that the larger kinds of credit are more and more difficult
+to obtain, unless you obtain them upon the terms of uniting your
+efforts with those who already control the industries of the country;
+and nobody can fail to observe that any man who tries to set himself
+up in competition with any process of manufacture which
+has been taken under the control of large combinations of capital
+will presently find himself either squeezed out or obliged to sell
+and allow himself to be absorbed.&mdash;Woodrow Wilson: <i>The New
+Freedom.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If the total amount of savings deposited in the savings banks
+were equally divided among the population of the country, the
+amount apportioned to each person in 1820 would have been
+twelve cents; in 1830, fifty-four cents; in 1840, eighty-two cents;
+in 1850, $1.87; in 1860, $4.75; in 1870, $14.26; in 1880, $16.33;
+in 1890, $24.75; in 1900, $31.78; in 1910, $45.05, and it is steadily
+increasing. Remember the fact that the population had increased
+from 10,000,000 in 1820 to over 90,000,000 in 1910; the "rainy
+day" money, therefore, assumes gigantic proportions.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In Germany, says <i>The Scientific American</i>, wood is too expensive
+to be burned, and it is made into artificial silk worth two dollars
+a pound and bristles worth four dollars a pound; into paper,
+yarn, twine, carpet, canvas, and cloth. Parquet flooring is made
+from sawdust; the materials may be bought by the pound and
+then mixed, so that the householder can lay his own hardwood floors
+according to his individual taste and ingenuity.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The country gentlemen and country clergymen had fully expected
+that the policy of these ministers would be directly opposed
+to that which had been almost constantly followed by William;
+that the landed interest would be favored at the expense of trade;
+that no addition would be made to the funded debt; that the
+privileges conceded to Dissenters by the late king would be curtailed,
+if not withdrawn; that the war with France, if there
+must be such a war, would, on our part, be almost entirely naval;
+and that the government would avoid close connections with
+foreign powers and, above all, with Holland.&mdash;<i>Macaulay.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 191&mdash;The Colon (:)</b></div>
+
+<p>The colon is always used to indicate that something of
+importance follows, usually an enumeration or a list of
+some kind, or a quotation of several sentences or paragraphs; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Three things are necessary: intelligence, perseverance, and
+tact.</p>
+
+<p>2. The buffalo supplies them with almost all the necessities
+of life: with habitation, food, and clothing; with strings for their
+bows; with thread, cordage, and trail-ropes for their horses; with
+coverings for their saddles; and with the means of purchasing all
+that they desire from traders.</p>
+
+<p>3. Quoting from the current number of the <i>&mdash;&mdash; Magazine</i>, he
+read: (four paragraphs).</p></div>
+
+<p>Punctuate:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For the first fifty miles we had companions with us Troche
+a little trapper and Rouville a nondescript in the employ of the
+fur company.</p>
+
+<p>2. About a week previous four men had arrived from beyond
+the mountains Sublette Reddick and two others.</p>
+
+<p>3. Reynal was gazing intently he began to speak at last
+"Many a time when I was with the Indians I have been hunting
+gold all through the Black Hills there's a plenty of it here you
+may be certain of that I have dreamed about it fifty times" etc.</p>
+
+<p>4. Objects familiar from childhood surrounded me crags and
+rocks a black and sullen brook that gurgled with a hollow voice
+among the crevices a wood of mossy distorted trees.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 192</b></div>
+
+<p>The colon is used after <i>thus</i>, <i>as follows</i>, <i>the following</i>, or
+similar expressions; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Name the adverbs in the following: He left hurriedly rather
+early in the morning.</p></div>
+
+<p>The colon is not used after <i>namely</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>that is</i>, <i>for example,
+for instance</i>, and the like. Such expressions are preceded
+by the semicolon and followed by the comma.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Christmas presents that he wants are the following
+a toy train a toy automobile a toy circus and a printing press.</p>
+
+<p>2. Do the exercise thus first lunge to the left second raise the
+arms forward and third wind the wand.</p>
+
+<p>3. We are offering for sale three residences of the size that you
+wish namely 438 Bishop Ave 1614 Winchester St and 2015 Logan
+Square.</p>
+
+<p>4. The following are the two that we liked best 438 Bishop
+Ave and 2015 Logan Square.</p>
+
+<p>5. One use of the comma is to set off an appositive for example
+Mr Kearne the buyer has left the city.</p>
+
+<p>6. The comma is used to set off an independent adverb as
+We have not yet decided however when we shall leave.</p>
+
+<p>7. The plan is this I'll do the work and you pay for the materials.</p>
+
+<p>8. The officers are as follows Edward Lawrence for President
+John Kelly for Secretary and Fred Morrison for Treasurer.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 193&mdash;The Dash(&mdash;)</b></div>
+
+<p>The dash is used to set off parenthetical expressions that
+have very little connection with the rest of the sentence; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In New York the Harlem River tunnel was comparatively a
+simple one, but the first East River tunnels&mdash;the two subway
+tubes from the Battery to Brooklyn&mdash;presented all the difficulties
+known to subaqueous construction.</p>
+
+<p>These tunnels extend on under the great Pennsylvania terminal
+building&mdash;another of the same decade's accomplishments&mdash;to
+East Thirty-fourth Street.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The dash is also used to indicate a sudden change or break
+in the thought; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. When the millennium comes&mdash;if it ever does&mdash;all of our
+problems will be solved.</p>
+
+<p>2. "I believe&mdash;" began the lawyer.</p>
+
+<p>"Believe!" interrupted his client. "I don't want you to
+believe. I want you to know."</p></div>
+
+<p>The dash is used before a word that summarizes the preceding
+part of the sentence; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He had robbed himself of the most precious thing a man can
+have in business&mdash;his friends.</p></div>
+
+<p>After a comma the dash has the effect of lengthening the
+separation; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>One thing the Puritans desired,&mdash;freedom to worship God.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 194&mdash;Parenthesis Marks ()</b></div>
+
+<p>Parenthesis marks are used to enclose explanatory expressions
+that are not an essential part of the sentence; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The United States Department of Agriculture estimates that
+the receipts of cattle at the six leading markets (Chicago, St.
+Louis, Kansas City, South Omaha, St. Joseph, and Sioux City)
+from January 1 to August 1 of this year are 15 per cent less
+than they were in the corresponding period of last year.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Wrong.</i>&mdash;Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word
+or a passage. A line should be drawn through a word that is
+wrong.</p>
+
+<p>Bring to class five sentences that illustrate the correct
+use of parenthesis marks.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 195&mdash;The Hyphen (-)</b></div>
+
+<p>The hyphen is used when a word has been divided. It is
+always used at the end of the line and never at the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>When several short words are taken together to form one
+word, they are hyphenated; as,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>a one-hundred-pound bag of coffee</p></div>
+
+<p>As a rule, when two words taken together are each accented,
+they must be written with the hyphen. When only one is
+accented, no hyphen is used; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>follow-up, first-class, self-reliant, railroad, steamship</p></div>
+
+<p>As a rule, nouns which are compounded of a participle
+and a noun use the hyphen; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>talking-machine, driving-wheel</p></div>
+
+<p>When fractions are written out, the hyphen is used; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>one-third, three-fifths</p></div>
+
+<p>In other numerals expressing a compound number the
+hyphen is also used; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>twenty-one, sixty-six</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 196</b></div>
+
+<p>Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and
+an introduction for each:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Gentlemen:
+
+<p>We are glad to tell you that contrary to the fears expressed in
+your last letter there are no present indications of sudden changes
+at least no indications of drops in prices. With the exception of
+two fruits and one vegetable grapes cantaloupes and cauliflower
+all commodities sold on the wholesale fruit and produce markets
+here were quoted yesterday at the prices announced last Friday.</p>
+
+<p>The change in grape prices affected the Red Peru variety in
+which the supply has almost stopped the price being raised from
+$1.05 to $1.25 a box. If one may trust the forecast of local merchants
+the price will probably remain at this higher point until
+the supply is exhausted. Cantaloupes seem to be a trifle scarce
+especially the pineapple variety the price of which was raised
+from $1.10 to $1.30 a crate. Cauliflower was raised to $1.35
+a dozen heads the staple price probably for the rest of the season.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting these items we shall be glad to receive any orders
+at Friday's quotations.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Gentlemen:
+
+<p>Your order of the 20th instant forwarded from our Trenton
+office came this morning. We regret to say however that we do
+not carry the Sanito brand of canned goods as we do not consider
+the grade first-class. If the Monsoon brand which is generally
+acknowledged to be excellent will serve your purpose we can fill
+your order at once.</p>
+
+<p>We are now in a position to supply the trade with Mrs. Keller's
+coffee of which we have fortunately secured several thousand
+packages at a very low price. If you wish any at $2.50 per dozen
+packages less than half the retail price you will notice let us hear
+from you at once.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>We acknowledge your letter of October 5 but we regret that
+as yet we have no information in regard to the excess charge of
+$1.02 which you were obliged to pay on the express shipment of
+one piece 27 yds. of plaid silk chiffon. We have taken up the
+matter with the mill however and as soon as we receive their
+report we shall write you again.</p>
+
+<p>Asking your indulgence meanwhile we are</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE CLEAR SENTENCE</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Business</span> men like to talk of brevity. They tell you that
+a talk or a letter must be brief. What they really mean is
+that the talk or the letter must be concise; that it must
+state the business clearly in the fewest possible words.
+Don't omit any essential fact when you write, but don't
+repeat. If you can express an idea in ten words, don't use
+twenty. In a later exercise we shall meet the sentence,
+<i>The size of the crops is always important, and it is especially
+so to the farmer, and this is because he has to live by the
+crops.</i> The writer of that sentence was very careless. He
+had a good idea and thought that, if he kept repeating
+it, he would make it stronger. Just the reverse is true.
+The sentence may be expressed in a very few words: <i>The
+size of the crop is vitally important to the farmer.</i></p>
+
+<p>If you wish to secure conciseness of expression, be especially
+careful to avoid joining or completing thoughts by these
+expressions: <i>and</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>why</i>, <i>that is why</i>, <i>this is the reason</i>,
+<i>and everything</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In this chapter we shall consider some of the larger faults
+that should be avoided in sentences.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 197&mdash;Unity of the Sentence</b></div>
+
+<p>Give the definition of a sentence.</p>
+
+<p>How many thoughts may one sentence express?</p>
+
+<p>What is likely to happen when two thoughts are joined
+by <i>and?</i> What, then, is the danger in using the compound
+sentence?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The compound sentence is good to use to express certain
+ideas, especially contrast; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is not work that kills men; it is worry.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the revolution that destroys the machinery, but the
+friction [but it is the friction].</p></div>
+
+<p>The sentences which most clearly and easily give us one
+thought are the simple and the complex sentences.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the following sentences. Which of them leave
+<i>one</i> idea in your mind?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The tongue is a sharp-edged tool.</p>
+
+<p>A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with
+constant use.</p>
+
+<p>A sharp tongue is like an edged tool, and it grows keener with
+constant use.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 198</b></div>
+
+<p>The following is wordy. Rewrite it, condensing as much
+as possible. Use simple and complex sentences rather than
+compound, expressing in each only one thought.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In the early summer the corn crop frequently seems to be very
+poor, and so reports begin to circulate that corn will be high in
+the autumn, but when the autumn really comes, Wall Street,
+that great center of business life, begins to see that the reports
+have been greatly exaggerated and that crops really will be very
+good, and so business begins to pick up. The size of the crop
+largely settles the volume of the next season's business, because
+so great a part of the world's business activity is made up of buying
+and selling the actual potatoes and corn and wheat and cattle
+or the products made from these, and when the crop is poor there
+are a great many people concerned, because they will be poor
+just as the crops are poor, and this applies to the farmer as well
+as to the dealer.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the crops is always important, and is especially so
+to the farmer, and this is because he has to live by the crops. A
+man may be living in the city and working for a salary and begin
+to see that his work is not supporting him, and if he is an ambitious
+man, he will change his occupation. This the farmer cannot
+do because he has made an enormous investment; in the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+place, he has invested in his land, and then in his seed and farm
+implements, and this investment often means all the available
+money the farmer has, and often it means a mortgage on his farm.
+He puts the mortgage on his farm in hope of getting a good crop,
+and when his hope is not realized, he is in trouble, because he
+may lose his whole farm if he cannot pay the installments of interest
+due on his mortgage; but then, on the other hand, if we consider
+the other side of the question, when the crop is large, the
+situation is altogether different. Even if the farmer has put a
+mortgage on his farm, he gets enough money from his produce
+to pay the debt of that mortgage, and he need not worry how he
+is to live during the next winter.</p>
+
+<p>The town merchants depend on a good crop, because, if the
+farmer has not a good return from his fields, he will have almost
+no ready money, and so he cannot buy much clothing or household
+furnishings. In Iowa, for instance, there is a little town in the
+center of a corn-raising community, and it is here that the farmers
+congregate to do their buying, and in this town there is quite
+a large department store, and it is run by a woman. She does
+most of her buying in the autumn and she prefers to do it personally,
+and so she likes to make a trip to New York for the purpose,
+but she never sets out until she knows that the corn crop is good.
+And the reason for this is that she knows that it will cost her hundreds
+of dollars to make the trip East, to stay at a good hotel, and
+to spend the requisite length of time choosing her purchases at
+the different wholesale houses, and she knows that if there is
+no corn crop she will sell very few coats and hats and lace curtains,
+and it will never pay her to run up her expenses into the
+hundreds of dollars, but she will buy as best she can from the
+drummers, and buy only a little, and thus the size of the crop
+determines how much the farmer can buy, and, therefore, how
+much the wholesale and retail dealers can sell.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 199&mdash;Subordination in the Sentence</b></div>
+
+<p>Sentences containing compound predicates may be made
+more direct in thought if one of the verbs is changed to a
+participle or an infinitive, because the predicate will then
+express only one action; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The carpenter <i>threw</i> down his hammer <i>and walked</i> out of
+the shop.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Throwing</i> down his hammer, the carpenter walked out of
+the shop.</p>
+
+<p>3. I <i>went</i> downtown <i>and applied</i> for the position.</p>
+
+<p>4. I went downtown <i>to apply</i> for the position.</p></div>
+
+<p>Change the following sentences so that one action is
+denoted by the predicate of each:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A teamster drove out of the alley east of the theater and
+swung his horses directly in front of a Madison street car.</p>
+
+<p>2. The tongue struck the front of the car and bored a hole
+in the fuse box.</p>
+
+<p>3. The fire spread and burned the roof of the car.</p>
+
+<p>4. The half dozen passengers were badly frightened and got
+out quickly.</p>
+
+<p>5. Several people ran and turned in a fire alarm.</p>
+
+<p>6. In a few minutes the fire engines arrived and began to
+fight the flames.</p>
+
+<p>7. Crowds came from all directions and silently watched the
+flames.</p>
+
+<p>8. The people poured out of the theater and cheered the firemen.</p>
+
+<p>9. The half dozen passengers soon recovered and stood on the
+curbstone in the crowd.</p>
+
+<p>10. The firemen did their work quickly and departed amid
+the cheers of the crowd.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 200&mdash;Combination of Short Sentences</b></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes short sentences are bad because two or three
+of them are needed to express one complete thought. If
+that is the case, they should be combined, the most important
+detail being put into the principal clause, and the
+other details into modifiers, as in the preceding exercise.</p>
+
+<p>Make use of&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Adjectives.<br />
+2. Adverbs.<br />
+3. Participial phrases.<br />
+4. Infinitives.<br />
+5. Relative pronouns.<br />
+6. Subordinate conjunctions.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Below, the first and second sentences together make one
+thought, which is expressed in the third.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+John is a good reporter.<br />
+That is why he earns a good salary.<br />
+Because John is a good reporter, he earns a good salary.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Combine the sentences of each group below into a single
+sentence, either simple or complex, omitting as many words
+as possible but no ideas:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. We stayed at home for two reasons: first of all, we thought
+Baltimore might be unpleasantly warm. Then, the other reason
+was that we thought we ought to economize.</p>
+
+<p>2. In China the wedding takes place at the bridegroom's
+house. This has been decorated with strips of bright red paper,
+and they have the word "Hsi" on them. This means "Live in
+happiness."</p>
+
+<p>3. First in the procession come the standard bearers. They
+are hired for the occasion. These men have red coats put on over
+their dirty clothes. The men they hire are usually beggars.</p>
+
+<p>4. Six years ago I went sailing on Lake George with my father.
+I was ten years old at that time. Two other men went along with
+us. The boat that we went in belonged to my father and these
+men.</p>
+
+<p>5. The wind was high and it would come in gusts. This
+made it hard to sail. It shifted the sails so quickly that it would
+throw the boat over on one side.</p>
+
+<p>6. Several times the boat leaned over at an angle of forty
+degrees. This let the water come in on that side. When this
+happened, we all had to jump to the other side. We did this so
+that the boat would right itself.</p>
+
+<p>7. The heart is the most important organ in the body. This
+is because if the heart stops beating, you cannot live. Besides,
+all the other organs are connected with it. It is something like
+the main spring in a watch.</p>
+
+<p>8. This is a good machine. And since that's the case, I don't
+see why it is that it doesn't work as it should.</p>
+
+<p>9. In every business there are many bad debts. Some can
+be collected and others cannot be. This is because the men who
+made them were given credit, and they didn't have any money.</p>
+
+<p>10. The night was dark, and there were no stars. The fishermen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+stood on the shore, and they gazed at the wild sea. A storm
+had arisen, and they could not go out in their boats.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 201</b></div>
+
+<p>As in the preceding exercise, rewrite the following, omitting
+as many words as possible, but no ideas. Use shorter,
+simpler expressions wherever possible.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Uncle Sam now has an aerial navy, but it's a small one, and
+foundations of it were recently laid. This was done when contracts
+were signed for the delivery of three aeroplanes and they
+are the first aeroplanes that the United States bought. These
+aeroplanes are of the latest development. They are all capable
+of rising from land or water. They are able also to land on
+water or on the deck of a ship, and they can carry at least one
+passenger and are equipped with wireless outfits. Two of them
+are Curtis machines and the third is a Wright, and they ranged
+in price from $2,700 to $5,500.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The United States produces more steel than any two European
+countries, and it is continuing to produce more. Moreover, it
+has the productive capacity to produce more than any other three
+or four countries put together. This capacity is being still further
+increased. At the present time, there is one very important steel
+company. It is very large, and seems to wish to monopolize the
+entire iron and steel industry. Even at this time it owns half
+the principal plants that are now producing steel and iron, and
+controls half the trade of the entire steel and iron industry, and
+when such a thing happens, it is a matter of international concern.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<p>Condense the following into a single sentence, either
+simple or complex:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The iron and steel industry is very important, and it includes
+a great deal. First, the ore has to be mined, and then the work
+includes everything up to making the finest wire for musical
+instruments. Or, to put it another way, you can say from smelting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+the ore to building a battle ship. This is a very interesting
+occupation and, as said before, very important. There is hardly
+anything more interesting or important except agriculture.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 202&mdash;Dangling Expressions</b></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes a sentence is not clear because it contains a
+participle which does not modify anything in the sentence.
+A participle is part <i>verb</i> and part <i>adjective</i>. As a verb, it
+expresses the idea of the verb from which it is derived. As
+an adjective, it must modify a noun or a pronoun. The
+important point is that this noun or pronoun must be expressed
+in the sentence and not lie in the mind of the writer,
+as it does in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Riding from Saugatuck to Holland last year, the country
+showed unmistakable signs of lack of rain.</p></div>
+
+<p>Here the writer means, <i>We saw that the country</i>, etc., but
+he says that the country rode from Saugatuck to Holland.</p>
+
+<p>Again, an expression may be used which is really an incomplete
+clause. Do not use such a clause, unless the understood
+subject is the same as the subject expressed in the
+independent proposition.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> When almost exhausted, the camp was reached.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> When almost exhausted, we reached the camp.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Recast the following sentences, correcting the dangling
+expressions:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You should not stop studying your lessons until thoroughly
+prepared.</p>
+
+<p>2. In talking to the postman yesterday, he said that his route
+had been changed.</p>
+
+<p>3. Owing two months' rent, the foreman laid me off.</p>
+
+<p>4. Before becoming a physician, the law sets a very severe
+examination.</p>
+
+<p>5. Having eaten our luncheon very hastily, the typewriters
+were soon clicking merrily again.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. The difficulty could easily be settled, going about it in the
+right way.</p>
+
+<p>7. Although determined to get my money, the task was harder
+than I had expected.</p>
+
+<p>8. Having installed an adding machine, our office work could
+be done in half the time.</p>
+
+<p>9. On entering the car, the first thing that caught my attention
+was the sign at the end.</p>
+
+<p>10. Silk should be washed with warm water and a mild soap,
+being careful not to rub it.</p>
+
+<p>11. The house was redecorated, making it clean and homelike.</p>
+
+<p>12. The book should be carefully studied, reviewing each
+chapter after it is read.</p>
+
+<p>13. Going to work this morning, an accident happened.</p>
+
+<p>14. Having entered college, Mr. Brown watched his son's
+progress with pride.</p>
+
+<p>15. Soon after abandoning the boat, it sank.</p>
+
+<p>16. They say he will be lame, caused by a fall on the ice while
+skating.</p>
+
+<p>17. While trying to break the half mile record, his back was
+injured.</p>
+
+<p>18. Many people object to football, because in tackling the
+boys' hearts are weakened.</p>
+
+<p>19. He did not wish to take up an extra study, thus lessening
+his chance of being eligible for athletics.</p>
+
+<p>20. While a child, my father often told me stories of Indian
+days.</p>
+
+<p>21. Absorbed all day in superintending his work, in the evening
+the newspaper brought him political news enough to fill the hours
+between dinner and bed-time.</p>
+
+<p>22. Discussing the happenings in the ward with an old crony,
+his daughter would often sit near him listening.</p>
+
+<p>23. He is failing in his work, caused by his laziness.</p>
+
+<p>24. Although a good tonic, I did not gain weight while
+taking it.</p>
+
+<p>25. In the new telephone, upon lifting the receiver, a ticking
+sound is heard.</p>
+
+<p>26. Leaving the window open when she went to lunch, of course
+the papers were disarranged on her return.</p>
+
+<p>27. Dictionaries must be returned to the desk after using.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 203&mdash;Pronouns with Uncertain Antecedents</b></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes the meaning of a sentence is not clear because
+the pronouns have uncertain antecedents.</p>
+
+<p>1. Sometimes a pronoun may refer to either of two
+antecedents; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> He gave his brother John the umbrella and then <i>he</i> left.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> He gave the umbrella to his brother John, who then left.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>2. Sometimes the sentence must be entirely recast and
+a direct quotation used before the pronouns can be made
+clear; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> Tom told his father that <i>his</i> suit case was lost.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> <i>a.</i> Tom said, "Father, your suit case is lost."<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> Tom said, "Father, my suit case is lost."</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Sometimes the pronoun refers to a word that has not
+been expressed or to an <i>idea</i>. In that case, the antecedent
+must be supplied; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send <i>it</i> in the enclosed envelope.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> If any one wishes to contribute to the cause, let him send <i>his contribution</i> in the enclosed envelope.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Wrong:</i> I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody does <i>that</i> nowadays.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> I wouldn't wear mittens. Nobody wears <i>them</i> nowadays.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>4. A sentence containing an indefinite <i>they</i> or <i>it</i> is corrected
+thus:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> Don't <i>they</i> have street cars where you live?<br />
+<i>Right:</i> Are there <i>no</i> street cars where you live?<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Recast the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. She asked her mother if she could go, and she said she
+thought she ought to stay at home.</p>
+
+<p>2. John told James he was sure he did not know the office
+that he meant.</p>
+
+<p>3. George told his father his watch had stopped.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. The manager asked the clerk to bring his book.</p>
+
+<p>5. A light touch is important in a typewriter, because it makes
+it easy to write upon it.</p>
+
+<p>6. The size of the crops is important to the farmers, because
+they have to live by them.</p>
+
+<p>7. They decided to reorganize the company, which is always
+a difficult task.</p>
+
+<p>8. They went into the hands of a receiver, which is an indication
+that the affairs of the company had been poorly managed.</p>
+
+<p>9. There is a boat on the lake over which there is a pleasant
+view, in which there is a club for working girls.</p>
+
+<p>10. He stole some money which brought about an investigation.</p>
+
+<p>11. She asked her aunt how old she was.</p>
+
+<p>12. John is famous for telling anecdotes, and he got it by
+remembering every story he reads.</p>
+
+<p>13. The sleighing party last night was a success, which is not
+always the case.</p>
+
+<p>14. He told a lie, which is a bad thing to do.</p>
+
+<p>15. They engaged a gardener, which doubled their monthly
+expenses.</p>
+
+<p>16. Why don't you get some of that new fur trimming for
+your blue dress?</p>
+
+<p>17. They had an accident on the street car this morning.</p>
+
+<p>18. In the newspaper it said that the lecture would begin at
+8:15.</p>
+
+<p>19. They don't find iron in Illinois, do they?</p>
+
+<p>20. Do they have the original paintings in our art gallery?</p>
+
+<p>21. It says "Closed" on that door.</p>
+
+<p>22. It doesn't mention a bank draft in this book.</p>
+
+<p>23. They have a great many foreigners in New York City.</p>
+
+<p>24. John accompanied his brother to the city where he bought
+a typewriter.</p>
+
+<p>25. I had expected to take the 9:30 train, but I couldn't do it.</p>
+
+<p>26. Going up to the horse he put a lump of sugar into his
+mouth.</p>
+
+<p>27. In letter writing one should always be exact and arrange
+them in the customary form.</p>
+
+<p>28. Those hooks are not rust-proof because the back of my
+dress is stained with it.</p>
+
+<p>29. The telephone is a great convenience to all. They are
+now used in almost every house.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>30. As we came down the road, it sounded like a train, which,
+as we approached, grew louder and louder.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 204&mdash;Misplaced Modifiers</b></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a modifier does
+not stand close to the word it modifies.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> I can't <i>even</i> do the first problem.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> I can't do <i>even</i> the first problem.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Change the order of words in the following sentences,
+placing each modifier as closely as possible to the word
+which it modifies. Some of the sentences are incorrect
+because they contain split infinitives. (See <a href="#Exercise_92">Exercise 92</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I only waited for him about ten minutes.</p>
+
+<p>2. She stood at the window, trying to close it with a troubled
+face.</p>
+
+<p>3. The city is supplied with water from cold springs which
+flow nearly a hundred million gallons of the purest liquid that ever
+burst from the earth, daily.</p>
+
+<p>4. The famous S. F. ice cream is made in this factory containing
+fifty per cent pure cream.</p>
+
+<p>5. A man should not be allowed to cast a vote, who cannot
+read and write.</p>
+
+<p>6. After taking the medicine for a short time, the appetite
+is improved, and a desire is created for food, that has not existed
+before.</p>
+
+<p>7. In real value, this magazine towers head and shoulders
+over all others to the woman who is in charge of her home.</p>
+
+<p>8. There are pages of fashion news and embroidery hints and
+news articles of the day that will appeal to the husband and
+father as the others do to the wife and daughter as well as departments
+for the children.</p>
+
+<p>9. The number of the sewing machine is 37A with a drop
+head.</p>
+
+<p>10. They neither are gentle nor well-mannered.</p>
+
+<p>11. I only heard about the trouble yesterday.</p>
+
+<p>12. He left the same station at which, thirty years before, he
+had arrived very humbly, in his own special car.</p>
+
+<p>13. He urged his brother to buy a home in his letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>14. The lighting system has been developed to a really remarkable
+degree of perfection for the trains.</p>
+
+<p>15. The dynamo is so arranged that when the train is standing
+still or only traveling twenty miles an hour, the lamps are lighted
+from a storage battery.</p>
+
+<p>16. The batteries must be large enough during the run to carry
+the entire lighting load.</p>
+
+<p>17. Please send me 6 Dining Tables No. 46 that extend to
+ten feet as soon as possible.</p>
+
+<p>18. Large trees grow on each side of the house which is a rambling
+affair shutting out the light.</p>
+
+<p>19. They decided to give a bonus to the one doing the best
+work, amounting to fifty dollars.</p>
+
+<p>20. We had almost got to the corner before we saw the fire.</p>
+
+<p>21. I don't ever remember having seen so big a fire.</p>
+
+<p>22. Remember to thoroughly oil the machine.</p>
+
+<p>23. Do you need to in any way alter the machine?</p>
+
+<p>24. If we expect to completely fill the order to-day, we need
+more help.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 205&mdash;Omission of Necessary Words</b></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes a sentence is not clear because a word has been
+omitted that is necessary to the sense; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> The two officers that they elected are the president and
+secretary.<br/>
+<i>Right:</i> The two officers that they elected are the president and
+<i>the</i> secretary.<br/>
+<br/>
+<i>Wrong:</i> His writing is as good or better than yours.<br/>
+<i>Right:</i> His writing is as good <i>as</i> or better than yours.<br/>
+<br/>
+<i>Wrong:</i> The library is where we go to read.<br/>
+<i>Right:</i> The library is <i>the place</i> where we go to read.<br/>
+</div>
+<p>State the difference between the following typewriter
+ribbons:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. A red and blue and black ribbon.<br />
+2. A red and a blue and black ribbon.<br />
+3. A red and blue and a black ribbon.<br />
+4. A red and a blue and a black ribbon.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Supply the omitted part in each of the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. I always have and I'm sure I always shall be considerate
+of others' feelings.</p>
+
+<p>2. They have a stenographer and bookkeeper, who are kept
+busy all day.</p>
+
+<p>3. I believe he has already or will soon begin the work.</p>
+
+<p>4. The cushions of the rocker are much softer than the armchair.</p>
+
+<p>5. The arrangement of your flat is much more convenient
+than our house.</p>
+
+<p>6. The number of shelves in your sideboard is just the same
+as our china closet.</p>
+
+<p>7. I think the articles you ordered will arrive as soon or sooner
+than you expect.</p>
+
+<p>8. She is as tall or taller than you.</p>
+
+<p>9. When your message arrived, I had already or at least had
+decided to begin cutting the goods.</p>
+
+<p>10. It may not be better but it is fully as good as the other
+article.</p>
+
+<p>11. I think you cook fully as well if not better than your sister.</p>
+
+<p>12. His poems hold a place in our hearts second only to the
+Bible.</p>
+
+<p>13. Your idea is as good if not better than mine.</p>
+
+<p>14. We decided to make the change both for the sake of health
+and economy.</p>
+
+<p>15. You will find the armchair fully as comfortable, if not
+more so, than the rocker.</p>
+
+<p>16. The river is where we had the most fun.</p>
+
+<p>17. I know you better than Mary.</p>
+
+<p>18. She went to the park but I didn't care to.</p>
+
+<p>19. We didn't object to the scheme as much as you.</p>
+
+<p>20. A conservatory is where there are all kinds of flowers.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 206&mdash;Shift in Construction</b></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes the meaning of the sentence is obscure because
+there has been a shift in construction. Do not change subject,
+person, tense, or any grammatical form without a good
+reason. Remember that <i>and</i> is a co&ouml;rdinate conjunction.
+If there is an adjective before <i>and</i>, there must be an adjective<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+after it. If a clause precedes, a clause must follow.
+In other words, <i>and</i> joins two members of exactly the same
+structure. <i>And</i> may not join one word and a phrase, nor
+may it join a prepositional and a participial phrase. Both
+members must be alike. In the following extract, parallel
+constructions are used correctly. Be able to tell what kinds
+of elements are used and how they are parallel.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To eat your cake and keep it too; to wear a gown with the air
+of originality and distinction, and keep a full purse; to have
+your house display taste and refinement, and be praised as an
+economical housewife; to dress your children daintily, and save
+money for their education&mdash;use ABC transfer patterns. By
+their aid you can make an inexpensive waist look like a French
+blouse, have table linen of unrivaled elegance, and dress your
+babies in the most approved style. These patterns cost,&mdash;some
+ten, some fifteen cents. They cover the entire field of
+dress,&mdash;waists, tunics, panels, infants' clothes, underwear, men's
+apparel, and neckwear; and of household articles,&mdash;towels, table-linen,
+and pillow tops.</p></div>
+
+<p>Recast the following sentences, correcting the shift of
+construction in each:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. In the large department stores every clerk is to report
+on her way to lunch and coming back.</p>
+
+<p>2. When one hears a cry of "Fire," your first thought is to run.</p>
+
+<p>3. He seemed fond of his work and to have skill in doing it
+quickly.</p>
+
+<p>4. I decided on taking the trip and to keep my expenses within
+fifty dollars if possible.</p>
+
+<p>5. X Y Z Cleaner is good for softening water and other
+household uses.</p>
+
+<p>6. Because of the rise in the price of meats and owing to the
+fact that grocers charge more for butter and eggs, people find it
+hard to live.</p>
+
+<p>7. The office is well-heated and with plenty of light.</p>
+
+<p>8. The crowds began to watch the fire and cheering loudly.</p>
+
+<p>9. I heard the opera last year and have gone again this year.</p>
+
+<p>10. It was wonderful to see how fast they worked and their
+accuracy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>11. I can't decide whether to take up stenography or if bookkeeping
+is better.</p>
+
+<p>12. He taught us the principles of letter writing, and somewhat
+of advertising was taken up.</p>
+
+<p>13. Hoping that the work progressed, and unless a landslide
+occurred, the Americans expected to remove 5,000,000 cubic
+yards each year.</p>
+
+<p>14. The study of the earth has always been stimulated by two
+fundamental passions of humanity&mdash;a desire for wealth and
+because of their curiosity.</p>
+
+<p>15. He insists on our taking the trip and to go without
+further delay.</p>
+
+<p>16. In reviewing, it is well to go over each part of the course
+carefully, and you should make a note of every point which you
+do not understand, and let each ask those questions which he
+himself cannot answer.</p>
+
+<p>17. Mr. Fitzmorris is a man of great technical skill and who
+has handled the situation capably.</p>
+
+<p>18. It will cost her hundreds of dollars to make the trip East
+and spending the requisite length of time choosing her purchases
+at the different wholesale houses.</p>
+
+<p>19. He had assumed control of the office, planned the advertising,
+and the finances were also directed by him.</p>
+
+<p>20. We have decided to go on the excursion to the Capitol
+and at the same time visiting Uncle John.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 207</b></div>
+
+<p>What prevents clearness in the following?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Federal Government began an investigation into fire
+conditions in Europe in 1907, through our consuls.</p>
+
+<p>2. It cost $2.39 a year for fire in the United States between
+1901 and 1910, for every man, woman, and child, and Germany
+does not even pay nineteen cents.</p>
+
+<p>3. The number of our fires is increasing, which is worse.</p>
+
+<p>4. In ten years our population has increased 73 per cent and
+134 per cent is the increase in fires.</p>
+
+<p>5. Having considered the details, the conclusion is easily
+drawn that fire is a disgrace.</p>
+
+<p>6. He only gets to the office at ten o'clock.</p>
+
+<p>7. Having settled the plan of attack, the rest was simple.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>8. The manager warned him not to make the mistake again
+and adding that mistakes are costly.</p>
+
+<p>9. To keep flannels from shrinking, wash in the following
+way, and you will find it very satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>10. To open a fruit jar run a knife under the edge and it comes
+off easily.</p>
+
+<p>11. I didn't even finish half the questions.</p>
+
+<p>12. Electric lights are economical, clean, and give more light
+than gas.</p>
+
+<p>13. You should buy your suit now, both for the sake of economy
+and style.</p>
+
+<p>14. If in doubt as to the best word, a book of synonyms
+should be consulted.</p>
+
+<p>15. The comma fault is where, two principal clauses are run
+together without a co&ouml;rdinate conjunction.</p></div>
+
+<p>Rewrite the following so that it will be correct, concise,
+and clear:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Europeans were anxious for trade with the East, for
+they were dependent upon them for spices and luxuries. The
+three routes were through the Mediterranean Sea, over the Suez
+Peninsula, down the Red Sea, and across to India. Another was
+through the Mediterranean and then through Arabia. The other
+was from the Mediterranean and then through the Black Sea and
+then by land to India. It became necessary to seek a new route
+because the Turks held Constantinople, and all vessels had to pass
+through the Mediterranean, and the Turks held this by pirates.
+The first explorers were working under the leadership of the King
+of Portugal, and they solved the problem by going around Africa
+and then to the Indies, but this was too long, and so explorers
+tried other ways, and the result was the discovery of America.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE PARAGRAPH</div>
+
+
+<p>The sentences developing each of the divisions of a composition
+make one <i>paragraph</i>. A paragraph, therefore, is
+the treatment of one of the natural divisions of a subject.
+The length depends on the topic to be treated. Two cautions
+may be given:</p>
+
+<p>1. Do not write paragraphs containing only one sentence.
+Such paragraphs do not represent divisions of the subject.
+They are simply statements which have not been expanded
+as they deserve, or they are sentences that should be
+placed with the preceding or succeeding sentences in order
+to make a good paragraph. Some business men in their
+letters and advertisements use the one-sentence paragraph
+too frequently to concentrate the attention of the reader.
+A writer divides his composition into paragraphs in order
+to aid the reader to follow the thoughts he is presenting.
+When the reader sees the indentation that indicates a new
+paragraph, he thinks that the writer has said all that he
+intends to say on the topic in hand and now intends to
+open a new topic. It is confusing to find that the new paragraph
+is simply another sentence on the same topic as the
+preceding paragraph. Notice the jerky effect of the following
+extract from a letter:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We are sending you a copy of our latest catalogue, which gives
+illustrations and prices of all our stock.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations are all made from actual photographs and
+are faithful in representing the shoe described.</p>
+
+<p>Bear Brand Shoes are shipped in special fiber cases, thus lessening
+freight bills and eliminating the annoyance of shortage claims
+because they cannot be opened without immediate detection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Errors of any kind should be reported without delay.</p>
+
+<p>Imperfect or damaged goods must be returned for our inspection;
+otherwise no allowance will be made.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. Do not go to the other extreme, writing paragraphs of
+great length. Much depends, of course, on the matter to
+be treated, but, as a rule, in a student's theme a paragraph
+should be not longer than one page. If one of the divisions
+of your subject is necessarily long, subdivide it, allowing
+a paragraph to treat each of the subdivisions.</p>
+
+<p>Whether it is to be long or short, a paragraph must treat
+but one topic; from the first sentence to the last, it should
+be the development of one idea. Moreover, this topic must
+be revealed to the reader in no unmistakable way. Sometimes
+the subject is so simple that the topic may easily be
+gathered from the details given, but usually it is well to
+have one sentence that in a brief or general way states the
+topic. This is called the <i>topic sentence</i>. It may be at or
+near the beginning; in this case the rest of the paragraph
+defines or illustrates what it states. It may, however, be
+found at almost any point in the paragraph, not infrequently
+acting as a sentence of conclusion, summing up the details
+that have been presented.</p>
+
+<p>A paragraph that begins with a topic sentence sometimes
+ends with a sentence of conclusion. The first sentence
+states the topic, the following sentences explain or illustrate
+it, and the last sentence summarizes or otherwise indicates
+that the topic has been completed. This form has been
+called the <i>hammock</i> paragraph, because it has a solid "post"
+at each end with a mass of details "swinging" between.
+It is a good form to use in writing paragraphs on given
+subjects, when each paragraph is to stand alone, complete
+in itself, not forming part of a longer composition. The
+practice of writing such paragraphs induces clear, forceful
+thinking.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 208</b></div>
+
+<p>Study the following paragraphs for&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Topic sentence, if there is one.<br />
+2. Development of the topic.<br />
+3. Sentence of conclusion, if there is one.<br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The problem in many large firms is how to develop office efficiency
+to the highest possible degree. In this respect the monthly
+examination scheme has been found a great success. The examination
+consists of a list of questions about merchandise and
+business procedure. The questions are given out on the last
+Saturday of the month, and the answers are returned for criticism
+on the following Wednesday. The employees are told that
+they may consult as many authorities as they wish, but each man
+must write his own paper. A poor percentage in three of these
+tests usually means dismissal. Thus the inefficient are dropped,
+and the ambitious who have studied are recognized. The vice-president
+of one concern that uses this system says that it is a
+strong reminder to his men that they must make themselves
+worthy of the organization. Besides maintaining an even standard
+of efficiency, the plan has resulted in developing a number of
+valuable executives, whose latent powers were brought out by the
+rigidness of the tests.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Every month the department head in one big eastern concern,
+watch in hand, times a large force of typists individually, testing
+how rapidly they can write a letter of 200 words from their shorthand
+notes. Rapidity, punctuation, spelling, and neatness are
+carefully recorded. This plan has had a desirable influence in
+bringing stenographers up to grade in their daily work, because
+a good examination mark is reduced one-half by careless daily
+work, and a poor examination mark correspondingly raised by
+excellent daily work. When both examination average and daily
+average are excellent, the stenographer's salary is increased;
+when both are below good, the stenographer is dismissed. In
+this way the standard of stenographic work is kept high.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In his effort to succeed many a young business man overlooks
+the detail of business courtesy. He does not realize the value that
+a buyer places upon that commodity. The more experienced
+man, however, knows that courtesy does more to hold a buyer
+than do bargain sales. In our large cities merchants have incurred
+great expense to fit up rest rooms where customers may
+spend an idle hour, write letters on stationery that is provided,
+and read the latest magazines. In the rural districts, where such
+luxuries are often impossible, the merchant provides chairs for
+his customers and a place for stationing their teams. The country
+merchant, however, can often accomplish his object more
+quickly than the city dealer by spending an hour gossiping with
+his customers. He recognizes the fact that buyers are flattered
+when the proprietor himself takes the time to say a few words
+to them. He knows just as well as his city competitor does,
+that if a buyer feels at home in his store, sales are practically
+guaranteed.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The rural landscape of Norway, on the long easterly slope that
+leads up to the watershed among the mountains on the western
+coast, is not unlike that of Vermont or New Hampshire. The railway
+from Christiania to the Randsfjord carried us through a hilly
+country of scattered farms and villages. Wood played a prominent
+part in the scenery. There were dark stretches of forest on
+the hilltops and in the valleys; rivers filled with floating logs;
+sawmills beside the waterfalls; wooden farmhouses painted white;
+and rail-fences around the fields. The people seemed sturdy,
+prosperous, independent. They had the familiar habit of coming
+down to the station to see the train arrive and depart. We might
+have fancied ourselves on a journey through the Connecticut
+valley if it had not been for the soft sing-song of the Norwegian
+speech and the uniform politeness of the railway officials.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>&mdash;Van Dyke: <i>Fisherman's Luck.</i></div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />5</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The plan of the <i>Spectator</i> must be allowed to be both original
+and eminently happy. Every valuable essay in the series may be
+read with pleasure separately; yet the five or six hundred essays
+form a whole, and a whole which has the interest of a novel. It
+must be remembered, too, that at that time no novel, giving a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+lively and powerful picture of the common life and manners of
+England, had appeared. Richardson was working as a compositor.
+Fielding was robbing birds' nests. Smollett was not yet
+born. The narrative, therefore, which connects together the
+Spectator's essays gave to our ancestors their first taste of an
+exquisite and untried pleasure. That narrative was, indeed, constructed
+with no art or labor. The events were such events as
+occur every day. Sir Roger comes up to town to see Eugenio, as
+the worthy baronet always calls Prince Eugene, goes with the
+Spectator on the water to Spring Gardens, walks among the
+tombs in the Abbey, and is frightened by the Mohawks, but
+conquers his apprehension so far as to go to the theater when the
+"Distressed Mother" is acted. The Spectator pays a visit in
+the summer to Coverley Hall, is charmed with the old house, the
+old butler, and the old chaplain, eats a jack caught by Will Wimble,
+rides to the assizes, and hears a point of law discussed by Tom
+Touchy. At last a letter from the honest butler brings to the
+club the news that Sir Roger is dead. Will Honeycomb marries
+and reforms at sixty. The club breaks up, and the Spectator
+resigns his functions. Such events can hardly be said to form a
+plot; yet they are related with such truth, such grace, such wit,
+such humor, such pathos, such knowledge of the human heart,
+such knowledge of the ways of the world that they charm us on
+the hundredth perusal. We have not the least doubt that if
+Addison had written a novel on an extensive plan, it would have
+been superior to any that we possess. As it is, he is entitled to be
+considered not only as the greatest of the English essayists, but
+as the forerunner of the great English novelists.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>&mdash;Macaulay: <i>Essay on Addison.</i></div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 209</b></div>
+
+<p>Prepare a paragraph developing each of the following
+topic sentences:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The kitchen was a cheerful place. (Tell all the details
+that will explain the word <i>cheerful</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>2. In the kitchen the preparations for the feast went on merrily.
+(Give the details that will help one get the picture.)</p>
+
+<p>3. Examinations are helpful to the student. (In what ways
+are they helpful? If possible, use examples to illustrate the
+point.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. Winter is more enjoyable than summer. (Contrast the
+pleasures of the one with those of the other, showing that those
+of winter are more enjoyable.)</p>
+
+<p>5. Riding a motorcycle is apt to make a boy reckless. (Develop
+by using examples.)</p>
+
+<p>6. A man must like his work if he is to succeed in it.</p>
+
+<p>7. Farm lands vary in price.</p>
+
+<p>8. The farmer feeds the world.</p>
+
+<p>9. Every department store should have regular fire drills.</p>
+
+<p>10. Every sale ought to be an advertisement.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_210" id="Exercise_210"></a>Exercise 210</b></div>
+
+<p>Paragraph the following so that the paragraphs will
+represent the divisions in thought. If there are any topic
+sentences, underline them.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I have often noticed that every one has his own individual
+small economies, careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in
+some one peculiar direction, any disturbance of which annoys him
+more than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance.
+An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence
+of the failure of a Joint Stock Bank, in which some of his money
+was invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all
+through a long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead
+of cutting) out the written leaves of his now useless bankbook.
+Of course, the corresponding pages at the other end came
+out as well, and this little unnecessary waste of paper (his private
+economy) chafed him more than all the loss of his money.
+Envelopes fretted his soul terribly when they came in. The
+only way in which he could reconcile himself to such a waste
+of his cherished article was by patiently turning inside out all
+that were sent to him, and so making them serve again. Even
+now, though tamed by age, I see him casting wistful glances at
+his daughters when they send a whole inside of a half-sheet of
+note paper, with the three lines of acceptance to an invitation
+written on only one of the sides. I am not above owning that
+I have this human weakness myself. String is my foible. My
+pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up and twisted together,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+ready for uses that never come. I am seriously annoyed
+if any one cuts a string of a parcel instead of patiently and faithfully
+undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves
+to use India-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string,
+as lightly as they do I cannot imagine. To me an India-rubber
+band is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new&mdash;one
+that I picked up off the floor nearly five years ago. I have really
+tried to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit
+the extravagance. Small pieces of butter grieve others. They
+cannot attend to conversation because of the annoyance occasioned
+by the habit which some people have of invariably taking
+more butter than they want. Have you ever seen the anxious
+look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on the article?
+They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out of their sight
+by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing it down;
+and they are really made happy if the person on whose plate it
+lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which he does not
+want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that this is not
+waste. Now, Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles: We
+had many devices to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons
+she would sit knitting for two or three hours&mdash;she could do
+this in the dark or by firelight&mdash;and when I asked if I might not
+ring for candles to finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to
+"keep blind man's holiday." They were usually brought in with
+tea, but we burnt only one at a time. As we lived in constant
+preparation for a friend who might come in any evening (but who
+never did), it required some contrivance to keep our two candles
+of the same length, ready to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt
+two always. The candles took it in turns; and then, whatever
+we might be talking of or doing, Miss Matty kept her eyes habitually
+fixed upon the candle, ready to jump up and extinguish it
+and light the other before they had become too uneven in length
+to be restored to equality in the course of the evening.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>&mdash;Adapted from Mrs. Gaskell's <i>Cranford</i>.</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:
+
+<p>We are sorry to say that we have no more house coats No.
+SP62 in size 38 at $4.50. As we advertised, SP62 is not a regular
+stock number, but represents a collection of $5, $6, and $7.50
+coats remaining after the holiday sales and reduced to insure their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+being sold before spring. At the opening of the sale there were
+only a few coats in size 38, and they were sold almost at once.
+In our catalogue, pages 68 to 71 inclusive, you will find descriptions
+of all our stock house coats. On page 68 you will see No.
+450HC, our regular $4.50 coat. If you would like us to send you
+one of these in size 38, we shall forward it to you at once. However,
+if you would like a $5, $6, or $7.50 coat, you will, no doubt,
+send us the difference in price on receipt of this letter. Of course,
+the more expensive garments are made of better materials, but all
+our coats show the same excellent workmanship. The best way
+for you to get the exact shade of trimming that you wish is to
+send us a sample of the goods that you would like to match. We
+assure you that we shall take all possible care to send you the
+proper color.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 211</b></div>
+
+<p>Paragraphs may be developed in different ways. For
+example, if you were going to write on the process of making
+a layer cake, you would explain in detail the different
+ingredients in the mixture, the proportion of each, and the
+steps in the process before the product could be sold as a
+layer cake.</p>
+
+<p>By the use of explanatory details develop the following:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. Making a kite.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Making a baseball.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Making fudge.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. How to play checkers.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. The manufacture of soap (or any article in a grocery).</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. The manufacture of a tin can.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. The manufacture of pins.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Every man must have an ambition.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Why I intend to enter business.</span><br />
+10. The greatest modern invention.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>By the use of examples to illustrate your point develop
+the following:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Electricity is making housework easy and pleasant.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>2. Many sons of poor parents have won great wealth.<br />
+3. The wireless apparatus has saved many lives.<br />
+4. A boy can show that he is a good citizen.<br />
+5. Young Americans have little respect for authority.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>By the use of comparison and contrast develop the
+following:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Improvements in modern lighting systems.<br />
+2. Improvements in modern heating systems.<br />
+3. Improvements in modern means of locomotion.<br />
+4. Two kinds of work, pleasure, or study.<br />
+5. Why I intend to have a business of my own.<br />
+6. The study that I like best.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>By explaining cause and effect develop the following:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. The advantages of public gymnasiums.<br />
+2. The success of loose leaf devices.<br />
+3. The objections to football.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 212</b></div>
+
+<p>Develop the following into paragraphs; in each case be
+able to show what method or methods you have employed:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A man who cannot read and write English should not be
+allowed to vote.</p>
+
+<p>2. Postal savings banks inspire the savings habit.</p>
+
+<p>3. Women&mdash;the mothers of children&mdash;should vote.</p>
+
+<p>4. Women should not vote because they do not read the
+newspaper.</p>
+
+<p>5. The effect of school slang is bad.</p>
+
+<p>6. I wish I had seen the coronation of George V. Every
+fairy story I had ever read would suddenly have become real.</p>
+
+<p>7. Canada would gain by reciprocity with the United States.</p>
+
+<p>8. The United States would gain by reciprocity with Canada.</p>
+
+<p>9. Our forests should be preserved.</p>
+
+<p>10. The waste of lumber by forest fires results from carelessness.</p>
+
+<p>11. The waste of lumber in cutting railroad ties is too great.</p>
+
+<p>12. The rotation of crops enriches the soil.</p>
+
+<p>13. Apples are more easily gathered than cherries.</p>
+
+<p>14. Efforts should be made to keep the birds in our city parks.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>15. Every boy should learn a trade.</p>
+
+<p>16. Peddlers should not be allowed to call their wares.</p>
+
+<p>17. Great crowds gathered in the city during aviation week
+(or any celebration).</p>
+
+<p>18. The electric toaster is good for hurry-up breakfasts.</p>
+
+<p>19. Ironing with an electric iron is more convenient than with
+the old-fashioned kind.</p>
+
+<p>20. The wireless apparatus makes sea voyages safer than
+before.</p>
+
+<p>21. A mixed diet is best.</p>
+
+<p>22. Cats should be exterminated because they spread disease.</p>
+
+<p>23. The parcel post will decrease the profits of the express
+companies.</p>
+
+<p>24. A good book is opened with expectation and closed with
+profit.</p>
+
+<p>25. Merchants should charge for delivering purchases.</p>
+
+<p>26. The object of the Child Welfare Exhibit is to promote the
+best interests of children.</p>
+
+<p>27. One of the best enactments of our time is the Child Labor
+Law.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 213&mdash;Smooth Connection</b></div>
+
+<p>We may as well confess at the beginning that smooth connection
+between sentences and paragraphs is a hard thing
+to learn. Primarily, it depends on clear thinking. In Exercise
+135 we saw that the idea of one sentence must grow
+out of the idea of the preceding one. It is the same
+with paragraphs. The thought must develop gradually
+from one to the next. Each paragraph, we know, represents
+a unit within the larger unit of the composition; each
+represents a division of thought. Not infrequently the
+thought of one division differs considerably from the thought
+of the next. The tying together of such units is sometimes
+hard. It may be done in one of the following ways:</p>
+
+<p>1. By repeating at the beginning of the new paragraph
+or sentence part of the preceding paragraph or sentence.</p>
+
+<p>2. By using pronouns to refer to what has gone before.</p>
+
+<p>3. By using connecting links, sometimes called <i>transition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+words</i> because they indicate the transition from one
+division to the next. Besides those mentioned in <a href="#Exercise_135">Exercise
+135</a>, we may use a numeral connection, as, <i>in the first place</i>,
+<i>in the second place;</i> or an expression much like a numeral,
+as, <i>furthermore</i>, <i>in the next place;</i> or an expression
+showing that an adverse idea is to be presented, as, <i>on the
+other hand</i>, <i>however</i>, <i>in spite of this</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>. But whatever
+you do, choose the right link, especially if you use such
+a one as <i>possibly</i>, <i>probably</i>, <i>perhaps</i>, <i>certainly</i>, <i>surely</i>. Use
+the one that expresses your idea exactly. Have none rather
+than the wrong one.</p>
+
+<p>In the following the first and second paragraphs are connected
+according to (1) above; the second and third are
+connected according to (3) above.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>There comes to every prosperous man a time when he wishes
+to know the best way of securing a steady income from his accumulated
+savings without the burden of responsibility of managing
+some property in order to gain his income. The merchant may
+not wish to put back into the business all the earnings he gets
+from it, and yet he wishes to prepare for his old age. The farmer
+may wish to give up active work, but he realizes how soon his
+broad acres may deteriorate through soil-robbery when he rents
+his property "on shares." With such a problem before him the
+thoughtful man makes an effort to <i>learn</i> how to act to secure a
+good <i>income</i> all his life.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first things he <i>learns</i>, if he studies the situation carefully,
+is that there is a wide difference between an <i>income</i> derived
+from one's business ability, such as the profit secured from running
+a store, factory, jobbing house, or farm, and the income which
+is derived as the result of money "working" by itself. In the
+first case, a man must of necessity keep up his business responsibilities;
+in the other, once he has selected a safe investment,
+practically all he has to do is to collect his income from time to
+time as it falls due. There is in the latter no depreciation of
+land, buildings, machinery, or the like; no insurance payments
+to worry about; no crop failures to consider.</p>
+
+<p><i>It is evident, then</i>, that if one wishes to put surplus money away&mdash;say
+the proceeds from the sale of a business or a farm&mdash;and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+get a steady income from it without bother or worry, the most
+important thing to consider is how to go about it to select something
+which, once purchased, will turn out to be a safe investment.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 214</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following paragraphs taken from Robert Louis
+Stevenson's <i>The Philosophy of Nomenclature</i>, point out all
+the transition words that join (1) sentence to sentence, and
+(2) paragraph to paragraph:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To begin, then: the influence of our name makes itself felt
+from the very cradle. As a schoolboy I remember the pride with
+which I hailed Robin Hood, Robert Bruce, and Robert le Diable
+as my name-fellows; and the feeling of sore disappointment that
+fell on my heart when I found a freebooter or a general who did
+not share with me a single one of my numerous <i>praenomina</i>.
+Look at the delight with which two children find they have the
+same name. They are friends from that moment forth; they
+have a bond of union stronger than exchange of nuts and sweetmeats.
+This feeling, I own, wears off in later life. Our names
+lose their freshness and interest, become trite and indifferent.
+But this, dear reader, is merely one of the sad effects of those
+"shades of the prison house" which come gradually betwixt us
+and nature with advancing years; it affords no weapon against
+the philosophy of names.</p>
+
+<p>In after life, although we fail to trace its working, that name
+which careless godfathers lightly applied to your unconscious
+infancy will have been moulding your character and influencing
+with irresistible power the whole course of your earthly fortunes.
+But the last name is no whit less important as a condition of success.
+Family names, we must recollect, are but inherited nicknames;
+and if the <i>sobriquet</i> were applicable to the ancestor, it is
+most likely applicable to the descendant also. You would not
+expect to find Mr. M'Phun acting as a mute or Mr. M'Lumpha
+excelling as a professor of dancing. Therefore, in what follows,
+we shall consider names, independent of whether they are first
+or last. And to begin with, look what a pull <i>Cromwell</i> had over
+<i>Pym</i>&mdash;the one name full of a resonant imperialism, the other
+mean, pettifogging, and unheroic to a degree. Who would expect
+eloquence from <i>Pym</i>&mdash;who would read poems by <i>Pym</i>&mdash;who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+would bow to the opinions of <i>Pym?</i> He might have been a dentist,
+but he should never have aspired to be a statesman. I can
+only wonder that he succeeded as he did. Pym and Habakkuk
+stand first upon the roll of men who have triumphed, by sheer
+force of genius, over the most unfavorable appellations. But
+even these have suffered; and, had they been more fitly named,
+the one might have been Lord Protector and the other have
+shared the laurels with Isaiah. In this matter we must not forget
+that all our great poets have borne great names. Chaucer,
+Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, Pope, Wordsworth, Shelley&mdash;what
+a constellation of lordly words! Not a single commonplace
+name among them&mdash;not a Brown, not a Jones, not a Robinson;
+they are all names that one would stop and look at on a door-plate.
+Now, imagine if <i>Pepys</i> had tried to clamber somehow into
+the enclosure of poetry, what a blot would that name have made
+upon the list! The thing is impossible. In the first place, a
+certain natural consciousness that men have would have held
+him down to the level of his name, would have prevented him
+from rising above the Pepsine standard, and so haply withheld
+him altogether from attempting verse. Next, the booksellers
+would refuse to publish, and the world to read them, on the mere
+evidence of the fatal appellation. And now, before I close this
+section, I must say one word as to <i>punnable</i> names, names that
+stand alone, that have a significance and life apart from him that
+bears them. These are the bitterest of all. One friend of mine
+goes bowed and humbled through life under the weight of this
+misfortune; for it is an awful thing when a man's name is a joke,
+when he cannot be mentioned without exciting merriment, and
+when even the intimation of his death bids fair to carry laughter
+into many a home.</p>
+
+<p>So much for people who are badly named. Now for people
+who are <i>too</i> well named, who go topheavy from the font, who are
+baptized into a false position, and who find themselves beginning
+life eclipsed under the fame of some of the great ones of the past.
+A man, for instance, called William Shakespeare could never dare
+to write plays. He is thrown into too humbling an apposition
+with the author of <i>Hamlet</i>. His own name coming after is such
+an anti-climax. "The plays of William Shakespeare?" says the
+reader&mdash;"O no! The plays of William Shakespeare Cockerill,"
+and he throws the book aside. In wise pursuance of such views,
+Mr. John Milton Hengler, who not long since delighted us in this
+favored town, has never attempted to write an epic, but has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+chosen a new path and has excelled upon the tight-rope. A
+marked example of triumph over this is the case of Mr. Dante
+Gabriel Rosetti. On the face of the matter, I should have advised
+him to imitate the pleasing modesty of the last-named gentleman,
+and confine his ambition to the sawdust. But Mr. Rosetti has
+triumphed. He has even dared to translate from his mighty
+name-father; and the voice of fame supports him in his boldness.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 215</b></div>
+
+<p>Turn back to <a href="#Exercise_210">Exercise 210</a>, 1. How are the different
+paragraphs that you have made connected?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>BUSINESS LETTERS</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Not</span> long ago the head of one of the biggest mail order
+firms in this country said: "Business needs the boys and the
+girls. Do not let them think they can be but cogs in the
+great system of wheels. More to-day than at any previous
+time the world needs men and women who can speak and
+write <i>themselves</i> into English. Four hundred million dollars
+is wasted every year in unprofitable advertising alone, and
+as much more in bad handling of good prospects and loss of
+customers through inefficient letters. We look to the future
+generation to conserve a part of this enormous loss. If a
+single page advertisement in a single issue costs $7500,
+what you say on that page is important. Look into any
+current magazine, and you will be tremendously impressed
+with the importance of English in this branch alone, not
+to mention its importance in letter writing."</p>
+
+<p>There is no greater power in business to-day than the
+ability to use convincing English in correspondence and in
+advertising. Any one who can write good letters, letters
+that the reader feels he must answer, has success ahead of
+him, because the market of a good letter is practically unrestricted.
+Wherever a letter can penetrate, it may create
+desire for an article and make sales.</p>
+
+<p>But what is a good letter? Nothing more than a bit
+of good English. Can you write clear, direct, crisp, yet
+fluent English? Then you can write good letters&mdash;but
+not till then.</p>
+
+<p>In modern business the letter has become the advertiser,
+the salesman, the collector, and the adjuster of claims. An
+advertisement must be attractive; it must arouse the interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+of the one who sees it. A salesman must understand human
+nature; he must forestall objections by showing the customer
+how he will gain by buying. The collector and the
+adjuster of claims must be courteous and at the same time
+shrewd. If a letter is to meet all of these requirements
+it cannot be dashed off at a moment's notice. It must be
+thought out in detail and written carefully to include all
+that should be expressed. This means, especially in a sales
+letter:</p>
+
+<p>1. An unusually worded opening that puts the writer's
+affairs in the background and the reader's gain in the foreground.
+Begin with <i>you</i>, not <i>we</i>. The reader is interested
+in himself, his own progress, his own troubles, and not in
+the possessions of the writer, except as the writer can show
+that those possessions affect him.</p>
+
+<p>3. A clear, simply worded explanation of the purpose of
+the letter.</p>
+
+<p>3. Proof of advantages to the reader.</p>
+
+<p>4. Persuasion or inducement to act now.</p>
+
+<p>5. Conclusion, making this action easy.</p>
+
+<p>Above all, if a letter is to be good, it must not be too
+short. In the pursuit of brevity too many pupils in business
+English make the mistake of writing altogether too little to
+get the reader's attention; and if his attention is not
+aroused, the letter fails. The letter should be long enough
+to suggest interest in the welfare of the reader and enthusiasm
+for the subject under discussion.</p>
+
+<p>Enthusiasm in business involves knowledge both of your
+project and of your customer. You cannot attempt to
+write a letter of any kind unless you know the facts that
+require it. Perhaps it is a complaint that you must try
+to settle. Without a knowledge of the facts, of the truth or
+the untruth of the claim, how can you write the letter?
+Sometimes it requires both time and study to gather the
+necessary details, but they must be gathered.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When you have your details and begin writing, be sincere.
+You must be so absolutely in earnest that the reader will
+at once feel and begin to share your enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>Knowledge of the person to whom you are writing is fully
+as important as knowledge of your subject. You must get
+his point of view, understand his character, and appeal to
+the qualities that you recognize in it, to the desires or ambitions,
+that it shows. To a certain extent all of us are
+alike. There are certain fundamental interests that we all
+possess; these may safely be appealed to at almost all times.
+But our employment, our habits of life, our ways of thinking
+make us different. The same argument, probably, will
+not always bring satisfactory replies from a manufacturer,
+a farmer, a judge, a minister or priest, a carpenter, and a
+woman. Some people like to receive a long letter that goes
+carefully into detail; others will not take the time to read
+such a letter. Each customer must be studied. This is so
+difficult a matter that no one can expect to learn it all at
+once.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, from the first word to the last be courteous. No
+matter how righteous your indignation, be courteous. You
+cannot afford to lose your temper. Courtesy does not imply
+flattery nor a lack of truth. Your letter can be strong and
+yet polite in tone. Lose your temper, and your letter will
+probably fail. Keep your temper, show thoughtfulness for
+the reader's interest, and your letter will more likely fulfill
+its purpose.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 216&mdash;The Form of the Letter</b></div>
+
+<p>Before we look at some actual letters to judge of their
+effectiveness, we must learn the conventional form of a
+letter, the parts which many years of use have shown to
+be necessary. There are six parts to a formal or business
+letter:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The heading, which includes the writer's address and the
+date.</p>
+
+<p>2. The introduction, which includes the name and the address
+of the one to whom you are writing.</p>
+
+<p>3. The salutation; for example, Dear Sir:</p>
+
+<p>4. The body of the letter, the important part.</p>
+
+<p>5. The courteous close; for example, Yours truly,</p>
+
+<p>6. The signature.</p></div>
+
+<p>Each part ends with a period except the salutation, which
+ends with a colon, and the courteous close, which ends with
+a comma. The various groups of words within the heading
+and the introduction are separated by commas.</p>
+
+<p>Why does the salutation end with a colon?</p>
+
+<p>Why does the courteous close end with a comma?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>The Arrangement</b></div>
+
+<p>In the following, notice the spacing. If the heading is
+short, it is put on one line; as,</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Letter heading">
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Heading</i></td><td align='right'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Hilliard, Fla., June 30, 1914.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='2' valign='top'><i>Introduction</i></td><td align='left'>Mr. Thomas Barrett,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Boston, Mass.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Salutation</i></td><td align='left'>Dear Sir:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' rowspan='3' valign='top'><i>Body</i></td><td align='left'>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;..................................................</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>................................................................</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>.................................</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Courteous close</i></td><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 8em;">Yours truly,</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><i>Signature</i></td><td align='right'>Samuel Garth</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>If the heading is long, arrange it in one of the following
+ways:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<div class='right'>
+334 Lexington Ave., Chicago,<br />
+May 19, 1915.</div><br />
+<br />
+Mr. Thomas Barrett,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Boston, Mass.</span><br />
+Dear Sir:<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<div class='right'>
+<span style="margin-right: 2em;">334 Lexington Ave.,</span><br />
+Chicago, Ill., May 19, 1915.<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<div class='right'>
+334 Lexington Ave.,<br />
+<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Chicago, Ill.,</span><br />
+May 19, 1915.<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'><div class='right'>
+334 Lexington Ave.,<br />
+<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Chicago, Ill.,</span><br />
+May 19, 1915.<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The superscription on the envelope is arranged and punctuated
+like the introduction in the letter, except that the
+punctuation may be omitted from the end of lines.</p>
+
+<p>There is a growing tendency to "block" the different
+parts of a letter; that is, to begin each item of each part
+directly below the first, with no indentation.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a tendency to use no abbreviations (except
+for titles like <i>Mr.</i>), the name of the month and of the state
+and the word <i>street</i>, <i>avenue</i>, or <i>building</i> being spelled out.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The punctuation as shown in the examples given above is
+that in more prevalent use. Certain writers, however, advocate the
+omission from the formal parts of the letter of commas at the end of
+lines and of periods (except to show abbreviations).</p></div>
+
+<p>Arrange the following headings, supplying capitals and
+punctuation marks:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. 55 water st mobile ala june 16 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>2. calmar iowa september 1 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>3. 453 marquette building chicago ill jan 5 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>4. 123 salem st springfield mass june 23 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>5. highland park grand haven mich may 3 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>6. 220 broadway new york n y february 15 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>7. 78 main street portland oregon december 10 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>8. 32 lincoln st kansas city mo oct 2 19&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>9. room 15 1321 pennsylvania ave washington d c sept 2 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>10. 25 chestnut st philadelphia pa april 14 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>11. 212 tribune building new york n y march 2 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>12. 98 dorchester ave boston mass feb 12 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>13. 24 milk st boston mass June 14 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>14. 231 west 39th st new york city march 4 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>15. 345 newark ave jersey city n j (supply date)</p>
+
+<p>16. 44 fifth ave detroit mich sept 1 19&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>17. 102 west 42d st denver colorado (date)</p>
+
+<p>18. Explain the difference between (16) and (17). Notice
+that the name of the street in each case is a numeral. Why is
+it spelled out in (16) and not in (17)?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 217</b></div>
+
+<p>Supplying the name of the firm and the business engaged
+in, write letter heads using the items given in Exercise 216.
+For example:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap">Barrett, Brown &amp; Co.</span><br />
+<i>Groceries</i><br />
+55 Water Street<br />
+
+<span style="margin-left: 22em;">Decorah, Iowa, &mdash; 19</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>When may &amp; be used?</p>
+
+<p>What is the advantage of using a letter head?</p>
+
+<p>In making letter heads, imagine you are a printer. Arrange
+the items so that they may show to the best advantage.
+Let your lines of printing or writing be of different lengths.
+Add any details that you wish, such as trade-mark designs
+or the names of officers.</p>
+
+<p>Arrange and punctuate:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. citronelle business mens association citronelle alabama
+may 2 19&mdash; mr john harvey 19 e monroe st rochester n y dear sir</p>
+
+<p>2. 173 broadway new york June 10 19&mdash; mr walter thomas 191
+e main st waltham mass dear sir</p>
+
+<p>3. 25 broad st maplewood n h messrs hausen &amp; ottman 18
+la salle station chicago ill gentlemen (supply date)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. john randolph &amp; co druggist 14 jefferson st charleston s c
+jan 8 19&mdash; gerhard mennen &amp; co newark n j gentlemen (letter head)</p>
+
+<p>5. 43 south 5th ave madison wis aug 8 19&mdash; the white mountain
+freezer co nashua n h gentlemen</p></div>
+
+<p>Address an envelope for each of the above, using the
+following as a model.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/gs241.png" width="400" height="200" alt="card" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 218&mdash;Cautions</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>The Heading</i></div>
+
+<p>Always date your letters.</p>
+
+<p>Give your full address, even if you are certain that the
+one to whom you are writing knows it.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>The Introduction</i></div>
+
+<p>The person addressed must always be given a title. If you
+address one man, use <i>Mr.;</i> if a firm, use <i>Messrs.;</i> if a woman,
+<i>Miss</i> or <i>Mrs.</i> If a man has a title like <i>Professor</i> or <i>Doctor</i>,
+it should be used, and <i>Mr.</i>, of course, omitted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hon.</i> (Honorable) is used for a person who holds, or who
+has held, a public office. It is a very formal title.</p>
+
+<p><i>Esq.</i>(Esquire) is a legal form used by some correspondents
+in addressing any man. It is an English usage. It always
+follows the name, and, if it is used, <i>Mr.</i> is omitted. In this
+country <i>Mr.</i> is preferable.</p>
+
+<p>In writing to a man in his official capacity, the following
+form is correct when there is no street number or when the
+title is short. Notice that <i>Mr.</i> is omitted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='unindent'>
+G. N. Fratt, Cashier,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First National Bank,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Racine, Wis.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>The following is correct when the title is long:</p>
+
+<div class='unindent'>
+Mr. John Frederick Pierce,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ass't. Engineer of Bridges and Buildings,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">607 White Building, Seattle, Wash.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>Notice that in the last example, the city and the state
+are put on the same line as the street in order to make the
+three lines of about the same length. Four lines might have
+been used.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>The Salutation</i></div>
+
+<p>If you address one man, the salutation is <i>Dear Sir;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class='unindent'>
+Mr. John Pierce,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br />
+
+Dear Sir:<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>If you address a firm, the salutation is <i>Gentlemen;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class='unindent'>
+Messrs. Brownleigh &amp; King,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Portland, Oregon.</span><br />
+
+Gentlemen:<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>If you address a woman, married or single, the salutation
+in business letters is <i>Dear Madam;</i> as,</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />
+Mrs. John Pierce,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br />
+
+Dear Madam:<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />
+Miss Florence Pierce,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br />
+
+Dear Madam:<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>A more familiar form of salutation is either of the
+following:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'>
+Miss Florence Pierce,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br />
+My dear Miss Pierce:<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class='unindent'><br />
+Miss Florence Pierce,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seattle, Wash.</span><br />
+Dear Miss Pierce:<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>In using <i>Hon.</i>, the salutation is usually <i>Sir</i>.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>The Courteous Close</i></div>
+
+<p>The courteous close corresponds in tone to the salutation.
+If the salutation is <i>Dear Sir</i>, <i>Gentlemen</i>, or <i>Dear Madam</i>, the
+courteous close should be one of the following:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Letter closings">
+<tr><td align='left'>Yours truly,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Yours very truly,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Very truly yours,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Respectfully yours,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Yours respectfully,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sincerely yours,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Very sincerely yours,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>If the salutation is <i>Sir</i>, the courteous close should be
+<i>Respectfully yours</i> or <i>Yours respectfully</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If the body of the letter and the courteous close do not
+agree in tone, the effect is often ridiculous. Suppose, for
+instance, that the courteous close of (2) under <a href="#Exercise_220">Exercise 220</a>
+were <i>Yours respectfully</i>. What would be the effect?</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>The Signature</i></div>
+
+<p>If an unmarried woman is signing a business letter, she
+should avoid confusion by prefixing (Miss) to her name.</p>
+
+<p>A married woman should sign her own name, as, <i>Alice
+Pierce;</i> she should indicate her title, as <i>Mrs. John F. Pierce</i>,
+either below the other or at one side.</p>
+
+<p>No other title should be prefixed to a signature.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If a letter is signed by the name of a firm, the signature
+of the one who dictated the letter is usually added; as,</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span style="margin-right: 4em;">Yours very truly,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Smith Lumber Co.</span><br />
+by &mdash;&mdash;<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>This sort of signature gives a letter the "personal touch."
+Explain.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Folding a Letter</b></div>
+
+<p>Business letter paper is about eight by ten inches. In
+folding a letter sheet, (1) turn the lower edge up to about
+one-eighth of an inch from the top; press the fold firmly,
+keeping the edges even; (2) turn the paper so that the
+folded edge is at your <i>left</i> hand; (3) fold <i>from</i> you a little
+less than one-third the width of the sheet; (4) fold the
+upper edge <i>down</i> toward you so that it projects a trifle
+beyond the folded edge. Without turning it over, pick it
+up and insert it in the envelope, putting in <i>first</i> the edge
+that was folded last.</p>
+
+<p>Write the address and the salutation for:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A business house in your town.</p>
+
+<p>2. Mr. John R. Tobin, president of the Detroit State Bank,
+Detroit, Mich.</p>
+
+<p>3. Miss Mabel Gunther, Shullsburg, Wis.</p>
+
+<p>4. Professor C. M. Watson, Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.</p>
+
+<p>5. John F. Campbell, Manager Bond Department, First Trust
+and Savings Bank, Boston, Mass.</p>
+
+<p>6. Taylor and Critchfield, Chicago, Ill.</p>
+
+<p>7. Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald, 126 E. Second Street, Washington,
+Ia.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write the courteous close and the signature for:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A letter from a business house in your town signed by F. R.
+Wilson.</p>
+
+<p>2. A letter from Miss Mabel Gunther (2 above).</p>
+
+<p>3. A letter from Professor C. M. Watson (4 above).</p>
+
+<p>4. A letter signed by John F. Campbell (5 above).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. A letter from Taylor and Critchfield signed by you yourself.</p>
+
+<p>6. A letter from Mrs. Thomas D. MacDonald (7 above).</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 219&mdash;Ordering Goods</b></div>
+
+<p>If an order includes a number of separate items, it is
+usually written on a separate sheet of paper. Firms often
+supply blanks for this purpose. If the order is short, it
+forms part of the letter. In any case, each item is placed
+on a separate line, so that the items may be checked as
+the order is filled. In the following, notice the arrangement
+and the punctuation:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<div class='right'>Hamilton, Montana, Feb. 16, 1914.<br /></div>
+
+Messrs. MacBride &amp; Dickens,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York, N. Y.</span><br />
+Gentlemen:<br />
+
+
+<p>At your earliest convenience please ship me the following via
+the Northern Express Co. from St. Paul:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Order">
+<tr><td align='left'>6 doz. A 68 assorted sizes Men's Black Caps&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>@&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>1.50&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>9.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 doz. D 71 Men's Cotton Handkerchiefs</td><td align='left'>@</td><td align='right'>.60&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>3.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5 doz. X 30 Men's Linen Handkerchiefs</td><td align='left'>@</td><td align='right'>2.00&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>10.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left' colspan='3'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>$22.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Enclosed find a draft on New York for twenty-two dollars.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Yours truly,</span><br />
+S. D. Jensen<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Write the letters outlined below:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Order fifty copies of the Business Arithmetic that you are
+using. How shall you pay for them?</p>
+
+<p>2. Clip from a newspaper an advertisement of groceries. Imagine
+that you are a housekeeper, and spend ten dollars to the best
+advantage, ordering several articles.</p>
+
+<p>3. Bring in an advertisement of household necessities&mdash;linens,
+tinware, etc. Spend five dollars, buying several articles.</p>
+
+<p>4. Bring in an advertisement of furniture. Write a letter
+ordering enough to furnish a parlor or a dining room. Have the
+amount charged to your account.</p>
+
+<p>5. A magazine offers one of several books as a premium with
+a year's subscription. Answer the advertisement.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_220" id="Exercise_220"></a>Exercise 220&mdash;The Tone of the Letter</b></div>
+
+<p>Undue familiarity or an evidence of loss of temper will at
+once frustrate the object of a letter. A dignified letter never
+shows either. Just what constitutes a dignified letter is hard
+to define but fairly easy to feel. This much is certain: it must
+be simple in structure, direct in its wording, and so sincere in
+feeling that no one will doubt its truth. Any extravagance
+of language, therefore, has no place in a dignified letter.</p>
+
+<p>Study the following to see whether they show dignity:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<div class='right'>
+Tuesday, 5 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span><br /></div>
+
+Miss Sarah Howard,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Denver, Colorado.</span><br />
+
+Dear Madam:<br />
+
+
+<p>I have a great piece of <span class="smcap">confidential</span> news for you.</p>
+
+<p>Take advantage of the remarkable offer our company is making
+to you, and it will mean thousands of <span class="smcap">dollars</span> in your pocket.
+Understand that this offer is not open to every one. You have
+been especially selected. You are the only one in your town who
+will hear of this remarkable offer.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+Elsworth, Brown &amp; Co.,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">120 Jefferson Ave.,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Detroit, Mich.</span><br />
+
+
+Gentlemen:
+
+<p>What is the matter with our last order? Have you people
+gone out of business, or are you asleep? If we don't get that order
+by the third, you'll never hear from us again.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<p>A letter to Mrs. Bixby, written Nov. 21, 1864.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:
+
+<p>I have been shown in the file of the War Department a statement
+of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts that you are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle.
+I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which
+should beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But
+I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may
+be found in the thanks of the republic they died to save. I pray
+that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your
+bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory of the
+loved and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours to have
+laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span style="margin-right: 2em;">Yours very sincerely and respectfully,</span><br />
+Abraham Lincoln<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 221</b></div>
+
+<p>In writing the following letters, be definite and courteous:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You have advertised your eight-room, furnace-heated house
+for sale for $3,500. A letter of inquiry desires particulars.
+Answer it.</p>
+
+<p>2. You live on a side street, which for the last week has not been
+lighted. Write to the editor of the paper, or to a town official,
+whichever you think would remedy the matter. Be courteous.
+A letter to an editor is begun: To the Editor of &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>3. The cars on which you ride every day are very dirty. Write
+to the mayor. He is addressed: Hon. &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>4. You wish to have a telephone installed. Make application.</p>
+
+<p>5. Two weeks ago you wrote (4). Still you have no telephone.
+Write again, stating the substance of (4) and asking the reason
+for the delay.</p>
+
+<p>6. Write the telephone company's reply. Be very courteous.
+What good reason could you give for the delay?</p>
+
+<p>7. You understand that your Congressman has the privilege
+of recommending a young man for the entrance examinations
+of your state university. Write to him, asking that he recommend
+you. Remember that he is a stranger to you. What should
+you tell him?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 222&mdash;Mistaken Ideas in Letter Writing</b></div>
+
+<p>It is too bad that, to a number of people, the term <i>business
+letter</i> conveys the idea of a colorless, stilted composition full
+of trite and almost meaningless business formulas. No one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+reads such a letter unless he has to, and surely that is not
+the kind one should practice writing. Below are given a few
+of the expressions that should be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>I. Sometimes a writer tries to impress a reader with the
+volume of business he is doing by showing haste in his correspondence;
+as, in</p>
+
+<p>1. Omitting the subject; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> In reply to your question will say &mdash;&mdash;<br />
+<i>Right:</i> In reply to your question I will say &mdash;&mdash;<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>2. Omitting articles and prepositions; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> Direct package care Western Canning Co.<br />
+<i>Right:</i> Direct the package in care of the Western Canning Co.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Using abbreviations</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Of the introduction. Write out the introduction
+in detail, both name and address. Abbreviating
+this part of the letter is highly discourteous.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> In the body of the letter; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> The Co. sent a no. of large orders last year.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Of the courteous close; as,</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> Yours etc.<br />
+<i>Wrong:</i> Yours resp'y.<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>4. Using a phrase as a sentence; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><i>Wrong:</i> Yours of the 6th at hand and contents noted.</div>
+
+<p>It is much better to refer indirectly to the receipt of a
+letter; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In the order you sent us on Aug. 5 &mdash;&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<p>The same sort of mistake is seen in the all too frequent
+closing:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<i>Wrong:</i> Hoping that we hear from you soon,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 21.5em;">Yours truly,</span><br />
+<i>Right:</i> Hoping that we hear from you soon, we are<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 21.5em;">Yours truly,</span><br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Why use such an expression at all? Avoid <i>hoping</i>, <i>trusting</i>,
+<i>awaiting</i>, or any other artificial closing.</p>
+
+<p>II. Sometimes a writer makes an effort to be extremely
+courteous, but fails because he uses hackneyed wording; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>Kindly.</i>&mdash;A good word in itself but greatly abused.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>We beg to state.</i>&mdash;Never use <i>beg</i> in this sense. You
+have no right to beg attention; earn it.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Your favor</i>, <i>your esteemed favor</i>, <i>your valued favor</i>.&mdash;Say,
+<i>Your letter</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Will you be so good as to.</i>&mdash;Belongs in the class with
+<i>beg to state</i>. Make your requests courteously, but directly.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Would say.</i>&mdash;Avoid this expression.</p></div>
+
+<p>III. Sometimes in an effort to be clear a writer uses <i>same</i>
+as a pronoun; as,</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><i>Wrong:</i> If the books are not satisfactory, return same.</div>
+
+
+<p>This is one of the worst of the distinctly business blunders.
+<i>Same</i> is never a pronoun. Write to a man as you talk to
+him and you will not use <i>same</i> in this way. (See <a href="#Exercise_88">Exercise 88</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>IV. Sometimes in order to get attention a writer will use a
+liberal sprinkling of dashes and capitals, probably in imitation
+of advertising copy. Better than such artificial means
+is the attraction of a well worded letter.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Criticise the following letters, pointing out all the expressions
+that should be improved. Rewrite the letters.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Gentlemen:
+
+<p>We beg to acknowledge your esteemed favor of Apr. 6. In
+regard to shoes received by you in poor shape as per complaint,
+would say that on receipt of same will try to locate cause of trouble.
+If due to defect in manufacture, will credit you with value of
+same.</p>
+
+<p>Hoping this is satisfactory to you,</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Yours of March 18 at hand. Referring to matter of short
+weight, I beg to call your attention to C &amp; A car 87324, which you
+loaded for us March 7 at your Auburn mine, gross weight 121,400
+lbs. This car was check weighed at Peoria March 11 on your
+company's scales and showed gross weight 113,200 lbs. or shortage
+8,200 lbs. Having investigated car, I find same was in good order
+and no indication of leakage, and it would appear to be a case of
+carelessness at time of loading. Therefore will request you to
+kindly send me cr. memo, on 8,200 lbs.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_223" id="Exercise_223"></a>Exercise 223&mdash;The Sales Letter</b></div>
+
+<p>The object of the sales letter is to make the reader buy.
+How can you do it? To begin with, get his point of view&mdash;that
+of the user. Then imagine that he is present and talk
+to him on paper. Get his interest with your opening sentence.
+Explain what you have to sell. Show him that he
+needs it. Whet his desire to possess it, and, finally, make
+it easy and imperative for him to order today.</p>
+
+<p>The opening paragraph is all-important. It may make or
+mar a letter. If it is stilted or lacks directness, if it hasn't
+the personal, natural tone that makes the reader feel you
+are talking to him, or if it is stereotyped in its wording, the
+letter will probably go to the waste-basket.</p>
+
+<p>Contrast the two letters that follow. Both were written
+to accompany a catalogue. Notice that the first begins
+and ends in a stereotyped way; has too few details to arouse
+interest; asks for an order but has no inducement to give
+one now; and, throughout, lacks the personal, convincing
+tone that makes the second a good selling letter. Notice
+that the second begins with <i>you</i>, not with <i>we</i>, and keeps the
+same <i>you</i> attitude to the end.</p>
+
+<p>Turn back to the five essentials of a letter given on page
+230. See if you can differentiate the five in the second letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>In compliance with your request of recent date we are sending
+you our latest general catalogue, inasmuch as we do not know
+which department catalogue you wish. We also have specialized
+books for jewelry, furniture, hardware, and drygoods. On
+request we shall be glad to send any one of these also.</p>
+
+<p>We carry the biggest line of Variety Store Leaders in the country,
+and our goods are always of the best. We take particular
+pains to acquaint our customers with the latest thing in the trade,
+and to give business-getting suggestions. Our Co-operative
+Bureau cheerfully answers all inquiries.</p>
+
+<p>Trusting we shall hear from you with an order, we are</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Under separate cover you will receive a copy of our latest general
+catalogue, published especially for owners of Variety Stores.
+We are sending you the general catalogue because we do not
+know whether you are interested in a particular department.
+However, if your business specializes in any one class of goods&mdash;such
+as jewelry, furniture, hardware, or drygoods&mdash;we
+shall be glad to supply you with the departmental book you need.
+On the enclosed postal card simply check the one you wish, and
+mail the card to-day. We shall <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'foward'">forward</ins> the catalogue at once.</p>
+
+<p>You may know that we always have on hand between
+two hundred and two hundred and fifty different Variety Store
+Leaders, affording you a wide selection of high-class goods of the
+finest materials, the neatest workmanship, and the latest styles
+at very low prices. After glancing over the catalogue you will
+agree with us that in every department of our huge business a
+dollar has full purchasing power.</p>
+
+<p>A unique feature of our business, moreover, is the Co-operative
+Bureau, which you will find a decided help in building up your
+business. Each week the Bureau sends out a Bulletin, acquainting
+our customers with important business events in the larger
+trade centers, with suggestions for new advertising and selling
+methods, with notices of new stock additions that make especially
+good leaders, and with advice how best to display them.
+The Bureau invites correspondence and sends customers, absolutely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+free of charge, advice on new store arrangements, window
+decorations, and advertising plans.</p>
+
+<p>Your first order makes you a co-operating member and entitles
+you to all the privileges of the Bureau and the services of an institution
+with wide experience and with a recognized reputation for
+square-dealing. Fill out the enclosed order blank, mail it to-day,
+and receive this week's Bulletin by return mail. It contains
+several splendid suggestions for novel, inexpensive advertising.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The letter given above is personal and yet dignified.
+Usually that is the best style to use, and the one that we
+wish to practice writing. Sometimes, however, results can
+best be obtained by using the colloquial or even jocular tone
+illustrated in the following letter sent to a retailer in
+Ottumwa, Iowa:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>We sell cheese, a new brand, the finest kind you ever tasted,
+put up in the most attractive package, to sell at the most attractive
+price. Called Par Excellence Creme, wrapped in silver foil
+with a gold label, it sells for fifteen cents and costs you ten. Ever
+hear a better proposition?</p>
+
+<p>Better buy now before your rival gets ahead of you. Everybody's
+calling for it. Why? Because we're advertising everywhere.
+It has been out only one month, and yet sales have trebled
+our highest expectations. Half the sales of a new cheese depend
+on the package and the price; the other half depend on the quality.
+All three are right in Par Excellence Creme.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. S. R. King, our Iowa representative, tried to see you last
+week, but, unfortunately, he was unable to find you in. Now,
+he carries a full line of our samples, and it's worth the time it
+takes just to see how good they look, even if you don't care to
+buy. How about it? Don't you want to see them? Mr. King
+will be in Ottumwa next Wednesday.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This style is commonly called "snappy." It has its advantage,
+but should be used only rarely. Above all, if you do use
+it, avoid the dash. Notice how the dash spoils the following:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Have you ever eaten that king of nuts&mdash;the budded or grafted
+paper shell pecan&mdash;the nut whose kernel is as nutritious as beef
+and as sweet and delicious as honey&mdash;the nut that is so delightfully
+palatable and so wholesome, the discriminating epicures of
+two continents have set their seal of approval on it&mdash;creating a
+demand that literally cannot be supplied&mdash;even at prices ranging
+as high as a dollar a pound.</p></div>
+
+<p>To use the dash in this way seems to imply that you do
+not understand punctuation or sentence structure. If the
+paragraph is rewritten, removing the dashes and dividing
+into sentences, we get a much stronger appeal. The dash
+makes for weakness rather than for strength because it
+suggests hysterics.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Have you ever eaten the king of nuts, the budded or grafted
+paper shell pecan? The kernel is as nutritious as beef and as
+sweet as honey. It is so wholesome and so delicious that discriminating
+epicures of two continents have set their approval
+on it, creating a demand that literally cannot be supplied, even
+at prices ranging as high as a dollar a pound.</p></div>
+
+<p>A very good way to open a sales letter is to get the attention
+by a bit of narration containing direct quotations, as
+shown in the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>"It saves seven per cent."</p>
+
+<p>So said Mr. John H. Samuels, a manufacturer of Birmingham,
+Ala.</p>
+
+<p>He had watched his bookkeepers at their work, and it seemed
+to him that their main business was turning and flattening the
+springy pages of the bulgy ledger. Ten seconds were wasted, he
+said, every time a page was turned&mdash;almost every time an entry
+was made&mdash;and hardly more than two minutes were needed to
+make the entry. That was enough. Each of his twenty men
+was wasting seven per cent of his time.</p>
+
+<p>"Try hinged paper," suggested the head bookkeeper.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, Mr. Samuels tried several kinds of hinged paper,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+only to find that the hinged section tore, broke, or cracked. The
+time that the clerks now saved in flattening the leaves they wasted
+in rewriting the pages that had torn out.</p>
+
+<p>He had no more faith in hinged papers by the time that he saw
+the advertisement of the Benton hinge. "As strong as the rest of
+the paper!" he scoffed. "We'll see about this!"</p>
+
+<p>"Send me a sample," he wrote us. "If your ad tells the truth,
+you get my order."</p>
+
+<p>We sent it. He tested it. He pulled it, crumpled it, ruled on
+it, erased it on both sides, and even creased it. But it did not
+break.</p>
+
+<p>Very cautiously and doubtingly he tried the paper in one
+ledger for one month. He found that the book rolled flat whenever
+it was opened, that no hinge tore, and that every page could
+be used from binder to outer edge.</p>
+
+<p>"It does the work," he told our salesman at the end of the
+month. "It saves seven per cent. Send me a consignment."</p>
+
+<p>If you, too, are paying seven per cent of your bookkeepers'
+salaries for waste motion, let us send you a sample. It will cut
+down your expenses as it cut down Mr. Samuels'.</p>
+
+<p>Remember that you put yourself under no obligation to us.
+You take no risks. Simply promise to use the paper if we send
+it free.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>Yours truly,</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 224</b></div>
+
+<p>Study the following letters and letter openings for good
+and bad qualities:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>People who have not had much of what the world calls "good
+luck" find it hard to believe an opportunity when it comes&mdash;they
+don't feel sure about it&mdash;on the other hand, people who
+have had many opportunities have a natural confidence that
+every opening presented is intended for them and they grasp it
+with an assurance that begets success.</p>
+
+<p>You may be one of those who have not had many chances to
+do what you would like to do and therefore not sure that my offer
+is an opportunity. For that reason let us again go over the
+points of advantage.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>I am taking the liberty of writing you again because I fear you
+do not fully realize the value of the proposition I am offering you.
+Why, man, it's the opportunity of a life-time!&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. (extended
+for three pages.)</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>If we wanted to know just what kind of person you are, do
+you know where we'd go to find out? We'd ask your old friends
+and neighbors, who know all about you from close association.</p>
+
+<p>If you want to find out about us&mdash;what we are doing and what
+improvements we are making in southern Florida&mdash;the best
+place to get this information is from the people of Florida, who
+know the facts from first-hand observation. The enclosed clipping
+is an editorial expression&mdash;not a paid advertisement&mdash;from
+the Ft. Meyers Press. The editor is under no obligation to us
+and is merely expressing the opinion of the people here.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<div class='right'>
+New York, Right Now.<br /></div>
+<br />
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Deal of Importance</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>It affects YOU! It is so important I must forego the pleasure
+of a personal letter in order to write 5,000 people to-day&mdash;500 of
+whom&mdash;the wide-awake ones who read this letter through&mdash;will
+be able to coin it into dollars&mdash;real money&mdash;money you
+can spend.</p>
+
+<p>What we now offer you has never before been offered by any
+body in the world. It is a combination we are fortunate enough,
+just at this time, to be able to offer you, because of an important
+deal we have just closed&mdash;a deal that may easily spell dollars
+to you. Read every word of this letter&mdash;it may be&mdash;possibly
+is&mdash;the only thing to make you a successful and wealthy man.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />5</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<div class='right'>
+R F D 4 Logansport, Ind.<br />
+<span style="margin-right: 2em;">8-26-11.</span><br />
+</div>
+Mr. M. H. Smith, etc.<br />
+Dear Sir:<br />
+
+
+<p>I acknowledge getting your telegram over the telephone yesterday,
+and if I had been in funds would have answered by return<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+telegram, but such is life. I accommodated a friend by loaning
+him $750, which will probably be paid the last week of never. I
+thank you for the offer, and when I am in funds will call on you
+either personally or by letter.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Very truly yours,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 225&mdash;Opening an Account</b></div>
+
+<p>Imagine that you are manager of a wholesale dry goods
+house. You have received an order from P. H. Powley, 23
+Water street, Franklin, Mich. As you do not know Mr.
+Powley, write him, stating in as courteous a way as possible
+that, since this is his first order, he must either furnish references
+or send a remittance. Make your letter direct and
+personal. Include some good selling talk.</p>
+
+<p>The exercise above illustrates the method that might be
+adopted in case of a small order. If Mr. Powley had sent
+a large order, the wholesale house would no doubt consult
+a financial agency to discover his financial condition;
+his <i>rating</i>, it is called. If his name were not found in the
+book of the agency, the wholesale house would require Mr.
+Powley to send a correct account of his financial standing;
+that is, a list of his assets and liabilities. If he refused, they
+would not do business with him. Why? The principal
+financial agencies are Bradstreet and Dun. Besides these,
+there are many mercantile agencies. They give any information
+that is required concerning a business man. All
+such information is confidential.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with this exercise study the letters that
+follow:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<div class='center'>
+<span class="smcap">Request to Open an Account</span><br />
+</div><div class='right'>
+Madison, Wis., Sept. 16, 1915.<br />
+</div>
+Wilson, Brighton, &amp; Co.,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">68 Broadway, New York.</span><br />
+
+Gentlemen:<br />
+
+
+<p>Until recently I was in the employ of Samuel Stratton &amp; Co.
+of Milwaukee, but I have now started a business of my own, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+which I should like to open an account with your house. As to
+my business ability and financial standing, I refer you to my late
+employers, Samuel Stratton &amp; Co. of Milwaukee, and to the
+Madison State Bank of this city.</p>
+
+<p>If on investigation you decide to accept me as a customer,
+will you please send the goods on the enclosed order, deducting
+your usual discount for cash? Upon receipt of the goods and of
+the invoice, I shall at once forward a sight draft on the Broadway
+National Bank of your city.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Respectfully yours,</span><br />
+George R. Scott<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Reply No. 1</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>In seeking information through the usual outside channels for
+basing credit for you, we find our reports have not been sufficient
+in detail to permit us to arrange this matter satisfactorily. These
+reports all speak very highly of you in a personal way, but do not
+give us the required information financially.</p>
+
+<p>We assume you want our goods for your Christmas trade. It
+is imperative, therefore, that we ship immediately. We suggest
+that on this order you send us a draft, in consideration of which
+we shall be pleased to allow you a special discount of 4%. Understand
+that we suggest these terms on this first order only, as we
+feel confident that we can easily arrange a credit basis for future
+shipments. We sincerely trust you will take no offense at the
+above suggestion, as we have made it in your interest.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Reply No. 2</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Thank you for the order you sent us yesterday. Its size confirms
+the belief we have always held that D&mdash;&mdash; is a rapidly
+growing business center, the right place for a retailer to settle
+and prosper.</p>
+
+<p>After careful consideration of your letter, however, we have
+decided to hold back your order for a short time. You cannot
+regret this more than we do. We do not like to lose your account,
+and yet, under the circumstances, we feel we cannot send you the
+order. We hope you can sell the property you mentioned in your
+letter and thus clear up the balances against you. Then we
+shall gladly open an account for you.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We are especially sorry we cannot send the order at once, as
+you no doubt need your fall stock now. Don't you think it would
+be the best solution if you would send us your remittance for $250
+now, so that we may send the goods? We know what it means
+to buy in the open market so late in the season. We assure you
+that on receipt of a remittance the order will go through immediately.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 226</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Order from the Grand Rapids Furniture Co., Grand Rapids,
+Mich., 5 mahogany rockers, 1 Turkish rocker, 2 brass beds, 12
+dining room chairs, 2 dining room tables. Supply catalogue
+numbers and give shipping directions.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Grand Rapids Furniture Co. replies, acknowledging
+the receipt of the above order (give date) but stating that you
+did not mention how you would pay for the goods. On receipt of
+a certified check to cover the amount, or of the names of two
+reliable references, they will be pleased to send you the order.
+Make this a good sales letter.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 227</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are a florist of Rockford, Ill. Write to S. M. Porter
+&amp; Son, 155 S. State Street, Chicago, saying that this fall you are
+opening a new department of Landscape Gardening. Judging
+by advance orders, you will need approximately 200 shade trees,
+maples and poplars; 200 fruit trees of various kinds; and several
+hundred flowering shrubs. You will probably duplicate the
+order in the spring. Ask for terms, saying that you would like
+to open an account. Give two references.</p>
+
+<p>2. S. M. Porter &amp; Son reply, acknowledging your order, and
+saying that they will be pleased to do business with you on sixty
+days' credit, terms 50 and 5%. If this is satisfactory, they will
+add your name to their books. Make it a sales letter.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 228</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Samuel Radford of Douglas, Mich., wishes to buy a motor
+boat. He orders of the Modern Steel Boat Co., manufacturers
+of high grade motor boats, Detroit, Mich., boat No. 172.
+page 425, catalogue No. 10. The price as listed is $192. He accepts
+the offer they made him &mdash;&mdash; (date), of &mdash;&mdash; (terms) and encloses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+a certified check for the amount. He gives full shipping
+directions. (Be sure you can do this.) He asks how cheaply
+he can obtain cushions for the boat.</p>
+
+<p>2. The company reply: They have shipped the boat. (Is
+this sufficiently detailed?) A set of new cushions to fit the boat
+costs $25. They have a set of secondhand cushions in excellent
+condition for $15. If Radford desires either of these, he should
+wire at once at their expense.</p>
+
+<p>3. Telegraph his decision.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 229</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Messrs. Lee and Watkins, druggists of Gallon, Ohio, wish
+to open an account with Pierce, King &amp; Co., 17 S. Albany St.,
+Baltimore, Md., for the purchase of large orders on ninety days'
+credit. They say they do a very large business as they have
+the only drug store within a radius of several miles. They give
+several names as references. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>2. You are a traveling salesman for Pierce, King &amp; Co. They
+write you at the Union Hotel, Columbus, telling you of the foregoing
+letter, a copy of which they enclose, and asking you to investigate
+the standing of Messrs. Lee and Watkins.</p>
+
+<p>Reply that you visited the drug store in question on a Tuesday
+(give date), because in your experience the early part of the
+week is very quiet in the business of small towns. Say that two
+clerks were kept busy constantly and that several people spoke
+of the enormous business done on Saturdays and market days.
+The firm has good credit in the town. You are satisfied that the
+gentlemen in question are reliable.</p>
+
+<p>3. Write from Pierce, King &amp; Co. to Messrs. Lee and Watkins,
+acknowledging the receipt of their letter &mdash;&mdash; (date) and expressing
+pleasure in being able to enter their name on the firm's
+books. Write as courteous a letter as you can.</p>
+
+<p>4. Imagine that the salesman's reply (2) had been unfavorable.
+Write to Messrs. Lee and Watkins, refusing them credit but
+trying to get their cash business.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 230&mdash;Letters Requesting Payment</b></div>
+
+<p>It is better not to make threats in a collection letter except
+as a last resort, and then the threat should be carried out. It
+is advisable in a first letter of the kind to take for granted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+that a customer is honest and that the failure to pay is
+an oversight. If some inducement for further purchases is
+included in the letter in the form of good selling talk, a
+remittance will probably be sent, and perhaps another order
+as well.</p>
+
+<p>If the customer, however, takes no notice of the first letter,
+a second, making the request for payment more urgent,
+may follow. The tone of the second letter and subsequent
+letters will depend on the value that you put on the customer's
+trade. Finally, if he ignores all of these letters,
+dally no longer. Say that if payment is not made by a
+certain date, you will draw on him at sight. If he does
+not honor the draft, put the matter in the hands of your
+attorney.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Study the following letters. Select from them those that
+you think would make a good series:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Ten days ago we mailed you a statement of your account,
+which was due at that time. As we have heard nothing from
+you, we have concluded that the letter must have miscarried.
+We are, therefore, enclosing a duplicate of the former statement.
+We trust that it will reach you safely and have your prompt
+attention.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Evidently you, too, are experiencing the increase in business
+that our customers in general are reporting. In the rush of orders
+you probably have overlooked the fact that your account with
+us is three weeks over-due. Your remittances hitherto have been
+very prompt, and we trust that this reminder will be treated
+equally promptly.</p>
+
+<p>By the way, have you found that the Holeless Socks are coming
+up to our guarantee? From all parts of the country we are getting
+flattering reports in the form of big orders. We feel that
+they merit their popularity, and with the extensive advertising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+campaign that we have inaugurated they are bound to continue
+in favor.</p>
+
+<p>We are especially prepared at present to give you an attractive
+price, enabling you to realize large profits on these socks. If you
+need more of them, we can make shipment at once.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>In looking over our accounts, we find that your purchases have
+lately been increasing considerably and that your payments have
+been few and unimportant. Statements have been sent regularly,
+we believe, but have probably been overlooked because of the
+stress of your other affairs. Such things, of course, can happen
+with any of us, especially when we have many other matters to
+look after.</p>
+
+<p>We have always valued your account, and we greatly desire
+our pleasant relations to continue. As the amount that you owe
+us is now long over-due, we would appreciate your returning the
+enclosed bill to be receipted during the next few days.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>Your attention has twice been called to your account for $&mdash;&mdash;,
+but for some reason you do not reply to our letters.</p>
+
+<p>Our terms, as you know, are thirty days, and we cannot allow
+a longer extension except by special arrangement. We have
+borne the matter very patiently, realizing that unusual conditions
+sometimes prevent one's doing as he desires. At the same time,
+it is entirely out of reason that your account should still be owing
+at this time. May we not expect your remittance by return
+mail?</p>
+
+<p>Should we not hear from you by the 15th, we shall draw on
+you, and, if you have not remitted in the meantime, please provide
+for our draft upon its arrival.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />5</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>On March 15 we drew on you for $250. Our draft has been
+returned to us by the Blank Bank, unpaid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Your account is long past due, and, although we are willing to
+do almost anything to accommodate our customers, we feel that
+in your case the time for concessions has passed. We desire your
+check at once for the balance due us.</p>
+
+<p>You are credited with using considerable money in your business,
+and it would seem that you should without difficulty be able to
+take care of amounts such as you owe us. If we do not hear
+from you by April 1, we shall send a second draft. If you permit
+this to be returned unpaid, we shall be compelled to take action
+to force collection. We wish to express the hope, however, that
+you will not allow this to be done.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 231</b></div>
+
+<p>Letter (2) above is written primarily to get a check for
+the over-due account and incidentally to get another order.
+Suppose that the customer sends an order and no money.
+You do not wish to extend further credit until the old balance
+is paid. Write a tactful letter, saying that you will hold
+back the order until you receive a check to pay the over-due
+account.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 232</b></div>
+
+<p>Write the letters in the following transaction:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. J. F. Brookmeyer, Peru, Ind., is a dealer in shoes. He
+opened an account with you a month ago. He has purchased
+shoes to the amount of $250. You rendered an account on the
+first of the month, two weeks ago. Write a letter saying that
+you do not carry over accounts from month to month, as your small
+margin of profit makes it impossible for you to carry an irregular
+account. Make it a courteous sales letter as well as a collection
+letter.</p>
+
+<p>2. J. H. Brookmeyer sends a certified check for the full amount,
+apologizing for the delay.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 233</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. John R. Phillips, 32 New York Building, Seattle, Washington,
+owes you $470. Write him, saying that you need the
+money. Give a good reason. Make it a courteous, friendly letter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Mr. Phillips has not answered (1). Write him again, saying
+that if you do not get a remittance by &mdash;&mdash;, you will draw on
+him at sight.</p>
+
+<p>3. Your bank notifies you that your draft has been returned
+unpaid. Write Phillips, asking for an explanation. Say that
+unless you hear by &mdash;&mdash;, you will bring suit.</p>
+
+<p>4. Phillips writes an apologetic letter, giving illness as the
+reason for his non-payment. He says he was in the hospital and
+did not receive letters (1) and (2). He encloses fifty dollars and
+promises to pay at least half the balance next month, the full
+amount within sixty days. Write his letter.</p>
+
+<p>5. Accept this offer.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 234&mdash;Answering Complaints</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A mail order house discovered that its files contained the
+names of 10,000 people who had once been customers but who
+had not bought anything for the last two or three years. Write
+a letter in the name of the manager frankly asking why the
+customer has stopped buying. Advertise the stock.</p>
+
+<p>2. One correspondent in reply demands a return of $16,
+which he had paid for a coat that was "not worth a cent." How
+would you reply to this letter so that the one making the complaint
+would send in an order? Write the letter.</p></div>
+
+<p>In connection with this exercise study the following letter:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>We wish to acknowledge your letter of April 16, in which you
+say that on April 14 you received a bill for five S &amp; Q Railway
+bonds, which Mr. Wensley had sold you on the 11th at 100 and
+interest; that you sent us your check for the amount on the same
+day; and that on the 16th, two days afterward, you received a
+letter from us, offering a new block of these bonds at 99 and
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>This complication was brought about through a peculiar chain
+of circumstances, an explanation of which, we feel, is only just
+both to you and to us. When Mr. Wensley came to the office on
+Saturday, the 12th, he told us that he had your order for five of
+these bonds at 100&frac14; and interest. The market price was then
+100 and interest, and we were very glad to give you the benefit
+of the more favorable price. At that time we had no intimation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+that more of these bonds were coming on the market. Quite
+unexpectedly on Monday we received notice from our Boston
+office that they had in view a new block of the bonds. Even at
+that time we did not know definitely that we would get them.
+On Tuesday, again quite unexpectedly, we were instructed by our
+Boston office that the bonds had been secured and were to be
+offered immediately at 99 and interest. So suddenly did the
+entire transaction take place that we were unable to prepare a
+new circular, and on Tuesday night we merely sent out a letter,
+telling our customers that we had an additional block of these
+bonds. In fact, the new circular will not be ready until about
+noon of to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>We realize that you should have been informed of the new
+price. The bonds, however, came on the market so quickly and
+in taking care of the details of the offering we were so busy that
+the matter, unfortunately, was overlooked. We are glad, therefore,
+to make adjustment of the price now by having our banking
+department send you our check for $50.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary for us to say, we presume, that we regret this
+occurrence and to assure you that had we known of the new bonds
+on Saturday we would have advised you to hold off your purchase
+until the offering was ready. We feel that you know us and the
+policy of our house well enough to be sure that we would not willfully
+take advantage of you in this way. We trust that the
+arrangement that we have made satisfactorily straightens out
+the matter.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 235</b></div>
+
+<p>1. What is the advantage of the policy shown in the following
+suggestion from <i>System?</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The manager of a retail establishment says: "We never
+refuse to refund money. If a dissatisfied customer returns a
+purchase, before we ask what the trouble is we refund his money
+gladly. When he is free to walk out of the store with his money,
+we try to find the source of the trouble. Generally we can adjust
+the difficulty and make a sale."</p></div>
+
+<p>2. State the advantage in the policy of a large clothing
+concern which follows the sale of every suit or overcoat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+with a letter to the customer, asking him whether the purchase
+is proving satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>3. Write such a letter.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 236</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Conrad H. Harwood of 122 Winter Street, Vandalia, Ill.,
+writes to Wilson, Black &amp; Co., manufacturers of shoes, 100 Second
+Street, Lynn, Mass., asking why they are not sending his order of
+&mdash;&mdash; (the goods ordered) of &mdash;&mdash; (date). He is losing sales
+because of the delay. If the goods are not received before &mdash;&mdash;,
+Harwood will cancel the order.</p>
+
+<p>2. Wilson, Black &amp; Co. acknowledge the receipt of Harwood's
+letter and say that this is the first notice they have received of
+such an order. The first letter must have miscarried. They
+have shipped the goods. Be very courteous.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 237</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. C. F. Gardner, a merchant of 432 Puyallup Ave., Tacoma,
+Wash., has received notice from the C.M. &amp; P.S.R.R. freight
+office that a box of goods has arrived from Messrs. Fiske &amp; Jones,
+Detroit, Mich. Gardner ordered the goods a month ago. He
+writes Messrs. Fiske &amp; Jones that he refuses to accept the goods
+because of the delay. He has bought elsewhere in the meantime.</p>
+
+<p>2. Fiske &amp; Jones apologize for the delay and explain that it
+was due to the unreliability of one of their shipping clerks, who
+has since been discharged. They had known nothing of the
+matter until Gardner's letter of complaint arrived. They assure
+him that he will never suffer another such inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>3. Fiske &amp; Jones telegraph the C.M. &amp; P.S.R.R. to return the
+goods at Fiske &amp; Jones's expense. Write the telegram.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 238&mdash;Letters of Application</b></div>
+
+<p>A letter of application usually has three parts. In writing
+such a letter, first, tell where you saw the advertisement
+and apply for the position; second, tell your qualifications
+and give your references; third, end the letter appropriately,
+possibly asking for an interview.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This is a difficult kind of letter to write. Not only should
+it be neat in appearance and clearly written, but it should
+also be so carefully worded that it will show enough of the
+writer's individuality to distinguish it from a form. Be
+neither hesitant nor bold, but tell your qualifications in a
+simple, straightforward way.</p>
+
+<p>Study the following letters. Are they convincing? Do
+they show the personality of the writers, or are they mere
+forms?</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+Gentlemen:<br />
+
+
+<p>Your advertisement in to-day's Record for a salesman who
+knows the tea and coffee business interests me. I should like
+you to consider my application for the position.</p>
+
+<p>Since my graduation from the Blank High School, four years
+ago, I have been employed as salesman for the Economy Wholesale
+Coffee Co., a firm doing business in this city and its outlying
+districts. During these four years I have gathered a wide knowledge
+of the principles of the buying and selling of coffees and teas
+and of the grades and blends of both, just the training, it seems to
+me, that you wish to secure.</p>
+
+<p>You may depend upon my taking an active interest in your
+business, because I have an intense desire to advance. I myself
+vouch for my honesty and earnestness, and Mr. Robert Brown of
+the firm mentioned above has assured me that he will supply you
+with any information that you may wish as to my character or
+ability. He endorses my desire to secure a broader opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>If the position that you have to offer is one in which there is
+a real future for an energetic, capable man, I should like to have
+an interview with you.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very respectfully,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+Dear Sir:<br />
+
+
+<p>I am answering your advertisement in to-day's Record for a
+clerk because I wish to get started in the wholesale dry goods
+business, my idea being to work into the sales department. If
+the position that you advertise affords such an opportunity, I
+wish to apply for it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I have had a little experience in the retail dry goods business,
+having worked as clerk for Mr. Amos Jones of this city during
+the past two summers. What I have seen and learned of the
+business makes me feel that I have ability as a dry goods salesman.
+I shall be glad to work hard in a clerical position if only
+I get a chance to learn and to advance.</p>
+
+<p>I am eighteen years of age and have just graduated from the
+Blank High School, where I took the four-year commercial course.
+This, as you know, includes business arithmetic, bookkeeping,
+and some business practice. During the last two years I was
+business manager of the high school paper. This position gave
+me considerable experience in handling details rapidly and in
+soliciting advertising. It is this latter experience that makes me
+feel that I would have success in selling.</p>
+
+<p>I am confident that I can please you, and I should be grateful
+if you will grant me an interview. Mr. Amos Jones, 815 E. 47th
+St., will be glad to give you any information that you may wish as
+to my work, and if you desire I can furnish other references.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours respectfully,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 239</b></div>
+
+<p>Apply for the following positions:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. OFFICE MAN&mdash;who can handle correspondence and general office
+work for growing North side manufacturing company. Good
+opportunity for the right man. State experience and salary
+expected. Address A. H. Stanton, 17 Elm St.</p>
+
+<p>2. MAIL ORDER MAN&mdash;up-to-date, experienced; must have ability
+and be capable of handling a large volume of correspondence; must
+also be a pusher and systematizer. In reply give references, age,
+and detailed experience. Address X. W. 291 News.</p>
+
+<p>3. AMBITIOUS YOUNG MEN&mdash;who are willing to start at the
+bottom to learn steel and iron business; must be high school or
+college graduates, or have equivalent education, and furnish exceptional
+references; very good opportunity for the future. Address
+A. F. 361 Times.</p>
+
+<p>4. BRIGHT YOUNG MAN&mdash;for office work in large manufacturing
+plant, Northwest side; must be neat, quick, and accurate at
+figures. State age, experience, and salary expected. Address
+J. F. Holtz &amp; Co., 320 W. Exchange St.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. OFFICE CLERK&mdash;a girl who can write a plain, rapid, legible hand;
+desirable, permanent position, and excellent chance for advancement.
+Give age, experience, if any, and where formerly employed.
+Salary $6.00 to start. Address T. P. 514 Chronicle.</p>
+
+<p>6. HELP WANTED&mdash;salesman having established trade on rubber or
+leather footwear in Michigan, northern Indiana, northwest Ohio,
+or eastern Wisconsin. Good chance to become connected with
+live middle-western jobbing house. Give late experience. Address
+G724 Boot and Shoe Recorder, Boston, Mass.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 240&mdash;Contract for Painting Iron Work</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. James W. Walker &amp; Co., 325 Second St., Pittsburgh, are
+receiving bids for painting the iron work of the bridge to be
+constructed over the Cheesequake Creek at Morgan Station,
+New Brunswick, N. J. The Barnard Emerson Co., of Harrisburg,
+Pa., write saying they would like to figure on the work. They
+ask James W. Walker &amp; Co; to send plans and specifications.
+Write the letter sent by the Barnard Emerson Co.</p>
+
+<p>2. James W. Walker &amp; Co. reply that they are sending plans
+and specifications. They say that bids must be in by March 10.
+Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Barnard Emerson Co. write that page two, line four,
+of the specifications for the bridge to be constructed (state in
+detail) reads "and paint all beams underneath two coats of dark
+green," and page four, line ten, reads "all upright beams above
+and underneath to be painted two coats of light green between
+shades three and four." They ask which is correct. Write the
+letter. Be exact.</p>
+
+<p>4. James W. Walker &amp; Co. reply that page two, line four, is
+correct. Explain in detail.</p>
+
+<p>5. The Barnard Emerson Co. agree to do the work on (repeat
+exactly what bridge you mean) for three thousand dollars. They
+guarantee to finish the work by April 30, according to the specifications.
+They will forfeit fifty dollars for every day after that
+date until the bridge is finished. Write the proposal or bid.</p>
+
+<p>6. James W. Walker &amp; Co. write, saying that they accept the
+bid above and that they enclose duplicate contracts, one of which
+they have signed and which the Barnard Emerson Co. is to keep.
+The other the Barnard Emerson Co. is to sign and return to
+James W. Walker &amp; Co.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 241&mdash;Contract for the Delivery of Property</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The Arlington Coal Company, Old Colony Building, Chicago,
+Ill., write to the Red Rock Coal Company, Auburn, Ill.,
+saying that they need several cars of egg coal per week throughout
+the year. They ask if the Red Rock Coal Co. wish to offer
+some on contract. If so, they must state how the coal is screened,
+and give their lowest price. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Red Rock Coal Co. reply that they will offer egg coal
+for shipment at the rate of two cars per week throughout the year,
+at $1.15 per net ton, cars f.o.b. mines. If a contract were drawn
+up for three or more cars per week, they would give the coal for
+$1.12&frac12; per net ton. They say their egg is an excellent steam producing
+coal and gives general satisfaction. It is shipped from the
+Red Rock mine via the Chicago &amp; Alton Railroad, freight rate
+being 82&cent; per ton. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Arlington Coal Co. write that the Red Rock Coal Co.
+may send a one year contract drawn in triplicate for three cars of
+egg coal per week at $1.12&frac12; per net ton, cars f.o.b. mines. Of
+course it is understood that the usual clauses regarding accidents
+or other unavoidable happenings on either side will be inserted.
+Write the letter.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 242&mdash;Contract for Construction</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p><span class="smcap">News Item.</span>&mdash;Bids will be received until Dec. 12 by
+the Chairman of the Board of Public Works, North Bend,
+Washington, for the construction of a solid concrete bridge
+over the Snoqualmie River at North Bend; double arch, with
+one pier in the river; span of arch 92 feet; width of bridge
+50 feet. Plans may be had by addressing the Chairman.</p></div>
+
+<p>The McClaine Construction Co., of Spokane, Wash., send in a
+bid for $25,000, guaranteeing to use Atlas Portland cement,
+crushed rock for the coarse aggregate, and torpedo sand for the
+fine aggregate, the concrete to be reinforced with the Kahn system
+of reinforcement as set forth in the specifications. The company
+specify, further, that they shall be paid extra for excavation,
+on the scale of 25&cent; a yard for earth, 75&cent; a yard for loose rock
+and hard pan, and $1.00 a yard for solid rock. Write the letter
+that they send.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 243&mdash;Form Letters</b></div>
+
+<p>It frequently happens in business that you receive a
+number of letters requiring practically the same answer.
+In such cases, the best plan is to have one letter that is as
+good a letter of its kind as you can write. Use that as an
+answer to all those to which it can be made to apply.
+You may have to add a bit of information or change a word
+here and there, but, practically, you are using the same
+form for all the letters. When you have mastered the
+form, the answering of letters of this class will be a simple
+matter. The letter accompanying a catalogue may easily
+be a form. (See the second letter in <a href="#Exercise_223">Exercise 223</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The danger, however, is that the use of form letters tends
+to make work mechanical. When letters are different, they
+must receive different replies. A form letter should never
+be used just because it is easy to use when it does not
+really apply.</p>
+
+<p>Mandel Bros., Chicago, Ill., announce their annual sale
+of silk remnants. Make this a good advertisement that will
+reach several classes of customers. Have in it as one item
+white wash silk of heavy quality, 36 inches wide, at 47 cents
+a yard.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Make out a sales letter for the above.</p>
+
+<p>2. Several mail orders have been received in excess of the
+supply. Make out a form letter that could be sent when the
+money is returned. What is the advantage of a form letter in
+this case?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 244&mdash;Circular and Follow-up Letters</b></div>
+
+<p>There is a class of letters that usually originates in the
+advertising department of a firm. They are not sent out to
+answer inquiries, but to solicit new customers and to keep
+old ones. Such letters are printed in large numbers in
+imitation of typewriting, and the introduction and the
+salutation are afterward carefully filled in on the typewriter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+The intention, of course, is to make the recipient
+feel that he has received a personal letter. Firms are
+generally careful to fill in the signature in pen and ink.
+These are called <i>circular</i> letters. (See the last letter in
+<a href="#Exercise_223">Exercise 223</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>These letters are very important and each year more
+numerous. Frequently a series of them is written, each one
+expanding one argument in a series of arguments. If all the
+letters are read, one after the other, you have a complete
+list of reasons why you should buy the particular article
+which the letters advertise. These letters are sent out regularly,
+so that the effect of one may not quite wear off before
+the next arrives. It is frequently the case that not until
+the third or fourth letter is sent out does any reply come.
+Such letters should be definitely planned in order to present
+arguments that are true and attractive. They must be
+simply and clearly written. They are called <i>follow-up</i> letters.</p>
+
+<p>The following series of follow-up letters was intended to be
+sent to women who keep no maids. The series was planned
+to contain five letters. Write two more, using different
+appeals from those in the letters here given.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:
+
+<p>Do you remember the fairy tale of Little Two-Eyes?</p>
+
+<p>A fairy, out of pity for the child's hunger, spread a table before
+her each day as she was watching the goat in the field, and when
+her appetite was satisfied all the child had to say was, "Table clear
+yourself," and the dishes magically disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>"This is a beautiful way to keep house," was Two-Eyes' verdict,
+and every woman, thinking of her own distaste of dirty
+dishes, will agree.</p>
+
+<p>"How I hate dishwashing!" You have said it hundreds of
+times&mdash;after every meal, probably.</p>
+
+<p>"I like to cook and bake," you declare. "They are really
+interesting. There is fun in trying new recipes&mdash;but the dishes!"</p>
+
+<p>You enjoy giving luncheon and dinner parties. It is a delightful
+way of meeting one's friends. Moreover, you are justly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+proud of your skill in cooking, and you like to show your beautiful
+china. But what a damper it is on your spirit of good-fellowship,
+after the guests are gone, to have to spend an hour or more
+washing the dishes. Then you would like to say, with the child
+in the story, "Dishes wash yourselves!" Wouldn't you?</p>
+
+<p>Well, you may. For thirty days&mdash;ninety meals&mdash;we will
+put the Fairy Dishwasher in your home, without charging you a
+penny.</p>
+
+<p>The machine is simplicity itself. Wheel the cabinet into your
+dining room, alongside your serving table, and, as a course is
+finished, without rising from your place, stack the dishes into the
+washer. When you have finished the meal, wheel the cabinet
+into your kitchen, make the connection, and turn the switch.
+In a few minutes the dishes are washed and dried. Having
+friends in to dinner is fun when the Fairy washes the dishes.</p>
+
+<p>Let the Fairy do yours. Simply return this letter to us in the
+enclosed envelope, making sure that your name and address are
+correct, and we'll send you the Fairy. Use it three times a day
+for thirty days. Then if you think you can get along as well
+without the machine, all that you need to do is to send us a postal
+card, telling us so. We'll take back the Fairy and ask no questions.</p>
+
+<p>But send to-day.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:
+
+<p>Did you ever envy another woman's smooth, white hands?
+You looked at hers, and then you looked at yours; you sighed
+and thought, "It's dishwashing."</p>
+
+<p>But what can you do? Haven't you tried everything to make
+dishwashing less drudgery? Haven't you tried patent soaps and
+tepid water, only to find that the dishes were not clean? Haven't
+you tried dish mops, scrapers, and rubber gloves, only to find
+that the mop and the scraper saved but one hand? As for rubber
+gloves, as likely as not, the first time you used them they were
+caught on the prong of a fork and were thereafter useless. Yes,
+you've tried everything; haven't you?</p>
+
+<p>No, you haven't. You have not tried the only sure help that
+there is. Stop your drudgery and let the Fairy wash your dishes.</p>
+
+<p>For thirty days&mdash;ninety trials&mdash;we will put the Fairy Dishwasher
+in your home, absolutely free of charge, guaranteed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+wash and sterilize your dishes in boiling water, without a touch
+of your hand.</p>
+
+<p>Do your manicuring while the Fairy does the dishes.</p>
+
+<p>Pay no money, but send the enclosed postal card to-day. It
+will bring the Fairy at once.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Very truly yours,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Madam:
+
+<p>An extra hour of leisure every day! What is it worth to you?</p>
+
+<p>Think what you could do if some one would give you an extra
+hour of leisure every day. There's the book you would like to
+read, the call you ought to make, the embroidery you wish you
+could finish. There are the thousand and one things that a housekeeper
+continually wishes she could do&mdash;but where can she get
+the time?</p>
+
+<p>And yet you waste at least an hour each day washing dishes
+when the Fairy Dishwasher will not only save you the time but
+rid you of a distasteful task. You pay 16<span class='small'><sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub></span> cents a day for five
+months and the Fairy does your dishes every day; you buy
+yourself an extra hour every day,&mdash;you are an hour ahead
+every day for the rest of your life.</p>
+
+<p>Is it worth the price?</p>
+
+<p>Remember that we allow you to use the Fairy for thirty days&mdash;ninety
+meals&mdash;before you pay a penny. Then for five months
+you send us five dollars a month, and we guarantee that you will
+declare it the best twenty-five dollars that you ever spent.</p>
+
+<p>Send the enclosed postal card to-day. It will bring the Fairy
+and a booklet of full directions.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Very truly yours,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 245</b></div>
+
+<p>You have bought a big tract of land in Alabama. You
+wish to sell a part uncleared, to set out a part in pecan trees,
+and to devote a part to truck farms. Write three letters
+to the same man, making each one stronger than the one
+before. Keep in mind the five essentials of a good letter.
+(See <a href="#Page_230">page 230</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Offer the uncleared land at a very low price. Offer as
+many inducements as you can, such as desirability of location,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+fertility of the soil, and comparison in price with other land in
+the same neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>2. You received no response from (1). Try to sell the section
+in which you are planting pecan trees. What inducements
+could you offer that might reach a man who was not affected
+by (1)?</p>
+
+<p>3. You received no response from (1) or (2). Try to sell a
+truck farm. What inducements could you offer that might lead
+a man to buy a truck farm when he had no interest in either
+uncleared land or pecan trees?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 246</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The <i>Modern Magazine</i> offers a set of Mark Twain's complete
+works absolutely free if you subscribe for one year for the
+<i>Modern Magazine</i> and the <i>Household Magazine</i> at the regular
+price of $2 for the <i>Modern Magazine</i> and $1.50 for the <i>Household
+Magazine</i>. This offer expires &mdash;&mdash; (date). Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>2. You have not responded. The <i>Modern Magazine</i> feels
+that you could not have understood its offer. These are no cheap
+books. To prove this, the firm is willing to send you the books
+to allow you to examine them before you send any money. If
+you accept them, pay the express agent; if not, return the books
+at the expense of the <i>Modern Magazine</i>. Remember that this
+offer expires &mdash;&mdash; (date).</p>
+
+<p>3. You have not responded. The magazine extends the time.
+Give a reason for the extension of the time.</p></div>
+
+<p>What criticism can you make on (3)?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 247</b></div>
+
+<p>A druggist was obliged to move from his corner store four
+doors east on a side street. He decided to advertise by sending
+a series of follow-up letters embodying the following
+ideas:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Change of location because &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>2. Stick to your druggist because he holds the key to your
+health.</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the reason that my trade is staying with me?
+(Prizes for the best answer.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. The reasons why trade stays with me&mdash;what my patrons
+say.</p>
+
+<p>5. The pure food question&mdash;why we must handle only fresh
+drugs.</p>
+
+<p>6. We are registered pharmacists&mdash;what this means to you.</p>
+
+<p>7. Why our sales expense is smaller now than formerly&mdash;how
+you profit.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 248</b></div>
+
+<p>A furniture house selling goods on monthly payments
+decides to advertise by sending a series of follow-up letters,
+using the following reasons why you should buy, one in each
+letter:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Variety of stock; assurance that they can please, no matter
+what you wish. Amplify.</p>
+
+<p>2. Reliability of the firm.</p>
+
+<p>3. The small profit on which they run their business gives you
+an excellent opportunity of buying good values at low prices.</p>
+
+<p>4. Buying on the "easy payment" plan enables you to have
+the use of your furniture while you are still paying for it.</p></div>
+
+<p>Why is (4) a poor argument?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 249</b></div>
+
+<p>Write a series of letters to sell an electric washing machine,
+using the following items:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The machine is ball bearing; therefore very easy to work.
+You can sit down while you do your week's washing. The only
+work required is hanging the clothes out of doors.</p>
+
+<p>2. It saves laundry bills.</p>
+
+<p>3. Summary of (1) and (2). The investment required is not
+large. Special plans for payment.</p>
+
+<p>4. The machine is durable.</p>
+
+<p>5. Summary of the above. The following figures show that
+during the time that has elapsed since (1) was received the
+machine might have been paid for out of the money spent for
+laundry bills.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PART III&mdash;BUSINESS PRACTICE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>MANUFACTURE</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following chapters will furnish exercises in composition,
+both oral and written, based upon the various phases
+of business. They are intended to show the application of
+the principles underlying manufacturing, buying, and selling.
+Of course, we cannot expect to go into great detail in
+any one of the divisions. That must be reserved for future
+study, perhaps reserved until the time that you enter a
+particular business. We must remember that our first
+consideration is the study of English, the problem of clear-cut
+expression. Underlying clear-cut expression is clear-cut
+thinking. It cannot be repeated too often that without
+a definite thought there can be no definite wording of the
+thought. To say, "I know, but I don't know how to tell
+it," shows a lazy brain. Learn to exercise your thinking
+powers so that you can force them to stay upon a subject
+until you have thought it out carefully and can express it.
+All of the oral exercises in the following chapters require
+careful preparation. This does not mean that they should be
+written out before the recitation, but it does mean that they
+must be carefully thought out. The preparation need not take
+a particular form. The main thing is that you know exactly
+the points that you wish to make before you begin to speak.
+If the exercise calls for a paragraph, have clearly in mind the
+plan by which you expect to expand your thought. Perhaps
+you expect to begin with, or to lead up to, a topic sentence.
+Remember that this may be done in several ways. Choose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+whichever plan seems best. If the exercise does not call
+for a particular form, such as a paragraph or a debate, you
+are left free to develop your thought in the way that you
+think fits your subject best and to the length which you
+think it demands.</p>
+
+<p>There are many different kinds of businesses. We shall not
+attempt to consider any except the most common and fundamental.
+Some, like farming or mining, consist in bringing
+forth certain products from the ground. Such products
+are called raw materials, of which an example is wheat.
+Some raw materials are sold and used unchanged, but most
+of them go through the process of manufacture in order to
+be directly usable. The miller is an example of a manufacturer,
+because from wheat he makes flour. In this chapter
+we shall study the principles underlying manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The exercises do not by any means exhaust the subject.
+Each one is to be considered as a nucleus about which others
+are to be grouped. If you live in a manufacturing district,
+other subjects will easily suggest themselves. If you have
+studied Industrial History or Commercial Geography, you
+probably have in mind a number of topics for discussion.
+If you know but little about raw materials, read some of
+the books suggested in Exercise 257. At all events let your
+work be definite. Whatever statements you make be able
+to substantiate by an illustration of something that you
+have seen or heard or read.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 250&mdash;Manufacture</b></div>
+
+<p>Almost all the things we eat, wear, and use every day are
+manufactured articles. Each one of them requires its own
+particular process in the making, involving the necessity
+in most cases of complex and expensive machinery, of expert
+workmen, and of still more expert management. Take, for
+example, the shoes we wear, in the manufacture of which
+an amazing number of complicated machines and of expert<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+workmen is necessary. According to the United States
+Department of Labor, men's rough shoes go through eighty-four
+distinct processes performed by skilled workmen and
+automatic machines. No less amazing is the amount of
+work turned out by these machines. It has been estimated
+that the McKay machine, which attaches the soles to the
+uppers, sews up in about one hour and a half one hundred
+pairs, an amount which it would take ninety-eight hours, or
+about eleven whole working days, to sew by hand.</p>
+
+<p>Each manufacturing business has peculiarities, machinery,
+methods, and even a language of its own; sometimes men
+must spend years in the study of the technicalities of certain
+manufacturing businesses before they become expert in them.
+It is evident that we cannot take up any one of them here
+except in so far as the principles of one apply to all, and
+these can be set down only very briefly.</p>
+
+<p>The first essential to successful manufacturing is correct
+buying. In fact, in some businesses this is so essential that
+the buyer gets a larger salary than the manager himself.
+We can see the reason for this when we consider that a
+good buyer must understand not only the materials that
+he buys, but also the manufacturing processes, so that,
+knowing the process through which the raw materials will
+go in his particular business, he will buy those materials
+that will make the most profitable manufactured articles.</p>
+
+<p>The next essential, and in most cases the most important
+one from the manufacturing standpoint, is a management
+capable of producing the best product at the least cost. The
+managers decide what shall be produced and how; they hire
+the workmen and decide what each shall do; they decide
+what shall be done by hand and what by machinery; and
+they choose the machines. Sometimes they go even so far
+as to determine exactly the method in which each task shall
+be done, and whenever they see that it would be advantageous
+to install a machine, they do so. Pursuing this policy, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+Chicago yeast concern not long ago put in three machines
+for wrapping the small yeast cakes, eliminating the services
+of 140 girls and cutting the cost of wrapping to three-fifths
+of what it had been. In the steel business the early success
+of Andrew Carnegie and the famous Bill Jones was largely
+due to the fact that on several occasions they did not hesitate
+to break up half a million dollars' worth of machinery and
+replace it with newer and more efficient kinds.</p>
+
+<p>The third essential to manufacturing success is aggressive
+marketing of the product. From the standpoint of money
+success this is probably the most important consideration;
+so important is it, in fact, that it will be more fully discussed
+in the chapter following.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 251&mdash;Manufactured Articles</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Define the word <i>industry</i>. When is a business called an
+industry? (Consult an unabridged dictionary.)</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>a.</i> Name several raw materials.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>b.</i> Name some industries whose business it is to produce
+raw materials.</span></p>
+
+<p>3. Name some companies or industries whose business it is,
+or whose principal function it is, to manufacture from
+raw materials.</p>
+
+<p>4. Name some companies or groups of companies that make
+articles more useful by transporting them to places where
+they are needed.</p>
+
+<p>5. Name some wholesale houses. In what does their business
+consist?</p>
+
+<p>6. Name several kinds of retail businesses. In what does
+their business consist?</p>
+
+<p>7. Name some companies that manufacture only one article.</p>
+
+<p>8. Name some companies that manufacture more than one
+article, but all of the same class. This is the largest
+group.</p>
+
+<p>9. Name some companies that manufacture several different
+kinds of articles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>10. Name some companies which, in manufacturing one product,
+make a secondary or by-product.</p>
+
+<p>11. Name a number of by-products and what they are by-products
+of.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Oral or Written</i></div>
+
+<p>In each of the following emphasize the labor involved,
+not the machinery used; prepare outlines:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Select any manufactured article that you have seen on a
+grocer's shelves, and trace it through (2), (3), (4), (5), and (6)
+above, from the raw material until the product is in the housekeeper's
+hands. If possible make your information exact by
+visiting a factory in which the article is made. The information
+contained in advertisements of well-known articles may help
+you.</p>
+
+<p>2. Trace the labor that is necessary to put a loaf of bread on
+the table.</p>
+
+<p>3. Trace the changes that the mineral undergoes to be suitable
+for the making of edged tools, such as knives or axes.</p>
+
+<p>4. Trace the changes that cotton must undergo before it is
+suitable for wearing as a dress or a pair of stockings.</p>
+
+<p>5. Trace the changes that wool undergoes before it can be worn
+as a sweater or a winter coat.</p>
+
+<p>6. Trace the changes that the skins of animals undergo before
+they can be worn as a muff.</p>
+
+<p>7. Trace the changes that silk undergoes before it can be worn
+as a neck-tie.</p>
+
+<p>8. Trace the changes that hemp undergoes before it can be
+used as a rope.</p>
+
+<p>9. Trace the changes that hides undergo before they can be
+worn as shoes.</p>
+
+<p>10. Trace wood from the tree to a piece of fine furniture or to
+the case of a musical instrument.</p>
+
+<p>11. Trace the steps in the process of making maple sugar.</p>
+
+<p>12. Trace the steps in making a piece of glazed pottery.</p>
+
+<p>13. Trace clay to bricks.</p>
+
+<p>14. Trace flax to a tablecloth.</p>
+
+<p>15. Trace the steps necessary to make a five dollar gold piece.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 252</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Subjects for Themes, Oral or Written</b></div>
+
+<p>The following are suggestions for theme subjects on manufacture.
+Develop one or more as the teacher directs.</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. Household uses for asbestos.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Making turpentine from wood.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. A convenient electrical device.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. The advantages of the fireless cooker.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. The advantages of concrete as a building material.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. The way to make a plaster cast.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. How iron castings are made.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Artificial flowers from feathers, paper, or cloth.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. How a suction sweeper works.</span><br />
+10. The safety match.<br />
+11. The uses of wood pulp.<br />
+12. Patent roofing.<br />
+13. The manufacture of plate glass.<br />
+14. Utilizing cotton seed.<br />
+15. The advantages and the disadvantages of using baking powder.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 253</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Suggestions for Debates</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The average young man has a better chance to succeed in
+business than in a profession.</p>
+
+<p>2. A manufacturing business offers a better opportunity for
+a young man at the present time than a mercantile business.</p>
+
+<p>3. Manufacturing industries would suffer if immigration were
+restricted.</p>
+
+<p>4. The labor union should be abolished.</p>
+
+<p>5. The labor union has no right to restrict the number of
+apprentices.</p>
+
+<p>6. The profit-sharing plan produces greater efficiency in the
+working-force.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 254</b></div>
+
+<p>Imagine that you are Stanley M. Benner, 171 South St.,
+Buffalo, N. Y., proprietor of a factory making men's shirts
+and collars.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Write an order to The American Printing Mill, 1038 Canal
+St., Passaic, N. J., for several bolts each of percale, madras, corded
+madras, and silk striped madras. Use catalogue numbers.</p>
+
+<p>2. Write another order to The Trescott Silk Mill, 976 River
+St., Paterson, N. J., for several bolts each of No. 62, No. 14,
+and No. 20 shirting silks, No. 62 being a striped silk and
+the others figured. Be definite in ordering the colors that you
+wish.</p>
+
+<p>3. You have received an order from Spencer &amp; Mitchell, 1925
+Pearl St., Albany, N. Y. Write a letter, thanking them for the
+order and explaining when and how the goods will be sent.</p>
+
+<p>4. You have received an order from William F. Atwood, 590
+Jackson St., Wilmington, Del., for a certain style of collar on
+which there has been a run. Write a letter, explaining that it will
+take about three weeks to fill the orders that you now have for
+this collar and that you therefore cannot send Mr. Atwood's
+goods before the end of the month.</p>
+
+<p>5. The goods have arrived from The Trescott Silk Mill. You
+find, however, that two bolts of No. 14 are badly soiled. Write
+a letter, saying that you are returning the bolts and asking to have
+the matter adjusted.</p>
+
+<p>6. A. W. Trescott, President of The Trescott Silk Mill, replies,
+expressing regret that the goods were soiled and saying that two
+clean bolts of No. 14 are being sent at once. Write his letter.</p>
+
+<p>7. You have on hand about 50 gross men's striped madras
+collars, for which there is no longer a call. Write to Markham
+Bros., wholesale jobbers, 1765 Greenwich St., New York City,
+asking what price they will offer for the lot.</p>
+
+<p>8. Accept their offer of $1.50 a gross for the collars.</p>
+
+<p>9. A customer sends a cash order for goods at last year's prices,
+10% below present prices. Write a politic reply.</p>
+
+<p>10. Owing to the mildness of the winter, you fear that you
+will not sell your stock of men's flannel shirts. Write a circular
+letter, offering the shirts in lots of 25 dozen each, assorted sizes
+and colors, at a 35% reduction in price. Address one letter to.
+Frederick H. Howard, a dealer at 775 Cedar St., Harrisburg, Pa.</p>
+
+<p>11. A teamsters' strike has delayed your shipments. You
+have received so many complaints of the non-arrival of goods
+that you decide to prepare a form letter that will answer all the
+complaints. Address one letter to William A. Spaulding, 2937
+Waterman St., Providence, R. I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>12. Miss Sarah MacComb has a small dry goods store in
+Norwich, Conn. She has owed you $125 for six months. You
+have been lenient with Miss MacComb because you know that
+she has had difficulty in meeting her bills. However, you feel
+that she should pay at least a part of her indebtedness to you.
+Write a courteous letter, longer and more persuasive than if it
+were to go to a man, demanding payment but retaining the customer's
+good will. This is a difficult letter to write. Prepare it
+carefully.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 255</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You have been manager of the Forsyth Furniture Co.,
+Grand Rapids, Mich. You have financial backing for $25,000
+and are looking for a location for a factory of your own. Write
+the same letter to the Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce of
+Great Falls, Mont.; Memphis, Tenn.; Houston, Texas; Indianapolis,
+Ind. Ask the Secretary to tell you the prospects for such
+a factory in his city, and what inducements the city will offer you.
+(By writing to different cities, the teacher can obtain their booklets
+and their special offers to manufacturers.)</p>
+
+<p>2. Investigate the conditions in one of the cities mentioned
+above and reproduce the letter that the Secretary wrote.</p>
+
+<p>3. Of the four cities, Great Falls appeals to you as the best
+location for your factory. Write again, asking the Secretary
+especially about the water power facilities offered and the rates
+charged for electrical power.</p>
+
+<p>4. He replies that Great Falls has the most extensive power
+in the United States, the hydro-electric power being ready for
+delivery in any quantity at exceptionally low rates. He tells of
+the many factories that are already located in Great Falls
+because of its water power facilities.</p>
+
+<p>5. Great Falls is your choice. After your factory is built
+and your machinery installed, write to the Secretary of the Sand
+Point Lumber Co., Sand Point, Idaho, asking him to submit
+figures for a contract for supplying all your fir lumber. Tell
+him you think you will use about a million board feet a year.</p>
+
+<p>6. The Secretary replies, offering you a contract on the following
+terms: For all amounts under 250,000 feet a year, a rate of 12
+cents a foot; under 500,000, 11 cents; over 500,000, 10 cents.
+All goods are to be billed at the highest rate and rebates made
+at the end of the year, terms of payment being 90 days, 5% for
+30 days.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. Write to the Central American Supply Co., Tehuantepec,
+Mexico, ordering 50,000 feet No. 1 Mahogany Veneer. Have it
+charged to your account, which you have previously opened.</p>
+
+<p>8. Write to Gregory Bros., wholesale dry goods merchants,
+12141 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn., ordering 15 bolts No.
+7 Green Denim; 10 bolts No. 09 Green Panne Velvet; 50 yds.
+No. 216 Tapestry; 50 yds. No. 16 Tapestry; 100 bolts Green and
+100 bolts Brown No. 5 Guimpe. Instruct them to ship the goods
+at once and draw on you at sight through the First National
+Bank of Great Falls. (See <a href="#Page_344">page 344</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>9. Write to the Excelsior Varnish Co., Merchants' National
+Bank Building, St. Paul, Minn., ordering articles such as varnish,
+stains, oils, enamels, and finishing wax.</p>
+
+<p>10. Write an order to a St. Louis firm for leather.</p>
+
+<p>11. Write an order to a Spokane firm for springs.</p>
+
+<p>12. Find out where a Great Falls merchant would buy oak and
+birch, and write an order for each.</p>
+
+<p>13. Write to the Hanover National Bank of New York City
+(because you happen to know the cashier of that bank), explaining
+that you are having a very decided increase in your business
+and that, in order to take care of the demand, you require a loan
+of $10,000. Explain further that the rates are too high in Great
+Falls for you to take a loan there. Say that you are enclosing
+a statement of your assets and liabilities.</p>
+
+<p>14. A dealer in Portland, Ore., writes, complaining that he has
+not yet received the goods that he ordered ten days ago. Write
+an appropriate reply.</p>
+
+<p>15. You receive an order, one item of which is 3 doz. oil mops,
+which you do not carry. Reply that you have referred the matter
+to &mdash;&mdash; a firm which you can recommend highly.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 256</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div>
+
+<p>Principles involved in manufacture:</p>
+
+<p>1. The location of a factory.</p>
+
+<div class='unindent'>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Where necessary raw materials can be obtained easily and cheaply.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Where land is not expensive.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>c.</i> Where the coal or water supply will make power inexpensive.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>d.</i> Where transportation facilities are good.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>2. The advantages of using machinery in manufacture.</p>
+
+<div class='unindent'>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Relative amount of work turned out.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Relative cost of work turned out.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>c.</i> Relative cleanliness of work turned out.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>d.</i> Relative uniformity of work turned out.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<p>3. The number of working hours.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Some factories have made the experiment of reducing the
+number of working hours from ten to eight without reducing the
+wages of the workers. They have found that the quantity of
+work turned out is increased and the quality improved. Can
+you explain why?</p></div>
+
+<p>4. The advantages of the profit-sharing plan, both for
+employer and for employee.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This is a plan by which a certain per cent of the profits of the
+business is divided annually among the employees. (See a very
+interesting article in <i>System</i> for March, 1911, or read <i>Profit-sharing
+between Employer and Employee</i> by N. P. Gilman.)</p></div>
+
+<p>5. Specialized labor.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>There was a time when a man made all the parts of a pair of
+shoes. Why in modern factories does he make only one part?
+Which system tends to make shoes of uniform workmanship? Is
+uniformity a good quality in manufacture? This principle applies
+to any kind of factory.</p></div>
+
+<p>6. Special products.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Suppose that you manufactured a large number of styles of
+millinery, or novelty, footwear. Would you expect your profits
+on these to be larger or smaller than on your staple styles? Give
+reasons and illustrations.</p></div>
+
+<p>7. Why is there a struggle between labor and capital?</p>
+
+<p>8. What is the cause of strikes?</p>
+
+<p>9. Are strikes a good thing for manufacture?</p>
+
+<p>10. A visit to a shoe factory (or any other factory).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 257</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</b></div>
+
+<p>If you have access to a public library, you can probably
+obtain some of the following books. They are all simple
+and interesting, and any of them will suggest several topics
+for talks.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Allen, N. B.</span>, Industrial Studies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Baker, R. S.</span>, Boys' Books of Inventions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Barnard, Charles</span>, Tools and Machines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carpenter, F. G.</span>, How the World is Fed; How the World is Clothed;
+How the World is Housed; Geographical Readers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chamberlain, J. F.</span>, How We are Fed; How We are Clothed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chase, A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Clow, E.</span>, Stories of Industries (two volumes).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cochrane, C. H.</span>, The Wonders of Modern Mechanism.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cochrane, Robert</span>, Romance of Industry and Invention.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Doubleday, Russell</span>, Stories of Invention.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forman, S. E.</span>, Useful Inventions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gibson, C. R.</span>, The Romance of Modern Manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lane, M. A. L.</span>, Industries of To-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Little Chronicle Co.</span>, Industries of a Great City.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mowry, W. A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Mowry, A. M.</span>, Inventions and Inventors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Parton, J.</span>, Captains of Industry (two series).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rocheleau, W. F.</span>, Products of the Soil; Minerals; Manufactures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Towle, G. M.</span>, Heroes and Martyrs of Invention.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Williams, A.</span>, How it is Made.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 258</b></div>
+
+<p>Study the punctuation of the following; then write from
+dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is stated that practical experience with gas mantles made of
+artificial silk&mdash;that is, silk made from wood pulp&mdash;has proved
+them to be far superior to those made of cotton, especially where
+the mantles are exposed to excessive vibration. Several German
+towns are said to be obtaining exceptionally good results from
+these new mantles used in conjunction with pressure gas, and it
+is asserted that the mantles are in good condition after being
+used for seven or eight weeks. Artificial silk, according to reports,
+has also been used experimentally by several manufacturers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+of incandescent gas mantles in the United Kingdom. The reports
+are all very encouraging, except that there seems to be one difficulty
+that is purely mechanical&mdash;the knitting of the artificial
+silk. The knots and other imperfections in the yarn cause a
+considerable amount of waste. However, the knitting-machine
+makers are experimenting to overcome it.&mdash;<i>Daily Consular and
+Trade Report.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>As the production of wool in this country, although approximating
+320,000,000 pounds a year, does not begin to meet the
+demands for the raw material, there is a yearly importation of
+from 156,000,000 to over 300,000,000 pounds. When each new
+census reveals the fact that there are fewer sheep of shearing age
+in the country than there were ten years before, the question
+of wool production becomes one of still greater importance. A
+solution may be found in a Peruvian product. A variety of cotton
+grows in Peru whose long, rough, crinkly fiber mixes so readily
+with wool that manufacturers use it in connection with wool in
+manufacturing "all wool" goods. It grows on a small tree that
+yields two or three crops a year for seven or eight years. The
+area, however, in which it is being successfully cultivated in Peru
+is so limited that the annual output is only about 16,000,000
+pounds, of which the United States takes approximately 5,500,000
+pounds. As the region in which it thrives is practically rainless,
+perhaps a way may be found to persuade the rough Peruvian to
+make a home for itself in the hot and arid regions of our Southwest.
+It would be a triumph of agriculture, certainly, to raise vegetable
+wool in regions not fitted for real sheep.&mdash;<i>The Wall Street Journal.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Casting of Metals</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>As is well known, some metals are unsuitable for casting, while
+others, like iron, can readily be cast into any desired shape. The
+property of casting well, it is said, depends upon whether the metal
+contracts or expands in solidifying from the liquid form. Iron,
+like water, expands in solidifying, and hence the solid metal may
+be seen floating in the liquid iron about it. The expansion causes
+it to fill the die into which it is poured, and so it can be cast easily.
+Gold and silver contract in cooling, and are, therefore, not suitable
+for casting.&mdash;<i>Harper's Weekly.</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>DISTRIBUTION</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Correct</span> buying and the most efficient methods of manufacture
+play a large part in the successful carrying on of a
+business, but the most important consideration is the successful
+marketing or distributing of the product after it has been
+manufactured or bought. Very few products are so superior
+in quality that they sell themselves purely on merit. Competition
+in business to-day is so keen that, in order to find
+a market for his product, a merchant must create a demand
+for it. Thus at its very foundation, distribution is merely
+a process of creating a demand and then filling that demand.
+For instance, the retail merchant is concerned with bringing
+the customers to his store rather than to his competitor's
+across the street. The wholesale merchant is concerned with
+having the retailers handle his goods rather than those of
+another firm. The mail order merchant is concerned with
+getting the farmer's business before some other dealer gets
+it. The salesman is concerned with writing the order before
+a rival from another house writes it.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the merchant must handle those things
+that his customers consider necessary or desirable. Overcoats
+cannot be sold in August, ashsifters on the equator,
+nor electric fans in Iceland. Different peoples, different
+times, and different conditions create different demands,
+and it is the merchant's business to study those demands
+and to fill them. In the second place, he must leave no stone
+unturned in endeavoring to make his product more desirable
+than that of his competitors. This may mean extensive
+advertising campaigns, expensive displays, outlay for costly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+catalogues and booklets, the expenditure of money for
+inducements to bring customers, or the hiring of expert
+salesmen. In fact, thousands of plans are carried out every
+year in this endeavor to increase trade.</p>
+
+<p>The getting of new and additional business, however, is
+only one of the important considerations that the merchant
+must always have in mind. He must also keep what business
+he already has by maintaining the standard of his goods
+and by giving his customers satisfactory service. One of
+the first essentials in this question of service is promptness
+and exactness of delivery. In this the merchant must depend
+very largely on the transportation companies, and therefore
+a brief study of these facilities will be especially in
+place at this point.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Transportation</b></div>
+
+<p>Transportation is an essential item in the problem of distribution.
+If you wished to drink a cup of coffee and found
+that none could be had except in Brazil, you would begin to
+realize how much the steamship company and the railroad
+company have done in transporting and hauling it where
+you might buy it. The same is true of our oranges from
+California and Florida, our apples from Washington and
+Oregon, and our grain from the Middle States. In fact,
+in the case of many products the most important item is
+not growing them, but bringing them to market, since the
+transportation charges are often much greater than the actual
+cost of producing. Thousands of barrels of apples rot on the
+ground every year because their quality does not warrant
+the high transportation charges, the lack of transportation
+rendering them useless. In a smaller measure, the delivery
+wagons in our cities and towns are essential to us because
+they save us the trouble of carrying our purchases about.
+Thus, the element of transportation enters into our lives
+every day, saving us inconvenience, bringing to us necessities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+that we demand and luxuries that we like, and, at
+the same time, increasing the price of commodities.</p>
+
+<p>Common carriers, as transportation companies are called,
+are of two general classes:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Those operating on water&mdash;the steamship companies.<br />
+2. Those operating on land&mdash;the railroad companies.<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Steamship Company</span></div>
+
+<p>Steamship companies operate three general kinds of lines:
+(1) lines consisting of the largest and fastest steamers which
+carry only passengers, mail, and valuable parcels; (2) lines
+using slower steamers which carry both passengers and freight;
+and (3) lines employing vessels&mdash;steamers, sailing vessels,
+and barges&mdash;which carry only freight. The cost of hauling
+cargoes by water is in every case less per mile than that of
+carrying the same quantity of goods on land. It costs, for
+example, over four times as much to carry a bushel of wheat
+from Chicago to New York by rail as it does to carry it across
+the Atlantic. It is for this very reason that the traffic on
+our navigable rivers, the Ohio and the Mississippi, and on
+the Great Lakes is so heavy. Whenever a cargo can be
+shipped as well by water as by rail and there is no hurry for
+delivery, it is shipped by water. However, because so much
+of our freight must be rushed from place to place, the railroads
+get the bulk of the inland traffic.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Railroad Company</span></div>
+
+<p>The services of the railroad company embrace the hauling
+of freight, the carrying of passengers, and the transporting of
+express and of mail. The hauling of freight is the most
+important item in the railroad business, about three-quarters
+of the total income being derived from this source. Each
+year over one billion tons of freight are turned over by
+shippers to the railroads, who use almost two and one-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+million freight cars to carry it. About one-half of this tonnage
+is minerals, mainly ore and coal; about one-seventh
+consists of manufactured articles; and one-twelfth of agricultural
+products. Commodities are grouped into from ten
+to fourteen classes, on each one of which the freight rate is
+different from that of the others. By freight rate is meant
+the cost of shipping a certain unit, usually 100 pounds
+or a ton, from one place to another; it is dependent
+on the distance. There are certain bulky commodities like
+coal, livestock, lumber, grain, and cement, which are almost
+always handled in carload lots. They are not included in
+the freight classification, but have a special ex-class freight
+rate. Freight rates depend also on whether the goods are
+shipped by slow or <i>local</i> freight or by fast or <i>through</i> freight.</p>
+
+<p>There are a hundred different kinds of papers used in
+carrying on the railroad freight business. Only four of the
+most important will be considered here. When a shipper
+turns over his goods to the railroad company at its freight
+depot, he gets from the agent a <i>receipt for freight</i>, which is
+merely a receipt for the goods he has turned over. In the
+ordinary course of business these receipts are exchanged at
+the company's office for a <i>bill of lading</i> in triplicate. The
+original and one copy are given to the shipper. The second
+copy is kept by the railroad. This bill of lading may be
+of two kinds, <i>straight</i> or <i>order</i>. If a straight bill of lading
+is given, the original is sent to the person to whom the goods
+are shipped, who is called the <i>consignee</i>, who on the presentation
+of the bill of lading is entitled to the goods after
+paying the charges. An order bill of lading is much like
+a check, in that it can be assigned to another person. Like
+the straight bill it states the name of the consignee or
+the person for whom the goods are intended and his
+address, but the consignee cannot get possession of the
+goods until he has paid for them. To collect payment,
+the shipper attaches to the order bill of lading a draft for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+the amount of the goods and the freight, and through his
+bank and the bank of the consignee the amount is collected.
+The consignee then gets possession of the order bill of lading,
+which entitles him to possession of the goods. This is
+more fully explained on <a href="#Page_344">page 344</a>. The railroad's most
+important paper is the <i>way bill</i>, which shows the conductor
+or the agent of the company just what articles are included
+in the shipment, so that it can be checked when unloaded.
+When the goods arrive at their destination, the consignee
+is notified and is sent a <i>freight bill</i> showing the freight
+charges. When he presents his bill of lading and pays the
+charges, the <i>freight bill</i> is receipted and the goods are his.</p>
+
+<p>In quoting prices on goods, manufacturers and distributors
+usually designate whether they will pay the freight or
+whether it is to be paid by the consignee. In the latter case
+the price is quoted f. o. b. at the place from which the goods
+are shipped, which means freight on board at that point.
+That is to say, if a distributor located at Detroit quotes his
+automobiles f. o. b. Detroit, he means that he will see that
+the goods get into the railroad company's hands at Detroit,
+but that the consignee pays the freight from Detroit to the
+destination. The latter is the common practice in shipping.</p>
+
+<p>In the following exercises we shall treat the subject of
+distribution under four heads:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Outline">
+<tr><td align='right'>I.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The Retail Merchant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The Wholesale Merchant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The Mail Order Merchant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The Salesman.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="smcap">I.&mdash;The Retail Merchant</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 259</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<p>You are opening a grocery store. Remember that your
+object is to sell the largest possible amount of goods.
+Develop each of the following suggestions:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What kind of location would you desire?</p>
+
+<p>2. How would you have the front of your store painted?
+Would you try to make it stand out from the rest?</p>
+
+<p>3. Do you think it would pay you to have the interior newly
+and brightly redecorated? To put in the best and brightest
+lights?</p>
+
+<p>4. What quality of stock would you select? The same for
+all neighborhoods? Give your reasons. Would advertised
+brands bring you more trade?</p>
+
+<p>5. Do you think window display would pay? Would you
+recommend freak or ordinary displays? Price-marked or non-price-marked?
+Give your reasons.</p>
+
+<p>6. Does the delivery wagon pay? Would it be advisable to
+buy a new wagon and a good horse? What other considerations
+would enter?</p>
+
+<p>7. Would you sometimes cut the price of some necessity to
+draw people? Give reasons for your answer.</p>
+
+<p>8. Is it a good thing to have a general cut-price-sale to bring
+customers to your store? Even if you lose money by it?</p>
+
+<p>9. Would you give credit? Would the class of people you
+served come into consideration?</p>
+
+<p>10. Is the use of trading stamps and premiums good policy?</p>
+
+<p>11. Why do you often find a meat market in connection with
+a grocery?</p>
+
+<p>12. There are two kinds of retail meat markets: (1) the one
+that sells goods which can be retailed at a low price, and (2) the
+one that sells superior goods at a higher price. Which policy
+would you follow and why?</p>
+
+<p>13. Could a retailer combine the two spoken of in (12)? Consider
+cost, space, satisfaction of the customer.</p>
+
+<p>14. Would you advertise by means of handbills? By circular
+letters?</p>
+
+<p>15. What would you do if another grocery opened across the
+street from yours?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 260</b></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br /><i>Written</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You have bought Burton &amp; Sanders' grocery at Fort Wayne,
+Indiana. Send out a circular letter advertising the new White
+Front Grocery and telling what the policy of the new management
+will be. Explain that the opening sale will begin next Monday<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+and that a special feature of the sale will, be twenty pounds
+of granulated sugar for eighty cents with a two dollar order.</p>
+
+<p>2. At the same time have an article appear in a local newspaper,
+telling that Burton &amp; Sanders have sold their store to
+you and that you are making extensive improvements, especially
+in sanitary means of handling provisions. In addition, let the
+article give an account of your business career in another town.
+Would such an article be of value to you? Write it.</p>
+
+<p>3. Write to Peabody, Harper &amp; Co., Rush Street Bridge,
+Chicago, Ill., saying that you would like to open an account with
+them. Give as references a bank in your town and one in
+Logansport, where you used to live. Ask Peabody, Harper &amp; Co.
+what terms they can offer you.</p>
+
+<p>4. You have decided to advertise in a local paper. Write
+to the advertising manager, asking him for yearly rates for a half-column
+every evening and a quarter-page every Friday.</p>
+
+<p>5. Find out what are the advertising rates of a paper in your
+town and answer (4).</p>
+
+<p>6. Reproduce a letter that a woman living in town sends,
+ordering two dollars' worth of groceries and requesting that you
+send, in addition, the twenty pounds of sugar you advertise in
+(1). She encloses a check for $2.80.</p>
+
+<p>7. You are in receipt of a letter from Peabody, Harper &amp; Co.,
+answering your inquiry in (3) and offering you sixty days' credit
+and 2% discount for payment within ten days. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>8. Send an order to Peabody, Harper &amp; Co. for $200 worth
+of groceries. Among the items let there be 6 cases of canned
+tomatoes, first quality, at $1.75 a case. Ask them to send the
+goods by the Pennsylvania R. R.</p>
+
+<p>9. Your business is increasing and you need another clerk,
+(a) Write an advertisement for one. <i>(b</i>) Apply for the position.</p>
+
+<p>10. Write a short circular advertising an inexpensive novelty
+that a grocer might sell. These circulars are to be wrapped
+with purchases.</p>
+
+<p>11. Peabody, Harper &amp; Co. write, confirming your order in
+(8) and enclosing a straight bill of lading.</p>
+
+<p>12. When the goods arrive, you find no tomatoes among them.
+Write a complaint to the wholesale house.</p>
+
+<p>13. Peabody, Harper &amp; Co. reply to your letter in (12), apologizing
+for the mistake, explaining how it occurred (supply an
+explanation), and telling you that they have sent one case by
+express at their expense. The rest will follow by freight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>14. The tomatoes sent by freight do not arrive. Write to the
+grocery company, asking the latter to send out a "tracer"; that
+is, to request the railroad company to trace the goods on its lines.</p>
+
+<p>15. The grocery company telephones the railroad company,
+requesting the latter to trace the goods and to report. The
+grocery company also writes a letter confirming its request. Write
+the letter.</p>
+
+<p>16. (<i>a</i>) The railroad company reports that by mistake the goods
+were carried through to Lima, but that they are being returned
+to Fort Wayne. (<i>b</i>) The grocery company informs you of the
+developments and hopes that the delay has caused you no great
+inconvenience. Write both letters.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 261</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You wish to get a partner to open a meat market in connection
+with your grocery. Write to a friend in Lafayette, Ind.,
+who you think will be interested, proposing the plan. Tell him
+of the opportunities, as you see them, of business in Fort Wayne
+and the surrounding country. Tell him that with $4,000 additional
+capital you and he could set up a much larger establishment,
+invest in a motor wagon, and thus secure the trade of the
+outlying districts.</p>
+
+<p>2. Your friend replies that the proposal appeals strongly to
+him, but that he has only $2,000 in cash. However, he holds a
+mortgage for $2,000 on &mdash;&mdash; (state the location of the house) in
+Lafayette, and, if he can sell the mortgage, he will be glad to
+avail himself of the offer.</p>
+
+<p>3. After the partnership is formed, your partner writes to Orr
+&amp; Locket, 14 W. Randolph St., Chicago, Ill., ordering the following
+to be shipped by Pennsylvania R.R.: 1 Refrigerator No. 361;
+2 Meat Blocks No. 3; 1 Scale No. M. 30; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Saws No. 33
+(16 in.); <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Saws No. 33 (22 in.); <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> doz. Knives No. 955;
+<span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> doz. Knives No. 490; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Steels No. 82; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub></span> doz. Cleavers
+No. 09; <span class='small'><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> doz. Block Scrapers. He explains that he is the same
+man who formerly had a meat market in Lafayette.</p>
+
+<p>4. Orr &amp; Locket acknowledge the receipt of the order, enclose
+the invoice, and offer him 5% discount for payment within 30 days.
+Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>5. A Detroit manufacturer sends you f.o.b. prices on his
+motor wagons. Investigate the prices and write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>6. Order one of them. (Remember the f.o.b. item.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. He writes confirming your order, saying that the car is now
+in the shipper's hands and that his bank has sent the order bill of
+lading with draft attached to the First National Bank of your
+city. Write the letter. (See <a href="#Page_344">page 344</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>8. At the same time the shipper's bank sends a letter to the
+First National Bank of your city enclosing the order bill of lading
+with draft drawn on you for collection. A copy of this letter is
+also mailed to you. Write it.</p>
+
+<p>9. You telephone your bank to draw on your account for
+the amount of the draft and to send you the bill of lading. You
+confirm this understanding by a letter. Write it.</p>
+
+<p>10. Your bank writes, confirming the telephone conversation
+and enclosing the bill of lading and a receipt for the correct
+amount. You present your bill of lading, pay the freight charges,
+and get your motor wagon. Write the letter the bank sends.</p>
+
+<p>11. The automobile manufacturer has meanwhile received
+through his bank a credit for the amount you paid for the car and
+writes acknowledging its receipt. Write the letter.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 262</b></div>
+
+<p>Choose four or six members of the class, one-half of whom
+are to argue in favor of the policy indicated in the plan outlined
+below and one-half of whom are to argue against it.</p>
+
+<p>A certain grocer opened a store with the determination of
+doing a strictly cash business, and of making no deliveries
+unless the purchaser paid for the delivery. This was his
+plan as suggested by <i>System:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. To those who would carry their own purchases he sold
+everything for cash much lower than any other grocer in town
+sold it.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the customer bought very bulky goods, or if he did not
+wish to be his own delivery man, the grocer charged him for
+delivery a certain percentage of the total of his cash purchases.
+Yet the customer bought more cheaply than he could buy in any
+other grocery in town.</p>
+
+<p>3. Those who wished to pay once a month instead of at every
+visit he advised to deposit a certain sum of money with him as
+banker and to buy against that, paying cash prices and receiving
+3% interest on the amount left on deposit.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="smcap">II.&mdash;The Wholesale Merchant</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 263</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<p>Each of the following should be developed into a paragraph:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are a manufacturer and wholesale distributor with a
+factory on the outskirts of a town; would you have a warehouse
+in the center of the town? Give reasons for your answer.</p>
+
+<p>2. What would be the advantage of having your warehouse
+near the railroad freight depots? Near the docks?</p>
+
+<p>3. What would be the advantage of being located in a large
+city with many railroads and with water transportation facilities&mdash;Chicago,
+for example?</p>
+
+<p>4. Speed gets orders. With this in view, what would you
+recommend with respect to the equipment for handling? What
+would you suggest about the number of people through whose
+hands the order would have to go before being shipped?</p>
+
+<p>5. If you were looking for big trade in a big city, what kind of
+stock would you carry? Musical instruments? Clothing?</p>
+
+<p>6. Would it be a good plan to make a specialty of certain
+brands for leaders and to quote a special price on them?</p>
+
+<p>7. If you were just starting a wholesale hardware or grocery
+business, state which you think would be the better policy: (1)
+to concentrate on one kind of goods in one territory and to take
+on other kinds and territories later, or (2) to work all kinds of
+goods as widely as possible from the very beginning. Explain
+fully.</p>
+
+<p>8. Would you bear part of the expense of retailers' advertising,
+especially of window displays, provided they handled your
+goods?</p>
+
+<p>9. Would it be good business for the salesmen of the firm to
+suggest selling methods to retailers and to plan window displays
+for them? Give your reasons.</p>
+
+<p>10. Do you think it would increase sales to offer a money prize
+to the retailer selling the largest amount of a certain kind of your
+goods, the sale of which you wished materially to increase?</p>
+
+<p>11. Tell which you think would be the better policy: (1) to
+undersell your competitors for a time and then, when you had the
+trade, to raise your prices, or (2) to set one price and maintain it
+from the beginning. Give your reasons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>12. If you were getting out a new brand of carpenters' tools,
+where would you advertise? Would you conduct an extensive
+national campaign?</p>
+
+<p>13. If you were bringing out a new soap or washing powder,
+where would you advertise? Would you conduct an extensive
+national advertising campaign? What would your answer be
+if you were introducing a new brand of crackers?</p>
+
+<p>14. Would bringing out novelties from time to time help the
+sale of your staple articles? Explain.</p>
+
+<p>15. Do you think it would pay to send circulars to the housewives
+of a certain locality to get the local grocers' trade? After
+you had the local grocers' trade?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_264" id="Exercise_264"></a>Exercise 264</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Written</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are Thos. H. Peabody of Peabody, Harper &amp; Co.'s
+wholesale grocery. Prepare a circular letter, announcing your
+removal to a new building. The letter will be printed in imitation
+of typewriting and the introduction filled in later on the
+typewriter. Remember you are seeking patronage. Address
+one letter to Walter T. Barth, 350 E. Water St., Milwaukee, Wis.</p>
+
+<p>2. Write an advertisement to appear in the January number
+of <i>The Grocer and Country Merchant</i>, a grocers' trade journal.
+It will announce your change of location.</p>
+
+<p>3. You receive an order from a retailer in which he asks for
+a certain brand of coffee that you do not carry. Write a letter
+telling him you do not handle that brand and offering him another.
+Make the letter as courteous as possible.</p>
+
+<p>4. Write an advertisement for (1) a bookkeeper; (2) a stenographer.</p>
+
+<p>5. Answer (1) or (2) above.</p>
+
+<p>6. Write an advertisement for a traveling salesman.</p>
+
+<p>7. Answer (6) telling why you think you could sell groceries
+although you have had no experience.</p>
+
+<p>8. Write a circular letter to send to the trade setting forth
+the merits of a new brand of canned fruit. Say that you are
+offering the brand at a very attractive price in the expectation
+that retailers will make it a leader. Write to Mr. Barth (1).</p>
+
+<p>9. You have made a contract with the manufacturers of the
+canned fruit mentioned in (8), by which you secure the exclusive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+sale but take the responsibility of advertising. Write to an advertising
+agency, saying that you are considering a three months'
+advertising campaign. Explain that you do not wish the expense
+to exceed five thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>10. The advertising agency replies that, as five thousand dollars
+is a comparatively small sum for a campaign, it would suggest
+that the advertising be confined to one class: street car, billboard,
+newspaper, or magazine. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>11. Notify the agency of your choice, giving your reasons.</p>
+
+<p>12. Write a series of three letters to send to housewives, advertising
+the canned fruit, with the purpose of having them ask
+for this brand at their grocers': (1) Telling the name of the canned
+fruit, its excellence, its price, and where it may be bought; (2)
+Asking if the housewife has as yet bought any, and if she has not,
+telling her she can get a sample at her grocer's on presentation of
+this letter; (3) Asking how she liked the fruit and quoting a letter
+of recommendation received from Mrs. A., who lives in the neighborhood.
+Urge her to buy, but not too abruptly. A letter to a
+woman should be fairly long. (See <a href="#Page_265">page 265</a>.)</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 265</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For two months you have been without a credit man. You
+wish to be very careful in your choice because of the importance
+of the position. J. B. Wright of 439 Russell Ave., Indianapolis,
+is a personal friend of yours. He has heard that you need a credit
+man and he recommends Joseph Haddon, who worked for him
+three years in that capacity until a year ago when he went to
+Colorado because of the ill-health of his wife. Meanwhile, Mr.
+Wright's son has been acting as his credit man. Mrs. Haddon
+has now recovered, and her husband is anxious to get another
+position. Reproduce Mr. Wright's letter.</p>
+
+<p>2. Write the letter Mr. Wright sends Mr. Haddon in Colorado,
+suggesting that the latter apply for the position.</p>
+
+<p>3. At the same time Joseph Haddon writes, applying for the
+position. Write the letter of application.</p>
+
+<p>4. Write Mr. Haddon's letter thanking Mr. Wright for his
+interest. Remember that the two men know each other.</p>
+
+<p>5. Joseph Haddon, whom you have engaged, is proving to be
+a very alert credit man. He has made a study of your credit
+files and has discovered that you have a great many accounts of
+long standing that ought to be collected. He prepares a courteous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+letter to send to the debtors, telling them that he has just been
+made credit man and that he personally would like to get into
+closer touch with their particular situation to find out how soon
+he might expect a remittance from them, so that he could plan
+the future of his department. Write the letter. (See <a href="#Page_254">page 254</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. A number of retailers remit the amount that they owe.
+Some explain their situation in detail, but a great many do not
+respond to (5). Write another letter, still courteous, but more
+emphatic than (5), to those who did not respond. (See <a href="#Page_255">page 255</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>7. Still a number do not respond. Write a third letter, saying
+that you will place the matter in the hands of your attorney
+unless you receive a remittance within ten days.</p>
+
+<p>8. Mr. Haddon discovers that there are about a hundred
+retailers who used to be customers, but who have bought nothing
+for about two years. He reports this to the sales manager, Mr.
+James Woodworth, who writes a letter to the retailers to induce
+them to send another order, using the canned fruit spoken of in
+(8) of <a href="#Exercise_264">Exercise 264</a> as a means of interesting them.</p>
+
+<p>9. Nathaniel Sears, a dealer in general merchandise at Joplin,
+Mo., writes to you asking for an open account. He says that he
+did a $10,000 business last year and that, apparently, sales this
+year will be larger. He gives no references. You refer the matter
+to Mr. Haddon, who looks up Mr. Sears in Bradstreet and then
+writes to one of your salesmen at St. Louis, asking him to investigate
+the financial standing of Mr. Sears. Write to the salesman.</p>
+
+<p>10. After three days the salesman reports that Mr. Sears seems
+to be doing a good business, but he thinks the dealer is living
+beyond his means. He owes two wholesale houses $500 and $850
+respectively; his property in Joplin is heavily mortgaged, and
+yet he is making extensive improvements on his residence; his
+son and his daughter are at expensive boarding schools. Write
+the letter. Be exact in your information.</p>
+
+<p>11. As Mr. Woodworth, write Mr. Sears a courteous letter,
+refusing him credit but attempting to secure his cash business.</p>
+
+<p>12. Charles Freeman, 141 Park Place, Newark, Ohio, writes
+in answer to (5) saying that he is unable to pay his account of
+$500. After the harvest his outstanding bills will be paid by the
+farmers, and then he can remit. He says he is willing to give his
+90 day note for the amount he owes.</p>
+
+<p>13. Mr. Haddon writes, accepting the note.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="smcap">III.&mdash;The Mail Order Merchant</span></h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 266</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Suppose you were starting a mail order business. Would
+it make any difference in possible profits if your center of operations
+were in a large or a small city? Give your reasons.</p>
+
+<p>2. Would you try to be near good transportation?</p>
+
+<p>3. What kind of stock would you advertise principally: bulky
+articles or those easily handled? expensive goods or those of more
+moderate price?</p>
+
+<p>4. Your catalogue is your salesman. What would this statement
+suggest about the cost of running your business as compared
+with that of Peabody, Harper &amp; Co., who employ five salesmen?</p>
+
+<p>5. How would you bring special attention to your leaders in
+your catalogue?</p>
+
+<p>6. Why is it advisable not to give your catalogue away free,
+but to charge a nominal sum for it?</p>
+
+<p>7. Would you sell as cheaply as you could or would you try
+to sell for as high a price as possible even if you sold less?</p>
+
+<p>8. Is it profitable for a mail order merchant to sell one spool
+of thread or one pocket-knife? Consider the handling and the
+packing.</p>
+
+<p>9. Why can the mail order merchant sell more cheaply than
+the country dealer?</p>
+
+<p>
+10. <i>a.</i> How is the parcel post favorable to the mail order dealer?<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> Why did the country merchant object so strenuously to the passage of the parcel post law?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>11. Some distributors who handle only one kind of article sometimes
+pay the freight. Would this plan be advisable for a mail
+order house to adopt?</p>
+
+<p>12. Since the purchaser pays the freight, is it advisable for
+him to buy a large or a small order at one time?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 267</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Written</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A customer who wishes to buy some furniture complains
+that he can purchase what he wishes from another firm that will
+pay the freight. Write a letter meeting his objection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. You have just added a new clothing department and have
+published a special clothing catalogue, which you will be glad
+to send to your customers free of charge. Write a letter telling
+of the new department and drawing special attention to your
+three-piece serge suit for $15. Enclose a sample of the cloth.</p>
+
+<p>3. Write, especially to farmers, saying that with the facilities
+now offered by the parcel post you are able to supply their wants
+quickly; as, for example, for a broken part of a piece of farm
+machinery. Write a fairly long letter in a friendly tone.</p>
+
+<p>4. In the fall write a letter, addressing the farmers' wives,
+saying that, as winter is at hand, it would be well for them to put
+in a supply of groceries when prices are reasonable. Enclose a
+folder giving some attractive bargains. Write the folder.</p>
+
+<p>5. Write a letter, saying that you have just put up a new
+building. Invite your customer to come to see it. Explain that
+every afternoon from 2 to 4 o'clock there will be a band concert
+in your large visitors' hall.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 268</b></div>
+
+<p>1. Let one pupil be chosen to dictate to the class each
+of the letters outlined below. He is to use no notes. The
+class will represent stenographers.</p>
+
+<p>2. Discuss and improve the letters that have been
+dictated.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Borroughs &amp; Brown, a mail order firm at N. 11th and
+Callowhill Streets, Philadelphia, send you their catalogue and an
+advertising letter. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>2. Write, stating that in their catalogue No. 6, page 673,
+Borroughs &amp; Brown list a washing machine such as you wish,
+called the "Pride Swing" washing machine, No. 4-A-459. The
+measurements as listed are: depth 13 inches, diameter 21 inches.
+The price is $5.25. This is too small for your purpose. Ask if
+they can supply you with the same style 30 inches in diameter.
+Ask the price.</p>
+
+<p>3. Borroughs &amp; Brown write that they have no such machine
+in stock, but, since there have been many requests lately for a
+larger machine, they have decided to consult the factory, and if
+it is advisable, they will reproduce the "Pride Swing" machine
+in larger size. (Letter head.)</p>
+
+<p>4. Borroughs &amp; Brown, Dept. 18, House Furnishings, write to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., Saginaw, Mich., stating that they have
+had several orders for a larger "Pride Swing" washing machine
+which the Wiggins Company manufacture. Burroughs &amp; Brown
+ask concerning a 30-inch machine. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>5. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. telegraph Borroughs &amp; Brown
+that before they can state a price on a 30-inch "Pride Swing"
+machine, they must make samples, calculating cost of materials
+and workmanship. Write the telegram. Confirm by letter.
+Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>6. Borroughs &amp; Brown write you, giving the information contained
+in (5) above.</p>
+
+<p>7. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. write Borroughs &amp; Brown,
+stating that after several experiments they find that the coil
+springs by which the "Pride Swing" machine is operated are
+too weak for the larger sized tub. The manufacture of suitable
+springs will cause some delay in their final report.</p>
+
+<p>8. Ten days later. Telegram. The W. F. Wiggins Mfg.
+Co. to Borroughs &amp; Brown, stating that they have now perfected
+a "Pride Swing Special" machine; width 30 inches, depth 18
+inches; price $8, with a discount of 50%.</p>
+
+<p>9. Borroughs &amp; Brown write you that they have perfected a
+"Pride Swing Special" washing machine, No. 4-B-459, 30 inches
+in diameter, 18 inches in depth, price $7. Add a courteous
+close.</p>
+
+<p>10. Order five machines. Give full shipping directions. Say
+that you will pay according to the offer made on page 25, catalogue
+No. 6; viz., $20 upon receipt of the goods and $5 per month until
+they are paid for. Give two references.</p>
+
+<p>11. Borroughs &amp; Brown telegraph the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co.
+ordering 100 machines, five of which are to be sent directly to
+you. Write, confirming the telegram.</p>
+
+<p>12. Two weeks later than letter (10) write again, explaining
+that you have not received the machines you ordered. Ask the
+reason for the delay.</p>
+
+<p>13. Two weeks later than (11) write a telegram from Borroughs
+&amp; Brown to the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co., asking why the machines
+have not been sent.</p>
+
+<p>14. Send a telegram from the W. F. Wiggins Mfg. Co. to Borroughs
+&amp; Brown, saying that, owing to a teamsters' and shipping
+clerks' strike, they have not been able to fill any of their orders
+for the last two weeks. The machines have been sent. (State
+how and when.) Write a letter, confirming the telegram.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>15. Borroughs &amp; Brown write to inform you that the strike
+was the cause of the delay in the shipment of the machines you
+ordered &mdash;&mdash;. The machines were shipped &mdash;&mdash;. Add a courteous
+close.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 269</b></div>
+
+<p>Conduct a transaction of your own, using the above as
+a model, except in the method of payment.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b><span class="smcap">IV.&mdash;The Salesman</span></b></div>
+
+<p>Salesmanship is a branch of distribution about which
+many volumes have been written. We cannot consider it
+minutely from the personal view of the salesman, but can
+only touch upon it from the point of view of distribution.
+The salesman is merely a force in distribution like
+correspondence, circulars, and advertising. But the salesman
+has the advantage over these in that he is able to
+bring his personality to bear in the problem of getting
+business. It is by means of his personality that the salesman
+gets the attention and confidence of the customer,&mdash;a
+thing which is extremely hard to do in a letter, a circular,
+or an advertisement. Securing a buyer's confidence is very
+important, because no suspicious customer has ever yet
+bought anything.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to a pleasing personality a good salesman must
+have a wide and thorough knowledge of his wares. If he
+does not know his goods, the sale drags; whereas, if he knows
+everything good there is to be known about them, his enthusiasm
+instills enthusiasm into the customer.</p>
+
+<p>After bringing his knowledge and his enthusiasm into play,
+he must next call on his perseverance and his tact; perseverance
+to keep at the customer until he gets the order, and
+tact to know in each case just how to go about getting the
+order and just when to stop. Many salesmen talk too much;
+many more do not talk enough.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 270</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<p>In talking on any of the following subjects be sure you
+know just what you are going to say before you begin, and
+then say it clearly and convincingly. Don't say too much
+and don't say too little. Just exactly how much you
+should say no one can tell you. You must watch your
+audience. If they look puzzled, give more details; if they
+look bored, try shorter, more concise sentences, or bring
+your talk to a close. After you have explained all your
+points, sum them up briefly at the end. Remember that
+your talk must, first, attract attention; second, hold the
+interest; and third, create enthusiasm and desire to buy.</p>
+
+<p>To supplement what facts you get from observation, study
+advertisements and catalogues to get material for (9) to
+(20) below:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Get up a talk to persuade a freshman or a group of freshmen
+to subscribe to the school paper.</p>
+
+<p>2. To persuade girls to contribute to a fund to be used to buy
+suits for the football team.</p>
+
+<p>3. To induce particularly uninterested freshmen to buy
+tickets for a school activity; for example, a debate.</p>
+
+<p>4. As a real estate agent induce a classmate to establish a
+home in your neighborhood.</p>
+
+<p>5. Try to sell the manager of the baseball team a new line of
+athletic goods.</p>
+
+<p>6. Try to sell a set of Dickens' (or any other author's) works
+to a boy who is not fond of reading. You must enjoy the books
+that you recommend.</p>
+
+<p>7. Try to sell the class or the teacher a new kind of loose
+leaf note book for science or English work.</p>
+
+<p>8. As an agent for the publishers try to sell this text book to
+your English class or to your English teacher.</p>
+
+<p>9. You are trying to sell an automobile to a farmer. By
+means of concrete examples develop the following items into a
+talk:<br />
+
+
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>a.</i> The business opportunities to be gained.<br /></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> The social opportunities to be gained.</span><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>10. Get up a talk to sell a runabout to a physician who
+has a small practice. Suppose that he owns a horse and a buggy.
+Be tactful.</p>
+
+<p>11. You are a salesman for an automobile house and are trying
+to sell a gasoline car to a man who is partial to an electric car.
+Meet the objections to the gasoline car and put forward its
+advantages.</p>
+
+<p>12. You are trying to sell an electric runabout to a woman.
+Develop the following into a talk:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>a.</i> Ease of operation.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>b.</i> Noiselessness and comfort.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>c.</i> Elegant appearance.</span><br /></p>
+
+<p>13. You are trying to sell the manager of a local express company
+a motor truck. Gather all the data you can and present it
+in a talk on why he should replace his horses and wagons with
+motor trucks. Be as specific as possible.</p>
+
+<p>14. Get up a talk showing why a man with considerable means
+should trade his two year old car as part payment for the latest
+model.</p>
+
+<p>15. Get up a talk to sell a phonograph.</p>
+
+<p>16. To sell an electric washing machine.</p>
+
+<p>17. To sell a piano.</p>
+
+<p>18. To sell a vacuum cleaner.</p>
+
+<p>19. To sell a subscription to a magazine.</p>
+
+<p>20. To obtain an order for groceries or teas and coffees. The
+offer of premiums might add to the effectiveness of your talk.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 271</b></div>
+
+<p>The following paragraph was adapted from William C.
+Freeman's <i>Advertising Talks</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>George Washington's Cherry Tree Story has served a good
+purpose through all of these years. "I cannot tell a lie" is a phrase
+that has been used in every schoolroom in America to impress
+upon young minds the importance of truth telling. The phrase
+is also serving its purpose outside the schoolroom. In all professions
+and in all kinds of business, men know that in order to
+make good they must tell the truth. There never was, in all the
+history of the country, a greater movement than now toward
+universal truth telling. There is not even that winking at "white"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+lies that used to prevail. The man who does not make a direct
+statement, who does not earn a reputation for being honest, has
+no chance of succeeding. Time was when the trickster was regarded
+as shrewd and was accepted in the community as being
+right both socially and commercially. To-day the man who has
+money without a reputation for integrity is a bankrupt, as far as
+real friends and public opinion are concerned. The expression
+"I cannot tell a lie" has been changed to-day to "I will not tell
+a lie even if the lie seems more expedient than the blunt truth."
+So George Washington's Cherry Tree Story is as good to-day as
+it ever was.</p></div>
+
+<p>Prepare paragraphs on the following suggestions, expanding
+each by examples:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. As a salesman, be honest with your customers.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Cultivate tact.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Cultivate a conscience.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. Learn to avoid friction.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Acknowledge your mistakes.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. Don't criticise.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. Don't procrastinate.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. Don't boast.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Don't buy your clothes on time.</span><br />
+10. Don't borrow from fellow clerks.<br />
+11. Don't think your employer can't see whether you are working.<br />
+12. Don't sell a merchant a larger order than he can move.<br />
+13. Study the duties of the man ahead of you.<br />
+14. New ideas count with your employer.<br />
+15. He can who thinks he can.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 272</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Written</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A request has come in from your territory for your automobile
+catalogue. Write a letter to accompany the catalogue,
+inviting the inspection of your cars. Make it as personal as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>2. You have just been talking with a prospective buyer. Drive
+home some of the strong points of your car in a letter exploiting
+strength, reliability, and speed. Use the following as a basis of
+your letter: The Up-to-the-minute car breaks the record from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
+New York to San Francisco, making the trip in ten days, fifteen
+hours, and thirteen seconds.</p>
+
+<p>3. You have just shown your motor truck to a business man.
+Strengthen the impression you made on him by writing him a
+letter summing up the important advantages of the motor truck.
+Use the following extract from a letter:</p>
+
+<p>"It has not missed a single trip since I have had it, and it takes
+the place of three wagons and twelve horses. My route from
+Waltham is so long that a pair of horses going over it one day has
+to be laid off the next."</p>
+
+<p>"This truck makes three trips each day. I have had it on the
+road nearly four months and have covered over four thousand
+(4,000) miles with no expense for repairs."</p>
+
+<p>4. A prospective customer has lost interest. Try to arouse
+him once more by telling him of a particularly good sale recently
+made, or of a new model just received, or of a new device lately
+perfected. Your object is to get him to inspect your cars again.</p>
+
+<p>5. Write a letter to a wealthy man who bought one of your
+cars two years ago, offering him half of what he paid for the car
+in exchange for a new model. Make him see that it would be to
+his advantage to accept the offer.</p>
+
+<p>6. Write an advertisement to appear in a local newspaper
+asking for an automobile salesman.</p>
+
+<p>7. Answer the advertisement, telling why you think you could
+sell cars, although you have had no experience.</p>
+
+<p>8. Write a letter to a friend telling him you have been offered
+the agency for the Up-to-the-minute car. Ask him to be your
+partner, and try to show him why you will succeed. He will be
+expected to bear half the office expenses, and he will get half the
+commissions.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 273&mdash;Suggestions for Debates</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The mail order house ruins the trade of the country
+merchant.</p>
+
+<p>2. The giving of free samples does not attract desirable
+purchasers.</p>
+
+<p>3. The use of trading stamps should be abolished.</p>
+
+<p>4. The motor wagon is more advantageous for the average
+grocer than the horse and wagon.</p>
+
+<p>5. All manufactured food products should be sold in sanitary,
+sealed packages.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 274</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral or Written</i></div>
+
+<p>Prepare paragraphs on the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. A merchant must know his neighborhood before he buys
+his stock.</p>
+
+<p>2. Selling by weight rather than by measure benefits dealer
+and consumer.</p>
+
+<p>3. Giving short weights does not prove profitable.</p>
+
+<p>4. The price of a certain kind of goods, or of an article, that
+is going out of style should be reduced to move it quickly.</p>
+
+<p>5. If merchants did not deliver purchases, goods would be
+cheaper.</p>
+
+<p>6. Hard work and patience spell the merchant's success.</p>
+
+<p>7. The middle man gets the bulk of the profit.</p>
+
+<p>8. The telegraph is a great aid to the business man.</p>
+
+<p>9. There is a difference between day and night telegraphic
+rates.</p>
+
+<p>10. Money may be sent by telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>11. The night letter is very useful to the merchant.</p>
+
+<p>12. The parcel post is a great help to the farmer.</p>
+
+<p>13. The parcel post tends to increase the business of the mail
+order firms.</p>
+
+<p>14. The object of an automobile exhibit is to sell cars.</p>
+
+<p>15. The five-and-ten-cent stores have succeeded because &mdash;&mdash;.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 275</b></div>
+
+<p>Prepare paragraphs on the following:</p>
+
+
+<p>1. The importance of transportation facilities to the farmer.</p>
+<p>2. The importance of transportation facilities to the manufacturer.</p>
+<p>3. The steamship in international trade.</p>
+<p>4. Transportation before the days of the railroad.</p>
+<p>5. The influence of the railroad in the advance of civilization.</p>
+<p>6. Electrifying the railroads.</p>
+<p>7. Speed, the cause of railroad accidents.</p>
+<p>8. The observation car.</p>
+<p>9. The care of food in the refrigerator car.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>10. The work of the railroad repair-shop.</p>
+<p>11. The advantage of railroad transportation over water transportation.</p>
+<p>12. The advantage of water transportation over railroad transportation.</p>
+<p>13. Why the larger railroads in our country run east and west.</p>
+<p>14. The advantages of the pay-as-you-enter car.</p>
+<p>15. The importance of the interurban electric railroads in country trade.</p>
+<p>16. The disadvantages of the elevated system in large cities.</p>
+<p>17. Congestion in the business district of a large city.</p>
+<p>18. The underground system as a solution for congested traffic.</p>
+<p>19. The work of a transfer company.</p>
+<p>20. The motor truck decreases the business of the express companies.</p>
+<p>21. The automobile decreases railroad suburban business.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 276</b></div>
+
+<p>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission.</p>
+
+<p>2. How railroads control other railroads.</p>
+
+<p>3. Railroad earnings.</p>
+
+<p>4. Different kinds of railroad traffic.</p>
+
+<p>5. The relation between the express companies and the railroads.</p>
+
+<p>6. Railroad rates and rebates.</p>
+
+<p>7. Government ownership of railroads.</p>
+
+<p>8. The influence of the Panama canal in the growth of business
+in the southern states.</p>
+
+<p>9. The influence of the canal in the growth of business in the
+central West.</p>
+
+<p>10. The influence of the canal in the growth of business in
+South America.</p>
+
+<p>11. The deep water way.</p>
+
+<p>12. The parcel post zones.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 277</b></div>
+
+<p><b>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Bolton, S. K.</span>, Successful Women.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chamberlain, J. F.</span>, How We Travel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Drysdale, W.</span>, Helps for Ambitious Boys; Helps for Ambitious Girls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fowler, N. C.</span>, Practical Salesmanship; Starting in Life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hale, E. E.</span>, What Career?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Higinbotham, H. N.</span>, The Making of a Merchant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Laselle, M. A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Wiley, K. E.</span>, Vocations for Girls.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lundgren, Charles</span>, The New Salesmanship.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lyde, L. W.</span>, Man and his Markets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mallon, I. A. S.</span>, The Business Girl.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Manson, G. J.</span>, Ready for Business.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Marsden, O. S.</span>, The Secret of Achievement; The Young Man Entering
+Business.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mitten, G. E.</span>, The Book of the Railway.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Moody, W. D.</span>, Men Who Sell Things.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Reed</span>, <i>et al.</i>, Careers for the Coming Men.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rocheleau, W. F.</span>, Transportation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rollins, F. W.</span>, What can a Young Man do?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stockwell, H. G.</span>, Essential Elements of Business Character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stoddard, W. O.</span>, Men of Business.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Vocation Bureau</span>, Boston, Vocations for Boys. (Pamphlets on
+<i>The Grocer</i>, <i>The Machinist</i>, <i>The Architect</i>, <i>etc.</i>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">White, S. J.</span>, Business Openings for Girls.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 278</b></div>
+
+<p>Write the following from dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Transportation is a great business as well as manufacturing or
+farming. History tells us that very early people did not have a
+settled home, but, when the grass began to give out in one part
+of the country, several members of the community, perhaps whole
+tribes, took their belongings on their backs and sought for a new
+place to settle. It is reasonable to suppose that they wished to
+keep up some sort of intercourse with their friends. At once
+difficulties arose, since hostile tribes lived between them and their
+old home. It was a brave man, indeed, who ventured to encounter
+the dangers of the trip between the settlements. Such a set of
+men arose in the peddlers, who set out alone or in caravans with
+articles of produce or manufacture and braved the dangers even
+of a desert to exchange what they carried for the produce of the
+old home. This is the earliest form of transportation. Compare
+this simple form with the modern railroad, steamship, and express
+service.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Capturing the Latin American Trade</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>No empty iteration of the Monroe doctrine, no reservation of
+canal privileges, will capture the trade of Latin America. This
+will be accomplished only by efforts to produce and to sell those
+countries the kind of goods that they want; measured, labeled,
+and packed their way; offered in the language that they understand;
+and, moreover, sold at attractive prices. Our consuls
+abroad report that in all these essentials American dealers are
+deficient and that British, French, and German manufacturers
+fill the South American markets.</p>
+
+<p>To these rivals must be added another, for, in spite of old South
+American prejudices against Spain and Spanish goods, the Spaniards
+are quietly regaining their footing in those republics of
+whose trade a century ago the home country enjoyed the monopoly.
+Her advantages, we know, are a common language and
+familiarity with the ways of life and the tastes of the buyers.
+Spain produces just the kind of wine, olive oil, and canned goods
+that South America wants; she turns out the kind of paper, the
+patterns of cotton goods, the styles of tools and implements,
+the clothing, shoes, and weapons used in Latin America; and the
+result is that she gets the trade. One-sixth, at least, of her entire
+exports goes to her former possessions.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>South Africa has been successfully operating an agricultural
+parcel post. By its instrumentality gold, diamonds, minerals,
+wool, feathers, saddlery, boots and shoes, confectionery, fruit,
+plants, seed, butter and eggs suitably packed, and other farm
+products are transported, and the producer and consumer have
+been brought together. From the report of the Department of
+Posts and Telegraphs we learn that the scheme has worked well,
+is a recognized and popular feature of the postal system, and is
+entirely feasible. The sparse settlements and widely scattered
+population have not operated to bar its success, as was feared at
+the time of its introduction.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The duty of applying the remedy for wrecks rests, primarily,
+with the railroad managers. And what is the remedy, and how
+is it to be applied? It would seem that there can be but one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
+answer: there must be stern discipline for taking risks. There
+must be thorough instruction as to what risks are and how to
+avoid them, just such instruction as the "safety first" movement
+is leading up to, but extended to every man in every department
+of every road. In addition, the promise that no engineman will
+be censured for losing or not making up time or for not running
+fast when it is not considered safe to do so must be changed to
+the positive, unequivocal statement that there will be a substantial
+penalty for every case of running fast when it is not safe to
+do so.&mdash;<i>Railway Age Gazette.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />5</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>More and more attention, each year, is being given by the railroad
+managers to the locating of new kinds of industry along their
+lines. The roads in the West and the South nearly all have
+efficient industrial departments, land departments, or immigration
+departments. Their men seek out new industries, meet the
+steamers to tempt immigrants into their region, arrange for the
+purchase or rental of lands, and get together reports of the soil,
+the products, and the advantages of any desired location. Perhaps
+the greatest effort, however, is bent upon the location of
+new factories along the route. In one year one southern railroad
+induced more than seven hundred men to establish industries along
+its lines, after the railroads had made complete and painstaking
+investigation of all the conditions that would confront the prospective
+manufacturers.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>ADVERTISING</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Advertising</span> is one of the most vital forces in the problem
+of distribution. Every advertisement is a salesman and is
+written and sent out with the idea of doing the work of one.
+It may bring in actual orders or it may merely do "missionary
+work"; that is, it may introduce a certain article or
+product and educate the people to see its advantages so that
+when next they desire that particular sort of article, they
+will order the one that they have seen advertised.</p>
+
+<p>Many an article that has had practically no sale has by
+means of an effective advertising campaign been brought to
+a point of wide distribution and ready sale. How many
+safety razors would the manufacturers sell if they had never
+advertised their product? Very few. But when day after
+day, everywhere a man looks&mdash;in street cars, newspapers,
+magazines, and on billboards&mdash;he sees staring at him a
+reason why he should use a safety razor, he soon comes to
+feel that he needs one. It is just the same as though the
+country were covered with salesmen who were constantly
+after every one to get him to see the advantage of the safety
+razor. The advertised articles may in themselves be no
+better than the unadvertised brands, but advertising has
+created a demand for the one over the other. The secret
+of selling success is creating a demand.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of advertising is demonstrated by an
+experience which the city of Chicago had on Wednesday,
+March 2, 1911. On the afternoon before, a dispute arose
+between two newspapers and their printers, ending in a
+temporary strike of the printers. As a result, all papers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>
+published on March 2 contained only four pages each, in
+contrast to the usual twenty-four, because they contained
+not a single advertisement. Fortunately, the strike lasted
+only one day, as the local printers were at once reprimanded
+by the International Typographical Union. But the losses
+that newspapers and retail business men suffered on this one
+day convinced them of the power of advertising. Street
+cars, downtown streets, and department stores were almost
+empty. To be sure, billboards still proclaimed their wares,
+but, as soon as newspaper advertising ceased, the great
+mass of shopping stopped.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 279</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What are some of the advertising methods used in a retail
+business?</p>
+
+<p>2. What are some of the advertising methods used in a wholesale
+business? Where are the advertisements published?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is the principal advertising medium of the mail order
+house? Explain why it is effective.</p>
+
+<p>4. What is classified advertising? Why are newspapers
+anxious to increase it? Name several reasons.</p>
+
+<p>5. What is "display" advertising as distinguished from
+classified? What is the principal medium of this kind of advertising?</p>
+
+<p>6. Give several instances of advertising by means of the
+distribution of "novelties," such as calendars. Is such advertising
+effective?</p>
+
+<p>7. Is the distribution of samples good advertising? Be
+specific in your answer.</p>
+
+<p>8. Is it a good thing to have a trade-mark? Name some
+trade-marks that you think are good advertising.</p>
+
+<p>9. Is a bargain table good advertising? What is its advantage
+in a retail store?</p>
+
+<p>10. What class of advertising is done in the classified columns
+of a newspaper?</p>
+
+<p>11. What class of articles and products is advertised in the
+street cars and trains? Expensive or inexpensive? Things you
+use every day or not?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>12. Are articles advertised by billboards usually widely advertised
+articles or not?</p>
+
+<p>13. What kind of articles would you advertise in:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. The newspaper rather than the magazine?<br />
+2. The magazine rather than the newspaper?<br />
+3. The street car rather than on the billboard?<br />
+4. The trade papers rather than the newspapers?<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>14. Suppose you were bringing out a new soap and you could
+use only one of the following mediums: (1) newspapers; (2) local
+and trade magazines; (3) street cars; (4) billboards and posters.
+Which would you choose and why? Would your answer be the
+same if you had real estate to sell? A new machine? If you
+were producing a new play?</p>
+
+<p>15. <span class="smcap">News Item.</span>&mdash;The University of Wisconsin has issued
+a bulletin, stating that of all the money spent for food, shelter,
+and clothing 90% is spent by women. Would the following be
+good advertising for a magazine: "The women of the country
+read this paper"? Give reasons for your answer.</p>
+
+<p>16. Do handbills suggest cheapness to you?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 280</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<p>Discuss the value of each of the following as forms of
+advertising:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Location.<br />
+2. Furnishings of the office or the store.<br />
+3. Letter headings.<br />
+4. Window displays.<br />
+5. Electric (or other) signs.<br />
+6. Moving electric signs.<br />
+7. Colors (especially reds, greens, and yellows) as against black and white.<br />
+8. White lettering on a black background.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 281</b></div>
+
+<p>Fundamentally, the same principles apply to the advertisement
+as apply to the sales letter (See <a href="#Page_230">page 230</a>). First of
+all, you must look at your goods from the standpoint of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
+the user; see his gain in buying rather than your profit in
+selling. Your products, then, will probably fall into one
+of the following general classes:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Something entirely new for which you must create a
+demand by showing its advantage to the buyer, arousing his
+sense of need and, consequently, his desire to possess.</p>
+
+<p>2. Something new but filling a long-felt need&mdash;"Just what
+you've been looking for"&mdash;the value of which will appeal to the
+buyer almost as soon as the product is explained. Comparison
+with the article that now imperfectly fills the want suggests itself.</p>
+
+<p>3. A new brand of an old staple, like crackers, of which the
+superiority must be dwelt upon to induce buyers to ask for it.
+Even after the article is selling well, continuous advertising is
+necessary to keep the name before the public.</p></div>
+
+<p>A paying advertisement appeals to a large class of people
+or, better still, to several classes. For a moment let us
+analyze a few of the appeals to which almost every one
+responds; let us consider the reasons back of our purchases.
+Why do we buy one article and not another? We buy it
+first, perhaps, because we need it or think we need it; second,
+because we think it will taste good or be comfortable or
+good-looking or because it will afford us amusement; third,
+because we think it is better, though possibly more expensive,
+than any other brand on the market, and our pride
+or our desire to emulate responds to it; fourth, because we
+think it is good for our health or our safety; and, fifth,
+because we shall save money or make money thereby.
+Summing up, we may say that the motives to which
+appeals may safely be made are:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. Need, conscious or unconscious (usefulness, quality, or durability).<br />
+2. Comfort, amusement, or appetite.<br />
+3. Pride, desire to emulate, or vanity.<br />
+4. Safety (of health or personal possessions).<br />
+5. Economy or gain.<br />
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Clip from magazines and bring to class good advertisements
+that appeal to the motives named above. Try to
+find those advertisements that make an appeal to only one
+motive in one advertisement.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 282</b></div>
+
+<p>The following catch phrases have been taken from advertisements
+in various places. Tell (1) whether their appeal
+is general; (2) whether they induce one to buy; and (3) if
+they do, which of the motives given above have been used
+by the advertiser. Frequently more than one motive is
+used in one advertisement.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For a delicatessen store: Good things to eat.</p>
+
+<p>2. For a chewing gum: The taste lasts.</p>
+
+<p>3. For a motor washer: Two cents a week pays your washing
+bill.</p>
+
+<p>4. For a refrigerator: Are you poisoning your family?</p>
+
+<p>5. For a summer drink: It's wet.</p>
+
+<p>6. For stockings: Wear like 60, look like 50, cost but 25.</p>
+
+<p>7. For a shaving soap: Comfort for your face, economy for
+your purse.</p>
+
+<p>8. For a liniment: Don't rub&mdash;it penetrates.</p>
+
+<p>9. For a hair tonic: What does your mirror say?</p>
+
+<p>10. For a clothing store: Exclusive styles for exclusive
+women.</p>
+
+<p>11. For an inexpensive scouring powder: Why pour money
+down the sink?</p>
+
+<p>12. For canned goods: When company comes.</p>
+
+<p>13. For a varnish: Water won't hurt it.</p>
+
+<p>14. For bread: The human hand never touches it.</p>
+
+<p>15. For a fountain pen: It can't leak.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 283</b></div>
+
+<p>Bring to class two advertisements containing catch phrases
+that you think are good. To which of the motives given
+above does each appeal?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 284</b></div>
+
+<p>Bring in two advertisements of articles that have suggestive
+names. What is the value of a suggestive name?</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 285&mdash;Good and Bad Headlines</b></div>
+
+<p>A good headline has the following qualities:</p>
+
+<p>First, it should be short. Professor Walter Dill Scott
+determined by experiments that the average person can
+ordinarily attend to only about four visual objects at the
+same time&mdash;four letters, four words, four simple pictures,
+or four geometrical figures. As the headline of an advertisement
+is intended to be taken in at one glance, it should,
+therefore, be not longer than four words&mdash;preferably less,
+provided the interest of the phrase is the same. Short words,
+too, can be taken in more readily than long words.</p>
+
+<p>Second, the best headline is a command. People instinctively
+obey a command, unless it is so worded that they
+rebel against the manner of expression.</p>
+
+<p>Third, a good headline is suggestive. It touches upon
+the things that the reader is thinking about. It shows that
+the article that is offered for sale has a close connection
+with the interests that absorb the reader's mind. It is a
+direct answer to his thoughts, feelings, hopes, or worries.</p>
+
+<p>The following headlines were taken from the advertisements
+in one issue of a magazine. Judge of their effectiveness,
+using the three principles given above as a basis for
+your decision:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot'>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. Get That Job!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Foot Comfort.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Ventilate, but Don't Catch Cold!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. A New Filing Cabinet.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Are You Open to Conviction?</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. Low Priced Envelope Sealer.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. Shave for 1c Without Stropping.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. What a Wonderful Trip!</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. Save 30% on Your Furniture.</span><br />
+10. You Have a Right to Independence.<br />
+11. Just Out!<br />
+12. Get the Dust Out of Your Home&mdash;It's Dangerous.<br />
+13. The Easiest Riding Car in the World.<br />
+14. Our Seeds Grow.<br />
+15. That Raise! (Sub-heading in smaller type: What Would a Raise in Salary Mean to You?)<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 286</b></div>
+
+<p>Some advertisers choose headlines merely for the purpose
+of attracting attention, forgetting that the headline should
+suggest what the following illustration and text explain.
+A few years ago a well-known automobile company ran an
+advertisement with the headline <i>$1000 Worth of Folly</i>. The
+headline was followed by a picture of the automobile. The
+advertisement was intended to convey the idea that, as this
+car might be bought for $3000, any one paying $4000 for an
+automobile was foolishly squandering $1000. As a matter
+of fact, the only suggestion that the reader got from the
+advertisement was that any one who paid $1000 for the
+illustrated car would be a fool.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Bring to class an advertisement in which the headline has
+no connection with the rest of the advertisement, being used
+merely to catch the attention.</p>
+
+<p>2. Find an advertisement in which the headline suggests the
+opposite of what the advertisement is intended to convey.</p>
+
+<p>3. How might either advertisement be improved?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 287</b></div>
+
+<p>Still-life advertisements are not interesting. The picture
+of a furnace, or a typewriter, or a house attracts less attention
+than the same objects with human beings represented
+moving in the picture.</p>
+
+<p>Bring to class two advertisements of the same kind of
+article, in one of which a still-life illustration is used and
+in the other of which human beings are used to center the
+attention upon the article that is offered for sale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 288</b></div>
+
+<p>Bring to class (1) an advertisement that is not good because
+it contains too much&mdash;lacks a center upon which the
+attention naturally focuses; and (2) an advertisement that
+is good because it has a definitely defined center of attraction.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 289</b></div>
+
+<p>Bring to class an advertisement in which the principle of
+balance is used to advantage, two illustrations, one on each
+side of the text, being used to convey one impression.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 290</b></div>
+
+<p>In writing the following, try to embody the principles that
+have been brought out in previous exercises:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. An entertainment is to be given in the school hall. Write
+an advertisement to appear in the school paper.</p>
+
+<p>2. Write an announcement of the same entertainment&mdash;to
+be posted on the bulletin board.</p>
+
+<p>3. Write an advertisement for a debate.</p>
+
+<p>4. For a football, baseball, or basket-ball game.</p>
+
+<p>5. For an inter-class contest.</p>
+
+<p>6. You have permission to secure advertisements to be printed
+in the program of the entertainment spoken of above. Suppose
+that you are to write the copy for the different advertisements.
+Use one-eighth, one-quarter, one-half, or one page, as you wish.</p>
+
+<p>Advertise a grocery.</p>
+
+<p>7. A meat market.</p>
+
+<p>8. A dry goods store.</p>
+
+<p>9. A candy store.</p>
+
+<p>10. A bakery.</p>
+
+<p>11. A bank.</p>
+
+<p>12. A tailor's shop.</p>
+
+<p>13. A photographer's studio.</p>
+
+<p>14. A barber shop.</p>
+
+<p>15. A drug store.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 291</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Write a handbill announcing a 20% discount sale to run
+three days in your dry goods store.</p>
+
+<p>2. Describe a chair, table, or other article of furniture in your
+own home. The description is to form part of an advertisement
+to appear in a mail order catalogue.</p>
+
+<p>3. You are advertising a new brand of coffee in the street car.
+Write the card. Would you use an illustration? If so, of what
+kind?</p>
+
+<p>4. As in (3) advertise a new brand of pork and beans.</p>
+
+<p>5. As in (3) advertise a shoe sale.</p>
+
+<p>6. Advertise a well-known brand of soap in a magazine. Use
+your own idea. Would you use an illustration?</p>
+
+<p>7. How would you advertise an automobile which has proved
+its merits? Remember, your object is to keep the name before
+the public. How would you advertise a new make of automobile?
+How much space would you use in either case? Write both
+advertisements.</p>
+
+<p>8. A half-page advertisement by the Hudson Cereal Company,
+110 Hudson St., New York, of their Nervo-Cereal Coffee contains
+the item: "Can you thread a needle, holding the thread one
+inch from the end? If you cannot, you are nervous. Is coffee
+to blame?" Exploit the aroma and flavor of the cereal coffee.</p>
+
+<p>9. The Central Packing Company is running a series of advertisements
+of their Premium Extract of Beef. This one is to appear
+just before Thanksgiving. Entitle it "Four Delicious Dishes
+for the Thanksgiving Dinner," and then in as attractive a form as
+possible give four recipes, making a point of the necessity of using
+Premium Extract for the right flavor. At the end sum up the
+merits of Premium Extract and mention the silver premiums
+given with the certificates under the metal caps.</p>
+
+<p>10. The Bay City Mill Co., Bay City, Mich., sells fine finished
+lumber suitable for making furniture at home. Prepare an advertisement
+to show how simple it is to make tables and chairs at
+home with their plans and their specially cut lumber. Illustrate
+by giving the plans and working directions for making a useful
+table, showing how easy it is with their specially cut lumber. Set
+an attractive price on the lumber necessary to make this table.
+Sum up by exploiting a book of plans, which may be had for the
+asking.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 292</b></div>
+
+<p>The following paragraph is taken from Professor Scott's
+<i>Theory of Advertising</i>. What is the subject of the paragraph?
+Is there a topic sentence? By what plan is the paragraph
+developed?</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Many of those who use illustrations for their advertisements
+follow the philosophy of the Irish boy who said that he liked to
+stub his toe because it felt so good when it stopped hurting. Many
+of us are unable to see how the boy had made any gain after it
+was all over, but he was satisfied, and that was sufficient. The
+philosophic disciples of the Irish boy are found in advertisers who
+have certain things to dispose of which will not do certain harmful
+things. First they choose an illustration which will make you
+believe that what they have to sell is just what you do not want,
+and then in the text they try to overcome this false impression
+and to show you that what they have to offer is not so bad after
+all. Most of us are unable to see how the advertiser has gained,
+even if he has succeeded in giving us logical proof that his goods
+are not so bad as we were at first led to think. We are not logically
+inclined, and we take the illustration and the text, and we
+combine the two. The best that the text can do is to destroy
+the evil effect of the illustration. Of course, when we read in
+the text that the illustration does not correctly represent the
+goods, we ought to discard the illustration entirely and think
+only of the text, but, unfortunately, we are not constructed in
+that way. The impression made by the illustration and that
+made by the text fuse and form a whole which is the result formed
+by these two elements.</p></div>
+
+<p>Write paragraphs on each of the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Advertising is essential in modern business.</p>
+
+<p>2. Advertising helps the housewife economize.</p>
+
+<p>3. The study of advertisements saves the shopper's time and
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>4. Advertised goods cost more than the unadvertised brands.
+(Give the reasons.)</p>
+
+<p>5. Trade-marked and advertised goods have increased the
+cost of living.</p>
+
+<p>6. Increased advertising causes the styles to change quickly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. Every advertisement must catch and hold the attention.
+Some accomplish this object by causing a laugh. (Describe one
+such.)</p>
+
+<p>8. Some advertisements hold the attention because they
+appeal to our love of the mysterious. One such is &mdash;&mdash; (describe
+it).</p>
+
+<p>9. Some advertisements succeed because of their clever color
+scheme. One such is &mdash;&mdash;.</p>
+
+<p>10. Every successful advertisement contains a convincing
+argument.</p>
+
+<p>11. Mouth to mouth advertising is the best and the cheapest.</p>
+
+<p>12. Advertised goods are better because they have to be.</p>
+
+<p>13. The consumer pays for all the advertising.</p>
+
+<p>14. The cost of advertising is paid by the competitors who do
+not advertise.</p>
+
+<p>15. Advertising tends to create uniform prices.</p>
+
+<p>16. The advertising expert is a student of men.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 293</b></div>
+
+<p>Give your opinion as to the effectiveness of the following
+advertisements:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A department store that was anxious to increase its trade on
+Mondays and Wednesdays included the following coupons in
+its circular advertisement one week:</p></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="12" cellspacing="0" summary="Coupons">
+<tr><td align='center'>THIS COUPON AND 19c<br />
+Monday only<br />
+good for<br />
+<i>6 Spools J. &amp; P. Coats'</i><br />
+<i>Best 6 Cord Machine</i><br />
+<i>Thread</i><br />
+Regular 30c value<br /></td><td align='center'>THIS COUPON AND 50cWednesday only<br />
+good for<br />
+<i>Misses' or Children's</i><br />
+<i>White Canvas Pumps</i><br />
+2 strap model, heavy or light soles,<br />
+trimmed with dainty bow on<br />
+vamp. All sizes up to 2.<br />
+$1.50 value</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">$10,000 in Cash to Charity</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We ask our customers to decide by their votes the 250 institutions
+that shall receive this amount. Each ten cents' worth
+purchased entitles the purchaser to one vote.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<p>The following appeared in the center of a page otherwise blank.
+On the opposite page appeared the advertisement of a well-known
+article.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p>The announcement on the
+following page is so important
+that we have decided
+to leave this page
+blank.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />4</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The following was part of a circular:</p>
+
+<p>Following our annual custom we will again this year give away
+absolutely free a beautiful silk flag to every customer making a
+purchase of $1 or over, Tuesday and Wednesday, July 2 and 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />5</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The following appeared in a newspaper:</p>
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Word of Appreciation</span></div>
+
+<p>We have now been in our new location somewhat over a month.
+Our business has been all that we expected; in some departments,
+indeed, there is an increase, notably in the neckwear, ready-to-wear
+clothes, hats, and tailoring departments.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, we had an abundance of faith in our new location;
+nevertheless, we must confess that there were times when we had
+anxious moments. We discovered, however, that our moving
+was at the "psychological moment"; we soon learned that in the
+minds of the people there was but one thought&mdash;success for
+Michigan Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>We have always felt that there was a closer bond of sympathy
+between our customers and us than is usually the case between
+buyer and seller. The unusual interest taken in our new store
+and in our success has more than confirmed us in this impression.
+Our experience during the last forty days has really made life
+worth living.</p>
+
+<p>The minds of hundreds of our customers have reverted to the
+beginning of our business in our old Dearborn Street store,
+twenty years ago, and they have made comparisons between that
+and the wonderful establishment we now possess; they have done
+it in a way that would almost suggest that it was their business<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
+that they were talking of rather than ours. It made us feel that,
+although we have made our mistakes, nevertheless we must have
+served the public well, and we insert this article in the hope that
+a few of our well-wishers may read it and understand that we
+appreciate and are grateful.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 294</b></div>
+
+<p>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<span class="smcap">Balmer, Edwin</span>, The Science of Advertising.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bellamy, Francis</span> (ed), Effective Magazine Advertising.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Bridgewater, Howard</span>, Advertising, or The Art of Making Known.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Calkins, E. E.</span> and <span class="smcap">Holden, R.</span>, Modern Advertising.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cherington, Paul T.</span>, Advertising as a Business Force.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Deland, L. F.</span>, Imagination in Business.<br />
+<span class="smcap">De Weese, Truman A.</span>, Advertising (The Business Man's Library, Vol. vii).<br />
+<span class="smcap">Edgar, Albert E.</span>, How to Advertise a Retail Store.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fowler, N. C.</span>, Building Business.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Scott, W. D.</span>, The Theory of Advertising.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>REAL ESTATE AND INSURANCE</div>
+
+
+<p>Lands, buildings, and houses are called real property or real
+estate, and the business pertaining to them, the real estate
+business. Every one of us has more or less to do with this
+business. If we do not own property, we pay <i>rent</i>. Rent
+is the money paid for the use of a piece of land, or a building,
+or part of a building, and is usually paid at certain stated
+intervals of time&mdash;monthly, for example. The owner of
+the building is called the <i>landlord;</i> the one who rents, the
+<i>tenant</i>. Sometimes there is no condition as to how long
+a tenant shall remain in one place and pay rent, but, as a
+rule, the landlord requires the tenant to sign a <i>lease</i>. This
+is a contract between the landlord and the tenant, stating
+that in consideration of the landlord's furnishing the tenant
+a place in which to live with certain conveniences&mdash;such
+as heat, hot water, and other services&mdash;the tenant agrees
+to pay rent for a certain length of time, usually a year or
+more. If the tenant moves out before his lease expires and
+refuses to pay the rent, he breaks the contract and, as is
+usually the case when a contract is broken, a lawsuit may
+follow. In large cities where land is in some places very
+valuable, owners may not care to sell the property on which
+others wish to build, but lease it to the builders for a certain
+term of years, usually ninety-nine years.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose you no longer wish to pay rent, but to own the
+house in which you live. If you buy a piece of property
+from John Smith and pay him your money for it, you wish
+to be assured that after a few months John Smith will not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span>
+come to you and claim the property as his. To protect
+you John Smith gives you a <i>deed</i> to the property. A deed is
+a contract between the buyer and the seller of the property.
+It states that, in consideration of the buyer's paying a certain
+stipulated sum of money, the seller releases and conveys
+the property to the buyer. This deed shows that you now
+own the property. At the same time you should receive a
+<i>clear title</i> to the property; that is, you wish to be sure that
+no one else has a claim on the property. If John Smith
+guarantees that the title is clear, he gives you a <i>warranty
+deed</i> for the property, in which he will "warrant and defend
+the same against all lawful claims whatsoever." If, however,
+he simply turns over the property to you as it stands,
+he gives you a <i>quitclaim deed</i>, in which he relinquishes or
+quits all his interest in it. If you have no debts on the
+property, you own it in <i>fee simple</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Very often in buying property, the purchaser pays only
+a part of the purchase price himself, paying for the balance
+by borrowing the necessary amount from a third party.
+For example, if the house you bought from John Smith cost
+$6,000 and you had only $4,000, you would be forced to
+borrow the other $2,000 to pay John Smith. You would
+then go to your bank or to some person who had money to
+invest and would borrow the required amount, and to
+guarantee that you would pay the money back, you would
+give a <i>mortgage</i> on the property. A mortgage is a contract
+which states that, in consideration of one party's giving
+the second party a certain sum of money, the second party
+agrees to pay interest on that money at a stipulated rate,
+and at the end of a certain length of time agrees to pay the
+money back; and that, in case the second party does not
+pay back the amount at the end of the time, the first party
+is empowered to take possession of the property, to sell it,
+and to get the amount due him. This last procedure is
+called <i>foreclosing the mortgage</i>. It is a common practice to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>
+mortgage property; almost all the property in a city is
+mortgaged.</p>
+
+<p>Some men and firms make a special business of transferring
+property, buying and selling it for others, making leases,
+and collecting rents. They are called real estate agents,
+and for their services get a <i>commission</i>, which is a certain
+percentage of the purchase or the selling price and a certain
+percentage of the amount of rent collected. This percentage
+varies according to whether the amount of money
+involved is large or small, the percentage being larger when
+small sums of money are involved than when large sums
+are involved.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 295</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What is a lease?</p>
+
+<p>2. Explain why owners of valuable property lease it.</p>
+
+<p>3. What is a deed? Explain the two kinds.</p>
+
+<p>4. What is meant by a clear title?</p>
+
+<p>5. What is meant by fee simple?</p>
+
+<p>6. Why is it important to be careful about the title?</p>
+
+<p>7. What is a mortgage?</p>
+
+<p>8. Explain why property is often mortgaged. Does the mortgage
+benefit the owner? Explain.</p>
+
+<p>9. What is meant by foreclosing?</p>
+
+<p>10. What is an agent? How is he usually paid?</p>
+
+<p>11. Why do people employ real estate agents to take care of
+renting? To sell their property?</p>
+
+<p>12. Why is property near a railroad valuable? For what?</p>
+
+<p>13. Why is a corner lot worth more than an inside lot?</p>
+
+<p>14. Why is property on a car line more valuable than on a side
+street?</p>
+
+<p>15. What effect would the building of a new street car line
+have on the value of adjacent property? Why?</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 296</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Suppose that you are a landlord and that in your lease no
+mention is made of giving your tenants janitor service, but you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
+yourself take care of the furnace. Other landlords in the block
+supply janitor service. After one of your tenants has moved in,
+he demands that the back porch be scrubbed once a week and
+the garbage emptied daily. What would you do? Consider the
+points for and against.</p>
+
+<p>2. Suppose some boys playing ball on the street break a plate
+glass window in the store you own. Would you expect your
+tenant to pay for repairs?</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><i>Written</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>3. Write to Francis L. Russell, a real estate agent, asking his
+terms for collecting the rent of &mdash;&mdash; (tell the location of the
+house, the number of the tenants, and the rent you receive).</p>
+
+<p>4. As if you were Francis L. Russell write a reply, saying that
+you will undertake the collection for a commission of 5%.</p>
+
+<p>5. Imagine you are a tenant in the same building. The
+kitchen sink cannot be used in your flat because of a stoppage
+in the plumbing. You have told the agent once. Write him
+(see 3) again, stating that unless he sends a plumber you will not
+pay your next month's rent. (Is there any reason for writing
+this, rather than telephoning it?)</p>
+
+<p>6. The plumber has submitted a bill of $5.98 for the repairs
+suggested in (5). The agent writes to the landlord, enclosing a
+check for the rent that he has collected, less the amount of the
+plumber's bill and his commission.</p>
+
+<p>7. You are a lawyer. Write to the landlord, informing him
+that the mortgage which your client holds against the landlord's
+property expires in thirty days. Ask the landlord whether he
+expects to pay the money or whether he wishes a renewal of the
+loan for three years. Your client is willing to give such a renewal.</p>
+
+<p>8. The landlord replies that he is enclosing $100 to pay the
+interest due on the mortgage and that he desires a renewal of the
+loan. If the lawyer will prepare the papers, he will come to sign
+them at the specified time. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>9. You are an insurance agent. Write to the landlord that
+the fire insurance on his property expires in sixty days. Ask him
+to allow you to write a new policy. Inform him that the rate
+now will be 3�% instead of if 1�% as it was formerly, because a
+garage has been erected one door north of his property. (Why
+should the rate be higher?)</p>
+
+<p>10. One of the tenants has paid no rent for two months. You
+decide that he never will be able to pay. As landlord you make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
+out and deliver to him a <i>Five days' notice of removal</i>. At the same
+time, you write a letter to your lawyer, explaining the state of
+affairs and asking him to take charge of enforcing the notice.
+(This means that if the tenant does not move, the case must come
+up in court. If it is decided in the landlord's favor, the tenant
+must move. If he refuses, the lawyer engages a constable to eject
+him.) Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>11. Francis L. Russell writes three short advertisements, offering
+for sale (1) a large 12 room residence, mortgage $6,000, price
+$15,000; (2) a 3 apartment building, clear, price $16,000; (3) a
+large 12 apartment building, mortgage $25,000, price $41,000, terms
+to suit. Where would you advertise? Write the advertisements.</p>
+
+<p>12. You get inquiries about all of the above. Write answers
+describing the buildings more fully, and make appointments with
+the writers to inspect the property.</p>
+
+<p>13. A man is interested in the 12 flat building, but he has only
+$10,000. Offer him the property for $40,000 on these terms:
+$10,000 down, a first mortgage for $20,000 to run 10 years at 5%,
+and a second mortgage for $10,000 to run 5 years at 5&frac12;%, $2,000
+to be paid each year with interest. Make it as attractive as
+possible. Tell him you will arrange for the mortgages.</p>
+
+<p>14. (<i>a</i>) Write to your bank, the First National, and explain
+that, although the first mortgage on the 12 flat building for $25,000
+still has 3 years to run, you would like to arrange for a 10 year
+mortgage for $20,000, if your prospective buyer takes the property.
+(<i>b</i>) Write to George R. Scott, who owns the building, offering him
+the second mortgage. Explain that although it is a second mortgage
+the fact that $2,000 of the principal is paid each year makes
+it attractive. (How would the owner benefit if the buyer failed
+to make his payments after 2 years?) Sign yourself Francis L.
+Russell.</p>
+
+<p>15. You have put through the deal. Write to the new owner,
+offering to take care of the renting for a commission equal to 2&frac12;%
+of the amount collected.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 297&mdash;Farm Lands</b></div>
+
+<p>1. You own a large tract of land in the South, West, or
+Southwest. Choose your own locality. Prepare a pamphlet
+setting forth the advantages of this particular spot in a
+series of paragraphs: (1) scenery, (2) climate and healthfulness,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+(3) crops, (4) profits from the crops, (5) price of
+labor, (6) chances for pleasure, e.g., hunting, fishing, etc.,
+(7) transportation facilities, (8) price of the land. Use a
+firm name and address.</p>
+
+<p>2. Arrange and punctuate:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Nov. 1, 19&mdash; [For the introduction supply the same firm name
+used in (1)]. Gentlemen I have just returned from an extended
+trip through (the district spoken of above) with reference to the
+forty acres I purchased from you I desire to say that I am convinced
+that it will prove a paying investment I am so pleased that
+I shall certainly try to induce several of my friends to purchase
+near my site while on the property I carefully inspected the farm
+worked by Mr S R Jackson I must say what he is accomplishing
+the immense crop of vegetables and fruit he is marketing amazed
+me no doubt what he is doing I may do for I made sure by careful
+examination that the soil on my land is exactly like his you may
+depend upon it that within the next two months I shall move my
+family upon the land for I am eager to develop it sincerely yours
+F W Farrell</p></div>
+
+<p>What advantage would there be in including such a letter
+as (2) in the booklet spoken of in (1)?</p>
+
+<p>3. To prove the possibilities of the land spoken of in (1),
+you intend to start a model farm. Advertise for a farmer.
+Your plan is to give him 60 acres to develop for himself, in
+return for which he shall demonstrate the possibilities of
+the land.</p>
+
+<p>4. Write a letter applying for the position. You must
+have farming experience, some money, a knowledge of crops,
+and a good deal of enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>5. Write an advertisement of your land for a big newspaper.
+Exploit its most striking features, especially the
+price. Study such advertisements before you write
+yours.</p>
+
+<p>6. Reproduce a letter you received in answer to (5),
+asking for more information concerning the lands.</p>
+
+<p>7. Write the reply to (6). Say you are enclosing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span>
+booklet spoken of in (1); tell of the model farm being established
+(3); and induce the inquirer to become a purchaser.</p>
+
+<p>8. Prepare a series of three follow-up letters to be sent out
+to prospective purchasers who write as in (6) but who do
+not answer your letter in (7). Make each letter set forth
+one of the following advantages of buying a piece of your
+land: (1) The profits from the crops are large; (2) The
+conditions are ideal&mdash;mention climate, water, neighbors,
+transportation; (3) It is a good investment, since the land
+will certainly rise in value&mdash;tell of other land in the neighborhood
+that has risen in value within the last year. Arrange
+the letters in the order that you think will be most effective.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 298</b><br />
+
+
+
+<b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. The cause of changes in city real estate values.</p>
+
+<p>2. The price of downtown property in your town.</p>
+
+<p>3. The rise in property values in the last few years.</p>
+
+<p>4. The causes of the rise.</p>
+
+<p>5. Stove heated or steam heated property&mdash;which is the
+better income producer?</p>
+
+<p>6. The Mortgage.&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Why people mortgage their property;
+(<i>b</i>) Why people loan money on mortgages.</p>
+
+<p>7. The increase in the total value of farm lands during the
+last ten years.</p>
+
+<p>8. The decrease in the value of farm lands in the East.</p>
+
+<p>9. The reasons for the growth of the West.</p>
+
+<p>10. Will the South be a new West?</p>
+
+<p>11. The reclamation of swamp lands.</p>
+
+<p>12. The success of irrigation.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 299&mdash;Insurance</b></div>
+
+<p>An exposition of the subject of insurance is hardly in place
+here, especially as every one, to a certain extent at least, is
+acquainted with the fundamental reasons why insurance is
+purchased. The questions below should be used as a rudimentary
+review that will prepare for the letters that follow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What is the object of insurance?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is meant by a policy?</p>
+
+<p>3. By the premium?</p>
+
+<p>4. By the beneficiary?</p>
+
+<p>5. By life insurance?</p>
+
+<p>6. By fire insurance?</p>
+
+<p>7. By accident insurance?</p>
+
+<p>8. By marine insurance?</p>
+
+<p>9. What is the difference between a straight life and a 20 year
+endowment policy?</p>
+
+<p>10. Between the above and a 20 year pay policy?</p>
+
+<p>11. Between the above and a term policy?</p>
+
+<p>12. Why is it that the mortgagee, and not the owner, holds
+the fire insurance policy? Why must the amount of insurance
+equal or exceed the amount of the mortgage?</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><i>Written</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. You are an insurance agent. A man came to your office
+to-day to inquire about a life insurance policy. Write him a letter,
+repeating what you told him, advocating his taking out a straight
+life policy.</p>
+
+<p>2. A new building has just been erected in your neighborhood.
+Write to the owner, soliciting him to let you write the fire insurance
+policy.</p>
+
+<p>3. Write to a man who rides downtown on the train every
+day. Convince him that he needs to take out an accident insurance
+policy. Point out that the premium is only $25 a year. If
+the man is injured he will receive $25 weekly; if he is killed by
+accident, his beneficiary will receive $5,000; if he is killed on a
+train or in an elevator, $10,000.</p>
+
+<p>4. Write to one of your clients, informing him that the premium
+on his life insurance policy falls due in ten days.</p>
+
+<p>5. Write to another of your clients, informing him that the
+insurance on his property runs out in ten days. Inform him that,
+if he wishes the policy renewed, he should let you know at once
+and remit the premium.</p>
+
+<p>6. From the client mentioned in (5) you receive a letter in
+which he explains that the paint store which formerly adjoined
+his property has been replaced by a grocery. He would like a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
+new policy at a lower rate. Reproduce the letter. A paint store
+is insured at the highest, or hazard, rate. The rate on property
+adjoining a paint store would also be very high.</p>
+
+<p>7. You investigate the matter and find that the facts are as
+stated in (6). Write your client, offering him a rate of 1&frac12;% and
+enclosing a bill for $45.</p>
+
+<p>8. He replies that, since the risk of fire is now so much less,
+he wishes to take only $2,000 worth of insurance. He asks you to
+write such a policy, and he encloses his check for $30. Write the
+letter.</p>
+
+<p>9. A man writes to you, saying that he wishes to take out an
+endowment policy for his fifteen year old daughter, who has
+already been examined. He wishes to give the insurance to her
+as a birthday present. He encloses a check for the premium and
+asks you to send the contract to her on her birthday (Name the
+date). Write the father's letter.</p>
+
+<p>10. Write a letter to accompany the birthday present. Remember
+you do not know the daughter.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 300</b></div>
+
+<p>Write the following from dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Must Reform our Farming</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The average yield of wheat in the United States for the five
+years ending in 1910 was eight-tenths of a bushel per acre more
+than in the five years ending in 1905, but it was less than four-tenths
+of a bushel more than for the ten ending in 1900. The average
+corn product for the ten years ending in 1910 was a little less than
+for the ten years ending in 1875. Thirty-five years had not advanced
+us a step. European countries&mdash;Great Britain, France,
+Germany&mdash;with inferior soils and less favorable climate produce
+crops practically double our own. In our studies of conservation
+we find no waste comparable, either in magnitude or importance,
+to this. The farm will fail, and the foundations of our prosperity
+be undermined, unless agriculture is reformed. The percentage
+of our people actively engaged in farming had fallen from 47.36
+in 1870 to an estimated 32 in 1910. Every man on the farm to-day
+must produce food for two mouths against one forty years ago.</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>&mdash;<i>J. J. Hill.</i></div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Farming Specials</span></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>One of the latest and most successful activities of the railroads
+is the practice of carrying knowledge of the best farming methods
+to the farmers by means of special trains equipped like agricultural
+colleges. These trains, bearing experts and all the equipment
+for exhibiting the new methods of agriculture, bring the knowledge
+to the farmers free, and the railroads are glad to give it, for every
+bit of knowledge comes back to them in a hundred fold profit in
+freight. In the summer eager audiences all over the country
+listen to the preaching of better methods and larger crops. Dozens
+of special trains travel through the agricultural regions disseminating
+information. The "Breakfast Bacon Special" has been run
+to encourage Iowa farmers to raise more hogs to take advantage
+of the high price of bacon. The Cotton Belt Route southwest
+of St. Louis runs the "Squealer Special" to prove to the Arkansas
+and Panhandle farmers the money-making advantages of blooded
+hogs over the razor-back variety. Down the Mississippi Valley
+the Illinois Central sends the "Boll Weevil Special" to conduct
+a campaign against that pest. The Harriman lines have six
+trains operating in California every year. In one year they visited
+more than seventy-five thousand people. Better farming specials
+run in practically every state south of the Ohio and Potomac and
+west of the Mississippi. The New York Central also has two
+trains in operation in New York.&mdash;<i>The Business Almanac.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A large proportion of farmers give little or no attention to the
+selection of seed; yet it has been demonstrated that a careful
+selection would add hundreds of millions of dollars to the total
+value of the crops. If, for example, a variety of wheat were
+developed capable of producing one more kernel to the head, it
+would mean an addition, so Burbank says, of 15,000,000 bushels
+to our average wheat crop. It is possible, however, to do even
+more than this. At the Minnesota station a variety, selected for
+ten years according to a definite principle, yielded twenty-five
+per cent more than the parent variety. Applied to our average
+crop, that increase would amount to 185,000,000 bushels, worth
+about $140,000,000. As for corn, it has been officially stated that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
+our average yield could easily be doubled. After exhaustive experiments
+the Department of Agriculture says that by merely testing
+individual ears of seed corn and rejecting those of low vitality an
+average yield of nearly fourteen per cent could be secured, adding
+about $200,000,000 to the value of the crop. Does scientific seed
+selection seem worth while?&mdash;<i>The Wall Street Journal.</i></p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>BANKING</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Imagine</span> that you are a druggist in a small town. Suppose
+that a woman comes in to buy two ounces of camphor
+and in exchange gives you three eggs. In a few moments,
+perhaps, a man enters to buy a safety razor and brings with
+him wheat enough to pay the bill. Another, again, wishes
+to trade a turkey for a fountain pen. You can readily see
+the inconvenience to which you would be put in such exchange
+of actual commodities; yet this was the method used
+in primitive times, a method called <i>barter</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To overcome the inconvenience of barter, as civilization
+advanced, it became necessary to establish a common
+medium of exchange, which could be accepted for anything
+one had to sell and with which one could buy anything he
+wished. This is what we call <i>money</i>. To meet the requirements,
+money must not be bulky, must be durable, and must
+not readily change in value. In civilized countries gold and
+silver are the bases of exchange.</p>
+
+<p>But gold and silver are heavy and inconvenient to carry
+about in large, or for that matter in small, quantities, and
+for convenience the following kinds of paper money have
+been established:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Gold Certificates</i> are issued with the government's guarantee
+that there is gold deposited in the Treasury equal to
+the amount of the face of the bill. At any time the one holding
+such a bill may demand of the Treasury that he receive
+gold for it.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Silver Certificates</i> are similar to gold certificates, except
+that silver is deposited in the Treasury instead of gold.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>United States Treasury Notes</i> are promissory notes of
+the government to pay the sum indicated. They are not
+payable on demand.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>National Bank Notes</i> are promissory notes issued by the
+national banks and are payable on demand of the bearer.
+Before a national bank may issue such notes, it must own
+United States government bonds of at least the amount for
+which it issues notes. These bonds are held by the Treasurer
+of the United States as security that the bank will pay
+its notes. According to the Owen Glass Bill, passed in
+December of 1913, national bank notes may at the option
+of the banks be gradually withdrawn from circulation.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Credit</b></div>
+
+<p><i>Credit</i> is a promise to pay at some future time for a thing
+which you receive now. Its use is probably as old as the
+practice of exchange and quite as important. The simplest
+and most extensive form of credit is "book" credit, such as
+you get at the grocer's or butcher's or at the department
+store. To explain a little more complex kind of credit:
+Suppose you owe Smith one hundred dollars. At the same
+time Smith owes Jones one hundred dollars. Because you
+owe Smith, he may give Jones an order to collect the money
+from you. With this order Jones may pay his lawyer, let
+us say. Perhaps the lawyer has bought a bill of goods from
+you. He pays you with the same order. You destroy the
+"note," and thus four actual transactions have been taken
+care of without the use of any money. The business institution
+which deals especially with credits is the bank.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Banks</b></div>
+
+<p>A bank which fulfills every banking function must have
+these three departments: (1) the commercial department,
+(2) the savings department, (3) the trust department. Some
+institutions specialize in one department more than in either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>
+of the others, and thus, taking the name from their principal
+function, banks are known as follows: (i) commercial
+banks or banks of deposit, (2) savings banks, (3) trust
+companies.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Banks of Deposit</b></div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 337px;">
+<img src="images/gs340.png" width="337" height="400" alt="Deposit slip" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Banks of deposit or commercial banks are business men's
+banks. Their two principal functions are (1) receiving money
+for safe-keeping on deposit, and (2) loaning money to business
+men at interest. The deposit function is based on
+confidence and credit. The business man takes his money to
+the bank not only because it is convenient for him to do so,
+but also because he
+has confidence that
+the money will be
+more carefully protected
+than if he kept it
+in his own possession.
+In depositing his
+money in the bank,
+the business man uses
+a <i>deposit slip</i> such as
+the one illustrated
+here. The teller puts
+down the amount in
+the <i>bank book</i> of the
+depositor, who is credited
+with that amount
+on the bank's books. He is entitled to draw just that much
+actual cash or that much credit in the form of <i>checks</i>. (See
+<a href="#Page_339">page 339</a>.) Most firms do not deposit a sum of money and
+then promptly draw it out again in the form of checks to
+pay current liabilities, but maintain a fairly steady balance
+in the bank. On large average monthly balances most
+banks allow interest, varying from one per cent on balances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
+of one thousand dollars to three per cent on balances of
+ten thousand dollars or more.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Discount</b></div>
+
+<p>Because a large bank has many depositors, the aggregate
+of all the balances makes a considerable sum of money.
+Bankers have learned by experience just what proportion
+of their deposits they can depend on to remain steadily on
+deposit as a balance, and thus they know what proportion
+of their deposits it is safe to use for the purpose of <i>discount</i>.
+The simplest case of the discount function is the discount
+of a promissory note. In the note shown in the illustration
+after ninety days John H. Blodgett will receive from Lucius
+Thomas five hundred dollars with interest. But perhaps
+Blodgett cannot wait ninety days for his money. In this
+case, he takes the note to his banker, who will pay him the
+five hundred dollars less a certain percentage or discount,
+which is the bank's profit on the transaction. The bank
+then collects the note when it becomes due.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/gs341.png" width="600" height="249" alt="Promissory Note" title="" />
+<span class='caption'><span class='smcap'>Promissary Note</span></span></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Collateral</b></div>
+<p>Instead of cashing a note held by one of its customers, the
+bank may itself loan money at interest for a short period
+of thirty, sixty, or ninety days, taking the note of the business<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
+man to whom the money is loaned. In most cases,
+however, unless the bank knows the business man well, a certain
+amount of <i>collateral</i> is demanded as an assurance that
+the borrower will pay the loan when it becomes due. The
+amount of collateral deposited with the bank is usually 10%
+to 25% in excess of the amount loaned, and it may take the
+form of stocks or bonds; mortgages on real estate; liens on
+stock, fixtures, or personal property; or warehouse receipts.
+When the amount borrowed is paid, the collateral is returned;
+if it is not paid within a reasonable time, the collateral
+is sold, and the amount loaned, with interest to date,
+is taken from the proceeds.</p>
+
+<p>There are, of course, other functions of banks of deposit
+practised quite generally by all banks, and these will be explained
+later. The functions just described, however, distinguish
+banks of deposit in a general way from the other
+two classes.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Savings Banks</b></div>
+
+<p>A savings bank accepts from its depositors small amounts
+of money which are not subject to withdrawal by check, but
+on which it pays a low rate of interest. As a general rule,
+an account may be opened with one dollar; and when the
+initial deposit is made, the depositor is furnished with a pass
+book, similar to the bank book, in which further deposits,
+interest credits, and withdrawals are recorded. Interest is
+compounded every four or six months, and money must, as
+a general rule, remain on deposit until an interest payment
+date before the depositor receives any interest on it. The
+usual rate of interest is three per cent, although four is often
+paid. Frequently, before banks allow deposits to be withdrawn,
+they demand a certain number of days' notice,
+usually thirty. It is well to investigate the conditions under
+which the depositor places his money in the safe-keeping of
+the bank, because the withdrawal requirements are often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>
+stringent. Because of the stability of this class of deposit,
+banks are always anxious to increase their savings accounts,
+as a large proportion of the funds may be used for loans.</p>
+
+<p>A form of the savings bank established in the United States
+in 1911 is the postal savings bank, in which the post-office
+is made the depository for savings. The post-office in the
+town deposits its funds in the local national or state bank,
+which, as security for safe-keeping, must deposit with the
+Treasurer of the United States bonds at least equal in value
+to the amount of savings deposited in the bank. Postal
+savings banks are practically absolutely safe, because, if the
+bank which takes care of the funds should fail, the bonds
+may be sold, so that the savers will receive their money.
+From deposits made in the postal savings bank, the return
+to the depositor is only two per cent, whereas the return
+from deposits made in the bank's own savings department is
+three, three and a half, and sometimes four per cent.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Trust Companies</b><br />
+
+<i>The Richards' Baby Stocking Fund</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A miner named Richards was killed in an accident in an Alaska
+mine. Among his possessions were found a number of letters and
+a baby stocking containing a little gold dust. The letters told
+that Richards had a little six-year-old daughter, who was now left
+destitute. The rough miners made up a fund of $2,500 in gold
+dust, depositing it with the United States Commissioner of the
+Territory of Alaska, to be held by him until the proper disposition
+of it could be made. A <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'committe'">committee</ins> was appointed, who agreed that
+one hundred dollars a year for ten years should be used to give
+the child a common school education, and then five hundred dollars
+each year to give her a college education. A legal guardian
+was appointed, and the Kansas City Trust Company asked to act
+as co-guardian to invest the money and make the required remittances.
+The funds were first deposited by the commissioner in a
+bank in Portland, which sent them to the Kansas City Trust Company.
+Correspondence was of course carried on at the same time,
+the Kansas City Trust Company agreeing to accept the trust without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
+remuneration. They have invested the money in five per cent
+bonds, thus increasing the fund yearly.</p></div>
+
+<p>This is called a <i>trust</i> because the money is entrusted for
+safe-keeping and investment to the bank, which is called the
+<i>trustee</i>. A bank may also become the trustee for property
+left at the death of a person, both when there is a will and
+when there is none. When there is no will and the bank takes
+charge of the affairs of the deceased, the bank is called the
+<i>administrator;</i> when there is a will, the <i>executor</i>. Another
+important function of the trust company is acting as <i>receiver</i>
+for a company which has failed; that is, adjusting the company's
+affairs in the way fairest both to the stockholders
+and to the company's creditors. The trust company often
+acts, also, as <i>agent</i> for its clients' property, performing the
+same duties as a real estate agent.</p>
+
+<div class='center'><b>Form of Remittance</b></div>
+
+<p>Banks as a class are distinguished one from the other
+according as they specialize in one or more of the functions
+described above. However, there are certain services that
+all banks perform and certain facilities that they all offer
+in connection with the payment of money from one person
+to another. These concern the forms of remittance.</p>
+
+<p>If you have studied business arithmetic or bookkeeping,
+you very likely know the definite forms that are used. At
+all events, you know that currency should never go through
+the mails. The following is a brief review of the more
+important forms that may be used. Study the illustrations
+carefully, noticing particularly the similarity of form in all.
+Uniformity in such matters is desirable because it saves
+time as well as misunderstandings. The forms we shall
+consider are:</p>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+1. The check<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Personal</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Certified</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span>2. The money order<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>a.</i> Express</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>b.</i> Postal</span><br />
+3. The bank draft<br />
+4. The time draft<br />
+5. The sight draft<br />
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Check.</i>&mdash;A check is a written order on a bank, signed by
+a depositor, directing the bank to pay a certain person a
+certain sum of money. When the bank pays the order, it
+deducts the amount from the depositor's account. The
+one who signs the check is called the <i>drawer</i> or maker; the
+person to whom or to whose order a check is made payable
+is called the <i>payee;</i> the bank on which a check is drawn is
+called the <i>drawee</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/gs345.png" width="600" height="234" alt="Check and Stub" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Check and Stub</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of course, before you could write a check for one hundred
+dollars, you must have deposited at least one hundred dollars
+in the bank on which the check is drawn. The bank supplies
+you with a check book, consisting of blank checks, each
+attached to a stub. When you write a check, you put the
+same information on the stub to be kept for reference. Then
+you tear off the check through the perforated line, using
+it to pay for whatever you may have purchased.</p>
+
+<p><i>Certified Check.</i>&mdash;Suppose, however, that you are writing
+this check to pay a debt to a stranger who lives in another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
+city. He may hesitate to accept it as money. That he may
+have no cause to doubt your ability to pay the check, you
+take it to your bank to have the cashier investigate your
+account. If he finds that you have sufficient funds, he
+writes or stamps <i>Accepted</i> or <i>Certified</i> on the check and signs
+his name. At the same time the amount of the check is
+deducted from your account. Such a check is accepted
+without question when the holder is properly identified.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endorsement.</i>&mdash;If A gives you his check for twenty-five
+dollars, you could not receive the money until you had endorsed
+the check; that is, put your name on the back,
+which is, in effect, giving a receipt for the money. You
+may do this in various ways. You may endorse:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. In blank; that is, merely write your name across the back.</p>
+
+<p>2. In full, by saying, "Pay to the order of &mdash;&mdash;" and signing
+your name.</p>
+
+<p>3. By restricting the payment to a particular person; as,
+"Pay to &mdash;&mdash;" This check cannot now be cashed by anyone
+except the one named in the endorsement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/gs346.png" width="600" height="282" alt="Express Money Order" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Express Money Order</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Express Money Order.</i>&mdash;An express money order is much
+like a check, except that it is drawn on an express company
+instead of on a bank and reads, for example: Continental
+Express Company agrees to transmit and pay to the order<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span>
+of &mdash;&mdash; (the one to whom you are sending the money) &mdash;&mdash; (the
+amount). The order is signed by the treasurer of the company
+and countersigned by the agent who sells it. You can
+buy such an order at any express office. It may be endorsed
+like a check.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/gs347.png" width="600" height="214" alt="Postal Money Order" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Postal Money Order</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Postal Money Order.</i>&mdash;The other form of money order,
+the postal, is an agreement signed by the postmaster of one
+city that the postmaster of another city will pay the amount
+of money named in the order to the person named in the
+order.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bank Draft.</i>&mdash;A bank draft is very much like a check,
+except that instead of two individuals dealing with each
+other two banks conduct the transaction, their places of business
+being in different cities or villages. A bank draft is
+sometimes called a bank check, because in the case of both
+a draft and a check one party draws upon another with whom
+the first has funds deposited. As a general rule, banks and
+business houses require that remittances be sent to them
+by drafts drawn on New York or Chicago banks, as there is
+a charge called <i>exchange</i> made in the collection of checks
+drawn on local banks.</p>
+
+<p>In the draft that follows, the State Bank of Utah, of which
+Henry T. McEwan is Assistant Cashier, makes out the
+draft. The bank which is ordered to pay the money is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
+National Park Bank of New York. The money is to be paid
+to Henry L. Fowler. The State Bank of Utah is called the
+drawer; the National Park Bank of New York, on whom the
+draft is drawn, is the drawee; Henry L. Fowler is the payee.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/gs348a.png" width="600" height="288" alt="Bank Draft" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Bank Draft</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><span class="caption">Endorsement</span>
+<img src="images/gs348b.png" width="400" height="234" alt="Endorsement" title="" />
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The payment indicated above
+was probably made without actually
+sending the money from
+Salt Lake City to New York.
+It was done in this way:</p>
+
+<p>Henry L. Fowler of Salt
+Lake City owes one hundred
+dollars to a man living in
+an Eastern city, let us say Charles Emery of Rochester,
+N. Y. Mr. Fowler goes to the State Bank of Utah in
+Salt Lake City and "buys a draft on New York,"
+made payable to himself. The bank makes out the above,
+charging Mr. Fowler one hundred dollars plus a fraction
+of one per cent for its trouble. Mr. Fowler endorses it
+in full to Mr. Emery of Rochester and sends the draft to the
+latter. He has the draft made payable to himself so that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
+endorsement will constitute a full record of the transaction.
+Mr. Emery takes the draft to his own bank in Rochester,
+endorses it in blank, and receives the one hundred dollars.
+Thus Mr. Fowler has paid out the money and Mr. Emery
+has received it.</p>
+
+<p>The way the banks conduct the transaction is as follows:
+There are certain big money centers in the country; e.g.,
+New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco. Important
+banks in other places have money on deposit in at least one
+bank in each of these centers. The banks which thus deal
+with one another are called <i>correspondents</i>. The National
+Park Bank is the correspondent of the State Bank of Utah.
+When Mr. Emery cashes the draft at his Rochester bank, the
+latter sends it to its New York correspondent, and at the
+same time charges the correspondent one hundred dollars.
+The correspondent presents the draft to the National Park
+Bank, which pays the money and charges the same amount
+to the State Bank of Utah. Explain how this settles the
+transaction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time Draft.</i>&mdash;A time draft is much like a bank draft, in
+that two banks conduct the principal part of the transaction
+for two individuals, but no money is actually paid at
+the time the draft is drawn. The details of a transaction of
+this kind are explained on the following page.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/gs349.png" width="600" height="223" alt="Time Draft" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Time Draft</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Horace Prang of 1008 Elm Street, Columbus, Ohio, owes
+Loetzer &amp; Co. five hundred dollars, due August 27, 1915.
+Loetzer &amp; Co. make out the draft above and deposit it in
+the Bank of Buffalo. The latter sends the draft to its correspondent
+in Columbus, which presents the draft to Horace
+Prang. If he is willing to pay the note when it falls due, he
+writes across the face of it, "<i>Accepted</i>" adds the date, and
+signs his name. It is now returned to the Bank of Buffalo.
+The Bank of Buffalo will then discount the draft for Loetzer
+&amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sight Draft.</i>&mdash;A sight draft is much like a time draft,
+except that the amount is paid by the person on whom it is
+drawn as soon as it is presented, instead of after a stipulated
+length of time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/gs350.png" width="600" height="236" alt="Sight Draft" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Sight Draft</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suppose the Empire Elevator Co. of Buffalo has sold $420
+worth of grain to the Smith Milling Co. of Springfield, Mass.
+When the grain is loaded on the cars, the railroad company
+gives the Empire Elevator Co. a bill of lading. Now, the
+Smith Milling Co. must possess this bill of lading before it
+can take the grain from the cars at Springfield. The Empire
+Elevator Co. deposits the bill of lading with the above draft
+in the Marine National Bank of Buffalo. This bank sends
+both to its correspondent in Springfield. The Springfield bank
+presents the draft to the Smith Milling Co., who may take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
+the grain from the cars on payment of the draft. In case
+of non-payment, both draft and bill of lading are returned
+to the Marine National Bank of Buffalo, and the Empire
+Elevator Co. must make arrangements for the return or the
+disposal of the grain.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b><a name="Exercise_301" id="Exercise_301"></a>Exercise 301</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. F. R. Thompson, sales manager of the New York Trust
+and Savings Bank, sends a circular letter to a number of banks,
+saying that he is enclosing a booklet that describes a number of
+bonds suitable for the security of postal savings deposits, the
+legality of which has been carefully investigated. In his letter
+he mentions especially Omaha, Nebraska, School 4&frac12;% bonds,
+price to net 4.40%; Seattle, Washington, Harbor 5% bonds, price
+to net 4&frac12;%; and Hoquiam, Washington, Bridge 5&frac12;% bonds, price
+to net 5%. Reproduce the letter, addressing it to W. W. Fallows,
+Cashier of the Mercantile National Bank of Pueblo, Colorado.</p>
+
+<p>2. Mr. Fallows answers, saying that his knowledge of the
+postal savings law is vague and that he would be glad if Mr.
+Thompson would give him definite information on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>3. Mr. Thompson replies that he is enclosing a copy of the
+postal savings law. He assures Mr. Fallows that he can serve the
+latter both in buying the proper securities and in depositing them
+with the Treasurer of the United States. Application for such
+deposits must be made by the bank itself. Mr. Thompson will
+gladly inform him if Mr. Fallows does not know the steps to
+be taken or the report to be submitted.</p>
+
+<p>4. Punctuate, using a letterhead:</p>
+
+<p>Mercantile Trust Company New York City Dec 2 19&mdash; manager
+the bank of Scotland 3c bishop E C London England dear sir we
+are sending you herewith advice of the issuance of our circular
+letter of credit No. 262 in favor of Miss Helen Jackson for 300
+pounds sterling Miss Jackson is at present in Paris France and the
+letter of credit has been forwarded to Messrs Thomas Cooke and
+Son 1 Place de l'Opera Paris we have requested Messrs Thomas
+Cooke and Son to forward to you two specimens of Miss Jacksons
+signature which we have signed and forwarded to Messrs Thomas
+Cooke and Son for that purpose so that you may have these
+signatures before any drafts against the letter of credit are presented
+to you yours very truly James R Hudson treasurer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>What is a letter of credit? How did Miss Jackson get it?</p>
+
+<p>The Bank of Scotland is the correspondent of the Mercantile
+Trust Company. Explain.</p>
+
+<p>Why should the New York bank forward Miss Jackson's signature?</p>
+
+<p>5. Write the letter that the Mercantile Trust Company sends
+to Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son.</p>
+
+<p>6. Write the letter that Messrs. Thomas Cooke and Son send
+to the Bank of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>7. W. T. Randall, cashier of the Milwaukee Trust and Savings
+Bank, Milwaukee, Wis., writes a letter, the purpose of which is to
+secure savings accounts. A club of 500 members is to be formed.
+Each member is to buy a share by paying one dollar and to pay
+one dollar per week per share, the amount to draw interest at 3%.
+After forty-eight weeks he gets credit for fifty dollars per share,
+thus securing over 5% interest on his money. Make the offer
+attractive.</p>
+
+<p>8. Some time ago a bank in your city discounted a note held
+by George Carpenter, signed by Martin Kugerman. The note
+falls due in ten days. As cashier write to Mr. Kugerman, telling
+him that you hold the note and that you hope he will be able to
+remit on the day of maturity.</p>
+
+<p>9. Your bank loaned Clarence Wentworth $500 for ninety
+days, taking as security $700 worth of collateral. The note falls
+due in a week. Write to Mr. Wentworth, reminding him that
+the note falls due and asking him whether he wishes to pay it off
+or whether he wishes it extended.</p>
+
+<p>10. John Elsworth, who has an account with you, writes, saying
+that by registered mail he is sending you certificates of 20 shares
+Union Pacific common stock, 50 shares National Biscuit Co. preferred
+stock, 5 (bonds) American Telephone and Telegraph convertible
+4&frac12;'s, 3 (bonds) New York and East River Gas Co. first
+mortgage 5's. He asks you to take care of them and collect
+dividends and interest when they are due, crediting them to his
+account.</p>
+
+<p>11. Your correspondent, the First National Bank of Janesville,
+Wis., writes, asking you to forward by registered mail $5,000 in
+currency.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 302</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Mr. Henry Carroll of Wausau, Wis., writes to Mr. Randall
+(<a href="#Exercise_301">Exercise 301</a>, 7), asking him to buy 10 shares of C. &amp; N. W. R. R.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
+preferred stock at 134 or better. When they are bought, he adds,
+they can be sent through any bank in Wausau.</p>
+
+<p>2. Mr. Randall replies by sending the 10 shares of stock to the
+bank's correspondent in Wausau, the First National Bank, telling
+the latter to deliver them to Mr. Henry Carroll on payment of
+the enclosed draft for $1340 with exchange. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>3. A dressmaker in South Bend, Ind., has applied to Marshall
+Field &amp; Co., Retail, State and Washington Streets, Chicago, for
+a charge account. The department store makes inquiries concerning
+her at her bank, the Commercial and Savings Bank of
+South Bend. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>4. The bank replies that she has maintained a small but
+steady balance, that she has never overdrawn her account, and
+that in their opinion her credit would be good up to $100 monthly.
+Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>5. Theodore Buchanan of St. Louis sends Philip Newborg of
+your city a check for $100 with which he pays a debt to Charles
+Springer of Minneapolis. Springer endorses it and deposits it
+in the Security National Bank. The check is returned marked
+N.S.F., and the Security National Bank notifies Springer of
+the situation and of the fact that his account has been charged
+with $104, the amount of the draft plus expenses.</p>
+
+<p>6. One of the depositors of the Milwaukee Trust and Savings
+Bank brings to the Cashier a note which is about due, and
+asks the bank to collect it. The maker of the note is William T.
+Adams of Seattle. The Cashier writes to the bank's correspondent
+in Seattle, the Scandinavian American Bank, asking the
+latter to collect. Write the letter. (See <a href="#Exercise_301">Exercise 301</a>, 7.)</p>
+
+<p>7. The Scandinavian American bank writes to William T.
+Adams, telling him that it holds a note signed by him, due &mdash;&mdash;,
+and asking him to make prompt payment. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>8. Mr. Adams pays the note. The Seattle Bank notifies the
+Milwaukee Bank, enclosing a draft for the amount. Write the
+letter.</p>
+
+<p>9. See <a href="#Exercise_301">Exercise 301</a>, 10. As John Elsworth's banker send the
+coupons for the American Telephone and Telegraph bonds to
+your correspondent in New York, the National City Bank,
+because the interest is payable in New York. Ask the bank to
+make the collection. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>10. The National City Bank makes the collection and informs
+you by means of a printed form that it has credited you with the
+amount, $112.50. The form is just like a letter except that it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>
+already printed with blanks left for the name and the address
+and for itemizing the coupons collected. Write such a form.</p>
+
+<p>11. One of your depositors has overdrawn his account. Notify
+him of the fact. Do this courteously so that the depositor may
+have no reason to withdraw his account.</p>
+
+<p>12. In your city there is a real estate dealer who often has
+large sums of money idle for a short time because, when he sells
+one piece of property, he does not always have another immediately
+in view. He is not a depositor in your bank. Write to
+him, inducing him to take out a Certificate of Deposit at such
+times and telling him that the advantages of such a certificate are
+that he will get 3% interest on the money deposited and that he
+may draw out the money at any time.</p>
+
+<p>13. One of your depositors has written to you, asking for a
+loan of $5,000 for nine months. Write to him, saying that it is
+not your practice to make time loans for definite periods longer
+than six months, as it is not a good plan thus to tie up your deposits.
+Explain that as most of a bank's deposits are payable on demand,
+you would suggest his taking out a demand loan for $5,000, payable
+on the demand of the bank. Under ordinary business conditions
+such a loan might easily run for nine months.</p>
+
+<p>14. R. F. Marsden, President of the Truesdale Cotton Mill,
+Birmingham, Ala., has written to you, asking whether he can
+secure a loan next fall on the cotton in the mill as collateral.
+Reply that you feel certain that satisfactory arrangements could
+be made if the cotton were stored in an accredited warehouse, so
+that you could accept the warehouse receipt as collateral.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 303</b></div>
+
+<p>Punctuate and paragraph the following letter, which explains
+one function of a trust company:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Dear sir as you are one of our clients you are familiar with the
+reputation of this bank for sound banking and conservative
+investments you may not however be aware that we have a fully
+equipped trust department prepared to act in any of the numerous
+capacities in which the services of trust companies have proved of
+special value at this time we wish to call your particular attention
+to the service which this department is prepared to render as
+trustee under agreement it is natural that one who has accumulated
+property should desire to superintend or direct its disposition
+formerly this was done by will now however as the complex laws<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span>
+of the various states frequently necessitate the payment of double
+or triple inheritance taxes it is becoming a more and more common
+practice for a man during his lifetime to administer his own estate
+so to speak this may be accomplished through the establishment
+of a trust with respect to either a part or all of one's property it
+can be accomplished not only with absolute safety to the donor
+but with entire secrecy as well the terms of the trust being regarded
+as absolutely confidential furthermore the donor has the satisfaction
+of disposing of his property during his lifetime in accordance
+with his desires the life of a trust company unlike that of any
+individual is of perpetual duration death does not interfere with
+its management of the trust estate its financial responsibility and
+the safeguards thrown around trust estates by the state laws
+insure the safety of a trust fund if you are interested in this subject
+let us discuss it with you either in person or by correspondence
+when this bank is named in a trust capacity no charge is made
+for service or advice in connection with the drafting of the trust
+instruments yours truly</p></div>
+
+<p>Before writing the following, re-read The Richards' Baby
+Stocking Fund, <a href="#Page_337">page 337</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Suppose that you were a newspaper correspondent in Alaska
+at the time Richards was killed. For your home paper write an
+account of the finding of the baby stocking. In what ways would
+this account differ from a magazine article on the same subject?</p>
+
+<p>2. As if you were the United States Commissioner of the Territory
+of Alaska, write to a Portland bank saying that you are
+sending the $2,500 to them, and asking them to put the funds in
+the care of a reliable trust company.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Portland bank writes to the Kansas City Trust Company,
+asking if the latter will accept the trust. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Kansas City Trust Company replies that it will accept
+the trust without remuneration. Write the letter.</p>
+
+<p>5. The Portland bank informs the United States Commissioner
+of the Territory of Alaska of the disposition of the funds. Write
+the letter.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 304</b><br /><br />
+
+<b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot2'><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">1. The panic of 1907 and some of its lessons.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">2. Future banking reform.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">3. Government supervision of banks.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">4. Unscrupulous banking companies.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">5. Clearing house certificates.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6. Postal savings banks.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">7. The work of the clearing house.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">8. The need of banks in a community.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">9. The development of real estate firms into banks.</span><br />
+10. The Owen Glass Currency Bill.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 305</b><br /><br />
+
+<b>Books that will Suggest Topics for Talks</b></div>
+
+<div class='blockquot'><br />
+<span class="smcap">Crocker, U. H.</span>, The Cause of Hard Times.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fonda, Arthur J.</span>, Honest Money.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Gibbs, H. C.</span>, A Bimetallic Primer.<br />
+<span class="smcap">McAdams, Graham</span>, An Alphabet in Finance.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Newcomb, Simon</span>, The A B C of Finance.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Norton, S. F.</span>, Ten Men of Money Island, or The Primer of Finance.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Reeves, John</span>, The Rothschilds: The Financial Rulers of Nations.<br />
+<span class="smcap">White, Horace</span>, Money and Banking.<br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 306</b></div>
+
+<p>Write the following from dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1<br />
+
+<span class="smcap">The Daily Routine of the Clearing House</span></div>
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Each bank sends two clerks to the Clearing House: a delivering
+clerk and a settling clerk. There are three rows of seats running
+through the clearing room lengthwise, one in the center and
+one on each side parallel with it. The settling clerks occupy these
+seats and each one has a sufficient amount of desk room in front
+of him to do his work on, his space being separated from his neighbors'
+by a wire screen. The delivery clerks, with their packages
+of checks in separate envelopes, stand in the open space in front
+of the settling clerks. At two minutes before 10 o'clock the manager,
+whose station is an elevated open space at the extreme end
+of the room, strikes a bell.</p>
+
+<p>The movement has all the precision of a military drill. When
+the second bell sounds, at exactly 10 o'clock, each delivery clerk
+takes one step forward, hands the proper package to the settling
+clerk of the bank next to him, drops the accompanying ticket
+showing the amount into an aperture like a letter box, and places<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>
+before the settling clerk his schedule, on which the latter places
+his initials. Thus the procession moves uninterruptedly until
+each delivery clerk has presented to each settling clerk the proper
+package and ticket. Usually this part of the operation is completed
+in ten minutes. Meanwhile the proof clerk, who occupies
+a desk near the manager, has entered the claims of each bank
+under the head "Bank Cr." on a broad sheet of paper.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the amount of each bank's claim against the
+Clearing House (entered under the head "Banks Cr.") is the sum
+of all the tickets which its delivery clerk has pushed into the
+letter boxes of the other banks, it follows that all the tickets of
+all the banks should equal all the entries under that head. The
+next step in the operation is for each settling clerk to arrange the
+amounts of all the tickets in his letter box in a column, add it
+up, and send the amount to the proof clerk, who transcribes and
+arranges it according to the bank's number under the head
+"Banks Dr.," so that the debit of Bank A shall be on the same
+line with its credit.</p>
+
+<p>Then the difference between the two will show how much the
+bank owes the Clearing House or how much the Clearing House
+owes the bank. The time occupied by the settling clerks in
+arranging their tickets and adding up the columns is about half
+an hour. As fast as these footings are completed, they are sent
+to the proof clerk, who puts them in the debit column opposite
+the credits of the banks, respectively. When all are completed,
+if no error has been made, the footings of the credit and debit
+columns must be exactly equal and the footings of the two other
+columns, which show the differences, must be exactly equal.
+Then these differences are read off slowly and in a distinct tone by
+the manager, so that each settling clerk can write down the sum
+that his bank has to pay or to receive. As time is money at the
+Clearing House, a fine is exacted for every error and every delay
+in making footings, for every disobedience of the orders of the
+manager, or for every instance of disorderly conduct.&mdash;Horace
+White: <i>Money and Banking</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Treasury, in connection with its money washing, has asked
+national banks to exercise more care in sending in money for
+redemption. Banks frequently put into the same bundle, good
+notes, bad notes, and notes of different denominations. When
+they are mixed in this way, it requires a good deal of work to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
+separate the money. The Treasury thinks that the banks could
+do this work, so that, when the money reaches Washington, it could
+easily be separated by packages instead of each package having
+to be separated first. The Assistant Secretary says he believes
+that, when he gets the subject worked out in detail, new washed
+money will be returned to the bank in any denomination desired
+on the same day that it is received; that money unfit for laundering
+will be destroyed and new money issued. This expeditious
+handling of money sent in for redemption cannot, however, be
+attained, he admits, without the co-operation of the banks. In
+a short time, he believes, all banks will see that it is to their
+benefit to do this.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<div class='chaptertitle'>THE CORPORATION</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> study that we have thus far made of the various
+kinds of businesses would be incomplete did we not briefly
+outline the different types of organization by which modern
+business is conducted. This will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'natually'">naturally</ins> lead us to a discussion
+of stocks and bonds, which are of great importance
+in every big business and of interest to individuals as means
+of investment. However, as the subjects are probably outside
+the experience of most students, we shall treat them
+as simply as possible, letting the chapter stand rather for
+the information it contains than for its application to the
+study of English expression.</p>
+
+<p>Business to-day is carried on in three different ways;
+viz., by individuals, by partnerships, and by corporations.
+The grocer, the butcher, the baker, or any one man who
+carries on a business is an example of the first. If, however,
+the grocer and the butcher, or the grocer and the baker,
+combine their businesses for the good of both, they form
+a partnership. When the amount of capital necessary for
+carrying on the business becomes so large that the money
+of many people is needed, a <i>corporation</i> is formed. The
+amount of money which any one individual invests in the
+company is represented by a certain number of shares of the
+<i>capital stock</i> of the company, entitling him to his portion
+of the dividends, or interest on the money he has invested.
+These shares of the capital stock are transferable and can
+be bought and sold like an automobile or a house. Since
+there is no time limit as to how long a corporation may do
+business, a change in the ownership of part of the stock, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+the death of a stockholder, is not accompanied by the same
+result as in a partnership, where the death of one of the
+partners sometimes breaks up the business. Furthermore, in
+a partnership each one of the partners is personally liable for
+any debts made by any of the partners in behalf of the business,
+whereas the personal possessions of a stockholder in a
+corporation cannot be held as security for any debts incurred
+by the corporation. These are two of the more important
+advantages of corporate organization over partnership.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>The Finances of a Corporation</b></div>
+
+<p>It has been estimated that if one were to count money,
+dollar by dollar, one dollar every second for eight hours six
+days a week, it would take him six weeks to count one million
+dollars, and over one hundred years to count a billion
+dollars. This may help us to appreciate the sums of money
+spoken of in the following: In 1914 the market value of
+the Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago was over
+$83,000,000. The valuation placed on the properties of the
+Chicago Railways Company in 1914 exceeded $79,000,000.
+The Union Pacific Railroad Company had invested in its
+properties in 1914 approximately $500,000,000. The capital
+obligations of the United States Steel Corporation in 1914
+were over $1,500,000,000. There are hundreds of such organizations
+in our country, the investments in which run to
+and beyond $50,000,000 each. It must be plain that, except
+in a very few cases, these vast amounts of money do not
+represent the investment of one, or of a few, but of many
+persons. In uniting their capital, these persons decrease the
+cost of making or distributing the product and so increase
+their profits.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Stocks</b></div>
+
+<p>When a large company of this kind is organized, a certain
+amount of money is agreed upon to be the capital of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span>
+company, and it is divided into small portions, ordinarily
+$100 each, called <i>shares</i>. The total of the shares is called
+the <i>authorized capital stock</i>. These shares are sold, the purchasers
+of the shares being called <i>shareholders</i>, or <i>stockholders,</i>
+of the company. The number of shares a person holds determines
+what part of the profits he is entitled to. For
+example, if a company is organized for 1000 shares of $100
+each, or a capital stock of $100,000, and you owned 100
+shares, you would be entitled to one-tenth of the divided
+profits of the company. Such profits of the company,
+divided proportionately among the stockholders, constitute
+the <i>dividends</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Often the capital stock is of two kinds, <i>preferred</i> and
+<i>common</i>, as in the case of the Union Pacific R. R., which has
+$200,000,000 of authorized preferred stock and $296,178,700
+of authorized common stock. As the names signify, preferred
+stock is ordinarily better than common stock, the dividends
+on preferred stock being paid before any dividends are paid on
+common stock and usually at a stated rate of interest; as, 4,
+5, or 6 per cent. In the case of the Union Pacific, this rate is
+4 per cent. If the company earns only enough profits to pay
+the dividends on the preferred stock, the common gets no
+dividends. On the other hand, if the profits are enormous,
+the common occasionally gets more than the preferred.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Par and Market Value</b></div>
+
+<p>The <i>par value</i> of a stock is the face value of one share of
+stock, indicated on the face of the certificate. This may be
+$10 or $50 or $100, whatever the amount agreed upon for one
+share when the company is organized. The amount most
+commonly used as par is $100. The <i>market value</i> of the
+stock, however, need not be this amount, but may be greater
+or less, dependent on how successful the company is and
+what rate of dividends it pays. If a company's standing
+is very good and the dividends are high (over 6 per cent),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
+the stock will probably sell on the market above par. If
+the company's finances are in a doubtful condition and there
+are evidences that the company will pay small dividends,
+if any at all, the market price of the stock will fall below
+par. For example, in January, 1914, Union Pacific R. R.
+common stock sold for about $158 per share, because the
+finances of the company were in good condition and the company
+had paid 10 per cent dividends steadily each year since
+July 1, 1907. If, however, any occasion should arise to make
+the public doubt the payment of future dividends at the same
+rate, the stock would probably decline. To go to the other
+extreme, in the same month Wabash R. R. common stock
+sold as low as $8&frac12; per share, although the par is $100. This
+was because for some years the company had paid no dividends
+and was then in the hands of receivers. To take a
+middle case in the same month and year, Erie R. R. first
+preferred stock sold at about $45 per share, notwithstanding
+the fact that since 1907 no dividends had been paid. The
+reason for this seemingly high price was that the company
+had for some time been reconstructing its property, had
+gradually increased its business, had earned a $9,000,000
+surplus in 1913, and had a good outlook to a dividend in
+the near future.</p>
+
+<p>These are not the only influences that affect the price of
+stocks. The old factor of supply and demand has a great
+influence on price. If, for example, a financier decides to
+buy a large "block" of some stock, the market will almost
+immediately be affected, and that stock will go up. One
+example will suffice. In 1901 E. H. Harriman set out to
+buy $155,000,000 worth of Northern Pacific stock in the
+open market to gain control of the Northern Pacific railroad.
+Of course, the market felt the demand, and the price of
+the stock rose from a little above par until it touched $1,000
+a share before it started back to normal. When Mr. Harriman
+unloaded that same stock in 1906, because he failed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span>
+to gain control, the market went down so considerably that
+he lost $10,000,000 and almost caused a panic.</p>
+
+<p>Often the stocks of a company sell below par because
+the stock is watered; that is, the company has issued more
+stock than there is value invested in the property. Many
+of our railroads, for example, were built on borrowed money&mdash;that
+is, from the proceeds of the sale of bonds&mdash;and, to
+make the bonds sell more readily, stocks were given away
+with them. This, of course, increased the capitalization
+greatly without increasing the value. The temptation
+in forming new companies, especially in mining schemes
+and wildcat ventures, is to water the stock heavily by voting
+a large block of stock gratis to the organizers. Before one
+invests in any of these companies, he should thoroughly
+investigate them. Sometimes companies water their stocks
+when their dividends have become very large and they wish
+to bring the rate down to that commonly paid. The Wells
+Fargo Express Company did this in 1910, presenting their
+stockholders with $16,000,000 worth of new stock without
+any new investment in the property.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Bonds</b></div>
+
+<p>Suppose that A owns a house with a store in it, and in
+the store he carries on a grocery business. Suppose that by
+enlarging his store and putting in a bigger stock of goods he
+can make more money. The improvements will cost $1,000,
+but he hasn't the money. He goes to B to ask B to lend
+him $1,000 for five years, offering B the house as security.
+B gives A the $1,000 and in return gets a certain amount of
+interest each year and A's mortgage note against the property.
+This means that, if at the end of five years A cannot pay
+the $1,000, B has the right to sell A's house and collect the
+money due him.</p>
+
+<p>When a corporation borrows money to extend its properties,
+plants, or rights, the transaction is really the same,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
+although the form is somewhat different. Just as all the
+capital stock of a corporation is divided into shares owned
+by a number of people, so, when the corporation borrows
+money, the amount borrowed is divided into smaller parts of
+$500 or $1,000 each, called <i>bonds</i>, which the corporation sells
+through its bankers to people who have idle money to invest.
+Twice each year, as stated in the bond, the corporation
+pays interest on the borrowed money at the rate, probably,
+of 4, 4&frac12;, 5, or 6 per cent. After a definite number of years,
+as stated in the bond, the corporation is obliged to pay back
+the amount of money that it borrowed. This is called <i>redeeming</i>
+the bonds. To show that it intends to pay back
+the amount borrowed at the end of the time stated, or redeem
+the bonds when they become due, the corporation
+puts a mortgage on its real estate, buildings, machinery, and
+equipment. When the bonds become due&mdash;or <i>mature</i>, as it
+is called&mdash;if the corporation does not pay back the amount
+borrowed, the holders of the bonds may take possession of
+the company's real estate, buildings, machinery, and equipment
+on which the company has placed the mortgage and
+may sell them to recover the money they have loaned.
+Thus, while the stockholders of a corporation have no assurance
+that they will ever get their money back or will ever
+get any interest on it, the holders of carefully selected bonds
+are reasonably sure of getting a certain amount of interest
+each year and of getting their money back when the bonds
+mature. Shares of stock represent the investment made by
+the stockholders who own the company, whereas bonds represent
+the investment of those who loan money to the company.
+We can readily see, then, that the stockholders take
+the greater risk. For this reason it is expected that stocks
+should yield a higher profit than bonds, and this is usually
+the case.</p>
+
+<p>The greater portion of the bonds that are issued by corporations
+run for long periods&mdash;twenty, forty, fifty, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
+even one hundred years. At times when money rates are
+high, corporations that need funds are reluctant to pay a
+high rate for so many years, and so they issue <i>short time
+bonds</i> to run from two to five years, in the hope that at
+the end of the time money rates will be lower and more
+favorable to their issuing long time bonds. Many companies,
+especially industrial corporations and railroads, have
+issued obligations to pay, <i>notes</i> running from six months to
+five years. They are not usually secured by a mortgage
+on the property but are merely the company's promise to
+pay, the interest and the principal taking precedence over
+the dividends on the preferred and the common stocks.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Corporate Organization</b></div>
+
+<p>Before a corporation can carry on its business, it must
+obtain a charter from one of the states of the United States,
+whose laws it must obey. The laws of some states are more
+lenient than those of others, allowing the corporations more
+privileges. New Jersey is thus lenient; consequently we find
+many large corporations&mdash;such as the United States Steel
+Corporation, the American Sugar Refining Company, and
+others&mdash;organized under the laws of New Jersey. After the
+charter is granted and the stock bought by the stockholders,
+the latter have a meeting, at which they elect a small number
+of men to be <i>directors</i>, who, as the name signifies, conduct
+the business of the company for the stockholders. They
+choose a president, one or more vice-presidents, a treasurer,
+a secretary, and any other officers necessary to carry on the
+business under the control of the directors. The term of
+office of the directors is usually so fixed that the term of a
+part of them expires each year, so that each year the
+stockholders have an annual meeting at which they elect
+new directors or re-elect the old ones whose term has
+expired.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>The Railroad</b></div>
+
+<p>Corporations divide themselves into three large groups;
+viz., railroad companies, public utility corporations, and
+industrial corporations. Of these, the group composed of
+the largest and most powerful corporations is the railroad
+group.</p>
+
+<p>Railroads have two general sources of income, the larger
+being the revenue received from operating trains, both
+freight and passenger; and the smaller being the return
+from investments in other companies, from real estate, and
+from the rental of lines, terminals, stations, and cars to other
+railroads. To carry on the second or smaller part of its
+business, the company needs an organization much like any
+other business, but to conduct the first part it requires a
+special organization. This divides itself into four departments,
+usually with a vice-president at the head of each:
+(1) the traffic department, (2) the operating department,
+(3) the finance and accounting department, and (4) the
+legal department.</p>
+
+<p>It is the duty of the traffic department to get the business
+for the company and adjust all traffic claims. In
+short, it does everything to increase the business and the
+earnings. This department naturally divides into the
+freight traffic and passenger traffic departments, with a
+superintendent or manager at the head of each.</p>
+
+<p>After the traffic department has solicited the business for
+the company, it is the duty of the operating department to
+render the services required by the traffic department. The
+work is done by four large divisions: (1) the engineering
+or construction department, whose duty it is to build the
+roads over which the company may operate; (2) the maintenance-of-way
+department, whose duty it is to see that the
+roadbed and rails are kept in good order and repair; (3)
+the equipment department, whose duty it is to see that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
+company is supplied with proper locomotives and cars and
+to see that such equipment is kept in repair; and (4) the
+transportation department, which has to do with the
+operating of the trains.</p>
+
+<p>The financial policy of a railroad is usually in charge of
+one of the vice-presidents, who must be a man of experience
+in financial matters and who acts with the approval
+of the directors. The accounting department is more important
+than may appear at first sight. Railroads are
+now under the supervision and regulation of the government,
+and one of the rights that the government has is
+to examine the books of the company at any time and to
+require all companies to submit a monthly report to the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>The legal department of a railroad is especially important
+for two reasons: (1) In performing its services, the company
+has business dealings with a large number of persons, and
+in the adjustment of claims against the railroad, expert
+legal advice is constantly necessary. (2) The railroad, as
+stated above, is under the regulation and control of the
+state and the national governments, and the enforcement
+of this regulation makes the railroad a party to numerous
+proceedings in the courts and before the Interstate Commerce
+Commission. The large railroads operate in from ten
+to twenty states. It can thus easily be seen that the legal
+department has a great deal more to do than if the railroad
+operated under but one political power.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Public Utility Corporations</b></div>
+
+<p>Public utility corporations supply services without which
+the people of to-day could not very well live. They are
+those supplying water, light, heat, power, telephones, local
+transportation, gas, etc. They may properly be called public
+necessity corporations. The nature of these businesses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>
+practically gives them a monopoly in their locality; this is
+the reason that they have grown so enormously during the
+last thirty years. The Commonwealth Edison Company,
+which supplies a large part of Chicago with light and
+power, began in 1887 with a capital of $500,000 and in
+1914 its capital obligations had a market value of over
+$83,000,000. The American Telephone and Telegraph
+Company began in 1885 with $12,000,000 of capital stock
+and in 1914 had practically $340,000,000. The other public
+service corporations have kept pace, according to the growth
+of the locality they serve. In the depression of 1907 this
+class of corporation kept steadily increasing the volume of
+its business when all others went back a step. Since these
+corporations are dependent on the local community for
+their business, if the community grows the company must
+grow, and usually faster than the community. For this
+reason the stocks and bonds of these companies are usually
+a good investment.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common practice for municipalities to demand a
+share of the profits of the company, by way of a fixed
+sum, a certain percentage of the gross profits, or a share
+of the net profits. For example the city of Chicago receives,
+from the Commonwealth Edison Company each year 3 per
+cent of its gross receipts from the sale of current and 10
+per cent of its gross receipts from the rental of conduit space,
+amounting in 1913 to more than $300,000, quite a considerable
+sum. The Chicago Railways Company and the
+Chicago City Railway Company, the two large street car
+companies of Chicago, after deductions for expenses and
+charges and 5 per cent on the amount invested are made
+from the gross income, pay to the city 55 per cent of the
+surplus earnings, keeping for themselves 45 per cent.
+Whenever these companies pay part of their earnings to
+the municipality, they are really under municipal supervision,
+and their books and accounts are open to examination<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
+by the city at any time. These companies are called
+quasi-municipal corporations.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><b>Industrial Corporations</b></div>
+
+<p>As the name indicates, industrial corporations are those
+that carry on our industries. They are by far the largest
+class of corporations and have among their number some
+very powerful companies, whose assets run up toward the
+billions. This class of corporations has not had the gradual,
+steady growth of the public utility corporations, but in the
+case of the most successful, the growth has been amazing.
+The Standard Oil Company for many years prior to its dissolution
+had paid dividends on its capital stock of about
+$100,000,000 at the rate of 40 per cent a year. The Steel
+Corporation is said to have produced a thousand millionaires
+and is still producing them. This class of corporations has
+not been so closely under the supervision of the federal and
+municipal authorities as the railroads and public utility corporations,
+and their financing has been carried on in a looser
+fashion than that of the other two classes. For this reason
+the securities of these corporations are not generally regarded
+as highly as those of the other two. However, the federal
+government has taken and is taking steps to regulate these
+corporations, and this will tend to bring them eventually to
+the standards of the railroad and public utility corporations.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 307</b><br /><br />
+
+<i>Oral</i></div>
+
+<p>Explain carefully:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. What is a corporation?</p>
+
+<p>2. What is a share of stock?</p>
+
+<p>3. What is a bond? a security?</p>
+
+<p>4. Explain the difference between par and market values.</p>
+
+<p>5. Why do stocks and bonds vary in value?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. What is the difference between preferred and common stock?</p>
+
+<p>7. What are dividends?</p>
+
+<p>8. What is meant by watered stock?</p>
+
+<p>9. What are the advantages of a corporation over a partnership?</p>
+
+<p>10. The following was copied from a morning paper. Explain it.</p>
+
+<p>"The Canadian Westinghouse Company, Ltd., declared its
+regular quarterly dividend of 1&frac12;% and an extra dividend of 1%
+on its stock, both payable Jan. 10."</p>
+
+<p>11. Explain the following bond quotations:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Bonds table">
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Municipal Bonds</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Security</i></td><td align='center'><i>Maturity</i></td><td align='center'><i>Yield per cent about</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Albany, Ga., 5's</td><td align='left'>Nov. 1, 1941</td><td align='center'>4.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>King Co., Wash., 4&frac12;'s&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Nov. 1, 1931&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>4.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Railroad Bonds</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><div class='hang1'>Atchison, Topeka, &amp; Santa F&eacute;,<br />general mortgage, 4's</div></td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Oct. 1, 1995&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>4.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><div class='hang1'>Louisville and Nashville, unified<br />mortgage, 4's&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</div></td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Feb. 1, 1946</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>4.35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /><span class="smcap">Public Service Corporation Bonds</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>New York Telephone Co., 4's</td><td align='left'>Nov. 1, 1939</td><td align='left'>4.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chicago Railways, first mortgage, 5's&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Feb. 1, 1927&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align='left'>4.99</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>12. Why are the bonds of successful public utility corporations
+a good investment?</p>
+
+<p>13. Which company do you think would grow faster, a light and
+power company or a gas company? What effect would the growth
+or the failure to grow have on the price of the stocks of each?</p>
+
+<p>14. Should a street car company pay part of its earnings to
+the city?</p>
+
+<p>15. If the population of a city doubled, what effect would
+there be on the price of public utility stocks?</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 308</b><br />
+
+<b>Topics for Investigation and Discussion</b></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Harnessing our streams to secure electric power.</p>
+
+<p>2. The growth of the Interurban.</p>
+
+<p>3. In your own town:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Have gas rates increased or decreased? Can you explain
+the change?</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Have electric light rates increased or decreased? Can
+you explain the change?</p></div>
+
+<p>4. Street railway, electric light, and gas company franchises.</p>
+
+<p>5. The earnings of the street car company in your city.</p>
+
+<p>6. Municipal ownership of public utility corporations.</p>
+
+<p>7. The effect of mergers and consolidations of big corporations.</p>
+
+<p>8. The effect of a trust on competition.</p>
+
+<p>9. Trusts and prices.</p>
+
+<p>10. Government suits against trusts.</p>
+
+<p>11. The tariff and the steel industry, the wool industry, and
+the sugar industry.</p>
+
+<p>12. Railroad rate increases.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><b>Exercise 309</b></div>
+
+<p>Write the following from dictation:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>1</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In New London, Connecticut, stands the oldest grist mill in the
+country. It is a picturesque building, having a water wheel like
+the one that it originally used when New London was first settled.
+The town was in the center of an agricultural community,
+and a mill to grind corn was a need that soon manifested itself
+to the settlers. Accordingly, in 1650 at a town meeting, six
+men were chosen to build a mill. John Winthrop and his heirs
+were granted the right to carry on the grist mill as long as they
+maintained the building placed in their charge. This is one of
+the first monopolies recorded in New England history.</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />2</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The same standards by which a farming or a manufacturing
+investment may be judged are not applicable to a mining investment.
+A farmer may earn eight per cent on his capital, and with
+care his investment may increase in value. A manufacturer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
+may earn eight per cent on his investment, and, if he keeps up his
+machinery, his business may be as valuable ten years, or even
+twenty years, hence; but a mine, after each dividend is paid, is
+that much nearer its end. Now, it is well known among mining
+men that the average life of a gold or silver mine is under, rather
+than over, ten years. There are exceptions to this rule, of course,
+but, granting that the life of a certain gold or silver mine is to be
+ten years, then, in order to pay back both principal and interest,
+dividends of at least sixteen per cent should be distributed. Copper
+mining, of which the statistics have been most accurately
+kept in New York and Boston, offers many inducements to the
+investor; but too much care cannot be taken in the matter of
+selection, for copper stocks, in not a few instances, have been
+boosted out of all reason. As with gold and silver mines, so it
+is with copper mines. They have so much ore to begin with, and
+after each dividend are that much nearer to the day when they
+will close down. For such mines, provided they have a good
+lease of life, eight per cent or even ten per cent may be regarded
+as only moderate returns. These are merely samples of some
+general principles to be followed.&mdash;<i>Roger W. Babson.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class='center'><br />3</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Dear Sir:
+
+<p>At the close of a year which has presented many perplexing
+problems, not only to investors and dealers in bonds, but also to
+borrowing municipalities and corporations, there are several
+factors in the situation which in our opinion offer strong encouragement
+to every one in any way interested in bond investments.</p>
+
+<p>Of special significance is the marked change in sentiment which
+has recently taken place. There is every indication that this
+country enters the new year with an unusually substantial feeling
+of confidence. While a notable increase in the demand
+for bonds would undoubtedly bring out a large amount of new
+financing, on the other hand, there has been an accumulation
+of funds during the period of depressed markets, and it is generally
+understood that investment dealers are carrying comparatively
+small amounts of bonds.</p>
+
+<p>January has an almost unbroken record of higher average bond
+prices than the average prices in December. It is not our intention
+to predict an advance this January, although there are unquestionably
+many reasons for anticipating at least a moderate
+improvement; but, viewing the question in its broader aspects,
+we find many convincing arguments in favor of the purchase of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+bonds at this time. It is recognized that the decline in prices
+has been due to a variety of causes, which, except in a few individual
+cases, are not the result of any depreciation in real values.
+Basic conditions are admittedly sound. We, accordingly, not
+only recommend the judicious purchase of bonds for the investment
+of surplus funds, but also suggest consideration of the advisability
+in some cases of converting short time securities into
+long time bonds.</p>
+
+<p>What conditions could be more favorable from the standpoint
+of the purchaser of bonds than an extremely low level of prices;
+a wide-spread belief that fundamental conditions are sound; a
+general feeling of confidence that the problems which have tended
+to disturb business during the past year have been, or are being,
+solved; and a conviction that we are entering upon a period of
+probable ease in money rates?</p>
+
+<div class='sig'>
+Very truly yours,<br />
+</div></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Numbers refer to pages</span><br /><br /></div>
+
+<div>
+<i>A</i>, Italian, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Abbreviation, objectionable, of the introduction of a letter, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the courteous close, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Abbreviations, of states, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of commercial terms, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of titles in letters, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objectionable in the body of the letter, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Able</i> and <i>ible</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Absolute use of the nominative case, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Abstract noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Accent, indication of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">words changing meaning with change of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Accept</i> and <i>except</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Account, opening an, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters for opening an, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Accounting department of a railroad, work of the, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Active voice of verbs, defined, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Ad</i>, prefix, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Adjective, the, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the adverb, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">following verbs of the senses, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comparison of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Adjective endings, peculiar, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Adjective modifiers, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Adjective pronouns, use of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Adjectives and adverbs, confused, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>real</i> and <i>very</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>most</i> and <i>almost</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Adjectives, punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Adjectives to be distinguished, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>fewer</i> and <i>less</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>almost</i> and <i>most</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Adverb modifiers, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Adverb, the, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the adjective, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Adverbial, clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifier, case of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Adverbs, conjunctive, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and adjectives confused, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and prepositions confused, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ideas denoted by, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifying different parts of speech, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">correct position of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absolute use of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Advertised articles, classes of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Advertisements, motives appealed to in, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">catch phrases used in, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestive names used in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">good and bad headlines for, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of still-life, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">without a definite center, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">illustrating the principle of balance, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exercises to write, <a href="#Page_315">315</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paragraph topics dealing with, <a href="#Page_317">317</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">some examples of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Advertising, <a href="#Page_308">308</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">different forms of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fundamentals of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-<a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outline for debate on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography for, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Affect</i> and <i>effect</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Affirmative of debate on advertising, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>After</i>, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Agent, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commission of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Agreement, grammatical, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Amusement, motive appealed to in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Analysis, word, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ance</i> and <i>ence</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>And</i>, in compound sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">in series, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">used in joining parallel expressions, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">for <i>to</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">excessive use of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Answering complaints, letters to be used in, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ant</i> and <i>ent</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Antecedents, uncertain, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Apostrophe, the, used to form the possessive case, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to indicate the omission of letters, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to show plural of letters and figures, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Appeals made in advertisements, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Application, letters of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Appositives, case of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Article, incorrect omission of in business letters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>As</i>, case following, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed by an understood verb, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>As</i>&mdash;<i>as</i>, used in expressions stating equality, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>As follows</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Atlas</i>, story of the derivation of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Authorized capital stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Baby blunder, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Balance, principle of, used in advertisements, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bank draft, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Banking:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inconvenience of barter, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of paper money, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">credit, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discount, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collateral, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">promissory note, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms of remittance, <a href="#Page_338">338</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters pertaining to, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography for, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises on, <a href="#Page_350">350</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Banks, departments of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of deposit, <a href="#Page_334">334</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">savings, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trust companies, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Be</i>, conjugation, indicative, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjunctive, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to form progressive tenses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to form passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Before</i>, used as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Beg to state</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bibliography, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>-<a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on advertising, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Bill of lading</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>straight</i> or <i>order,</i> 285.</span><br />
+<br />
+Blunder, baby, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Body of the letter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bonds, <a href="#Page_357">357</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">redemption of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">maturity of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">long period, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">short time, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Breve, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brevity in business letters, mistaken for conciseness, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Business_letters" id="Business_letters"></a>Business letters, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essentials of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the form of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the arrangement of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cautions in writing, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">directions for folding, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to order goods, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the tone of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mistaken ideas in writing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to make sales, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to accompany a catalogue, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to open an account, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to make collections, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to answer complaints, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">applying for positions, <a href="#Page_259">259</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">form, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">circular and follow-up, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Business news, to suggest topics for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Business thinking, importance of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>c</i> and <i>g</i>, pronunciation of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Can</i> and <i>may</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Capital stock, explained, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preferred, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">common, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">par and market values of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Capitals, use of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Caret, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Carriers, common, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Case, defined, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objective, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exercise in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">following prepositions, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cause and effect, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Caution, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cautions in writing business letters, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Cede</i>, <i>ceed</i>, <i>sede</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Certificate, the gold, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the silver, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Certified check, the, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Check, the, <a href="#Page_338">338</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">certified, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Choosing subjects, suggestions for, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span><br />
+<i>Cion</i>, <i>sion</i>, <i>tion</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Cious</i>, <i>tious</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Circular letters, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Class paper, suggestions for a, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Classes of advertisements, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clause, the, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">principal, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subordinate, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as a sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introductory words for, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverb, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modifiers, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduced by <i>than</i> or <i>as</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">initial, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive and non-restrictive, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of relative, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coming at the end of the sentence, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incomplete, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misplaced, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Clauses, punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Clear title to property, explained, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clearing house, daily routine of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Clearness_of_the_sentence" id="Clearness_of_the_sentence"></a>Clearness of the sentence, mistakes that prevent:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dangling expressions, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pronouns with uncertain antecedents, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misplaced modifiers, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of necessary words, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shift of construction, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Close, courteous, of business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Coherence between sentences, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>; 224 ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">between paragraphs, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Collateral, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Collection letters, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Collective noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Colon, use of the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Colonization, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Combination of short sentences to secure unity, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Comfort, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Comma fault, the, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Comma, use of the, in direct quotations, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in series, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in compound sentences, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off initial clauses or participial phrases, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to separate the month from the year, etc., <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to indicate the omission of words, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off appositives, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off non-restrictive clauses, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to set off modifiers coming at the end of the sentence, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Command used in good headlines of advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commercial department of a bank, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commercial terms, abbreviations of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commission, agent's, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Common carriers, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Common noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Common stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Companies, kinds of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Company, the steamship, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the railroad, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> ff.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i>Corporation</i>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a> ff.)</span><br />
+<br />
+Comparative degree, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Comparison and contrast, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Comparison, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negative, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Complaint, letters answering, <a href="#Page_257">257</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Complement, subjective, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Complex sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Composition, oral and written, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Compound nouns, plural of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Compound relatives, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Compound sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Con</i>, prefix, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Conciseness of expression, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Condensation to secure clearness, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Conjugation, of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>follow</i>, passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Conjunction, and the preposition, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Conjunctions.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Co&ouml;rdinate, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">distinguished from conjunctive adverbs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Subordinate, list of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>than</i> and <i>as</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Correlative, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Conjunctive adverbs, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from co&ouml;rdinate conjunctions, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span><br />
+Connection, smooth, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of securing, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Conservation, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Consignee, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Consonant, final, doubling of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silent, words containing, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Construction, letters dealing with contract for, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shift of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Contract, letters dealing with, for painting iron-work, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for the delivery of property, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for construction, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Contraction, apostrophe used with, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Co&ouml;rdinate conjunctions, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation with, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Co&ouml;rdinate expressions, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Copulative verbs, defined, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Corporate organization, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Corporation, the, <a href="#Page_353">353</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital stock of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dividends of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stockholders of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bonds of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organization of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">directors of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">public utility, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-<a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industrial, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion on, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises on, <a href="#Page_365">365</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Correlatives, defined, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">correct position of with co&ouml;rdinate expressions, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>either&mdash;or</i> and <i>neither&mdash;nor</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cost of living, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cotton seed, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cotton in the Soudan, paragraph, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Could</i> and <i>might</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Courteous close, in business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Courtesy in business letters, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Credit, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Credit letters, <a href="#Page_250">250</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Currency, bill, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Current events, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Dangling expressions, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Dash, use of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">too free use of in business letters, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dead letter sale, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Debate, outline for a, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjects for, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> ff., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, suggestions for, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Debating, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposition for, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">six rules for, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">false conclusions in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irrelevant matter in, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Declarative sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Declension of pronouns, personal, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Degrees of comparison, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Demonstrative pronouns, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Departments, of banks, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of railroads, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Deposit, banks of, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slip, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Details, explanatory, necessary to secure interest, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Development of paragraphs, methods of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>dg</i>, words containing, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Diacritical marks, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Diaeresis, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dialogue, paragraphing in, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Dictation exercises, for series, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for compound sentences, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for initial clauses or participial phrases, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for non-restrictive relative clauses, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for the semicolon, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_329">329</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_350">350</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on corporations, <a href="#Page_365">365</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Direct discourse, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of comma in, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Directors of corporations, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Discount, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Discourse, direct, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indirect, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Discussion and investigation topics, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the corporation, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dishwasher, letters to sell a, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Distribution.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transportation an essential element, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the steamship company, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the railroad company, <a href="#Page_284">284</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the retail merchant, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wholesale merchant, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mail order merchant, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the salesman, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestions for debates, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjects for paragraphs, <a href="#Page_303">303</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography, <a href="#Page_304">304</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises, <a href="#Page_305">305</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dividends, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dividing a subject into its natural divisions, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Dot, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Double relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Doubling final consonants, rule for, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Draft, bank, <a href="#Page_341">341</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">time, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sight, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dropping of final <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Druggist, outline of advertising letters sent by, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Durability, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>E</i>, final, retained, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Each</i>, <i>every</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> (3)<br />
+<br />
+Economy, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Effect</i> and <i>affect</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Efficiency, office, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stenographic, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>ei</i> or <i>ie</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Either&mdash;or</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Electric washing machine, outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elements, independent, case of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Emphatic pronouns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Emulation, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>ence</i> and <i>ance</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Endings, peculiar adjective, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiar noun and verb, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Endorsing a check, methods of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br />
+<br />
+English, oral, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">written, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Punctuation">Punctuation</a></i>, <i><a href="#Clearness_of_the_sentence">The Clear Sentence</a></i>, <i><a href="#Business_letters">Business Letters</a></i>.)</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>ent</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Enthusiasm in business, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>eous</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Essentials, of a sales letter, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in manufacture, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of an advertisement, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-<a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Every</i>, number of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Examples and illustrations, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Examples of advertisements, <a href="#Page_318">318</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Except</i>, a preposition, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as a conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Except</i> and <i>accept</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Exclamation mark, use of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Exclamatory sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Explanatory details, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Explanatory expressions, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appositives, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explanatory relative clauses, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subordinate elements coming at the end of the sentence, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Exports in cattle, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Express money order, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Expression, conciseness of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variety of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>f</i>, and <i>fe</i>, plurals of nouns ending in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+False conclusions in debating, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Farm lands, <a href="#Page_325">325</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters pertaining to, <a href="#Page_325">325</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion on, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises on, <a href="#Page_329">329</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Farm reform, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Farming specials, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Favor, your esteemed</i>, and similar expressions, to avoid, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fee simple, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Fewer</i> and <i>less</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Figures, plural of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Final consonant, rule for doubling, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Final <i>e</i>, dropped, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retained, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Finance department of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Finances of a corporation, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Fly</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>flee</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Folding a letter, directions for, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Follow</i>, conjugation of in the passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of, passive, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Following, the</i>, punctuation after, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span><br />
+Follow-up letter, the, <a href="#Page_264">264</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>For</i>, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Foreclosing a mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Foreign plurals, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Foreign news, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>For example</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>For instance</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Form letter, the, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Form of the business letter, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Formation, of participles, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of possessive case, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of infinitives, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Freight bill, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Freight, receipt for, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Furniture, outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Future tense, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progressive, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perfect, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>G</i>, pronunciation of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gas mantles, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gold certificates, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Good and bad headlines in advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Government's Laundry, the, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greek roots, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Had ought</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Hammock" paragraph, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Have</i> and <i>of</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Heading of the business letter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Headlines of advertisements, good and bad, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Health, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Herculean</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Homonyms, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+How to advance, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Hoping</i> and similar expressions, to avoid, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hyphen, use of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ible</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ideas, mistaken, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>ie</i> or <i>ei</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Illustrations and examples, paragraphs developed by, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Imperative sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>In</i>, prefix, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Income of railroads, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Incorrectly used, nouns and pronouns, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjectives and adverbs, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">verbs, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prepositions, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Indefinite <i>it</i> or <i>they</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Indefinite pronouns, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as adjectives, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Independent elements, case of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Indicative mode, defined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be,</i> 112.</span><br />
+<br />
+Indirect discourse, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Indirect object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Industrial corporations, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Industry, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Infinitive, defined, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tenses and voices of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">split, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Initial clause or participial phrase, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Insurance, <a href="#Page_327">327</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters pertaining to, <a href="#Page_328">328</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Insurance and real estate, <a href="#Page_321">321</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Interesting words, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Interjection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>O</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Interrogation mark, use of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of with quotation marks, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Interrogative pronouns, declined, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Interrogative sentence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Intransitive verb, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Introduction of the letter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Investigation and discussion, topics for, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the corporation, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Investments, mining, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Investors, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>ious</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Irregular plurals of nouns, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Irregular verbs, principal parts of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>ise</i>, <i>ize</i>, <i>yze</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>It</i> used indefinitely, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Italic</i>, derivation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Italian <i>a</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Its</i> and <i>it's</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>k</i>, insertion of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Kindly</i>, abuse of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span>
+
+
+
+Labor, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Local news, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Land business, the, <a href="#Page_325">325</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Latin-American trade, the, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Latin prefixes and suffixes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Lay</i> and <i>lie</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Learn</i> and <i>teach</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lease, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Least</i>, used in the superlative degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Legal department of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Length of good headlines in advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Less</i> and <i>fewer</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Letter beginnings, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Letter" id="Letter"></a>Letter, to investors, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to accompany a style book, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell a trip on the water, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-<a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell a house coat, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-<a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ordering goods, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from A. Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to accompany a catalogue, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell cheese, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to sell hinged paper, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to open an account, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">credit, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">requesting payment, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">answering a complaint, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of application, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">follow-up, <a href="#Page_265">265</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from a bank, soliciting a trust (to be punctuated), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>-<a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">market, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Letters, plurals of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Letters, business, in the manufacturing business, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the retail business, <a href="#Page_287">287</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the wholesale business, <a href="#Page_292">292</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the mail order business, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to help the salesman, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pertaining to banking, <a href="#Page_345">345</a> ff.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Business_letters">Business letters</a></i>, <i><a href="#Letter">Letter</a></i>.)</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Lie</i> and <i>lay</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Like</i>, followed by the objective case, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Loose</i> and <i>lose</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Lose</i> and <i>loose</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Luck and labor, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Macron, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magazine advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Mail order business, the, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff..<br />
+<br />
+Manufacture, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">essentials in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjects for themes on, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggestions for debates on, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters in, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussions on, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bibliography for, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dictation exercises in, <a href="#Page_280">280</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Market letter, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Market value, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Marks, diacritical, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Materials, raw, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Maturity of bonds, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>May</i> and <i>can</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Merchant, the retail, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wholesale, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mail order, <a href="#Page_295">295</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Methods of endorsing a check, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Might</i> and <i>could</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mining investment, principles of, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Misplaced modifiers, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mispronounced, words commonly, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mistaken ideas in letter writing, <a href="#Page_241">241</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Mode, defined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indicative and subjunctive of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjunctive denoting possibility, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Model letters. (See <i><a href="#Letter">Letter</a></i>.)<br />
+<br />
+Modern business done by letter, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Modifiers, adjective and adverb, word, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">phrase, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to secure unity, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misplaced, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Money, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinds of paper, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Money order, express, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">postal, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Monosyllables ending in silent <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Month from year, comma used to separate, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>More</i> or <i>less</i>, used in the comparative degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreclosing a, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Most</i> or <i>least</i>, used in the superlative degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Motives to which advertisements appeal, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span>
+
+
+
+<i>Namely</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Names, suggestive, in advertising, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br />
+<br />
+National bank notes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br />
+<br />
+National news, to suggest subjects for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Necessary words, omission of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Need, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Negative comparison, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Negative, outline for a debate on advertising, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Neither&mdash;nor</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+News, to suggest topics for talks, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nominative absolute, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nominative case, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as subject, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as subjective complement (predicate nominative), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as appositive, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independent, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absolute, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Nor</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Notes, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">promissory, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Noun, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clause, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the pronoun, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">common, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proper, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collective, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abstract, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">verbal, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">modified by <i>every</i> and similar words, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collective, number of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Nouns, rules for plurals of, regular, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in <i>y</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in <i>o</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in <i>f</i> and <i>fe</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irregular, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreign, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive case of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joined by <i>or</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Number of verb, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>O</i>, capitalization of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>o</i>, plural of nouns ending in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Object, of a preposition, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of a transitive verb, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indirect, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Objective case, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as direct object of a transitive verb, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as object of a preposition, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as indirect object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as second object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as appositive, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as adverbial modifier, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">following <i>like</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Observation, subjects taken from, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Obsolete words, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Of</i> and <i>have</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Of</i> phrase substituted for the possessive case, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Oh</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Omission, of letters, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of necessary words, <a href="#Page_210">210</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of subject in business letters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Opening an account, letters for, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Operating department of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oral English, exercises in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Oral expression, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">variety of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Oral reproduction, from magazines, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from newspapers, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Oral_exercises" id="Oral_exercises"></a>Oral exercises, in general, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the retail trade, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the wholesale trade, <a href="#Page_290">290</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the mail order business, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in connection with the salesman, <a href="#Page_299">299</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Order bill of lading, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ordering goods, letter for, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Order, express money, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">postal money, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Organization, corporate, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of a railroad, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Outline, for a debate, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to make an, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paper money, kinds of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Paragraph, the, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in dialogue, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proper length of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topic sentence in, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"hammock," 216;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how developed, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Paragraphs on, Sacramento City, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports in cattle, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cost of living, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the government's laundry, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">luck and labor, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sawdust, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a new kind of wood, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hogs as mortgage lifters, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton seed, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">making paper, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-<a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to advance, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bubonic plague, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">politics of a city, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton in the Soudan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "yellow" invasion, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saving, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">investors, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicago's milk supply, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the dead letter sale, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industries, controlled, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the secret blotter, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">a mummy's doll, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">office efficiency, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stenographic efficiency, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">business courtesy, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the rural landscape of Norway, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the <i>Spectator</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">income, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gas mantles, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">production of wool, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">casting metals, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transportation, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Latin-American trade, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the parcel post in Africa, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the remedy for wrecks, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonization, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">farm reform, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">farming specials, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">selection of seed, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>-<a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the clearing house, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">washed money, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an early monopoly, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mining investments, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Paragraphs, subjects for. See <i><a href="#Subjects">Subjects</a></i>.<br />
+<br />
+Parenthesis marks, use of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wrongly used to cancel expressions, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Parenthetical expressions, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Participle, defined, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tenses and voices of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the dangling, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Participles, formation of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of verbs in <i>y</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Participial phrases, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">188 ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Parts of speech:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The noun and the pronoun, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the adjective and the adverb, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the verb, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the preposition and the conjunction, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the interjection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Parts, principal, of irregular verbs, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Par value, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Passive voice, defined, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of <i>follow</i>, in the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of <i>follow</i> in the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Past_tense" id="Past_tense"></a>Past tense, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progressive form of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emphatic form of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perfect, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Payment, letters requesting, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Perfect_tenses" id="Perfect_tenses"></a>Perfect tenses, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Period, use of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Personal pronouns declined, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Personality essential in a salesman, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Persons of the pronouns, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Phrase modifiers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Phrases, prepositional, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adverbial, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">classification of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punctuation of series of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">initial participial, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as a sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Plurals, of nouns, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of letters and figures, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of foreign nouns, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Positive degree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Possessive case, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rules for forming, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separate possession, in the, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with verbal nouns, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>of</i> phrase substituted for, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of the apostrophe in the, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Possibility, use of the subjunctive mode to show, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Postal money order, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Predicate, of the sentence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nominative, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Preferred stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prefix, usually constituting a syllable, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Latin, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>ad</i>, <i>con</i>, and <i>in</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Present_tense" id="Present_tense"></a>Present tense, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progressive, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emphatic, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perfect, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Preposition, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">phrase introduced by, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed by the objective case, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the conjunction, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wrong, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">necessary, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Prepositional phrases, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prepositions, and adverbs confused, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used with certain verbs, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pride, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Principal clauses, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Principal parts of irregular verbs, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Progressive tenses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.; 105.<br />
+<br />
+Promissory note, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pronominal adjectives, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pronoun, defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the noun, <a href="#Page_57">57</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrect use of <i>same</i> as a pronoun, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pronouns, <a href="#Page_58">58</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal, declined, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emphatic, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reflexive, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of relative, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declension of relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative declined, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demonstrative, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indefinite, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive in form, not in use, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> (note);</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joined by <i>or</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pronunciation, <a href="#Page_7">7</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">slurring syllables in, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Proper noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capitalization of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Proposition for debate, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Public utility corporations, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Punctuation" id="Punctuation"></a>Punctuation, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apostrophe, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capitals, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">period, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exclamation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quotation marks, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comma, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">semicolon, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">colon, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dash, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parenthesis marks, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hyphen, <a href="#Page_196">196</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of series, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of compound sentences, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of initial clause or participial phrase, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of explanatory expressions, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after <i>as follows</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">after <i>namely</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Quality, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Questions for discussion on, manufacture, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the retail merchant, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wholesale merchant, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-<a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mail order merchant, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advertising, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">real estate, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the corporation, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Quitclaim deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Quotation marks, use of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Quotations, use of comma in, <a href="#Page_170">170</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Railroad, the, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sources of income of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organization of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">departments of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Railroad company, the, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Raise</i> and <i>rise</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Raw materials, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reading, subjects taken from, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Real</i> and <i>very</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Real estate and insurance, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Real estate business, <a href="#Page_321">321</a> ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rent, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lease, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warranty deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quitclaim deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clear title, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fee simple, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreclosing a mortgage, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agent and commission, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters in, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">topics for investigation and discussion, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Receipt for freight, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Redemption of bonds, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reflexive pronouns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reform, farm, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Relative pronouns, list of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declined, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Relative value of different forms of advertising, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Remedy for wrecks, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Remittance, forms of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a> ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Check, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">certified check, <a href="#Page_339">339</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">endorsement, methods of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">express money order, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">postal money order, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bank draft, <a href="#Page_341">341</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">time draft, <a href="#Page_343">343</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sight draft, <a href="#Page_344">344</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Rent, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reproduction, oral, from magazines, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from newspapers, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Requesting payment, letters, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Restricting the subject, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Restrictive relative pronouns, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Retail merchant, the, <a href="#Page_286">286</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Richards' baby stocking fund, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Rise</i> and <i>raise</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roots, Greek, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rules.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For spelling:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">regular plurals in <i>s</i> and <i>es</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">changing final <i>y</i> to <i>i</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nouns in <i>o</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nouns in <i>f</i> and <i>fe</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">plural by change of vowel, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">by adding <i>en</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">no change for the plural, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two plurals, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">compound nouns, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">plurals of letters and figures, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">foreign plurals, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">doubling final consonant, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">retaining <i>y</i> before <i>ing</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>ie</i> or <i>ei</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">soft <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dropping final silent <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">retaining final <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For punctuation:</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the apostrophe, to show the possessive case of nouns, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">to show omission of letters, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">to show plurals of letters, figures, and words not regularly nouns, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">capitals, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the period, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the interrogation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">the exclamation mark, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">quotation marks, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma in direct quotations, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma in series, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma in compound sentence, <a href="#Page_173">173</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma after initial clause or participial phrase, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to separate month from year, etc., <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to show omission of words, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off appositive, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off parenthetical expressions, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off independent elements, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off non-restrictive relative clause, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comma to set off subordinate element at the end of the sentence, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the semicolon, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the colon, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the dash, <a href="#Page_195">195</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">parenthesis marks, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the hyphen, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>S 1</i>, comma fault, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>S 2</i>, use of phrase or clause as sentence, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sacramento City, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Salary</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sales letter, the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Salesman, the, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters to help the, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Salutation, the, of business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Same</i>, not a pronoun, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinctly business blunder, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Saving, paragraphs on, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Savings banks, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; postal, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Savings department of bank, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Saw</i> and <i>seen</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sawdust, paragraph on, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Second object, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Secretary's report, the, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note).<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sede</i>, <i>cede</i>, <i>ceed</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Selection of seed, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>-<a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Semicolon, uses of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Sentence, the, and its elements, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simple, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complex, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predicate of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declarative, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interrogative, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imperative, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exclamatory, defined, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simple, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complex, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">errors, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Separation, the keynote of punctuation, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Series, punctuation of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Set</i>, and <i>sit</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Shareholders, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Shares, of capital stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Shift in construction, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Short sentences, combination of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Should</i> and <i>would</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sight draft, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Signature, the, in business letters, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Silent consonant, words containing, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Silent vowels, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Silver certificates, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Simple sentence, defined, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Since</i>, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>sion</i>, <i>tion</i>, <i>cion</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sit</i> and <i>set</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Slang, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Slurring of syllables, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Smooth connection, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of securing, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Snappy style, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>So&mdash;as</i>, in negative comparisons, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>So</i> habit, to avoid the, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Soudan, cotton in the, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br />
+<br />
+South Africa, parcel post in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Specials, railroad farming, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Spectator, The</i>, paragraph from Macaulay, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Speech, parts of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Speech, plan in making, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outline for, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Spelling, rules, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">500 words for, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Split infinitive, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br />
+<br />
+States, abbreviation of names of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Steamship company, the, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Steel, trouble in introducing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stenographic efficiency, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Still-life advertisements, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stock, capital, common and preferred, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">authorized capital, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Stockholders, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stocks, of a corporation, <a href="#Page_354">354</a> ff.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span><br />
+Straight bill of lading, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Style, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_244">244</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Subject, as a whole, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">divisions of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">making outline of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restricting the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the sentence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simple, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complete, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of subordinate clause, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compound, number of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrect omission of, in business letters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Subjective complement, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Subjects" id="Subjects"></a>Subjects, how to choose, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for debates, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for compositions on manufacture, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on advertising, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggested by personal experience, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suggested by reading, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Subjunctive mode, defined, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used to denote possibility, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Subordinate clauses, adjective, adverb, noun, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Subordinate conjunctions, list of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Subordination, in the sentence, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Subscription, outline of letters to sell, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Success, elements of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Successful men and women, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Suffix, usually constituting a syllable, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adjective, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">verb, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">noun, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>able</i> and <i>ible</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;"><i>ant</i> and <i>ent</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Suggestions for debates, <a href="#Page_139">139</a> ff., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manufacture, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Suggestive names in advertisements, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">headlines, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Superlative degree, of adjectives, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of adverbs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Superlatives, to be avoided, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Syllabication, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Syllables, slurred, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of words into, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Synopsis of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Teach</i> and <i>learn</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Technical words, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tense, defined, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of participle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of infinitive, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Tenses, distinguished, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Present_tense">Present tense</a></i>, <i><a href="#Past_tense">Past tense</a></i>, <i><a href="#Perfect_tenses">Perfect tenses</a></i>.)</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Than</i> and <i>as</i>, case following, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>That</i>, restrictive relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>That is</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>The following</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Themes, oral, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(See <i><a href="#Oral_exercises">Oral themes</a></i>.)</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>There</i>, <i>their</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thinking, business, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Thus</i>, punctuation with, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tilde, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Time draft, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Tion</i>, <i>sion</i>, <i>cion</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Tious</i>, troublesome ending, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Title, clear, to property, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Titles, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of officials and of honor, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of books and plays, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>To</i>, <i>too</i>, <i>two</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tone, of the letter, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Topic sentence, in the paragraph, <a href="#Page_216">216</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Topics for investigation and discussion, on manufacture, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on distribution, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on real estate, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on banking, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the corporation, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Trade, Latin-American, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Traffic department of railroad, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Transitive verb, followed by objective case, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Transportation, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Troublesome verbs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lie</i> and <i>lay</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>sit</i>, <i>set</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>fly</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>flee</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>rise</i>, <i>raise</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>teach</i>, <i>learn</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>might</i>, <i>could</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>accept</i>, <i>except</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>affect</i>, <i>effect</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lose</i>, <i>loose</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Trust companies, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Trust department of a bank, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Uncertain antecedents, pronouns with, <a href="#Page_207">207</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+United States treasury notes, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Unity, in the sentence, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the paragraph, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Unless, a conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Until, as preposition and conjunction, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Usefulness, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span><br />
+Utility corporations, public, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Value, par of stock, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">market, <a href="#Page_355">355</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Vanity, its appeal in advertising, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Variety of expression, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Verb, the, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defined, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">transitive, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intransitive, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">copulative, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">active voice of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">passive voice of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">person of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">singular with certain words, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plural with certain subjects, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tense of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>should</i> and <i>would</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of <i>be</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>be</i> used to make progressive tenses, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>be</i> used to make passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the participle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the infinitive, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mode, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conjugation of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>follow</i>, passive voice, <a href="#Page_105">105</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of <i>write</i>, active voice, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of <i>follow</i>, passive voice, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Verbal noun, defined, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">possessive case with, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+Verbs, incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">participles of verbs in <i>y</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taking two objects, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taking indirect and direct objects, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">principal parts of irregular, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">troublesome, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lie</i>, <i>lay</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>sit</i> and <i>set</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>fly</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>flee</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>rise</i> and <i>raise</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>teach</i> and <i>learn</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>may</i> and <i>can</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>might</i> and <i>could</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>accept</i> and <i>except</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>affect</i> and <i>effect</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>lose</i> and <i>loose</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>had ought</i>, incorrectly used, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">certain prepositions used with, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> ff.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Very</i> and <i>real</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br />
+<br />
+Voice, active and passive, defined, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the participle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the infinitive, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Vowels, pronunciation of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">length of, in monosyllables ending in <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">words containing silent, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Warranty deed, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Washed money, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Washing machine, letters to sell, outline, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Watered stock, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Way-bill, railroad, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Were</i>, <i>where</i>, distinguished, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>What</i>, double relative, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Who</i>, and <i>which</i>, used restrictively, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Who</i> and <i>whom</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Whoever</i> and <i>whomever</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wholesale merchant, the, <a href="#Page_291">291</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Why</i>, childish use of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Will</i> and <i>shall</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Will you be so good as to</i>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wish, subjunctive to express, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Without</i>, a preposition, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">incorrectly used as conjunction, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Word analysis, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Words, interesting, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obsolete, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">technical, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">similarly pronounced 14, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">frequently mispronounced, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">containing <i>dg</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ending in silent <i>e</i>, retain or drop <i>e</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">analysis of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">easily confused, list of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">500 for spelling, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> ff.;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">used as different parts of speech, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">omission of, punctuation to show, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Wordiness, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> ff, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Would</i> and <i>should</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Would say</i>, to be avoided, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Write</i>, conjugation of, active voice, <a href="#Page_88">88</a> ff.;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">synopsis of, passive voice, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Writing advertisements, exercises in, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-<a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Written composition, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+Written expression, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> ff.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Y</i>, nouns ending in, plural of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Yellow" invasion, paragraph on the, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>You</i> attitude, the, in letter writing, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Yze</i>, <i>ize</i>, <i>ise</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> If one of the words so joined is plural, the verb should be plural.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See note on <a href="#Page_115">page 115</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Loan</i> for <i>lend</i>, though common in the United States, is not in approved use except
+sometimes in financial language.&mdash;<i>Webster's New International Dictionary.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Supply heading and introduction (see <a href="#Page_232">page 232</a>).</p></div></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3>
+
+<p>Text uses both "to-day" and "today."</p>
+<p>Obvious punctuation errors were corrected.</p>
+<p>Pages 116-117, entry for "confide" was originally placed after "correspond." It was relocated
+to be in the correct alphabetical order.</p>
+<p>Pages 171-172, the examples were placed out of order. The section beginning "reporter, business
+manager" to the end of the paragraph was originally located after a space following the Abraham
+Lincoln paragraph. The first part of the Abraham Lincoln paragraph originally ended with "nor a year
+it". The rest of that paragraph was originally located at the top of the next page. These paragraphs
+have been adjusted to read correctly. Links to images of the original pages
+follow.</p>
+<div class='blockquot2'>
+<a href="images/page_171.png">Page 171</a><br />
+<a href="images/page_172.png">Page 172</a>
+</div>
+<p>The remaining corrections made are indicated by faint dotted lines under the
+corrected text. Hover the cursor over the word and the original text
+will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
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